THE

PRACTICAL NATURALIST'S GUIDE,
CONTAINING

INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING, PREPAKING, AND
PRESERVING ZOOLOGICAL SPECIMENS.

BY

JAMES BOYD DAVIES,
LATE ASSISTANT IN THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART, EDINBURGH; ASSISTANT
SECRETARY OP THE ROYAL PHYSICAL SOCIETY, AND LECTURER ON
ZOOLOGY IN THE ROYAL HIGH SCHOOL.

N E W AND ENLARGED EDITION, BY

ROBERT BROWN, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.G.S.,
PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL PHYSICAL SOCIETY, ETC.
AND

JAMES MIDDLETON, F.R.P.S.,
MEMBER OF THE EDINBURGH NATURALISTS' FIELD CLUB, ETC.

EDINBURGH:
MACLACHLAN & STEWART, 64 SOUTH BRIDGE.
LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND COMPANY.
MDCCCLXXII.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.
Page

Use of Collections—Nature of Collections—Arrangement—Duplicates—Killing Animals—Importance of Coloured Drawings
.
.
.
•
.
.

1-5

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Mammals—Ethnological Pursuits—Mammals in General—Skinning Mammals—Skulls and Skeletons of Mammals—Birds
—To Procure Birds—Memoranda—To Skin Birds—Skeletons of Birds—Nests and Eggs—Reptiles—To Preserve
Reptiles—Amphibians—Eishes—To Stuff Eishes .

5-32

ANNULOSE ANIMALS.

Crustaceans—To Clean them—Arachnida and Myriapoda—Insects—Collecting Insects—Apparatus—Killing Insects—
Setting Insects—Larvae—Chrysalids—Breeding-cages—
Worms .
.
.
.
.
.
.
32-45
MOLLUSCOUS A N I M A L S .

To Collect Mollusea—Fresh-water Mollusca—Land Mollusca—
To Preserve Mollusca—Tunicata—Polyzoa .
.
45-50
RADIATE ANIMALS.

Echinoderms—Corals—Actiniae—Polyps—Medusae

.

50-54

PROTOZOA.

Sponges—Infusoria

.

.

.

.

.

54-55

DREDGING, & C .

Apparatus—Ball's Dredges—Oyster Dredge—Dredge
Trawl-Nets — Towing-Nets — Dredging-Basket —
Sieves—Dredging-Board—Dredging—Laminarian
Storing Specimens
.
.
.
.

Bags—
Jars —
Zone—
.
55-63

IT

CONTENTS.
W E T PREPARATIONS.'
Page

Fluids—Saline Solutions—Turpentine—Glycerine—Spirit, &c.
—Jars, Oval and Cylindrical, Thin-lipped, Bead-lipped, and
Capped—Stoppered Jars—Stevenson's Jar—Tubes—Manipulation—To Display Specimens in Jars—Tablets—To
Secure Jars
.
.
.
.
.
.
63-70
C A B I N E T S , CATALOGUES, AND L A B E L S .

Forms of Cabinets—Drawers for Birds, for Crustacea, for Insects, &e.—Tablets of "Wood, Card, or Glass—To Fasten
Specimens on Tablets—Provision for Minute Specimens—
Catalogues—Labels
.
.
.
.
.
70-76
RECIPES.

Arsenical Soaps and Powders—Corrosive Sublimate—GumTragacantb—Sugars for Motbs—Goadby's Solutions—Creosote
Solution for Medusas—Peron's Luting—Nicolas' Gum Paste, 76-719
Specimen page of Catalogue in Progress

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.

.

80

THE

PEACTICAL NATUBALIST'S GUIDE.

INTBODUCTION.
THE value of a judiciously arranged collection to the
naturalist cannot be over-estimated, provided always
that the collection itself be looked upon as a means to
an end, and not the ultimatum of his solicitude. Unfortunately, it is too often the case that large accumulations of specimens are brought together by amateurs, at
an enormous cost, with no other object in view, on the
part of the collector, than the gratification obtained
from mere possession. Such collections are useless to
the owner, and though hundreds of pounds may have
been spent on their purchase and ornamentation, the
shabbiest and smallest cabinets in the closets of real
working naturalists immeasurably transcend them in
real value.
A collection, whether public or private, should be,
not a mere show-thing to please the eye, but a perfectly
consumable, and consequently well-arranged assemblage
of specimens, illustrating, either typically or specifically,
the natural history perhaps of the whole world, or—as
in most workable private collections—some special group
of the animal kingdom.
The following pages are written with a view to proA

