CREATURES OF OTHER DAYS

BY

REV. H. N. HUTCHINSON, B.A.,F.G.S.,
AUTHOR OF " E X T I N C T MONSTERS."

WITH NUMEROUS

BY J. SMIT

ILLUSTRATIONS

AND

OTHERS.

LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LD.
1894.
All rights reserved.

" I t is undoubtedly the greatest triumph of geological science to have
demonstrated that the present animals and plants of the globe were not the
first inhabitants of the globe, but that they have appeared as descendants of
a vast ancestry. The latest comers in a majestic procession, we ourselves
stand heirs of all the ages of the past, and moving forward into the future
wherein progress towards something higher must still be for us, as it has been
for all creation, the guiding law."—SIR ARCHIBALD G E I K I E .

PREFACE
BY SIR W. H. FLOWER, K.C.B., F.R.S.,
DIRECTOR O F T H E NATURAL HISTORY

MUSEUM.

ONE of the most important results of the recent progress of
science, and one which it is very desirable that we should have
fully impressed upon us, is that the living world which we see
around us bears an exceedingly small proportion to the whole
series of animal and vegetable forms which have inhabited our
planet in past ages.
The whole of the knowledge contained in this book is practically the outcome of the scientific work of the present century;
by far the greater part of it belongs to the second half of the
century. It is difficult now to realize that at its commencement,
although it is true that "fossils" had for some time aroused the
attention of a few curious persons, and given rise to various and
singular speculations about their origin and signification, the
only creatures really known, not only to the mass of educated
mankind, but even to most naturalists, were those of our own
days. The creation of the genus Palceotherium (the "ancient
wild beast" par excellence) by Cuvier in the year 1804, when,
by a comparison of its bones, found in the celebrated gypsum
quarries of Montmartre, near Paris, with those of all known
species of recent animals, he demonstrated for the first time to
the satisfaction of the whole scientific world, that vertebrated

PREFACE

BY SIR

W. H.

FLOWER.

animals inhabited the earth other than those now found upon
its surface, was a great epoch in science. By this demonstration
he laid the foundation of the study of the past history of this
great group of animals—a study which has developed in this
comparatively short period of time to such a marvellous extent,
and which has still before it a future of unbounded promise.
The most striking illustration of this fact is shown in the wonderful revelations of former animal life, consequent upon very
recent explorations carried on in what we commonly call the
New World. Numbers of strange forms, entirely unknown or
undreamt of before, have been brought to light within the last
thirty years, and made known to us by the indefatigable labours
of the distinguished palaeontologists of the United States, whose
names occur so frequently in the following pages. The Old
World has also continued to yield up its treasures. Asia, and
especially South Africa, are contributing marvellous forms of
ancient life, while the most recently explored portion of the
earth's surface, Australia, is found to be teeming with evidence
that creatures lived there in other days, far more gigantic in
proportion and grotesque in figure than any of their modern
representatives.
It is well that these results should be collected and placed
in an accessible and popular form, as has been done by Mr.
Hutchinson in this book. In the restoration of the external
appearance of extinct animals, known only by bones and teeth,
there is much of imagination, much indeed of mere guesswork,
and I should therefore be sorry to guarantee the accuracy
of any of the representations of animals in this book, the
majority of which were never seen in the flesh by the eyes of
mortal man. I think, however, I may safely say that Mr.
Hutchinson and his accomplished artist, Mr. Smit, have done
their work carefully and conscientiously, and given us in most
cases a fair idea of the appearance of the creatures they have
endeavoured to depict, according to the best evidence at present

PREFACE

BY SIR

W. H.

FLOWER.

available. Of most of these we shall never know more, although
it is possible that a different interpretation placed upon some still
obscure indications may cause us to modify our views as to their
appearance.
The disjointed and often fragmentary bones by which these
animals are usually represented in museums convey no ideas
whatever to the majority of those who see them. It is quite
otherwise with such representations as the figures of this work;
and if in some cases the idea conveyed may not be strictly
correct, it offers a fair approximation, and at all events gives a
vivid conception of some remarkable creature, which in its main
outlines cannot be far from the actual reality.
It has been a great satisfaction to me to see, throughout the
work, the frequent references to the great collection of remains
of extinct animals contained in the Natural History branch of the
British Museum, now so admirably arranged by Dr. Henry
Woodward and his able assistants, and I trust that a perusal of
it will lead to a greater appreciation and closer study of the
treasures contained in our national collection.

March, 1894.

AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
FOR thousands of years men have dwelt upon the earth without
even suspecting that it was a mighty tomb of animated races that
once flourished upon it as the living tribes do now. Only in
very recent times, which men still remember, was the discovery
made that the earth has had a vast antiquity; that it has teemed
with life for countless ages; and that generations of the most
gigantic and extraordinary creatures lived through long geological
periods, and were succeeded by other kinds of creatures equally
colossal and equally strange. Huge fishes, enormous birds,
monstrous reptiles, and ponderous uncouth mammals had possession of a world which as yet knew not man. The vestiges
of these creatures are still found in the rocks, their fossil skeletons
have been exhumed, and in the light of modern Science their
structures and probable habits have been determined.
So numerous and so teeming with interest are the tribes of
extinct animals, that the writer found it impossible, within the
limits of his previous book, Extinct Monsters, to do more than
make a somewhat arbitrary selection. Whole orders—and even
classes—were entirely left out. From the first we had no intention of dealing with those lower forms of life, so frequently met
with by the geologist, which are destitute of any backbone
(invertebrates); but, even when confining our attention to the
backboned, or vertebrate classes, we found more orders than
could be dealt with within the limits of a single volume.
b

X

AUTHOR'S

PREFACE.

In the present work the writer has attempted to fill up, to
some extent at least, the gaps in the last one, and so to present
to the reader a simple account (shorn, as far as possible, of the
long names and technical terms which repel the general reader)
of a certain number of the world's " lost creations." Some of
these, if not quite so huge as the " monsters " already introduced
to our readers, are yet as wonderful—in some cases, we venture
to think, even more so.
It may well be doubted if any more strange and interesting
forms of ancient life have ever been brought to light than those
very ancient reptiles of the Anomodont Order, described in chap,
iv.; which, though reptiles, yet exhibit in their anatomy a strange
foreshadowing of features that belong properly to the Mammals
—or, perhaps we should say, were once thought to belong only
to that class.
We begin with an account of fossil footmarks, a subject which
has not been dealt with at any length in the text-books, much less
in popular works. There is a fascination in the contemplation of
these " footprints on the sands of Time " which appeals strongly
to one's imagination; and it is satisfactory to note how more
recent discoveries have led to the interpretation of certain facts
which were a great puzzle to earlier writers, such as Professor
Hitchcock and Dr. Deane, whose beautiful figures of the famous
Connecticut Sandstone footprints are of great value.
Part of chap. x. is given to the horse and its ancestors—
a subject of universal interest, not only on account of man's
fondness for horses, but because of the wonderful series of fossil
horses brought to light by geologists, and so clearly interpreted
by Huxley, Marsh, and other authorities. These remains constitute the most complete chain of Evolution yet known to the
palaeontologist. When people say, "Where are those missing
links you so often speak of? " he can point with satisfaction to the
bones of ancient horses, and show the gradual steps by which the
little five-toed ancestor of the Eocene period gradually lost some

AUTHOR'S

PREFACE.

xi

of its toes, and took on other features until its descendants evolved
into the noble animal of the present day.
One cannot help sometimes wishing that a larger number of
the many strange and old-fashioned types of life revealed by the
Science of Geology in these latter days had continued their
existence into the human period, and been added to the number
of man's contemporaries on earth. But, judging from the
ruthless manner in which so many flowers of creation, whether
animal or vegetable, are now being, or have already been, ruthlessly exterminated by the hand of man, one is inclined to think
that such a wish ought not to be encouraged. And here two
reflections may be allowed : in the first place, there are doubtless
very good reasons why some branches of the tree of life have
withered and dropped off—although the-causes at work seem
at present only partly known to geologists and naturalists;
and, secondly, supposing that some tribes of Dinosaurs, or
uncouth Mammals, had lived on to the present day, what would
probably be their fate ? Would they be more highly appreciated
than those now around us ? We may call to mind Mr. Ruskin's
remark about grouse-moors and angels; and the sad certainty
forces itself upon us that if a modern sportsman were by chance
to meet with a Pterodactyl on his moor, his first impulse would
be to " shoot i t " ! Indeed, this foreboding is as it were put into
our mouth by the words of a reviewer of our previous work, who,
speaking of the creatures therein described, and thinking what big
game they might have furnished, remarked, " We only wish we
had had the shooting of them ! "
It is, perhaps, some consolation to the geologist to reflect that
Nature has denied to the nineteenth-century sportsman, with his
deadly rifle, the grim satisfaction of shooting her children of old
times. Their mortal remains repose safely in the rocks beneath
our feet—precious spoil for the geologist's hammer and pick-axe,
not for the sportsman's gun !
Some of our former readers have humorously remarked that

xii

AUTHOR'S

PREFACE,

a few Dinosaurs and such-like creatures might have constituted a
valuable and highly interesting addition to a modern wild-beast
show. But here, again, we find it difficult to sympathise, and
prefer to think of Dinosaurs as restored by the hand of Mr. Smit
and living in the eye of imagination rather than in a common
menagerie, to be teased and prodded by the vulgar crowd. They
have lived their day, and played their part; let them rest in
peace. Doubtless some enterprising showman, catering for the
amusement of an idle public, might have been tempted to
advertise in big posters " A Jumping Dinosaur," to follow after
"The Boxing Kangaroo "or the "Fighting Lion;" but we are
glad to think that the Dinosaur has been spared a fate so ignoble,
and, instead of this, affords to the biologist a splendid subject on
which to exercise his imagination.
As a nation, we spend millions a year in pursuing live foxes;
could we not spare a few thousands for hunting up extinct
Monsters ?
It is to be hoped that the time is not far distant when the
Government of this country will no longer trust in its present
careless way to private enterprise and liberality for the furthering
of scientific discovery, but will give generous grants for the
purpose. A good many years ago Mr. Ruskin made some
forcible remarks on this subject, which deserve to be widely
read.1 These are his words : " I say we have despised science.
i
What!' you exclaim, ' are we not foremost in all discovery ?
and is not the whole world giddy by reason, or unreason, of our
inventions ?' Yes; but do you suppose that is national work ?
That work is all done in spite of the nation, by private people's
zeal and money. We are glad enough, indeed, to make our
profit of science; we snap up anything in the way of a scientific
bone that has meat on it, eagerly enough; but if the scientific
man comes for a bone or crust to us, that is another story. What
have we publicly done for science? We are obliged to know
1

Sesame and Lilies, p. 48, large edit.

AUTHOR'S

PREFACE.

xiii

what o'clock it is, for the safety of our ships, and therefore we
pay for an observatory; and we allow ourselves, in the person
of our Parliament, to be annually tormented into doing something, in a slovenly way, for the British Museum, sullenly apprehending that to be a place for keeping stuffed birds in, to
amuse our children. If anybody will pay for their own telescope,
and resolve another nebula, we cackle over the discernment
as if it were our own; if one in ten thousand of our hunting
squires suddenly perceives that the earth was indeed made to
be something else than a portion for foxes, and burrows in it
himself, and tells us where the gold is and where the coals, we
understand that there is some use in that, and very properly
knight him; but is the accident of his having found out how
to employ himself usefully any credit to us? (The negation
of such discovery among his brother squires may perhaps be
some discredit to us, if we would consider it.) But if you doubt
these generalities, here is one fact for us all to meditate upon,
illustrative of our love for science. Two years ago there was a
collection of the fossils of Solenhofen to be sold in Bavaria, the
best in existence, containing many specimens unique for perfectness, and one unique as an example of a species (a whole
kingdom of unknown living creatures being announced by that
fossil). This collection, of which the mere market worth, among
private buyers, would probably have been some thousand or
or twelve hundred pounds, was offered to the English nation for
seven hundred; but we would not give seven hundred, and the
whole series would have been in the Munich Museum at this
moment, if Professor Owen had not, with loss of his own time,
and patient tormenting of the British public in the person of its
representatives, got leave to give four hundred pounds at once,
and himself become answerable for the other three! which the
said public will doubtless pay him eventually, but sulkily, and
caring nothing about the matter all the while, only always ready
to cackle if any credit comes of it."

XIV

AUTHOR'S

PREFACE.

Since these forcible words were written Professor Owen and
the leading scientific men of the day have succeeded in inducing
a Government to build the Natural History Museum, for which
we ought to be very grateful. But although the Museum has
been finished for more than ten years, the Treasury still are
mean enough to refuse to light up the galleries, either by gas or
electricity! The result is, that those who go there to study on
foggy days are obliged to turn back, as we have found to our
cost. The central hall, however, is lighted; but what is that?
Now that the British Museum reading-room is beautifully lighted
up by some hundreds of incandescent lamps, let us hope that the
Treasury will see to it that our beautiful Natural History collection
is not left in darkness whenever London fog prevails, and
numbers of citizens turned away in disgust. Another inconvenience, due to the same cause, is that during the winter months
(or part of them) the Museum is closed at four o'clock, so that
a good day's work becomes impossible.
The author gratefully acknowledges the kind help he has
received from palaeontologists, both at home and abroad,—help
which has lightened his somewhat arduous task, making it easier
and pleasanter. He has also received encouraging letters with
regard to his previous book, both from palaeontologists and
general readers, and it is gratifying to find that many who were
only acquainted with living animals have been interested in
hearing of the results of modern palaeontology.
Professor O. C. Marsh, of Yale University, Conn., U.S., has
very kindly read many of the proof-sheets, and made valuable
suggestions and corrections, especially in the chapters dealing
with the more recently discovered Dinosaurs, which he himself
has so carefully studied and described. The author's thanks are
also due to Professor Marsh for sending a large number of his
valuable papers, published in the American Journal of Science,
and elsewhere.
To Professor E. D. Cope, of Philadelphia, the author is also

AUTHOR'S

PREFACE.

xv

greatly indebted for advice and help, as well as for many valuable
books and scientific papers.
Sir William H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S., Director of the
Natural History Museum, besides writing a preface, has very
kindly read the book before it went to press; for all of which
the author is truly grateful.
Again we have to thank Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., Keeper
of Geology at the Natural History Museum, for the kind interest
he has taken in our work, and for various valuable suggestions.
Mr. A. Smith Woodward, of the Natural History Museum, has
again been kind enough to read our proof-sheets and offer valuable
advice, especially with regard to fossil fishes (and the restorations
of them in Plate II.)—a subject on which his opinion is of
great value.1
Among other gentlemen connected with the Natural History
Museum, to whom the author is grateful for help in various ways,
are Mr. C. W. Andrews, Mr. B. B. Woodward, and Mr. F. A.
Bather. The attendants and officials of the various galleries and
libraries have also always been most courteous and obliging.
The author's thanks are also due to other gentlemen not
connected with the Museum, such as Professor H. G. Seeley;
Mr. E. T. Newton, palaeontologist to the Geological Survey; and
Mr. C. Davies Sherborn.
Our good friend, Mr. J. Smit, has once more thrown himself
heartily into the task of making more H restorations," and we feel
sure that the beautiful drawings he has made for this book will
be appreciated by all.
1

Readers who are acquainted with geological text-books will probably
notice that the representations of Old Red Sandstone fishes in Plate I I . do
not entirely agree with the drawings they have been accustomed to. This
is due to the fact that we have derived from Mr. Smith Woodward the latest
information with regard to these fishes, and that, in some details, the figures
in even the best books are often wrong.

always truly

PLATE I.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE

PREFACE BY S I R W.

H.

FLOWER, K.C.B., F.R.S

AUTHOR'S PREFACE

v
ix

CHAPTER I.
FOOTPRINTS ON T H E SANDS OF T I M E

i

CHAPTER II.
FISHES OF BY-GONE DAYS

23

CHAPTER III.
SOME ANCIENT SALAMANDERS .

.

.

49

CHAPTER IV.
ANOMALOUS R E P T I L E S

73

CHAPTER V.
T H E CROCODILE FAMILY AND ITS HISTORY

97

CHAPTER VI.
SOME RECENTLY DISCOVERED DINOSAURS

.

117

CHAPTER VII.
DINOSAURS—CONTINUED

136

CHAPTER VIII.
ANCIENT BIRDS

151

xviii

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IX.
PAGE

TAPIR-LIKE ANIMALS AND ELEPHANTINE MONSTERS

174

CHAPTER X.
HORSES AND THEIR ANCESTORS

198

CHAPTER XI.
EXTINCT WHALES AND WOMBATS

219

CHAPTER XII.
RELICS OF THE PLEISTOCENE AGE

235

APPENDICES.
I. TABLE OF STRATIFIED ROCKS
II.

CLASSIFICATION

OF

FISHES,

255
AMPHIBIANS,

REPTILES,

AND

MAMMALS
III.

257

LITERATURE

263

INDEX

26

7

LIST OF FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATE

XIII.

T O F A C E PAGE

T H E OLDEST

KNOWN

BIRD

(ARCHEOPTERYX),

AND A

SMALL DINOSAUR (COMPSOGNATHUS), JURASSIC PERIOD

Frontispiece
I.
II.

S I R RICHARD OWEN, K.C.B., F.R.S

xvii

F I S H E S OF T H E O L D R E D SANDSTONE PERIOD .

.

47

III.

AMPHIBIANS OF T H E COAL-FOREST PERIOD

65

IV.

REPTILES AND AN AMPHIBIAN OF T H E N E W R E D SANDSTONE PERIOD

V.

A N ANOMODONT

71
REPTILE

(PAREIASAURUS),

FROM T H E

KAROO FORMATION, SOUTH AFRICA
VI.

T H E OLDEST KNOWN
SANDSTONE

VII.
VIII.

85

CROCODILE (BELODON), N E W R E D

PERIOD.

ALSO T H E L I T T L E AETOSAURUS

ANCIENT CROCODILIANS, JURASSIC PERIOD
T H E OLDEST KNOWN DINOSAUR (ANCHISAURUS), NORTH
AMERICA, N E W R E D SANDSTONE PERIOD

IX.

A

LARGE

HORNED

DINOSAUR

.

.

(CERATOSAURUS),

.

.

125

A LARGE HERBIVOROUS DINOSAUR (CLAOSAURUS), FROM
N O R T H AMERICA, CRETACEOUS PERIOD

XI.

A SMALL DINOSAUR

129

(HYPSILOPHODON), OF T H E CHALK

PERIOD
XII.
XIV.

135

A GROUP OF PORTRAITS OF PALAEONTOLOGISTS

.

.

.

XVI.

159

T H E DODO ( D I D U S INEPTUS)
TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS

(PAL^OTHERIUM

165
AND ANOPLO-

THERIUM), EOCENE PERIOD
XVII.

149

A GIGANTIC D I V E R (HESPERORNIS), FROM N O R T H AMERICA,
CRETACEOUS PERIOD

XV.

121

FROM

N O R T H AMERICA, JURASSIC PERIOD
X.

103
105

181

TAPIR-LIKE ANIMALS (PAL^EOSYOPS AND ANTHRACOTHERIUM), EOCENE PERIOD

185

xx

LIST

OF FULL-PAGE

LLLUSTRATLONS.

PLATE

XVIII.
XIX.

T O FACE PAGE

A N ANCIENT MAMMAL (CORYPHODON), EOCENE PERIOD .
A N ANCIENT

ELEPHANTINE

MONSTER

189

(DINOTHERIUM),

MIOCENE PERIOD
XX.
XXI.

193

A N ELEPHANT WITH FOUR TUSKS (MASTODON ANGUSTIANCESTORS OF T H E H O R S E (PHENACODUS AND HYRACO-

DENS), MIOCENE PERIOD
THERIUM)
XXII.

T H E HIPPARION AND T H E W I L D HORSE

XXIII.

T H E U R U S OF CAESAR (BOS PRIMIGENIUS)

203
213

MACRAUCHENIA AND SABRE-TOOTHED T I G E R (MACHAIRO-

XXIV.

197

DUS), FROM T H E PAMPAS FORMATION

247
251

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT.
BIG,

PAGE

i. PROTICHNITES—TRACKS PROBABLY MADE BY SOME CRUSTACEAN,
FROM T H E POTSDAM SANDSTONE, N O R T H AMERICA

.

.

2. TRACKS OF T H E LABYRINTHODON, OR CHEIROTHERIUM
3. FOOTPRINTS FROM T H E CONNECTICUT SANDSTONE
4. FOOTPRINTS OF DINOSAURUS

.

.

.

.

12
.

19

.

20

5. PORT JACKSON SHARK, CESTRACEON P H I L I P P I , AUSTRALIA
6. SPINES AND T E E T H

8

.

.

35

OF SHARK-LIKE F I S H E S , FROM T H E CAR-

BONIFEROUS LIMESTONE, GREAT BRITAIN

36

7. PTERICHTHYS MILLERI (PARTLY MODIFIED, AFTER TRAQUAIR).

39

8. PTERICHTHYS, U P P E R SURFACE (AFTER PANDER)

40

.

.

.

.

9. COCCOSTEUS, RESTORED

41

IO. PTERASPIS—RESTORED AFTER RAY LANKESTER

42

11. CEPHALASPIS MURCHISONI

43

12. LEPIDOTUS MAXIMUS, A GANOID F I S H , SOLENHOFEN STONE

.

13. SECTION OF TOOTH OF A LABYRINTHODONT (AFTER O W E N )

.

14. SKULL OF MASTODONSAURUS

48
53
55

15. PART OF SKELETON OF ARCH^EGOSAURIS DECHENI (AFTER VON
MEYER), FROM THE PERMIAN, SAARBRUCH

.

.

.

.

.

16. H E A D OF ARCH^EGOSAURUS
17. H E A D

AND VENTRAL

SCALES

59
60

OF C R I C O T U S ; AND

HEAD

OF

ERYOPS, PERMIAN, TEXAS (AFTER COPE),,
18. H E A D OF ERYOPS MACROCEPHALUS, PERMIAN, TEXAS

64
(AFTER

COPE)^
19. SKELETON OF ACTINODON, PERMIAN, BOHEMIA (AFTER GAUDRY)

65
66

xxii

LIST

OF ILLUSTRATIONS

IN

TEXT

FIG.

20.

PAGE

KERATERPETON, RESTORED AFTER FRITSCH, PERMIAN, BOHEMIA

21. SKELETON

OF

DOLICHOSOMA,

PERMIAN,

BOHEMIA

67

(AFTER

FRITSCH)
22. SKELETON

68
OF PTYONIUS,

CARBONIFEROUS,

(AFTER COPE)
23.

NORTH

AMERICA

,

69

RESTORED SKELETON OF LABYRINTHODON (AFTER WIEDERSHEIM)

24. LOWER J A W OF CAPITOSAURUS
25. H E A D

OF

DICYNODON

70
71

LACERTICEPS—HEAD

OF OUDENODON

B A I N I , KAROO FORMATION (AFTER O W E N )

76

26. HUMERUS OF DICYNODON

77

27. FORE-LIMB OF DICYNODON

77

28.

H E A D OF GAL/ESAURUS PLANICEPS (OWEN), KAROO FORMATION

29. H E A D

AND

VERTEBRA

OF

DIMETRODON

INCISIVUS

PERMIAN, TEXAS
30.

82

SKELETON OF PAREIASAURUS BAINI (SEELEY), KAROO FORMATION, SOUTH AFRICA

31. SKELETON

OF

83

TELERPETON

ELGINENSE,

ELGIN

SANDSTONE

(AFTER MANTELL)

90

32. H E A D OF RHYNCHOSAURUS

92

33. SKULL OF ELGINIA MIRABILIS ( F R O N T V I E W ) , AFTER NEWTON
34.

80

(COPE),

SKULL OF ELGINIA MIRABILIS ( S I D E V I E W ) , AFTER NEWTON

95
.

96

35. BELODON, RESTORED AFTER FRAAS

101

36. TELEOSAURUS, RESTORED

106

37.

SKELETON OF PELAGOSAURUS, FROM A MODEL IN T H E NATURAL
HISTORY MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON

38. FOSSIL

REMAINS

OF

A

CROCODILIAN

REPTILE,

10S
FROM

THE

W E A L D E N FORMATION (AFTER MANTELL)

no

39 AND 40. MOUNTED SKELETONS OF BERNISSARTIA (DOLLO) AND
GONIOPHIS, FROM T H E WEALDEN
41. SKELETON OF ANCHISAURUS COLURUS, N E W R E D

II3
SANDSTONE

(AFTER MARSH)
42.

43. SKELETON OF CERATOSAURUS, JURASSIC (AFTER MARSH)
44.

119

SKULL OF CERATOSAURUS (AFTER MARSH)

SKULL OF CLAOSAURUS (AFTER MARSH)

124
.

.125
127

LIST

OF ILLUSTRATIONS

IN TEXT

xxiii

FIG.

PAGE

45. SKELETON OF CLAOSAURUS ANNECTENS,

CRETACEOUS

(AFTER

MARSH)

128

46. LIMB-BONES, ETC., OF CROCODILE, DINOSAUR, AND B I R D (AFTER
OWEN)

132

47. SKELETON OF COMPSOGNATHUS LONGIPES, SOLENHOFEN STONE

133

48. RESTORED SKELETON OF HYPSILOPHODON FOXII (AFTER H U L K E )

134

49. FOSSIL EGGS OF SAURIANS

135

50. T H E PAL^EONTOLOGICAL STUDIO OF M R . WATERHOUSE H A W K I N S
AT T H E CENTRAL PARK, N E W YORK

137

51. MODELS BY WATERHOUSE H A W K I N S , IN CENTRAL PARK, N E W
YORK

140

52. A S K E T C H I N T H E G R O U N D S O F T H E C R Y S T A L P A L A C E ,

SYDEN-

H A M , SHOWING THE MODELS OF EXTINCT ANIMALS, MADE
BY M R . WATERHOUSE H A W K I N S
53. SKELETON

OF ARCH^EOPTERYX

144
MACRURA,

IN

THE

BERLIN

CRETACEOUS

(AFTER

MUSEUM, FROM T H E SOLENHOFEN STONE
54. SKELETON

OF

HESPERORNIS

REGALIS,

153

MARSH)

157

55. SKELETON OF ICHTHYORNIS VICTOR, CRETACEOUS (AFTER MARSH)
56. RESTORED

SKELETON

OF GASTORNIS

PARISIENCIS,

(AFTER H E B E R T )
57. SKELETON

OF

PAL^OTHERIUM

160

EOCENE
161

MAGNUM,

EOCENE

(AFTER

GAUDRY)

181

58. SKELETON OF ANOPLOTHERIUM

182

59. SKELETON OF ANTHRACOTHERIUM, LOWER MIOCENE (RESTORED
AFTER KOWALEVSKY)

184

60. SKELETON OF PAL^OSYOPS, RESTORED (AFTER EARLE)

.

.
.

61. SKELETON OF CORYPHODON HAMATUS (AFTER MARSH) .
62. MAP OF N O R T H AMERICA IN TERTIARY TIMES

.

.

.

.
.

.

188
191

63. SKULL OF TITANOTHERIUM (AFTER MARSH)
64. SKULL OF DINOTHERIUM GIGANTEUM, FROM EPPELSHEIM

186

192
.

.

65. SKELETON OF MASTODON ANGUSTIDENS

194
196

66. SKULL OF ELEPHAS GANESA

197

67. SKELETON OF PHENACODUS PRIM^EVUS, EOCENE (AFTER COPE)

201

xxiv

LIST

OF ILLUSTRATIONS

IN

TEXT.

FIG.

PAGE

68.

LIMB-BONES AND T E E T H OF FQSSIL HORSES (AFTER MARSH)

69.

SKELETON OF HYRACOTHERIUM

70.

EIGHT-TOED CUBAN HORSE (AFTER MARSH)

VENTICOLUM, EOCENE

208

(AFTER

COPE)

210

217

71. SKULL OF SQUALODON

224

72.

225

SKULL OF PSEUDORCA

73.

SKULL OF DIPROTODON

74.

SKELETON OF DIPROTODON AUSTRALIS (AFTER OWEN)

226
.

.

.

75.

RESTORATION OF DIPROTODON

76.

SKULL

77.

SKELETON OF TOXODON

78.

SKELETON OF MACRAUCHENIA,

STRATA

(AFTER

79.

SKELETON OF MACHAIRODUS (SMILODON) PLEISTOCENE

228

(AFTER

OF

TOXODON,

231

PLEISTOCENE

STRATA

(AFTER

BUR-

MEISTER)

237
238
PLEISTOCENE

BURMEISTER)

BURMEISTER)

243

245

CREATURES OF OTHER DAYS.
CHAPTER I.
FOOTPRINTS ON THE SANDS OF TIME.

" They are fraught with strange meanings, these footprints of Connecticut."
— H U G H MILLER.

THERE is a great deal of truth in the saying of Emerson, that
" everything in Nature is engaged in writing its own history."
The more one studies the changes taking place every day on the
surface of the earth, in order to read the riddle of the rocks
beneath our feet, which contain Mother Earth's records of her
past history, the more one is impressed with the truth of this
saying. In fact, it is not too much to say that the whole science
of Geology is founded on this idea. The geologist is he who
interprets to his fellows the stony documents contained in Nature's
" Record Office," and he finds the key to the interpretation of her
hieroglyphics in watching her daily actions at the present time.
One branch of this science, viz. Physical Geology, deals with the
earth's physical features, interpreting in the light of this leading
principle their history, and telling us how the river carved out its
valley; how the volcano was built u p ; how the mighty mountains
were raised up from the beds of ancient seas, to be carved out by
the agents of denudation into all their varied and wonderful features.
Another branch of geology, namely Palaeontology, with which
we are about to deal in the present work, tells us of the longB

2

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

lost tribes of plants and animals which, ages and ages ago,
found a home on the earth. To many minds this branch of
geology, which is simply the natural history of the past, is the
most fascinating, with which view we fully sympathise. Putting
aside the study of fossil plants (which is a small branch of the
subject), we may say of Palaeontology, that it interprets to us the
world's " lost creations." In this branch of geology the records
are not so much the rocks themselves as the fossil bones they so
often contain.
In some cases, as we shall presently show, the rocks contain
additional evidences of very considerable value, as throwing light
on the habits of the creatures, or on their natural surroundings;
but bones, shells, and other hard parts of animals, are the foundation on which the science of Palaeontology is founded. And
here, again, we find the same principle at work—viz, that the past
must be read in the light of the present. However many ages
ago it was, whether millions or billions of years ago, that these
primaeval inhabitants of the world enjoyed their existence, the
same unbroken laws of nature—the visible expressions of a
Divine and All-powerful Will—were at work, fulfilling His purposes, as now. Flesh and blood were then what they are now,
and fulfilled the same functions. Bones grew then as they grow
nowadays. To those bones were attached muscles which
expanded and contracted just as muscles do now. Wings were
used for flying, fins and paddles for swimming, legs for walking,
teeth for masticating food, just as they are now. In fact these
primitive inhabitants of the antique world, however different in
bodily shape from those we see around us now, lived under the
same universal laws of Physiology as we ourselves do.
Palaeontology, then, is the science which, in the light of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, rehabilitates the world's ancient
inhabitants, clothing their dry bones with flesh, and enabling us
in imagination to see them as they were when they walked this
earth. It will be our endeavour in the present work to present

FOOTPRINTS

ON THE

SANDS

OF TIME.

3

to our readers a certain number of these antique animals—birds,
beasts, and fishes, whose mortal remains have been buried up and
preserved, often with singular completeness, in the rocks of the
earth's crust.
But, although fossil bones and skeletons are the chief material
at our command for this purpose, yet the series of stratified rocks
contains here and there other kinds of evidence, valuable in their
way, such as foot-marks, tracks, burrows, coprolites, or droppings,
and even ripple-marks and the impressions of rain-drops. It is
with these evidences that we propose to deal in the present
chapter. Let us see what can be learned from such humble and
apparently insignificant records, of some of the creatures that
once trod this earth.
The intelligent observer who has strolled along the strand of
the seashore at low water, must have often seen the surface of
the exposed sands deeply rippled by the waves of the ebbing tide,
and have noticed the trails of molluscs, and the meandering
furrows and ridges produced by worms, or annelides, and the tracks
of crabs, and sometimes the footprints of birds and of dogs or
other quadrupeds, that have walked over sand or mud while it
was yet plastic and sufficiently firm to retain the markings
impressed upon it. Under certain conditions these apparently
evanescent characters are indelibly fixed on the stratum, and in
rocks of immense antiquity successive layers of sandstone and
shale, through a thickness of many hundred feet, are found
deeply furrowed with the ripples of the waves that flowed
over them, pitted by the rain that has fallen upon them, and
impressed with the footmarks of bipeds and quadrupeds that
traversed the sands whilst the surface was in a moist and yielding
state. Even on some of the most ancient of rocks, such as those
of the Cambrian system, jelly-fish have left indelible impressions
of their soft round bodies !
Speaking of the wonderfully enduring nature of certain impressions known to geologists, the sagacious Dean Buckland said,

4

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

in an address to the Geological Society: "The historian or
the antiquary may have traversed the fields of ancient or of
modern battles, and may have pursued the line of march of
triumphant conquerors, whose armies trampled down the most
mighty kingdoms of the world. The winds and storms have
utterly obliterated the ephemeral impressions in their course.
Not a track remains of a single foot or a single hoof of all the
countless millions of men and beasts whose progress spread
desolation over the earth. But the reptiles that crawled upon
the half-finished* surface of our infant planet have left memorials
of their passage, enduring and indelible. Centuries and thousands of years have rolled away, between the time in which
these footsteps were impressed by tortoises upon the sands of
their native Scotland and the hour when they were again laid
bare and exposed to our curious and admiring eyes. Yet we
behold them stamped upon the rock, distinct as the track of the
passing animal upon the recent snow; as if to show that thousands
of years are but as nothing amidst eternity, and, as it were, in
mockery of the fleeting perishable course of the mightiest potentates among mankind." 2
Every form of animal life that, writhing, crawling, walking,
running, hopping, or leaping, could leave a track, depression, or
footprint behind it, might thereby leave similar lasting evidence
of its existence and also, to some extent, of its nature. The
interpretation of such evidences of ancient life has exercised the
sagacity of naturalists since Dr. Duncan, in 1828, first inferred the
existence of tortoises in certain sandstones in Dumfriesshire from
the impressions left on them. The vast number and variety of
such impressions has raised up a distinct branch of Palaeontology,,
to which the name Ichnology3 has been given.
1
This expression is a survival from the teaching in vogue fifty years ago.
The world was not in an unfinished state during the period of the New Red
Sandstone.
2
Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 251.
8
Greek—ichnos, footstep ; logos, discourse.

FOOTPRINTS

ON THE

SANDS

OF TIME.

5

We will now give a brief account of the results which have been
arrived at in this branch of inquiry. To begin with one of the
lowest forms of animal life—the worms. The class Annelida
comprises the so-called ringed worms, including the leeches and
earth-worms, and the sea-worms. As might have been expected,
earth-worms are unknown in the geological record ; for their soft
bodies were not likely to be preserved even in the most favourable
kinds of deposits. But, in some cases, the hard jaws of marine
worms have escaped destruction. Fossil worm-jaws are abundantly
found in some parts of the Cambrian, Silurian, and Carboniferous
systems (see Appendix I.). The so-called " Conodonts" are
believed by many authorities to be the jaws of worms; and such
remains are also found in strata of the Mesozoic and Tertiary eras.
Besides these rather mysterious little bodies, which some have
taken to be the teeth of primitive fishes—such as our modern
Hag-fish,—a good many worm-like markings are found in muddy
and sandy sediments all through the stratified series. In many
cases the true nature of these remains is still a matter of
doubt. The visitor to the Natural History Museum at South
Kensington will find in Gallery No. 11 a very fine and large
collection of fossil tracks and footmarks of all kinds (Wall-case
No. 7). Some of these are probably vegetable remains; but
others are certainly the tracks of molluscs or of crustaceans. Long
burrows of marine worms occur plentifully in some rocks of
Cambrian and Silurian age, and have been figured under the names
Scolithus, Histioderma, and Arenicolites. They are nearly straight,
and descend vertically through the rock. Such are abundant in
that ancient formation the Potsdam Sandstone of North America;
in the Clinton formation, also of that country; and in the Stiperstones of Shropshire. Even in the Pre-Cambrian rocks of the
west of Sutherlandshire there have been discovered of late years
some long dark lines which are believed to be the burrows of
marine worms pulled out to great lengths by the " shearing," or
pulling-out process to which these rocks have been long ago

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

subjected. For the full and complete interpretation of many of
the curious markings known to geologists, a more accurate knowledge of the markings made by living animals will doubtless be
necessary.
Various worms of the present day, such as the common lugworm, are known to form long, wandering, tortuous channels in
the sand of the seashore, a little distance below the surface.
These worms feed on particles of organic matter scattered
through the sand or mud, through which it eats its way. Such
burrows cross and intersect each other in various ways, and as
the worm proceeds on its course, they become filled up in the
rear by the sand which has passed through its body. This is
how worm-casts seen on the seashore at the present day are made.
It appears, in the light of more recent researches, that many
markings found in some of the more ancient (Palaeozoic) rocks,
and which have been formerly described as " fucoids," i.e. seaweeds, under such names as Palceochorda, are in reality the filledup burrows of marine worms. These have now been re-christened
Planolites. But there are some who consider them to be tracks
made on the surface, not burrows.
A great many true trails, or tracks of worms, etc., that is
markings made by the animal dragging its soft body over the
surface of wet sand or mud, are found in the stratified rocks.
But, in the present state of knowledge, it is very difficult to
distinguish between those formed by worms and others made by
molluscs or even crustaceans. The fossil known as Nereites, from
Silurian slates at Wurtzbach, is probably the track of a worm. On
the other hand, some of the tracks attributed to worms may have
been really made by gastropod molluscs, such as whelks. One
fossil track, known as Crossopodia, resembles the track made by a
living Purpura lapillus^ a well-known sea-shell. It is only in
those strata which are very favourable to the preservation of
organic remains that we can expect to find any trace or
impression of the actual body of such a frail and perishable thing

FOOTPRINTS

ON THE

SANDS

OF TIME.

7

as a worm; but, incredible as it may seem, fossils of this nature
occur in that most wonderful formation—the famous Solenhofen
limestone, in which so many valuable treasures have been found;
also in the Eocene slates of Monte Bolca (Italy). In these rare
cases the form of the worm's body is actually seen, and the
fossilised jaws occur in their natural position. Examples of these
interesting specimens are beautifully rendered by chromolithography in Professor Zittel's monumental work Palceontographica.
Several geologists, such as Poulett-Scrope, Strickland, Buckland, Salter, and others, have published the results of careful
comparisons of tracks made by living animals on the sands of the
seashore, or on flat surfaces of mud left exposed by the drying up
of a pond, or by other causes, but have not given drawings of the
recent markings on which their conclusions are based. Professor
Emmonds and Professor T. McKenny Hughes, however, have
figured some recent tracks in illustration of fossil ones. The
former geologist came to the conclusion that certain imprints upon
some very old rocks—the Taconic Shales of Maine and New
York States—were made by the soft fragile larvae of insects which
existed at an early period in the world's history.
We now pass on to the consideration of certain impressions in
the old Potsdam Sandstone of North America, which -have been
most carefully studied by the late Sir E.. Owen. In the year
1851, Logan exhibited before the Geological Society of London
a small slab of sandstone showing some footprints, and a plaster
cast from a longer surface of similar description. The original,
weighing upwards of a ton, is in the Museum at Montreal connected with the Geological Survey of Canada. The locality
where it was found is on the left bank of the River St. Louis, at
the village of Beauharnois, on the south side of the St. Lawrence,
about twenty miles above the city of Montreal. Owen, in his
first paper, came to the conclusion that the tracks were those of a
tortoise. But further research caused him to alter this opinion.
We only mention this to show much care is required even on the

8

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

part of the best naturalists to read the meanings of fossil tracks.
A portion of the impressions now under consideration is shown in
Fig. i. They consist of a series of well-defined impressions
continued in regular succession for four feet, and more; but only
clearly for four feet. In this four feet there are thirty successive
groups of footprints on each side of a furrow. The number of
prints is not the same in each group. Where they are best marked,

Sandstone, North America.

(After Owen.)

as in ourfigure^we see three prints in one group, two in the next
and two in the third, followed by a repetition of the three prints
(in our illustration each of the three groups is enclosed in an oval).
These three groups (of 3-2-2 impressions) are distinctly repeated
in succession along the whole series of tracks on both sides of the
furrow. It will be noticed that in each pair of impressions the
innermost pair are of equal size, but of the outer ones each is a

FOOTPRINTS

ON THE

SANDS

OF TIME.

9

little bigger than the last. An important point is that there are
no mark of toes or nails. Their edges are not sharply defined,
but are rounded off, and there is a slight variation in the form
and depth of the corresponding impressions on each side of the
furrow. But the reader will see from the figure that they do
correspond with each other. Thus, take the three tracks at the
bottom of the lower group on the right side of the furrow; the
innermost of this group of three may easily be identified with
the innermost track of the group of three on the left side of the
furrow. And so with the two groups of three belonging to
the two upper sets of impressions, each of which is enclosed in
an oval.
These very ancient tracks are known to geologists under the
name Protichnites, and the creature that produced them must
have made no less than fourteen impressions, seven on the right
and seven on the left, each time its legs were set to work. There
seems to be doubt of this, because the groups of tracks, as marked
out in our illustration, occur again and again in successive series
so similarly and so regularly as to admit of no doubt that they
were made by repeated applications of the legs, and these must
have been capable of being moved so far in advance as to keep
clear of the previous group of impressions. Sir Richard Owen
concludes his account of the tracks by saying that the creature
which made them was probably a crustacean genus, and that it
may have had three pairs of limbs employed in locomotion, each
•of which was split up into two or more parts so as to make in
walking either two or three tracks. The shape of the pits so
clearly seen on these slabs of the old Potsdam Sandstone
(although they have been rubbed and polished by the action of
glacier-ice) suggests that they were made by the hard and partly
pointed, partly blunt, terminations of the limb of a crustacean,
such as a crab or lobster. But this creature moved directly
forwards, not like a crab, but like a lobster or a king-crab. The
furrow that runs between the tracks was probably made by a tail.

io

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

The question then arises—what sort of a crustacean was it that
made these tracks ? Great caution is required in dealing with a
problem of this kind, as will be seen from the following words of
Sir R. Owen: " In all probability no living form of animal bears
such a resemblance to that which the Potsdam footprints indicate
as to afford an exact illustration of the shape and number of the
instruments, and the mode of locomotion of the Protichnites"
The imagination is baffled in the attempt to realize the extent of
time past since the period when the creature was in existence
which moved upon the sandy shores of the ancient Cambrian
period, to which the " Potsdam Sandstone " belongs.
In about the year 1830, much interest was excited by the discovery of footmarks, resembling those of land tortoises, on the
exposed surfaces of slabs of sandstone of Triassic age, in a quarry at
Corncockle Muir in Dumfriesshire, of which an interesting account
was published by the Rev. Dr. Duncan. Regular tracks, indicating
the slow progression of a small four-footed animal over the surface
while the stone was in the state of moist sand, were traced on the
blocks of sandstone, when separated by the quarry-men, along the
lines of their stratification. In one instance there were found
twenty-four consecutive impressions, forming a track with six
distinct repetitions of the marks of each foot, the front feet differing from the hind feet. The appearance of five claws was discernible on the impressions of each fore paw. In 1853, Sir
William Jardine published a splendid folio work in which he fully
described these footprints ; it was illustrated by full-sized
lithographs coloured after Nature.1
The footprints occur in the Dumfriesshire Sandstones, in
different patches, in several localities, but are best seen either
where naturally exposed in the valleys of the Esk, the Nith, and
the Annan, or in the quarries in those districts where they are
worked for building material. One of those areas, of considerable
extent, fills up the bottom of nearly all the upper basin of the
1

Ichnology of Annandale (Edinburgh, 1853 ; folio).

FOOTPRINTS

ON THE

SANDS

OF TIME.

n

Annan Valley above the ridge at Dormont Rocks. The beds
are about two hundred feet thick, and present even surfaces. It
is a curious fact, observed by the author of the above-mentioned
book, that all the footprints are impressed as if the animal had
walked from west to east. As a rule the creature seems to have
walked in a straight line, but sometimes the tracks turn and wind
in different directions. The paces are generally even and uninterrupted, seldom diverging much aside, showing little stoppage
for food, or for a scuffle with a neighbour, which sometimes
accompanied them. They appear more as the tracks of animals
passing at once across some tide-receded estuary, in pursuit of
some well-known and favourite grounds which were periodically
sought after for some particular purpose. But it must be borne in
mind that the impressions figured in this important work are not
all similar in shape, and were probably due to different animals.
They often show the effects of a peculiar pushing-back motion,
which may be noticed in living tortoises. Dean Buckland, who
was interested in these impressions, caused a living tortoise to
walk on soft sand, clay, and paste, and found a fairly close correspondence between the tracks thus made and those of Corncockle Muir.
In 1831, Mr. Poulett-Scrope, an English geologist, described
some small tracks made by a crustacean on a rock of the Jurassic
period, known as the Forest Marble.
Some years previous to 1856, a series of strange impressions
was found in a quarry in the lowest part of the Millstone Grit
formation at Rhodes Wood, near Tintwhistle, Cheshire. The
proprietor, Mr. Rhodes, was much struck with them, from the
fact that they bore a resemblance to the marks of a human foot.
The workmen also were struck with the resemblance, and, when
they first showed them the impressions, remarked, " Master,
some one has been here before us !" For several weeks the
quarry was visited by many hundreds of people from Glossop
and the surrounding neighbourhood. The common opinion was

12

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

that the tracks were the footprints of some of Noah's family!
This strange idea seems to have been founded on another
equally strange, viz. that the Ark
had rested on some neighbouring
hills. But to return to the tracks ;
the distance between the impressions was two feet ten inches, and
several of the impressions were
thirteen inches long. Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins saw them, and
thought that they resembled the
supposed chelonian track figured
by Jardine. Mr. Binney's conclusion (who read a paper on
these tracks before the Geological
Society) was that they were made
on wet sand by a heavy slowmoving animal, like a tortoise,
with irregular gait.
Soon after the discovery of footprints at Corncockle Muir, another
discovery was made in strata of
the same geological age at Hessberg, near Hildburghausen, in
Saxony. These footprints, however, were evidently made by somewhat large creatures, in which the
fore paws were much smaller than
the hind ones (see Fig: 2). Subsequently, similar tracks were obF I G . 2.—Footprints of Cheiroserved on slabs of Triassic Sandtherium, in the Bunter Sandstone,
stone in the quarries at Storton,
Hessberg, near Hildburghausen.
near Liverpool. Others, again,
have been found in Cheshire. The Museums at Warwick,

FOOTPRINTS

ON THE

SANDS

OF TIME.

13

Warrington, and Liverpool, are rich in impressed slabs from
the New Red Sandstone. Numerous fine specimens may be
seen in the Museum of the Geological Society, the Museum of
Practical Geology, in Jermyn Street, and in the Natural History
Museum, Cromwell Road, which is a part of the British Museum,.
Gallery No. 11. Some of the slabs from Storton are covered with
small round pits, or depressions, produced by rain-drops that fell
while the surface was soft and impressible. The footprints from
Storton are seen on the face of each successive stratum of sandstone, the corresponding surface of the overlying stone presenting,
in relief, casts of the imprints and other markings. The hollow
impressions of the feet are always on the upper surfaces of the
slabs, and the convex casts on the under side of each layer or
stratum, the latter fitting closely into the former. In our illustration of tracks from Saxony only one pair of tracks is given; there
would, of course, be another pair parallel with them. The
double lines in between are casts of sun-cracks formed as the
mud dried in the sun.
These " footprints on the sands of time" follow one another
in pairs—one small, the other large, each pair being in the
same line, and some fourteen inches in advance of the other.
Each footmark has five toes, and the first, or great toe, is bent
inward like a thumb, and is alternately on the right and left
side of both the large and small footprints, which, except in
size, resemble each other. The German geologist who first
described them in 1834, Dr* Kaup, proposed the name of
Cheirotherium 1 for the great unknown animal that left the footprints, in consequence of the resemblance, both of the fore and
hind feet, to the impression of a human hand. No certain remains
of the creatures whose tracks we are now considering have yet
been discovered in the same strata. But in these rocks and
others of the same geological age in England and Germany there
have been obtained skulls, teeth, and bones of amphibians,.
1

Greek—cheir, hand; therion, beast.

i4

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

known as Labyrinthodonts, of which we shall have more to say in
Chapter III. Some of the salamander-like amphibians of the
Triassic period, we now know from later discoveries, attained to a
considerable size.
As Sir R. Owen points out, the impressions of the Cheirotherium
resemble the footprints of a modern salamander in having the
short outer toe of the hind foot projecting at right angles to the
line of the middle toe, but yet are not identical with those of
any known batrachian or reptile. Still it has been conjectured
by the same great authority, as well as by others, that these
footprints were the work of the creatures now known as Labyrinthodonts, which have left their remains in rocks of the Carboniferous, the Triassic, and the Permian ages. He argued as follows :
(i) There is proof from the skeleton that the Lahyrinthodon had
hind limbs larger than its fore limbs. (2) That the size of the
known species of Lahyrinthodon corresponds with the size of
the footprints of the Cheirotherium. (3) The Lahyrinthodon
occurs in the Triassic strata, in which the CheirotheHum impressions are found. (4) That no remains of animals likely to have
produced such impressions are found in these strata except the
Lahyrinthodon.
Our friend, Professor W. J. Sollas, has described some interesting footprints from South Wales, which probably were made
by a Dinosaur of the Triassic age.1 A friend of his was, in 1878,
passing through the village of Newton Nottage, in Glamorganshire, when his attention was arrested by some three-toed footprints on a slab of rock, deeply impressed and rendered particularly visible by the slanting rays of the setting sun. Casts of
them were afterwards made by the curator of the Cardiff Museum
(Mr. J. Storrie).
To show how valuable geological finds are often neglected
through ignorance of their real worth, it may be mentioned here
that this slab is even now lying in a corner of the village green^ in
1

Quarterly Journal of Geological Society, xxxv. (1879), p. 510.

FOOTPRINTS

ON THE

SANDS

OF TIME.

15

front of the church; formerly it lay in front of the steps of the
inn, where it consequently suffered more or less wear. The
impressions remind one of some of those described by Professor
Hitchcock (see p. 19), and resemble more especially those
belonging to his genus Brontozoum. Other specimens were
afterwards found in the same locality. Professor Sollas had
casts made of impressions of the feet of a living emu in the
Clifton Zoological Gardens, for the sake of comparison, and
found a good deal of agreement between the two. Nevertheless,
from what we now know of Dinosaurs, it would be unwise to say
that the impressions were made by birds (see p. 21).
Professor W. C. Williamson has described some very interesting
impressions from Cheshire. They were found, by a former pupil
of his (Mr. J. W. Kirkham), near Weston Point. They are unlike
those of the Cheirotherium, previously described, and differ from
all others yet found in showing very distinctly what are probably
the marks of scales. The form of the foot also differs in being
more quadrate. Professor Williamson says it reminds him of
certain footprints found by Dr. King in the Carboniferous rocks
of Pennsylvania (see p. 63). The arrangement of the scales
corresponds closely with that seen on the foot of a modern
alligator. The impressions suggest a saurian much more than an
amphibian.
These impressions figured by Professor Williamson remind
one a good deal of some tracks described by Professor Huxley, in
his paper on a " New Red Sandstone Crocodile from the Triassic
Strata of Elgin,"1 which may have been made by that ancient
leviathan.
We now pass on to give some account of those famous footprints in the Connecticut Valley, of which probably all geologists
have heard. The River Connecticut, in part of its course through
the country which bears its name, and in the northern district of
1

Quarterly Journal of Geological Society, xv. (1859), p. 440.

16

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

the adjoining State of Massachusetts, flows through a valley of
sandstone of the Triassic age. Successive layers of this rock are
exposed all along considerable tracts of country. From this circumstance, and from the facility of transport afforded by the
river, numerous quarries have, for many years, been worked in
various parts of the valley, near the water's edge. The many
footprints contained in these rocks were observed much earlier
than the date (1828) in which the Rev. Dr. Duncan first described
the tracks at Corncockle Muir (see p. 10). They have been very
fully described and figured by Professor Ed. Hitchcock1 and Dr.
J. Deane.2
As far as Dr. Deane could learn, the first specimen was ploughed
up in South Hadley, in 1802, by a boy. This specimen is now in
the Appleton Ichnological Cabinet.3 So strikingly did the tracks
resemble those of birds, that they were familiarly spoken of as the
tracks of poultry,'or of" Noah's raven."
It was not until the year 1836 that any attempt was made to
describe the tracks scientifically. The year previous some flagging
stones were obtained in Montague for the streets of Greenfield,
by a Mr. Wilson, who observed impressions upon them, which he
regarded as tracks of " the turkey tribe." These were observed
by Dr. Deane, who sent casts of them to Professor Hitchcock.
Professor Hitchcock gave his first account of them in The
American Journal of Science, in 1836. He propounded the idea
that they were the tracks of birds—a view which was not adopted
by scientific men at the time, though afterwards many came
1

Professor Ed. Hitchcock, Ichnology of New England. (Boston, 1858.)
Dr. J. Deane, Ichnografihs from the Sandstone of Connecticut River.
(Boston, 1861.)
3
The late Honourable Samuel Appleton, of Boston, left by his will a large
sum of money to be appropriated by the trustees under his will to benevolent
and scientific purposes. Those trustees accordingly appropriated ten thousand
dollars to the erection of the Appleton Cabinet at Amherst, a museum, of
which the lower story is entirely devoted to fossil footmarks. A still larger
collection is now in the Museum of Yale University, but only a part is on
view.
2

FOOTPRINTS

ON THE

SANDS

OF TIME.

17

round to his opinion. We have perused his work with great
interest, and cannot but admire the care with which he studied
the tracks and endeavoured to interpret their meaning, although
his conclusions now require a good deal of modification.
Professor Hitchcock chose to give fanciful names to the creatures
that made the tracks, such as Bronfozoum giganteum, " the huge
animal giant;" Polemarchus gigas, " the huge leader in war," and
so on. He concludes a description of some of these creatures in
the following words : " Such was the fauna of the sandstone days
in the Connecticut Valley. What a wonderful menagerie ! Who
would believe that such a register lay buried in the strata ? To
open the leaves, to unroll the papyrus, has been an intensely interesting though difficult task, having all the excitement and marvellous developments of romance. And yet the volume is only
partly read. Many a new page, I fancy, will yet be opened, and
many a new key obtained to the hieroglyphic record. I am thankful
that I have been allowed to see so much by prying between the
folded leaves. At first, men supposed that the strange and gigantic
races which I described were mere creatures of imagination, like
the Gorgons and Chimaeras of the ancient poets. But now that
hundreds of their footprints, as fresh and distinct as of yesterday,
impressed upon the mud, arrest the attention of the sceptic on
the ample slabs of our cabinets, he might as reasonably doubt his
own corporeal existence as that of these enormous and peculiar
races."
Professor Hitchcock's work on this subject was much appreciated by his countrymen, as the following facts will show. It was
resolved by the; Commonwealth of Massachusetts, in the year
1857, that his Geological Report on the Sandstone of the Connecticut
Valley1 be printed, and one copy furnished to each member of
the executive and legislative departments of the Government of
that year, and one copy to each town and city in the Commonwealth. Not content with this, it was resolved in the following year
1

Ichnology of New England,
C

18

CREATURES

OE OTHER

DAYS.

that more copies be printed, that one hundred be given to the
author, and others for the purpose of international exchange.
Englishmen cannot but admire this good example, and would
doubtless be glad if it could be followed at home, where so
little is done for the cause of Science by our rulers.
But, in justice to Dr. Deane, we must not omit to mention his
part in the description and figuring of these interesting records.
Unfortunately he died before the completion of his beautifully
illustrated work on the subject. He drew with his own hand a
large number of lithographs from the actual slabs; and these
drawings will always be of the greatest use to students of Ichnology. He worked at the subject in his spare moments, during
an active professional career, and with great enthusiasm, as the
following extract from his unfinished work will show.
" An indescribable interest is imparted by opening the longsealed volume that contains the records of these extinct animals.
The slabs were uncovered and raised under my supervision, and
page after page, with their inscriptions, revealed living truths.
There were the characters, fresh as upon the morning when they
were impressed, reminding the spectator of the brevity of human
antiquity, and of the frail tenure of human works! On that
morning, how long ago no one can tell, or ever will know, gentle
showers watered the earth, an ocean was unruffled, and upon its
borders primaeval beings enjoyed their existence and inscribed
their eventful history."
And now to sum up the results of their work. Most of, the
tracks so fully described and figured by these two authors were probably made by amphibians and reptiles, and it is doubtful if any of
them were made, as they supposed, by birds. They vary extremely,
both in size and character. While some are only half an inch
long; others, like the huge Otozouni, of Hitchcock (see Fig. 3, left
hand corner), are twenty inches long, and show a stride of three
feet! Some of the creatures that made the tracks had five toes,

FOOTPRINTS

ON THE

SANDS

OF TIME.

19

some four, and many of them only three. Again, some had hind
feet and fore feet of nearly equal size, and evidently walked or
crawled on all-fours.
We have here reproduced, from Professor Hitchcock's work, a
highly interesting plate (Fig. 4), which shows that some of the
animals had large hind feet and small fore feet, and that they sometimes put down the latter, as kangaroos do, for there are the impres-

FIG. 3.-—Footprints from Connecticut Sandstone. The three tracks in the
middle show the mark left by the tail, probably of a Dinosaur. (After
Hitchcock.)

sions of them. However, such impressions are rare, and, as a rule,
the creatures, many of which were probably Dinosaurs, walked on
their hind limbs, thus producing those three-toed bird-like impressions which are shown on the slabs represented in our figure.
It is hardly likely that they hopped on their hind legs as kangaroos

'^M%

•

'

<

.

&

&

•

>

&

>

.

^^WgJI^^r^^pgy

FIG. 4.—Footprints of Dinosaurs, from Connecticut Sandstone, showing]
impressions of the small fore feet (1 and 3). (After Hitchcock.)

FOOTPRINTS

ON THE

SANDS

OF TIME.

21

do; they were probably too heavy for that; but they may have
made something like a hop in bringing up their hind feet, as we
have seen the kangaroos do in the Zoological Gardens. Another
very interesting point brought to light by the researches of Hitchcock and Deane is, that on some slabs may be seen what is believed to be the impression of the tail of a Dinosaur as it dragged
along over the moist sand of the seashore or estuary where these
antediluvian creatures of old disported themselves (see Fig. 3).
Those impressions which Hitchcock believed to have been
made by birds show a regular increase in the number of joints of
the toes ; the inner toe having two, the middle one three, and the
outer one four joints. Now, it happens, by a remarkable coincidence, that in the case of birds the inner toes have three, the middle
toes four, and the outer toes five joints, but the last two joints in
each case make but one division of the track, so that their tracks
correspond with those we are considering. The discovery that
some Dinosaurs have but three toes that were used (functional
toes), and that they had the same number of joints in their toes
as birds, has naturally led scientific men to the opinion that
probably all the tracks above described were made, not by birds,
but by Dinosaurs. It may be pointed out in defence of this
opinion, that, although the two classes of Birds and Reptiles are
now widely separated, yet in certain former geological periods
there was no such gulf as now divides them. At the time when
the Connecticut Sandstone tracks were made on the shores of a
narrow inland sea, there must have been in existence animals
which, if we saw them now, might sorely puzzle us to decide
whether to call them reptilian birds, or bird-like reptiles.
During the Jura-Trias period there was in the region of the Connecticut Valley a shallow sea, connected by a narrow outlet with the
ocean. Into this the tides flowed and again ebbed, leaving extensive flats of mud or sand, ribbed with ripple-marks. A passing
shower pitted the soft mud, and the sun, coming out again from the
breaking clouds, dried and cracked it. Our Dinosaurs and other

22

CREATURES

OE OTHER

DAYS.

creatures sauntered or ran near the margin of the shore. The
tide came in again, carrymg with it fine sediments, gently covered
the tracks, and preserved them for ever. This occurred constantly
for many ages, about the time when the Triassic period came to
a close.
In the year 1882, reports were published of the discovery of
large footprints—supposed to be human—in a certain sandstone,
near Carson, Nevada, U.S., of which a brief account was given
in our former work.1 These are probably the tracks made by a
big extinct sloth of the Pleistocene period. The wonderful series
of footprints of reptiles, birds, and mammals discovered by M.
Desnoyers, in certain Eocene strata near Paris, are reserved for
description on p. 184.
1

Extinct Monsters^ p. 185 (2nd edit.).

CHAPTER II.
FISHES OF BYGONE DAYS.

" In the endeavour to complete the natural history of any class of animals, the
mind seeks to penetrate the mystery of its origin, and, by tracing its mutations
in time past, to comprehend more clearly its actual condition, and gain an
insight into its probable destiny in time to come."—SIR RICHARD OWEN.

SWEDENBORG, in his writings, describes how the angels examined a dead man in order to read the story of his life. One
might have supposed that they asked him questions; but no,
they simply examined his body, and from that read out to him
all the things that he had done. They unrolled his fingers, for
whatever acts these performed had left their record on them.
So with his brain; whatever thoughts had been his were found
to have left a record. There is much truth in this striking idea;
and Mr. Ruskin has said the same of human faces. But leaving
the realm of psychology, and turning to the solid earth, we find
countless numbers of dead bodies of animals sealed up in the
rocks beneath our feet, which may be looked upon as a great
graveyard. The flesh, of course, is gone; but the bones which
supported that flesh are there, and the work of the palaeontologist
is to take up these bones, and, as far as is possible to finite
human intelligence, read therefrom the histories of the countless
tribes of creatures that flourished on the earth long ages ago.
The method is precisely similar in the two cases. Every bone
has its meaning, and every skeleton can be made (in the hands
of competent anatomists) to tell its story.

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Since the majority of strata deposited in times past on the
earth's surface were formed in seas, lakes, and estuaries of rivers,
it might naturally be expected that the fossilized remains of fishes
would be frequently met with ; and such is the case. This class
of backboned creatures is well represented in most of the geological
museums.
Even within the last twenty years or so, palaeontologists have
learned a great deal more about fossil fishes; but knowledge in
this department has only kept pace with the general progress of
palaeontology, which has been wonderfully rapid, as the following
facts serve to show. In the year 1830, Dr. Samuel Woodward
published a Table of British Organic Remains^ and in this book
(the first of its kind) two pages sufficed for all the British fossil
vertebrates I Then came Professor J. Morris's well-known Catalogue of British Fossils with thirty pages for vertebrates; and
now our friends, Messrs. Smith Woodward and C. D. Sherborne,
have published a most valuable Catalogue of British Fossil Vertebrates, of 396 pages, with nearly 200 pages devoted to fishes
only.
Every fossil-collector is delighted when he comes across a
fossil fish; one gets rather tired of everlasting mollusca, and a fish
cropping up now and then is a great encouragement to a geologist.
The finest collection of fossil fishes in the world is that in our
Natural History Museum, under the care of Mr. Smith Woodward.
The large room devoted to this purpose contains 450 genera, and
1250 species, the results of years of labour on the part of
many celebrated collectors. Of living species there are about
10,000. The collection has of late been enriched by the purchase
of two splendid collections—one that of the Earl of Enniskillen,
F.R.S., from Florence Court, Enniskillen, Ireland; the other that
of Sir Philip de Malpas Grey-Egerton, F.R.S. (Trustee of the
British Museum). Here also are to be found the collections of
Dr. Gideon Mantell and Mr. Frederick Dixon. With these,
and many other valuable donations and purchases, the national

FISHES

OF BYGONE

BAYS.

2

5

collection now contains most of the British types figured by
Agassiz in his famous works, Researches on Fossil Fishes and
Monograph of the Fossil Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone. Any one
visiting this collection will be much struck with the wonderfully
perfect state of preservation of many of the specimens, such as
those from the famous Solenhofen Limestone, and others obtained
from the Limestone of Hakel and Sahel-el-Alma in the Lebanon,,
through the energetic labours of the Rev. Prof. E. R. Lewis, F.G.S.,
late of the Syrian Protestant College, Beirut (see p. 47).
As we intend, in this chapter, to deal chiefly with Old Red
Sandstone fishes, it may not be out of place to mention at least
some of the collectors from these rocks whose labours have been
of great service. The place of honour must certainly be given
to the late Hugh Miller. The well-known researches of this
distinguished geologist brought to light an abundant fish fauna
in the Old Red Sandstone, a formation which was previously
thought to be barren ground for the geologist in search of fossils.
" Half my closet walls," he says, " are covered with the peculiar
fossils of the Lower Old Red Sandstone; and certainly a stranger
assemblage of forms has rarely been grouped together—creatures
whose very type is lost, fantastic and uncouth, and which puzzle
the naturalist to assign them even their class; boat-like animals,
furnished with oars and a rudder; fish, plated over, like the
tortoise above and below, with a strong armour of bone; other
fish less equivocal in their form, but with the membranes of their
fins covered with scales; creatures bristling over with thorns;
others glistening in an enamelled coat, as if beautifully japanned;,
the tail, in every instance, among the less equivocal shapes,
formed not equally, as in (most) existing fish, on each side the
central vertebral column, but chiefly on its lower side—the column
sending out its diminished vertebrae to the extreme terminatioa
of the fin. All the forms testify of a remote antiquity—of a period
' whose fashions have passed away.' The figures on a Chinese
vase or an Egyptian obelisk are scarce more unlike what now

26

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

exists in nature than are the fossils of the Lower Old Red
Sandstone."
Robert Dick of Thurso was also a worker in the Old Red
Sandstone ; and the combined collections of these two geologists
are now in the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. The
late Lady Gordon Cumming, of Altyre, made extensive excavations at Lethen Bar, Nairnshire, providing many specimens for
description by Agassiz, and forming the collection now in the
Forres Museum. " Her object in making this collection," says
Hugh Miller, " was the illustration of the geology of the district,
and all she sought on her own behalf was congenial employment
for a singularly elegant and comprehensive mind." The Lower
Cornstones of Hereford, Worcester, and Monmouthshire have
long been noted for specimens of certain peculiar forms of fish
{to be presently described), such as Cephalaspis and Pteraspis.
Numerous specimens may be seen in the Museums of Hereford,
Ludlow, Worcester, and Oxford. Many of these were collected
by the Rev. T. T. Lewis, of Aymestry, and Dr. Lloyd, of Ludlow,
who submitted them to Agassiz through Sir R. Murchison. The
late Rev. W. S. Symonds, of Pendock, was also an enthusiastic
collector, and by his numerous writings * set others to work in the
same direction. Monmouthshire was also vigorously explored by
the late J. E. Lee, F.G.S., who left all his specimens to the
national collection. The late Dr. D. M. McCullough, of Abergavenny, obtained a large series of the shields of Pteraspis
(see p. 42). The Rev. John Anderson, D.D. (author of Dura
Den), has explored the fish-bearing strata of Dura Den, Fifeshire.
As the reader is probably aware, fishes form the lowest class of
backboned or vertebrate creatures. Their skin is covered with
numerous scales, composed of a dense durable substance, which,
in some families,, is strengthened by the addition of bony plates,
like those we see on the body of a sturgeon. But in whatever
way their bodies are covered, they are thus provided with a strong
1

Records of the Rocks, etc.

FISHES OF BYGONE

BAYS.

27

yet flexible coat of armour, affording suitable protection to beings
peculiarly exposed to external injuries, from the nature of the
regions they inhabit, and perhaps also the state of warfare with
each other in which they are constantly engaged.
In dealing with the more ancient and now extinct genera of
fishes, geologists have often to be satisfied with very1 imperfect
evidence; sometimes only a few scales, or a spine from the back,
or a few teeth. The teeth of certain ancient sharks, on account
of their hard enamelled surface, are met with in great abundance
in some strata; in the Silurian and Carboniferous rocks the
large and formidable spines of these ferocious fishes are also
abundant (see Fig. 6), while others of the Ganoid order are well
preserved on account of their coat of armour, consisting of hard
bony plates with a surface of enamel, like that of the Bony
Pike of North America. In chalk strata the cup-like vertebrae,
or joints of the backbone, are frequently met with, as well as
sharp-pointed teeth. Deposits of fine mud or of calcareous
ooze (such as afterwards became consolidated into limestone)
seem to have been very favourable for the preservation of ancient
fishes, especially ganoids with their hard coats of mail. Hence
we often find in the soft clays and marls of the Tertiary rocks,
in the chalk of England, in the fine lithographic limestone of
Bavaria, or in the limestones of the Lebanon, fishes very perfectly
preserved; and not only individuals, but groups, with the scales,
fins, head, teeth, and even the capsule of the eye, all undisturbed
from their original position. And, better still, there are formations
in which, as we shall show presently, the palaeontologist comes
across not only the bones, scales, and teeth, but, to his great
delight, finds a perfect outline marked on the stone, showing the
true shape of the creature; in these exceptional cases it may
indeed be said that Nature has left us lithographs of ancient
fishes.
Some of the specimens from the Jura limestone show a
wonderful state of preservation. Sir R. Murchison had in his

28

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

own collection a small slab of marl from Aix, in Provence, containing scores of small fishes as perfect as if recently embedded
in soft mud. In the chalk, many of the fishes have not been
squeezed flat by pressure from overlying strata, the body being
almost as perfect in form as if the original had been surrounded
by soft plaster of Paris before sinking into its grave of grey ooze
on the floor of the old chalk sea.
A curious discovery was made by a late Lord Greenock, who
found between the laminse of a block of coal, from the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, a mass of petrified intestines, distended
with coprolite (fossil excrement), and surrounded with the scales
of a fish which Professor Agassiz referred to the great Megalichthys
(see p. 45). Some of the wormlike bodies so abundant in the
Solenhofen limestone (see p. 7) would appear to be either the
petrified intestines of fishes or the contents of the same, still
retaining the form of the twisting tube in which they were lodged.
To these remarkable fossils the name Cololithes has been given.
Naturalists and palaeontologists have been, and still are,
much in doubt as to the best and most natural way in which to
classify or arrange fishes, both fossil and recent forms. What
characters should be taken as a basis for classification ? At one
time it was the fashion to take for this purpose the nature of the
skeleton (whether "bony" or "cartilaginous"), as well as the
number and position of the fins. The first point is an important
one, and is still used for this purpose; but the fins do not form
so important a character. Later on, Agassiz, one of the greatest
authorities on fishes, unfortunately proposed a classification based
entirely on the nature of the scales; and for a long time his
scheme was accepted by both geologists and naturalists. But
this plan has been abandoned, because it was found to be
misleading, and separated groups which should come near to
each other. By his scheme fishes were arranged in four groups,
or orders, as follows :—
(1) Placoid. Ex. : the shark. (2) Ganoid (from the brilliant

FISHES

OF BYGONE

DA YS.

29

surface of the enamel). Ex.: gar-pike (Lepidosteus). (3) Ctenoid.
Ex.: the common perch. (4) Cycloid. Ex.: the salmon.
The term "Ganoid" is still in use, and the order retained, but
not the others.
Taking the skeleton alone, we find that fishes fall into two
great divisions, viz. bony fishes and cartilaginous fishes. The
essential difference in the skeleton of these two groups consists
in the presence or absence of earthy matter (phosphate and
carbonate of lime) in the materials of which they are constituted.
A herring, or a salmon, is an example of a " bony" fish. In
the second group the skeleton is transparent, being composed
chiefly of cartilage or gristle, as in the sharks. But some fishes
are intermediate in this respect, and their skeletons contain a
certain proportion of lime, though a small one.
In some genera, certain portions of the skeleton, as the bodies
or centra of the vertebrae, are cartilaginous, while other parts,
such as the spines and the ribs, are osseous.
The best authorities of the present day, Dr. Traquair, Dr.
Giinther, Mr. Smith Woodward, Professor Cope and others, are
not agreed as to the precise way in which fossil and living fishes
should be classified; but the following scheme is one of the most
useful that have been put forward.
Leaving out altogether the Lancelet {Amphioxus)^ which has
long been considered to be the lowest form of fish, but which
differs from them in so many respects that it is better to refer it
to a separate class altogether, we have six orders, thus—
Order I. Cyclostomata (Lampreys and Hags). Their skeleton
is cartilaginous, and the skull is not separated from the vertebral
column. There are no fins, and the body is eel-like. They have
a round mouth, with teeth arranged in a circular manner; hence
the name Cyclostomata, or " circle-mouthed."
Order II. Plagiostomi (Sharks and Rays). So called because
the mouth is placed transversely on the under side of the body.
In these fishes the skeleton remains cartilaginous throughout life.

3°

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

The skull is well developed, but consists of a single cartilaginous
box, there being no distinct bones. The back bone, or vertebral
column, is sometimes composed of distinct vertebrae (of which the
bodies, or centra, may be partly turned to bone), but it may be
quite simple (notochordal). In most fishes of this order the extremity of the tail is slightly turned upwards, and the lower lobe
of the tail-fin is much larger than the upper, producing what is
known as a " heterocercal" tail (see next page). They belong to
the " Placoid " order of Agassiz, because the scales take the form
of more or less numerous detached, grains (or sometimes plates),
tubercles, or spines, scattered here and there in the skin. When
very small and close set, as in the " dog-fish," such a skin is called
"shagreen." But in the case of the rays these ossifications take
' a singular shape, viz. a disk from the upper surface of which
springs a sharp curved spine.
Order III. Chimcerot'dez (Chimaeras). These fishes resemble
the sharks in many important features. Their skeleton is wholly
cartilaginous, and they have a notochord instead of a true backbone ; the vertebrae being merely represented by slender rings.
Ex. : Edaphodon (Cretaceous).
Order IV. Dipnoi (or Mud-fishes). The skeleton in this order
is notochordal. They breathe by means of air-sacks answering
to lungs, as well as by gills, like other fishes. In consequence,
they are able to quit the water at times, and live in a torpid
condition in the mud. The forelimb is very different to the
pectoral fin of other fishes, and seems to foreshadow the forelimb
of amphibia and reptiles. Ex. : Lepidosiren from the Amazons,
and Ceratodus from Queensland.
Order V. Ganoidei. These fishes are remarkable for their
highly enamelled scales and head-shields, and are represented by
hosts of extinct forms, but at the present time they are confined
to a few lakes and rivers. Ex. : Polypterus of the Nile, and Lepidosteus, or Gar-pike, of North America. Their skeletons may be
either cartilaginous, or ossified, or both.

FISHES

OF BYGONE

DAYS.

3*

Dr. Giinther, of the Natural History Museum, is in favour of
bringing together the second, third, fourth, and fifth orders, and
making one sub-class of them, viz. the Palczichthyes, or Ancient
Fishes; but these differ so much among themselves that his
proposal has not been accepted by Traquair and others.
The tails of fishes, living and extinct, present a feature of
considerable interest. In the greater number of existing species
the backbone terminates in a triangular plate of bone, to which
the tail-fin is attached symmetrically; and its figure is either
rounded or divided into two equal lobes, or branches. These
tails are termed " homocercal," i.e. " even-tailed," as in the case of
a salmon. But in the ganoid and placoid fishes we find the
vertebral column rising up into the upper lobe of the tail; the
caudal fin appearing like a rudder, and the lower lobe being
feeble in proportion, as in the shark. This form is called
" heterocercal," i.e. " unequal-tailed."
Order VI. Teleostei (or Bony Fishes). These are believed torepresent the highest stage of development to which fishes as a
class have attained. Now, it appears to be established that, to*
some extent at least, the development of an individual animal
is, as it were, an epitome of that of the race from which it springs..
Here we have an example illustrating this highly interesting law;
for, if a bony fish be examined before its development has been
completed, i.e. while it is yet an embryo, the tail may be seen to>
be first pointed (as in some more primitive forms of the present
day), then turned up, as in the heterocercal type, and lastly it
becomes symmetrical as in the highest types (Teleostean).
Perhaps no fact is more clearly recorded on those stony tabletswe call strata than that from time to time in the world's
history (as read by geologists from Nature's record) higher types
of animals have appeared on the scene. In other words, we find
plainly written in the rocks a Law of Progress. This important
conclusion may safely be accepted; but, having accepted it, let
us see what follows therefrom. The fish, with its backbone, is,,

32

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

of course, a higher type than the mollusc or the insect. It seems
to follow of necessity, then, that there must have been a time in
the world's history when this type did not exist. It may be
difficult for us to conceive of a world tenanted only by coral
polyps, medusae, crabs and lobsters, worms, insects, and suchlike
humble creatures, with no fish in the sea, no reptiles, birds, or
mammals; and not only does the doctrine of Evolution plainly
teach this, but such a conclusion is distinctly favoured- by the
evidence derived from a study of fossils and their distribution
in time. The earliest fossil-bearing strata, known as the Cambrian series, although they have been carefully explored, have
at present yielded no evidence of the existence of fishes at that
time.
The advent of back-boned animals was a great event in the
world's history. Endless possibilities loomed in the future for
these children of life, in which, as Mrs. Fisher (Miss Buckley)
says, " t h e solid skeleton should be—not a burden for the soft
body to carry, as in the sea-urchins, snails, insects, and crabs—
but an actual support to the whole creature, growing with it and
forming a framework for all its different parts." * And not only
so, but the skeleton of a vertebrate animal is no mere mass of
hardened dead matter; it is a living and growing framework
which goes on increasing in size and strength as fast as its
possessor grows. Again, the spinal chord, or vital thread of the
animal, which in other creatures has no special protection against
shocks or jars, is here protected by being encased in the hard
bony joints, or vertebrae, of the backbone. Little need we
wonder, then, that creatures so favourably endowed for the daily
struggle should have been able to strike out in so many directions,
producing such various and successful types of organization as
the fish, the reptile, the bird, and the mammal,—all, as it were,
new branches of the great tree of life.
1
Winners in Lifers Race, p. 7. One of the best popular books on Natural
History ever written.

FISHES

OF BYGONE

DAYS.

33

No one can yet say what was the primitive form from which
all the vertebrates were derived; this is a very interesting problem,
and one on which anatomists have been much exercised; but,
at present, the question must be regarded as still sub judice.
Whether it was some form of worm, or whether a primaeval
relative of the arachnid "king crab" (such as the Pterygotus,
described in our former work)* turned itself upside down,
rearranging limbs and head; these are questions still admitting
of endless discussion, and probably beside the mark, although
no doubt suggestive. It is just possible that future geologists
may be fortunate enough to find, buried up in some very early
stratified rock, the remains of a forerunner of the backboned
race; but, unless it possessed some hard parts, the probability
is against such a lucky find turning up. Still the problem need
not be given up as hopeless; for there is important aid to be
derived from two other sources—(i) the study of embryos of
living animals; (2) from certain very primitive types, such as the
Lancelet, and the Ascidian, or " Sea-squirt," which may be either
survivals from very ancient types, or degraded forms which have
so far degenerated as to form a kind of borderland between
vertebrates and invertebrates, and which cannot be said to
possess a true backbone in the ordinary sense of the word. But
we must leave all these interesting questions, and pass on to
consider fish life as it was in some of the early geological ages.
It must always be borne in mind that at best the geological
record is an incomplete one, depending as it does on rather
accidental circumstances. For example, the lowest order of
fishes, represented by Lampreys and Hag-fishes (^Cyclostomatd) at
the present day possess no hard parts beyond minute horny
teeth, and therefore we can hardly expect to find in the stratified
rocks any evidence of their former existence. We cannot hope
to get a complete history of any class, even of fishes, preserved in
the rocks, although no doubt fishes are better represented than
1

Extinct Monsters, p. 26 (new edit.).
D

34

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

any other vertebrate fossils. Yet there are certain little fossils
known as " conodonts," found in Cambrian, Silurian, and
Devonian rocks in Russia, which are very suggestive of the tiny
teeth of Lampreys and Hag-fishes, although they consist of
phosphate of lime instead of horny matter. This interpretation,
however, is open to doubt, and some authorities think that the
bodies in question really represent the jaws of marine worms, or
even of Trilobites ! (see p. 5).
Putting aside this somewhat doubtful evidence, the earliest true
fossil vertebrate yet known is a single head-shield of Scaphaspis
ludensis, from Lower Ludlow strata in Shropshire. This fossil
belongs to a group presently to be described under the Ganoid
order. But a little above this is the famous Ludlow Bone-bed,
celebrated for its numerous remains of ancient fishes allied to our
Sharks, and belonging to the order Plagiostomi. This highly
interesting stratum, first discovered by Sir Roderick Murchison
near the town of Ludlow, usually consists of one or two thin
layers of brown bony fragments near the junction of the Old Red
Sandstone and the Ludlow rocks, and is only a few inches thick.
Here we have abundant evidence that shark-like fishes were
flourishing vigorously during the Silurian period; but it is
impossible to say exactly what they were like, because, from the
perishable nature of their framework, they have only left behind
them spines, granules of their shagreen, teeth, etc.1 However,
there is every probability that they resembled the Port Jackson
1
" The fish-bed of the Upper Ludlow rock," says Hugh Miller, " abounds
more in osseous remains than an ancient burying-ground. The stratum, over
wide areas, seems an almost continuous layer of matted bones, jaws, teeth,
spines, scales, palatal plates, and shagreen-like prickles, all massed together,
and converted into a substance of so deep and shining a jet colour, that the
bed, when first discovered, conveyed the impression, says Mr. Murchison,
that it enclosed a triturated heap of black beetles." Coprolites, or lumps
of fossil excrement, have also been found containing small but recognisable
portions of shell-fish that lived at the same time, thus confirming the idea that
the sharks of the period (of which little but dorsal spines, such as Onchus, are
now left) lived upon shell-fish.

FISHES

OF BYGONE

DAYS.

35

Shark now living in Australian waters, viz. Cestracion PMZipfii,
shown in Fig. 5. Although a shark, this genus is a harmless one,
and its fortunate survival through long ages of the past to present
times throws much light upon the detached teeth so frequently
met with in strata of the Carboniferous, Jurassic, and Cretaceous
ages. It is provided with a large number of teeth of various shapes
and sizes. Those in front are sharp-pointed and well adapted
for seizing their prey, while those further back are arranged in
oblique rows, and, from their flat surfaces, suitable for crushing the
shell-fish on which they feed. Were it not for the useful lesson
in Palaeontology conveyed by this living fish, there can be little
doubt that a good many species would have been founded on

P I G . 5.—The Port Jackson Shark {Cestracion Philifipi).
sfl', sfi", spines.

Australia.

•different kinds of teeth belonging really to the same fish. As it
is, several species founded on detached teeth may eventually be
included in a single one.
The spines of this kind of fish are generally capable of being
^ elevated and depressed, and not only serve the purpose of defence,
but, in many instances, afford support and protection to the soft
rays of the fin; forming, as it were, a movable mast by which
the sail can be spread out or lowered at pleasure. Such spines
are very frequently met with, not only in the Ludlow bone-bed
but in strata of various ages; they have received the name of
" Ichthyodorulites " (fish-spine stones). Fig. 6 shows some spines
.and teeth of plagiostomous fishes from rocks of the Carboniferous

$6

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

age. Visitors to the Natural History Museum at South Kensington
will find in the gallery devoted to fossil fish (No. VI. on plan) a
splendid collection of such spines (Wall-case No. i).
Of all the organisms of the Old Red Sandstone, the Pterichthys^
or " winged fish," is the most peculiar. It was first introduced to
geologists by Mr. Hugh Miller, who, in his delightful work, The
Old Sandstone, says, " I fain wish I could communicate to the
reader the feeling with which I contemplated my first-found

FIG. 6—Spines and teeth of shark-like fossil fishes. i. Fin-spine of
Pleuracanthus.
2. Of Gyracanthus. 3. Of Ctenacanthus. 4. Tooth of
Petalodus. 5. Of Psammodus. 6. Of Ctenoptychius. All from the carboniferous rocks.

specimen. It opened with a single blow of the hammer; and
there, on a ground of light-coloured limestone, lay the effigy of a
creature fashioned apparently out of jet, with a body covered
with plates, two powerful-looking arms articulated at the shoulders,,
a head as nearly lost in the trunk as that of the ray or sun-fish,
and a long angular tail. My first-formed idea regarding it was,,
that I had discovered a connecting link between the tortoise and
the fish. The body much resembles that of a small turtle; and

FISHES

OF BYGONE

DAYS.

37

why, I asked, if one formation gives us sauroid fishes, may not
another give us chelonian ones ? Or if in the Lias we find the
body of the lizard mounted on the paddles of the whale, why not
find in the Old Red Sandstone the body of the tortoise mounted
in a somewhat similar manner ? "
Hugh Miller- submitted some of his specimens to Sir R.
Murchison (then engaged in his famous researches on the
Silurian System), who was much interested, and sent them on
to the great naturalist Agassiz. Though broken, the specimens
were declared by him to represent an ancient fish—a conclusion
which was anticipated by Murchison. The latter authority told
Hugh Miller he could not conceive of their belonging to a reptile \
and if notfishes,they seemed to show more approach to crustaceans
than to any other class.
Mr. Miller found in the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Scotland
a great number of fish remains, in consequence of which he was
•convinced that the sea of that period was amazingly fertile in fish
life, and as thoroughly occupied with fishes as our friths and
estuaries when the herrings congregate most abundantly on our
coasts. " There are evidences too sure to be disputed that such
must have been the case. I have seen the ichthyolite beds,
where washed bare in the line of the strata, as thickly covered
with oblong spindle-shaped nodules as I have ever seen a fishingbank covered with herrings; and have ascertained that every
individual nodule had its nucleus of animal matter,—that it was
a stone coffin in miniature, holding enclosed its organic mass of
bitumen or bone, its winged, or enamelled, or thorn-covered
ichthyolite." He was also much impressed with certain evidences
which seemed to him to point to the conclusion that over a wide
area in the North of Scotland the fish of this period were somehow involved in sudden destruction. These are his words : "The
:same platform in Orkney, as at Cromarty, is strewed thick with
remains which exhibit unequivocally the marks of violent death,
ihe figures are contorted, contracted, curved; the tail in many

38

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

instances is bent round to the head ; the spines stick out; the fins*
are spread to the full, as in fishes that die in convulsions. The
Pterichthys shows its arms extended at their stiffest angle, as if
prepared for an enemy. The attitudes of all the ichthyolites on
this platform are attitudes of fear, anger, and pain. The remains,,
too, appear to have suffered nothing from the after attacks of
predaceous fishes ; none such seem to have survived."
It is difficult to assign a cause to such wholesale destruction^
but there are ways in which fishes of the present time are sometimes killed in very large numbers. The poisonous gases emitted
from submarine volcanoes have often wrought great destruction -T
again, violent floods from mountain streams coming into the
sea laden with mud and fresh water suggest a possible explanation.
The carcases of dead fishes have even helped to consolidate the
strata of the Old Red Sandstone. For, just as a plaster cast
boiled in oil becomes thereby denser and more durable, so the
oily and other matter coming from decomposing fish operated on
the surrounding sand or mud so as to make it more compact
The well-known flagstones of Caithness are an instance. They
owe their peculiar tenacity and durability to the dead fishes that
rotted in their midst while yet they were only soft mud. In no
other part of the world, perhaps, can the builder set a large flagstone on its edge with the assurance of it holding together in that
position. A large portion of the county of Caithness formed,
before its upheaval, what may truly be termed a piscina
mirabilzs. \
But, to return to our Pterichthys, it was a wonderful little
creature, quite different to any living fish. The head and anterior
'or forward part of the trunk were defended by overlapping ganoid
plates, those of the trunk forming a buckler; but the head is
sharply separated from the trunk—probably by a movable joint
(see Fig. 7). It is also remarkable for the pair of limbs or
appendages, near the head, which are hollow, movably articulatedy

FISHES

OF BYGONE

DAYS.

39

and once jointed. Fig. 8 is a restoration after Pander, but in
some respects not correct. Nothing is yet known of the precise
nature of the nose, mouth, and jaws. Fig. 7 gives a more
correct idea, and is after Dr. Traquair, but partly modified by
Mr. Smith Woodward (to whom we are indebted for much kind
help and advice in writing this chapter3). In the latter figure
the two eyes are marked by two circles, and between these is a

FIG. 7.—Pterichthys Milleri. (Partly modified after Traquair.)
1. From above, 2. From below. 3. Side view.

small loose plate which appears to have lodged a small third but
rudimentary eye (some of the Lahyrinthodonts seem to have also
possessed a third rudimentary eye, see p. 56). The middle drawing shows the probable nature of the jaw-plates. Behind the
armour-plated box of the body comes a tapering, scaly tail, which
1
See a valuable paper by Mr. Smith Woodward in Natural Science^ vol. i.
p. 596. " The Forerunners of the Backboned Animals."

4Q

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

is often fairly preserved. With regard to the two powerful and
jointed limbs, Sir R. Owen thought that they served to aid the
fish in shuffling along the muddy or sandy bottom if left dry at
low water. The two fins, one on the back and the other on the
tail, indicate a certain amount of swimming power, though not
any great rapidity. No doubt the swimming was chiefly accom-

F I G . 8.—Pterichthys Milleri, upper surface.

(After Pander.)

plished by means of the two broad arms—we can scarcely call
them fins—which remind us so much of the two large appendages
of the Euryfiterus, a huge crustacean that lived in the same Old
Red Sandstone sea.1 These extinct Crustacea of the order
Merostomata were then both numerous and powerful; it has
1

Extinct Monsters', p. 30 (new edit.).

FISHES

OF BYGONE

DAYS

41

therefore been suggested that perhaps the Pterichthys and its
allies took to mimicking them. " Imitation," they say, " is the
sincerest flattery," but in this case it may have been a wise precaution !
When first discovered, our Pterichthys, being so strangely unlike
-other fossil fishes, was the occasion of some curious blunders.
Thus the Rev. Dr. Anderson, of Newburgh, figured and described
it as a beetle, in the pages of a Glasgow topographical publication—Fife Illustrated, Although Pterichthys was small, other
members of the same group were much larger, while some
attained to great dimensions. It is a question not yet decided
whether they should be included under the ganoid order, though
for present purposes they may be placed there.
The group we are now considering is known by the name
Placodermata, on account of the strong and large plates protecting their bodies and heads. A splendid collection of such
fishes may be seen in the fossil-fish gallery at South Kensington
(Wall-case No. 4).
Coccostens 1 (see Fig. 9), another genus, varies in length from

FIG. 9.—Coccostetis restored.

a few inches to two feet in length. Its tail was destitute of scales,
and its back-bone was only partly ossified, no vertebrae having
been observed. Homosteus (allied to the above genus) was a
gigantic form, of which the remains were first found in Russia.
Specimens have also been obtained from Scotland and the
Eifel.
1

Greek—kokkos, berry; osteon, bone, from the tubercles on its bony plates.

42

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

1

Dinichthys is another huge placoderm from Devonian strata
in North America, described by Professor Newberry, with
a probable length of from fifteen to eighteen feet. Its teeth
resemble those of the living African Mud-fish (Protopterus).
A specimen of Titanichthys recently found was six feet across,
the head, with orbits on the eyes three inches in diameter.
Dr. Traquair is of opinion that these fishes may turn out to be a
curiously modified group of Dipnoi or Mud-fishes, while Professor
Cope has suggested that some of them (the Pterichthys and
others) are not fishes at all, but an ancient order of " Sea-Squirts '*
(Tunicata) !
Another group is represented by certain contemporaries of
Pterichthys, such as Scaphaspis Pteraspis (see Fig. 10) and others.
The second of these, as already mentioned (p. 34), comes from

F I G . 10.—An Old Red Sandstone fish, Pteraspis.
Lankester.)

(Restored after Ray

the Lower Ludlow rocks of the Silurian system. Its head iscovered with a large buckler, composed of one or more plates ;
the tail is covered with scales, but no internal skeleton of any
kind has been met with. This is the oldest fish at present
known to geologists.
Fig. 11 shows the most recent interpretation of Cefihalaspis? a
member of the same group, which was found and graphically described by Hugh Miller. It was not a large fish, most of the specimens in the Natural History Museum (Table-case No. 35) being
1

Greek—deinos, terrible ; icthys, fish.
This figure also appears in the paper in Natural Science, by A. Smith
Woodward, already quoted.
2

FISHES

OF BYGONE

DAYS.

43

not more than seven or eight inches long. The genus was established by Agassiz. In 1847 Dr. Rudolph Kner published a memoir

FlG. 11.—Restoration of an Old Red Sandstone fish, Cephalaspis Murchisoni?
from specimens discovered by G. H . Piper, Esq. (From British Museum
Catalogue of Fossil Fishes.)

to prove that certain species were the internal shells of Cuttlefishes
allied to the Sepia. Roemer thought that they were Crustacea;
and, like Pterichthys, they certainly do bear some resemblance to
Pterygotus and its allies. Later on, in 1856, Professor Huxley
published a most detailed and careful account of the structure of
the fossil head-shields of the genus (or family), and proved
conclusively that Cephalaspis was * neither a cuttlefish nor a
crustacean, but a fish; pointing out, at the same time, a certain
resemblance to the living Loricaria, a siluroid fish.
Hugh Miller's graphic description of the state of things during
the deposition of the Cornstone formation and of its fauna is asfollows: " The curtain rises and the scene is new. The
myriads of the lower formation have disappeared. We are
surrounded, on an upper platform, by the existences of a later
creation. There is sea all round, as before; and we find beneath
a dark-coloured bottom, thickly covered by a dwarf vegetation.
The circumstances differ little from those in which the Ichthyolite
beds of the preceding period were deposited; but forms of life
essentially different career through the green depths, or creep
over the ooze* Shoals of Cephalaspides> with their broad arrowlike heads, and their slender angular bodies, feathered with fins,
sweep past like clouds of crossbow bolts in the ancient battle.
We see the distant gleam of scales, but the forms are indistinct
and dim ; we can merely ascertain that fins are elevated by spines

44

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

of various shape and pattern ; that of some the coats glitter with
enamel; and that others—the sharks of this ancient period—
bristle over with minute thorny points. A huge crustacean
{Pterygotus ) of uncouth proportions, stalks over the weedy bottom,
or borrows in the hollows of the bank."
Passing on now to the true Ganoid fishes of Old Red Sandstone
times, we come to the remarkable genus Holoptychius, distinguished
by the peculiar structure of its scales, the enamelled surfaces of
which are marked with undulated furrows. The whole body is
covered by thick scales of this kind. It was first introduced to
the notice of geologists by Professor Flemming, in a paper read,
before the Wernerian Society, and published by him in 1831 in
Cheefts Edinburgh Journal. But at that time only detached
scales and the fragment of a tooth had been found. These
enigmatical remains were afterwards submitted to Agassiz, who
referred them to the fish Gyrolefiis, though not without consider-'
able doubt. Not long after, however, an almost entire specimen
of the creature was discovered in the sandstones of Clashbennie,
by the Rev. James Noble, of St. Madoes, a gentleman who, by
devoting his leisure hours to Geology, did, in his time, much to
extend a knowledge of the upper part of the Old Red Sandstone.
Agassiz therefore attached his name to the fossil, calling it
Holofitychius Nobilissimus. This important discovery proved that
the scales in question did not belong to Gyrolepis, but to the
genus just mentioned. The body of this specimen measures a
foot across by two feet and a half in length, exclusive of the tail,
which is wanting. It is now in the Natural History Museum.
Those who examine the specimen for themselves will see that the
scales are deeply sculptured, as the name implies.
There is a remarkable family of Ganoid fishes termed " Sauroid "
by Agassiz, in consequence of certain peculiarities in their organization which are found in no other animals of this class, but exist
in reptiles. Of this family there are but two genera living;
namely the Lefiidosteus, or " Gar-pike," of which there are several

FISHES

OF BYGONE

DA YS.

45

species inhabiting the rivers of America; and the Folypterusy
with two species, one inhabiting the Nile, the other the rivers of
Senegal. Their teeth are large, and conical, and striated, as in
the crocodile and the extinct F/es/osaurus, etc. The skeleton is
osseous all through. Even in their soft parts many analogies to
reptilian structures are seen.
These two African and American fishes are, for some unaccountable reasons, the only surviving representatives of a tribe of
ancient fishes which must have abounded in the seas of Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic times. Their relics have often been mistaken for
those of amphibians; particularly the teeth, which, from their
large size, and conical shape, etc., might easily be taken for those
of Labyrinthodonts (see p. 52). Rhizodus (which partly corresponds to Megalichthys, and attained a length of nine feet), isfound in Carboniferous rocks.
The Osteolepis1 may be regarded as a good example of the
old Ganoid fishes. It was one of the first discovered of the
Caithness fishes, and received its name, in the days of Cuvier,
from the bony character of its scales, ere it was ascertained that
it had numerous contemporaries, and that to all and each of these
the same description applied. The scales of the fishes of the
Lower Old Red Sandstone were all coated externally with
enamel. It requires skill such as that possessed by Agassiz to
determine that the uncouth Coccosteus, or the equally uncouth
Fterichthys, with their long tails and tortoise-like plates, were
bonfa fide fishes; but there is no possibility of mistaking the
Osteolepis: it is obvious to the least practised eye that it must
have been a fish, and a handsome one. Dipt ems? another
Ganoid of the period, is so named from its two dorsal fins, but in
this respect it is not peculiar. Another genus, Diplopterus? also*
owes its name to the order and arrangement of its fins, which
1
2
3

Greek—osteon, bone ; lepzs, scale.
Greek—dis9 twice ; pteron, wing.
Greek—diploos, double ; pteron, wing.

46

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

were placed fronting each other and in pairs. It had a large head
a n d a wide jaw.
" In their most striking characteristics, however, the three genera
•seem to have agreed. In all alike, scales of bone glisten with
enamel; their jaws, enamel without and bone within, bristle thick
with sharp-pointed teeth; closely jointed plates, burnished like
ancient helmets, cover their heads, and seem to have formed a
kind of outer table to skulls, externally of bone and internally of
cartilage; their gill-covers consist each of a single piece, like the
gill-cover of a sturgeon; their tails were formed chiefly on the
iower side of their bodies ; and the rays of their fins, enamelled
like their plates and their scales, stand up over the connecting
membrane, like the steel or brass in that peculiar armour of the
Middle Ages whose multitudinous pieces of metal were fastened
together on a groundwork of cloth or of leather. All their scales,
plates, and rays present a similar style of ornament. The shining
and polished enamel is mottled with thickly set punctures, or
rather punctulated markings; so that a scale or plate, when viewed
through a microscope, reminds one of the cover of a saddle." 1
In Plate II., author and artist have endeavoured to give a glimpse
of fish life as it was in one of the inland seas, or lakes, of the Old
Red Sandstone period. To the right [is seen the Holoptychius,
with its sculptured scales; Pterichthys is in the right-hand top
corner; Cefihalaspis in the left-hand bottom corner (with a
distant one just above Holofitychius); in the left-hand top corner
is Pterasfiis, with Glyptolepis just below it, and the head of
Coccosteus peeping out further down.
Osteolepis is seen in the
middle of the picture. It is not known whether all these different
forms lived together at exactly the same time, but at least they all
belong to the Old Red Sandstone, and for all we know may have
been contemporaries.
At the present day both ganoid and plagiostomous fishes are
in the minority, especially the former order, while the teleosteans
1

The Old Red Sandstone, p. ioo.

F I S H E S OF T H E OLD RED SANDSTONE
Pteraspis.
Glyptolcemus.
Coccosteus ( H e a d of).
Cephalaspis.
PL.

•»

Osteohpis.

PERIOD.
Holoptyckius,

Pterichthys.

FISHES

OF BYGONE

DAYS.

47

abound in our seas, as they did during the Tertiary era. Although
the palaeozoic types are by no means low down in the scale, yet
it is clear that the "Law of Progress" holds good for fishes too,
and that, as time went on., a higher order largely replaced the lower
ones. In Cretaceous times fishes abounded.
Mount Lebanon is a famous locality for fossil fishes of the latter
period, both Selachians (of the order Elasmobranchii) and bony
fishes (of the order Teleostei). The Rev. Professor Lewis had
for years collected most valuable specimens from Sahel Alma
and Hakel. His specimens are far more perfect than those
/figured by Pictet and other authorities. The first mention of
fossil fish in the Lebanon is to be found in Joinville's Histoire de
St. Louis. During the sojourn of the king at Sidon, in the year
1253, just before his return home from the Crusades, a stone was
brought him, says Joinville, " which was the most marvellous in
the world, for when a layer of it was lifted, there was found
between the two pieces the form of a fish. The fish was of stone,
but lacked nothing in form, eyes, bone, colour, or anything
necessary to a living fish. The king demanded a stone, and
found a tench within." Professor Lewis says of Hazhula, one of
the Mount Lebanon localities, " I was able to be in the place
only about two hours, and was sufficiently annoyed in that time
by the clamour for 'backsheesh/ and by the demand, made by
twenty at a time, to buy whatever was offered. But in the short
time I was there, and notwithstanding the unfavourable circumstances in which I was placed while there, I obtained about
fifty good specimens, picked up from road and hillside. The
exact place from which the stone came was very near by, but I
did not see and examine it, so excited and clamorous did the
ignorant fanatical people become, threatening to break all I
had collected, frightening my muleteer, etc., led on by a few
who pretended that I was seeking treasures. It required considerable tact, and a great waste of Arabic, to get off with my
donkey-load of specimens, and, as it was, I had to send the

48

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

muleteer ahead, and bring up the rear myself with a faithful
attendant."x
At the end of the fossil-fish gallery at South Kensington is a
plaster cast (in a frame over the door) of a large and very
perfectly preserved ganoid fish, from the lithographic stone of
Solenhofen, in Bavaria, viz. the Lepidotus maximus (see Fig.
12). The artist has drawn this fish in Plate VII., representing it

FIG. 12.—A ganoid fish, Lepidotus maximus. From the Solenhofen
Limestone. , 1. A scale. 2. Teeth.

in company with two interesting extinct gavials that lived in
Jurassic times.
The Sturgeon (Acipenser) is another example of a living
ganoid fish, often seen in fishmongers' shops. Considering itslong pedigree, we ought to look upon this fish with great
veneration! To the palaeontologist, such survivals are not only
very interesting, but most helpful in throwing light upon the
organization of those ancient types whose remains are but
imperfectly preserved in the record of the rocks.
1

GeoL Mag., Dec. 2, vol. v. p. 217.

CHAPTER III.
ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

" Slowly moves the march of ages,
Slowly grows the forest-king,
Slowly to perfection cometh
Every great and glorious thing."
ANON.

IN our last chapter we spoke of some of the fishes of bygone
days. Now the next great step in the upward progress of the
animal kingdom was the transition from the fish to the reptile.
These two classes are at the present time well marked and
clearly separated from each other; but an idea of how the change
took place, in the course of Evolution, may be gathered from a
study of the important group, or subclass^ which comes in between
the two, viz. the amphibians, or batrachia of some naturalists.
This important and interesting group form, as it were, a series
of " missing links " between fishes and reptiles. They derive the
latter name from the Greek word batrachos, signifying a frog.
But we will speak of them as amphibia,1 because they live both in
water and on land; and during the early part of their lives swim
in water like fishes, and moreover breathe as fishes do by means
of gills. Afterwards they put away such childish things as gills,
and, developing lungs, become air-breathers, and behave like
ordinary reptiles.
Modern naturalists who accept the theory of Evolution, as most
1

Greek—amphi, both ; and bios, life.
E

50

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

do, regard the metamorphosis of the tadpole into a frog as a kind
of object-lesson on the part of Dame Nature, given with a view
to show us, in a general way and in a short space of time, how
the wonderful change from the fish to the reptile took place.
We have seen that, by the time the great coal-forests of the
Carboniferous period were flourishing, the fish class had attained
a high state of development, and were to some extent foreshadowing the amphibian type of creation. Now, we know that
when the New Red Sandstone was being laid down, the next great
class, viz. the reptiles, had not only made a start, but had struck
out in several lines, and were specialised in certain directions, as
shown by their bird-like footprints on the Triassic sandstones.
Would it not therefore be expected that we should find, in rocks
of greater age than the New Red Sandstone, the remains of
animals in some respects intermediate between fishes and reptiles?
This expectation is fully realised by the presence in such strata
{i.e. the coal-measures and Permian rocks) of the remains of
quite a large number of amphibia. They also crop up again in
the Trias, but after that period are not much in evidence until
we come to Tertiary times.
The amphibian class, at the present day, is represented by
the frogs, toads, and newts of our own country, and by the
salamanders of Japan and the United States. But these are
only a meagre remnant of a large, number of families that lived
ages ago.
Let us endeavour now to take a general view of the amphibian
class as it was in the days of long ago, before the creation of
man,—to look at their family tree and see what their ancestors
were like. When this is done we shall perhaps have a little more
respect for the frogs and newts that inhabit our ponds; for
they come of a very ancient stock, and one which played
an important part in primaeval times, branching out here and
there into strange and varied forms, as if they could not help
themselves. In order to do this we must go a long way back

ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

5i

into the world's history; and even then we shall still be some
way off the roots of the family tree; or, in other words, we shall
be in the dark about the first forms of amphibian life which
appeared on the earth's surface.
To find the oldest known amphibian we must go back as far
as those " dark ages " when a large portion of the surface of what
is now Europe was overgrown with vast areas of dismal coalforests, something like the mangrove swamps of which we read
in books of African travel; they must have been dark compared
to an English meadow on a summer day, and therefore the
expression " dark ages " is all the more appropriate. Our knowledge of the earliest air-breathing creatures is no doubt small, but
of late years it has been considerably extended, thanks to the
labours of several English, American, and Continental workers,
such as Owen, Huxley, Miall, Seeley, Gaudry, Fritsch, Cope, and
others, who have all carefully studied and described the fossil
remains submitted to them, to say nothing of the numerous eager
collectors who have brought away from the bowels of the earth
numerous specimens of great value. Their services, although of
a more humble order, are quite indispensable; and it should be
borne in mind that it is in the power of all of us, however
ignorant we may be of comparative anatomy, and therefore unable
to write learned papers for the Geological Society, to. render
valuable service to the cause of Science simply by using our eyes
and not neglecting opportunities of collecting specimens wherever
we may go.
But before proceeding it will be necessary to introduce a new
name for our old amphibians. It is rather a long one, we
admit, but useful, because it partly serves to describe them.
Scientific men are said to be very fond of long Latin and Greek
names, but such can hardly be avoided; and there is this to be
said for them—that the names they use are much more exact
than the popular ones by which plants and animals are commonly known, and, moreover, they often convey a great deal of

52

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

information in a brief manner. Now, the name given to the
creatures we are about to describe is Labyrinthodonts.
It was Sir Richard Owen who first accurately described the fossil
amphibians, and they received this name from him. Let us see
what the name means and how it applies. Sir Richard Owen's
acquaintance with these remarkable forms of ancient life began in
the year 1840, when he first examined certain teeth from the New
Red Sandstone of Coton End quarry, Warwickshire. In external
character these fragmentary teeth corresponded with those which
had been previously discovered in Germany (at Wiirtemberg) by
Professor Jager, and which had been called by him Mastodonsaurus. This name was not a happy one, because it suggested an association with an extinct elephant, the Mastodon,1
with which this amphibian, it is hardly necessary to say, had
no connection, real or imaginary. Owen examined the teeth
of the fossils from Germany, as well as those from Warwickshire,
and found that, when cut across into transverse sections for the
microscope, they revealed a very remarkable and complicated
structure; the whole of the internal portion was seen to be made
up of a complex series of foldings, forming a peculiar structure,
suggesting a labyrinth—the external layer of cement belonging to
the tooth converging in numerous folds towards the pulp-cavity.
And so the name Labyrinthodonts reminds us that all, or nearly
all, the fossil animals included under the above general term
possess teeth having this peculiarity. They are the Labyrinthtoothed amphibians (see Fig. 13).
At first sight it might perhaps seem to the uninitiated as
if the internal and minute structure of a tooth were a matter
of comparative unimportance; but it is recognised by all anatomists that teeth are highly important as indicating the place
of an animal in the scale of being. In the present case, for
instance, the possession of teeth with the labyrinthine structure
indicates an affinity with certain ganoid fishes, which also possess
1

Extinct Monsters, p. 217, new edit.

ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

53

similarly infolded teeth. Again, there is a peculiarly low type
of reptiles, known as the Ichthyosaurus, or "fish-lizard,"1 of which
the teeth show an approach to the same kind of structure. Some
of the Labyrinthodonts retained the gills of their youth through
life, instead of changing them for lungs, as frogs do.
But, if these facts tend to connect the Labyrinthodonts with
fishes, there are others which tend to connect them with the reptiles
above. Sir Richard Owen, by a bold piece of reasoning, arrived
at the conclusion that certain huge and somewhat frog-like skulls,

p I G i ^—Section of tooth of Labyrinthodon.

(After Owen.)

previously discovered in German Triassic rocks, belonged to Labyrinthodonts. This was an important step; but then the question
arose, What kind of creature made the tracks found in these
strata, both in Germany and England ? This, as we have shown
in chap, i., was decided in favour of the Labyrinthodon (previously known as the Cheirotherium, or " hand-beast").
Unlike the reptiles of to-day, modern amphibians have no
fixed type of external form. Some, like frogs, suggest a likeness
1

Extinct Monsters-, p. 35, new edit.

54

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

to turtles and tortoises; others suggest in shape the true snakes ;
another group, represented by newts and salamanders, suggests
a resemblance to the lizards; and lastly, those which keep
their gills through life suggest certain finless fishes, such as
the conger-eels and the lampreys. It was just the same in the
old days, when amphibians flourished more abundantly than
now; they struck out in many 'directions—some taking on a
long snakelike form (see Plate III. and Fig. 22), others being
short and with larger limbs, while in the matter of size there
were great differences.
As far as present knowledge goes, it seems to indicate
that the reptilian class in early days was less advanced than
in the later phases of the Secondary era (i.e. during the
Jurassic and Cretaceous periods); and so we can understand
that amphibians to some extent played the part of reptiles in
those remote ages of the coal-forests and the New Red Sandstone.
Their very diversity shows that they were in a flourishing condition, and probably had a pretty wide field to themselves, without too many enemies. A certain amount of competition with
other creatures, no doubt, they had to submit to ; but with fishes
they could hold their own. Later on came a much more severe
form of competition from highly developed reptiles, such as
Dinosaurs, and that was too much for them. As the reptile class
rose in the scale of creation, amphibians, of course, came off
second best, and the geological record tells us that, ever since,
they have remained in the background of the' theatre of life.
It will be well, before proceeding to describe some of the
better-known types of Labyrinthodonts, to say a word about the
general characters by which they may be distinguished. Of
the internal structure of the teeth we have already spoken; but
although the same complexity of folding does not apply to some
of the smaller forms, the name by which they are known is very
appropriate to the group as a whole. Another feature, revealed
by their footmarks, is the marked difference in size between the

ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

5$

hind limbs and the fore limbs, the latter being much smaller, as
may be seen both in the figures of their skeletons and in those
representing their tracks (see Figs. 2 and 23). There are five
digits to each limb, and no claws.
Turning to their skulls, there is one feature that is quite
peculiar to the group and unknown in any reptile, living or
extinct, viz. that the whole of the upper surface of the skull

FIG. 14.—Skull of a Labyrinthodont, Mastodonsaurus Jcegeriy from New Red
Sandstone, Germany.

behind the eye-holes is covered in by a complete roof of
bone. Hence some authorities call them Stegocephali]* or "roofskulled." This is clearly shown in Fig. 14, representing the
huge skull of Mastodonsaurus. Some fishes have skulls thus
roofed over. But the skull of a lizard or a crocodile is very
different, showing a long open channel behind each orbit, and
1

Greek-—stegos, roof; cephalos^ head.