2

INTRODUCTION.

mote this the proper use of private collections; and
while much in these pages may be of use to the museum curator, they are not originally intended for his
instruction, seeing that, in the course 01 his preliminary
training, he must already have acquired far more knowledge by experience than can possibly be expressed in
writing,—that kind of knowledge which is only to be
obtained by daily labour among his specimens.
The chief intention of the writer is to supply, within
small compass, so much knowledge as will enable the
student and amateur, as also the traveller in foreign
countries, to collect the animals by which he is surrounded, to prepare them in such a way that they can
at any time be rendered available for the purposes of
science, and to preserve, arrange, and catalogue them
with neatness and precision.
For this reason the writer has not thought it necessary
to give any instruction for stuffing and setting quadrupeds
and birds in imitation of their natural habits. Apart from
the incontestible fact, that no written instructions can
ever make a man a stuffer, such instructions seem to be
of little importance to the collector, and that chiefly on
account of the difficulty of accommodating, within a
moderately-sized house, anything like a valuable collection of stuffed quadrupeds and birds. To the foreign
collector this objection is all the more applicable. A
box of a few feet square may contain some hundreds of
birds, prepared as described hereafter, and in that box
they may be sent home from any distance without incurring damage on the way; yet, were the same birds
stuffed, and set up either on fancifully-ornamented
twigs, or the plainest and smallest possible pedestals, it
is not too much to say that they would take up ten times
as much space, and run a far greater chance of being
utterly destroyed.
Should the private collector be ambitious of possessing stuffed specimens, either as ornaments or as subjects
of study, he will find it cheaper and much more satisfactory to have them set up by a professional stuffer;
or he may even take practical lessons in the art from

, INTRODUCTION.

3

some one qualified to teach it. Yet it must be insisted
on, that birds, however well suited for ornament,—and
certainly few objects are better adapted for that purpose,—are, when stuffed, not one whit, more valuable as
zoological specimens, than when simply prepared for the
drawer of the cabinet. In collections for educational
purposes, as in public museums, it is necessary to exhibit stuffed specimens, owing to the large number of
persons who inspect them in the course of even a single
day; but it is not to be argued therefrom, that every
student who wishes to study the birds or quadrupeds of
his country ought to spend his otherwise valuable time
in performing a task which, if not better left alone,
would at least be better performed by another. In short,
while it is on every account advisable that the stuffer
should have an extensive knowledge of the anatomy,
habits, and general characteristics of quadrupeds and
birds,—in fact, be a good naturalist,—it by no means follows that the student of zoology ought to be a stuffer.
In forming a private collection, it is of the first importance that it should be illustrative, i.e., that the specimens should be fair types of the species, not monstrosities, either of size, colour, or form ; that, however few,
they should be grouped with regard to their affinities,
and not huddled together without order or regularity,
like the contents of the Chinese cabinets we sometimes
see in curiosity shops; that the specimens be perfect,
so far as possible, and illustrate the differences of colour
and form depending on sex, age, and season ; and that
every specimen should be labelled with the name and
sex, if known, the locality whence procured, and the
date of capture.
In collecting species not of unfrequent occurrence,
it is not advisable to accumulate crowds of examples.
In most cases, a pair, or at the utmost four or five specimens, will be found to illustrate the characters of a
species as well as a score, with this advantage, that space
in the cabinet is economized, not to mention the wantonness evinced by the unnecessary destruction of life.
Duplicates, however, of rare species may with advantage

4

INTRODUCTION.

be collected, provided they be intended for exchange
with other naturalists, for by that means much may be
done to promote science.
In killing animals, the shortest way is always the
best. To the humane naturalist, and it is to be hoped
that all who pursue the science are really humanized by
it, nothing can be more distressing than to see a creature
writhing under pain. It must not be supposed, however, that—
" The poor beetle that we tread upon,
In corporeal sufferance, finds a pang as great
As when a giant dies."