56

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

another one lower down at the side of the head. Another
important character in the labyrinthodont skull is the presence
of two condyles, instead of only one, as in all true reptiles and
birds. The word condyle1 signifies a knuckle, and is applied
chiefly to the surface or surfaces by which the skull joins on to,
or articulates with, the first vertebra of the neck. All the
mammalia have skulls articulating by two condyles—-a fact which
would seem to imply that mammals branch off from the amphibia,
and not from reptiles. Again, the bones of which the skull is
composed are nearly always covered with a network of grooves,
or " canals," doubtless intended for ' the attachment of hard,
horny, and bony scales or scutes.
Before we leave the skull there is one other very interesting
point that should not be omitted. If the reader will refer to
the skull of Mastodonsaurus (Fig. 14), he will see, just on the
middle line and near the base, a small round hole. It lies
over the brain-cavity, and most probably represents the site of
a small third eye. Whether this little extra eye was capable of
receiving impressions of light, and so of communicating them
to the brain as an ordinary eye does, is a matter of doubt; but
in a certain very primitive little lizard now living in New Zealand,
and known as the Tuatara (Sphenodon), there is a similar, though
smaller aperture, overlying the rudiment of an eye now quite
useless and lying deep down in the brain. This little eye in the
Tuatara must at one time have been made use of, and the question arises whether the third eye of the Labyrinthodonts was
similarly useless; but the chances are rather against the notion.
All the lizards have this pineal eye. It is probable that we have
here a relic from some much older and now lost form of life—
possibly a fish, but possibly also a still lower type. Th6se rudimentary structures, of which Darwin speaks in his great work,
The Origin of Species, always possess a high degree of interest for
the palaeontologist, as being survivals from very early days in.the
1

Gxeek—condulos.

ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

57

world's history. To the latter they are as interesting in their
way as are ancient customs and old superstitions to a student of
folk-lore or of ancient history.
We must also notice the forward position of the creature's
nostrils as indicated by the two small openings at the apex of the
skull (see Fig. 14). If we were to examine the under side of a
skull such as that of the Mastodonsaurus, we should see that the
bony palate is formed chiefly of two broad and flat bones, called
the " vomerine," which generally support teeth. Now, this is a
character not exhibited by the skull of any true reptile, and we
must go to modern amphibia, such as our frogs and toads, to
find a parallel. There is also a corresponding series of small
teeth on the mandible of the lower jaw (see Fig, 24). The eyes
often show the peculiar sclerotic plates seen so well in the "fishlizards."
In studying an extinct vertebrate, or backboned animal, one
of the first points to be considered is the nature of the vertebrae,
or joints of the backbone. Now, in all fishes, and also in their
distant cousin the Ichthyosaurus (fish-lizard), these bones have
their articulating surfaces (centra) hollow, hence the popular term
" cup bones " applied to the vertebrae of the latter. Need we be
surprised, then, to learn that the Labyrinthodonts possessed similarly cup-shaped vertebrae? This is one more link to connect
them with fishes. In some of the more primitive and ancient
forms, the body of the vertebra was composed of three separate
pieces, an arrangement peculiar to certain primitive fishes.
Ever since an unfortunate restoration of a Labyrinthodon by Mr.
W. Hawkins, it has been the custom—in popular works at least—
to represent the creature with a frog-like aspect. This restoration was based on the imperfect material of a good many years
ago, and is therefore out of date,. In our illustration, representing
some of Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins's models in the grounds of the
Crystal Palace (Fig. 52), the reader will see, far away to the right,
a squat and toad-like creature; this will serve to give an idea of

58

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

what that now historic restoration was like. But later discoveries
have shown that, instead of being frog-like, most of the Labyrinthodonts, if we could have seen them in the flesh, would have
reminded us more of our modern little newts, or of the salamanders of hot countries. The tail was generally well developed, and
the limbs were adapted quite as much for walking as for swimming.
Their chests were defended by three bony plates (see Fig. 15),
which had grooves similar to those on the skull. But besides
this, all the under side of the body was protected by a large
number of scales, running in two directions, as shown in Figs. 15
and 22. In one or two instances the whole body was covered
with a coat of mail, consisting of small bony scales. An example
of this kind of skin is the Seeleya, from the Permian rocks of
Bohemia, restored by Fritsch, and named by him after Professor
H. G. Seeley, F.R.S. In size the Labyrinthodonts varied greatly,
some being only an inch or two in length, others seven or eight
feet, and perhaps more. Most of them had limbs, but in one or
two cases these had apparently been dispensed with.
It might naturally be asked, Did they undergo a series of
changes similar to the metamorphoses of a common frog ? One
could hardly, perhaps, have expected an answer to this question;
but, strange to say, some of the smaller forms from the petroleum
shales (Gaskohle) of Bohemia, so carefully studied and described
by Dr. Fritsch, have been very well preserved in those deposits of
the Carboniferous age, so that he was able to recognise in some
cases the signs of the gills, by means of which, in early life, they
breathed in water, like fishes. And so it is manifest that they did
go through a series of metamorphoses.
One of the most primitive, and at the same time one of the
earliest known Labyrinthodonts, is the Archcegosaurus, of which
we must now give a short account.
The remains of this lowly amphibian—the humblest of all the
Labyrinthodonts—were first discovered in certain clay-ironstones
of the Lower Permian age, and also in the coal-field of Saarbruch,

ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

59

near Treves. At first they were supposed to represent fishes, but
another specimen was recognised by Dr. Gergens as belonging

FIG. 15.—Part of skeleton of a Labyrinthodon, Archcegosaurus (Decheni),
from the Permian, Saarbruch. (After H. von Meyer.) The snout is incomplete. The three ventral plates are seen near the head.

to a salamander-like amphibian.

This was sent to the cele-

6o

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

brated H. von Meyer for description, who said, "Its head
might be that of a fish as well as that of a lizard, or of a batrachian frog." He proposed to call it Afiateon? on account of its
deceitful appearance, and sent a drawing of it to Professor
Agassiz, the great authority on fossil fishes. But after three
years, better preserved and more instructive specimens of this
perplexing fossil were obtained by Professor von Dechen, from
the Bavarian coal-fields. These were submitted to another

FIG. 16.—Head of Archcegosaurus. (Permian.)

authority, Professor Goldfuss, of Bonn, who published a memoir
thereon, with good figures. His opinion was that the remains
belonged to a saurian genus, which he called Archcegosaurus? or
1
2

Greek—apateon, cheat.
Greek—arcAJgos, leader; sauros, lizard.

ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

61

"primaeval lizard," deeming it to be a kind of "missing link"
between the fish-like batrachia and the lizards and crocodiles.
Excellent casts of the specimens, figured and described, were
sent by Goldfuss to Sir R. Owen, who placed them in the Museum
of the Royal College of Surgeons. One of these appeared to the
latter to show evidence of having possessed permanent gills,,
while the vertebrae and numerous very short ribs, with indications
of stunted limbs adapted for swimming, all impressed him with
the conviction that Archcegosaurus was nearly allied to the modern
Proteus and other amphibians that retain their lungs throughout
life.
Some of the specimens acquired since Sir R. Owen published
these conclusions are now in the Natural History Museum.
There are certain fishes of the present day that have their backbones in an incomplete or unfinished state; that is to say, the
bones consist partly of cartilage, like an unfinished house which
is only built up to a certain level, the upper stories being merely
indicated by scaffolding. An example of this kind of fish isfurnished by the existing mud-eel, or Lepidosiren, a highly interesting form of life to the geologist, because it tends to fill up
the gap between the two distinct classes of Fishes and Reptiles.
Now, in this respect, the old Carboniferous amphibian we are now
considering resembles the mud-fish. The latter leads a partly
amphibious life, burying itself in the mud during the hot season,
and breathing air by means of its air-sack. It is believed by
evolutionists that, in the course of ages, lungs were developed
from the air-sacks of "ganoid" fishes.1 After detailing certain
other characters, in which Archcegosaurus resembles the higher
ganoid fishes, Sir Richard Owen says, "All these characters
point to one great natural group, peculiar for the extensive grada^
tions of development, linking and blending together fishes and
reptiles within the limits of such group." The salamander-like
ganoids, Lepidosteus of North America (see p. 30) and Polyfiterus
2

See p. 45.

CREATURES

62

OF OTHER

DAYS.

of the Nile, are the most fish-like; the true Labyrinthodonts
are the most reptilian or saurian of the group; Archagosaurus
conducts the march of development from the fish proper to the
labyrinthodon type; Lepidosiren conducts it to the batrachian
type with permanent gills. Both tend to show the artificial
nature of the arrangement by which, under most systems of
classification, fishes are separated by a wide gap from reptiles.
In describing the amphibians of past ages it will be advisable
to keep to our usual plan of taking them in chronological order,
according to the accepted divisions of geological time, so that
we may be able to compare those of one period with their
descendants of another.1 The Labyrinthodonts ranged through
three geological periods—the Carboniferous, the Permian, and
the Triassic. At the time when the coal-forests of Europe and
America were flourishing, they were tenanted by a large number
of Labyrinthodonts. These, and others of the succeeding Permian period, which may conveniently be taken together, have
been specially studied by such authorities as Professors Huxley
andf Cope, Dr. Fritsch, Professor Miall, and others. The limits
of space will only allow us to make a small selection from the
numerous forms described by them.
In the year 1852 Sir Charles Lyell and Mr. (now Sir William)
Dawson, who were investigating the coal strata of Nova Scotia,
discovered an interesting little Labyrinthodont known as Dendrerpeton? Its remains were found in the hollow of the trunk of a
big fossil tree, the StgilZaria, which was completely converted into
coal. The bones were considered by Professor Wyman, of Boston,
to represent an amphibian, and on his advice they were brought
to England and submitted to Sir R, Owen, who gave the above
name to the creature to commemorate its discovery in a tree.2
Another genus from the coal-measures of North America is
Raniceps (frog-headed),8 named by Professor Wyman. Its skull, fore
1

See Appendix I.
3

2
Greek—dendron, tree; erpeton, reptile.
Latin—rana, frog; caput, head.

ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

63

limbs, and part of the backbone were found in a seam of coal in
the great coal-field of Ohio, at the mouth of the Yellow Creek.
Some interesting footprints have been discovered in American
coal-measures. In the year 1844, Dr. King, of Greensburg,
Pennsylvania, discovered some tracks which he considered to be
those of a reptile, in coal strata near that town. The impressions were stated by him to be nearly eight hundred feet beneath
the topmost stratum of the coal formation. Sir Charles Lyell, on
visiting Greensburg, examined the footmarks and confirmed Dr.
King's view of them. He considered that they resembled the
Cheirotherium footprints described in chap. i. "They consist/'
he says, " of the tracks of a large reptilian quadruped1 in the
sandstone in the middle of the Carboniferous series—a fact full of
novelty and interest; for here in Pennsylvania, for the first time,
we meet with evidence of the existence of air-breathing quadrupeds, capable of roaming in those forests where the Sigiiiaria,
Lepidodendron, Cautopteris, Catamites, ferns, and other plants
flourished." No less than twenty-three footsteps were observed,
and those made by the hind limbs were larger; but these tracks
only showed four toes, instead of the five of Cheirotherium.
Very similar footprints were discovered and described by
Mr. Isaac Lea, in some red shales at the base of the coal-measures
at Pottsville, north-east of Philadelphia. They are of older
date, being seventeen hundred feet lower down. The name
Sauropus has been given to the unknown animal that made them.
Sun-cracks and the impressions of rain-drops were associated with
them, showing clearly that the creature was an air-breather.
Cricotus is an American genus described by Professor Cope,
from the Permian strata of Texas. The head and some of the
scales belonging to the under surface of the body are shown in
Fig. 17. The Eryops, of which the skull is shown in the same
figure, is considered by Professor Seeley to belong to a higher,
1

Such an expression as " reptilian quadruped" is not a happy one, and the
term quadruped, as usually employed, may be replaced by the word mammal.

64

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

though related group, the Anomodonts (chap. iv.). The one group
is much connected with the other, and the question of the

F I G . 17.—Labyrinthodonts. 1, a, b, Cricotus. 2. Head of Eryops.
Permian strata, Texas. (After Cope.)

From

classification of their various members is a difficult one, which
only time and further discoveries can settle.
Loxomma is another genus of the Coal period, but only the
head is known (see Plate III.). It was named by Professor
Huxley, who, during a visit to Edinburgh in 1862, made a study
of the large collection of vertebrate fossils from Burdie House
and Gilmerton in the Museum of Edinburgh University. While
looking through the collection for fossil fishes, he came upon
some specimens which were of quite a different character, and

-J>1
AMPHIBIANS OF T H E COAL-FOREST P E R I O D .
Actinodon.

Loxomma
Ceraterpeton.

Dolickoso7na.

( H e a d of).

ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

65

among these found part of the skull of a Labyrinthodont, which
he named Loxomma. A very beautifully preserved specimen of

FIG. 18.—Head of Eryops macrocephalus, from Permian strata, Texas.
(After Cope.)

the skull of this creature, from the coal-measures of Shropshire, is
to be seen at the Natural History Museum (Gallery No. 5 of the
Geological Department, Wall-case 11). It is fortunately uncrushed,
and shows the natural contour of the skull and lower jaw. The
specimen was presented by George Maw, Esq., F.G.S.
Sir Philip Egerton and the Earl of Enniskillen obtained from
the Edinburgh district a remarkable skeleton, which looked very
much like that of a fish; but after mature consideration they
lianded it over to the British Museum. Later on, Professor
Huxley's attention was drawn to this specimen by Mr. Davies, of
the Museum, who justly remarked upon a certain resemblance in
the arrangement of its scales to the Archcegosaurus. A careful
study of the fossil by Professor Huxley bore out the suspicions of
F

66

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Mr. Davies, and convinced him of the amphibian nature of the
fossil. It differed from Archcegosaurtis in the form of its heady
as well as in the nature of its bony plates and scales. This fine
specimen, known as Pholidogaster^ is to be seen in the same wallcase with Loxomma, and is forty-three inches in length.
In Actinodon the skull is short and wide, the nostrils are large,
and the muzzle is broad. Fig. 19 is a drawing of the com-

FlG. 19.—Skeleton of a Labyrinthodont, Actinodon, from Permian strata,
(Partly after Gaudry.)

plete skeleton, and in the wall-case above mentioned will be found
a skull preserved on a slab of shale from Permian strata in France.
A restoration of the creature when alive is shown in Plate III.
A number of small Labyrinthodonts, somewhat like salamanders, have been found in Ireland and in Bohemia. Those
from the latter country are very exhaustively described by Dr,
Fritsch, in a valuable monograph,1 with many excellent illustrations. We have reproduced two of these, the Ceraterpeton and
the snake-like Dolichosoma2,—both restored in Plate III., and their
skeletons shown in Figs. 20, 21. Speaking of snake-like forms,
it may be mentioned that one of them—the Palceosiren ("ancient
siren ")—is estimated to have attained a length of forty-five feet.
Professor Cope has written an account of a number of Labyrinthodonts from the coal-measures of Ohio, where both Professor
1
2

Fauna der Gaskohle, Dr. A. Fritsch.
Greek—dolichos, long; soma, body.

ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

67

Newberry and Professor Wyman have obtained specimens. These
show great variety of form. Some resemble long-limbed lizards;

FIG. 20.—A small Labyrinthodont, Ceraterfieton, restored after Fritsch,
from Permian strata, Bohemia.

some have short limbs. Others, like Ptyonius (see Fig. 22),
were very elongate. The members of the Labyrinthodont order
flourished over a large part of the earth's surface, from the time of

68

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

the coal-forests to that of the Triassic sandstones. Their remains
are found in all the great continents, except South America.

FIG. 21,—A snake-like Labyrinthodont, Dolichosoma^ from Carboniferous
strata, Bohemia. (After Fritsch.)

Professor Seeley considers them to have been the ancestors of
the crocodiles. Large skulls of Labyrinthodonts, such as Mastodonsaurus and Capitosaurus^ have for a long time past been found
in the Upper Triassic (Keuper) strata of Germany.
A restoration of the Labyrinthodon skeleton is shown in Fig.
23, and we must now say a few words about the specimen on
which this valuable restoration has been made.1
In the year 1877, M. Riitimeyer wrote to Professor Wiedersheim
to say that the Museum at Basle possessed a specimen of
1

A complete account is given by Professor Wiedersheim in Abhandlungen
der Schweizerischen Palaontologischen Gesellschaft, vol. v. (1878).

ANCIENT

FIG. 22.—Ptyonius (two species).

SALAMANDERS.

:er Cope.)

From coal-measures, Ohio.

69

70

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Labyrinthodon in good condition. It was found in 1864, in a
sandstone quarry in Riehn, Switzerland (Riehn is the first station

FIG. 23.—Restoration of skeleton of Labyrinthodon (after Wiedersheim),
under side.

on the railway from Basle to Schopfeim), and was placed in the
collection of the University of Basle. The finder was a M. Frey,
an architect, who, in spite of a good offer from Stuttgart, refused
to allow his fossil to leave the country. Later on, a photograph
of the specimen was sent to Von Meyer, but for some reason he
did not describe it. The task was therefore undertaken by
Professor Wiedersheim. Riehn, the place of discovery, lies on a
minor range of the Vosges Mountains bordering the Black Forest
on the south.
Detached plates of Labyrinthodonts are found in the Bunter
Sandstone quarries of Riehn, and it is likely that other skeletons
will yet be discovered. Previously to this find, only fragments

R E P T I L E S AND AN AMPHIBIAN OF T H E N E W RED SANDSTONE P E R I O D .

Rkytichosaurus.

HyPerodapedon.
Affjttn In—vaunts-

TelerPeion,

ANCIENT

SALAMANDERS.

n

of Mastodonsaurus and Cafiitosaurus were known. As is usual
with skeletons in sandstone, the bones, having been dissolved
away, are mostly represented by casts in the rock. When
first found, the slab of rock containing this fossil only revealed a part of the skull of the creature, so that much labour
and care were required to udevelop" the specimen. The reader
should be careful to note that Fig. 23 represents the under side of

FIG. 24.—Lower jaws of a Labyrinthodont, Cyclotosaurus.

the skull, and so what looks, at first sight, like an eye, is only a
feature of the under side of the skull. Professor Wiedersheim
was able to make a study of the brain, and found it to be remarkable for occupying so large a space in the skull; but it is of a
low type. It is curious to find in this Labyrinthodon an entire
absence of bony plates and scales—even the usual three plates on
the chest being absent. The tail, also, is unusually short; and it
would seem that this creature was less aquatic in its habits than
some of the other forms we have been considering. It was not
a large animal, the length of the skeleton on the slab being
under two feet.

72

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DAYS.

Leaving now the Labyrinthodonts—which we have called
" Primaeval Salamanders," for want of a better name, as there is
nothing like them alive now,—we pass on to say a word or two, in
conclusion, on the remains of a true salamander, discovered in
Tertiary strata on the Continent.
Few fossils have awakened more curiosity than the skeleton of
Scheuchzer, who was rash enough to call his specimen Homo
Diluvii Testis (or, "the man that witnessed the Deluge").
Scheuchzer was an enthusiast, never tired of collecting organic
remains, which he considered to be unmistakable evidences of
the general Deluge. At length he obtained from certain strata of
Miocene age, at Oeningen, a fossil which he viewed with great
delight as the unequivocal remains of man himself. The Royal
Society (tell it not in Gath !) even published a short description
in their Philosophical Transactions. In his rapture, Scheuchzer
saw not only one, but many parts of the human skeleton in his
specimen. When we look at the figure (in his Physica Sacra), it
is difficult to conceive how such remains could have appeared to
a physician, who ought to know something of the bones of the
human body, to be those of a man. But Scheuchzer was so in
love with his theory, and so enthusiastic about it, that many
naturalists adopted his opinion. The first man who dared to
doubt was Gesner (1758), who had a specimen of his own. A
third specimen of this fossil came into the possession of Dr.
Anman, of Zurich, and is now in the Natural History Museum
(Gallery No. 5, Wall-case 11). Cuvier well observed that a comparison of the skeleton with that of man would at once have
dispelled Scheuchzer's idea, which was consequently abandoned.
The head and large orbits for the eyes struck Cuvier as strongly
suggesting the head of a frog, or of a salamander. When staying
at Haarlem in 1811, he obtained permission to work at the
stone, and thus found more of the bones; in this way he settled
the question, and proved that the supposed man who saw the
Deluge was only a salamander after all!

C H A P T E R IV.
ANOMALOUS REPTILES.
" In the endeavour to complete the Natural History of any class of animals,
the mind seeks to penetrate the mystery of its origin, and, by tracing its
mutations in time past, to comprehend more clearly its actual condition, and
gain an insight into its probable destiny in time to come."—SIR R. OWEN.

HAVING, in our previous chapter, discussed the Labyrinthodonts,
we now pass on to consider some of their descendants in the
shape of a very peculiar group of reptiles hailing from South
Africa and elsewhere. Perhaps the chief peculiarity, among many
others, presented by these very antique and old-fashioned inhabitants of the world, is to be found in their teeth. In fact, so
irregular and anomalous are they in regard to these organs, and
so at variance with all our preconceived ideas with regard to
what proper, well-behaved reptiles, whether living or extinct,
ought to be like, that their vagaries in this respect have led to
their being christened by the name of Anomodonts, or "anomalously
toothed " reptiles. 1 Needless to say, they occupy a distinct order in
the classifications adopted by palaeontologists. The moral of all
this is, as we shall better understand later on, that it would be
well for students of extinct forms of life to enter this domain ot
Science without any preconceived ideas at all! It would save a
great deal of confusion and trouble in the e n d ; and, moreover,
would be far more truly scientific. For what right has any one,
however great his knowledge or his ability, to dictate to Nature,
1

Greek—anomos, without law; odous, odontos, tooth.

74

CREATURES

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DAYS.

and to say this or that is impossible—that no reptile, for instance,
could possibly have flown; or that such and such teeth were impossible for a reptile ?
We now know that there was a time when certain reptiles
did fly (although many people with some pretensions to knowledge doubted the evidence). And so with regard to reptilian
teeth; fossil evidence shows that some old reptiles had teeth
more like those of modern mammals! Facts such as these
should teach caution, and every student of palaeontology will
do well to remember the saying of Agassiz : " The possibilities
of existence run so deeply into the extravagant that there is
scarcely any conception too extraordinary for Nature to realise."
The chief characters of the Anomodonts may be briefly stated
as follows : In this order the body is lizard-like, and the limbs are
adapted for walking. The skull is comparatively short, and the
nasal openings are large. The teeth are generally placed in
distinct sockets (thecodont). The bodies of the vertebrae are
hollow at both ends (amphiccelous), and in some cases are only
partly converted into bone—a character which is common to the
Labyrinthodonts. The whole structure of the foot is distinctly on
the mammalian plan. Recent researches show that these animals
are descended from Labyrinthodonts, and more especially the
family of which Archczgosaurus is a member (see p. 59). Certain
important characters show (strange as it may seem) affinity with
mammals; and it is probable that they are related to the lowest
group of them, as represented at the present day by that
remarkable creature the Spiny Ant-eater of Australia (Echidna),
and the wonderful Duck-mole (Ornithorhynchus\ which lays eggs
like a reptile. These two creatures belong to the Monotreme
order. We shall have more to say presently about the points
of resemblance between Monotremes and Anomodonts (see
p. 86).
Now the Anomodont reptiles are divided into several groups
sub-orders, and families, of which we will take first those known

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES.

75

as Dicynodonts,1 because they illustrate the anomalous nature of
the teeth, to which we referred just now.
The singular genus Dicynodon was discovered by Mr. Andrew
G. Bain, in South Africa. In the year 1844 this enthusiastic
collector, who had been engaged in the construction of military
roads in the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, discovered, in
the tract of country extending northwards from the county of
Albany, about four hundred and fifty miles east of Cape Town,
several nodules, or lumps of a kind of sandstone, which, when
broken, displayed, in most instances, evidences of fossil bones, and
usually of a skull with two large projecting teeth. These fossils
were first made known to English geologists under the name of
" Bidentals," by Mr. Bain, on account of their two teeth, or
tusks, and were sent to Sir R. Owen for examination and description. The specimens were exhumed by Mr. Bain from the intensely hard nodules of the sandstone strata which range over an
immense tract of country beyond the mountains north of Cape
Town, and may now be seen in the Fossil Reptile Gallery of the
Natural History Museum.
Sir R. Owen, after a careful study of these interesting remains,
concluded2 that there had formerly existed in South Africa—
probably in a great lake or inland sea—a race of reptiles presenting, in the construction of their skulls, characters presented
by the crocodile, the tortoise, and the lizard, but possessing a
pair of long tusks implanted in distinct sockets, like those of the
walrus. No other kind of teeth had they; and, as in the case of
a tortoise, the lower jaw appears to have been armed by a trenchant
sheath of horny matter. The tusks are of a finer texture than that
of the crocodile's teeth, and almost as dense as in the hyaena.
We have here, then, a singular order of ancient reptiles, presenting
1
The genus Dicynodon is so called from two Greek words: dis, twice;
and kunodos, dog-toothed, on account of the two tusk-like canine teeth in
the upper jaw.
2
Professor Owen's Memoir on the Dicynodon, Geol. Trans•., second series,
vol. vi., with plates.

76

CREATURES

OF OTHER

BAYS.

in a most striking manner that blending of the peculiarities of
several existing orders which is continually presented to the
palaeontologist. The head is shown in Fig. 25, and the fore limb
in Figs. 26, 27. As it is, at present, hardly possible to restore the
skeleton with any degree of certainty, we have not ventured to
show the Dicynodon in our Plate of New Red Sandstone Reptiles
(see Plate IV.).
Some of the arguments used by Owen in his Memoir, above

F I G . 25.—Anomodont skulls. A, head of Dicynodon ; B, head of Oudenodon,
from Karoo strata, South Africa. (After Owen.)

referred to, may be briefly condensed as follows: The creatures
to which these skulls belonged were not mammals (although to
an evolutionist they are a foreshadowing of that class), both on
account of the double nasal apertures, one of which is seen in
Fig. 25 ; and also because no mammal has a brain-cavity so
relatively small. They were not crocodiles, as indicated by
certain other features of the skull. They were not turtles or
tortoises, for all such reptiles have a single nasal opening placed

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES.

77

in the middle of the fore part of the skull. They could not be
fishes, for fishes breathe in quite a different way. Neither could
they be batrachians (frogs, etc.), nor yet snakes, as is also proved
by the structure of their skulls. Certain other features of the
skull show a relationship with the Lacertilians, or true lizards.
The skulls are mostly of small size; but that of Dicynodon
tigriceps is as much as twenty inches in length. That of
ZK lacerticeps ("lizard-headed"), Fig. 2$, is only six inches long.

FIG. 26.—Fore limb of Dicynodon.
(After Owen.)

FIG. 27.—Arm-bone (humerus) of
Dicynodon. \ natural size. (After
Owen.)

Dicynodonts have since been found in the Gondwana series
in Central India, and in the Elgin Sandstone, Scotland.
The vertebrae, or joints of the backbone, are hollow on both
sides (biconcave)—a feature common to fishes and Labyrinthodonts. Probably they were good swimmers, and spent much of
their time in the water; but it is quite clear that they were airbreathers, and so must have come up to the surface to breathe.
It is not every palaeontologist who can claim the co-opera-

78

CREATURES

OE OTHER

BAYS.

tion of Royalty in obtaining fossils—at least since the days of
Alexander the Great, who collected all kinds of natural history
specimens for his teacher, Aristotle, in the many lands he visited
during his campaigns,—but in this respect Professor Owen was
highly favoured, as the following note from H.R.H. Prince Alfred
(Duke of Saxe-Coburg), written in i860, will show :—
" D E A R PROFESSOR OWEN,

" In the course of my journey in South Africa I met
with two very interesting fossil remains, one (the larger one)
being the head of a Dicynodon; and I hope you will accept them
from me as being the best specimens I obtained, upon the Prince
Consort's suggestion, on the occasion of your last lecture, of
which I retain the most agreeable recollection.
" Yours truly,
" ALFRED.
" Windsor Castle, November 15."

Englishmen need hardly be reminded that the late Prince
Consort showed a keen interest in all the sciences, and Professor
Owen was frequently commanded to lecture before the Royal
Family.
The smaller of the two fossils above alluded to proved to be
one of the most perfect specimens of a Dicynodont skull known
to the Professor. The genus Oudenodon,1 although it has no
teeth, so closely resembles the Dicynodon that it must be included
in the same family. The skull is shown in Fig. 25. Professor
Owen even suggested that the absence of teeth might merely
denote a difference of sex; but this view is not accepted by others.
The general shape of the skull is very similar to that oiDicynodonr
and the jaws ended in a kind of beak. There are several species,
and some attained very large dimensions.
In Oudenodon Bainii the skull is six inches long. Mr. Bain, in
1

Greek—ouden, nothing ; odous, odontos, tooth.

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES.

79

a letter announcing the discovery of the fossils in South Africa,
mentions that other bones were found in association with the
skulls, which give additional evidence of the saurian nature of
the toothless reptiles. He writes,1 "There were many skulls
entirely without teeth, which we at first thought had belonged to
chelonians or turtles; afterwards, finding that the animals had
distinct narrow ribs, which chelonians have not, we put them
down also for something new, and named them ' Oudenodons/
or toothless animals."
Platyfiodosaurus2 is the name given to a considerable portion
of the skeleton of a Dicynodont reptile from the Karoo strata of
South Africa; but, unfortunately, the skull is unknown, and it
may prove to be identical with Oudenodon. The structure of the
pelvis, or region of the thighs, is remarkably mammalian. The
name indicates that it had broad feet.
The genus Endothiodon represents a remarkable family of large
reptiles from the same strata, distinguished by the presence of
teeth on the palate. The skull resembles that of Oudenodon, but
the muzzle is longer.
Two genera, Placodus3 and Cycwiodus, from Triassic strata in
Germany, represent another order, the Placodonts, which are
very remarkable, but unfortunately at present are only known by
their skulls. These, however, are sufficiently peculiar to deserve
notice (Table-case 18). The teeth represent a curious modification
previously unknown in the reptile class, but of which the class of
fishes affords numerous examples. In the latter genus the skull is as
broad as it is long, and the jaws were very strong. This powerful
action of the jaws relates to the form and size of the teeth, which
are broad and flat, like paving stones, and evidently adapted to
crack and bruise shells of molluscs and Crustacea. Although now
admitted to be a reptile, this remarkable genus was once con1

The Eastern Province Monthly Magazine; Graham's Town, September^
1856.
2
Greek—flatus, broad ; pous, fiodos, foot; and sauros, lizard.
3
Greek—-plax, pla&os, any flat thing ; odous, tooth.

8o

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

sidered by Agassiz, Owen, and others to be a fish; but where
fossil remains are so imperfect, mistakes may easily be made at first.
Tapinocephalusx and Titafiosuchus2 are the names given to two
huge Anomodonts from South Africa, both belonging to the same
family, the teeth of which indicate carnivorous habits. An imperfect skull, several entire limb-bones, and vertebrae are preserved in the national collection at South Kensington.
Galczsaurus? of which the head is shown in Fig. 28, belongs to
a remarkable group of Anomodonts, first described by Sir R.
Owen, and called by him Theriodontsf because the form and order
of arrangement of their teeth bear a striking resemblance to those
of carnivorous mammals; for the incisors are separated from the
molars by well-developed canines, and the canines of the lower

F I G . 28.—Head of an Anomodont, Galcesaurus planiceps. Length 6 inches.
Karoo strata, South Africa. (After Owen.)

jaw crossed those of the upper in front. In some of the members
of this family the upper canine teeth are long and trenchant, and
the incisors large and close together. Visitors to the Natural
History Museum will find a most valuable set of specimens of the
skulls, etc., in Gallery No. 4, Table-case 19.
In most reptiles, living and extinct, the teeth that are worn
away by use, or otherwise lost, are replaced by others that are
constantly forming in the jaws; but in the case of Theriodonts
1

Greek—tapeinos, low ; cephalos, head.
Greek—titan^ a titan ; souchos, a crocodile.
3
Greek—gatt, weasel; sauros, lizard.
4
Greek—therion, wild beast; and odous, odontos, tooth : because the teeth
resemble those of savage carnivorous creatures, such as lions or wolves.
2

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES.

81

there is no evidence of preceding teeth, like the milk-teeth in
mammals, nor of succeeding teeth, like the crocodile's. Sir R.
Owen therefore concluded that these creatures had but one set of
teeth, which lasted through life. He has described eleven genera,
varying in the size and form of the skull and teeth ; they are all
from South Africa, and are figured in his Catalogue of the Fossil
Reptiles of South Africa.
The work of describing and classifying Anomodont reptiles has
since been carried on by Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., who has
contributed a series of elaborate papers to the Royal Society.1
In America and France the subject has been studied by Professors Cope 2 and Gaudry. The former palaeontologist has
described, amongst others, such remarkable forms as Eryops
(Fig. 18), Empedias, and Dimetrodon. As these are not completely known, we have refrained from attempting to restore
them. Perhaps the most remarkable is the Dimetrodon^ (see
Fig. 29). Not only was the skull provided with formidable
tusks, but the vertebrae of the back present a new feature in
having very long neural spines. In one species the height of the
spine is actually more than twenty times the length of the
centrum ! According to Professor Cope, these spines formed a
kind of elevated fin on the back, of which it is difficult to imagine
the use; but then there are many living animals with bony
structures which, if only known in a fossil state, would greatly
puzzle every one.
So far we have only spoken of Anomodonts that are imperfectly
known; it therefore now remains, before we part company with
this wonderful extinct order, to describe one of which the skeleton
is practically complete. This is the remarkable Pareiasaurusf for
1

Philosophical Transactions; vols. 179, 183, etc.
History of the Vertebrata of the Permian Formation of Texas ^ by Professor
E. D. Cope, Pal. Bull, No. 32.
3
Greek—dis9 double; metron, measure ; odous, tooth.
4
Greek—pareia, the cheek-piece of a helmet; and saziros, lizard. So
2

G

82

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

the discovery and description of which palaeontologists are indebted
to a distinguished English geologist, Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S.1
Visitors to the Natural History Museum will see the unique
specimen brought home by Professor Seeley at the end of the
fossil reptile gallery, in a glass case by itself (see Fig. 30). The

F I G . 29.—Parts of skeleton of Dimetrodon incisivus, from Permian strata,
Texas. About J natural size. (After Cope.)

story of its discovery, as given in the journals above quoted, may
be briefly condensed as follows:—In the year 1889 Professor
Seeley visited Cape Colony, and examined the Museums of Cape
Town and Graham's Town, with a view to studying such remains
named because the cheek-bones descend so as partly to cover the back of the
lower jaw.
1
Philosophical Transactions, vol. 183 B (1892),; and Journal of South
African Philosophical Society, vol. vi. p. 5 (1889-90).

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES.

83

of the creature as were then known ; but almost every specimen
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84

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

He therefore resolved to try and collect new material. Sir
Gordon Sprigg kindly helped to insure the success of the undertaking, and arrangements were made by which the Professor had
the co-operation of the well-known collector, Mr. Thomas Bain
(whom we have previously mentioned in connection with the
first discovery of the Anomodonts), and of Dr. Atherstone in his
journey through the colony. The expedition was successful, and
he was able to bring home a specimen complete enough for all
practical purposes. This success was largely due to Mr. Bain's
friendly help in unremitting daily labour, and to his great local
knowledge. There are many practical difficulties in the way of
this kind of work which those at home can hardly realise. For
instance, in the matter of transport considerable obstacles have
to be overcome. Thus, the party were in the open Veldt, where
there is no possibility of getting assistance; where you are
obliged to hunt along the mountain-side until you come to the
bones of which you are in search; there are few facilities for
bringing away your specimens in good condition. But, owing to
the aid so willingly afforded to them, the party were able to
gather together the fragments (which filled several large cases),
and a procession of mule-waggons bore the treasure away.
The zone of Triassic rocks in which the skeleton was found
extends from South of Frazerburg Road Station to the foot of the
Nieuwveldt Mountains, covering a breadth of about fifty miles of
country, and there is no evidence of a " break," or want of continuity, at the bottom of the series of strata. This is the second
zone of geologists; the third zone of these rocks (arranged
according to their fossil contents) is that in which the Dicynodonts, above described, were found. The fourth zone is that of
the Theriodonts, of Owen. The fifth takes its name from the
Zanclodonts (an order which we have not referred to, because
there is not much known about them).
The original fragment of a skull of Pareiasaurus bombidens
described by Owen came from Mr. Luttig's farm.

AN ANOMODONT R E P T I L E (PAREIASAURUS) FROM T H E KAROO FORMATION, SOUTH A F R I C A .
PLATE

V.

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES.

85

The specimen (P. bombidens) described by Professor Seeley in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1888, is from Palmiet Fontain,
north-west of Tamboer, at the foot of the Nieuwveldt range. He
accordingly selected this region of the Karoo system of rocks as
a likely one for a find. Eventually, under the guidance of Mr,
Serel Marais, he saw a large skeleton like that of a Pareiasaurusy
on the side of a hill at a place called Bad. An expedition was at
once organised, the result of which was that this fine specimen
was quarried from the hillside on August 12, 1889, under the
direction of Professor Seeley. Every block and every fragment
was carefully marked with colour as it was removed, so that the
pieces of stone might be eventually fitted together again. It
became manifest during the work of excavation that the specimen
included all the essential parts of the skeleton, and that it belonged
to a massive animal with short, solid, and heavy limb-bones, with
long ribs, and with a certain amount of armour in the form of
bony plates or scales down the back. On arriving home, Professor
Seeley fitted the fragments together at the Natural History Museum,
and built up the whole specimen, matrix and all, into a solid mass*
In January, 1890, Mr. Richard Hall, assistant mason in the
geological department, began to remove the matrix, and has since
developed the specimen with a skill, patience, and success which
have never been surpassed. Few parts of the skeleton are absent,,
and nothing of any importance, except, perhaps, some of the ribs.
The skeleton, as now mounted, is pretty much in the same
position as that in which the bones were found in the rock, but
the head is slightly raised.
There is probably no other South African fossil reptile in which
the teeth are developed to the same extent in rows on the palate.
Three rows of scutes, or bony scales, appear to have extended
down the middle of the back. Some of these are still preserved
in contact with the neural spines on the specimens, but they are
not easily detected. Each scute is about two inches wide. There
were also scutes on the skull, as in the Labyrinthodonts.

S6

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

The creature must have been fully nine feet long when alive.
We have with much diffidence ventured a restoration, as shown in
Plate V. The great width and squareness of the animal is a
feature that strikes one at once. The skull decidedly resembles
that of a Labyrinthodon, and, even to a casual observer, has
a frog-like look. But internally it is like that of the Tuatara,
or Sphenodon, of New Zealand, which is a survival from very old
times, and throws much light on several orders of Triassic reptiles. The backbone, or vertebral column, also resembles that
of the little Tuatara, and not that of a Labyrinthodon. In the
shoulder girdle we see a resemblance to the Anomodonts, as
also in the pelvis, or region of the thighs, which is remarkably
mammalian. Every one who looks at the skeleton must be
struck with the great strength and massiveness of the limbbones. The arm-bone suggests two very triangular wedges
fastened together; so does the femur, or thigh-bone. For the
sake of comparison, a specimen of the Tuatara is placed in a case
close by, together with its skeleton (Wall-case 7). Visitors will find
it instructive to compare this skeleton with that of the Pareiasaurus.
On so doing, they will see a resemblance in the limb-bones of the
two creatures. How fortunate that this little lizard should have
survived so many geological ages—as it were on purpose to give
us some help in studying the long-lost Anomodonts ! Professor
Seeley considers that the limbs, as represented by their bones,
are intermediate between those of mammals and the tailed amphibians, such as newts and salamanders. But the creature was
more of a reptile than an amphibian, as is shown by the fact that
its skull articulated with the first joint of the backbone by means
of one condyle, or knob-like process, instead of by two, as in the
Labyrinthodonts and all the amphibia.
Palaeontologists have concluded that Labyrinthodonts, Anomodonts, and Monotreme mammals are all descended from some
common amphibian stock. If this theory is true, the Anomodonts retained, while they were yet in existence, structures showing

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES.

87

a relationship with mammals or a foreshadowing of them, which
in all other reptiles have been altogether lost.
Palaeontologists are often greatly helped in their studies by comparing extinct types of life with some of the living types which are
very old-fashioned and, one would think, ought to have become
extinct ages ago, but fortunately have not! We mentioned just
now the Tuatara, as a case in point; another still more important case is that of the Monotreme mammals—the curious
Duckbill and the Spiny Ant-eater {Echidna) of Australia (which, of
course, is not one of the true Ant-eaters). These two remarkable
egg-laying mammals show some wonderful points of resemblance
to the Anomodonts—points which cannot, however, be explained
without entering too much into dry details of Anatomy. Indeed,
they are a great puzzle to naturalists, and one hardly knows whether
we ought to call them reptiles or mammals; but since they do
suckle their young ones (after a primitive fashion, though), they
have been placed with the latter; still it requires a slight stretch
of imagination to look upon an egg-laying creature as a mammal.
Leaving now the Anomodonts, we pass on to consider another
order—the Rhyncocephalia.
The first fossil Saurian on record, and one which is the only
representative of its order, is the Proterosaurus1 Speneri of Von
Meyer. The generic name records this fact, while that of the
species is in honour of its first describer, Spener, a physician at
Berlin, in the year 1710. It was found in a slab of " copper-slate,"
from the Permian beds of Eisenach, in Thuringia. Spener figured
the slab showing, chiefly by impressions, the skull, vertebrae, and
bones of the fore foot. The original specimen is now in the
Royal College of Surgeons, where it forms part of the Hunterian
series of fossils. It was obtained from a copper-mine near
Eisenbach, at a depth of one hundred feet from the surface. A
second specimen, showing the two fore limbs, a hind limb, and
part of the trunk, was described by Link in 1718.
1

Greek—-proteros, earlier ; sauros, lizard.

SS

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

This singular type of reptile, which stands by itself (see Appendix II.), has been studied by Cuvier, Von Meyer, Owen,
Huxley, and Seeley, besides Spener. In the eighteenth century
very absurd notions were in vogue about fossils. People could
not then bring themselves to believe that they were the remains
of creatures that once lived, and, to get out of the difficulty,
invented the most fanciful theories, invoking the aid of a supposed Plastic Force, which, they said, caused stones to assume
fanciful shapes like shells and other living things ! But Spener,
using his own judgment, set aside these notions, and was sure
that his specimen represented what was once a living Saurian.
His only doubt was whether the reptile had been a crocodile or
a lizard ; but he favoured the former view, and tried to speculate
how a crocodile could have come into Germany. The great
geographical revolutions revealed by geology were then undreamt
of. Kundmann of Breslau, in 1737, considered it to be a largeheaded lizard. This conclusion was largely adopted by Cuvier,
who, in 1818, made the animal universally known as "the fossil
Monitor of Thuringia;" but he had never seen a specimen,
and so was dependent on the drawings published by Spener and
others. The skull is more lizard-like than crocodilian. There
are mainly two interpretations of this fossil. (1) Cuvier and
Huxley class it unreservedly with the lizards. (2) Von Meyer and
Owen consider that it represents a new type of reptile. Von
Meyer published an elaborate monograph on the subject, with
nine folio plates (1856). Professor Seeley also considers that it
shows no particular affinity with any living group of reptiles. It
evidently came of a very ancient stock. With regard to its
habits, Owen concluded that it was an aquatic animal. He saysr
" The strength of its neck and head, and the sharpness of its
teeth, enabled it to seize and overcome the struggles of the active
fishes of the waters which deposited the old Thuringian copperslates." There can be but little doubt, however, that it was
capable of walking on land as well as of disporting itself in the

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES.

89

water. Certain ganoid fishes abounded in the seas of the
Permian period. These, as Owen points out, may have been
its prey.
The beak-headed lizards, or Rhynchocefihalia? belong to another
very remarkable order of reptiles that lived during the New
Red Sandstone period. The order is now almost extinct, being
only represented by the Tuatara, or Sphenodon, of New Zealand.
There are three extinct reptiles to be considered under this
head before we conclude our survey of Triassic reptiles, and
first we will take the little Telerfieton. It was found in the New
Red Sandstone strata of Elgin—then considered to be Old Red
Sandstone, and a great controversy took place with regard to
their geological age. But now most geologists accept the
view that they are of New Red Sandstone age, as asserted
by Professor Huxley, and others. The discovery of Telerpeton
was an important event in the scientific world at the time,
chiefly because the Elgin sandstones were then considered to be
of Old Red Sandstone age. The following notice appeared in
the Elgin Courant of October 10, 1851:—
"GEOLOGICAL DISCOVERY.—A fossil has been obtained from
the Old Red Sandstone at Spynie, near Elgin, which serves to
establish the fact that air-breathing vertebrata of the order sauria
existed during the deposition of the Devonian system of rocks,
which hitherto had only been surmised from the discovery of
impressions of footprints on the surface of the strata. The fossil,
or rather impression, was brought to a gentleman in Elgin, who
now possesses it, by a quarryman, who, with praiseworthy care,
preserved the fragments without tampering with the impression
to any injurious extent, so that its character is unmistakable. It
presents the figure of a reptile about four inches in length, showing fragments of teeth, part of the neck, the backbone and ribs,
the pelvic bones and hind legs, with part of the tail—the rest
of the tail, which seems to have been long, being still unex1

Greek—rhunchos^ beak ; cefihalos, head.

9°

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

posed. [Fig. 31 shows the tail as afterwards exposed to view.]
The appearance of this small specimen is very striking—the
animal matter in its composition having stained the matrix to

F I G . 31.—Skeleton of Telerpeton elginense, from the Elgin Sandstone.
Natural size. 1. Tooth. (After Mantell.)

a dark ochre, while the rest of the stone is a pale grey, almost
white. No doubt this interesting relic will receive a more
scientific description than we can pretend to give, but we cannot
resist the impulse to announce the occurrence in this district of

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES.

9i

an object so well calculated to forward the investigations of
geologists."
An accurate drawing of this fossil was sent to Professor Owen
by its finder, Mr. Patrick Duff, of Elgin, for his opinion of it. On
December 15 th, of the same year, Professor Owen's description
was published in the same paper, only he called it by a different
name, viz. Leptopleuron, on account of its slender ribs.
The name now generally accepted denotes the remote antiquity
of this reptile.1
Dr. Gideon Mantell, the discoverer of Iguanodon, described
this fossil in a paper read before the Geological Society.2 A
model or cast of this delicate impression is to be seen in the
Natural History Museum (Table-case 12, Fossil Reptile Gallery).
Unfortunately, the head is not preserved. Dr. Mantell considered
Telerpeton to be partly amphibian and partly saurian. But, some
years later, Professor Huxley came to the rescue, and threw more
light on the subject In a paper read before the Geological
Society,3 he described a new specimen, which showed the skull.
This specimen, the property of Mr. James Grant, of Lossiemouth,
was sent to him by that veteran geologist, the Rev. Dr. Gordon,
of Birnie, by Elgin, who, for fifty years or more, has taken a
deep interest in the geology of the district.4 This specimen is
larger, being ten to twelve inches in length. As is usual with
fossils from the Elgin sandstone, the bones are represented by
casts, but these were well defined. Professor Huxley was able
to show that Telerfieton has no relationship with amphibians.
In all its characters it is a true lizard. Instead of being a low,
or "generalised" form, it is somewhat "specialised," or highly
developed.
1

Greek—tele, far off; erpeton, reptile.
Quarterly Journal Geological Society, vol. viii. p. 100 (1852).
Published in the Journal of 1867, vol. xxiii. p. 77.
4
We regret to say that, since these words were written, Dr. Gordon has
passed away, at the age of ninety-two. His enthusiasm for science was maintained to the last.
2

3

92

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

The second Example of the reptilian order now under consideration is the Rhynchosaurus, discovered by Dr. O. Ward, in
a quarry in the New Red Sandstone, at Grinsill, near Shrewsbury. His discovery comprised the skull and a considerable
portion of the skeleton (see Fig. 32). Professor Owen also found
some remains of the same animal in this quarry.
The animal was about three feet in length. The general aspect
of the skull differs from that of modern lizards, and resembles
that of a bird or a turtle, which resemblance is increased by the
apparent absence of teeth. There was, however, a single row
of teeth on the palate. Professor Owen concluded that this
ancient creature had its jaws encased in a bony or a horny

FIG. 32.—1. Skull of Rhynchosaurus articefis from the Trias, from the New
Red Sandstone near Shrewsbury ; J natural size. 2. Upper aspect of a dorsal
vertebra ; natural size. (After Mantell.)

sheath. The fortunate preservation of the skull has brought to
light curious modifications of the lizard type of structure, that
seem to lead on towards birds and turtles. " The entire reconstruction," says Professor Owen, "of the skeleton of the Rhynchosaurus may be ultimately accomplished, if due interest be taken
in the collection and preservation of the fossils of the Grinsill
quarries."
The Hyperodapedon was a much larger creature. It was a
terrestrial reptile, some six or seven feet long, and does not
appear to have been armed with scutes or spines of any kind.
A fine specimen is to be seen at the Natural History Museum
(Wall-case 7). Like the Rhynchosaurus^ it had a broadly triangular
form of skull, with the orbits for the eyes directed upwards, and

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES.

93

the jaws prolonged into a sharp curved beak, so that it comes
into the same order of "beak-headed lizards/' But, unlike the
latter reptile, it had several rows of well-developed, low, conical
teeth, both on the jaws and palate. The specimen at South
Kensington shows the head, neck, backbone, and ribs, together
with some of the limb-bones. We have therefore ventured on
a restoration by Mr. Smit (see Plate IV.), in order to give the
reader an idea of its curious head and beaked jaws. (The limbs
might be larger.) Hyperodapedon must have had a wide geographical range during the period of the Trias; for its remains
have also been found in the centre of England (Warwickshire),
in Devonshire, and in Central India. A much larger species from
India is reckoned to have attained a length of seventeen feet.
Professor Huxley concluded that Hyperodapedon and Rhynchosaurus do not depart from the ordinary lizard type of structure
more than some of our modern lizards do—such as the Monitor,
Chameleon, Gecko, and the Sphenodon, to which both are
allied. He thinks that, even in Triassic times, the lizard type
had become highly specialised.
Ever since the discovery of Telerpeton elginense, about forty
years ago, the geological age of the Elgin Sandstone has been
a subject of keen controversy, and even now there are differences
of opinion. Sir Roderick Murchison, late Director of the
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, for a long time held
to the opinion that they were of Old Red Sandstone age, as they
certainly seem to be if we only consider purely geological evidence;
for they rest without any sign of a " break " on undoubted Old Red
Sandstone. It was only after Professor Huxley had made his report
on Hyperodapedon that Murchison began to give way. A little
before this he had said, "Let proud Palaeontology bow to Field
Stratigraphy;" while Huxley said, " Let the battle go as it may,
I'll stick to my reptiles!" It was simply a question whether
evidence of a purely physical kind (i.e. the position of the sandstone and its relation to the strata below, as determined by

94

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

the field geologist) should give way to evidence derived from
Palaeontology (i.e. evidence from the fossils contained in the
sandstone in question). These two methods of determining the
age of a rock ought to, and do usually, confirm each other; 1 but
here they are at variance. Which, then, are we to believe—the
strata, or the fossils? It is an awkward dilemma; but, on the
whole, we may say that the presence of reptiles known, from
their presence in true Triassic rocks in other regions, to be of
Triassic age, gives great weight to the view that the Elgin Sandstones are Triassic, and not of Old Red Sandstone age. The
locality became celebrated, and many " Knights of the Hammer "
came to see for themselves. The Rev. W. Symorids said he
should lose faith in geology if these reptiles turned out to be
of Old Red Sandstone age. Professor Huxley compared the
battle that raged over this ground to the famous siege of Troy,
and said, referring to the views of Murchison and Lyell, that
Priam had been fighting on the side of the Greeks, and Nestor
on the side of the Trojans ! " Under these circumstances," he
says, " I thought it best to retire to my tents, and take no part
in the fray until my palaeontological armoury should yield more
efficient weapons. And as my excellent friend, Dr. Gordon, has
supplied me with new specimens from time to time, I lived in
the hope that one day or other I should be able to make
an effective sally."2 This was in 1858; some years later he
was able to convince Sir R. Murchison, and bring him over to
the other side.
It only remains, in conclusion, to add that Mr. E. T. Newton,
F.G.S., palaeontologist to the Geological Survey, has this year
(1893) communicated to the Royal Society an important paper
on some new reptiles from Elgin.3 During the last few years a
1

See The Autobiography of the Earthy p. 44.
Quarterly Journal Geological Society, xxv. p. 138.
3
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. 184 (1893), B.,
pp. 43I-5032

ANOMALOUS

REPTILES,

95

number of reptilian remains have been obtained from Cuttie's
Hill, near Elgin, which are now in the possession of the Elgin
Museum and of the Geological Survey. These specimens represent at least eight distinct skeletons, seven of which undoubtedly
belong to Dicynodonts, and one is a singular horned reptile new
to science. All the remains are in the form of hollow moulds in
blocks of stone; but Mr. Newton has, with wonderful skill and

F I G . 33.—Front view of skull of Elginia mirabilis, as restored from
natural moulds in the Elgin Sandstone, by Mr. E. T. Newton.

patience, made casts in gutta-percha. The casts thus obtained
indicate the remains of several species of Gordonia (one of the
Dicynodonts), and reveal the nature of the skull. Elginia miraMlis is the name proposed for the skull of a reptile which, on
account of the extreme development of horns and spines, reminds
one of the living lizards, Moloch and Phrynosoma. The skull
of this ancient saurian (see Figs. 33, 34) is unlike that of any living

96

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

or fossil form, and seems to show affinities with both the Labyrinthodonts and the lizards. The Fareiasaurus seems to be a
relation. There are sixteen horns on each side of the skull,
varying in length from one-fourth of an inch to nearly three
inches, not to mention certain small bosses, which, if included,

FIG. 34.—Side view of skull of Elginia mirabilis, as restored from
natural casts in the Elgin Sandstone, by Mr. E. T. Newton.

would make a total of forty bony outgrowths, all of them covered
with horny matter during the creature's life.
In conclusion, we have to thank Mr. Newton for kindly sending
us a copy of his valuable paper, as well as for permission to reproduce here the excellent drawings from which Figs. 33 and 34 are
taken.

CHAPTER V.
THE CROCODILE FAMILY AND ITS

HISTORY.

" Geology, of all the Sciences, addresses itself most powerfully to the
imagination, and hence one main cause of the interest which it excites."—
H U G H MILLER.

THE ancient Egyptians had a great veneration for the crocodile;
in fact, they worshipped this monster of their Nile. It was one
of the symbols of Typhon, the wicked brother of Osiris, whom
they considered to be the cause of every evil. Another of their
deities was Sutek, a man with a crocodile's head, and this deity
they did all in their power to appease. The palaeontologist of
to-day also looks upon a crocodile with great veneration; but
for very different reasons. To him this voracious reptile is
particularly interesting and venerable on account of its long
pedigree. The history of the crocodile order, as far as it has
yet been traced by geologists, takes us a great way back through
"the corridors of Time." We may therefore regard living
crocodiles as interesting "survivals" from the wreck of past
ages, and cannot but wonder how it is that, while so many other
orders of reptilian life have totally disappeared from the theatre
of life, this ugly and ferocious reptile should have managed to
live on, with comparatively little change either in structure or
habits. It is one of Nature's "persistent types"—like the
sharks, which have jogged along ever since the Silurian period.
It will be our endeavour, in the present chapter, to give a brief
sketch of the geological history of crocodiles. Let it not be
H

98

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

supposed that the subject has been fully worked out; such is not
the case, but the materials so far collected from the stony record
are by no means meagre, and point to certain important conclusions.
Before proceeding on our survey, it may be as well to say a
few words about living crocodiles —their structures and habits—so
that the reader will be in a better position to appreciate those
modifications which we shall find in the fossil forms.
Crocodiles differ in many respects from lizards, with which they
were formerly associated on account of their external resemblance.
They are thoroughly aquatic in their habits, and the most formidable of all the carnivorous fresh-water animals. Crocodiles
and Alligators, when young, and the Gavials throughout life, feed
chiefly on fish; but large crocodiles attack every animal which
they can overpower. Crocodiles proper are distinguished from
Alligators by having the fourth lower tooth passing into a notch
on the side of the upper jaw. The teeth are implanted in
distinct sockets, while in other recent reptiles they are united to
the jaws. The nostrils are situated close together at the upper
side of the extremity of the snout; the eyes and ears likewise are
near the upper profile of the head, so that the animal can breathe,
see, and hear, whilst its body is immersed in the water, the
upper part of the head only being raised above the surface.
When it goes under water, the nostrils are closed by valves; a
transparent membrane is drawn over the eyes; and the ear,
which is a horizontal slit, is shut up by a movable projecting flap
of the skin. The body is depressed, long, tapering, and protected on the back by rows of solid keeled plates or scutes. The
tail, which is long, is powerful, and admirably adapted for propelling the body through the water. The limbs are short but
powerful, and the toes are more or less united by a web. There
are five digits on the fore limbs, and four on the hinder, and
nails are found on three digits fore and aft. The fore limbs are
the shortest. The body of the crocodile is carried near the

THE CROCODILE

FAMILY

AND ITS HISTORY.

99

ground in walking, and the hinder part of the belly usually drags,
so that the limbs are spread out. The hind limbs have a toothed
crest behind, which is formed of about twelve scales. The fore
limbs are not used at all in swimming, but are placed flat against
the chest. The tail also is protected by a row of scutes. The
broad depressed head of the crocodile is very powerful, and the
bones of the skull are more consolidated than those of most
reptiles. The lower jaw is prolonged behind the base of the skull.
The numerous teeth are sharp, conical, and tapering where
visible, but they have a hollow, cylindrical fang, which is set in
a special hole in the jaw. Crocodiles snap and tear at their prey,
and thus wear or drag out their teeth, which are constantly
replaced by larger ones, for their first teeth are but small compared to those of old age. Each tooth is hollowed out at the
fang, so as to serve for the case or sheath of the germ of the
tooth destined to replace it.
Crocodiles inhabit Africa, Southern Asia, the tropical parts of
Australia, Central America, and the West Indies. The Indian
crocodile is very common in the East Indies and tropical
Australia, and has been said to grow to a length of thirty feet;
but this must be very exceptional, and eighteen to twenty feet
would be an average size.
The following graphic account of the crocodile's habits is taken
from one of Mrs. Fisher's (Miss Buckley) delightful works on
Natural History.1 " But it is in the water that we see them in
their full strength; there they swim with their webbed feet and
strokes of their powerful tail, and feed upon the fishes and water
animals—monarchs of all they survey. Nor is the crocodile
content with mere fish diet. Often he will lie with his nostrils
just above the water, and wait till some animal—it may be a
goat, or a hog, or even a good-sized calf—comes to drink, then
he will come up slowly towards it, seize it in his formidable
jaws,, or sometimes strike it with his powerful tail, and drag it
1

Winners in Life's Race, p. 109.

ioo

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

underwater to drown it. For himself, he can shut down his eyelids,
and the flaps over his ears, and he has a valve in the back of his
throat which he can close, and prevent the water rushing down
his open mouth; and after a while he rises slowly till his nostrils
are just above the water, and he can breathe freely while his
victim is drowning, because his nose-holes are very far back
behind the valve. Then, when it is dead, he brings it to shore
to tear it to pieces and eat it."
Alligators do not grow to the large size of true crocodiles,
and, with the exception of one species lately discovered in China,
are found only in America.
The Gharials, or Gavials, may be easily recognized by their
long and slender snout. They feed chiefly on fishes, for the
capture of which their sharp teeth and slender snouts are well
adapted.
Crocodiles of the present day inhabit lakes, rivers, and
marshes; but in ancient geological periods they seem to have
been less confined to fresh water. The earliest known forms
were of a simpler and less " specialised " kind of type. If we
had only the existing and more highly developed forms to deal
with, there would be little difficulty in separating them from
other orders; but in the Triassic rocks we meet with a number
of " generalised" forms which seem to be related to the Dinosaurs. For present purposes, and pending further discoveries,
the order may be divided as follows. Suborder i, A'etosauria,
represented by the little Triassic Aefosaurus, and another form.
Suborder 2, FarasucMa, represented by the Triassic Belodon and
Farasuchus, etc. Suborder 3, Eusuchia, embracing all those of
succeeding periods, including the present. The Right Hon.
Prof. Huxley, a good many years ago, made a careful study of
extinct crocodiles, and arrived at the conclusion that the oldest
crocodiles {fiarasuchia of his classification) differ less than living
ones from the Lizards, and that the oldest Dinosaurs approach
a less specialised form of Lizard.

THE CROCODILE

FAMILY

AND ITS HISTORY.

101

One of the oldest fossil crocodilians known is the quaint little
Aefosaurus, discovered in the Triassic strata of Wurtemburg,
which was completely encased in an armour of bony plates (see
Plate VI.)» Certain bones in its feet, corresponding to those
in the soles of our feet, are much elongated, and in many points
it seems to approach the carnivorous Dinosaurs, such as
Megalosaurus.1
Another very ancient crocodile—also from the Trias at
Wurtemburg—but a larger one, is Belodon2 (or Phytosaurus).
The entire skeleton of this creature is not known, and there-

F I G . 35.—The oldest fossil Crocodile {Belodon)^ restored, after Fraas, from
New Red Sandstone strata, Germany.

fore we cannot state its length; for, as all geologists are aware,
the Triassic strata of Europe do not contain well-preserved
fossils. A cast of the skull of this important fossil may be
seen in the Natural History Museum (Wall-case 2, Gallery 4 ) ;
also some of its bony scutes. This skull is peculiar in several
respects: it is wide at the back, and then becomes long and
narrow towards the front part; but in the region of the snout
it rises into a long narrow crest or ridge. The teeth are
sharp and pointed, with a serrated edge. Fig. 35 is a restoration
by Fraas, but incorrect in several respects. We have endeavoured to improve on this in the restoration shown in Plate VI.,
1
2

See Extinct Monsters•, p. 78 (new edit.).
Greek—&elos9 point of a spear ; odotis, odontos^ tooth.

io2

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

which is based upon a careful examination of the skull-cast
at South Kensington. The scutes in Fraas's restoration are too
conical. There are several important points to be noted in this
genus, all of which indicate its primitive character compared with
later and modern types. One is the nature of the vertebrae,
which are hollow or cup-shaped, at both ends (as in fishes, fishlizards, and most dinosaurs). Each foot was furnished with five
digits, whereas modern crocodiles have only four on the hind
feet. In all the members of this suborder the peculiar arrangement above referred to, by means of which water is prevented
from entering the air-passage when the creature is drowning its
prey, is wanting. The palaeontologist can trace the gradual
evolution of that important modification in forms of succeeding
periods; nor is this the only respect in which crocodiles became
more highly organised—in other words, more completely adapted
to their mode of life and surroundings,—for after tracing their
history through the Triassic and Jurassic periods, the palaeontologist finds in the next period, viz. the Cretaceous, that they have
developed an important modification in their vertebrae, which
now show centra hollow in front and convex behind, as in
crocodiles of the present day (proccelian group).1 Another
peculiar feature of the skull of Belodon is that, unlike all those
belonging to crocodiles of succeeding ages, the front pair of
nares, or nasal openings, are situated in the middle of the skull,
instead of at the end.
StagonolepiSy another Triassic crocodile, belonging to the same
primitive suborder, is from the Elgin Sandstone, and deserves
to be noticed. This now famous fossil has an interesting history. Our present knowledge of the skeleton is chiefly due
to the careful researches of Professor Huxley. In the first
instance, only some scutes were discovered; and on these Professor Agassiz founded the genus, thinking they belonged to a
1
In the earlier forms, the bodies of the vertebrae are cup-shaped, or hollow
on both sides (amphicoelian).

THE OLDEST KNOWN CROCODILE (BELODON).
PLATE

VI.

NEW RED SANDSTONE PERIOD.

ALSO THE LITTLE AETOSAURUS.

THE CROCODILE

FAMILY

AND ITS HISTORY,

103

ganoid fish. To be quite correct, we should say it was only impressions of scutes that Agassiz had to deal with. They looked
like scales of the Gar-pike (Lepidosteus). " The angular form of
these impressions," he said, "allows of no doubt that the fish
whence they proceeded was a great ganoid, similar to MegaMchthys" (a Carboniferous fish). He went on to say that the slab
containing these impressions came from Lossiemouth, and was
Old Red Sandstone. But, as we have already explained (see
p. 89), these sandstones have been shown by Professor Huxley to
be of New Red Sandstone age, although they rest without any break
on Old Red Sandstone. Sir Charles Lyell, however, suspected
that the scales belonged to a reptile, and expressed his doubts
to Hugh Miller, who was fully convinced they belonged to a fish.
In 1858, Sir Roderick Murchison visited the locality. On
examining the bony remains found associated with the scutes of
Stagonolepis, and preserved in the Elgin Museum as well as the
collections of Mr. Patrick Duff and the Rev. G. Gordon, he was
so impressed with their obviously reptilian character, that he
used every exertion to gather all the evidence that could be
obtained. But Professor Huxley was the first to prove that the
remains really belonged to a reptile, and published the results
of his labours in a monograph of the Geological Survey of Great
Britain, having been requested by the Director-General to report
on the remains found at Elgin. The veteran geologist, the Rev.
Dr. Gordon, of Birnie, and Mr. Grant, of Lossiemouth, were
instrumental in procuring further specimens of different parts
of this ancient crocodile, and those reported on by Professor
Huxley consisted of vertebrae, ribs, teeth, part of the skull, some
bones of the limbs, and other parts—not enough to furnish a
restoration of the skeleton, but enough to give a very fair
idea of it. The conclusions arrived at in this report were, that
Stagonolepis resembled one of the existing Caimans of intertropical America, except that it had a long narrow skull, like
that of a gavial. The scutes formed an armour for the under

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

side of the body, as well as for the back, and there were four
rows of them along the back, and eight on the under side,
whereas modern crocodiles have none on the under side, though
some alligators have. The teeth had short, swollen, and rather
blunt crowns, like the back teeth of some modern crocodiles.
Although the jaws were long, it was more like a modern
crocodile than the extinct Teleosaurus to be presently described.
In the same strata were found some footprints; these were
also reported on by Professor Huxley, who thought at first that
they were probably the tracks of Stagonolepis ; but he afterwards
modified his former opinion, and doubted if they could be
referred to any known form of reptile or amphibian. They
certainly, however, resemble the tracks of a crocodile in several
respects. The tracks are figured in one of Professor Huxley's
papers.1 The length of this ancient crocodile may be put down
at from sixteen to eighteen feet.
Certain strata in India, which may be approximately of the
same age, have yielded the remains of another type (Farasuchus)
belonging to the same suborder, but it is very imperfectly knownWe now pass on from the scanty remains of Triassic rocks to<
consider the abundant examples found in the Jurassic deposits—
some of which are complete, and show every bone in its place.
These extinct crocodiles, and all the succeeding ones (including
modern forms), belong to the third suborder, the Eusuchia, but
are divided into two series — amphiccelian and procoelian,
according to whether the centra of their vertebrae are hollow on
both sides, or hollow in front and convex behind,
There are several families in the first series, of which the
Teleosaurs2 are an example. One of the earliest descriptions of
an ancient fossil reptile was that published by Messrs. Wooller
and Chapman in the Philosophical Transactions, as far back as
the year 1758, whose quaint descriptions are accompanied by
1
2

Quarterly Journal Geological Society, xv. (1859), p. 440.
Greek—tele, far away; sauros, lizard.

A N C I E N T CROCODILIANS.
Pelagosaurus.
PLATE

VII.

JURASSIC

PERIOD.
Teleosaurtts.

THE CROCODILE

FAMILY

AND ITS HISTORY.

105

a figure of the specimen, which was about nine feet long. It
was found near Whitby, on the Yorkshire coast. In a letter
to John Fothergill, M.D., Captain W. Chapman says, "The
place where these bones lay was frequently covered with sea
sand to the depth of two feet, and seldom quite bare, which was
the occasion of their being rarely seen ; but being informed that
they had been discovered by some people two or three years ago,
we had one of them with us on the spot, who told us that, when
he first saw it, it was intire \sic\ and had two short legs on that
part of the vertebrae wanting towards the head. Although we
could not suspect the veracity of this person, we thought he was
mistaken, for we had hitherto taken it for a fish. But when we
took it up and found the os femoris [femur] above mentioned,
we had cause to believe his relation true, and to rank this animal
among those of the lizard kind; by its length (something more
than ten feet) it seems to have been an allegator \sic\; but I shall
be glad to have thy opinion about it." Subsequent writers entertained various opinions about the fossil. Camper, for example,
pronounced it to be a whale, meaning perhaps a dolphin. But,
as Cuvier remarked, the presence of teeth in both jaws proves
that it could not belong to a whale. Fig. 36 is not a very
correct restoration of the genus, especially with regard to the
limbs. The representation in Plate VII. will convey a more
accurate idea of the animal.
The form of the head approaches that of the gavials, but the
beak, or mandible, is more slender, and the teeth more numerous.
The first few teeth at the end of the snout are very long. The
skin was covered by broader and thicker scutes than those of a
crocodile, and these were overlaid in such a manner as to form
a strong, flexible coat of mail; they are also deeply pitted. In
general shape the Teleosauri were more slender than gavials;
their feet were better adapted for swimming than for walking,
the fore feet being much smaller than the hind ones. It is
evident that they could move with great rapidity in the water,

io6

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

but on land their movements were probably more difficult.
Teleosaurus Chapmani has at least one hundred and forty teeth,
while a modern gavial has one hundred and twelve.
A beautiful little specimen of Teleosaurus, from the Lias at
Monheim, in Franconia, was figured and described by Sommering
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Munich in 1814. This
example is about three feet long. In the Oolite of Caen, in
Normandy, very fine specimens of Teleosaurus have been found ;
and from these, the illustrious Cuvier first determined the
character and affinities of the original.
In the year 1791 a second specimen of a long and slender-

FIG. 36.—A Crocodile of the Jurassic period {Teleosaurus) restored.

nosed crocodilian was found in the Lias near Whitby, between
Staithes and Runswick; and another more perfect skeleton was
discovered at Salt wick, near Whitby, in 1824. This was one of
the finest Teleosauri ever discovered, and is figured by Dean
Buckland. It is now preserved in the Whitby Museum, where
it was examined by Owen. The snout is lost, but if this be
allowed for, the length of the creature would have been quite
eighteen feet. The teeth, one hundred and forty in number,
are all small, slender, and placed nearly in a straight line. The
toes were terminated by long and sharp claws. The backbone
is composed of sixty-four biconcave vertebrae, and the largest
vertebrae are three inches in length. The genus Teleosaurus is
only found in the Lower Jurassic strata, and is abundant in the
Stonesfield slate of Oxfordshire, and in the nearly equivalent

THE CROCODILE

FAMILY

AND ITS HISTORY.

107

strata of Caen, in Normandy. In the Oxford Clay (see table of
strata given in Appendix I.) is found another genus of the same
family, known as Steneosaurus, but it does not appear to have
survived beyond the epoch of the Kimmeridge Clay. Geoffroy
St. Hilaire recognised that this later form made a nearer approach
to the modern gavial than did the Teleosaurus. Pelagosaurus1 is
an allied genus represented by two species. The remains of the
small P. typus are especially abundant in the Upper White Lias
of Normandy; and so marvellously are many of the specimens
preserved, that every detail of their skeleton is known. In the
Natural History Museum may be seen a beautiful reproduction
of an entire skeleton of one of these little crocodiles from the
Lias of Curcy, Normandy, as prepared by the late Prof. E.
Deslongschamps (Gallery No. 4. See Fig. 37). The original
specimen consists of seventy-five parts, and is now in the
Natural History Museum of Paris. The Professor, with great
care and labour, himself worked it out from the matrix. The
Bath Museum also contains some excellent specimens.
The abundance of the remains of this family of armoured
crocodilians throughout the Liassic and Oolitic formations
shows how numerous these carnivorous saurians must have been
in the marshes, deltas, and estuaries of the islands and continents of those remote ages. Like the gavials of India, they
doubtless swarmed in the rivers and lakes, and preyed on the
fishes that lived in the seas of those periods. The crocodile,
the gavial, and the alligator all love warmth, and are now found
only in hot countries; we may therefore infer that the climate of
the period in question was warm. Such an inference is abundantly supported by other kinds of geological evidence, with
which we need not trouble the reader.
Metriorhynchus is another genus belonging to the same family,
but presenting certain peculiar features such as are unknown in
.any other members of the whole crocodilian order. It comes
1

Greek—-pelagos, sea; sauros, lizard.

FIG. 37.—Cast of a model of the crocodilian reptile, Pelagosaurus typus, from the Upper Lias, Curcy, Normandy. (From a drawing by
J. R. Hutchinson.) The original specimen was worked out from the matrix by Prof. E. Eudes Deslongchamps. It consists of seventy-four
parts, and is now in the Natural History Museum of Paris, This cast is in the Natural History Museum, L,ondon,

THE CROCODILE

FAMILY

AND ITS HISTORY.

109

from the Kimmeridge Clay of Normandy, and, together with
•certain other genera, forms a group by itself. In this group we
notice an absence of an armour of bony plates or scutes, such as
all other crocodiles have. Like the Ichthyosaurus described in
our former work,1 it had bony " sclerotic" plates in the eye.
Now, it is a remarkable fact that hardly any animal, either
living or extinct, is known to have these sclerotic plates and
at the same time to have scutes on its body. Some fine
examples of complete fossil crocodiles have been obtained from
the Kimmeridge Clay near Peterborough, by Mr. Alfred N.
Leeds, of Eyebury, whose successful labours as a collector are
well known to palaeontologists (Wall-case 2, Gallery 4).2 Geosaurus, a more specialised form, from the Kimmeridge Clay of
England and corresponding beds on the Continent, was considered by Baron Cuvier to hold an intermediate place between
the crocodiles and the monitors. Its eyes were protected by
sclerotic plates; the teeth were large and slightly recurved, and
the vertebrae biconcave. This genus probably attained a length
of ten or twelve feet.
Passing on now to a later age, that of the Chalk (Cretaceous
period), we come to Goniofiholis* an ancient crocodile with teeth,
which are cylindrical and smooth at the base, with a somewhat
•conical crown, the surface of which is strongly marked by numerous
ridges. Teeth of this kind are not uncommon in the strata of
Tilgate Forest and other localities of the Weald of Sussex, and
were first described by Dr. Mantell in 1822. The teeth and
bones found there vary considerably in size: some appear to
have belonged to individuals not more than eight or ten feet in
length ; others are twice as large, and indicate crocodiles eighteen
or twenty feet long.
1

Extinct Monsters, p. 39 (new edit.).
Three of these have just been placed in the Fossil Reptile Gallery of the
Natural History Museum.
3
So named from the rectangular form of the scutes (Gk. pholides).
2

no

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

In the summer of 1835, the workmen employed in a quarry
near Swanage, on splitting asunder a large slab of Purbeck
limestone, perceiving teeth and portions of bones exposed on the
corresponding surfaces of the slabs they had separated, carefully
preserved the two pieces of stone, which fortunately were
purchased for Dr. Mantell by a friend who happened to be in the
neighbourhood. When first received, the slabs only showed
obscure indications of the remains that careful chiselling

FIG. 38.—Fossil remains of a crocodilian reptile {GoniophoHs), from the
Wealden deposits, Swanage, 1835. (After Mantell.)

subsequently brought to light. After much labour, Dr. Mantell
succeeded in developing the detached parts of the skeleton now
visible (see Fig. 38). These two slabs, with their corresponding
surfaces, may be seen in the Fossil Reptile Gallery, in the
Natural History Museum (Wall-case No. 2). In the accompanying
diagram (Fig. 38), showing one of the slabs, the reader will easily
recognise ribs, vertebrae, scutes, and other parts of this important

THE CROCODILE FAMILY

AND ITS HISTORY,

in

find. The big bone below is part of the lower jaw containing
two teeth. It is not unusual to find specimens of these teeth
partly decomposed, and disclosing the young growing tooth
inside (see p. 99). The large bony scutes are scattered over the
slab, and offer several interesting peculiarities. In the first place,
their size is remarkable, some of them being as much as six
inches long, and two and a half inches in breadth; their outer
surface is impressed by many deep, rounded, or angular pits.
In number and size these remind us of the scutes of the
Teleosaurs; but they are usually longer in proportion to their
breadth. Their most remarkable feature, however, is a kind of
" peg and socket" arrangement, by means of which those of
the back were fitted together, like tiles on the roof of a house
—a structure which is highly characteristic of the large, bony, and
enamelled scales of many extinct ganoid fishes (such as Lepidotus).
Fragments of the scutes are often found in the Wealden strata,
and the earliest specimens collected by Dr. Mantell, from the
resemblance of their corrugated surface to that of certain plates
in the shield or carapace of the soft-skinned turtles, were figured
and described as such in his " Fossils of the Tilgate Forest." It
was only when he saw similar scutes associated with crocodilian
bones in the slabs from Swanage that he learned their true
character. From the size and strength of these bony plates, their
highly imbricated surface, and the interlocking arrangement,
Professor Owen considered that the Goniopholis was better protected than even the extinct Teleosaurus.
We may therefore justly conclude, from the skeleton of this
ancient crocodile, that it was a powerful carnivorous creature,
resembling in its habits the existing gavials and crocodiles, and
frequenting the rivers and marshes of the country inhabited by
those great terrestrial saurians, such as the Iguanodon^ with whose
remains its bones and teeth are generally found associated
throughout the Wealden deposits of England and Germany.
1

Extinct Monsters^ p. 98 (new edit.).

ii2

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Since Mantell's days, further discoveries in Belgium have
furnished materials for an almost complete reconstruction of the
skeleton of Goniofiholis. Fig. 39 shows G. simus from the
Wealden strata of Bernissart (now famous for the discovery of
a number of specimens of Tguanodon) as mounted and restored
by M. L. de Pauw, in the Royal Museum of Natural History at
Brussels. Fig. 40 shows an allied genus (Bernissartid) treated
in the same way. These beautiful specimens, on which much
care and labour have been bestowed, show that the under side,
as well as the back, was protected by scutes. The two
drawings 1 have been made by our artist from photographs, and
some of the wires on which the bones were mounted are seen.
In both of these genera the vertebrae are of the primitive type,
viz. hollow on both sides, like those of a fish.
Some very large teeth, with highly striated surfaces, and three
or four inches in length, are found in strata of the Lower Greensand age and the chalk : to these the name Polyptychodon2 has
been given, but whether the creature that owned them was a
crocodile or a dinosaur was for some time a matter of doubt, but
they are now known to be pliosaurs; we have already pointed
out that certain of the more ancient crocodiles show a decided
approach to the latter order. Some of these teeth resemble
at first sight those of the great sauroid fish Hypsodon of Agassiz.
From what has already been said, it will be clear that crocodiles were flourishing in abundance all through the Mesozoic or
Secondary Era. It was then an "age of reptiles/' and these
saurians doubtless only had their share in the good time which
the whole class seem to have enjoyed.
Continuing our brief survey of the history of this interesting
order, we find, on tracing the fossil forms up to Cainozoic or
Tertiary periods, that they were still fairly abundant in Europe and
1
From the Bulletin de Musee Royal dHistoire Naturelle de Belgique,
torn. 11 (1883). Paper by M. Dollo.
2
Greek—-pohcs, many; ptuckos^ fold; odbus, odontos, tooth.

to

F I G . 39.—Restored skeleton of Goniopholis simus, a crocodile from the Wealden strata of Belgium.

(After De Pauw.)

So
FIG. 40.—Restored skeleton of Bemissartia Fagesii^ a crocodile from the Wealden strata of Belgium.

(After De Pauw.)

w

ii4

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

other parts of the world. But they have by this time undergone
certain changes or improvements, bringing them, as it were, more
" u p to date ;" in other words, they are distinctly of modern
type. The Tertiary crocodiles have their vertebrae constructed on
a different plan; for all, with the exception of five, have the
centra hollow in front and convex behind. They therefore
belong to the proccelian series. Their skulls also show the
arrangement, alluded to at the beginning of this chapter, whereby
they were enabled to hold their prey under water to drown,
without the water rushing down their own throats. They are
obviously, therefore, more " specialised," both in this respect and
with regard to their vertebrae, which show a " ball and socket"
device that renders the back-bone stronger and better adapted
for movements on land. But the members of this series were
not so heavily armoured, and seldom have any bony scutes on
the under side of the body. As with the previous series, some
had long jaws, and others short ones.
Baron Cuvier appears to have first called the attention of
palaeontologists to the remains of fossil crocodiles in the Eocene
clay forming the Isle of Sheppey. In the second edition of his
great work, Ossemens Fossiks, he mentions a vertebra of the
neck obtained by M. G. A. Deluc at Sheppey, which, he says,
much resembles the corresponding vertebra in one of our living
forms. Further remains have since been discovered, both in
England and elsewhere, and the species is known as C. sfienceri
{or C. toliqpicus of Owen).
The Pliocene strata of the Siwalik Hills of Northern India
have yielded the remains of a gigantic form known as Rhamphosuchus, which had a large skull with powerful teeth, and may have
attained to a length of between fifty and sixty feet! (Wall-case 2,
Gallery IV.).
Sir Richard Owen, in reviewing the results of his labours and
valuable researches among the fossil crocodiles of the earlier part
of the great Tertiary era, describes in eloquent and vivid words

THE CROCODILE

FAMILY

AND ITS HISTORY.

1x5

the scenes which presented themselves to his powerful imagination. His words may well be quoted here.
"At the present day, the conditions of earth, air, water, and
warmth, which are indispensable to the existence and propagation
of these most gigantic of living Saurians, occur only in the
tropical or warmer temperate latitudes of the globe. Crocodiles,
Gavials, and Alligators now require, in order to put forth in full
vigour the powers of their cold-blooded constitution, the stimulus
of a large amount of solar heat, with ample verge of watery space
for the evolutions which they practise in the capture and disposal
of their prey. Marshes with lakes; extensive lakes ; large rivers
—such as the Gambia and Niger, that traverse the pestilential
tracts of Africa, or those that inundate the country through
which they run, either periodically, as the Nile for example, or
with less regularity, like the Ganges; or which bear a broader
current of tepid water along boundless forests and savannahs,
like those ploughed in ever-varying channels by the force of the
mighty Amazon or Orinoco ;—such form the broad features of the
destructive existence of the carnivorous and predaceous Crocodilian reptiles. And what, then, must have been the extent and
configuration of the Eocene continent, which was drained by the
rivers that deposited the masses of clay and sand accumulated
in some parts of the London and Hampshire basins to the
height of one thousand feet, and forming the graveyard of
countless Crocodiles and Gavials? Whither trended that great
stream, the haunt once of Alligators, and the resort of tapir-like
quadrupeds, the sandy bed of which is now exposed on the
upheaved face of Hordwell Cliff?
" Had any of the human kind existed and traversed the land
where now the base of Britain rises from the ocean, he might
have witnessed the Gavial cleaving the waters of its native river
with the velocity of an arrow, and ever and anon rearing its long
and slender snout above the waves, and making the banks
re-echo with the loud and sharp snappings of its formidable

n6

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

jaws. He might have watched the deadly struggle between the
Crocodile and Palseothere, and have been himself warned by the
hoarse and deep bellowings of the Alligator from the dangerous
vicinity of its retreat. Our fossil evidences supply us with ample
materials for this most strange picture of the animal life of
ancient Britain; and what adds to the singularity and interest of
the restored tableau vivant is the fact that it could not now
be presented in any part of the world. The same forms of
crocodilian reptile, it is true, still exist, but the habitats of the
Gavial and the Alligator are wide asunder, thousands of miles
of land and ocean intervening : one is peculiar to the tropical
rivers of continental Asia, the other is restricted to the warmer
latitudes of North and South America; both forms are excluded
from Africa, in the rivers of which continent true Crocodiles
alone are found. Not one representative of the Crocodilian
order naturally exists in any part of Europe; yet every form
of the order once flourished in close proximity to each other in
a territory which now forms part of England."Y
1

History of British Fossil Reptiles.

C H A P T E R VI.
SOME NEWLY DISCOVERED DINOSAURS.
" DRAGONS OF THE P R I M E . "

O F the many strange forms of ancient animal life brought to
light by the labours of geologists and collectors in various parts of
the world, perhaps those of the Dinosaurian order are the most
wonderful. Not only in size, but in strangeness and variety, they
may be said almost to stand alone. They were indeed the veritable
dragons of old time, and seem to come nearer than any other
antediluvian animals to the monsters of fairyland, whose acquaintance we all made in the nursery.
In our previous work we devoted several chapters to the consideration of many examples of this remarkable order. It has
long been known that these creatures were in existence at a
comparatively early period in the world's history, but until the
last few years their remains had not been discovered in any rocks
older than those of the Triassic or New Red Sandstone period.
All the forms which we endeavoured to describe belonged to the
Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, and it was only while going to
press that we learned, from a paper by Professor Marsh, of the
fortunate discovery of a large part of the remains of several
Dinosaurs in the well-known Connecticut Sandstone, of Triassic
.age, in America.
For many years—in fact, ever since the famous Connecticut
.Sandstone footprints were studied and described by Hitchcock

n8

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

and Deane—geologists have literally been on the track of
these earlier and hitherto unknown forms. They could only
make rather wild guesses about them from the numerous footprints left behind on those old sands of time, but could not
actually hunt them down to their lairs, as we have seen already
(chap. i.). Some of these guesses were certainly rather shrewd,
while others were far away from the truth. But this was only
what might be expected from the nature of the case, for fossil
footprints are most difficult things to interpret. We require to
know a good deal more of the exact nature of the tracks made
now by living animals, under all sorts of conditions, before we
can expect to be able to decide, with anything approaching to
certainty, the nature of the tracks left by primitive creatures ages
and ages ago, and even then we should still be confronted with
this grave difficulty—that the creatures that have passed away
from the face of the earth were, in many cases, so very different
from those with which we are now more or less familiar, that it is.
no easy matter to decide what kind of impression they would
leave behind when " making tracks," as our trans-atlantic cousinssay.
However, " the great bone-hunting chief," as the Indians call
Professor Marsh, has at last succeeded in hunting down several
new Red Sandstone Dinosaurs to their last resting-place, now
more than full five fathom deep in the bowels of the earth.
In the present chapter we propose first to give some account,
in as brief and simple a manner as possible, of these very interesting and recent discoveries, and then to say a few words about one
or two other Dinosaurs, some of small size, others of large
dimensions, which were not treated of in our previous work. In
this way we hope to complete our account of the Dinosaurs, and
bring them, as it were, " up to date."
The newest thing in Dinosaurs seems to be the Anckisaurusl
of Marsh, of which he has made a restoration of the skeleton,.
1

Greek—anc/it, near ; sauros, lizard.

SOME NE WL Y DISCO VERED

DINOSA URS.

119

as shown in Fig. 41. But it was only by putting together the
results of several discoveries that he was enabled to give the
complete outline of its skeleton as represented in the accompanying figure, so it may be well to give a brief account of the history
of the discoveries that led up to this much-desired result.
As far back as the year 1818, a portion of a skeleton was dis-

FIG. 41.—A carnivorous Dinosaur, Anchisaurus colurus, from New Red
Sandstone strata, North America. (After Marsh.)

covered in the Connecticut Valley, near Windsor. Another wasfound near Springfield, and described by Hitchcock, in 1865y
under the name Megadactylus. Later on, in the year 1884, Professor Marsh announced another discovery, near Manchester,
Connecticut, in almost the same geological level, or " horizon/'—

i2o

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

that is to say, in strata of about the same age,—of the remains
of an animal of larger size, but in many respects nearly allied to
the one described by Hitchcock. Both apparently belong to the
same genus. These remains seemed to represent an animal about
six to eight feet long; but, unfortunately, they are not complete,
although when first discovered the skeleton probably was complete,
and, with proper care, might have been preserved entire. Another
discovery was reported by Professor Marsh in 1891, when two
interesting specimens were secured for the Yale College Museum ;
one of these was a species of the Anckisaurus. Its skull and the
greater portion of the skeleton were found in place. The skull
is of moderate size and delicate structure, and in general shape
somewhat resembles that of the curious New Zealand reptile
known as the Sphenodon, or Tuatara (see p. 86). The vertebrae
and limb-bones are hollow, and the whole skeleton was lightly
built; the neck and tail were of moderate length.
Writing in the American Journal of Science for February of
this year (1893), Professor Marsh reports that the skeletons of
five small Dinosaurs have now been discovered in the Connecticut
Sandstone. They are sufficiently well preserved to give us most
valuable information with regard to all the chief characteristics of
the animals to which they once belonged. They were of moderate
size, and all were found in about the same geological horizon.
From the teeth, as well as from other characters, it is concluded
that they were carnivorous, and of this there can be but little
doubt. It is equally certain that other large forms of Dinosaurs
lived contemporaneously with these; for they have left numerous
tell-tale tracks; but no bones have yet been discovered such as
might have belonged to them.
With the more complete materials now in his possession
Professor Marsh has been enabled to make the restoration of the
skeleton of the genus Anckisaurus, seen in Fig. 41. We may
attribute a length of about six feet to the creature when alive.
The skeleton, from which this restoration was chiefly made,

issre- <&T H E OLDEST K N O W N DINOSAUR (ANCHISAURUS).
PLATE

VIII.

FROM NORTH AMERICA.

N E W RED SANDSTONE

PERIOD.

SOME NE WL Y DISCO VERED D1N0SA URS.

121^

was discovered entire, and apparently in the position in which
the animal died. Unfortunately, some of the vertebrae belonging to the neck and tail were lost before the importance of
the specimen was realised, but the skull and nearly all the
rest of the skeleton was saved. In order to complete the
outline, Professor Marsh made use of the corresponding parts,
fortunately preserved, in another specimen of an allied species,
viz. Anchisaurus solus, found in the same locality. Although it
would doubtless be preferable to make restorations from a single
specimen only, because the result would be free from all doubt
(except perhaps in some of the positions assigned to limbs, etc.),
yet this is seldom possible. Those who make extinct forms
of life their study are frequently obliged to adopt the method
of scholars in reconstructing the text of some classical author,
who, when breaks, or lacunce, occur in one manuscript, consult
another one which they consider trustworthy, and from it fill in
the gaps.
The beautiful restoration of this Dinosaur shown in Plate VIII.
is based on the figure of the skeleton shown above. The Anchisaurus colurus was one of the most slender and delicate of all the
Dinosaurs yet discovered, being only surpassed in this, respect by
the little bird-like form, from the Solenhofen slate,, known as
Compsognathus, the skeleton of which is reproduced for comparison on p. 133. This was the creature of which Professor
Huxley remarked that no one could look at it without concluding that it must have hopped about on its hind feet, like a
bird. The position chosen for the Anchisaurus, as represented
in our plate, is one which, doubtless, the creature was in the
habit of assuming during life. But, at the same time, there
can be but little doubt that it, was also in the habit of progressing on all-fours. In fact; some persons may think that it
looks a little "top-heavy," so to speak, in this semi-erect position
assigned to it. But, as other carnivorous Dinosaurs of a later
period must have walked erect on their hind legs, we maybe

i22

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

allowed to follow Professor Marsh in this matter, and to adopt
his conclusion.
It would be needless here to give the various arguments that
may be adduced to favour this view, but it may be pointed out, in
passing, that such a position is rendered more possible by the
way in which the bones of the pelvic region, namely, those known
as the ischium and the pubis, are directed, one forward and the
other backward. Compare, for example, the same bones in the
Claosaurus and the Ceratosaurus, represented in Figs. 45 and 43,
and in Plates IX. and X.
Another little piece of evidence pointing in the same direction
is the fact that the fore-fingers terminate in very sharp claws,
which seem to be better adapted to the purpose of seizing and holding the prey than for walking on. A prominent and important
feature of this Dinosaur is the small head. Notice also its long
bird-like neck. The ribs of the trunk, as well as those of the
neck, are very slender. From the nature of the vertebrae composing the creature's tail, it is evident that, unlike that of any other
Dinosaur, the tail was slender and flexible, as we see in the case of
modern lizards. In shape this tail must have been nearly round;
here, again, is a point of difference from other Dinosaurs. As we
shall see in the case of another animal to be presently described,
the dinosaurian tail was usually of a compressed or flattened form,
and doubtless was a great help in swimming.
But perhaps the most interesting conclusion connected with
this discovery is that the Anchisaurus was probably the creature
that made some of the tracks found in the strata in which its
remains were buried up. For half a century or more these
tracks have been a fruitful source of contention, and now at
last we seem to be literally " on the track " of one of the many
antediluvian creatures that made them. This is very satisfactory, and shows that time solves most things. Professor Marsh
points out that, on a firm but moist beach, only three-toed
impressions would have been left by the hind feet, and the tail

SOME NE WL Y DISCO VERED

DINOSA URS.

12 3

could have been kept free from the ground. On a soft muddy
shore, the claw of the first toe of the hind foot would have
left its mark, and perhaps the tail also might have touched the
ground. As we have already remarked, such additional impressions have been found on the Connecticut Sandstones (see
Figs. 3 and 4).
One other carnivorous Dinosaur, named Ammosarus by Professor Marsh, and allied to the one above described, is also partly
known in the same strata, but we cannot at present give any
account of it. One or two other forms from Triassic strata are
only imperfectly known; such as the Thecodontosarus, from the
Triassic conglomerate of Clifton, Bristol, and Zanclodon, from
Germany and South Africa.
The reader will find in chap, v., p. 101, some account of
an interesting fossil crocodile called Belodon^ that flourished at
the same time as these Dinosaurs; but our knowledge of the
fauna of this period is unfortunately small, on account of the
unfavourable nature of the New Red Sandstone strata, which are
too porous to allow of the proper preservation of bones.
Taking one consideration with another, there can be but little
doubt that Dinosaurs flourished vigorously during the period of
the New Red Sandstone. We have two kinds of evidence to
confirm such a conclusion; one is the large number and variety
of footprints which they have left behind—although, of course, we
cannot suppose that they were all made by Dinosaurs ; for, as we
have seen, some were probably due to tortoises, while others were
probably made by Labyrinthodonts and perhaps even Anomodonts.
Another piece of evidence is the known fact that Dinosaurs were
abundant in the succeeding Jurassic period. Judging from the size
of some of the footprints, it would appear that not a few of the
Triassic forms attained large dimensions. And, if the strata had
been more favourable, we should have had more of them preserved. But we must pass on to consider a few Dinosaurs of two
later periods, some of which have only lately been found, while all

i24

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

of them possess characters of great interest to naturalists and
palaeontologists.
The first of these is a ferocious-looking beast, recently described
by Professor Marsh under the name Ceratosaurus, This name,
which signified a horned saurian/' was given to it on account of
the large horn it carried on the head, as shown in Mr. Smit's restoration (Plate IX.).1 The Ceratosaurus is a good typical example
of a carnivorous Dinosaur; it was of considerable size, being some
twenty-two feet long, and probably a dangerous enemy to some
of the herbivorous forms, such as the Brontosaurus, one of which

F I G . 42.—Skull of Ceratosaurus nasicornis.

(After Marsh.)

is represented in our plate as being attacked. This new
Dinosaur resembles somewhat the Megalosaurus, described in
our former work,2—so much so, indeed, that Mr. Lydekker considers it should be included under that same genus, which has been
rendered classic by the labours of Professors Buckland, Phillips,
and Owen. The large bones of the limbs of these formidable
flesh-eating monsters were hollow, and many of the vertebrae are
deeply excavated, except at the ends. A study of the skeleton of
this creature shows clearly that it was constructed with a view to
1
2

Greek—ceras, horn; sauros* lizard.
Extinct Monsters', new edit., p. 76.

*1
1

l

•

iT/l

l

^ - ?,

'

E^^PP
mmmk
1 •

I-' \ *

A LARGE H O R N E D DINOSAUR (CERATOSAURUS) FROM NORTH AMERICA.
PLATE

IX.

•*/k<- ' \it7

JURASSIC PERIOD.

_J

!

L

SOME NE WL Y DISCO VERED

DINOSA WES.

12 5,

lightness and strength combined. The skull of this species,
C. nasicornis (see Fig. 42), is very large in proportion to the rest
3f the skeleton, and its general structure is light and open. The
nasal bones support a large horn-core; the side of this elevation is
very rough, and marked with what are called " vascular grooves,"
ill of which tends to confirm the idea that it supported a high
10m, which must have been a most powerful weapon of offence
md defence.

FIG. 43.—Skeleton of a large carnivorous Dinosaur, Ceratosaurus nasicornis,
from Jurassic strata, North America. (After Marsh.)

The jaw-bones are large and massive, each being provided with
fifteen teeth, in use, which are large and trenchant, indicating
clearly the ferocious character of the animal. The eyes seem to
have been protected by partially overhanging protuberances,
shown in the skull (see Fig. 42). The tail was long and welli
adapted for swimming. The fore limbs are very small; each has
four ringers, all armed with sharp claws, and it certainly looks as
if they could have been but little used for supporting the body,.

126

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

but for holding the prey they would be very useful. The bones,
of the pelvic region (that of the hind limbs), are particularly interesting. In the first place, the three bones of each side, instead
of being more or less independent of each other, are fused together.
The two long bones, known as the ischium and the pubis, were
each expanded at their ends into a kind of foot; and Professor
Marsh concludes that, when the creature sat down, it was partly
supported by these protuberances, and he thinks that some of the
Connecticut impressions prove this point.
Just as the Ceratosaurus of the New World is represented by, or
rather corresponds to, the Megalosaurus of the Old World, so the
other newly discovered Dinosaur, which we are about to describe,
shows a good deal of correspondence with the now well-known
Iguanodon. It is called by Professor Marsh, Claosaurus ; and it
represents a whole family of herbivorous Dinosaurs. In length it
was nearly thirty feet, and must have stood nearly fifteen feet
high. The remains of this remarkable creature were discovered
by two of Professor Marsh's assistants in the Laramie beds of
Wyoming, associated with those of the still more strange Triceratops? and also of some diminutive mammals lately discovered.
The most important feature in the skeleton of the Claosaurus
is the skull. This is long and narrow, and, as seen in Fig. 44,
shows a large muzzle, the surface of which is considerably roughened, showing that it was covered, during life, with hard and thickened skin. The brain of the creature was very small in proportion
to its skull. The orbits for the eyes are large, suggesting large
eyes; and its sense of smell was probably pretty keen. The
teeth resemble those of Hadrosaurus, an allied form.2 Succulent
vegetation probably was the main diet of this animal. The whole
back-bone, or vertebral column, was found complete, with the
exception of a few little vertebrae from the end of the tail. Altogether there were about ninety vertebrae in the back-bone of this
1

Extinct Monsters', frontispiece.

2

See p. 138.

SOME NE WLY DISCOVERED

DINOSA URS.

127

powerful creature. The reader will perceive, from the drawing of
the skeleton, in Fig. 45, that this Dinosaur must have possessed
a long and powerful tail, such as would have constituted a most
useful organ of propulsion through the water. As in its ally,
Iguanodon, the vertebrae of the tail are compressed in a vertical

FIG. 44.—1. Skull of Claosaurus annectens, side view.
view. (After Marsh.)

2. The same, front

direction. Plate X., which is a restoration, should be compared
with the drawing of the skeleton in Fig. 45. Another important
feature of the skeleton is the remarkable ossified tendons, by
means of which the neural spines of the vertebrae were held

128

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

together, and so strengthened. They increase in number in the
region of the thighs, and also in the first part of the tail.
The reader will have noticed the smallness of the fore limbs
compared with the hind limbs. This is often the case with
Dinosaurs. Only three fingers of the hand were used—the first
was a rudimentary one; the second and third were of nearly
equal length, the fourth shorter, and the fifth entirely wanting.

FiG; 45.—Skeleton of a large herbivorous Dinosaur, Claosaurus annectens,
from Cretaceous strata, North America. (After Marsh.)

These long fingers ended in hoofs, not claws; the fore limb as a
whole was adapted for walking and support, rather than for
purposes of prehension, although the latter might have been
expected from its small size and position. The hind limb has
three digits, all well developed and massive. These were covered
with fairly broad hoofs, and it is clear that this Dinosaur was in
the habit of walking on its hind legs. It is distinguished from
Hadrosaurus, a near ally, by the fact that its limb-bones, instead

A LARGE HERBIVOROUS DINOSAUR (CLAOSAURUS) FROM NORTH AMERICA.
PLATE X.

T h e bird represented on the right is a young

Hespcroruis.

CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

SOME NE WL Y DISCO VERED

DINOSA URS.

12 9

of being hollow, were all solid. This piece of evidence tends to
confirm the idea that Claosaurus was fond of the water; for it has
been pointed out by Owen, Marsh, and other authorities, that
land animals, having to support the weight of their bodies on
land, have hollow bones; while those which live in the water, like
whales, being buoyed up by the action of the water, and thus
having so much weight taken off their hands and feet, have their
limb-bones solid.
The late Sir Richard Owen, in his great work on British Fossil
Reptiles, made some valuable remarks on the probable habits of
Dinosaurs, which deserve careful attention. He points out that
actual observation of a swimming crocodile testifies to the fact
that the fore-limbs are laid flat and motionless upon the sides of
the chest. Their chief swimming organ is, of course, the tail,
which is both long and powerful, and, in some forms, is flattened
in a vertical direction. Most of the Dinosaurs at present known
have the crocodilian swimming organ; and some, such as the
Claosaurus and the Iguanodon, reveal it considerably compressed
vertically. In those forms it must have been a cumbrous impediment in the way of walking on land; but in others, such as Anchisaurus, the tail was rounder and more lizard-like, and doubtless
these carnivorous forms were less hampered in their movements
on land. Concerning the smallness of the fore limbs, Professor
Owen suggests that the forward dash of the creature through
the water in pursuit of fishy prey would be facilitated by this
reduction in size of the fore limbs, which would take no part
in movement, unless in the way of steering. On land they might
be of some use in scratching out the nest for the eggs, as well as
in helping to support the body.
With regard to the relations of this Dinosaur to others, Professor Marsh considers that it represents a separate family.
The reasons for this opinion, being based on certain peculiar
features which require technical description, need not be given
here. The result of a scientific examination of the skeleton of
K

130

^CREATURES

0E OTHER

DAYS,

Claosaurus shows it to be a highly specialised—that it is, a highly
developed—animal, making allowance, of course, for the fact that
it was after all only a reptile; or perhaps it would be better to
say a Dinosaur, for the Dinosaurs, as an order, were very
unlike any reptiles now living. We are so apt to judge of
extinct reptiles by those orders which have survived, that a Dinosaur appears as a very different thing, to which the term reptile
seems hardly appropriate. But mere questions of classification
need not trouble us much; for even with regard to living
animals there is considerable difficulty. But when naturalists
come to try and make out a scheme of classes and orders for
extinct animals, they are beset with far greater difficulties. All
the existing classifications of animals, whether living or extinct,
must be regarded as purely temporary arrangements.
The points of resemblance between birds and Dinosaurs have
been pointed out by Professor Huxley. This resemblance shows
itself most strikingly in the hind limbs; and we have already
alluded to the fact that for a long time the Connecticut footprints (see chap, i.) were taken for those of birds. Considering
their very bird-like character, such a conclusion was very natural;
and even now, it would not be safe for geologists to assume that
there were no representatives of the bird class at the time when
those footprints were made.
It has sometimes been asserted that birds were derived from
Dinosaurs in the course of evolution, but this is not a correct
statement of the views of leading naturalists, such as Professor
Huxley. They would only venture to suggest that probably
both were derived from some common ancestor, which clearly
is not the same thing. This view has been pretty widely
accepted by students of ancient animal life—partly, perhaps,
in deference to so great an authority as Professor Huxley;
but is it not just possible that these points of resemblance
(which are too obvious to be denied) may be due to the
simple fact that, for reasons best known to themselves, many

SOME NE WL Y DISCO VERED DINOSA URS.

131

Dinosaurs walked, in a more or less erect position, on their
hind limbs? Similar habits, if continued for age after age,
must tend to produce somewhat similar appearances, at least
externally. Take, for example, the case of whales and fishes;
the original land mammal from which whales are descended has,
in the course of time, become so fish-like in appearance that
even in these modern days there are some who yet speak of
them as fishes ! The shape of a whale is fish-like ; it has lost its
hind limbs through disuse; it has changed its fore limbs into
paddles, which have a certain fin-like aspect; and its cousin, the
porpoise, has developed a big triangular fin on the back ! To take
another example: Pterodactyls are reptiles which acquired the
power of flight; and some, at least, of them must have borne a
resemblance to modern bats.1 And yet pterodactyls and bats are
in no way related. The pterodactyl was a lizard that could fly;
while the bat is a mammal that can do the same. There is no
question of relationship. Now let us apply the same kind of
reasoning to Dinosaurs and birds. Palaeontologists tell us they
are related: the question is, are the resemblances of their
skeletons (in certain points) to birds to be taken as implying
relationship however distant ? For our part, we confess to being
not quite convinced. Dinosaurs walked, ran, and perhaps some
of the smaller ones even hopped on their hind legs; would it not
follow as a matter of course that certain rather bird-like developments would follow ? Let us reason the matter out. For a
horizontal body, like that of a lizard, to be properly poised on
two legs instead of four, the weight of the viscera must be transferred backward, and the forward, or anterior part of the body
lightened. The lower bones of the region of the thighs (pelvis),
with the contained organs, are thrown backward, while the fore
part of the body and the fore limbs are lightened and much
reduced in proportionate size.
Changes such as these might be supposed capable of producing
1

See Extinct Monsters', p. 131 (new edit.).

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

those bird-like features in Dinosaurs which we have already
noticed, and on the strength of which some authorities believe
birds and Dinosaurs to have had a common ancestry. We
insert here an illustration (see Fig. 46) in which are shown, side by
side, the limb-bones and those of the region of the pelvis in a
crocodile, a dinosaur, and a bird. (The middle drawing is not

A
B
c
FIG. 46.—Hind limbs of (A) Bird, (B) Dinosaur, and (c) Crocodile.

complete.) Professor Marsh has described some remains of
certain small and slender little Dinosaurs (Hallopus1) about the
size of a fowl, which, from the construction of their feet, he
believes were capable of jumping.
Mr. J. W. Hulke, another English authority on Dinosaurs,
described more than ten years ago a very remarkable and slender
form of Dinosaur, on which we must now, in conclusion, say a
few words. Professor Huxley has also helped to unravel the
meaning of its structure. Hypsilofihodon is the name this little
creature has received, on account of the nature of its teeth.
As far as we know at present, it was the smallest of the Dinosaurs with the exception of the Compsognatkus2 and Hallopus.
1
2

Greek—ha!lomai9 to jump ; pous, foot.
Greek—kompsos, elegant; gnathos, jaw.

SOME NE WL Y DISCO VERED D1N0SA URS

133

It is certainly the least specialised—that is, the least highly organised. It lived during the Wealden period, or, in other words,
during the closing scenes of the great Mesozoic era, and so was

FIG. 47.—Skeleton of a small Dinosaur, Compsognathus longipes. (From the
Solenhofen limestone.)
For restoration, see Frontispiece.

contemporary with others of a much more specialised character. As
a rule the remains of animals found in our English Wealden and

134

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Cretaceous strata are always in a fragmentary condition; but in
this case we have, fortunately, an exception. Almost the whole
of its skeleton is now known, thanks to the labours of Mr. Hulke
and the Rev. William Fox. The remains occur in a bed which
crops out a short distance west of Barns High Cliff, and passes
under the shore a few yards west of Cowleaze Chine, on the
south coast of the Isle of Wight. In the first case, it was wrongly
described by Sir R. Owen as a young Iguanodon. A restoration
of its skeleton, according to Hulke, is seen in Fig. 48, and in
Plate XI. we have the creature restored to life. The skull shows
a combination of characters belonging to a crocodile and a
lizard, but is on the whole more lizard-like. The creature was

FIG. 48.—Skeleton of a small Dinosaur, Hypsilophodon Foxii, from
Wealden strata, Isle of Wight. Restored by Professor J. W. Hulke, F.R.S.
From the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. 173.

about four feet long. In form, mode of attachment, the teeth
resemble those of lizards; their crowns are finely serrated, and
resemble in miniature the serrations of the teeth of an Iguanodon.
The hind limbs are considerably longer than the fore limbs; and
the hind foot had four long toes, with a rudiment of a fifth. The
sharp pointed and curved claws seem to indicate that it was a
rock-climber; perhaps it also could climb trees. The great
depth of the tail suggests that it was also a good swimmer. The
fore limbs were provided with four fingers and a rudiment of a
fifth. The eyes of this creature, which were probably large,
contained, or rather were protected by, a ring of bony plates,
"sclerotic plates," not shown in Plate XI., which are so well seen in

A SMALL DINOSAUR (HYPSILOPHODON).
PLATE

XI.

PTERODACTYLS IN T H E A I R .

CRETACEOUS P E R I O D .

SOME NEWLY

DISCOVERED

DINOSAURS.

135

the Ichthyosaurus, and in the eyes of some modern birds. This
interesting peculiarity is also exhibited by the labyrinthodonts,
which probably inherited it from their ancestors, the fishes. The
presence of this structure in the Hypsilophodon is quite in harmony

FIG. 49.—A piece of Great Colite limestone with imbedded group
of eggs of reptiles. (After Buckman).

with what was said about its being an unspecialised or lowly form
of reptile.
Geologists and naturalists may confidently look forward during
the next ten or twenty years to the discovery of many new and
interesting forms of Dinosaurian life.

CHAPTER VII.
DINOSAURS

(continued).

" T h e origin of life, and the order of succession in which its various forms
have appeared upon the earth, offer to Science its most inviting and most
difficult field of research. Although the primal origin of life is unknown, and
may perhaps never be known-, yet no one has a right to say how much of the
mystery now surrounding it Science cannot remove. It is certainly within the
domain of Science to determine when the earth was first fitted to receive life,
and in what form the earliest life began. To trace that life in its manifold
changes through past ages to the present is a more difficult task, but one from
which modern Science does not shrink."—PROFESSOR O. C. MARSH.

WE now pass on to the consideration of some American
Dinosaurs, and of Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins's work in restoring
extinct animals.
Having undertaken the important task of constructing large
models for the Central Park at New York, it became necessary
for Mr. Hawkins to make a careful and complete survey of the
collections scattered throughout the country. Two months were
spent in examining the Museums at Washington, New Brunswick,
New Haven, and Philadelphia. Every facility was offered to him
at these various institutions; each contained valuable material
for the purpose in view, and especially that of New Brunswick.
In Philadelphia, at the Academy of Natural Sciences, he met
with a rich storehouse of fossil treasures such as were especially
needed for illustrating the gigantic forms of life that once peopled
the continent of North America.
As had already been pointed out by Dr. Leidy, this collection

Dryptosaurus (Lcelaps).
Hadrosaurus.
F I G . 50.—Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins's workshop.

Great Irish Deer.

J38

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

proved that the old American Dinosaurs were related to those
which had long been known in Europe. The two forms of ancient
life first selected by Mr. Hawkins were Hadrosaurus and Dryfitosaurus (Lcelaps); careful drawings and descriptions of all the
fragments of the fossil remains of these two Dinosaurs were made.
Fortunately it so happened at this particular time that the curatorsof the Academy were occupied in extricating from the matrix a
valuable specimen of the former Dinosaur recently received from
New Jersey. This difficult work was entrusted to Mr. Hawkins.
The fossil remains amounted to about one-third of the actual
skeleton of the animal; a cast of each bone was made in plaster
of Paris, and the missing parts were restored so as to harmonise
with the rest of the skeleton. These parts were also moulded,
and in this way a complete representation of the bony framework
of this extinct monster was obtained, such as is shown in Fig. 50,
which shows that its proportions were by no means insignificant.
Hadrosaurus was a near relative of the Iguanodon, described in
our previous work,1 so that the one throws light upon the other.
In view of the interest attaching to this singular and even grotesque
Dinosaur, it may be worth while to give some account of the discovery of its remains. The story may be briefly told as follows:—
Mr. W. P. Foulke, a member of the Academy of Philadelphia,,
while passing the season at Haddonfield, five miles from Philadelphia, learned that one of his neighbours, while digging marl
upon his farm, about twenty years ago, had found some bones*
These were described as being of large size and very numerous.
Unfortunately, visitors had been permitted to carry away fossils,
but those taken were chiefly vertebrae, and it was hoped that, if
the old site could be found—for it was quite filled up, and overgrown with shrubs and grass—the rest of the skeleton might be
obtained. Permission was given to dig in any part of the farm,
and a party of marl-diggers was set to work. The old pit was
thus discovered, and, after a time, the diggers were fortunate
1

Extinct Monsters^ p. 97, new edit.

DINOSA

URS.

i39

enough to come upon a pile of bones, which proved to belong to
the creature whose remains were so much desired. With great
care the bones were all separately taken out, and transferred to the
residence of Mr. Foulke. Dr. Leidy and Mr. Isaac Lea were
informed of this important discovery, and they promptly visited
the excavation. The bones collected during the time that the
.. excavation lasted were put in order and described by Professor
Joseph Leidy, and the animal was named by him Hadrosaurus
Foulkii.1 When the spoils were reckoned up, it was found that
they consisted of twenty-eight vertebrae, an arm-bone, two bones
of the fore-arm, several bones of the pelvis, a thigh-bone, a shinbone, a fibula, and several bones of the hind foot. The collection
also contained nine teeth, and a fragment of a lower jaw. It will
thus be seen that all the principal parts of the creature's skeleton
were represented; so that Mr. Hawkins was enabled, without
drawing too much upon the imagination, to restore those parts
that were missing. The restored skeleton of Hadrosaurus, as seen
in Fig. 50, measured twenty-six feet in length; and stands, on its
hinder extremities and tail, thirteen feet, three inches high. These
measurements show that the creature must have rivalled in size
even the huge Iguanodonts discovered at Bernissart, in Belgium,
and described in our previous work.2
Without going too much into detail, we may point out a few
conclusions to be drawn from these bones. With regard to the
vertebrae, or bones of the spinal column, they gradually increase
in size from the head to the region of the thighs (pelvis)
and beginning of the tail, where they are of the greatest bulk.
In the tail they gradually diminish in size without diminishing
in length. An important feature is the length of the spinous
processes of the caudal, or tail vertebrae; and the well-marked
abutments below indicate the existence of well-developed chevron,
or V-like bones. These caudal vertebrae, by their number, size,
1
2

Greek—/tadros, powerful; saurosy lizard.
Extinct Monsters, p. 98 (new edit.).

DINOSAURS.

J4*.

and other features, indicate a tail of immense strength, great
length, and depth. The bones of the fore limb are entire, and
the humerus, or arm-bone, is twenty-two and a half inches in
length. This limb was freely movable in all directions. The
bones of the hind limbs greatly exceed in size those of the fore
limbs. The femur, or thigh-bone, is forty-one and a half inches
in length; the tibia, or shin-bone, is over three feet in length,
and nearly a foot in breadth at the upper end. These bones
of the hind limb were hollow, thus affording both lightness and
strength. Professor Leidy inferred, from the manifest disproportion between the fore and the hind limbs, that the Hadrosaurus was in the habit of assuming a position like that of a
kangaroo, sustaining itself like a tripod, on its enormous hinder
extremities and powerful tail.
Such an animal must have been equally at home both in the
water and on land : with its powerful tail it was probably a good
swimmer, and with its long hind legs it would be able to reach the
leaves of trees and shrubs which to less-favoured creatures must
have been out of reach.
And here it may be pointed out that these conclusions have
been rendered more likely, if not actually confirmed, by the observations of Hitchcock and Deane, alluded to in our first chapter;
for they have discovered the impressions of the tails of certain
Dinosaurs, made as they walked along or stopped now and then
to rest (see p. 19).
Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins's restorations in the Central Park
naturally attracted a good deal of attention ; and although, in the
light of later discoveries, they could certainly be improved upon,
yet his endeavours were praiseworthy. The Commissioners for
the Park, in their thirteenth annual report, allude to them as
follows:—
" A very wide interest, both in this country and in Europe, has
been excited among scientific men by this interesting and novel
undertaking. The proceedings of the Commissioners of the Park

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

in this matter have been alluded to, commented upon, and commended by scientific journals both at home and abroad. It
would be difficult to insure too great care in the preservation of
the wonderful remains of animal organisations of past times that
are from time to time discovered in different parts of the country.
There are examples of fossil remains lying in public and private
collections of the country, that, in the interests of science, should
be utilised and placed where they can be got at by those specially
interested in this department of inquiry. It is very difficult,
except through the offer of a reward in money, to impress upon
those who, in excavation, casually come upon fossil remains, the
importance of handling them with care; they are often, to them,
nothing but old bones, and a stroke of the pick or a scoop of the
shovel may, in an instant, irrecoverably destroy or cast away a
fragment that might serve to establish or refute received ideas of
the past eras of our globe." 1
The Hadrosaurus, like the European Iguanodon, was a vegetable
feeder; the other Dinosaur, Dryfitosaurus (Lcelaps), represented
in Fig. 51, was a huge carnivorous creature, nearly allied to the
Megalosaurus, described in our previous work.
We are sorry to hear that these models and others, on which
Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins spent so much care, have been destroyed
and ignominiously cast into the lake ! Incredible as it may seem,
we are informed that this wanton piece of destruction was wrought
at the bidding of a certain Mayor of New York, who, unfortunately for the cause of Science, considered that the results
arrived at by geologists did not harmonise with revealed religion.
Let us hope that by this time people have learned the truth so
well expressed by the great naturalist Agassiz, who said, speaking
1

The author is indebted to Professor Rupert Jones, F.R.S., for the loan of
the Twelfth and Thirteenth Annual Reports of the Board of Commissioners for
the Central Park, New York, which are not to be found even in the British
Museum Library. The above information is chiefly derived from these
Reports, and Mr. Smit's careful drawings (Figs. 50 and 51), are made from
two plates therein.

DINOSA URS.

i43

of living animals : " These are but the thoughts of the Almighty
uttered in material forms."
Fig. 52 is from a sketch made in the grounds of the Crystal
Palace, Sydenham, and shows a large number of the models there
set up by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins. These, although some of
them were made from very imperfect materials, such as did not
really warrant any attempt at restoration, nevertheless are interesting, historically, as being the first attempts of the kind, and
at least serve to draw the attention of those who visit the Palace
to the wonders of geology. It will be seen that the huge
Iguanodon on the left, and the ponderous Megalosaurus next to
it are very far from the truth, but some of the others further on
are much more in accordance with modern ideas on the subject.

A PERILOUS FOSSIL H U N T .

We have already alluded, in our previous work, to the dangers
and difficulties encountered by Professor Marsh in his explorations,
during which he has crossed the Rocky Mountains no less than
twenty-seven times. But, in order more fully to illustrate this
branch of the subject, it may be worth while to give some further
account of these labours, undertaken in the cause of Science.
The following story is based upon a narrative which appeared
in the New York Tribune, December 22, 1874.
In October of that year news reached Professor Marsh that a
most promising locality of fossils had been discovered in the
u
Bad Lands " of Dakota, south of the Black Hills; the character
and condition of these bones, as they lay embedded in position,
would throw additional light on a problem which he was then
trying to work out. It was important to explore this region as
soon as possible; for the Indians have a way of carrying a fossil
tooth or bone as an amulet or charm—or, as they phrase it,
" medicine." The discovery of fossil remains in the locality which
Professor Marsh explored was originally made by an Indian,

Igtianodon.

FK,

Megalosmtrtis.
5

, - M , Waterh0Use Hawkins, Mc,els o , £ £ L f f l a I s i n t h e ^ ^ h e
From a sketch by J. R. Hutchinson (by permission).

C

t

y

^ ~

^
S
y
syaentam.

^

DINOSAURS.

145

who brought into the camp the molar tooth of an animal which
Professor Marsh has named Brontotherium (see Fig. 6$). The
finder carried the tooth in his tobacco-pouch; his notion about
it was that it had belonged to " a big horse struck by lightning."
The weather was intensely cold, the season rapidly advancing,
and the Indians feverishly sensitive about the approach of
the white men. But, great as were the perils, the attractions were
greater. This expedition differed from all previous ones in the
fact that the Professor, fearing special danger and hardships, took
with him no party from New Haven. He depended for assistance
in the field on a number of frontier-men, who had been in his
employ as collectors and guides in previous expeditions, and on
whom he knew he could implicitly rely. Among these was Hank
Clifford, who had been his chief guide in the Niobrara expedition in the previous year, and whose knowledge of the country
and of the Indians had been fully tested. Other less famous, but
promising, aspirants for honours upon the " bone-fields" were
attached to the expedition.
Leaving the railroad at Cheyenne, Professor Marsh reached
Fort Laramie in the early part of November, and thence proceeded
to the Red Cloud Indian Agency, where he concentrated the men
and materials of the expedition. The outfit on such occasion
includes a great variety of articles—implements of war, of science,
and of the kitchen, with abundant means for packing the specimens
obtained so that they shall not be injured by the roughest kind of
transportation. General L. P. Bradley, Colonel Stanton, Captain
Mix, and Lieutenant Hay, officers of the United States army,
were of the party that went from Laramie to the Red Cloud
Agency ; the escort was M. Company of the 2nd Cavalry, Captain
John Mix in command. Major A. S. Burt and Lieutenant W.
L. Carpenter joined the expedition at the Agency, and greatly
contributed to its success.
Unfortunately the bone-field lay north of the White River, in
the Indian reservation; and it was therefore advisable to obtain
L

i46

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

the assent of the Indians, in accordance with a certain treaty.
Professor Marsh was anxious to have a willing assent from them,
a fight with Indians being, as the newspaper writer remarks, no
part of the programme. Shortly after the arrival of the party at
the Agency, Red Cloud, the great Sioux chief, put in an appearance, and was welcomed to dinner. The proposed expedition
was only partially discussed at the dinner, and Red Cloud's
sentiments with regard to it were judged to be not unfriendly.
The conversation took place through the medium of an
interpreter.
But there were many circumstances making the time unpropitious. Certain recent affairs had very nearly led to bloodshed. The general danger was greatly increased at this time by
the presence in the neighbourhood of an extraordinary number of
Indians, gathered to obtain their annuities from the Government.
Outlaws, renegades, and "Bad Indians" swelled the numbers
that surrounded the Agency, and made the neighbourhood
unquiet, not to say dangerous. In short, the whole vicinity was
alive with Indians, their families, and their ponies. The agent at
the post recommended that a guard should ^be selected from the
warriors to accompany the expedition, and very soon assembled
a council of leading chiefs to discuss the matter. It soon
became evident that the Indians mistrusted the intentions of the
bone-hunters, as stated by the agent. White Tail, one of the
principal chiefs, at once sprang to his feet and harangued
the audience, declaring that the proposed bone-seeking was
merely a ruse to begin digging for gold and invading the Black
Hills region. The other chiefs applauded with guttural ejaculations of " H o w ! How!" But a conciliatory speech from the
Professor, promising that their just complaints should be heard at
Washington, and holding out the prospect of pay for Indian
services in bone-hunting, turned the scale once more. In this
way consent was given for the expedition to proceed, but coupled
with an agreement to take a selected guard of young warriors.

DINOSA

URS.

147

Nominally this guard was for protection; but, in reality, the object
of the Indians was to keep watch on the proceedings of the bonehunters. Sitting Bull, one of the most influential chieftains, was
to go at their head. Professor Marsh was to let him know when
he was ready to move forward.
But the next three days snow fell, which unfortunately caused
a delay; for the Indians, having meanwhile got their annuities,
changed their attitude and became decidedly aggressive. After
much discussion among themselves, they all came to the conclusion that the pretence of seeking fossils was much " too thin."
The chief of the bone-hunters was certainly in search of gold.
Quite unaware of the change of feeling on the part of the
Indians, the party went on with their preparations, and, on the
second morning after the issue of annuities, broke camp and
proceeded to the Agency, expecting to get the Indian guard. To
reach the Agency they had to pass between several villages composed of Indian lodges. The sight of the soldiers and wagons
excited the Indians; they gathered in great numbers about the
Agency. Red Cloud, when Professor Marsh applied to him, said
his young men promised as a guard refused to go, believing the
object of the search was gold, not bones. Suddenly a cry of
warning was given, and the women and children fled; guns were
pointed at the party on every side, and in all directions riders
were seen galloping off to the villages and calling together the
warriors. The Indians outnumbered the expedition by at least
thirty to one. A single shot or the order " forward " would have
brought down their fire.
To push on under such circumstances would have been madness. There was but one thing to do, and that was to retire.
Reluctantly Professor Marsh gave the order. This movement
was the occasion of much jeering on the part of the Indians,
and insults were heaped on the party, but, bad as were these
insults, they were preferable to bullets. The rest of the day
was spent in consultation. On the following day, beef was

148

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

issued by the agent to the bands entitled to it. Meanwhile, as
the result of many consultations, two conclusions were arrived at:
(i) that something must be done; (2) that a feast given by
Professor Marsh, and a few presents to leading chiefs, were the
most promising means of attaining consent.
Accordingly, on the following day, the feast was given; only
the more eminent chiefs were admitted, and every detail of
Indian etiquette was strictly observed. At its close, after many
speeches, Professor Marsh stated the object and character of the
expedition, and a reluctant consent was given, with the warning
that the Minneconjous were likely to kill the Professor if he
crossed the White River. A band of scouts was promised.
Fearing that a consent coupled with so much hesitation might
prove unavailable, the Professor resolved to test it. He sent word
quietly, late at night after the feast, to his interpreters and guides,
to be ready the next morning. But they all alike refused to go.
Not a little disappointed at this, the Professor determined to give
the Indians the slip. The next night, shortly after midnight, he
carried out his intention. Marching down between the villages
as silently as possible, the expedition sought the White River at
the only spot where, for many miles, it is fordable. The Indian
dogs barked furiously as the party defiled between the lodges,
but fortunately their owners slept. If the expedition had been
attacked at this time their case would have been hopeless. It
was a bitterly cold night. The stolen march was soon discovered,
but, by means of a forced march, they were able to reach the
region they were making for. On arrival, a position of great
natural strength was chosen for a camp by one of the military
officers. The party was soon able to commence the search for
fossils, although watched by Indians at a distance.
The next day the party began systematic work; in fact, the
weather was so intensely cold that work became a necessity.
As fast as the fossils were secured, they were heaped together,
and piles of stones were placed to mark the localities of the

I'ROF. O. C. MARSH,
PROF. E. I). COPE,
Yale Univ., U.S.A.
Pennsylvania Univ., U.S.A.
THE RIGHT HON. T. H. HUXLEY,
Late Prof. Royal School of Mines.
PROF. KARL ZITTEL,
PROF. A. GAUDRY,
Munich Uniz:
Nat. Hist. Museum, Paris.
PLATE

XII.

DINOSAURS.

149

bones in the event of a snowstorm. The cold was intense, at
least 200 Fahr. below zero. Four officers and many soldiers were
severely frost-bitten; but none of those who were at work digging
for bones. At length the cold moderated and there came a snowstorm. The places marked by piles of rock were the scene of
renewed labours. Brooms made of bushes and grass were
employed, at these points to brush away the snow. Meanwhile,
in spite of the cold, the Indians had kept their mounted sentinels
on the neighbouring hills, watching the operations of the party.
Occasionally, in the day time, a few Sioux dropped in with proffers
of friendship, probably to obtain a nearer look at the work of the
expedition. When success was nearly assured, a more serious
cause for alarm was found in the warning given by a party of
Indians, who had ascertained that the Northern Indians were
coming to make an attack on the camp. To throw the specimens
into the waggons and rattle off with them unpacked, was simply
to break them in pieces. To pack them at night, burning lights
in the tents, would be to invite attack. Great as was the risk of
remaining, Professor Marsh, after due consultation with the
officers in command of the escort, decided to stay long enough to
pack properly. The expedition broke camp the next day, and
not a day too soon; subsequent reports state that a large party
of Northern Indians scoured the Bad Lands on the following day,
in a vain search for "the bone-hunting chief" and his band, who
were then en route for New Haven.
On his return to the Agency, Red Cloud was among the first
to welcome Professor Marsh. Some of the chiefs, to show their
good will, proposed to give a dog-feast in his honour, the tender
canine being considered by them a great delicacy; but Professor
Marsh sent his regrets, and pleaded a previous engagement.
Now that we know some of the results of this most important
expedition, it is not to be denied that the dangers encountered
were fully justified. About two tons of fossils were secured,
and, among them, some very valuable specimens were obtained,

*5°

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

especially the bones of certain extinct Miocene mammals.
Among other treasures, Professor Marsh thus secured several
specimens of a great quadruped known to palaeontologists as the
Brontotheriwm. (See p. 192.)

CHAPTER VIII.
ANCIENT BIRDS.

" N o r is the value of the doctrine of Evolution to the philosophic thinker
diminished by the fact that it applies the same method to the living and the
non-living world ; and embraces in one stupendous analogy, the growth of
a solar system from molecular chaos, the shaping of the earth from the
nebulous cubhood of its youth, through innumerable changes and immeasurable ages, to its present form, and the development of a living being from
the shapeless mass of protoplasm we term a germ."—The R T . H O N . PROF.
HUXLEY.

birds are but rarely met with in the stratified rocks;
hence our knowledge of the bird life of former ages is comparatively slight. But this is only what might have been
expected; for it must be remembered that birds are protected
by their powers of flight from perishing in such ways as other
animals frequently do. And even should they die on the water,
their bodies are not likely to be submerged; for, being light and
feathery, they do not sink, but continue floating until the body
rots away, or is devoured by some creature, such as a hungry
pike.
When did the bird make its first appearance, or d'ebut, on the
earth? in other words, when did that primitive, but as yet
unknown reptile from which the feathered tribe came, first take to
itself feathers and assume both the habits and appearance of a bird?
This is one of those interesting questions which remain to be
solved by the labours of the palaeontologist—or, more probably,
of a generation pf palaeontologists. We have already alluded
FOSSIL

iS2

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

{see p. 131) to Professor Huxley's theory that birds are descended from Dinosaurs; but though there is much to be said
in favour of the idea, we prefer, for our part, to wait and see what
evidence may yet turn up on this subject, and, like the Irishman,
to "prophecy after the event," i.e. when further discoveries
have been made. Sir R. Owen never favoured the theory, and,
for all palaeontologists can tell, it may just as well be that birds
and pterodactyls (flying reptiles) both are descended from a
common stock; the one line choosing to fly by means of a thin
membrane attached chiefly to a single long finger, while the
others thought they could do quite as well—in fact better—by
growing feathers on their arms and fingers. All great problems
in Nature are solved slowly, by the patient accumulation of
evidence; and the one above alluded to is no exception to the
rule.
Palaeontologists - are not without evidence bearing on this
subject; so perhaps we cannot do better than state briefly what
that evidence is, in order to show how near, or how far, we are
from a final answer to our question. Though no one can yet
say what the very first bird-type was like, we can, at all events,
describe the oldest known fossil bird. This is the famous
Archaopteryx}
Time was—and that within the memory of living geologists
—when no fossil birds were known in rocks older than the
Tertiary deposits; but the discovery of Archczopteryx has
changed all that, and we now trace back the bird line to the
middle of the great Secondary or Mesozoic Era. This bird was
found in the Solenhofen limestone of Bavaria, which is supposed
to represent the lower part of our English Kimmeridge clay.
First, only the impression of a single feather was known, to which
the late Professor H. von Meyer gave the name Archczopteryx
lithographica (because this stone is much used by lithographers).
Later on came the discovery of a magnificent and almost
1

Greek—Archios^ ancient; fiterux, wing.

ANCIENT

BIRDS.

153

complete specimen, with beautiful impressions of the feathers.
This was named by Owen A, macrura, on account of its long
tail. The specimen is to be seen in the Natural History

FIG. 53.—The Berlin Archceopteryx. (After Dames.)
From the Solenhofen Limestone (see p. 155).

Museum, Gallery No. 11; it was only acquired for the nation
by the strenuous efforts and liberality of the late Sir R. Owen

154

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

(see preface). More recently a still finer specimen, with the
head complete, has turned up, and this is now in the Berlin
Museum (see Fig. 53). A very good idea of it may be gathered
from the fine drawing presented by Professor Dames of Berlin,
which is to be seen at the Natural History Museum. Some
of those who first studied the creature's anatomy took it for a
reptile; and they may well have been puzzled by its curiously
" mixed " characters. It is certainly one of the most anomalous,
types of ancient life that has ever been discovered.
Palaeontologists are now agreed that it was a bird; for
it had feathers and claws, as birds have. But what can we
say to a bird with teeth in its jaws, and with a long, lizard-like
tail such as reptiles have now, except that this tail was provided
with feathers attached in a very peculiar way, contrary to all
bird's tails of the present day? A naturalist acquainted only
with the avian life of to-day, would certainly say that it upsetsnearly all his ideas of what a bird ought to be; but that only
shows how useless it is (as we have previously pointed out, see
p. 73) to lay down rules for Nature. Its vertebrae were bi-concave, like those of fishes and some extinct Saurians. Another
very reptilian feature is the presence of " sclerotic plates " in the
eye. A pair of feathers sprang from each joint in the tail, which
is quite a different arrangement to that in the tail of living birds.
The leg-bone and foot are similar to that of a modern perching
bird, but then we have seen that some of the Dinosaurs, such
as the little Compsognathusy had very bird-like feet. The wing
shows three free digits or fingers, and it is possible, as Dr. C. H.
Hurst* has endeavoured to prove, that a fourth finger of greater
length and size supported the primary feathers. In form and
position these three finger bones are just what may be seen in
some young birds of to-day. It has been claimed by some that
the fore limb of Archczopteryx is reptilian. Another important
point, established by Marsh, is that the bones of the pelvis are
1

Natural Science, vol. iii., p. 275.

ANCIENT

BIRDS.

*55

separate—not united, as in modern birds. In the London
specimen (where the skull is lost) there remains a cast of the
brain cavity. This reveals the fact that the brain, although
small, was more bird-like than reptilian. Were it not for the
feathers, perhaps no one would at first have thought of calling
it a bird. It combines the features, or characters, of birds
and reptiles in a most remarkable way. In size it was about
as large as a rook. Are we to call it a Pterodactyl with
feathers? That would be to dub it a reptile; and since the
leading authorities agree in calling it a bird, we must abide by
their decision. Names, however, are sometimes misleading ;
the main fact we have to remember is, that in former ages some
classes of animals which are now sharply marked off from each
other were by no means so separated.
A good deal of discussion has lately arisen with regard to the
true interpretation of the Berlin specimen, as far as the wing is
concerned. The question is, how the feathers were attached;
and there can be but little doubt, that in this respect the drawing
from which Fig. 53 is taken is wrong. Look at the impressions of
the long " primary " feathers, and you will see that at first they
curve towards the three fingers, but then turn downwards and
bend towards the two bones of the fore-arm* This is due to a
mistake, and Dr. Hurst has shown that they probably were
attached to a longer and stronger finger which is concealed in
the slab below. The first curve of the feathers, as seen in the
left-hand corner, should have been continued. But in other
respects the Fig. 53 gives a fair idea of the Berlin specimen.
Those three slender fingers were probably used for climbing
trees, but they are too weak to be of much service in supporting
the strong primary quills during flight. In the specimen these
fingers lie not in the wing at all, but upon its feather-clad
surface. Unfortunately our artist made the beautiful restoration
seen in the Frontispiece before the publication of Dr. Hurst's
paper; but, with a true naturalist's instinct, he has improved on

156

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS,

the drawing seen in. Fig. 53 in two respects; first, by showing a
-distinction between primary and secondary feathers, and, secondly,
by not making all the feathers curve backwards, in order that
they should appear to have been attached to the ulna (one of the
bones of the fore-arm).
If Dr. Hurst's conclusions with regard to the wing of Archce.opteryx are true, they certainly tend to connect birds more with
Pterodactyls than with Dinosaurs, and so militate against the
generally accepted view. One cannot help wondering whether
this very ancient bird could sing; but, although doubtless the
gift of song was not in those Jurassic days so marvellously perfected as it is now, yet we would fain believe that Archceopteryx at
least tried to sing (as suggested in the restoration). If, as seems
probable, it lived among trees, one would think that some
means of communication with its fellows was almost a necessity.
The next evidences of former bird life are met with in the
Cretaceous rocks, and here we find the Hesperornis. This bird
was a gigantic diver, and its length from the point of the bill to
the end of the toes must have been between five and six feet
(see Plate XIV.). Its habits are clearly indicated by the skeletons
described by Professor Marsh in his splendid monograph on The
Extinct Toothed Birds of North America. No living birds possess
teeth in their jaws, so that the presence of such in Hesperornis
and other birds of the Cretaceous period at once separates them
from those of the present day. It cannot be doubted that
this antique diver was carnivorous; it probably devoured fishes.
The teeth were set in a groove, and old ones were replaced by
young ones growing up from inside the fang. The breast-bone
(sternum) was entirely without a keel. The single thin wing-bone
(humerus) indicates that its wings were " rudimentary," and quite
useless either for flying or swimming (see Fig. 54). Modern
penguins use their wings with great effect while swimming under
water, but the Hesperornis was compensated for the want of
wings by its broad tail, which was much expanded horizontally,

ANCIENT

BIRDS.

*S7

and doubtless served as an organ of propulsion in diving. (The
tail in our restoration is too small.)
The brain was diminutive, and very like that of a reptile.
It is impossible, in the absence of feathers, to say exactly what
appearance the skin of this bird presented, but in the restoration^

FIG. 54.—Skeleton of Hesperornis regalis, from Cretaceous strata, North
America. (After Marsh.)

Plate XIV., our artist has to some extent taken a modern diver a&
his model. The skeleton of this bird presents several interesting
points of resemblance with reptiles ; but it will not be necessary
to enter into anatomical details here. The remains were discovered by Professor Marsh, in certain marine Cretaceous strata

158

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

along the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, which have
also yielded mosasauroid reptiles, Pliosaurs, and Pterodactyls.
The valuable specimens on which Professor Marsh's descriptions
are based were not procured without considerable trouble and
hardship. His exploring parties in the plains of Kansas and
Colorado suffered, at one time, from extreme heat, causing
sunstroke and fever, by which the guides and explorers alike
were weakened and discouraged; at other times, from extreme
cold, to say nothing of the danger from hostile Indians. But
. fortunately, the latter enemies to science were kept in check by
escorts of soldiers.
The first bird-remains discovered in the above region were
found by Professor Marsh in 1870, near the Smoky Hill River,
in Western Kansas. Explorations were continued by him for
several years, resulting in the discovery of remains of more than
one hundred different individuals of birds with teeth ; and these
are all now deposited in the museum of Yale College. In fact,
the fossil birds now known from the rich Cretaceous deposits of
North America, described by him under nine genera, represent
the remains of about one hundred and fifty different individuals.
Thus we see that bird life was probably abundant in that period,
and we may expect in the future to hear of many more discoveries.
" Hesperornis? says Professor Marsh, " was a typical aquatic
bird, and in habit was doubtless very similar to the Loon,
although, flight being impossible, its life was probably passed
entirely upon the water, except when visiting the shore for the
purpose of breeding. The nearest land at that time was the
succession of low islands which marked the position of the present
Rocky Mountains. In the shallow tropical sea, extending from
this land five hundred miles or more to the eastward, and to
unknown limits north and south, there was the greatest
abundance and variety of fishes, and these doubtless constituted
the main food of the present species. Hesperornis, as we have

Z-^^\

PLATE XIV.

A GIGANTIC DIVER (HESPERORNIS REGALIS). FROM NORTH AMERICA.
Length 6 feet.

CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

ANCIENT'

BIRDS.

159

seen, was an admirable diver; while the long neck, with its
capabilities of rapid flexure, and the long slender jaws armed
with sharp recurved teeth, formed together a perfect instrument
for the capture and retention of the most agile fish. As the
lower jaws were united in front only by cartilage, as in the
serpents, and had on each side a joint which admitted of some
motion, the power of swallowing was doubtless equal to almost
any emergency."
It may fairly be concluded that, for a long period of time,
circumstances were eminently favourable to Hesperornis and its
allies; for apparently it had no enemies in the air above, and
an abundance of food in the water. We may well imagine that
it was more than a match for the gigantic toothless Pterodactyls
(such as Pteranodon)1 which hovered over the waters here in
such great numbers, and the other inhabitants of the air all
appear to have been small The ocean in which this bird swam
teemed with fishes of many kinds, and thus a great variety of
food, easily obtainable, was at hand. In this aquatic paradise
Hesperornis flourished, disturbed only by the serpentine Mosasaurus, which may have been the cause of its extermination.
Another bird discovered by Professor Marsh in the same region,
also with strangely blended characters, is the Ichthyornis (Fig. 55).
Unlike the big diver above described, it had well-developed
wings and a strongly keeled sternum for the attachment of
muscles with which to work its wing. It was about the size of
a rock-pigeon. The jaws were armed with teeth placed in distinct
sockets, as in some extinct reptiles. The wing bones show that
it possessed considerable powers of flight. Here we may note
that the Cretaceous birds at present known (some twenty species
or more) were apparently all aquatic forms, which, of course, are
most likely to be preserved in marine deposits, while the
Jurassic Archceopteryx was a land bird.
Remains of Cretaceous birds were first found in the Upper
1

See Extinct Monsters, p. 129 (new edit.).

i6o

CREATURES

OE OTHER

DAYS.

Greensand of Cambridge, and on these bones the genus
Enaliornis has been founded. In its head and neck it resembled
the divers.

F I G . 55.—Skeleton of Ichthyornis victor, from Cretaceous strata, North
America. (After Marsh.)

Several portions of fossil birds have been discovered in the
London clay deposit of the Isle of Sheppey. One of these

ANCIENT

BIRDS.

i6r

(which may be seen in the Natural History Museum, Table-case
No. 13), the Dasorms, represented by a single skull, was as large
as an ostrich, and probably closely related to that bird. Another,
the Argillornis, rivalled the albatross in size. A third, the Odontopteryx (toothed bird), has a powerful serrated bill, well adapted for
seizing its fishy prey. In the same case may be seen casts of the
limb-bones of a large bird, the Gastornis parisiensis, from Eocene

FIG. 56.—Restored skeleton of a large bird, Gastornis Edwardsii^ from
Eocene strata near Paris and Rheims. (After M. le Docteur Lemoine.)
Height over seven feet. The position might be somewhat more forward.

strata near Paris; also casts of two leg-bones of another equally
large bird, allied to the above, discovered in Eocene strata near
Croydon, viz. Gastornis KZaasseni. A restoration of the French
bird's skeleton is shown in Fig. 56. The genus must have been
as large as an ostrich, but more robust, with some signs of affinity
with geese, as well as to ratite birds such as the ostrich.
M

162

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Many other orders of birds are more or less represented by
fossil remains from Tertiary strata, but in most cases not so
perfectly as to warrant description here. For instance, the
Pliocene strata of the Sivalik hills have yielded bones of giant
storks. Leaving these, we now pass on to say a few words about
the Dodo, and some other birds that lived in historic times.
Every one has heard of that singular bird, now totally extinct,
the Didus ineptus, which formerly inhabited the islands of
Mauritius and Bourbon (see Plate XV.). The last record of its
appearance dates from the year 1681. It was a large and heavy
bird, bigger than a swan, and entirely unlike the pigeons, with
which, however, it seems clearly to be allied. Its wings were so
small as to be quite useless for flight. The legs were short and
stout, with four toes on each foot, and the tail was extremely
short, carrying a tuft of soft plumes. The beak was decidedly
hooked, as in birds of prey.
Visitors to the Natural History Museum will see, in the same
case with the remains of the gigantic ^Epyornis1 from Madagascar, some of the bones of this remarkable bird, together
with a portrait from an old painting, of which we shall speak
presently.
In the reports of numerous voyagers who visited the islands of
Mauritius, Bourbon, and Rodrigues, from the end of the fifteenth
century to the middle of the seventeenth, we have many accounts
of the appearance and habits of this bird, evidently sketched
from life. Some of the descriptions are very quaint; as, for
example, the graphic sketch of old Sir Thomas Herbert, who
saw the bird in his travels in the year 1634.
" T h e Dodo," he says, "comes firft to our defcription.
Here and in Dygarrois (and nowhere elfe that I c* ever fee or
hear of) is generated the Dodo—(A Portuguize name it is, and
has reference to her fimplenes)—a bird which for fhape and
rarenefs might be called a Phcenix (were't in Arabia); her body
1

See Extinct Monsters, p. 235 (new edit).

ANCIENT

BIRDS.

&i

is round and extreame fat, her flow pace begets that corpulencie;
few of them weigh leffe than fifty pound; better to the eye than
the ftomack : greafie appetites may perhaps commend them, but,
to the delicate they are offenfive, and of no nourifhment.
Let's take her picture: her vifage darts forth melancholy, as
senfible of nature's injurie in framing fo great and mafiive a body
to be directed by fuch fmall and complemental wings, as are
unable to hoife her from the ground, ferving only to prove her
a bird; which otherwife might be doubted of: her head is
varioufly dreft, the one halfe hooded with downy blackifh
feathers; the other perfectly naked; of a whitif h hue, as if a
tranfparent lawne had covered it; her bill is very howked and
bends downwards, the thrill or breathing place is in the midst
of it; from which part to the end, the colour is a light greene
mixed with a pale yellow; her eyes be round and fmall, and
bright as diamonds; her cloathing is of flneft downe, fuch as ye
fee in goflins; her trayne is (like a China beard) of three or
four fhort feythers; her legs thick, and black, and ftrong; her
tallons or pounces fharp; her ftomack fiery hot, fo as ftones and
yron are eafily digefted in it; in that and fhape, not a little
refembling the Africk ceftriches: but, fo much, as for their more
certain dyfference I dare give thee (with two others) her reprefentation.1"
It is pretty certain that a living specimen was about the same
time exhibited in England. Sir Hamon L'Estrange tells us
distinctly that he saw it. His original manuscript is preserved
in the British Museum, and with some blanks caused by the
injury of time, of no great consequence, reads as follows :—
"About 1638, as I walked London streets, I saw the picture
. . . of a strange fowl hong out upon a cloth . . . vas and
myself with one or two Gen. in company went in to see it. It
was kept in a chamber, and was a great fowle somewhat bigger
than the largest Turky Cock, and so legged and footed, but
1

Travels,

4th edit., 1677.

i64

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

stouter and thicker, and of a more erect shape, coloured before
like the breast of a yong Cock Tesan, and on the back of dunn
or deare colour. The keeper called it a Dodo ; and in the ende
of a chimney in the chamber there lay an heap of large pebble
stones, whereof he gave it many in our sight, some as bigg as
nutmegs, and the keper told us she eats them conducing to
digestion; and though I remember not how farre the keeper
was questioned therein, yet I am confident that afterwards she
cast them all agayne."
Probably this very specimen passed into the museum of
Tradescant, who, in the Catalogue of the Collection of the Rarities
preserved at Lambeth, dated 1656, mentions the following:
" Dodar from the Island Mauritius: it is not able to flie being
so bigg." Others also mentioned it.
In 1601, two fleets of Dutch ships, one commanded by Wolphart Harmansen, or Harmansz; and the other by Jacob Van
Heemskerk, sailed for the East Indies, but soon separated. One
of the captains, named Willen Van West-Zanen, who sailed in
this fleet, and the following year sailed from Batavia with five
ships, and stayed a considerable time at Mauritius. In his
journal he repeatedly mentions Dodos, and his account contains some important particulars. His sailors appeared to have
revelled in them, without suffering from surfeit. If his statements are correct, the bulk of the bird must have been prodigious ;
for he says that three or four, and in one instance two of these
birds, furnished an ample meal for his men. " On the 4th of
August," says his editor, " Willem's men brought fifty large birds
on board the Bruyn-Vis, among them were twenty-four or
twenty-five Dodos, so large and heavy that they could not eat
any two of them for dinner, and all that remained over was
salted."
The narratives of the early voyagers are, in several instances,
accompanied by rude drawings; but besides these there are
certain oil paintings by artists of great merit, who apparently

. ,
. .,/

>*X|

PLATE

XV.

THE DODO (DIDUS INEPTUS).
Exterminated in the seventeenth century.

ANCIENT

BIRDS.

165

aimed only at correct representation. All, except one, closely
resemble each other. Five of these are now known to exist,
three of which bear the name of Roland Savery, an eminent
Dutch animal-painter in the beginning of the seventeenth
century; and one is by John Savery, his nephew. The best
known of these pictures is the one, now in the beautiful Bird
Gallery of the Natural History Museum, from which all the
figures of Dodo in natural history books are taken. It was once
the property of the artist George Edwards, who, in his work on
Birds) tells us, "The original picture was drawn in Holland from
the living bird, brought from St. Maurice's Island, in the East
Indies, in the early times of the discovery of the Indies by way
of the Cape of Good Hope. It was the property of the late Sir
H. Sloane to the time of his death, and afterwards, becoming
my property, I deposited it in the British Museum, as a great
curiosity."
Portions of probably three distinct individuals are now extant
in as many public museums; and it is remarkable, as proving the
interest which the discovery of the Dodo excited in Europe, that
.each of these three specimens is specially referred to in the
museum catalogues printed in the seventeenth century. One of
these valuable fragments is the foot now preserved in the Natural
History Museum. The Oxford Museum once possessed a complete stuffed specimen, bequeathed with the rest of his curiosities,
by Tradescant, to Elias Ashmole, the munificent founder of the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. Here it remained till 1755.
This unhappy specimen, the last of the Dodos(!), then at least a
-century old, had become decayed by time and neglect, and its
destruction was decreed by the trustees, who were, of course,
ignorant of its priceless value. But the head and one of the feet
were saved from the flames, and are still preserved in the
museum. The third specimen is a skull in the Gottorf Museum
at Copenhagen. Yet it cannot be doubted that if careful search
were made in the caves and superficial deposits of Mauritius,

i66

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

many more bones might be discovered. Entire skeletons of the
Dodo and the Solitaire are exhibited in the Bird Gallery of the
Natural History Museum, among the Pigeons.
There is no reason why a pigeon should not become so
modified, as the result of a change in external circumstances, as
to be incapable of flight. Now, we are told that Mauritius, an
island forty miles in length, and about a hundred miles from the
nearest land, was, when discovered, clothed with dense forests of
palms and various other trees. A bird adapted to feed on the
fruits produced by these forests would, in that equable climate,
have no occasion to migrate to distant lands; it might revel in
the perpetual luxuriance of tropical vegetation and could have
but little need of locomotion. Why, then, should it trouble to use
its wings ? Such a bird might wander from tree to tree, tearing
with its powerful beak the fruits which strewed the ground, and
digesting their stony kernels with its powerful gizzard, enjoying
tranquillity and abundance, until the arrival of man destroyed
the balance of animal life, and put an end to its existence.
In a second island forming one of the Mascarene group, viz,
that known as Rodriguez, situated about three hundred miles
east of Mauritius, early explorers found another bird living. This
was the Solitaire (Pezophaps solitaria), a near relative of the
Dodo. It differed from the latter in having longer legs and neck?
and its bill not so much curved. The last recorded appearance
was in 1693. Rodriguez seems to have remained in a desert and
uninhabited condition until 1691, when a party of French
Protestant refugees settled upon the island, and remained there
for two years. Their commander, Francois Leguat, a man of
intelligence and education, has left a highly interesting account
of their adventures, and of the various productions of the island.1
" Of all the Birds in the Island," he says, " the most remarkable
is that which goes by the name of the Solitary, because it is very
1
A New Voyage to the East Indies by Francis Leguat and his Companions*
i2mo. London, 1708.

ANCIENT

BIRDS.

167

seldom seen in Company, tho' there are abundance of them.
The Feathers of the Males are of a brown grey colour, the Feet
and Beak are like a Turkey's, but a little more crooked. They
have scarce any Tail. . . . Their Neck is straight, and a little
longer in proportion than a Turkey's when it lifts up its head. . . .
They never fly, their Wings are too little to support the weight of
their bodies; they only serve to beat themselves, and flutter when
they call one another. . . . From March to September they are
extremely fat, and taste admirably well, especially while they are
young : some of the Males weigh forty-five pounds."
The females he describes as being wonderfully beautiful, and
walking with much stateliness and grace : after which he proceeds
as follows: " Tho' these Birds will sometimes very familiarly
come up near enough to one, when we do not run after them,
yet they will never grow tame. As soon as they are caught they
shed Tears without Crying, and refuse all manner of Sustenance
till they die."
The figure given by Leguat shows that it was a very different
bird from the Dodo. Its nest was a heap of palm-leaves, and it
laid but one egg, three times a year.
In conclusion, we will quote Leguat once more : " Our WoodHens," he says, " are fat all the year round, and of a most delicate
taste. Their colour is always of a bright grey, and there's very
little difference in the plumage between the two Sexes. They
hide their nests so well that we cou'd not find 'em out, and
consequently did not taste their eggs. They have a red list
about their eyes, their beaks are straight and pointed, near two
inches long, and red also. They cannot fly, their fat makes 'em
too heavy for it. If you offer them anything that's red, they are
so angry that they will fly at you to catch it out of your hand,
and in the heat of the combat we had an opportunity to take
them with ease."
The volcanic island of Bourbon, lying about a hundred milessouth-west of Mauritius, was certainly inhabited by two species

168

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

of birds, whose inability to fly, and consequent rapid extinction,
brings them into the same category with the Dodo of Mauritius
and the Solitaire of Rodriguez. Bourbon was discovered between
the years 1502 and 1545, by Mascaregnas a Portuguese, who
called the island by his own name, but seems to have left no
other record of his visit. In the seventeenth century, travellers
such as Bontekoe and Carre' speak of a big short-winged bird
which they saw here, and wThich from their descriptions appears
to be the Solitaire, for they said its colour was white. But in
1669, the year after Carre's visit, a French colony was sent from
Madagascar to Bourbon under M. de la Haye. One of the
party, who calls himself the Sieur D.B., has left an interesting
account of the expedition. He distinctly alludes to a second
species of short-winged bird, in the following words :—
Oiseaux bleus, the size of Solitaires, have the plumage wholly
blue, the beak and feet red, resembling the feet of a hen. They
do not fly, but they run extremely fast, so that a dog can hardly
overtake them ; they are very good eating." We must suppose it
escaped the notice of the earlier voyagers.
On reviewing the various historical and other evidences, which
have been carefully brought together by Mr. H. E. Strickland,
it seems clear that the three oceanic islands, Mauritius, Rodriguez,
and Bourbon, which, though somewhat remote from each other,
may be considered as forming one geographical group, were
inhabited, until the time of their colonization, by three, or
perhaps four, distinct but allied flightless birds. These constitute a distinct family, the Dididcz, of naturalists, allied to
the pigeons, but very isolated. Before men came thither
they flourished abundantly; but when cats, dogs, and pigs were
introduced by human agency, and man also himself sought them
for food, their fate was sealed, and they rapidly became exterminated. The fact that these perfectly defenceless creatures
survived in great abundance to a recent period in these three
islands only, while as far as we know they never existed in any

ANCIENT

BIRDS.

169

other countries whatever, certainly confirms other evidence which
might be brought forward, did space permit, to show that they
are very ancient but truly "oceanic" islands—Le. they never
formed part of any continent and subsequently became separated,
as Madagascar did from Africa, or the British Isles from Europe.
From what is already known of bird life in the Miocene period,
it seems probable that the origin of this peculiar * group of the
Dodo and its allies dates back to early Tertiary times.
" I f we suppose," says Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace,1 "some
ancestral ground-feeding pigeon of large size to have reached the
group by means of intervening islands afterwards submerged, and
to have henceforth remained to increase and multiply unchecked
by the attacks, of any more powerful animals, we can well understand that the wings, being useless, would in time become almost
aborted. It is also not improbable that this process would be
aided by natural selection, because the use of wings might be
absolutely prejudicial to the birds in their new home. Those
that flew up into trees to roost, or tried to cross over the mouths
of rivers, might be blown out to sea and destroyed, especially
during the hurricanes which have probably always more or less
devastated the islands; while, on the other hand, the more bulky
and short-winged, who took to sleeping on the ground in the
forest, would be preserved from such dangers, and perhaps also
from the attacks of birds of prey, which may always have visited
the island."
Whether this is a complete account of how the change took
place or not, we may take it for certain that their abnormal
development could not have taken place except under complete isolation and freedom from the attacks of enemies. In
other countries, like Europe, Africa, or Asia (but not in Australia
or New Zealand), there was, during Tertiary times, an abundance
of carnivora to keep down the rest of the animal creation,
and prevent any ambitious attempts on the part of pigeons
1

Alfred Russell Wallace, Island Life, p. 407. (1880.)

170

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

to increase in size; so that Dodoism, if we may be allowed to
use the expression, would be impossible.
The Samoa Isles in the Pacific recently possessed a large and
handsome kind of pigeon, of richly coloured plumage, which the
natives called Manu~meay but to which modern naturalists have
given the name of Didunculus strigirostris. It was, both by
structure and habit, essentially a ground pigeon, not, however, so
exclusively but that it fed and roosted too, according to Lieutenant
Walpole; among the branches of tall trees. Mr. T. Peale, the
naturalist of the United States Exploring Expedition, who first
described it, informs us that, according to the tradition of the
natives, it once abounded; but after the introduction of cats,
dogs, and rats, this bird was soon quite exterminated. So rare
had the bird become during the stay of the expedition, that
only three specimens could be procured, and, of these, two were
lost by shipwreck.
When Norfolk Island, in the Southern Ocean, was first
discovered, its tall forests were inhabited by a remarkable
parrot with a very long and slender hooked beak, which lived
upon the honey of flowers. Mr. Gould, the ornithologist, on
visiting Australia, found this bird—known as Nestor productus—
entirely limited to Philip Island, a little island not far off. The
war of extermination had been so successfully carried on through
the agency of man that, in the larger island, only a few specimens
in cages were to be seen.
Mr. J. H. Gurney has given us a description of it. He says : *
" I have seen the man who exterminated the Nestor productus
from Philip Island, he having shot the last of that species left
on the island. He informs me that they rarely made use of
their wings, except when closely pressed; their mode of progression was by the upper mandible; and whenever he used
to go to the island to shoot, he would invariably find them on
the ground, except one, which used to be sentry on one of the
1

Zoologist^ p. 4298.

ANCIENT

BIRDS.

171

lower branches of the Araucaria excelsa; and the instant any
person landed, they would run to those trees and haul themselves
up by the bill, and, as a matter of course, they would there
remain till they were shot, or the intruder had left the island.
He likewise informed me that there was a large species of hawk
that used to commit great havoc amongst them, but what
species it was he could not tell me."
That fine bird the Great Auk is believed now to be quite
extinct. But it was once abundant in Northern Europe. The
natives in the Orkney Island informed Mr. Bullock, on his tour
through these islands some years ago, that only one male had
been seen for a long time since, which had regularly visited
Papa Westra for several seasons. The female, which the natives
call the queen of the Auks, was killed just before Mr. Bullock's
arrival. The king, or male, was chased by him for several
hours, but without success, so rapid was its course under water.
It was afterwards caught and sent to him, and is now in the
national collection. In size it was rather larger than a goose.
Mr. Bullock's specimen was taken in 1812; another was
captured at St. Kilda in 1822; another was picked up dead near
Lundy Island in 1829; and yet another was taken in 1834, off
the coast of Waterford. On the north coast of Europe the bird
was equally rare, not more than two or three having been
procured during the present century. Two hundred years ago
it was by no means rare on the shores of New England; and off
the great fishing-hanks of Newfoundland it was very abundant.
" During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries," says Dr.
Charlton, " these waters, as well as the Iceland and Faroe coasts,
were annually visited by hundreds of ships from England,
France, Spain, Holland, and Portugal; and these ships were
actually accustomed to provision themselves with the bodies
and eggs of these birds, which they found breeding in myriads
on the low islands off the coast of Newfoundland. . . . It was
only necessary to go on shore armed with sticks, to kill as many

172

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

as they choose. The birds were so stupid that they allowed
themselves to be taken up, on their own proper element, by
boats under sail. . . .
" I n 1841, a distinguished Norwegian naturalist (too early,
alas ! lost to science), Peter Stuwitz, visited Funk Island, or
Penguin Island, lying to the east of Newfoundland. Here, on
the north-west shore of the island, he found enormous heaps of
bones and skeletons of the Great Auk, lying either in exposed
masses, or slightly covered by the earth. On this side of the
island, the rocks slope gradually down to the shore, and here
were still standing the stone fences and enclosures into which
the birds were driven for slaughter."1
It is often remarked that men and women who are specially
gifted in certain directions are found to be wanting in some
other ways; for there is compensation in all things, and no one
individual can excel in all the gifts and graces at once. In
order to achieve great results in one field, we must leave others
untouched. The artist or musician is not expected to excel
in physical strength; nor is the athlete expected to show any
great gift for painting or for music. Each must be " specialised "
in his own way, and should be content if he can bring to
perfection his one gift. So it is in the animal kingdom; some
are gifted in one direction, some in another. Fishes excel in
swimming, mammals in walking or running, and birds in flying.
Each has conquered in his own realm. Now the bird class has
conquered the air; but, in order to do this, and to fly from place
to place with ease and rapidity, they have had to make no small
sacrifice; for they have turned their fore limbs, which the
reptile uses for crawling, into wings for flying. It is true they
have much to compensate them for this sacrifice in the vigour
and happiness of their lives ; in the marvellous gift of song, and
in the social qualities they display—to say nothing of their
wisdom, which is proverbial. Still the greatest triumphs are
1

Transactions of the Tyneside Natural History Society.

ANCIENT

BIRDS.

*73

reserved for those creatures which have remained on the ground,
and continued to use their fore limbs in the ordinary way. Miss
Buckley (Mrs. Fisher) has, in one of her best books,1 expressed
this idea very happily. We will therefore quote the passage,
as we find ourselves unable to put it in better words: " Thus
the birds," she says, " with their feathery covering and powerful
wings, have left their early friends, the reptiles, far behind.
Taught by their many dangers, many experiences, and many
joys, they have become warm-hearted, quick-witted, timid or*
bold, ferocious or cunning, deliberate as the rook or passionate
as the falcon, according to the life they have led; or, in the
sweet, tender emotions of the little song-birds, have learned to
fill the world with love and brightness and song. . . .
" Yet we cannot but feel that, happy as a bird's life may be,
it still leaves something to be desired; and that, with their small
brain, and their front limbs entirely employed in flying, they
cannot make the highest use of the world. The air they have
conquered; and among the woods and forests, over the wide sea,
and above the lofty mountains, they lead a busy and happy
existence, bringing flying creatures to their highest development,
and showing how life has left no space unfilled with her children.
Yet, after all, it is upon the ground, where difficulties are
many, conditions varied, and where there is so much to call for
contrivance, adaptation, and intelligence, that we must look for
the highest types of life; and while we leave the joyous birds
with regret, we must go back to the lower forms among the
four-footed animals, in order to travel along the lines of those
that have conquered the earth and prepared the way for man*
himself."
1

Winners in Life's Race, p. 179.

CHAPTER IX.
TAPIR-LIKE ANIMALS AND ELEPHANTINE

MONSTERS.

" T o lead the mind of man towards its noble destination—a knowledge of
truth ; to spread sound and wholesome ideas among the lower classes of the
people ; to draw human beings from the empire of prejudices and passions ;
to make reason the sole arbitrator and supreme guide of public opinion."—
CUVIER, on the object of Science, in his Report to the Emperor Napoleon on
the Progress of the Natural Sciences since the Year 1789.

IT has often been said that the Primary era was an " Age of
Fishes," the Secondary era an "Age of Reptiles," and the
Tertiary an " Age of Mammals." There is, however, a danger
lest beginners should be deceived by broad statements of this
kind, which must not be pressed too far. All that is meant in
this case is, that, first of all, fishes were the dominant type; then
reptiles, and then mammals.
We have shown in earlier chapters of this book, as well as in
our previous work, that fishes abounded in the waters of the
Primary or Palaeozoic era, while air-breathing amphibians appeared towards its close; that reptiles flourished vigorously all
through Secondary or Mesozoic times : and now we are about to
show that a marvellous outburst of mammalian life appears to
have taken place very early in the Tertiary or Cainozoic era.
All this is in accordance with the " Law of Progress " throughout
past times, and strongly confirms the theory of Evolution.
The student of geological history soon discovers that mammals
of some kind, or kinds, did exist throughout the Secondary era—

TAPIR-LIKE

AJSTIMALSy ETC.

175

although, judging from their imperfect remains, they must have
been of a low type.3 But the great advance in our knowledge of
the world's extinct races which has taken place during the last
quarter of a century ought to make us careful with regard to
broad statements of the above kind, which may require to be
modified by future discoveries.
Now, the tendency of all the later results of Palaeontology is
to show that some of the higher types of life appeared on the
earth a good deal earlier than was formerly supposed. Thus the
discovery of the jaw-bones of small mammals (possibly marsupials)
in the Purbeck strata, in 1854, and afterwards in the Stonesfield
slate (both of Jurassic age), came as a surprise to most geologists.
Again, it is not long since birds were believed to have come into
existence only in Tertiary times: now we have the Jurassic bird
Arehaopteryx (see p. 152), and Professor Huxley has recorded his
opinion that some of us may live to see a fossil mammal of the
remote Silurian age ! It is, therefore, only prudent for geologists
to be on their guard against assuming that all the Secondary
mammals were of low types and few in numbers, as might be
inferred from the phrase " Age of Mammals." That mammals,
however, developed vigorously in many directions during the
Tertiary era cannot be doubted. So far, then, the expression
conveys important truth; but in science, as in other things, the
" unexpected" often happens, so it is better to be prepared for
surprises.
And here an interesting question naturally suggests itself, viz.
What cause, or causes, operated to bring about such rapid and
vigorous expansion of certain classes, such as the reptile and the
mammal ? Now, although this question cannot be fully answered,
there are nevertheless certain highly suggestive known facts which
seem partly to solve the mystery. We may suppose that, for long
1
Perhaps some of the jaw-bones from Triassic and Jurassic strata represent
creatures as low down in the scale as the Monotremes, represented at the
present day by the Duck-bill Platypus and the Echidna of Australia.

176

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

ages before the Tertiary era, mammals had remained in a
stationary and sluggish condition ; then some change, or changes,
took place, which, as it were, gave them a fresh start. What was
the nature of such change ? Let us look at the living world,
for a moment, as it is now; for in Geology the past must be
interpreted by the present. Naturalists know well that any
change in climate {i.e. in temperature or-atmospheric conditions),
or in the configuration of land and sea, is sure to effect the
balance, or equilibrium, of life. Some creatures will gain thereby,
others will lose, and may in consequence become extinct. Here
we have evidently a potent cause at work, which may be summed
up under the phrase geographical changes. That such have been
constantly occurring in the past is beyond doubt, and it is equally
certain that they have brought about vast changes in the organic
world ; for plants and animals are highly sensitive to the conditions
around them. Take away the Gulf Stream from the North
Atlantic, and in time many highly important changes in the fauna
of that sea would inevitably follow; flood the desert of Sahara, or
a part of it, and you would bring life and fertility to the surrounding districts, making the very desert to blossom as the rose;
remove a natural barrier, such as a channel or sea between two
masses of land, or a mountain chain separating two countries,
and you would at once start a series of migrations and other
changes the consequences of which would be almost endless;
cut down a forest, and you diminish rainfall, thereby altering the
whole climate of the region. It is not surprising to learn, in
view of these facts, that the periods of greatest geological disturbance—affecting the distribution of land and water, and
perhaps lifting up whole mountain ranges—have always been
followed by great changes in the organic world, and the rapid
evolution of new types of life.
The geologist can easily call to mind examples of this principle.
Thus, the Coal-measure period was followed by great geographical
changes, and, consequently, we find very different faunas in the

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC.

177

rocks subsequently deposited together, with the coming in of
higher types. Again, at the close of the Cretaceous period
such changes took place on a large scale, sea becoming dry
land and the land becoming sea, and consequently we are at
once introduced, in the Tertiary deposits, to an amazing number
of newer and higher types, which had, as it were, been waiting
for a chance to " improve themselves," and rise in the scale of
being.
It would be easy to illustrate this truth from human affairs;
for instance, in the history of the growth of the Anglo-Saxon race
in America and the colonies, where the old stock has flourished
vigorously in new fields. Whether they will develop a " higher
type " remains to be seen; but in America, we see the production
of a somewhat novel one. The discovery of the New World and
the building of huge ships, making, as it were, a ferry across the
Atlantic, has led to "migration" on a large scale. Nature, however, brings about migrations by changing the geography of the
globe. For example, Australia was once united to Asia, and
creatures living ages ago in Asia found their way into Australia;
them came elevation, and consequent separation. Europe and
America were once united towards the North ; Africa and India
formerly had a belt of land connecting them, as proved by the
Gondwana beds and their fossils. Now, when by any such
means a group of animals migrates into a new territory and finds
there a fresh field, with less powerful competitors and an abundance of food, it is obvious that they will enjoy a "good time ; "
the result of which seems to be that they flourish vigorously and
expand in many directions, thus producing new branches of the
Tree of Life. We all know how the rabbits took to Australia and
throve only too vigorously; and we have been informed that
already they have begun to alter their habits and to climb trees,
for which purpose they are developing longer claws ! Perhaps
we shall in time see a new race of these little rodents " evolved "
in that country.
N

178

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

There is, however, another cause which may be of even greater
importance, although it cannot be so easily understood,—and
that is, internal changes in the animal itself. All the creatures we
see around us are constantly varying, and have done so in the
past—-now in one direction, now in another. The cause of
" variation " is one of the unsolved problems of modern Biology,
or the study of life ; but we do know that a variation occasionally
happens to be of such a kind as to make a radical change in the
organism, and to fit it for new conditions of life better than its
comrades of the same species. As an example of such a change,
whether acquired at once by some individual, or only slowly
brought about after many generations, we may take the case of
those mammals of the higher orders, which have the power of
retaining their young for a longer time within their bodies than
either the monotremes or the marsupials.1 This character, together with others that necessarily go with it, made the creature
thus favoured more powerful, i.e. more safe and better able to take
care of itself and its young ones, so that it had a better chance in
the " struggle for existence.'' Certain it is that those mammals
which have this habit have triumphed over the marsupials and
reptiles. Hence it came about that, as soon as this important
variation occurred in the main stock, an immediate impulse was
given to its development. They became more active, more
numerous, and more powerful. This was probably one of the
ways in which mammals ascended in the scale of life and branched
out into various orders, such as insectivora, ungulates, rodents,
carnivora, etc.
On the other hand, the same reasoning would lead us to infer
that the reptile class flourished well during the Mesozoic era
because they were the first air-breathing vertebrates (besides
having this new habit of breathing air directly instead of from
water as the fishes do) and therefore had the land all to them1
So called because they carry their young ones in a pouch (marsupium);
for example, the Kangaroo.

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC.

179

selves. Hence it is not surprising to find that throughout that
long era they developed many branches, the majority of which,
however, are now extinct.
Similarly, the class of birds probably underwent great expansion
at the same time, because they were conquering a new province,
the great ocean of air, and, in order to do this, had acquired
new structures and new habits, giving them advantages over their
old ancestors the reptiles.
Numerous orders of insects appear in the Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits ; and it has been suggested that their evolution may
have been due to the appearance, for the first time in the world's
history, of flowers on the land, and the habit of certain insects of
feeding from them.
Lastly, some geologists have lately attributed the great expansion of mammalian life in Tertiary times to the probable fact
that grassy pastures only began to grow on the earth in the early
days of that era. A few students of the evolution of plant life
have lately arrived at the conclusion that the grasses (graminece)
did not exist in the previous geological periods. Here, then, we
seem to have a powerful cause suggested; and, if it is a true one,
" pastures new," in a literal sense, were opened out for the budding
mammalian line to feed on. What endless possibilities were
thus within, their reach ! Here was better and more nourishing
food for them than the ferns, reeds, or cycads, to which they
had previously been limited. So far, these suggestions help us
better to understand how it was that the mammals in Tertiary
days struck out so many new lines; but we must bear in mind
that our knowledge of these mysterious operations is at present
very limited, and doubtless new causes will be discovered as time
goes on.
It would be impossible within the limits of a single chapter to
give an account of all the leading orders of Tertiary mammals.
We' must therefore limit our present remarks to two or three,
reserving others for future chapters.

i8o

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Beginning with certain Tapir-like animals that flourished
during Eocene times, we will then pass on to consider some
curious creatures of larger size, some of which are true elephants,
while others seem to be related to that order (the proboscidians) as
well as to the rhinoceros.
The discovery, in the early part of the present century, of the
rich treasures imbedded in the Tertiary strata of the Paris basin,
and the consummate skill with which they were interpreted and
restored by the immortal Cuvier, gave a very great impulse to the
study of Geology. His restorations became patterns for others,
like Owen, Huxley, Marsh, Cope, Gaudy, and many more, who
have worked on the lines he laid down. The mammalian remains
brought to Cuvier by numerous collectors were very imperfect and
fragmentary—detached bones and teeth, with occasionally some
portion of a skeleton. The success with which he put them into
order, and built up therefrom the long-lost types of Eocene days,
was due largely to his wonderful knowledge of living animals, but
partly also to his Law of Con-elation.
One of Cuvier's triumphs was the restoration of the Palceotheriumf- a tapir-like animal, from fragmentary remains found in
the strata of the Paris basin, chiefly at Montmartre; his conclusions being afterwards verified by the discovery of a nearly
complete skeleton (see Fig. 57). The molar teeth of this animal
somewhat resembled those of the rhinoceros. The skull shows
that it had a short proboscis. The toes, of which there were
three on each foot, ended in small hoofs, the middle toes being
the largest. Its eye was small, and the head rather large.
Several species have been determined, varying from the size of
a sheep (P. curtum) to that of a horse (P. magnum), and it had
much in common with both the horse and the rhinoceros.
P. medium was rather smaller than an American Tapir : P. minus
was a small andv elegant species, of which the fresh-water Eocene
beds of the Isle of Wight have yielded remains.
1

Greek—palaios, ancient; therion, wild beast.

LL:
TAPIR-LIKE ANIMALS.

Xiphodon.
PLATE

XVI.

EOCENE PERIOD.
Palteotkerium.

Anoplotherium.

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC.

181

A complete specimen, discovered in 1874, with the outline of
the body indicated in the rock, was of a slenderer build, and with
a longer neck than in Cuvier's restoration, on which our artist's
drawing in Plate XVI. is based ; but the earlier discoveries do not
agree with this, and the reader can easily see for himself that the
skeleton shown in Fig. 57 could not have had a longer neck without at the same having longer legs, and probably thinner bones.
We have therefore adhered to the now familiar outline of the
Palseothere as restored by Cuvier and since copied into almost
every book on Geology. Doubtless there were many species

FIG. 57.—Skeleton of a tapir-like animal, Palceotherhmi magnum, from
Eocene strata, near Paris. (After Gaudry.)

existing at the time, and this later discovery probably represents
one of the slenderer sort.
Such then, in all probability, was the Palseothere, a creature
which lived in herds in the valleys of the plateau surrounding the
ancient lake-basins of Orleans and Argenton; in the department
of Gironde; in the Isle of Wight; and in various parts of Europe.
Its contemporary, the Anoplotherium? so called from its
apparently defenceless state, is represented in the same plate.
This animal was of a lighter and more elegant form, and its limbs
1

Greek—alpha, privative; hopla, arms; therion, beast.

182

CREATURES

OF OTHER

BAYS.

ended each in two digits, only terminating in hoofs. As in the
Palseothere, the jaws contained forty-four teeth, but there was no
interval in the series. There are suggestions in its framework of
the modern ruminant type; * thus it resembled the ox in having
an equally divided hoof, or rather two hoofs. Fig. 58, in which
the skeleton is seen, shows that it possessed a long tail. In size
it was about equal to a fallow deer, and the long tail has been
supposed, perhaps erroneously, to indicate aquatic habits. Small

FIG. 58.—Skeleton of a tapir-like animal, with restored outline, Anoplotherium
commune^ from Eocene strata. (After Cuvier.)

and more delicate species have been taken to represent distinct
genera.
" Judging from its habits of swimming and diving," said Cuvier,
" the Anoplotherium would have the hair smooth like the otter ;
perhaps its skin was even half naked. It is not likely, either, that
it had long ears, which would be inconvenient in its aquatic kind
of life ; and I am inclined to think that, in this respect, it resembled
1
Cuvier divided all the hoofed animals (ungulates) into two orders,
pachyderms and ruminants. ' The former is a heterogeneous order, and has
since been abandoned; but the ruminants have been regarded as one of the
most distinct of mammalian orders, for they are separated from all other
animals by having horns and hoofs in pairs, the absence of upper front teeth,
complex stomachs, and the habit of ruminating or "chewing the cud."
Professor Owen showed that ungulates should be classified by the structure of
their feet. He therefore divided them into odd-toed (perissodactylate) and
even-toed (artiodactylate), and he placed elephants in a separate order—the
Proboscidia.

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC.

183

the hippopotamus and other quadrupeds which frequent the water t
much." But was it really aquatic ?
Xiphodon^ so named by Cuvier on account of the shape
of its teeth, was a small and delicate animal, long, with
slenderer limbs than the Anoplotherium; its feet were provided
with two toes, and the tail was short (see restoration in Plate
XVL). X. gracilis was obtained from the lignites of Debruge,
near Apt. It was some three feet high, and of about the size of
a chamois, but lighter in form, and with a smaller head. Cuvier
says of this creature, " Its course was not embarrassed by a long
tail; but, like all active herbivorous animals, it was probably
timid, and with large and very mobile ears, like those of the
stag, announcing the slightest approach of danger. Neither is
there any doubt that its body was covered with smooth hair, and
consequently we only require to know its colour in order to paint
it as it formerly existed in this country, where it has been dug
up after so many ages." Instead of resorting to rivers and lakes,
this graceful little creature probably kept to the dry land and fed
upon aromatic herbs.
Discoveries, chiefly made since Cuvier's day, have shown that
these ancient herbivorous mammals had carnivorous enemies,
which doubtless kept down their numbers—not lions and tigers,
but certain lower and less " specialised " creatures, from some of
which the latter are descended.
Chceropotamus? the Water-hog, was another contemporary,
having a good deal of analogy with the living Peccari, though
much larger; its feet have not yet been found, but they probably
had four toes.
Anthracotherium2, (see Fig. 59), so named from having been
found in a bed of anthracite, or lignite, near Savone in France,
doubtless dwelt in swamps and marshes, and belongs to the same
1
2
3

Greek—xiphos, sword ; odous, odontos, tooth.
Greek—'cAozros, a young pig ; potamos, river.
Greek— anthrax, coal; therion, beast.

i84

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

family as Chczropotamus. It appears to have resembled both a
pig and a hippopotamus (see restoration, Plate XVL).
In the strata of the Paris basin there are three masses of gypsum
separated by intervening deposits of fine marl, which breaks up
into fine layers, or laminae. In the top deposit, in the valley of
Montmorency, M. Desnoyers discovered, in 1859, many footprints of animals, occurring at no less than six different levels.
The gypsum to which these marls belong varies from thirty to fifty
feet in thickness. Sir Charles Lyell visited the quarries soon
after the discovery was made known, with M. Desnoyers, who
showed him large slabs in the museum at Paris, where, on the

FIG. 59.—Skeleton of Anthracotherium, from Lower Miocene strata.
(After Kowalevsky.)

upper planes of stratification, the indented footmarks were seen,,
while corresponding casts in relief appeared on the lower surfacesof the gypsum beds immediately above. Each of these thin filmsof marl, before being hardened by pressure of overlying rocks, was
in the state of mud; on this mud the animals of this Eocene
period once walked or " made tracks," as Americans say, and the
impressions penetrated to the gypsum below, which must then
have been in a soft condition. Here, then, we have an old haunt
of early Tertiary forms of life; and this haunt, the geological
record tells us, was probably near a lake, or several small lakes,

rjf

/

h
H^^

, .#
-

<• J*!i7_
T A P I R - L I K E ANIMALS.
Palceosyops.
PLATE

XVII.

/,* r

EOCENE PERIOD.
Anthracotherhim.

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC.

185

communicating with each other, on the shores of which numerous
herbivorous creatures wandered, together with beasts of prey
which occasionally devoured them. This is clearly proved by the
tooth-marks detected by palaeontologists on the bones and skulls
of Palaeotheres entombed in the gypsum.
The nearest living ally of our Palseothere, that once inhabited
Europe in great numbers, must be sought for a long way from
horrie; and it is highly instructive to observe that the further we
wander away from the present down "the corridors of time/7
the further we must travel, geographically, to find creatures at all
matching those that lived in early ages of the world's history.
Thus, the Tapir from Sumatra, or Central and South America, is
the nearest living relative of the Palaothere; while, if we go back
still further—into Jurassic times,—we must fetch marsupials from
Australia to match some of the little mammals whose jawbones
are found in some of the deposits of that age. To the geologist
and naturalist, South America and Australia are countries which
have, as it were, lagged behind ; for their faunas are not " up to
date," as the saying is; and thereby hangs a long story—into
which we must not be led now,—and one which shows how
closely the sciences of Geology, Natural History, and" Geography
are interwoven.
As already stated, Cuvier's great results in restoring Eocene
animals were due, in a large measure, to the use he made of his
principle of " correlation ;" of which he writes : " I doubt whether
I should ever have divined, if observation had not taught me,
that the ruminant hoofed beasts should all have the cloven foot,
and be the only beasts with horns on the frontal bone." 1 Again,
it is found—though no one knows why—that only those hoofed
animals which have their hoofs in one or two pairs, have horns in
one or two pairs on the frontal bones : whilst those with three
hoofs, if they have horns at all, have either one or two placed
one behind the other (example, the Indian rhinoceros with one
1

Ossemens Fossiles, torn. i. p. 184. (1834.)

186

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

horn and the African two-horned rhinoceros). There must be
secret reasons for these curious facts—who shall win immortality
by discovering them ? Other relationships, such as that between
teeth and hoofs, might be given ; but the above example is
sufficient for our present purpose. In dealing with this subject,
however, it should be mentioned that Cuvier's law is not infallible,
and does not always apply to some of the ancient and generalised
types discovered since his day.

FIG. 60.—Skeleton of a tapir-like animal, Palceosyops. (Restored, after
C. Earle.)

Our account of Eocene Tapir-like animals would not be complete without some mention of an interesting animal allied to the
Palaeothere, discovered in Tertiary strata in North America, viz.
the Palceosyops? so named from its pig-like face. In general
features it strongly resembled the Tapir, had a stout body, with
•slender tail, and short neck, compensated by a proboscis of considerable length.
Our restoration, seen in Plate XVII., is based upon a complete
1

Greek—palaios, ancient; sits, pig; ops, face.

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC.

187

restoration of the skeleton, lately published in America, by Mr. C.
Earle* (see Fig. 60). That drawing represents a great amount of
labour and is the result of much collecting on the part of several
workers for a good many years. It is founded on specimens, by
no means complete, in the museum of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia; in the museum of Princeton College; in
the collection of Professor Cope ; and some of Professor Marsh's
specimens in the museum of Yale College. The name of the
late Dr. Leidy, a pioneer in American palaeontology, is associated
with this genus, and the collection in the museum of the
Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia, contains many of the
original specimens from which Leidy first gave to the scientific
world the knowledge of the existence of this creature. Since he,
in 1870, described the genus from a few fragments of teeth found
in Wyoming, a great advance has been made in the knowledge
of its anatomy. Of late years Professors Scott and Osborne have
made large collections of its bones in their well-known western
exploring expeditions. P. horealis2 comes from the Wind River
beds, and P. major from the Bridger beds of the American Eocene.8
We pass on now to give a brief account of a strange elephantine
creature that lived in Eocene times, both in America and Europe,
the Coryphodon4 (so named from its teeth), a restoration of which
is seen in Plate XVIII. The complete skeleton, as restored
quite recently by Professor Marsh, is shown in Fig. 61.5 The history
1

Journ. Ac. Sciences; Philadelphia, 2nd series, vol. ix., part iii., p. 314.
To save space we have allowed the Palceotherium and Anthracotherium
to appear together on the same plate, although one is an American form, the
other European.
3
The divisions of the American Eocene strata are as follows, in descending
order :—
Uinta.
Bridger.
Wasatch.
Puerco.
4
Greek—korufe, a ridge ; odous, odontos, tooth. Vide p. 189.
5
From Professor Marsh's paper, Amer. Journ. Science, xlvi. (1893), p. 325,
a copy of which he kindly sent to the author.
2

188

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

of this remarkable animal, so long shrouded in obscurity, is worth
recording here. The specimen on which the genus was founded
by Sir R. Owen, in 1846, is unique, and was dredged up from the
bottom of the sea, between St. Osyth and Harwich, on the Essex
coast. It appears to have been washed out of the London Clay
formation, as many other fossils have been; and consists of the
right branch of the lower jaw. It may interest the reader to
know that this' distinguished naturalist confessed that he had
seldom felt more misgiving in regard to a conclusion based on a
single tooth or bone than that which he arrived at after a careful
study of this specimen. Its smaller and less obvious features-

FIG. 61.—Coryphodon hamalus. (Restored, after Marsh.)
Length about six feet.

carried conviction to him against the showing of the larger and
more catching ones. But although some naturalists for a time
thought he had mistaken the fore for the back part of the jaw,,
yet his conclusion proved to be correct. His experience taught
him that the less obvious points, which require searching out,
frequently, when their full meaning has been grasped, guide to
a right interpretation of the whole. " I t is as if truth were
whispered," he says, "rather than outspoken by Nature."
The first additional evidence which Sir R. Owen obtained of
the true nature of this ancient mammal was furnished by a fossil

;

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B—19

s**1-., " j*»*Mft»w;

AN A N C I E N T MAMMAL (CORYPHODON H A M A T U S ) .
L e n g t h 6 feet.

EOCENE

PERIOD.

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC

189

canine tooth brought up from a depth of a hundred and sixty feet
out of the Plastic Clay during the operation of sinking a well in the
neighbourhood of Camberwell, near London. This circumstance
caused Sir R. Owen to remind his readers of the old proverb,
" Truth lies at the bottom of a well." It was nearly three inches
long, and evidently belonged to a large hoofed mammal. With
regard to the teeth, he remarks that their b.road-ridged and
pointed grinding surfaces indicate that they were intended to be
applied to the coarser kinds of vegetable substances.
According to Owen, certain fossils from the lignite deposits of
Soisson, Laon, and Meudon, in France, belong to Coryphodon.
Speaking of a tooth from Soisson, Cuvier said that the entire
skeleton was found indicating an animal almost as large as a bull,
but that the workmen employed in the sand-pit {sablmtere) unfortunately preserved only that one tooth. The first specimen of
Coryphodon discovered in America was found in 1871, near
Evanston, Wyoming, by Mr. William Cleburne, while engaged as
surveyor for the Union Pacific Railroad, who secured chiefly its
teeth and vertebrae. More or less perfect specimens were afterwards obtained by Cope during his explorations in New Mexico,
under the survey of Captain Wheeler. Regarded merely as a
fossil, it is characteristic of the Lower Eocene of Europe and
America; in North America it is confined to the Wasatch and
Wind River epochs, and is absent from the Upper Eocene of
both countries.
Coryphodon is particularly interesting on account of the primitive features of its skeleton; the brain was very small and of a
low type. Professor Cope places it, with its allied forms, in
a separate order, to which he gives the name Amblypoda, on
account of their elephantine limbs and probable ambling gait.1
1
Mr. Charles Earle, after a careful revision of this family, has suggested that
Cope's species should be greatly reduced in number, many of them in his
opinion being only due to differences of age and sex. Bathmodon, Metalofihodon, Ectodon, Manteodon, may all be included in the genus Coryphodon.

igo

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

C. hamatus was about six feet long; while some species were
no larger than a tapir, others were as big as an ox (see Plate
XVIIL).
Professor Cope thinks that in general appearance the Coryphodons resembled the bear more than any other living animal, with
the important exception that in their feet they were like elephants^
The artist and author, however, in making the accompanying
restoration, have been guided by the evident relationship between
Coryphodon and the Dinoceras (described in our former work 1 ).
"The movements of the Cofyphodons," says Professor Cope,
" doubtless resembled those of the elephant in its shuffling and
ambling gait, and may have been even more awkward from the
inflexibility of the ankle. But in compensation for the probable
lack of speed, these animals were most formidably armed with
tusks. These weapons, particularly those of the upper jaw, were
more robust than those of the carnivora, and generally more
elongate." There is no evidence that they had a proboscis—in
fact, it is practically impossible. We may suppose from the
nature of the teeth, and from other evidence, that they were
vegetable, feeders, but not restricted to any particular class of
food; to a large extent they were omnivorous, like the hogs of
to-day.
It is a little difficult to follow the curious interpretation arrived
at by Professor Osborne and Dr. Wortman that " the positions of
the fore and hind feet were absolutely different," the former being
like those of the elephant (where only the tips of the toes touch
the ground); the latter, in their opinion, like those of a bear
and spreading out to rest on the ground (plantigrade).2 This is
not borne out by Professor Marsh's recent figure. Much
valuable material for the study of the anatomy of this primitive
mammal was collected by these two gentlemen, in spite of the
1
2

Extinct Monsters•, p. 151 (new edit.).
Bulletin of the American Museutn of Natural History, vol. iv. (1872),

p. 121.

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC.

191

many difficulties with which they had to contend, during their
expedition, in the summer of 1891, into the Big Horn and Wind
River regions, where the Wasatch strata are found.
The sketch-map shown in Fig. 62, will give the reader a general
idea of the positions of the different geological " basins" 3 in
Western North America, where their strata have been found to
yield so many valuable relics of ancient Tertiary life.

F I G . 62.—Map of North America in Tertiary times, showing roughly the
outline of the coast, and sites of the principal fresh-water lakes.

The skull shown in Fig. 63, belongs to a huge American
quadruped of Miocene age, the Titanotherium, which was one of
the Dinocerata of Marsh. Probably Brontops, A/fops, and Menops
all really belong to this genus.
During the Miocene period there lived a very strange and
primitive kind of elephant, known as the Dinotheriwn. Its head
(four feet long, and three feet broad) was found at Eppelsheim, in
1
When strata have been bent downwards into a kind of trough going far below
the surface, they are said to lie in a " basin." Examples : the London basin7
the Paris basin.

192

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Hesse-Darmstadt, and is to be seen in the geological collection
of the Natural History Museum, in a separate case (Glazed Case
B, on plan). Some of the limb-bones may be seen not far off
(Wall-case No. 39), together with a drawing intended to give an
idea of the creature, as it looked when alive. The proportions of
the head in this drawing do not agree with the actual specimen

F I G . 63.—Skull of Titanotherium^ from Eocene strata, North America.
(After Marsh.)

close by: our artist's restoration in Plate XIX., which has been
made after a careful examination of the head, will, we hope, give
a more correct idea. Remains of this remarkable genus, which
so puzzled palaeontologists years ago, have been met with in
various strata in South Germany, France, Greece (Pikermi), and

* *
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Si's

wmmmKBKm
AN A N C I E N T E L E P H A N T I N E MONSTER ( D I N O T H E R I U M ) .
PLATE

XIX.

MIOCENE

PERIOD.

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC.

*93

Asia Minor. Closely allied forms occur in India, but none have
yet been found in America.
The history of the discovery of this genus may be briefly
given as follows. Isolated teeth were described in 1715 by
Reaumer, in 1775 by .Rozier, in 1785 by Kennedy. Cuvier
ascribed a molar tooth to a gigantic Tapir (Tapir giantesque).
Kaup, in 1829, established the genus from specimens found at
Eppelsheim ; at first, having only a lower jaw, he could not
understand it, and not unnaturally put it upside down. But in
1835, Kaup and Klipstein found a complete skull at Eppelsheim
(the one shown in Fig. 64). This head, when first exhibited in
Paris, excited great interest among zoologists in that city. M.
de Blainville read a paper on the subject before the French
Academy of Sciences, pointing out what he considered to be
its most remarkable points: he was wrong, however, in concluding that it was related (except, perhaps, in a very distant
way) to the Manatees and Dugongs of the present day. Palaeontologists can now form a very fair idea of the creature, because
its bones have at different times been discovered. Kaup placed
it between the tapir and rhinoceros. Dean Buckland compared
the tusks to those of a walrus. In order to show how even the
greatest anatomists may be deceived by mere fragmentary
remains, like this skull and the few teeth at first known, it may
be mentioned here that Owen at one time ascribed to this
genus a jaw, with teeth, from Australia, which turned out afterwards to belong to the great extinct marsupial Difirotodon!
(described in Chapter XL). Several species of Dinotherium have
been found, of various sizes. The skull shows that it possessed
a fairly large proboscis. Unlike all other elephants, the two tusks
are in the lower jaw, and curve downwards in the fashion of those
of a walrus. The thigh-bone or femur (seen in Wall-case No.
39) is enough to show that the limbs were decidedly elephantine*
Dean Buckland, in his Bridgwater Treatise, states the conclusions he had arrived at with regard to the probable nature
o

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

and habits of this remarkable animal; but we are not sure that
he was right in supposing it to be of aquatic habits. He pointed
out that it was mechanically impossible for a lower jaw nearly
four feet long, and loaded with such heavy tusks, to have been
otherwise than cumbrous and inconvenient to a quadruped living
on dry land. For an animal destined to live in the water, such
would, in his opinion, have been highly suitable and appropriate.
The aquatic habits of the Tapirs, to which family the Dinotherium
was more or less allied, seem to point to the conclusion that it

FIG. 64.—Skull of Dinotherium giganteum, from Eppelsheim. The lower
jaw is a cast. An examination of the actual skull at the top will show it is
considerably crushed in.

inhabited fresh-water lakes and rivers. To an animal of such
habits the weight of the tusks, when sustained in the water,
would not have been inconvenient. If we suppose them to have
been employed as instruments for raking and grubbing up by
the roots large aquatic plants from the bottom, they would,
under such service, combine the mechanical powers of the pickaxe with those of the horse-harrow. The tusks may also have
been applied with advantage to hook on the head of the animal
to the bank, and perhaps, as in the case of the walrus, to assist

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC.

195

in dragging the body out of the water. Some of these conclusions seem hardly justifiable, and we can see no difficulty in
believing that the tusks were used to grub up the ground, or pull
down branches of trees, as in the case of modern elephants.
A length of eighteen feet has been attributed to the creature ;
but this is only a probable estimate awaiting confirmation, or
contradiction, as soon as a complete skeleton shall have been
discovered. Its supposed aquatic habits seem to be in harmony
with the geographical conditions of Europe during the Miocene
period, for at that time there were many fresh-water lakes.
Other extinct elephantine monsters flourished in Europe in
the same geological period with the Dinotherium, and continued
to exist down to a later geological date; these were the
Mastodonsx—so named from the mammilated surfaces of their
teeth.
Fig. 65 represents a restored skeleton of the Mastodon
angustidens, from Miocene strata at Sansan, in France; and a
restoration of the animal is shown in Plate XX. On comparing
it with any modern elephant, one notices certain differences:
to begin with, it possessed four tusks, two in the upper jaw and
two in the lower; the legs are shorter, especially the hind pair.
That it was provided with a proboscis admits of no doubt, and
can be proved by several considerations. In the first place, the
short neck shows that the mouth could not have reached the
ground, and therefore such an organ was necessary in order to
bring food to the mouth ; secondly, the long tusks would equally
make it impossible for the mouth to touch the ground; and
thirdly, by the configuration of the skull, with its large surface
for the attachment of the trunk. The teeth present certain
differences when compared with those of an elephant. The
office of the trunk, doubtless, was to seize and break off the
boughs of trees for food, as in the modern elephant. It has been
conjectured—though not with much reason—that the Mastodons
1

Greek—mastos, teat; odous, odontos, tooth.

196

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

AN E L E P H A N T W I T H FOUR TUSKS (MASTODON A N G U S T I D E N S ) .
PLATE

XX.

MIOCENE

PERIOD.

TAPIR-LIKE

ANIMALS,

ETC.

197

were partly aquatic, and haunted the swamps of the Miocene
period; but if so, it is not easy to understand the use of their
tusks. A somewhat similar animal to the one above described,
was the Mastodon longirostris, of which a skull was discovered
at Eppelsheim in Hesse-Darmstadt. That the genus Mastodon
lived on to a very recent period (possibly into the human period)
is proved by the complete skeleton of M. americanus from
Missouri, described in our former work.1
The Sivalik hills of Northern India have yielded a magnificent
skull of one of the largest of the extinct elephants, the E. ganesa

(see Fig. 66), the tusks of which measure ten feet six inches !
This fine specimen was presented to the National Museum by
General Sir William Erskine Baker. The power of these huge
implements must have been truly enormous ! The total length
of the cranium and tusks is fourteen feet.
1

Extinct Monsters, p. 220 (new edit.).

CHAPTER X.
HORSES AND THEIR ANCESTORS.

" O u r acquaintance with the living creation of given periods of the past
must depend in a great measure on what we commonly term chance; and
the casual discovery of new localities, rich in peculiar fossils, may modify or
entirely overthrow all our generalisations which are based on the supposed
non-existence at former epochs of the fossil representatives of large families
or classes of plants and animals."—SIR CHARLES LYELL.

THE great theory of Evolution was first dimly suggested by
Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander (B.C. 6IO), who may
have derived the idea from Egyptian, Babylonian, or Hindu
sources; then revived, in a more scientific form, by Lamarck last
century. In recent years it has been placed on a truly scientific
basis by the illustrious Charles Darwin, and is now generally
accepted by naturalists and palaeontologists. Indeed, it is hard
to be a palaeontologist in these days without being also an
evolutionist—so abundant is the evidence derived from a study of
extinct animals. Year by year the evidence is accumulating, and
many workers in various parts of the world are discovering longlost types which appear to link together some of the branches of
the great Tree of Life. Marsh and Cope in America; Owen,
Huxley, and others in England ; have all been directing our ideas
in the same course. At Pikermi in Attica; in the far Western
States in America; at Sansans, Allier, Leberon and other
localities in France, such great and important additions have
been made of late to our knowledge, that it is now possible to

HORSES

AND

THEIR

ANCESTORS.

199

make out certain lines of evolution in the Mammalia since their
first important outburst at the beginning of the Tertiary period.
We propose in the present chapter to trace, in the light of recent
discoveries, the history of one important living group, as represented by the horse. The history of the horse and its various
ancestors in Europe and America, as worked out by Huxley and
Marsh, is undoubtedly one of the greatest triumphs of modern
palaeontology.
The series of fossil horses now known is so complete,
that not a single important gap is left between the original
five-toed ancestor, and the horse of to-day, with only one
toe to each foot! Here, then, we have the most perfect
evidence of the evolution of an animal from distant ages in the
earth's history that has ever been presented to the world I
Professor Cope's researches on the history of camels as illustrated
from fossil remains have brought to light another line of evolution equally interesting if not quite so complete. According
to the latter palaeontologist, the very earliest ancestor of all the
hoofed animals (and therefore of the horse) was the Eocene
Phenacodus. We must therefore begin with this interesting and
primitive little mammal, and some of its relatives, before we
speak of the true horses. Only thus will the story be complete.
Professor Cope divides his suborder, the Condylarthra, into
three groups or families, which take their names from three
important genera, viz. Periptychus, Phenacodus, and Meniscotherium. Each of these strange types will now be briefly considered.
The first of them, Periptychus, was evidently very abundant
during the earliest part of the Eocene period, when the famous
Puerco beds were in the course of formation; for Professor
Cope says that portions of fifty separate individuals (chiefly
fragments of jaws) have come into his possession. It was
apparently the largest and most specialised form of the family
named after it. Three species were known when Professor

200

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Cope wrote his papers on the above families (1884). He
obtained a cast of a good part of the brain-case^ and found that
the part of its brain devoted to the sense of smell (olfactory
lobes) was enormous, while the hemispheres of the higher brain
(cerebrum) were small and flat. The cast disclosed quite the
lowest type of a mammal's brain that has ever been brought to
light. The discovery of this creature was an important event
in the history of palaeontology. The following description will
perhaps serve to give the reader some slight idea of this remarkably primitive mammal, as pictured by Professor Cope. It had
long legs and walked on the sole of its foot, as a bear does.
Certain of the limb-bones suggest those of the elephant; but
a fact like this does not necessarily imply any external resemblance to' an elephant; elephants are a later branch from the
same stem. The neck was remarkably short—another curious
point of contact with the above order. Periptychus was a
smaller animal than the Phenacodus, with a head of nearly the
same size, and a long tail, stout at the base. There were no
weapons of offence or defence, as far as one can see, and yet
there is no saying what means it may have devised for those
purposes. It is generally unsafe to hazard any speculations on
that subject. Look, for instance, at the kangaroo : if it were an
extinct animal, only known by its skeleton, the palaeontologist
might safely say it could excel in jumping and running; but he
probably would never have guessed how effectively the creature
can use its hind legs to kick or rip open a man. So with horses;
they might seem at first rather helpless (except for their running
powers), but see how a horse can kick when driven to bay !
Still, the Periptychus had pretty large front teeth, and these,
Professor Cope suggests, may have been capable of inflicting
a severe bite. With regard to diet, we may suppose, from the
nature of the teeth, that food was derived from both animal and
vegetable sources.
All the known specimens of Periptychus were discovered by

HORSES

AND

THEIR

ANCESTORS.

201

Mr. David Baldwin, Professor Cope's assistant, in New Mexico;
and not only these, but an immense number of fossil vertebrates
of the Puerco age, are the results of his untiring and sometimes
dangerous explorations. Few collectors can show such a record
as his.
Leaving out certain other genera which are less well known,
we pass on to the next family, of which Phenacodus1 is the
representative. The first specimen of this interesting animal—
the most generalised mammal that has yet been discovered—

FIG. 6y.—Skeleton of Phenacodus primcevus, the oldest known ungulate.
From Eocene strata, Wasatch, U.S. (After Cope.)

was dug out by Professor Cope himself from a bank of Eocene
marl, on Bear River, Wyoming, and was found associated with
Coryphodon and Hyracotherium. Other specimens were obtained,
in less abundance, in strata of similar age in New Mexico.
But the locality where the bones have chiefly been found is the
Big Horn Basin of Northern Wyoming. Here Mr. Wortman
has met with a great many specimens, and, amongst others, two
almost entire skeletons of P. prtmcevus (Fig. 67) and P. vortmanu
1

Greek—phenax^ a cheat; odous, tooth, because its teeth are deceptive.

202

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

These two species are somewhat different in size and build.
Altogether nine species are more or less known.
The reader may obtain a very good idea of the skeleton of
P.firimcevusfrom the beautiful cast exhibited in the Natural History Museum (Gallery of Fossil Mammals, Pier-case No. 9). Mr.
Wortman brought two specimens from the Wind River Valley and
two from the Big Horn Basin. It is, of course, quite impossible to
describe the skeleton of any animal in popular language, much
more that of an ancient creature belonging to an extinct order;
for this purpose naturalists have a language of their own, which
only repels the general reader, and is out of place in a book like
the present. But, for those of our readers who may be interested
in the subject, we recommend the following plan : first have a
good look at the cast at the museum, of which a large figure is
given in the Guide to the Galleries of Geology and Paleontology
(part i. p. 28) j then go straight to the highest gallery on the lefthand side of the building, where mammalian skeletons only are
exhibited, and compare it with all the different types you can find
—carnivorous mammals, rodents, insectivores, ungulates (hoofed
mammals), and so on. It is rather puzzling at first; and you will
see some decided resemblances to such different types as cats, or
wolves, capybara among the rodents, and tapirs among the ungulates. This is a little bewildering ; but when you have had a good
look round you will almost certainly come to the conclusion that
the nearest thing you can find is the skeleton of the American
Tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Such was our own experience, and on
reading Professor Cope's paper afterwards, we found that he points
out several features in common between the skeletons of the little
Eocene type and its modern relation, the common American
tapir. Of course it was not so large or so heavily built, and the
skull is different in several ways; but there is a striking resemblance. In size, our Phenacodus primcevus was something between a sheep and a tapir.
It will readily be perceived that in the specimen above

™3\
1

'•-.jf,- i v

1
1

ml
TAPIR-LIKE ANIMALS.
Pal&osyops.
PLATE XVII.

EOCENE PERIOD.
A nthracotheriitm.

HORSES

AND

THEIR

ANCESTORS.

referred to the fore limbs have been somewhat displaced
after the death of the animal, so that one shoulder blade
appears much too high ; but this can be allowed for. Beginning with the skull, we find that it is long, narrow, and rather
pointed in front, where the nose was. The teeth are very peculiar,
the molars or back teeth having several low rather conical protuberances, thus presenting a different appearance to those of a rhinoceros on the one hand, or of a deer on the other; but more like
those of a pig, which comes of a very old race, and shows a good
deal in common with the odd-toed ungulates—the rhinoceros,
horse, and tapir. The feet are also of a primitive type in possessing five toes instead of one, as in the horse, or three, as in the
tapir, or two, as in the deer. Evidently we have revealed here
the primitive foot from which all the hoofed mammals are descended, as well as elephants, and probably even the carnivores
and rodents!
A cast of the brain-cavity showed Professor Cope that the
brain was decidedly primitive too, the hemispheres being very
smallj though they exhibited traces of convolutions. But
Coryphodon had a brain still more primitive. One species, the
Phenacodus nuniensis, was considerably larger than the others,
being about the same size as a Malayan tapir. The others were
small Phenacodus primcevus. Professor Cope thinks, had much
the same proportions as the American tapir, and this has to some
extent determined our restoration shown in Plate XXI.; but we
must think of a young tapir, not a full-grown one. The middle
three toes of both feet reached the ground, while the other two
—one on each side—hung down without reaching the ground,
like those of a pig. The tail was longer and heavier than that of
any living hoofed animal, and reminds one more of the tail of a
cat or a lion. The eyes were small, and the muzzle long, but
very soft above* Whether there was a small proboscis it is hard
to say, but there are some suggestions of such an appendage in
the nasal bones. With regard to diet, it is pretty safe to conclude

2o 4

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS,

that the animal was not particular in its choice of food, and,
like a pig, would eat almost anything that might come in its way.
We know that life is a struggle for all creatures—man not
excepted; and so it must have been even in the dim and distant
past .of the Wasatch Eocene period. How, then, did Phenacodus
maintain the struggle ? It must have had enemies, though there
were no lions or tigers then. It was not endowed with as much
strength as a tapir; and, as far as the skeleton shows, it possessed
no weapons, either of offence or defence. Professor Cope concludes that the creature, when danger was near, sought refuge in
flight. It may have been capable, he thinks, of running at considerable speed. Such a conclusion is suggested by the limbbones, which show rather well-marked places for the attachment
of muscles.
Turning to the other species, Phe?iacodus vortmani, we find the
limbs rather long and slender for an Eocene mammal. Professor
Cope believes that we have in this genus the primitive ancestor of
a great many mammals, and among others, of the horse. It may
be, then, that we see here the first beginning of the development
of that remarkable increase in running power exhibited in the
ancestral horses (to be presently described), accompanied by a
gradual decrease in the number of bones in the limbs, and other
changes which made for speed. In size, our Phenacodus vortmani
was about equal to a bull-dog; but the head is smaller and the
neck rather shorter, and not nearly so robust. The limbs show
about the same proportions to the body as those of a bull-dog,
but the fore limbs are shorter. The feet are a little longer than
in the last species; indeed, Professor Cope has some doubts as
to whether this animal is even of the same genus as the last.
Here is his description of it: " We can thus imagine the Phenacodus vortmani 2& an animal with the comparatively slender build of
the bull-dog, with a neck and head proportioned more as in the
racoon, and with the rump more elevated than the withers, as in
the peccary. The feet resembled those of a tapir or rhinoceros,

HORSES

AND

THEIR

ANCESTORS.

but had a pair of short toes on each side which did not reach the
ground. To this add a tail much like a cat's in proportions, and
the picture is complete. The diet of this animal was omnivorous,
with a smaller proportion of animal food than the hogs, for instance, use. The food is more likely to have resembled that of
the quadrumana (lemurs, monkeys, etc.). What means of defence
this species had is not easily surmised, as the canine teeth and
hoofs are not large."
The last family of the group now under consideration is represented by a fossil known as the Meniscotherium, of which only
three species are known. It occurs abundantly in the same
Wasatch Eocene strata. M. chamense was about as large as a
fox, but with a very different physiognomy. The profile is curved,
the muzzle short, and the eyes large. The body is not so slender
as that of a fox, or of the Phenacodus^ having the more robust
proportions of a racoon. The fore and hind legs were rather
short, and of equal length, so that the rump was flattened as in
the dog. There was a large tail. In diet the creature was
probably a vegetarian.
We pass on now to consider the true fossil horses, as worked
out by Professors Huxley and Marsh. The modern horse, and
that which was known to man in the days before history was
written, we may regard as a product of the latest geological
period—the Pleistocene. The development of the horse from a
primitive five-toed ancestor seems to have taken place along two
separate lines, one in Europe and one in America. The latter is
the most complete ; for it so happens in that country the physical
conditions which prevailed throughout nearly the whole of the
Tertiary Era were singularly favourable to the preservation of the
skeletons of those creatures which lived on land. The various members of the horse tribe that roamed over North America all through
these long ages of the past were specially numerous in what is
now the Rocky Mountain region, and their remains are sealed up
in the old lake-basins which then covered so much of the country.

2o6

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS,

The most ancient of these lakes—which extended over a considerable part of the present territories of Wyoming and U t a h continued to exist so long during the Eocene period that the
sand and mud brought into it by the agency of rivers actually
accumulated therein to a thickness of about two miles ! Here is
found one of the oldest direct ancestors of the horse, the
Orohippus of Marsh. During the middle Tertiary, or Miocene
period, two other lakes existed on either side of the great Eocene
basin. The largest of these, to the east of the Rocky Mountains,
extended over portions of what are now Dakota, Nebraska, and
Colorado. The clays deposited in this lake form the " Bad
Lands " of that region, so well-known for their fossil treasures.
The other Miocene lake was west of the Blue Mountains, where
eastern Oregon now is, but, having since been overflowed by a
vast sheet of basalt, its thickness is unknown. In this basin the
Miohippus of Marsh first makes its appearance.
During the later Tertiary, or Pliocene period, a vast development of the horse tribe took place, so that great numbers of
these animals left their remains in the lake-deposits of that
time. The largest of these lakes had the Rocky Mountains for
its western border, and extended from Dakota to Texas, its
northern part covering the bed of the older Miocene basin.
Another Pliocene basin, of unknown limits, extended over the
older Tertiary strata of Eastern Oregon, and evidence of yet
others may be seen in Idaho, Nevada, and California. In all of
these fossil horses have been found; but the most important
localities are the region of the Niobrara River East of the
mountains, and the valley of the John Day River in Oregon (see
sketch-map, p. 191).
It will thus be seen how abundant is the material for tracing the
evolution of the horse in America. In that country the Equus
Fraternus of Leidy is believed to be almost, if not entirely
identical with the Equus caballus (Linn.) of the old world. The
earliest ancestor of the horse in the new world, at present known,

HOUSES

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ANCESTORS.

207

is the Eohipfius, of the Eocene period (Phenacodus and its allies
may be direct ancestors ; but, for our present purpose, we may set
it aside as being too remote). Several species of Eohififius 1 have
been found, all about the size of a fox. Like most of the early
hoofed mammals, it possessed forty-four teeth, the molar teeth
having short crowns. In the fore feet there were four welldeveloped toes and a trace or rudiment of another; the hind feet
had three toes. Here we have clear evidence that the horse tribe
had begun to separate themselves from the rest of the hoofed
animals. The two bones of the fore-leg (radius and ulna) are
quite distinct, as in Phenacodus; but we shall see presently how
one of them gets less and less. The next stage in the progress
of evolution, as represented by Orohipfius? marks only a very
slight change, the rudiment of a fifth digit in the fore limb has
gone, and we see only four. That rudiment represented a
thumb; so now we have in the Orohifipus only the second,
third, fourth, and fifth digits.
The reader will find these
shown in Fig. 68, in the bottom row. Here the big digit
represents the middle finger of our own hands, the one on
the left of it being number two, and the two on the right
numbers four and five, counting the thumb as number one.
The next drawing in the bottom row shows the three digits of
the hind limb, namely, a middle toe and one on each side of it,
as in the living tapir. Then follow the radius and ulna, which
are seen to be separate—the ulna being the long one. Then
we see the tibia and fibula of the hind limb—the tibia being
the thick one; and, lastly, we see an upper molar tooth (represented in two ways), and then a lower molar. These drawings, which were made under Professor Huxley's supervision, are
quite sufficient to illustrate the changes that took place in the
ancestors of the horse; but they do not show the increase in
1

Greek—ebs, dawn ; hippos, horse.
Greek—oros9 mountain; hippos, horse; because found in the Rocky
Mountain region.
2

CREATURES

208

Fore
Foot.

Hind
Foot.

OF OTHER
Forearm.

Leg.

DAYS.
Upper Molar.

Lower
Molar.

EQUUS.

Pleistocene a n d
recent.

PLIOHIPPUS.

Pliocene.

PROTOHIPPUS

(Hipparion).
Lower Pliocene.

MIOHIPPUS

{A

nchitherhmt).
Miocene.

MESOHIPPUS.

Lower Miocene.

OROHIPPUS

(

Hyracotheriuwi),
Eocene.

FIG. 68.—Limb-bones and teeth of American fossil horses (after Marsh),
illustrating a gradual progression from Eocene times. The Phenacodus is
omitted. The nearest European forms are given in italics underneath.

HORSES

AND

THEIR

ANCESTORS.

209

size that took place. Orohippus was found by Marsh in middle
Eocene strata, in the same beds as the Dinoceras described in
our former works; it was but little larger than Eohippus, and in
most respects very similar. Now, the Hyracotherium of Europe
and America came near to Orohippus, so that the delicate drawing
on p. 210 (taken from Cope's great work on the Tertiary vertebrata)
will give us a very good idea of this graceful little creature, which
ought to be specially interesting as one of the earliest members of
the horse tribe; and we trust that the restoration of it in Plate XXI.
will help the reader to picture it to himself as it was when alive.
It is somewhat too large in proportion to the Fhenacodus, but if
drawn much smaller perhaps some of its features might be lost.
We have no guarantee for the stripes which the artist put on
both the animals. The young American tapir has stripes like
those represented on the body of our Phenacodus; but it is not
likely that the tapir comes at all in the line of the fossil horses,
nor is there any positive reason to suppose that Hyracotherium
was striped : the artist thought the stripes would improve the
picture—as they do,—but they were not due to any suggestion
from the writer.
Mesohippus, from the base of the Miocene, is rather abundant
in the beds in which the great Brontotherium was found. Here
we see, from our diagram (Fig. 68), that the fifth digit has become
decidedly smaller, and the fibula of the hind limb was probably
incomplete* The next stage, represented by Miohippus, is an
important one. This genus comes very near to the European
form Anchitherium; and here we see that the small fifth digit
of the Mesohippus has practically vanished, while the ulna has
lost one end, and is beginning to dwindle down as shown in the?
later forms, such as Hipparion. There are several species of
Miohippus, all larger than Mesohippus, and more specialised
both in the skull and feet. They were about as large as a sheep.
A still greater change manifests itself in the Protohippus of the
lower Pliocene—which resembles most nearly the European form
p

CREATURES

OF OTHER

BAYS.

u

HORSES

AND

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ANCESTORS.

211

Hipparion. Some of the species of Protohippus were as large as
an ass, and the European Hipparion was quite as large; the
latter we have ventured to restore as seen in Plate XXII., where
it is somewhat too large in proportion to the wild horse drawn
below—but this was done purposely, in order to show it better.
Here (in Hipparion) we have another decided advance towards
the modern horse; the two extra toes have become much
smaller, so much so that we may suppose them to have been
of no use at all, as suggested in our restoration. In other words,
they have become " rudimentary."x In the fore limb of Protohippus the ulna has dwindled considerably, and the upper molar
tooth is getting deeper, and its surface for grinding the food
more complex; in fact, very like that of Equus, shown at the top
of the diagram. In the Pliocene period we have the last stage
of the series before reaching the horse itself, viz. the Pliohippus,
which has lost the small hooflets of the previous American form,
and the two side digits are reduced to mere " splints," as in a
modern horse. This transition is a greater one than the last;
but yet the gap between the two forms is not very great
Pliohippus does not seem to have been any bigger than Protohippus; but we see at once how very horse-like it must have
been.2
Only in the upper Pliocene deposits does the true horse
appear, and then the genealogy is complete. It roamed over
the whole of North and South America, and soon after seems
to have become extinct. There is no doubt that man and the
horse were contemporaneous in early days; but it can be proved
beyond doubt that, at the time of the Spanish conquest, few
if any horses were left. It has been thought, from certain
1
It is important to note that in Protohippus the two side digits are
larger than in Hipparion^ and were probably of some use, whereas in the
latter form they would seem to be too small to touch the ground.
2
Professor Marsh has collected remains of some thirty or forty species of
more or less horse-like animals; some of these, such as Parahippus^ HyohippuS) and Merychippus, may not be in the line of descent.

2i2

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

references contained in old narratives, that at least in South
America the animal may possibly have still lingered on after
the coming of the Europeans. What cause can have led to
its extermination, it is impossible to say. The present race
of wild horses, which roam in such vast herds on the Pampas,
are not the descendants of the fossil horse of South America,
but have sprung from those introduced by the Spaniards more
than three hundred years ago.
We pass on now to trace the line of descent in Europe. In
the year 1839 Sir R. Owen described an imperfect skull of
a small animal not larger than a fox, which was discovered in
the London clay of Heme Bay, in Kent, under the name of
Hyracotherium, because at that time it was (wrongly) supposed
to be related to the living Hyrax—that peculiar little creature
inhabiting Syria, which may be the " coney" of Scripture, and
looks like a rabbit. Similar and more complete remains were
afterwards found in various parts of Europe, and more abundantly
in America (see Fig. 69). To a closely allied form the name
of Pachynotophus1 has been given, while Ptiotophus and Orohippus
are probably identical; and they are all nearly related to a
previously known, but larger animal, called by Cuvier Lophiodon.
In Europe the horse is generally traced from the small and
slender Patoptotherium, of which the whole skeleton is known, by
way of Pachynolophus to the Anchitherium ; thence to Hipparion
and so to the Equus caballus.
Paloplotherium has been found in France, England, and elsewhere^ and looks like Hyracotherium. Hipparion seems to have
had a wide geographical range, for its remains have been discovered in the Sivalik hills of Northern India, in China, and
at Maragha in Persia, in Samos, in Pikermi (Greece), in France,
Germany, and England. The Anchitherium occurs in Miocene
1
Under the name Hyracotherium some very different forms have been
confounded ; and Owen's species may possibly be identical with Cope's
Phenacodus.

r,.,,,4*'"*%-^Xy

Miff
40H

•»? <A

THE HIPPARION (UPPER PICTURE), AND A WILD HORSE (LOWER PICTURE).
PLATE XXII.

HORSES

AND

THEIR

ANCESTORS.

strata at Sanson in France, and another small species comes from
the Miocene White River beds of Nebraska in North America.
Equus stenonis of the Pliocene period is regarded as the
immediate ancestor of the horse in the Old World.
And here a word of caution seems to be necessary. When we
find fossil types which appear to be intermediate between some
that are living at the present day, it does not follow that they are
really intermediate. Thus, as already pointed out, the ancient
Palceotherium has much in common with the horse on the one
hand, and with the rhinoceros on the other; but it does not
therefore represent the form through which rhinoceroses have
passed to become horses, or vice versa. It probably means that
the horse, the rhinoceros, and the Palceotherium are all the
descendants of a common ancestor. We must, therefore,
distinguish clearly between these " intercalary " types, as they are
now called, and those " linear " types which more or less truly
indicate the steps by which the transition from one group to
another was effected. The changes and modifications of the
limbs of the horse's ancestors were, of course, only acquired very
gradually—as, indeed, is indicated by the different periods of the
Tertiary era during which they lived ; and it is obvious that they
all brought about increased speed in running, especially over firm
and unyielding ground.
Speaking of these changes, Sir William Flower says,1 " Short,
stout legs and broad feet, with numerous toes, spreading apart
from each other when the weight of the creature is borne on them,
are sufficiently well adapted for plodding deliberately over marshy
and yielding surfaces, and the tapir and the rhinoceros, which in
the structure of their 'limbs have altered but little from the
primitive Eocene forms, still haunt the borders of streams and
lakes and the shady depths of forests, as was probably the habit of
their ancient representatives; while the horses are all inhabitants
of the open plains, for life upon which their whole organization
1

The Horse: A Study in Natural History.

(London, 1891.)

2i4

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

is in the most eminent degree adapted. The length and
mobility of the neck, position of the eye and ear, and great
development of the organ of smell, give them ample means of
becoming aware of the approach of enemies; while the length
of their limbs, the angles the different segments form with each
other, and especially the combination of firmness, stability, and
lightness in the reduction of all the toes to a single one, upon
which the whole weight of the body and all the muscular power
are concentrated, give them speed and endurance surpassing that
of almost any other animal.V1 At the same time that these
changes were taking place (and in accordance with the " Law of
Correlation") certain important changes in the structure and
mode of growth of the teeth were being developed, the consequence of which was that they were able to masticate and
grind up their food much more perfectly, and thus, no doubt, to
obtain therefrom more vital energy with which to supply their
muscles and nerves for working their limbs more rapidly as they
became fitted to attain higher speed. They gained a grinding
tooth for each toe that they lost. Of these ancient horsesjt may
well be said they " ran the race that was set before them " or,
perhaps we might say, which they set before themselves ; and the
victory was to the quickest runners—those who could " beat the
record" made by their predecessors ! It is a wonderful story,
this, of the evolution of that noble and useful animal to which man
is so much attached; and one cannot help sometimes wondering
whether to some extent the will of an animal may not be an
important factor in Evolution, although it is the fashion to ignore
it, and to attribute organic changes to Natural Selection, or the
(i
survival of the fittest." Mind has a powerful influence over
matter, and can we not conceive that the earliest ancestors of the
1

Visitors to the Natural History Museum will do well to examine the
admirable set of casts and actual bones of fossil horses in Gallery No. i.
Complete casts of Phenacodus and Hyracotheriuvi are there exhibited. In the
central hall may be seen the skeleton of a man and of a horse side by side, in
the same relative position.

HORSES

AND

THEIR

ANCESTORS.

215

horse, such as Phenacodus, finding (perhaps for the first time in
the world's history) boundless grassy plains before them, were
impelled by a strong desire to run ? The exercise itself must
have been enjoyable and invigorating; besides, the more ground
they could cover in a day the greater choice of pasture they
would find, while at the same time increased swiftness of foot
meant greater safety from flesh-eating enemies. Nature would
therefore encourage such a wish, and give success to the swiftest.
Not that we have any doubts as to the wonderful results which
Natural Selection can produce; but we cannot help thinking
that the animals themselves may have made a determined effort
in the direction of attaining speed—instead of allowing everything
to be done for them. Why should they not—of course with the
co-operation of Nature—have " worked out their own salvation " ?
It is a well-known fact that young horses are occasionally born
with small extra toes on their feet. Suetonius* has given an
account of the famous steed of Julius Caesar. According to the
historian, Caesar " used to ride a remarkable horse, which had feet
that were almost human, the hoofs being cleft like toes. It was
born in his own stables, and, as the soothsayers declared that it
showed its owner would be lord of the world, he reared it with
great care, and was the first to mount it; it would allow no other
rider." This account clearly indicates the presence of extra
digits, and the occurrence is more frequent than is generally
supposed. Professor Marsh has made a study of this subject,
since it has an important bearing upon the history of the evolution
of the horse as given above; for in the light of modern teaching
such occurrences are but " reversions " to older types that lived
ages ago. He has therefore examined a large number of living
animals with this peculiarity, and several interesting specimens of
the same character have been sent to him : he has likewise
received photographs, drawings, and detailed descriptions of
1

De Vitd Cessans, lxvi.

2i6

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

various other examples, the authenticity of which cannot be
questioned. The various cases he has come across may be
summed up as follows :—
Sometimes there is only one extra digit on one foot. This
is always much smaller than the main or third digit, the
largest he has seen being about one-half its size, and the
smallest very diminutive. This extra toe is almost invariably on
the inner side of the main digit, and usually on the fore foot.
Sometimes it is entirely hidden beneath the skin, the only external
evidence of its presence being a prominence, which, on close examination, may be found to contain, below the "splint-bone,"
two or more bones corresponding to the finger-joints of our own
hands. Sometimes a corresponding extra toe is developed on the
other fore foot. At other times a second extra digit has been
found, as well as those above mentioned, which may be either
smaller or larger.
Coming now to the hind feet, we find that an extra toe may
sometimes be present on one or both of them, and always on the
inside. As a rule, however, these posterior toes are much smaller,
and often concealed beneath the skin. Fig. 70 is a drawing of a
horse from Cuba, in which the extra toe is well developed on all
four limbs. This animal was examined by Professor Marsh during
its lifetime.
Occasionally the hind feet have two extra toes, while the fore
feet have only one, as in the horned horse from Texas, figured
by Marsh ; l but in rare cases both the fore and hind feet may each
have two extra toes fairly well developed, and all nearly of the
same size. In such cases the result is something very like the
feet of the ancient American type Protohippus, and the European
Hipparion. These extra digits are, of course, the second and
fourth represented in our diagram on p. 208.
In the museum at Yale College there is preserved a specimen
of a horse which, besides having two extra toes on each foot, had
1

American Journal of Science > vol. xliii. p. 344.

HORSES

AND

THEIR

ANCESTORS.

217

concealed beneath the skin the remains of another one corresponding to the human thumb. In such a rare case only the little
finger is wanting to bring us back to something like the hand of
the most primitive Eocene types, such as the Phenacodus ! Professor Marsh examined a horse of this kind when it was alive,
and, at its death, the owner, Mr. Theodore F. Wood, of New Jersey,

FIG. 70.—Eight-toed Cuban horse.

(After Marsh.)

presented it to the museum of Yale College. The animal was
widely known to the public as " Clique, the horse with six feet,"
having been exhibited for many years both in America and in
Europe. It was said to be from Texas. The extra digit representing the thumb in the human hand was not visible externally,
but could be detected beneath the skin.

2i8

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Most of the horses with extra toes which have been noticed in
America have been raised in the South-west, or from ancestors
bred there, so that their connection with the mustangs, or halfwild stock of that region, becomes more probable. It is well
known that when animals run wild they are more likely to " revert"
to ancestral types, and the late ancestors of the mustangs were in
a wild state for several hundred years.
We have pointed out in this and the previous chapter that the
mammals of early Tertiary days had small brains, and the oldest
ancestors of the horse are no exception to the rule. Professor
Marsh has clearly proved that during this era a gradual increase
in the size of the brain took place. It is interesting to find that
the growth was mainly confined to the cerebral hemispheres, or
higher portion of the brain. In most groups of mammals the
brain has gradually become more cbnvoluted, and thus increased
in quality, as well as in quantity. In the long struggle for
existence during the whole of Tertiary times the big brains won,
as they do now. Applying this to our ancestral horses, it is easy
to see that, as they acquired greater speed, and so roamed over
larger tracts of country, they found a greater variety of objects
on which to exercise their wits, besides the necessity for much
observation and reflection in finding their way across country.

CHAPTER XL
EXTINCT WHALES AND

WOMBATS.

" The earth from her deep foundations unites with the celestial orbs that
roll through boundless space, to declare the glory and show forth the praise
of their common Author and Preserver; and the voice of Natural Religion
accords harmoniously with the testimonies of Revelation, in ascribing the
origin of the Universe to the will of One eternal, and dominant Intelligence,,
the Almighty Lord and supreme First Cause of all things that subsist, ' the
same yesterday, to-day, and for ever.' " — D E A N BUCKLAND.

IT would not be safe to venture any positive statement or
opinion as to when the great cetacean order of mammals, which
includes such creatures as whales, dolphins, and porpoises, first
appeared on the earth. But as far as the geological record is
known at present, it would seem as if they were ushered in at
the commencement of the Tertiary era, at the same time with
many other new forms of life. The original ancestor of all
these marine mammals may, for all we know, have been evolved
some time before then; say in the Cretaceous period, or perhaps
during that great and partly unknown interval between the
Secondary and Tertiary eras. What we do know for certain
is, that fossil evidence of their existence first comes to light in
the Eocene strata of North America.
The oldest known whale is the curious Zeuglodon, from the
marine Eocene strata of Alabama. At Claiborne, according to
Sir Charles Lyell, there occur numerous species of shells, besides
many sea-urchins (echinoderms) and abundance of sharks' teeth.

22o

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

But the most remarkable remains found there are those of the
extinct whale, known as Zeuglodon cetoides? and so called from
the yoke-like form of its double-fanged molar teeth, which are
six inches in length. It has also been found in Mississippi,
Georgia, and South Carolina. No strata of later date than the
Eocene period contain its remains, as far as we know; and it
has never been found out of the Northern Hemisphere.
Zeuglodon must certainly have been a very remarkable creature,
and it is to be hoped that palaeontologists will some day meet
with a complete skeleton, such as may afford the material for
drawing its entire bony structure. Unfortunately, although a
great many finds have been made in Alabama, no complete
skeleton has yet been got together. The remains of at least
forty individuals have been met with, so that we may venture
to say that this ancient cetacean once flourished vigorously.
So numerous are the vertebrae in the above-mentioned locality
that it is said they are used for making fences, and that farmers
even burn the bones in order to get rid of them! How little
they know that hundreds of museum curators all over the world
would be only too glad to procure some of this " rubbish"!
With the spread of education, and an increasing desire to learn
a little about the former history of our world, let us hope that
in time agriculturists will endeavour to co-operate with men
of science in rescuing from destruction the fossilised remains of
the earth's former inhabitants.
Sir R. Owen declares the Zeuglodon to have been " one of the
most extraordinary of the Mammalia which the revolutions of
the globe have blotted out of the number of existing beings."
Some of the vertebrae found in Alabama have a length of eighteen
inches, and a diameter of twelve inches, while the whole of the
backbone, or vertebral column, has been found undisturbed.
Sir Charles Lyell says : " The vertebral column of one skeleton
found by Dr. Buckley at a spot visited by me, extended to a
1

Greek—zeugle^ yoke ; odous, odontos, tooth.

EXTINCT

WHALES

AND

WOMBATS.

221

length of nearly seventy feet, and, not far off, part of another
backbone, nearly fifty feet long, was dug up. I obtained evidence,
during a short excursion, of so many localities of this fossil
animal within a distance of ten miles, as to lead me to conclude
that they must have belonged to at least forty individuals."
This animal is particularly interesting as marking the first
appearance of the very distinct order of cetaceans, so unlike any
other order, except the Sirenia (Manatee and Dugong). It may
interest the reader to know that the teeth of this carnivorous
whale were first described and figured by the mediaeval writer
Scilla, in his treatise entitled Be Corfioribus Marinis. The
original specimens were obtained in Miocene strata at Malta,
and are now preserved in the Woodwardian Museum at Cambridge. (Excellent casts are exhibited in the Natural History
Museum. Wall-case 22, Gallery No. 1.)
Professor D'Arcy Thompson thinks that Zeugloden and other
members of its family are related to the seals, and have no direct
affinities with the cetacea; their teeth certainly are very similar,
but unfortunately we do not at present know what their limbs
were like—though one would expect, from the long pointed head
of Zeuglodori) that the body also was long like a whale's, and
adapted for rapid progress through the water, rather than for
progression on land. One cannot easily picture a creature with
such a skull walking on the land, even in the awkward manner
of a seal; but we must wait for further evidence on this point.
A portion of a skull of Zeuglodon was found in the Barton Clay,
an Eocene deposit in Hampshire.1
We have already recorded one or two cases in which curious
mistakes have been made by palaeontologists; but the student
soon finds how many and great are the difficulties that have to be
overcome by those who study lost forms of life, difficulties which
1
Professor Dames, of Berlin, has recently described certain bony plates
found with Zeuglodont remains, which probably indicate that its back was
protected by an armour of scutes (see Natural Science\ vol. iv. p. 175).

222

CREATURES

OE OTHER

DAYS.

in most cases are due to the imperfection of the material at their
command, or the bad state of preservation in which the specimens
are often found. The old saying, " Humanum est en-are," is particularly true of palaeontological workers. But, at least, it can
be said of them that they are honest, and never attempt to
delude the public. There have, however, occasionally arisen
enterprising persons, more desirous of making money than of
furthering scientific truth, who have, for a time, succeeded in the
grossest deceptions. Matzuyer, about 1613, exhibited some
Mastodon bones as those of a human giant {Teutoboccus rex)
and made a great stir in France; and now we have to record
another case in connection with Zeuglodon.
In the year 1845, Dr. Albert Koch exhibited a large skeleton
of a fossil animal, under the name Hydrarchos Sillimani, the
former of which would mean " King of the Sea," while the latter
seemed to indicate the approval of Professor Silliman. These
remains consisted of a head and vertebral column, measuring
in all one hundred and fourteen feet, a few ribs and parts of
some supposed paddles. Dr. Koch made the public believe
that all the bones had been found together in such a way as to
prove that they belonged to a single individual, and that the
numerous vertebrae formed a connected series. This, however,
was a mere fabrication, as was shown by Professor Wyman,
who says " these remains never belonged to one and the, same
individual," and that the anatomical characters of the teeth
prove them to be, not those of a reptile, but of a warm-blooded
mammal. He came to the conclusion that the greater part of
the bones belonged to the genus Basilosaurus (King-saurian)
of Harlan, a name which the American geologists still retain
for Zeuglodon. This skeleton represented at least two separate
individuals.
The following letter on the subject, from the well-known
geologist, Dr. G. Mantell, appeared in, The Illustrated London
News of November 4, 1848 :—

EXTINCT
"

WHALES

AND

WOMBATS,

223

SIR,

"Will you allow me to correct a statement that
appeared in the last number of your interesting publication?
The fossil mentioned at the conclusion of the admirable
notice of the so-called sea-serpent, as having been exhibited
in America under the name Hydrarchos Sillimani, was constructed by the exhibitor, Koch, from bones collected in
various parts of Alabama, and which belonged to several individual skeletons of an extinct marine cetacean, termed Basilosaurus by the American naturalists, and better known in this
country by that of Zeuglodon, a. term signifying yoked teeth.
Mr. Koch is the person who, a few years ago, had a fine
collection of fossil bones of elephants and mastodons, out of
which he made up an enormous skeleton and exhibited it in
the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, under the name Missourium.
This collection was purchased by the trustees of the British
Museum, and from it were selected the bones which now constitute the matchless skeleton of a mastodon in our National
Gallery of organic remains [then in the British Museum]. Not
content with the interest which the fossils he collected in various
parts of the United States possess, Mr. Koch, with the view of
exciting the curiosity of the ignorant multitude, strung together
all the vertebrae he could obtain of Basilosciurus, and arranged
them in a serpentine form, manufactured a skull and claws, and
exhibited the monster as a fossil sea-serpent, under the abovementioned name, Hydrarchos. But the trick was immediately
exposed by the American naturalists, and the true nature of the
fossil bones pointed out.1
" Bones of the Basilosaurus have been found in many parts of
Alabama and South Carolina, in greensand belonging to a
very ancient Tertiary formation; hundreds of vertebrae, bones of
the extremities, portions of the cranium and of the jaws with
teeth have from time to time been collected. Remains of
1

After this, Koch's sea-serpent was carried to Dresden.

224

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

species of the same genus have also been found near Bordeaux
and in Malta.
"Professor Owen has shown that the original animal was a
marine cetacean, holding an intermediate position between the
Cachelots and the herbivorous species. It must have attained
a length equal to that of the largest living whales, for a series
of vertebrae was observed in sitic that extended in a line sixtyfive feet. . . .
" G I D E O N ALGERNON

MANTELL.

"19, Chester Square, Pimlico, Oct. 31, 1848."

Squalodon (see Fig. 71) represents another extinct genus of
cetaceans, of which very little is known beyond the- teeth and

FIG. 71.—Head of Squalodon, from Eocene strata, Alabama.

skull. It was formerly classified with Zeuglodon, but its skull
is more like that of a dolphin, although the teeth are somewhat like those of the former. Teeth and fragments of skulls
of Squalodon have been frequently found in the marine European deposits of Miocene age—especially in the Vienna basin,
many parts of France, and the Crag formations of Antwerp
and of Suffolk; also in strata of corresponding age in North
America and South Australia. A few isolated teeth occur in the
cave-deposits of Italy. The Natural History Museum contains
an excellent coloured reproduction of the skull of Squalodon
(Pier-case 21, Gallery No. 1).
Remains of the gigantic Sperm Whale or Cachalot (Physeter
macrocephalus) are found in the Forest-bed of Cromer, and also

EXTINCT

WHALES

AND

WOMBATS.

225

in a later deposit in South America. A number of Miocene and
Pliocene forms allied to the Cachalot have been described under
various names. Remains of the curious Narwhal, with its long
spear-like tusk, have been found in the Norfolk forest-bed.
Professor Owen has described the skull of a thick-toothed
Grampus that was found beneath the turf in the great fen of
Lincolnshire, in the year 1843 ( s e e Fig- 72)- It belongs to the
existing Pseudorca crassidens, but Owen thought it differed from
the present dolphins of our own coasts. Extinct genera of
dolphins are known to occur in some of the later Tertiary
deposits of Europe and America.
That whales were contemporary with the mammoth in this

FIG. 72.—Skull of thick-toothed Grampus, Pseudorca crassidens (Owen).
Fen, Lincolnshire.

country is proved by an interesting discovery made in the year
1828, in a cliff near Brighton, under the following circumstances.
On the face of the cliff, in the ancient shingle which lies immediately upon the chalk, some fisherman had observed a huge
bone that had been"laid bare by an unusually high tide, and
now projected two or three feet beyond the face of the cliff.
Unable to remove it, they' broke off the extremity, and sent a
fragment of it to Dr. Mantell, who went to the spot a few days
afterwards, and found that they had demolished a considerable
portion of the bone in'their attempts to remove it from its bed,
and had only desisted from fear of being buried beneath the
Q

226

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

overhanging cliff, which is composed of loose materials. At
last, and not without some danger, the entire specimen was left
exposed. It proved to be the front nine feet of the left branch
of the lower jaw of a whale-bone whale. On attempting to
remove the specimen it broke into a thousand pieces. So, as
the tide was approaching, this interesting find had to be
abandoned. It must have belonged to a whale from sixty to
seventy feet long.
Some of the ancient kangaroos of Australia, that lived during
the Pleistocene period, were very much larger than those we

FIG. 73.—Skull of Diprotodon, a kind of Wombat, from Pleistocene strata,
Australia. A man's skull placed for comparison.

see now in that country. One of the most remarkable of the
extinct marsupials of Australia was the Difirotodon, of which a
skull, measuring nearly three feet in length, may be seen in the
Natural History Museum (Wall-case 27, Gallery No. 1), and it was
so named on account of its two front teeth (see Fig. 73). The
creature itself was probably even larger than a rhinoceros of
the present day (standing six feet high), and is believed to have

EXTINCT

WHALES

AND

WOMBATS.

227

resembled a modern Wombat. The history of the gradual discovery of this strange marsupial may now be briefly given, since it
serves to show how little ground there is for the popular belief
that a Cuvier or an Owen could " restore " a whole animal from a
jaw, or even a single tooth ! Sir R. Owen himself was obliged
to admit that his first conclusion, drawn from part of a jaw of
Diprotodon, was quite wrong, as we shall see from the following
account.
The name x was given by Owen to part of a lower jaw of the
creature, obtained by Sir Thomas Mitchell in the Wellington
Caves, New South Wales. Five years later, a drawing of part
of a jaw with teeth reached England from the same source, and
this Sir R. Owen believed to represent a kind of Dinotheriumy
indicating, for the first time, the occurrence of primitive elephants
in Australia! In the same year, a portion of a molar tooth,
associated with part of a thigh-bone and other fragments, was
also received, and Owen wrote: " The fossils which my friend
has now transmitted incontestibly establish the former existence
of a huge proboscidian pachyderm in the Australian continent,,
referable either to the genus Mastodon or Dinotherium (!)."
Only a year later, however (1844), this prophecy proved to
be incorrect; and, within a short time, Sir R. Owen was able, not
merely to describe correctly most of the Diprotodotis skeleton,
but also to distinguish another allied genius, the Nototherium.
The feet alone remained unknown, and part of these were
described as the toes of that fabulous monster, the "Great
horned Lizard of Australia " !
In 1863 our late distinguished friend, Dr. George Bennet,.
wrote from Sydney to Owen, saying that his son, then in
Queensland, had written home to say that he had found a
place where a whole skeleton lay: the bones were immense;,
the head, he said, had been sent to Sydney some years previously (this may be the one now in the Natural History Museum).
1

Greek—dis, twice ; protos, first; odotis, tooth.

228

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Owen wrote to Sir Henry Parkes, in 1867, suggesting that his
administration should send an exploring party to the limestone
caves in Wellington Valley, discovered in 1832, and from which
fossil remains were brought sufficient to show that the marsupial
type of mammal formerly prevailed in that country as it does
now. Consequently, a vote of two hundred pounds was passed,
and a most valuable collection of fossils obtained.
The following passage, from a now historic paper by Sir R.

FIG. 74.—Skeleton of a huge extinct marsupial, Diprotodon australis
(restored after Owen).

Owen, will serve to show with how great enthusiasm he pursued
his most fruitful researches in palaeontology. "Of no existing
animal/' he says, " of which a passing glimpse, as it were, had
thus been caught, did I ever feel more eager to acquire fuller
knowledge than of this huge Marsupial. No chase can equal
the excitement of that in which, bit by bit, and year after year,
one captures the elements for reconstructing the entire creature

EXTINCT

WHALES

AND

WOMBATS.

229

of which a single tooth or fragmentary bone may have initiated
the quest; in the course of which one fully realises, with more
or less exactitude, the picture which the laws of correlation had
led one to frame of an animal which may have passed out of
existence long ages ago." * Owen's restoration, published in the
above paper, is shown in Fig. 74. But, only this last year (1893),
a wonderful find has been reported from Australia, which will,
doubtless, soon lead palaeontologists to a complete and thorough
knowledge of this great and mysterious marsupial. The first
announcement was a brief telegram in The Times; but, later on,
a letter appeared in The Scotsman, of September 14th, from Mr.
William Kinmont. In the same enterprising newspaper we
found, a few days afterwards (September 25th), extracts from
an Australian account of the matter, the South Australian Register
of August 12th. It seems that only a small portion of the area
known to contain fossil remains has as yet been explored, and
there is little doubt that a complete examination will yield results
even surpassing those already made.
Mr. Kinmont writes as follows :—
Birksgate, Glenosmond, Adelaide, S.A., August 9, 1893.
"SIR,

"Some two months ago a discovery of mammoth fossil
bones was made at Lake Mulligan in South Australia, which
promises to be of incalculable value to science, and the l record?
discovery of the kind for the century. As the subject is one
of world-wide interest, I propose to give you in brief, from my
own knowledge and observation, the facts and particulars of
the discovery.
"Lake Mulligan is situated in the central district of South
Australia, and a more apparently uninteresting and forsaken
spot than this locality could not be found in the colony. When
the famous Australian explorers, Captain Sturt and Mr. John
1

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. 160 (1870), p. 519.

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M'Douall Stuart, went north-west from Menindie on the river
Darling, in 1844, they came into a great stony desert lying to
the eastward of Lake Frome, and the party endured the most
terrible hardships from the frightfully barren nature of the
country, and the extraordinary heat of the weather. . . .
"What a different picture of the past history of this country
is brought to light by the recent discoveries! On the sides of
these mountains lying between Lake Frome and Lake Torrens
must have been grown huge trees, and all around there must
have been a dense tropical growth, exceeding in luxuriance the
forests of the eastern slopes of the Andes in South America.
Every form of life was at that period huge and uncouth. On
the grassy plains at the foot of the mountains roamed the
Diprotodon, a gigantic animal allied to the kangaroo in its
structure and habits, but of the size of an elephant.
" But to return to the recent discovery of the actual bones. The
South Australian Museum, represented by the honorary director,
Dr. E. C. Stirling, C.M.G., F.R.S., took the matter in hand, and
despatched a party of competent men to excavate. These men
have now been at work for some four months removing the
gravel that buries the bones, and the discovery has been proved
to be even greater than was anticipated, and already many new
discoveries of the first importance have been made. For the
first time in the history of palseontological science the complete
skeleton of Diprotodon australis has been made known—this
being a huge marsupial considerably exceeding the rhinoceros
in size. The bones of this magnificent treasure, in the interests
of science, are now in the Adelaide Museum. Remains also
of a giant wombat as large as a half-grown bullock, of two or
three kinds of gigantic birds equalling the Moa of New Zealand
in size, several species of colossal kangaroos, as well as the head
of what is undoubtedly a new species of Diprotodon^ have been
discovered, excavated, and brought to Adelaide. Over seventy
different extinct animals and birds, hitherto unknown, are

EXTINCT

WHALES

AND

WOMBATS.

231

represented in the two thousand bones which have been dug out
of the valley at Lake Mulligan.
"There can, in fact, be no doubt but that this discovery is
the most remarkable one of its kind that has ever been made in
Australia, and perhaps in the world. The South Australian
Museum, with its limited funds, has done what it could, but with
the work only fairly commenced the directors found themselves
in the position of having to abandon the search for lack of means
to go on. Sir Thomas Elder, however, the distinguished initiator
and promoter of Australian exploration expeditions, with his

FIG. 75 —Restoration of Diprotodon australis.

usual liberality to the cause of science, and with a desire to
advance the scientific reputation of South Australian work, has
come to the assistance of the museum in this matter, and has
enabled the directors to continue this most important and
extensive work. Dr. Stirling proposes to start for Lake Mulligan
himself this week, with a view of personally superintending
operations; and there can be little doubt but that work in the
future will yield results even surpassing those already made.
" I am, etc.,
"WILLIAM KINMONT."

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The following is part of the article above alluded to from the
South Australian Register;—
"Sir Thomas Elder, G.C.M.G., has once more placed South
Australia under deep obligations to him by coming forward with
the monetary help necessary to enable further explorations to be
made of the area at Lake Mulligan, in which immense quantities
of fossil remains of extinct animals and birds are known to exist.
The generous assistance thus rendered has come at the nick
of time. The authorities of the South Australian Museum,
recognising the importance of the discovery in the interests of
science, have already done much to secure specimens of the
bones which have been preserved from destruction; but the
funds at their disposal are limited, and, unaided, they would have
been unable to have carried on excavations except upon a very
moderate scale. Owing to the munificence of Sir Thomas Elder,
the search party, under charge of Mr. Hurst, which has succeeded
in sending down a sufficient number of specimens to whet the
appetite of scientists, and even of the curious public, who have
no special knowledge of palaeontology, for more, will now be
reinforced by Dr. Stirling, Mr. Zietz, and another member of the
Museum staff. More than that, provision will now be made for
the conveyance to Adelaide of larger portions of the remains
than it has hitherto been possible to despatch.
"Mr. Hurst has laboured under great disadvantages in the
past, owing to the lack of facilities for transporting to the city
the results of his excavations. It is to be borne in mind that the
fossils are spread over a large tract of country embracing several
square miles in extent. Moreover, this singular burial-place of
the marsupial and other monsters, which were wont to roam over
the continent of Australia, is situated in a remote and comparatively waterless region, so that the difficulties in the way of
disinterment and removal are exceedingly great. It is only
fitting that those officials of the Museum, who are most skilled
in natural history, should be on the spot to superintend operations,

EXTINCT

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233

and we may rest satisfied that everything that can be done to
secure the best illustrations obtainable of the fossil remains will
be done. The object to be aimed at is to procure complete
specimens, and, from what has been said by those who have
visited the locality, it should be practicable to achieve this.
Obviously no pains or expense should be spared to bring together,
bone to his bone, the framework of the gigantic creatures belonging to a bygone age, whose relics are embedded in the hardened
mud and debris of what were once the huge swamps of the Far
North-East."
Professor Newton, of Cambridge, also received a letter from
Dr. Stirling, which was published in The Proceedings of the
Zoological Society for May 2, 1893. From this letter we learn
that Diprotodon has five well-developed toes; the bones of the
marsupium, or pouch, have been found, and several distinct
impressions of the skin of the fore foot were obtained. The
locality is six hundred miles north of Adelaide, and, during the
dry season, all the carting and travelling has to be done by
camels, with a temperature of n i ° Fahr. in the shade!—to say
nothing of myriads of flies and frequent sandstorms.
With regard to the geological formation of this salt-lake
district of South Central Australia, Lake Mulligan is a vast level
expanse of salt-encrusted, black mud, only becoming filled after
very heavy rains. It is about eight miles wide, and the bones
are found somewhere about midway between the east and west
edges. Usually the salt crust is not firm enough for bullock
traffic, and it is probable that thousands of bullocks have at
different times been bogged in crossing or attempting to cross.
Several skeletons of a large wombat, about the size of a bullock,
have been unearthed, probably Fhascolomys gigas; also another
slender creature about the size of a sheep, which is as yet an
unknown animal. The meaning of this great find of bones
would appear to be that immense herds of Diprotodon and other
creatures, in seeking for water in a dry season, got bogged, just

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as cattle do now in the North, by hundreds. Crocodiles and
alligators inhabited the fresh-water lakes that once covered parts
of the district, either in the Pliocene or Pleistocene period—or
both.
Probably in a few months' time, drawings and photographs
of the skeleton will reach this country. Mr. Smifs drawing,
Fig. 75, must only be regarded as a provisional restoration.

CHAPTER XII.
RELICS OF T H E PLEISTOCENE AGE.

" Palaeontology further teaches that not only the individual, but the species,
perishes; that as death is balanced by generation, so extinction has been
concomitant with the creative power which has produced a succession of
species ; and furthermore, that in this succession there has been * an advance
and progress in the main.' " — S I R RICHARD OWEN.

So numerous are the various forms of life which flourished
during the Pleistocene period of the world's history, that a separate
volume might well be devoted to their consideration. It will
only be possible, within the limits of our present concluding
chapter, to select one or two prominent examples for description.
Those we have chosen are all, with one exception, creatures which
once inhabited the continent of South America. The country
which has afforded most information with regard to the extinct
fauna of this continent is the Argentine Republic, which includes
not only Buenos Ayres and the adjacent provinces forming
Argentina proper, but likewise the whole of Patagonia. Here
is a vast tract of country forming one boundless level plain made
by an alluvial deposit of rich black mud, brought down from the
higher lands of the interior by the tributaries of the Rio de la
Plata, and which constitutes the most extensive pasture-land in
the world.
This pampean formation is of fresh-water origin, and was
probably formed to a large extent in marshes and swamps.
There is, however, evidence that portions of the deposit have

236

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DAYS.

been submerged beneath the sea. It is now known to be the tomb
of thousands of extinct animals, and their bones tell us that the
country was once inhabited by a wonderfully strange fauna, such
as has not been found in any other part of the world. At times
they are found sticking out from the perpendicular cliffs bordering the river-valleys, while many are met with in sinking wells or
making excavations.
Entire skeletons have been obtained during the work of excavating the docks at La Plata or Buenos Ayres. Mr. R. Lydekker,
an eminent palaeontologist, has lately paid a visit to South America
in order to report on the fossil treasures contained in the museums
of Buenos Ayres and La Plata. Speaking of the latter, he says,.
" There the visitor will be absolutely lost in astonishment at the
long array of perfect mounted skeletons of numbers of these
creatures, while the unmounted skeletons and isolated bones displayed in the wall-cases will convince him that I am not exaggerating when I speak of Argentina as a land of skeletons."*
Thanks to the efforts of the celebrated palaeontologist, Dr.
Moreno, the enchanted city of La Plata now possesses a magnificent museum worthy of a country so richly endowed with
fossil treasures. Dr. Moreno, the director of this museum, has
made it his principal aim to illustrate the whole fauna, both
recent and fossil, of the Argentine Republic. Side by side with
the huge skeletons of forms of life which have perished, he has
placed for comparison skeletons of the living animals to which
they are most nearly related, and it would be well if all collections
of fossils were illustrated in the same happy manner.
The Toxodon is one of those extinct animals with very " mixed "
relationship: a "generalised" hoofed animal, from the Pleistocene
deposits of South America, presenting characters which seem to
connect it with the odd-toed ungulates (rhinoceros, horse, tapir),
1
The student will do well to consult Mr. Lydekker's valuable papers in
Natural Science for January .and February, 1894, as well as in KnotvledgeTor
January, February, and March, 1894.

RELICS

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AGE.

237

and at the same time with such different groups as the elephants
{Proboscidia) and the gnawing mammals (rodents). It takes its
name from the fact that the teeth are curved like a bow.1 The skull
{see Fig. 76), which looks at first sight rather like that of a horse,
may be seen in the Natural History Museum (Gallery No. 1, Piercase 20). Toxodon was discovered years ago by Charles Darwin
in the following manner. During his sojourn in Banda Oriental,
having heard of some " giant's bones " at a farmhouse on the
Sarandis, a small stream entering the Rio Negro, he rode there,

FIG. 76.—Skull of Toxodon, from Pleistocene strata.

(After Burmeister.)

and purchased for the sum of eighteenpence the skull which has
been described by Sir R. Owen. The people at the farmhouse
told Mr. Darwin that the remains were exposed by a flood having
washed down part of a bank of earth. When found, the head was
quite perfect, but the boys knocked the teeth out with stones,
and then set up the head as a mark to throw at. Mr. Darwin
found a perfect tooth, which exactly fits one of the sockets of
this skull, embedded by itself in the banks of the Rio Tercero,
1

Greek—toxon, bow ; odous, odontos, tooth.

00

Co

FIG. 77.—Skeleton of Toxodon} as mounted in the La Plata Museum.

RELICS

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at the distance of about a hundred and eighty miles from the
farmhouse. He found remains of this extraordinary animal at
two other places; so that it probably was common at one time.
The skull is two feet four inches long.
Speaking of the fossils of this region, he says, " The number
of the remains embedded in the grand estuary deposit which
forms the Pampas and covers the granitic rocks of Banda
Oriental, must be extraordinarily great. I believe a straight line
drawn in any direction through the Pampas would cut through
some skeleton or bones. Besides those which I found during
my short excursions, I heard of many others, and the origin of
such names as "the stream of the animal," "the hill of the
giant," is obvious. At other times I heard of the marvellous
property of certain rivers, which had the power of changing
small bones into large; or, as some maintained, the bones grew.
As far as I am aware, not one of these animals perished, as was
formerly supposed, in the marshes or muddy river-beds of the
present land, but their bones have been exposed by the streams
intersecting the subaqueous deposit in which they were originally
embedded. We may conclude that the whole area of the
Pampas is one wide sepulchre of these extinct quadrupeds."
Darwin also mentions that he found in the pampean formation
the remains of nine great quadrupeds, and many detached bones
embedded on the beach near Buenos Ayres, all within the space
of two hundred yards square.
But to return to our Toxodon. Two complete skeletons of this
strange monster have been set up in the La Plata Museum. A
skull was described by Owen in the year 1840, who pointed out
some supposed resemblances to the Sirenia (Dugong and
Manatee). Fig. 77 shows one of the complete skeletons in the
La Plata Museum.1
1
We are indebted for this illustration to the courtesy of the proprietors of
Natural Science. A forthcoming issue of the Annals of the La Plata Museum
will contain an account of Mr. Lydekker's work there.

24o

CREATURES

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DAYS.

The sub-order Toxodontia was founded by Owen for this
creature and some of its allies to be mentioned presently. There
are ten species of Toxodon, of which T. platensis is the best
known. Burmeister, Ameghino, and others concluded that the
Toxodonts were chiefly herbivorous, and lived in marshy plains.
The one figured here was nearly as large as an Indian rhinoceros.
Cope pointed out certain resemblances to the elephants (Proboscidia).
A peculiarity which the reader will notice at once is the
difference in size between the fore and the hind limbs. It was
very low in the fore-quarters, in consequence of which its enormous head was carried much below the line of the back. We
have not ventured to attempt a restoration of this most puzzling
extinct form of life—for one reason, because there was not time
to do so before going to press ; and secondly, on account of the
great peculiarities it presents. In time, perhaps, our leading authorities may be able to form a better idea of what the creature was
like when alive. In some respects it may have had a certain
resemblance to a rhinoceros, as shown by its relatively short and
stout neck and limbs. While the number of toes in each limb is
three, its skull shows a curious mixture of characters presented
by both the odd-toed and the even-toed hoofed animals. Its
teeth were very peculiar; the upper jaw (see Fig. 76) was provided with two pairs of growing chisel-teeth, like the single pair
seen in the jaw of a hare or a rabbit, and in all the rodents; and
in the lower jaw were three pairs of nearly similar teeth placed
horizontally. Only in the little Hyrax, or coney, among living
animals do we see such permanently growing incisor teeth. The
molar teeth likewise grew throughout life instead of forming
roots, but the grinding surfaces of these teeth are not at all
similar to those of hoofed animals of the present day.
Allied to the Toxodon was another and smaller form to which
Owen gave the name Nesodon, of which the first fragmentary
remains were brought to Europe by Darwin in the Beagle.

RELICS

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AGE.

241

The name of the genus is derived from a well-marked island-like
lobe on the inner side of upper molars. This genus is represented
in the La Plata Museum by a vast series of remains, including
many perfect skulls, as well as jaws, teeth, and limb-bones. Mr.
Lydekker recognises only three species, of which the smallest was
not much larger than a sheep. He has been fortunate enough to
identify some of the limb-bones, to which little attention had been
paid by others, and thus to confirm the conclusion that Nesodon
and Toxodon were closely related. The Nesodons, in the structure
of their molar teeth, show an approach to the odd-toed ungulates,
—the horse, rhinoceros, and tapir: although growing for a considerable time, these eventually formed roots in the ordinary
manner. The general structure of the skeleton is in many
respects much less " specialised " than is that of the Toxodon. A
larger species was the Nesodon imbricatus, which approached the
dimensions of a rhinoceros. There is no reason to think that
the one genus was descended from the other. Both must have
branched off from some primitive ancestral type of ungulate, and
then found their way into South America. An upper jaw and a
lower jaw of Nesodon ovinus from the south-west coast of Patagonia may be seen in the Natural History Museum; they were
brought home by Admiral Sir R. J. Sulivan, K.C.B.
In another highly interesting member of the same sub-order,
namely, the little Typoiheriuni, the rodent-like character of the
teeth is still more striking. This creature probably had claws on
its feet instead of hoofs, and may have resembled in appearance
the existing capybara. Another form, the Pachyrucus, from the
deposits of Monte Hermoso, was about the size of a rabbit, and
so like a rodent in its general structure that it might easily be
mistaken for a near relation of the hares ! But it clearly belongs 1
in spite of these artificial resemblances, to the Toxodont group ;
this curious phenomenon, of totally distinct groups mimicking each
other, is familiar to palaeontologists, who call it " parallelism."
Mr. Lydekker proposes the name Astrapotheria for another
R

CREATURES

242

OF OTHER

DAYS.

group of extinct South American ungulates, including the genus
Homalodontotheriuni (first described by Sir William Flower in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1874), and others. Unlike
the Toxodonts, they had their teeth rooted at an early age, and
they were of considerable size. Until recently the genus Homalodontotheriuni was only known by specimens of teeth and jaws,
but the La Plata Museum contains numerous specimens of
vertebrae and limb-bones.
In the gigantic Astrapotherium (the type species of which was
originally described by Owen as Nesodon magnum) there are not
so many teeth, and each jaw had a huge pair of tusks, while the
upper molars are extremely like those of a rhinoceros—another
curious case of parallelism. The presence of these great sharp
tusks has suggested to some authorities a relationship with the
Dinocerata described in our former work, but this is quite out of
the question. Two other highly interesting allied forms are the
Trigodon (Toxodontotherium) and the Zotodon, represented by
skulls and jaws in the La Plata Museum.
Perhaps the strangest of all the peculiar ungulates discovered
in recent Tertiary deposits in South America, is the Macrauchenia,
so named on account of its long neck.1
Burmeister has published a beautiful lithograph of the whole
skeleton,2 of which Fig. 78 is a reduced drawing. Originally
supposed to have been allied to the llama, though much larger,
it is now known to be a highly specialised form of ungulate,
its true affinities being still undecided. Some of its bones
brought from South Patagonia by Darwin, and described by
Owen, may be seen in the Natural History Museum (Gallery 1,
Pier-case 8). Darwin gives the following account of his discovery : " At Port St. Julian, in some red mud capping the
gravel on the ninety-feet plain, I found half the skeleton of the
Macrauchenia patachonica, a remarkable quadruped full as large
1
2

Greek—makros, long; auchen, neck.
Annates del Museo Publico Buenos Aires.

H. Burmeister, M.D.

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243

as a camel It belongs to the same division of the Pachydermata
with the rhinoceros, tapir, and palaeotherium; but in the structure
of the bones of its long neck it shows a clear relation to the
camel, or rather to the guanaco and llama. From recent seashells being found on two of the higher step-formed plains, which
must have been modelled and upraised before the mud was
deposited in which the Macranchenia was entombed, it is certain
that this curious quadruped lived long after the sea was inhabited
by its present shells. I was at first much surprised how a large
quadruped could so lately have subsisted in latitude 49' 15" on

FIG. 78.—Skeleton oi Macrauchenia > from Pleistocene strata, Buenos
Ayres. (After Burmeister.)

these wretched gravel plains with their stunted vegetation; but
the relationship of the Macrauchenia to the guanaco, now an
inhabitant of the most sterile parts, partly explains the
difficulty."
Darwin, however, was mistaken in supposing that Macrauchenia
was related to the llamas and camels, in spite of the similarity in
the vertebrae of the neck. Its limbs remind us of some of the
fossil horses described in Chapter X.; the teeth are more like
those of a rhinoceros. A most peculiar feature of this animal
is the way in which the nasal openings are placed on the top of

244

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DAYS.

the skull, almost between the eyes. In most mammals the
aperture of the nose is quite at the forward end of the skull.
Among living animals the elephant and the dugong and the
whales have this opening placed far back. What was the reason
for such a backward position in the case of the Macrauchenia we
cannot tell \ but we find it difficult to believe with Mr. Lydekker
that its head was provided with a trunk—even a short one.
Dr. Burmeister has ventured to give it a long trunk; but surely
such an appendage was quite unnecessary, considering that with
such a long neck its head could easily reach the ground ? The
jaws were provided with an even and uninterrupted series of
teeth, and in this respect were unlike those of any existing
mammal (except man).
It is interesting to note that some small ancestral forms have
been discovered in certain older deposits (the Parana and Patagonia deposits) which throw much light on the evolution of the
Macrauchenia.
These are the family Prototheriidag ; they were animals varying
in size from a peccari to a tapir. Although in a general way
their teeth resembled those of the Palceotherium, they differed
in having only a single pair of tusk-like incisors in the upper jaw,
and two pairs of lower incisors, one of which was much larger
than the other.
But the most interesting point about these creatures was the
structure of their feet; for we find many of them with feet
almost exactly like the European Hifiparion described in
Chapter X., which the reader will remember had one big toet
with two little ones one on each side of it, and it is probable that
in one genus, at least, there was only one toe, as in a modern
horse; and yet they were not horses ! Professor Cope regards
them as a distinct sub-order—the Litopterna. They differ from
horses in having long vertebrae in the neck like those of Macrauthenia, which are camel-like, but have flat sides to the bodies (or
centra), instead of a ball-and-socket joint. The strata in which

RELICS

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245

these interesting remains occur cannot be nearly so old as our
European Eocene or Miocene. It is very interesting to find that
while the evolution of the true horses was taking place in Europe
and North America, a race of creatures not at all allied to them,
but related to the Macrauchenia, were developing the same kinds
of feet in order to acquire running powers, and thus as it were
imitating them. This must be another case of " parallelism."
The extinct ungulates of Pleistocene age in South America
were apparently not left unmolested, for the remains of carnivorous animals have been found in the same strata. One very
formidable enemy of the Macrauchenia and its allies must have
been the terrible sabre-toothed tiger, Machairodus necator, also
known as Smilodon (see Fig. 79); its great curved and serrated

F I G . 79.—Skeleton of Machairodus (Smilodon), Pleistocene (After. Burmeister.) [The original drawing was made from a photograph ; consequently
the fore limbs, being near the camera, appear too large in proportion to the
hind limbs.]

tusks were actually twelve inches long and eight inches beyond
the gums ! They could not have been used in the ordinary way,
because the creature was unable to open its mouth wide enough;
consequently anatomists have been greatly puzzled to know how

246

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DAYS.

they were used. Some say that they were of no use, and that
it is a case in which "over-specialisation" led to extinction.
In our restoration, seen in Plate XXIII., where-the Macrauchenia
is represented as being attacked by this ferocious animal, a
possible use is suggested, namely, that they might help in
enabling the creature to hang on to its prey. Strange as it
may seem, there is very little difference between the skull of the
lion and that of the tiger, and some persons may be inclined to
consider Machairodus to have been a lion; but most authorities
think it was a tiger. In size it must have been equal to the
largest lion, and doubtless was equally ferocious, or even more so.
Palaeontologists have discovered a very interesting connection
between the extinct mammalian animals of the Northern and
those which are now living (or have recently become extinct) in
the Southern hemisphere. Much of the present Australian fauna
yet bears the stamp of a Jurassic age, and prevailing types in
South America and Africa can be shown to be related to Eocene
types of the North. In North America and Europe, tapirs,
opossums, civets, lemurs, and allies of the toxodonts remind us
of the Eocene fauna; but now these animals characterise Southern
continental life, or, as in case of Toxodon, have recently become
extinct.
Palaeontology often throws light upon questions of physical
geography, especially in connection with the present distribution
of animals; here is a case in point. North and South America
now constitute two distinct zoological provinces, and the tableland of Mexico, by forming a barrier, presents an obstacle to
the migration of species which few have been able to surmount.
South America is characterised by possessing many peculiar
gnawers, a certain family of monkeys, the llama, peccari, tapir,
opossums, and especially several genera of edentata, the order
which includes the sloths, ant-eaters, and armadilloes. Some
few, such as the puma, opossum, and peccari, have passed into

MACRAUCHENIA AND T H E SABRE-TOOTHED T I G E R
PLATE

XXIII.

From the Pampas formation.

(MACH^RODUS),

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247

the Northern country. Now North America has some peculiar
rodents, four hollow-horned ruminants, such as the ox, sheep,
antelope, of which great group the Southern continent has not
one that is indigenous. But a very short time ago geologically
their respective faunas were far more alike.
(C
The more I reflect on this case," says Darwin, " the more
interesting it appears : I know of no other instance where we
can almost mark the period and the manner of the splitting
up of one great region into two well-characterised zoological
provinces. The geologist who is fully impressed with the vast
oscillations of level which have affected the earth's crust within
late periods, will not fear to speculate on the recent elevation
of the Mexican platform, or, more probably, on the recent submergence of land in the West Indian archipelago, as the cause of
the present zoological separation of North and South America.
The South American character of the West Indian mammals
seems to indicate that this archipelago was formerly united to
the Southern continent, and that it has subsequently been an area
of subsidence."
At the present day the pampas region of South America is
almost destitute of trees, and may be described as a boundless
sea of grass (pampas grass), with only a few slender herbs and
trefoils which maintain a frail existence among the tall tussocks ;
but the strong grass crowds out most plants. Here and there
are patches where the grass does not grow, and these are
carpeted by small creeping herbs of a livelier green, and are gay
in spring with flowers.
This vast tract of country was formerly inhabited by the
guanaco, the pampas deer, the viscacha, and the rhea, which
were almost the only animals of any size to be found in the
whole region. Since then, horses, cattle, and sheep have been
introduced by man, and these now roam over the whole district t
in vast herds. Great changes have taken place here, both in the
animal and vegetable kingdoms. Contrasting the former with

248

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

the present state of South America, Darwin says, " It is impossible to reflect on the changed state of the American continent
without the deepest astonishment. Formerly it must have
swarmed with great monsters; now we find mere pigmies, compared with the antecedent allied races. If Buffon had known
of the gigantic sloth and armadillo-like animals, and of the I6st
pachydermata, he might have said with a greater semblance of
truth that the creative force in America had lost its power, rather
than that it had never possessed great vigour. The greater
number, if not all, of these extinct quadrupeds lived at a late
period, and were the contemporaries of most of the existing seashells. Since they lived, no very great change in the form of the
land can have taken place. What, then, has exterminated so
many species and whole genera ? The mind at first is irresistibly
hurried into the belief of some great catastrophe; but thus to
destroy animals, both large and small, in Southern Patagonia, in
Brazil, on the Cordillera of Peru, in North America, up to
Behring's Straits, we must shake the entire framework of the
globe. An examination, moreover, of the geology of La Plata
and Patagonia leads to the belief that all the features of the land
result from slow and gradual changes. It appears from the character of the fossils in Europe, Asia, Australia, and in North and
South America, that those conditions which favour the life of
the larger quadrupeds were lately coextensive with the world:
what those conditions were no one has yet even conjectured."
How is it, then, that the forests have disappeared, and all the
large mammals have become extinct? The palaeontologist is
obliged to confess that the causes of extinction (apart from the
action of man as an exterminator) offer a very difficult problem,
and one which is at present by no means solved. Death in
the individual, though a mysterious event, is one with which we
are familiar; but the death of a species, a genus, a family, or a
whole order (e.g. the Dinosaurs), constitutes a mystery on which
at present we can only speculate somewhat vaguely. Is there a

RELICS

OF THE

PLEISTOCENE

AGE.

249,

definite limit to life imposed at first ? or is this limit left, to be
determined by circumstances ? Perhaps both : but if the latter,
what are those circumstances ?
Sir R. Owen has pointed out that large land-animals are, on
account of their size, more liable to extinction, while smaller
ones can escape. Any change in the surrounding circumstancesis more likely to tell against a large animal than against a small
one. Thus, in a long dry season the large mammal will'suffer
sooner from drought than a small one. Or if, by some change
in climate, the available quantity of vegetable food should be
greatly diminished, the more bulky creatures will be the first
to feel the effects of a stinted diet. Mere bodily strength does
not always give victory in the battle of life. Before man inhabited
India or x\frica, some cause must have checked the continued
increase of the elephant. The late Dr. Falconer thought it was
chiefly insects, which from incessantly harassing and weakening
the elephant in India, check its increase. Certain it is that
insects and blood-sucking bats determine the existence of the
larger naturalised quadrupeds in several parts of South America.
Again, if, by some geographical change, new creatures from a
country formerly separated manage to find their way in, they will
begin at once to compete with those already there, and in this
competition the larger animals, not being able to hide themselves,,
may be at some disadvantage. Lastly, small quadrupeds are
more prolific than large ones, and consequently large numbers
may die without any danger of the race becoming extinct.
It is like the old fable of " the oak and the reed;" for the
smaller forms can bend and accommodate themselves to changes,
which are fatal to their more ponderous contemporaries.
"We do not steadily bear in mind," says Darwin,1 "how
profoundly ignorant we are of the condition of existence of every
animal; nor do we always remember that some check is constantly
preventing the too rapid increase of every organised being left in
1

Nattiralisfs

Voyage, ch. viii.

25o

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

a state of nature. The supply of food, on an average, remains
constant; yet the tendency in every animal to increase by propagation is geometrical, and its surprising effects have nowhere been
more astonishingly shown than in the case of European animals
run wild during the last few centuries in America. Every animal
in a state of nature regularly breeds; yet, in a species long
established, any great increase in numbers is obviously impossible, and must be checked by some means. We are nevertheless seldom able with certainty to tell in any given species at
what period of life, or at what period of the year, or whether
only at long intervals, the check falls; or, again, what is the
precise nature of the check. Hence, probably, it is that we feel
so little surprise at one, of two species closely allied in habits,
becoming rare and the other abundant in the same district; or,
again, that one should be abundant in one district, and another,
filling the same place in the economy of nature, should be
abundant in a neighbouring district, differing very little in its
conditions. If asked how this is, one immediately replies that it
is determined by some slight difference in climate, food, or the
number of enemies; yet how rarely, if ever, we can point out the
precise cause and manner of action of the check! We are,
therefore, driven to the conclusion that causes generally quite
inappreciable to us, determine whether a given species shall be
abundant or scanty in numbers. . . . Who could feel any great
surprise at hearing that the Megalonyx was formerly rare
compared with the Megatherium, or that one of the fossil
monkeys was few in number compared with one of the now
living monkeys ? and yet, in this comparative rarity, we should
have the plainest evidence of less favourable conditions for their
existence. To admit that species generally become rare before
they become extinct—to feel no surprise at the comparative
rarity of one species from another, and yet to call in some
extraordinary agent and to marvel greatly when a species ceases
to exist—appears to me much the same as to admit that sickness

ijiiSH

RELICS

OF THE

PLEISTOCENE

AGE.

251

in the individual is the prelude of death; to feel no surprise at
sickness, but when the sick man dies to wonder, and to believe
that he died through violence."
When the Roman armies first penetrated the dark forests of
Germany and Belgium, there were found, among other beasts of
the chase, two large species of wild oxen; the one called " Bison "
distinguished by its shaggy coat, the other called " Urus " by the
great size of its horns. Both were occasionally captured and
exhibited alive in the shows of the amphitheatre. Seneca thus
briefly defines the characters of the two species—
** Tibi dant varies pectora tigres,
Tibi villosi terga bisontes,
Latisque feri cornibus uri."

Pliny also distinguishes the one from the other. The great
Bison still survives, by virtue of strict protective laws, in Lithuania,
and also in the Caucasus. Fine specimens from both localities
may be seen in the Gallery of Stuffed Mammals in the Natural
History Museum. It is distinguished from all the domestic
cattle of Europe by the thicker clothing of hair, which, in the
male Bisons, is developed into a curly mane; a feature noticed
by the Romans. The Bison differs from the Ox in several
particulars. That the former existed in this country is abundantly proved by the skulls and horn-cores discovered in the
latest geological deposits in various parts of Great Britain. Specimens may be seen in the Natural History Museum (Gallery 1,
Pier-case 16), obtained from the "brick-earth" of Ilford and
Walton in Essex; from Erith, Kent; Pecham, Surrey; from
Wiltshire and Lincolnshire. It had a wide geographical range.
A specimen from Worcestershire measures three feet four inches
across the horn-cores from tip to tip. The species must have
been contemporary with the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and
the hyaena.
The Bos primigenius, or Urus of Caesar, has been found in the

252

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

same localities. A magnificent specimen, with skull and horncores, is preserved in the Natural History Museum (Gallery i,
Pier-case 18). It was found at Blair Athol, Perthshire. A similar
large skull (Bos longifrons ?), now in the Museum of the Royal
Irish Academy, has a cut in the forehead into which can be
accurately fitted several of the narrow bronze "celts" or arrowheads, so frequently dug up in Ireland, which may perhaps be
taken to prove that it was killed by the hunter's arrow. The
most complete series of bones of one individual specimen of the
Urus was obtained from the drift overlying the London clay at
Heme Bay. The length of each horn-core along the outer curve
is thirty-nine inches, and the circumference of the core at its
base over eighteen inches. According to Mr. Woods, the skull
and horns of the great Urus were discovered in a tumulus on the
Wiltshire Downs. Many bones of deer, boars, etc., were discovered
at the same time; also several fragments of pottery of ancient
British manufacture. Mr. Woods suggests that the conflicts of
the first settlers in Britain with the Uri might have given rise to
the legends of Guy, Earl of Warwick, killing the Dun Cow.
Caesar, describing under the name Urus certain wild oxen of
the great Hergynian forest, says, " These Uri are little inferior
to elephants in size, but are bulls in their colour, nature, and
figure. Great is their strength, and great their swiftness; nor do
they spare man or beast when once they have caught sight of him.
These, when trapped in pitfalls, the hunters unsparingly kill.
The youths, exercising themselves by this sort of hunting, are
hardened by the toil; and those among them who have killed
most, bringing with them the horns, as testimonials, acquire great
praise. But these Uri cannot be habituated to man, nor made
tractable, not even when taken young. The great size of the
horns, as well as the form and quality of them, differs much from
our oxen."
It has been conjectured by Cuvier and other naturalists that
our domestic cattle are the degenerate descendants of the great

RELICS

OF THE

PLEISTOCENE

AGE.

253

Urus. The latter was probably the ancestor of the larger existing
European varieties found in Spain, Italy, and Hungary. The
wild cattle at Chillingham Park, Northumberland, may perhaps
be the last surviving descendants of the Bos firimigenius, but
much degenerated in size. According to Flower and Lydekker,1
the existing ox (Bos taurus) is only a small variety of the Urus.
A smaller race, whose remains have been found in the turbaries
and fens of England, and have been described under the names
of B. longifrons and B. frontosus, seems to be only a stunted
variety of the same species, from which it is probable that the
small cattle of Wales and Scotland have been derived.
In the " Niebelungen Lied " of the twelfth century two kinds
of great wild oxen are mentioned, as having been slain in the
great hunt of the Forest of Worms, under exactly the same names
as those which the Romans gave to them.
" D a r nach schluch er schiere, einem Wisent und einem Elch
Starcher Ure vier, und einem grimmen Schelch."
" After this he straightway slew a Bison and an Elk,
Of the strong Uri four, and a single fierce Schelch."

A later poem says—
" Mightiest of all the beasts of chase
That roam in woody Caledon,
Crushing the forest in his race,
The Mountain Bull comes thundering on."
1

Mammals, p. 367.

APPENDIX I.
TABLE OF STRATIFIED ROCKS.

Systems.

RECENT

PLEISTOCENE

\o>

(250 ft.)

PLIOCENE
>—•

(100 ft.)

N

MIOCENE
(125 ft.)
EOCENE
(2600 ft.)

CRETACEOUS
(7000 ft.)

NEOCOMIAN
en

JURASSIC
(3000 ft.)

TRIASSIC
c/3 I

(3000 ft.)

Formations.

Terrestrial, Alluvial, Estuarine, and
Marine Beds of Historic, Iron,
Bronze, and Neolithic Ages
Peat, Alluvium, Loess
Dominant
Valley Gravels, Brickearths
type, Man.
Cave-deposits
Raised Beaches •
Palaeolithic Age Boulder Clay and Gravels
Norfolk Forest-bed Series
Norwich and Red Crags
Coralline Crag (Diestian)
CEningen Beds Freshwater, etc.
Fluvio-marine Series (Oligocene)
Bagshot Beds
\ (Nummulitic
London Tertiaries /
Beds)
Maestricht Beds
Chalk
Upper Greensand
Gault
Lower Greensand
Weald en

Dominant
types,
Birds and
Mammals.

Purbeck Beds
Portland Beds
Kimmeridge Clay (Solenhofen Beds)
Corallian Beds
Oxford Clay
Dominant
Great Oolite Series
type,
Inferior Oolite Series
Reptilia.
Lias
Rhsetic Beds
Keuper
Muschelkalk
Bunter

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

TABLE OF STRATIFIED ROCKS—Continued.
Systems.

Formations.

Red Sandstone, Marl
\ ZechMagnesian Limestone, etc. J stein
Red Sandstone and Conglomerate
(500 to 3000 ft.)
Rothliegende
CARBONIFEROUS Coal Measures and Millstone Grit
(12,000 ft.)
11 Carboniferous Limestone Series
DEVONIAN & OLD ' Upper Old Red Sandstone
RED SANDSTONE. Devonian
(5000 to 10,000 ft.) Lower Old Red Sandstone
Ludlow Series
SILURIAN
I Wenlock Series
(3000 to 5000 ft.) j Llandovery Series
May Hill Series
Bala and Caradoc Series
ORDOVICIAN I Llandeilo Series
(5000 to 8000 ft.) j Llanvirn Series
Arenig and Skid daw Series
Tremadoc Slates
CAMBRIAN
j Lingula Flags
(20,000 to 30,000 ft. )j Menevian Series
Harlech and Longmynd Series
PERMIAN or
DYAS

EOZOIC—
ARCILEAN
(30,000 ft).

Pebidian, Arvonian, and Dimetian
Huronian and Laurentian

Dominant
type,
Fishes.

Dominant
type, Invertebrata.

APPENDIX II.
CLASSIFICATION of Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, and Mammals,
including extinct types, which are in italics. The scheme here
given is partly taken from Nicholson and Lydekker's Manual
of Palceontology, third edition, 1889, and may be of some use to
students.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.
Sub-Kingdom: VERTEBEATA.
CLASS I. Fishes

(PISCES).

ORDER I. Cyelostomi. Ex. Hag-fishes, Lampreys. This
order is probably unrepresented in the geological record.
ORDER II. Elasmobranchei. Ex. Sharks (Carcaridse), Dogfishes (Scylliadas), Saw-fishes (Pristis), Rays and Skates
(Raiidse), Hybodus (Jurassic).
ORDER III. Chimseroidei (or Holocephala). Ex. Chimaera,
Edaphodon. The Chimseroids are regarded by some writers
as a sub-order of the Elasmobranchei.
ORDER IV. Dipnoi. Ex. African Mud-fish (Protopterus), the
Australian Mud-fish (Ceratodus), the South American Mudfish (Lepidosiren), Diftterus (Devonian Age). Dr. Gunther
regards this order as a subdivision of the Ganoids. They
are fresh-water fishes.
ORDER V. Ganoidei. Ex. Sturgeon (Acipenser), Gar pike of
North America (Lepidosteus), Bony Pike of the Nile
(Polypterus), Holoptychius (Old Red Sandstone), Rhizodus
(Carboniferous), Undina (Jurassic). There is considerable
diversity of opinion with regard to the classification of
s

258

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Ganoids, but the system of Dr. Traquair is followed here.
The remarkable families represented by the Old Red Sandstone form, Cephalaspis, Pterichthys, Coccosteus, Pteraspzs,
Bothriolepis, etc., are here included in the Ganoids, but by
Smith, Woodward, and others are considered to be so different as to require a place for themselves—perhaps more
than one distinct order.
ORDER VI. Teleostei(or Bony Pishes). Ex. Eels (Munenidae), Salmon and Trout (Salmonidas), Eurypholzs (Cretaceous).
CLASS II. Amphibia (Batrachia of some authors).
ORDER I. Labyrinthodontia. Ex. Labyrznthodojz (Mastodonsaurus),
Dolichosoma, Keraterpeton^
Archcegosaurus,
Loxomma,) Actznodon> Dendrerpeton.
Some supposed
Amphibia turn out to be 'Anomodonts.
ORDER II. Apoda. The Blind-worms (Csecilia) are unknown
in a fossil state.
ORDER III. Caudata (Tailed Amphibians). Ex. Waternewts (Triton), Salamanders (Salamandra), Megalobatrachusr
Axolotl (Siredon), Mud-eel (Siren).
ORDER IV. Ecaudata (Tailless Amphibians). Ex. Frog
(Rana), Toad (Bufo).
CLASS I I I . Reptilia (REPTILES).
The provisional arrangement here given is a modification of one
recently proposed by Dr. G. Baur, of Newhaven, and may be
stated as follows :—
ORDER I. Anomodontza.
Ex. Dicynodon, Pareiasaurusy
• Oudenodon^ Galcesaurus, Dimetrodon.
ORDER II. Sauropterygia.
Ex. Pleszosaurus, Pliosaurus^
Nothosaurus, Polyptychodon.
ORDER III. Turtles, Tortoises (Chelonia). Ex. Turtle
(Chelone), Tortoise (Testudo).
ORDER IV. Fzsk-lzzards (Jchthyosaurid).
ORDER V. Proterosauria. Ex. Proterosaurus.
ORDER VI. Rhynchocephalia. Ex. Rhynchosaurus, Hyperodapedon, Sphenodon.
ORDER VII. Serpents, Lizards, Chameleons (Squamata).
Ex. Vipers (Viperidse), Boas and Pythons (Boidae),,
Mosasaurus {Mosasauridce), Palceophys (Eocene).

APPENDIX,

2

59

ORDER VIIT. Dinosauria (Ornithoscelida of Huxley).
SUB-ORDER I. Ornithopoda (Bird-footed). Ex. Hadrosaurus,
Iguanodon, Hypsilophodon, Scelidosaurus, Stegosaurus.
SUB-ORDER II. Theropoda (Beast-footed). Ex. Megalosaurusy
AnchisauruS) Compsognathus, Coslurus.
SUB-ORDER III. Sauropoda.
Ex. Atlantosaurus, Brontosaurtis {Camarosaurus of Cope). Pelorosaurus, Cetiosaurus, Omithopsis, Hoplosaurus, Diplodochus.
ORDER IX. Crocodiles, Alligators, etc. (Crocodilia).
SUB-ORDER I. JEtosauria. Ex. JEtosaurus, Phytosaurus
(Be/odon).
SUB-ORDER II. Parasuchia^ Stagonolepis.
SUB-ORDER III. Eusuchia. Ex. Teleosaurus, Pelagosaurus^
Metriorhynchus, Steneosaurus, Geosaurus, Gomophys,
Berm'ssartza, Diplocynodon, Crocodilus, Gavialis.
ORDER X. Pterodactyls {Ornithosauria).
SUB-ORDER I. Pteranodontia. Ex. Pteranodon.
SUB-ORDER II. Pterosauria.
Ex. Pterodactylus, Ornithocheirus, Rhamphorhynchus, Scaphognathus, Dimorphodon*
CLASS IV. Birds (AVES).
ORDER I. Saururce. Archceopteryx.
ORDER II. Struthious Birds (Ratitas).
SUB-ORDER I. Odontoclce. Ex. Hesperomis.
SUB-ORDER II. JEpiornithes. Ex. JEpiornis.
SUB-ORDER III. Apteryges. Ex. Apteryx.
SUB-ORDER IV. Immanes. Ex. Moa {Dinornis).
SUB-ORDER V. Megistanes. Emeu and Cassowary (Dromaeus
and Cassuarius), Australia.
SUB-ORDER VI. Rheae. Ex. Rhea (South America).
SUB-ORDER VII. Struthiones. Ex. Ostrich (Arabia and
Africa).
SUB-ORDER VIII. Gastornithes. Ex. Gastomis, Odontopteryx.
ORDER III. CarinataB (with keeled breast-bone).
SUB-ORDER I. Odontormce. Ex. Ichthyomis.
SUB-ORDER II. Crypturi. Ex. Tinamus.
SUB-ORDER III. Penguins, etc. (Impennes).
SUB-ORDER IV. Petrels, etc. Tubinares.
SUB-ORDER V. Grebes, Divers, etc. (Pygopodes). Ex. Great
Auk (Alca impennis).

2 6o

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

SUB-ORDER VI. Gulls and Terns, Gaviae. Ex. Larus (Gull).
SUB-ORDER VII. Woodcock, etc. (Limocolas). Ex. Numenius
(Curlew).
SUB-ORDER VIII. Cranes, etc. (Alectores). Ex. Grus
(Crane).
SUB-ORDER IX. Rails, Coots, etc. (Fulicariae). Ex. Rallus
(Rail).
SUB-ORDER X. Cocks, Pheasants, Turkeys, etc. (Gallinae).
Many extinct Tertiary genera.
SUB-ORDER XL Pigeons, etc. (Columbae). Ex. Dodo {Didus
ineptus).
SUB-ORDER XII. Geese, etc. (Anseres). Ex. Swan (Cygnus).
SUB-ORDER XIII. Odontopteryges^ Odontopteryx (of London
Clay).
SUB-ORDER XIV. American Screamers (Palamedeae, unrepresented in a fossil state).
SUB-ORDER XV. Flamingoes (Odontoglossas). Elomz's, of
Lower Miocene, probably a Flamingo.
SUB-ORDER XVI. Ibis, Spoonbill, etc. (Herodiones). Ex.
Ibis pagana, from the Miocene.
SUB-ORDER XVII. Web-footed Birds (Steganopodes). Ex.
Albatross, etc. Ex. Pelican (Pelecanus), of the Miocene.
SUB-ORDER XVIII. Hawks, etc. (Accipitres). Ex. American
Vulture (Cathartes).
SUB-ORDER XIX. Owls, etc. (Striges). Ex. Strix (Owl).
SUB-ORDER XX. Parrots, Cockatoos, etc. (Psittachi). Ex.
African Parrot (Psittachus).
SUB-ORDER XXI. Kingfishers, Woodpeckers, etc.,—a somewhat heterogeneous group (Picariae). Ex. Halcyornis (a
Kingfisher of the London Clay).
SUB-ORDER XXII. Birds of passage (Passares). Ex. Crow
(Corvus).

CLASS Mammalia.
SUB-CLASS I. Prototheria.
ORDER I. Monotremes (Monotremata). Ex. Duck-billed
Platypus (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus), the Porcupine Anteater (Echidna aculeata). The imperfectly known Thylacoleo
may be placed in this Order. Also a number of more
ancient forms, such as Plagiaulax, Tritylodon, Bolodpn,
Microlestes.

APPENDIX.
SUB-CLASS

261

II. Metatheria.

ORDER II. Kangaroos, Opossums, etc. (Marsupialia).
SUB-CLASS III. Eutheria.
ORDER I. Sloth, Armadillos, etc. (Edentata). Ex. Scaly
Ant-eater (Manis), Cape Ant-eater (Orycteropus). Sloth
(Bradypus), Megatherium, Glyptodon (Pleistocene).
ORDER II. Whales, Dolphins, etc. (Cetacea).
SUB-ORDER I. Mystacoceti. Ex. Greenland Whale (Balasna).
SUB-ORDER II. Archceoceti. Ex. Zeuglodon.

SUB-ORDER I I I . Odontoceti. Ex. Sperm Whale (Physeter),
Dolphin (Delphinus), Ziphioides (Miocene), Squalodoit
(Miocene).
ORDER III. Manatee, Dugong, etc. (Sirenia). Ex. Rhytina
(Pleistocene).
ORDER IV. Hoofed Mammals (ITngulata).
SUB-ORDER I. Even-toed Ungulates (Artiodactyla). Ex. Hippopotamus, Pig (Sus), Cheeropotamus (Eocene), Anthracotherium (Eocene), Hyopotamus (Eocene), Mericopotamus
(Pliocene), Oreodon (Coty/ops), Anoplotherium (Eocene),
Ccenotherium (Eocene), Dichodon (Eocene), Tragulus
(Pliocene), Poebrotherium (Miocene), Camel (Camelus),
Llama (Auchenia), Protalbis (Miocene), Procamelus
(Pliocene), Stag (Cervus), Giraffe (Giraffa) Sivatherium,
Antelopes, Goats, Sheep, and Oxen (Bovidae), Palceoreas
(Pliocene).
SUB-ORDER II. Odd-toed Ungulates (Perissodactyla). Ex.
Tapir (Tapirus), Lophiodon (Eocene), Hyracotherium
(Eocene), (Pliolophus, Orohippus, and perhaps Eohippus,)
Pachynolophus, Palceotherium (Eocene), Anchitherium
(Miocene), Pliohippus (Pliocene), Rhinoceros, Elasmotherium, Chalicotherium (Eocene), Brontops, Titanotherium (Miocene), Diplacodon (Eocene), Macrauchenia
(Pleistocene).
SUB-ORDER III. Toxodontia, Toxodon (Pleistocene), Typotherium (Pleistocene).
SUB-ORDER IV. Condylarthra, Periptychus (Eocene), Phenacodus (Eocene).
SUB-ORDER V. Hyrachoidea, Cony (Hyrax).
SUB-ORDER VI. Amblypoda. Ex. Pantolamda, Coryphodon,
DinoceraS) Uintatherium, Tinoceras (all Eocene).

262

CREATURES

OE OTHER

BAYS.

SUB-ORDER VII. Elephants, etc. (Proboscidia). Ex. Elephas,
Mastodon (Miocene and Pliocene), Mammoth (Pleist.),
Dinotherium (Miocene).
Group Tillodontia. Ex. Tillotherium (Eocene).
ORDER V. Hares, Rabbits, etc. (Rodents).
SUB-ORDER I. Duplicidentata (with two incisors in upper jaw),
Hares (Lepus).
SUB-ORDER II. Simplicidentata (one incisor in each jaw). Ex.
Cavia (Cavy). Porcupine (Histrix), Beaver (Castor),
Pouched Rat (Geomys), Rats and Mice (Muridas), Squirrel
(Sciurus).
ORDER VI. Carnivorous Mammals (Carnivora).
SUB-ORDER I. Seals, Walrusses, Pinnipedia. Ex. Seal
(Phoca), Walrus (Trichecus).
SUB-ORDER II. Carnivora vera. Ex. Otter (Lutra), Weasel
(Mustela), Racoon (Procyon), Bear (Ursus), Amfthicy'on
(Eocene), JElurodon (Pliocene), Civet (Viverra), Hyaena,
Lion (Felis Leo), Nimravus and Machcerodus (Pleistocene).
SUB-ORDER III. Creodonta, Hyoznodon (Eocene), Proviverra
(Eocene), Apterodon (Miocene).
ORDER VII. Insectivorous Mammals (Insectivora).
Ex.
Mole (Talpa), Hedgehog (Erinaceus). Some fossil forms.
ORDER VIII. Bats, etc. (Cheiroptera). Ex. Bat (Vespertilio).
ORDER IX. Lemurs, Monkeys, Apes, Man (Primates).
SUB-ORDER I. Lemuroidea. Ex. Lemur. Some fossil forms.
SUB-ORDER II. Anthropoidea, Gorilla (Troglodytes), Orang
(Simia).
Man, Homo sapiens.

APPENDIX III.
LITERATURE.
i. POPULAR WORKS.

Works by Doctor Gideon A. Mantell:—
Medals of Creation.
Wonders of Geology.
Petrifactions and their Teaching.
Phases of Animal Life. By R. Lydekker.
Science for All. 5 vols. (Chapters on Extinct Animals.)
Winners in Lifers Race. By Arabella Buckley (Mrs. Fisher.)
Romance of Natural History. 2 vols. By H. P. Gosse.
The Autobiography of the Earth. By Rev. H. N. Hutchinson.
Records of the Rocks. By W. S. Symmonds.
The Story of the Earth and Man. By Sir Wm. Dawson.
The Old Red Sandstone. By Hugh Miller.
Sketch-Book of Popular Geology. By Hugh Miller.
Early Man in Britain. By Prof. Boyd Dawkins.
Cave-hunting. By Prof. Boyd Dawkins.
The Horse. By Sir W. H. Flower.
American Addresses. By the Right Hon. T. H. Huxley.
The Living World. W. H. Conn.
2. WORKS OF

REFERENCE.

A Manual of Palceontology. 2 vols. By Prof. Alleyne Nicholson
and R. Lydekker.
The Life-History of the Earth. By Prof. Alleyne Nicholson.
Origin of Species. By Charles Darwin.
The English Encyclopedia. (The 2 vols, on Natural History contain
much information on extinct animals.)
The Encyclopedia Britannica. Eighth or Ninth Editions.

264

CREATURES

OF OTHER

DAYS.

Phillips's Manual of Geology. New Edition, by Prof. H. G. Seeley
and R. Etheridge.
Prehistoric Europe. By Prof. James Geikie.
Palceontological Memoirs. By Hugh Falconer, M.D.
Mammals Living and Extinct. By Sir William Flower and R.
Lydekker.
British Fossil Mammals and Birds. By Sir R. Owen.
A History of British Fossil Reptiles. By Sir R. Owen. 4 vols.
(Cassell.) Most of this work has been previously published in the
Monographs of the Palceontographical Society.
A Manual of Palceontology. By Sir R. Owen.
Memoir on the Archceopteryx. By Sir R. Owen.
Extinct Fossil Mammals of Australia. Sir R, Owen. London,
1887.
Odontography. By Sir R. Owen.
A Guide to the Exhibition Galleries of the Department of Palceontology in the British Museum (Natural History). In two parts. 6d.
each.
A Catalogue of British Fossil Vertebrata. By A. S. Woodward and
C. D. Sherborn.
The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals. By
Prof. A. Heilprin.
Elements of Geology. By Prof. Joseph Le Conte. New York.
Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain.
Monographs of the Palceontographical Society.
Palceontographica. Edited by Prof. K. Zittel.
Ichnology of New England. By Edward Hitchcock. Boston,
1858.
Ichnographs from the Sandstone of the Connecticut River. By Dr.
J. Deane. Boston, 1861.
Ichnology of Annandale. By Sir Wm. Jardine. Edinburgh, 1853.
Fossil Footsteps in the Red Sandstones of Potsville, Pennsylvania.
By Prof. J. Lea.
History aitd External Characters of the Dodo, Solitaire, and other
Extinct Brevipennate Birds of Mauritius, Rodriguez, and Bourbon.
H. E. Strickland and A. C. Melville. London, 1848.
• A Monograph on the Extinct Toothed Birds of North America. By
Prof. O. C. Marsh. New Haven, Connecticut, 1880.
The Vertebrata of the Tertiary Formations. By Prof. E. D. Cope.
The Vertebrata of the Cretaceous Formations of the West. By
Prof. E. D. Cope.

APPENDIX.

265

Contributions to the Extinct Vertebrata Fauna of the Western
Territories. By Joseph Leidy. Washington, 1873.
(The above Monographs by Marsh, Cope, and Leidy are all in the
United States Geological Survey of the Territories.)
Cretaceous Reptiles of the United States. Joseph Leidy. Smithsonian Contrib. Knowledge, vol. xiv. (1864).
The Survival of the Fittest. By Prof. E. D. Cope.
Handbtich der Palceontologie. By Prof. K. A. Zittel. Munich,
1888.
Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalkstein der Perm-formation
Bohemens. By A. Fritsch. Prague, 1883-1886.
Les Enchainements du Monde Animal. By A. Gaudry. Paris,
1883.
Monograph of the Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of Britain
{Cephalaspidce) Palceontographical Society, 1868-1870. J. Powrie and
Ray Lankester.
Die Placodermen. C. H. Pander, 1857.
Geological Survey of Ohio. Palaeontology, I., II.
Transactions of the Royal Society of Dublin.
Abhandlungen der Schweizerischen. Paldontologishen Gesellscliaft
(Batrachia), vol. v.
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
A Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals. T. H. Huxley.
2nd edit.
3. JOURNALS.

The student will find numerous valuable papers by well-known
geologists in the following Journals :—
The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.
The Geological Magazine.
Nature.
Natural Science.
Knowledge. Papers by R. Lydekker.
The American Journal of Science. Papers by Prof. O. C. Marsh.
The American Naturalist. By Prof. E. D. Cope.
Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. New York.
Annates del Museo Publico do Buenos Aires.
Papers by H.
Burmeister.
Amials of the Museum of La Plata.

INDEX.
Actinodon. See Labyrinthodonts.
Aetosaurus. See Crocodilia.
Agassiz, 25, 28
Alligators, 98, 116
Amblypoda, 189
Amphibia, 49. See Labyrinthodonts.
Anchisaurtis. See Dinosaurs.
Anchitherium.
See Horses.
Anomodonts, 6 4 ; Cyamodus, 79 s
/ Dicynodon, 75-77; Dimetrodon,
81 ; Empedias, 81 ; Endothiodon,
79 ; Galcesaurus, 80 ; Oudenodo??,
76; Pareiasaurus, 81-86; Placodus,
79 ; Platypodosaurus, 79 ; Tapinocephalus, 80 ; litanosuchus, 80 ;
Theriodonts, 80
Anoplotherium, 182
Anthracosaums.
See Labyrinthodonts.
Anihracotherium, 183
Apateoh (Arck&gosaurus), 60
Archceopteryx. See Birds.
Arenicolites, 5
Artiodactyls, 182
Astrapotherium, 242
Bain, Mr. A., discoveries of, in South
Africa, 75-78
Balcena, 226
Basilosaurus. See Zeuglodon.
Bathmodon^ 189
Batrachia, 49
Belodon (Phytosaurus). See Crocodiles.
Bennet, Dr. George, of Sydney, 227
Binney, Mr., on tracks at Tintwhistle,
12

Birds, resemblances of, to Dinosaurs,
130; Archceopteryx; 152; Auk,
Great, 171 ; Dasomis, 161 ; Dodo,

162-166; Enaliornis, 160; (Skrtornis, 161 ; Hesperomis, 156;
IchthyorniS) 159; Nestor•, 170;
Odontopteryx, 161 ; Solitaire {Pezop/iaps), 166
Bone-bed of Ludlow, 34
Bos primzgemus, 251
Brontotherium {Titanotherium), 191,
192

Brontozoum, 15
Buckland, Dean, on footprints, 4, 1 1 ;
on Dinotherium, 193
Buckley, Miss, on vertebrates, 32;
on crocodiles, 99 ; on birds, 173
Burrows of marine worms, 56
Capitosaurus. See Labyrinthodonts.
Catalogue of British Fossils, 24
Central Park, New York, 136
CephalaspiS) 42
Ceraterpeton, 6j
Ceratosaurus, See Dinosaurs.
Cestracion, 35.
Cetacea, 221
Cheirotherium. See Labyrinthodonts.
Claosaurus. See Dinosaurs.
Classification of Vertebrates. See
Appendix II.
Coccosteus, 44
Cololithes, 28
" Conodonts," 5-34
Cope, Prof. E. D., on fossil fishes,
29; on Labyrinthodonts, 51 ; also
pp. 63, 81, 187, 189, 198, 199, 201;
on Coryphodon, 190; on Periptychus, 200; on Phenacodtcs, 204;
on Prototheridce, 244
Corypkodon, 187
Cricotus, See Labyrinthodonts.
Crocodiles, habits of, 9 8 ; suborders

268

INDEX.

of, i o o ; Aetosaurtts, 101 ; Belodon
(Phylosaurus),
101;
Bernissartia,
1 1 3 ; Goniopholis,
109;
Metriorhynchus, 108 ; Pelagosaurtts, 107 ;
Polyptychodoni
1 1 2 ; Stagono/epzs,
1 0 2 ; Teleosaurus, 1 0 4 ; Owen on
distribution of, 115
Crossopodia, 6
Crystal Palace, models at, 57, 144
Cumming, Lady Gordon, 26
" Cup-bones," 57
Cuvier, on Oeningen salamander, 7 2 ;
on Proterosaurtis,
88; on Teleosaurns, 1 0 6 ; on fossil crocodiles,
1 1 4 ; restoration of Palceotherium,
1 8 0 ; Anoplotherium,
182 ; Xiphodon, 183 ; L a w of Correlation, 1 8 5 ;
Coryphodon, 189, 193
Dames, Prof. W . , 154
Darwin, on Macrauchenia,
2 4 2 ; on
zoological provinces, 247
Dasomis.
See Birds.
Deane, Dr. J., on footprints, 16, 18 1
Dendrerpeton.
See Labyrinthodonts.
Dick, Robert, 26
Dimetrodon.
See Labyrinthodonts.
Dincynodon.
See Anomodonts.
Dinichthys, 42
D i n o s a u r s : resemblances to birds,
1 3 0 ; Anchisaurus,
119;
Ammosanrtis, 1 2 3 ; Ceratosaurus,
124;
Claosatirus, 1 2 7 ;
Compsognathus,
121, 133 ; Dryptosaurus
(Ljelaps),
142 ; Hadrosaurus,
138 ; Hallopus,
1 3 2 ; Hypsilophodon, 132
Dinotherium,
194, 195, 227
Diprotodon, 226-234
D o d o {Didus), 162-166
Dolichosoma.
See Labyrinthodonts.
Duncan, R e v . D r . , on footprints, 10
E a r l e , Mr. C , on Coryphodonts, 189
Edinburgh, D u k e of, letter to Owen,
78
Eggs (fossil) of reptiles, 135
Elder, Sir Thomas, 232
Elgin sandstones, age of, 89, 93
Elginias mirabilis, 95
Emerson, on records in nature, 1
Empedias.
See Anomodonts.
Enaliornis.
See Birds.
Enniskillen, E a r l of, 24
Eocene period, fauna of, 180
Eohippus.
See Horses.

Eryops.
See Labyrinthodonts.
Evolution, 49, 50, 54, 58, 6 1 , 86, 8yy
97, 102, 130, 132, 151, 152, 169,.
m , i74> 176, 178, 198, 205
Fishes (fossil), number of species, 24;.
collectors of, 24, 25 ; classification
of, 28, 2 9 ; Ganoid, 2 8 ; Placoid,
28.
G e n e r a : Megalichthys,
28 -r
Lepidostetis, 29, 3 0 , 4 4 ; Polypterus,
30, 45 ; Scaphaspis, 3 4 ; Cestracion,
35 ; Pterichthys,
36, 3 8 - 4 1 ; Coccosteus, 4 1 ; Pteraspis, 42 ; Cephalaspis,
43;
Holoptychius,
44 -v
Osteolepis, 4 5 ; Lepidotus,
48;
Homosteus, 4 1 ; Sturgeon, 48
Footprints. See Tracks.
Fritsch, D r . , 58
"Fucoids," 6
Galcesaurus.
See Anomodonts.
Ganoid fishes, 28
Gastornis.
See Birds.
Goniopholis.
See Crocodiles.
Gordon, Rev. Dr., 9 1 , 103
Gray-Egerton, Sir Philip, 24
Gunther, D r . , on fossil fishes, 31
Hadrosaurus.
See Dinosaurs.
H a k e l , fossil fishes of, 25
Hallopus.
See Dinosaurs.
H a w k i n s , B . Waterhouse, 136, 138,,
141
Hesperornis.
See Birds.
" H e t e r o c e r c a l " and " h o m o c e r c a l "
tails, 31
Hipparion.
See Horses.
Hitchcock, Prof. E d . , 16, 17, 19, 21
Holoptychius, 44
Homalodontotherium,
242
Homodihwii
testis, 72
Horses: Plenacodus, 2 0 1 - 2 0 4 ; Miohippus, 206 ; Eohipptis, 207 ; Orohippus, 206, 207, 209, 2 1 2 ; Hyracotherium, 208, 209, 2 1 2 ; Hipparion, 208-211
Hughes, Prof. T . McKenny, on
tracks, 7
H u l k e , J . W . , on Hypsilophodon, 134
H u r s t , Dr. C. H . , on
Archtsopteryx,
154-156
Huxley, Rt. H o n . T . H . , on Birds
and Dinosaurs, 1 3 0 ; on Stagonolepis, 1 0 2 ; on Crocodiles,, 1 0 0 ; on
Telerpeton, 91 ; on Loxomma,
64;

IND1EX.
o n Elgin sandstones, 93, 9 4 ; on
fossil horses, 205
Hydrarchos.
See Zeuglodon.
Hyrax, 212
Ichnology, Sir William Jardine, on,
1 0 ; also 15-22
Ichthyornis.
See Birds.
Jardine, Sir W . , 10
J a w s of worms, 5
Kinmont, M r . W . , on discovery at
Lake Mulligan, South Australia, of
bones of Diprotodon, 229
Koch, Mr., 223
L a Plata Museum, 236, 241, 242
Labyrinthodonts, teeth of, 15 ; tracks,
1 4 ; first discovery of, 52 ; brain of,
7 1 ; Archcegosaurus, 58, 61 ; Actinodon,
6 6 ; Capitosaurus,
71 ;
Ceraterpeton, 6j;
Cheirotherium,
5 3 ; Cricotus, 6 4 ;
Dendrerpeton,
62 ; Dolichosoma, 68 ; Eryops, 64 ;
' Loxomma,
6 4 ; Palceosiren, 66 ;
Ptyonius, 67 ; Raniceps, 6 2 ; Seeleya > 58
L(?laps.
See Dinosaurs.
Laopteryx.
See Birds.
Leeds, M r . Alfred N . , 109
Leidv, Prof. J . , 139
Lewis, R e v . Prof., 25
Ludlow bone-bed, 6
Lug-worm, habits of, 6
Lydekker, Mr. R . , 236, 239, 241
Machairodus
( s a b r e - t o o t h e d tiger),
245
Macrauchema,
242-244
Mammalia, age of, 1 7 4 ; rise of, 176
Mantell, D r . Gideon A . , 24, 9 1 , 1 0 9 n i , 223
Marsupials, 226-234
Marsh, Prof. O . C , his perilous
fossil hunt, 143-150; on Anchisaurus, 118-122; on Ceratosaurus,
1 2 4 - 1 2 6 ; on Claosaurus, 1 2 8 ; on
Hesperornis,
1 5 6 - 1 5 9 ; on Palceosyops, 1 8 7 ; on Coryphodon, 1 8 9 ;
on fossil horses, 198 ; also p . 180
Mastodon augustidens, 195
Models at Crystal Palace, 1 4 3 ; at
Central P a r k , N e w York, 136-142
Monte Hermoso, deposits of, 241

Moreno, D r . , 236
Mulligan, L a k e , South
discovery at, 229-234

269
Australia,

JVereites, 6
JVesodon, 240, 241
Nestor.
See Birds.
N e w t o n , E . T . , on Elginia
Gordonia, 94-96

and

Odontopteryx.
See Birds.
OncAus, 34
Omithorhynchus
{Platypus), 74, Sy,
175
Orohippus.
See Horses.
Oudenodon.
See Anomodonts.
Owen, Sir Richard, on footprints in
Potsdam sandstone, 7 ; on Cheirotherium tracks, 14 ; on Pterichthys,
40 ; on skull of Labyrinthodon,
52,
5 3 ; on Archcegosaurus,
61 ; o n
Labyrinthodonts and Ganoid fishes,
6 1 ; on Dicynodon, 75 ; on A n o m o donts, 76—78, 8 0 ; on Proterosaurus,
8 8 ; on Rhynchosaurus,
9 2 ; on
distribution of Crocodiles, 1 1 5 ; on
habits of Dinosaurs, 1 2 9 ; onHypsilophodon, 1 3 4 ; on Birds and D i n o saurs, 1 5 2 ; on Coryphodon, 188,
1 8 9 ; on JDinotherium,
1 9 3 ; on
Zeuglodon, 220, 2 2 4 ; on a Grampus,
225 ; on Diprotodon,
227 ; on
Toxodon, 2 3 7 ; on JVesodon, 2 4 0 ;
on causes of extinction, 249
Pachyderms, 182
Pachynolopus, 212
Pdckyrucus, 241
Palceichthyes, 31
Palceochorda, 6
Palaeontology defined, 2
Palceosiren.
See Labyrinthodonts.
" Parallelism," 2 4 1 , 245
Parasuchia, 100
Pareiasaurus,
82-86
Pelagosaurus, 107
Periptychus, 199, 200
Perissodactyla, 182
Pezophaps.
See Birds.
Physeter, 224
Phytosaurus
(Belodon).
See Crocodiles.
Placodermata.
See Fishes.
Placodus.
See Anomodonts.
Platypodosaurus.
See Anomodonts.

270

IN,

Platypus.
See
Omitkorhynchus.
Pliohippus.
See Horses.
Pliolophus, 212
Polypterus.
See Fishes.
Potsdam sandstone, 7
Proboscidia, 182
Progress, law of, 3 1 , 47, 174
Proterosatirtis,
8j
Protichnites, 8
Pterodactyls, 152, 155
Ptyonius.
See Labyrinthodonts.
Raniceps.
See Labyrinthodonts.
" R e s t o r a t i o n s " at Crystal Palace,
143, 1 4 4 ; at Central Park, N e w
York, 136, 140
Rhyncocephalia, 8j, 89
Riitimeyer, on Labyrinthodon,
68
Salamanders, 49, j2.
See also
Labyrinthodonts.
Saxe-Coburg, D u k e of, 78
Sclerotic plates, in amphibians (Fig.
1 5 ) ; in Hypsilopkodon, 135
Scolithus, 5
Seeley, Prof. H . G., on Anomodonts,
81 ; on Pareiasaurus,
82-85
Seeley a, 58
Silurian period, 34, 42
Solenhofen Stone, 121, 152
Solitaire. See Birds.
Sphenodon (Tuatara), 56, 86, 89
Spines of fishes, 36
Squalodon, 224
Stagonolepis, 102-104
Stirling, D r . E . C , on Diprotodon
remains at L a k e Mulligan, 233
Sturgeon. See Fishes.
Tapinocephalus.
See Anomodonts.
Tapir, 180, 185, 202-204, 213
Teleosaurus.
See Crocodiles.

Teleostean, or bony, fishes, 3 r
Telerpeton, 98
Thecodontosaurus, 123
Theriodonts, 80
Toxodon, 236-240
Toxodontotherium
(Trigodon), 242
Tracks, of worms, 5, 6 ; of molluscs,
6 ; of living animals, 7 ; of D i n o saurs, 2 1 , 1 1 7 ; of birds, 2 4 ; of
Cheirotherium,
12-14 ; on seashore, 3 ; in Connecticut Valley,
15-22 ; Deane on, 16 ; D e a n Buckland on, 4 ; at Tintwhistle, 11 ;
D r . King on, 63 ; T . H . Huxley
on, 15 ; Prof. Marsh on, 1 2 0 ; in
Potsdam sandstone, 7 ; Sir W .
Jardine on, 10 ; Mr. Poulett Scrope
on, 1 1 ; Prof. J . W . Sollas on, 14 •?
Prof. W . C. Williamson on, 15
Traquair, D r . , on Pterichthys, 39 ; on
Placodermata, 42
Typotherium, 241
Vertebrates, origin of, 33
Wallace, D r . Alfred R., on Dodo^
etc., 169
Weidersheim, Prof., on
Labyrinthodon, 71
Whales, extinct, Zenglodon,
Sqttalodon, 219
W o m b a t , fossil, 230
Xiphodon, 183
Zeuglodon.
See Whales.
Zittel, D r . K a r l A . , Palseontographica, 7
Zoological provinces of N o r t h a n d
South America, 246
Zotodon, 242

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28

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29

CARLYLE'S (THOMAS) WORKS.
THE ASHBURTON EDITION.
New Edition, handsomely printed, containing all the Portraits and
Illustrations, in Twenty Volumes, demy 8vo, 8s. each. *
T H E FRENCH REVOLUTION AND PAST AND PRESENT. 2 vols.
SARTOR RESARTUS ; HEROES AND H E R O WORSHIP. 1 vol.
LIFE OF JOHN STERLING—LIFE OF SCHILLER, 1 vol.
LATTER-DAY PAMPHLETS — EARLY KINGS OF NORWAY —
ESSAY ON THE PORTRAIT OF JOHN KNOX.

1 vol.

LETTERS AND SPEECHES OF OLIVER CROMWELL.
HISTORY OF FREDERICK T H E GREAT. 6 vols.
CRITICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS. 3 vols.
TRANSLATIONS FROM T H E GERMAN. 3 vols.

3 vols.

L I B R A R Y EDITION COMPLETE.
H a n d s o m e l y printed, i n 3 4 vols., d e m y 8vo, £ 1 5 3 s .
OLIVER CROMWELL'S
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T H E FRENCH REVOLUTION.
A History. 3 vols., each 9s.

LIFEof FREDERICK SCHILLER

AND EXAMINATION
OF HIS
WORKS. With Supplement of 1872.
Portrait and Plates, 9s.
CRITICAL A N D
MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS.
With Portrait.
6 vols., each 9s.

ON HEROES, HERO WORSHIP,
AND THE HEROIC IN HISTORY.
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PAST AND PRESENT.

9s.

TERS AND SPEECHES. With Portraits. 5 vols., each 9s.
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PAMPHLETS.
9s.

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OF

JOHN

STERLING.

With Portrait, 9s.

HISTORY

OF

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T H E SECOND. 10 vols., each 9s.

TRANSLATIONS
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FROM

THE

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ESSAY ON THE PORTRAITS OF
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WILHELM MEISTER. 3 vols.
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ON

HISTORY OF

HEROES
AND
WORSHIP AND THE
IN HISTORY.

HERO
HEROIC

LIFE

OF

SCHILLER,

AND EXAMINATION
WORKS. With Portrait.

OF

HIS

With Portrait.

FREDERICK

THE GREAT. 10 vols.

TRANSLATIONS
FROM
MUS^EUS, TIECK, AND RICHTER.
PAST AND PRESENT.
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BOOKS

30

PUBLISHED

CARLYLE'S (THOMAS)

THE

BY

WORKS,—Continued.

A H E - I S S U E OF
W O R K S OF T H O M A S C A R L Y L E ,
P r i c e 2s. 6d. a

Volume.

This Edition will include the whole of his writings and translations, together
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The Volumes ready are
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PAST AND P R E S E N T AND ON HEROES AND H E R O WORSHIP.
LIFE OF J O H N STERLING AND L I F E OF SCHILLER.
CRITICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS, EARLY KINGS
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FRENCH REVOLUTION ; a History,

in two volumes.

To be followed at intervals by
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of Oliver Cromwell.
Vol. III. in June.

In three volumes.

Vol. I. in April, Vol. II. in May,

HISTORY OF FREDERICK T H E GREAT,

in five volumes. Vol. I. in

July, Vol. II. in August, Vol. III. in September, Vol. IV. in October, Vol. V. in
November.
W I L H E L M M E I S T E R , In two volumes.
T R A N S L A T I O N S FROM
In one volume.

MUS^EUS,

CHEAP
T H E FRENCH REVOLUTION.

TIECK

AND

RICHTER.

ISSUE.
One volume.

With Portrait.

Crown

8vo, 2?.

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AND PRESENT, AND CHARTISM. One volume.

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CRITICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS. 2 vols. 4s.
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LIVES OF SCHILLER AND ' STERLING.
With Portraits.
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S I X P E N N Y EDITION.
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HEROES AND HERO WORSHIP.
ESSAYS : BURNS, JOHNSON, SCOTT, T H E DIAMOND NECKLACE.

The above in I vol., cloth, 2s. 6d.

One

CHAPMAN 6- HALL,

LIMITED.

31

DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS.
ORIGINAL

EDITIONS.

In demy %vo+

THE MYSTERY OF EDWIN DROOD.

With Illustrations

by S. L. Fildes, and a Portrait engraved by Baker; Cloth, 7s. 6d.

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND.

With Forty Illustrations by Marcus

Stone. Cloth, £ 1 is.

THE PICKWICK PAPERS. With Forty-three Illustrations
by Seymour and Phiz. Cloth, £1 is.

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY.

With Forty Illustrations by Phiz.

Cloth, £1 is,

SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With Forty Illustrations by George
Cruikshank. Cloth, £1 is.

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT.

With Forty Illustrations by Phiz.

Cloth, £1 is.

DOMBEY AND SON. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz.
Cloth, £1 is.

DAVID COPPERFIELD.

With Forty Illustrations by Phiz.

Cloth, £x is.

BLEAK HOUSE.

With Forty Illustrations by Phiz.

Cloth,

£1 is.

LITTLE DORRIT.

With Forty Illustrations by Phiz. Cloth,

£1 is.

THE OLD CURIOSITY SHOP. With Seventy-five Illustrations by George Cattermole and H. K. Browne. A New Edition. Uniform with
the other volumes, £1 is.

BARNABY RUDGE: a Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty. With
Seventy-eight Illustrations by George Cattermole and H. K. Browne. Uniform with
the other volumes, £1 is.

CHRISTMAS BOOKS: Containing—The Christmas Carol;
The Cricket on the Hearth ; The Chimes; The Battle of Life; The Haunted House.
With all the original Illustrations. Cloth, 12s.

OLIVER TWIST and TALE OF TWO CITIES. In one
volume. Cloth, £1 is.

OLIVER TWIST. Separately.

With Twenty-four Illustrations

by George Cruikshank. Cloth, u s .

A TALE OF TWO CITIES. Separately.

With Sixteen Illus-

trations by Phiz. Cloth, gs.

*^*The remainder of Dickens''s Works were not originally printed in demy $vo.

BOOKS PUBLISHED

32

BY

DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS.—Continued.
LIBRARY
In post $vo.

EDITION.

With the Original Illustrations, 30 vols., cloth, £\2.

PICKWICK PAPERS
4 3 Illustrns.,
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY
,
39
MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT
40
,
OLD CURIOSITY SHOP & REPRINTED PIECES>3<5
36
„
BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES
'
,
36
BLEAK HOUSE
40
,
LITTLE DORRIT
40
,
DOMBEY AND SON
,
38
DAVID COPPERFIELD
,
38
OUR MUTUAL FRIEND
40
,,
SKETCHES BY " B O Z "
,,
39
OLIVER TWIST
24
,
CHRISTMAS BOOKS
,
17
A TALE OF TWO CITIES
16
,
GREAT EXPECTATIONS
8
,
PICTURES FROM ITALY & AMERICAN NOTES 8
,
UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER
8
,
CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND
,
8
EDWIN DROOD and MISCELLANIES
12
,
CHRISTMAS STORIES from "Household Words," &c. 14 ,

2 vols.
2 vols.
2 Vpls.
2 Vols.
2 VOls.
2 VOls.
2 VOls.
2 VOls.
2 VOls.
2 VOls.
i vol.
i vol.
1 vol.
1 vol.
1 vol.
1 vol.
1 vol.
1 vol.
1 vol.
I vol.

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16 0
16 0
16 0
16 0
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16 0
16 0
16 0
8 0
8 0
8 0
8 0
8 0
8 0
8 0
8 0
8 0
8 0

Uniform with the above, 10s. 6d.

THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. By JOHN FORSTER. With Illustrations.

THE

"CHARLES

DICKENS"

EDITION.

In Crown $vo. In 21 vols., cloth, with Illustrations, £ 3 I 6 J .
PICKWICK PAPERS
MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT
DOMBEY AND SON
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY
DAVID COPPERFIELD
BLEAK HOUSE
LITTLE DORRIT
OUR MUTUAL FRIEND
BARNABY RUDGE
OLD CURIOSITY SHOP
A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND
EDWIN DROOD and OTHER STORIES
CHRISTMAS STORIES, from " Household Words " ...
SKETCHES BY "BOZ"
AMERICAN NOTES and REPRINTED PIECES ...
CHRISTMAS BOOKS
OLIVER TWIST
GREAT EXPECTATIONS
TALE OF TWO CITIES
HARD TIMES and PICTURES FROM ITALY
...
UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER

8 Illustrations
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
4
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
4

s. d.

4 o
4 o
4 o

Uniform with the above.

THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. Numerous Illustrations. 2 vols, 7 o
THE LETTERS OF CHARLES DICKENS
2 vols, 7 o

CHAPMAN

& HALL, LIMITED.

33

DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS.—Continued.
THE

ILLUSTRATED
(WITH

LIBRARY

EDITION.

LIFE.)

Complete in 32 Volumes. Demy 8vo, 10s. each ; or set, £16.
This Edition is printed on a finer paper and in a larger type than has been
employed in any previous edition. The type has been cast especially for it, and
the page is of a size to admit of the introduction of all the original illustrations.
No such attractive issue has been made of the writings of Mr. Dickens, which,
various as have been the forms of publication adapted to the demands of an ever
widely-increasing popularity, have never yet been worthily presented in a really
nandsome library form.
The collection comprises all the minor writings it was Mr. Dickens's wish to
preserve.
SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With 40 Illustrations by George Cruikshank.
PICKWICK PAPERS. 2 vols. With 42 Illustrations by Phiz.
OLIVER TWIST. With 24 Illustrations by Cruikshank.
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.
OLD CURIOSITY SHOP and REPRINTED PIECES. 2 vols. With Illustrations by Cattermole, &c.
BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES. 2 vols. With Illustrations by
Cattermole, &c.
MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.
AMERICAN NOTES and PICTURES FROM ITALY.
1 vol
With
8 Illustrations.
DOMBEY AND SON. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.
DAVID COPPERFIELD. 2 vols. Wit]? 40 Illustrations by Phiz.
BLEAK HOUSE. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.
LITTLE DORRIT. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.
A TALE OF TWO CITIES. With 16 Illustrations by Phiz.
THE UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.
GREAT EXPECTATIONS. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.
OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.
CHRISTMAS BOOKS. With 17 Illustrations by Sir Edwin Landseer, R.A.,
Maclise, R.A., &c. &c.
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.
CHRISTMAS STORIES. (From "Household Words" and "All the Year
Round.") With 14 Illustrations.
EDWIN DROOD AND OTHER STORIES. With 12 Illustrations by
S, L. Fildes.
LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. By John Forster. With Portraits. 2 vols.

BOOKS PUBLISHED

34

BY

DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS.—Continued.
HOUSEHOLD EDITION.
( W I T H LIFE.)
In 22 Volumes. Crown qto, cloth, £4. Ss. 6d.
MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT, with 59 Illustrations, 5s.
DAVID COPPERFIELD, with 60 Illustrations and a Portrait, 5s.
BLEAK HOUSE, with 61 Illustrations, 5s.
LITTLE DORRIT, with 58 Illustrations, 5s.
PICKWICK PAPERS, with 56 Illustrations, 5s.
OUR MUTUAL FRIEND, with 58 Illustrations, 5s.
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY, with 59 Illustrations, 5s.
DOMBEY AND SON, with 61 Illustrations, 5s.
EDWIN DROOD ; REPRINTED PIECES ; and other Stories, with 30 Illustrations, 5s.
THE LIFE OF DICKENS. BY JOHN FORSTER. With 40 Illustrations, 5s.
BARNABY RUDGE, with 46 Illustrations, 4s.
OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, with 32 Illustrations, 4s.
CHRISTMAS STORIES, with 23 Illustrations, 4s.
OLIVER TWIST, with 28 Illustrations, 3s.
GREAT EXPECTATIONS, with 26 Illustrations, 3s.
SKETCHES BY " BOZ," with 36 Illustrations, 3s.
UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER, with 26 Illustrations, 3s.
CHRISTMAS BOOKS, with 28 Illustrations, 3s.
THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND, with 15 Illustrations, 3s.
AMERICAN NOTES-and PICTURES FROM ITALY, with 18 Illustrations, 3s.
A TALE OF TWO CITIES, with 25 Illustrations, 3s.
HARD TIMES, with 20 Illustrations, 2s. 6d.

CHARLES

DICKENS'S

CHRISTMAS

BOOKS.

REPRINTED FROM THE ORIGINAL PLATES,
Illustrated by J O H N LEECH, D. MACLISE, R.A., R. DOYLE,
C. STANFIELD, R.A., etc.

Fcap. cloth, is. each.

Complete in a case, $s.

A CHRISTMAS CAROL IN PROSE.
THE CHIMES : A Goblin Story.
THE CRICKET ON THE HEARTH : A Fairy Tale of Home.
THE BATTLE OF LIFE. A Love Story.
THE HAUNTED MAN AND T H E GHOSTS STORY.

SIXPENNY REPRINTS of DICKENS'S WORKS.
OLIVER TWIST.

With 28 Illustrations by J.

MAHONEY.

Mediuni 8vo.

READINGS FROM THE WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS.
As selected and read by himself and now published for the first time. Illustrated.

A CHRISTMAS CAROL, AND T H E HAUNTED MAN.
Illustrated.
THE

CHIMES: A GOBLIN STORY, AND T H E CRICKET

ON THE HEARTH. Illustrated.
THE BATTLE OF L I F E : A LOVE STORY, HUNTED
DOWN, AND A HOLIDAY ROMANCE. Illustrated.

CHAPMAN

& HALL,

DICKENS'S (CHARLES)

LIMITED.

35

WORKS.—Continued.

THE CROWN EDITION,
Complete in 17 vols. Containing ALL THE ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS.
And the Letterpress is printed from Type expressly cast for this Edition.
LARGE CROWN
PRICE

FIVE

OCTAVO.

SHILLINGS

1.—THE P I C K W I C K P A P E R S .

EACH,

With Forty-three Illustrations by

SEYMOUR and PHLZ.

2. - N I C H O L A S NICKLEBY. With Forty Illustrations by PHIZ.
3.—DOMBEY A N D S O N . With Forty Illustrations by PHIZ.
4.—DAVID C O P P E R F I E L D . With Forty Illustrations by PHIZ.
5 — S K E T C H E S BY " BOZ." With Forty Illustrations by G E O .
CRDIKSHANK.

6.—MARTIN C H U Z Z L E W I T . With Forty Illustrations by PHIZ.
7 . - T H E OLD CURIOSITY SHOP.
With Seventy-five Illustrations by GEORGE CATTERMOLE and H. K. BROWNE.

8.—BARNABY R U D G E : a Tale of the Riots of'Eighty. With Seventyeight Illustrations by GEORGE CATTERMOLE and H. K. BROWNE.

9 . - O L I V E R T W I S T and A T A L E O F T W O C I T I E S . With
Twenty-four Illustrations by CRUIKSHANK and Sixteen by PHIZ.
10.—BLEAK H O U S E . With Forty Illustrations by PHIZ.
11.—LITTLE DORRIT. With Forty Illustrations by PHIZ.
12.—OUR M U T U A L F R I E N D . With Forty Illustrations by MARCUS
STONE.

13.—AMERICAN N O T E S ; P I C T U R E S FROM I T A L Y ; and
A CHILD'S H I S T O R Y O F E N G L A N D .
With Sixteen
Illustrations by MARCUS STONE.

14.—CHRISTMAS BOOKS and H A R D T I M E S .
tions by LANDSEER,
F. WALKER, etc.

MACLISE,

STANFIELD,

With IllustraLEECH,

DOYLE,

15.—CHRISTMAS S T O R I E S A N D O T H E R S T O R I E S , including
H U M P H R E Y ' S CLOCK.
With Illustrations by DALZIEL,
CHARLES G R E E S , MAHONEY, P H I Z , CATTERMOLE, etc.

16.-GREAT

EXPECTATIONS.

UNCOMMERCIAL

T R A V E L L E R . With Sixteen Illustrations by MARCUS STONE.
17.—EDWIN DROOD and R E P R I N T E D P I E C E S . With Sixteen
Illustrations by L U K E FILDES and F. WALKER.

Uniform with the abovz.
THE

LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS.
By JOHN FORSTER.
With Portraits and Illustrations. Will be added at the request of
numerous Subscribers.

36

BOOKS

PUBLISHED

BY

DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS.'— Continued.

THE CABINET EDITION.
I n 32 vols, small fcap. 8vo, Marble Paper Sides, Cloth Backs, with uncut
edges, price Eighteenpence each.
Each

Volume contains Eight Illustrations

reproduced from the

Originals.

I n Sets only, bound in blue and red cloth, with cut edges, £2 8s.
CHRISTMAS BOOKS.
M A R T I N C H U Z Z L E W I T , 2 vol*.
D A V I D C O P P E R F I E L D , 2 vols.
OLIVER TWIST.
GREAT EXPECTATIONS.
N I C H O L A S N I C K L E B Y , 2 vols.
S K E T C H E S BY " B O Z . "
CHRISTMAS STORIES.
T H E P I C K W I C K P A P E R S , 2vols.
B A R N A B Y R U D G E , 2 vols,
B L E A K H O U S E , 2 vols.
AMERICAN N O T E S AND PICT U R E S FROM ITALY.

EDWIN DROOD; AND OTHER
STORIES.
T H E OLD CURIOSITY SHOP,
2 vols.
A
CHILD'S
HISTORY
OF
ENGLAND.
D O M B E Y A N D S O N , 2 vols.
A TALE OF TWO CITIES.
L I T T L E D O R R I T , 2 vols.
M U T U A L F R I E N D , 2 vols.
HARD TIMES.
U NCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER
REPRINTED PIECES.

THE HALF CROWN EDITION.
P R I N T E D FROM T H E E D I T I O N T H A T WAS CAREFULLY CORRECTED BY T H E A U T H O R
IN 1867 AND 1868.

Complete in 21 vols. Containing the whole of the original Illustrations. Crown 8vo,
2s. 6d. each.
T H E P I C K W I C K P A P E R S . With 43 Illustrations by SEYMOUR and P H I Z .
BARNABY R U D G E : A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty. With 76 Illustrations by
GEORGE CATTERMOLE and

H.

K.

BROWNE.

O L I V E R T W I S T . With 24 Illustrations by CRUIKSHANK.
T H E O L D C U R I O S I T Y S H O P . With 75 Illustrations by G E O R G E C A T T E R MOLE and

H.

K.

BROWNE.

DAVID C O P P E R F I E L D . With 40 Illustrations by P H I Z .
N I C H O L A S N I C K L E B Y . With 40 Illustrations by P H I Z .
M A R T I N C H U Z Z L E W I T . With 40 Illustrations by P H I Z .
DOMBEY A N D SON. With 40 Illustrations by P H I Z .
S K E T C H E S BY " BOZ." With 40 Illustrations by GEORGE CRUIKSHANK.
C H R I S T M A S BOOKS. With 64 Illustrations by LANDSEER, DOYLE, M A C L I S E ,
LEECH, etc.

B L E A K H O U S E . With 40 Illustrations by PHIZ.
L I T T L E D O R R I T . With 40 Illustrations by PHIZ.
C H R I S T M A S STORIES, from "Household Words."
DALZIEL, GREEN, MAHONEY,
MARCUS STONE and

F.

PIECES.

With 8 Illustrations by

WALKER.

H A R D T I M E S and P I C T U R E S F R O M ITALY.
F. WALKER and

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