On the contrary, it is a pretty well recognised fact, that
the lower the development of the nervous system, the
less intense is the creature's sense of pain. Yet it is
well in all cases to lean to the side of mercy; to kill
only where a decided object is in view, and then in the
quickest manner.
Unfortunately for science, many exquisitely beautiful animals, particularly marine, either cannot be preserved at all, or become so changed in the hands of the
manipulator, that form, colour, and substance are but
mockeries of the living organism; and the only way of
recording its very existence is to make a good drawing
of it. A naturalist with a good eye to form and colour,
and possessing the power to render these on paper, is
so much more a naturalist than he who cannot use his
pencil. To the collector who anticipates travelling in
foreign countries, the importance of cultivating the arts
of pencil-drawing and water-colour painting is too great
to require argument to enforce it.
Even for the purpose of recording the colours of the
eyes of vertebrate animals, the use of the brush may be
with propriety recommended, on account of the difficulty of enforcing any certain standard for the nomenclature of colours.
In preparing this little treatise for the press, the
writer has relied chiefly on his own experience in preserving animals; yet many of the directions are necessarily the offspring of hints received at times, either

MAMMALIA.

5

written or orally, from others, though now so blended
with his own daily practice, that he cannot, in many
instances, point out the discoverers. Under these circumstances, it would be vain specially to enumerate any;
and he therefore contents himself with thanking all.

Sub-Kingdom VERTEBRATA.
Animals possessed of an articulate internal skeleton
present, in many respects, greater attractions to the
young collector than any other of the zoological subkingdoms. Often of considerable size, and in many instances brilliant in colour, they are more readily procured, and easily mounted to look well, than the humbler
members of the invertebrate groups ; while our earliest
associations being in some respects connected with
quadrupeds, birds, and fishes, either as playfellows or
pets, naturally predispose us to give them the precedence. To this may be added, that they alone of all
animals afford the exciting pleasures of the chase, and
the not less pleasurable recreations of shooting and
angling.
MAMMALIA,
This, the highest division of the animal kingdom, including even man himself, generally occupies a large
space in all zoological collections. The familiar designation of quadrupeds, or even " beasts," though enough
to distinguish the class in a popular view, requires to
be altogether rejected in order to have a clear understanding of the real ranges of the group, otherwise we
would necessarily, on the one hand, exclude man, who
has but two feet, and monkeys, which have no feet at
all, but in reality four hands ; and, on the other, reject
whales, porpesses, and other cetaceous animals, which

6

MAMMALIA.

are often, by the uneducated, confounded with fishes;
as well as the whole group of the seals. The necessarily
distinguishing characters of Mammals may be briefly
summed up thus : they are vertebrate animals, breathing air by true lungs, bringing forth their young alive,
and suckling them by means of teats.
To Procure Mammalia.—it is unnecessary to inform
the student how he must set about to procure the larger
Mammals of our country, such as foxes, wild cats, hares,
&e. The gun or the fox-trap at once suggest themselves ; while the traveller in foreign countries soon
learns by experience the readiest method of reducing to
submission such opponents as lions, elephants, and bears.
It is the smaller Mammals that require more special attention. Should the student be in the good graces of a
gamekeeper, he may easily procure these ; but this not
being the case, he must to the woods himself. He
should, towards twilight, proceed to the outskirts of the
wood, taking care to select a spot with a plentiful stock
of hazel or beech, and there await the appearance of the
squirrel and the dormouse, who come to collect their
store. The ermine, weasel, and martens, are also now
abroad, and will occasionally afford a mark for the gun.
Traps, either of the kind usually employed for catching
rats, or merely wire-gins, may be placed in frequented
localities, and visited at daybreak to ascertain the
result.
Cetacea are often cast ashore, stranded in shallows, or
entangled in the nets of the fishermen. Seals must be
shot; a task of some difficulty, owing to the rapidity with
which they regain the water.
Bimana, the highest order of Mammals, includes man
alone. Although every attempt to preserve specimens
of the human species in their entirety must end in signal failure, yet it is of importance to the development
of ethnological science that travellers should seize every
opportunity to throw light on the natural history of
man as a variable species. This may be done in various

MAMMALIA.

7

ways : 1st, By bringing into request philological knowledge, in carefully recording, so far as possible, the peculiarities, whether of derivation, construction, or pronunciation, of the language spoken by the race under
study ;* 2d, By examination of their manners, customs,
traditions, and even superstitions; 3d, By collecting
illustrative examples of their costumes, arms, and manufactures ; 4:th, By procuring, where practicable, typical examples of skulls ; and, 5th, By accurate drawings
of average examples of the race. In all cases extreme
examples should be avoided as worse than useless, tending as they do to thwart the objects of science. Missionaries and others residing permanently in little known
regions may, if used to photographic manipulation, confer a boon on ethnological science by employing the
camera as a means of obtaining faithful representations
of the natives, and their modes of life.
When skulls are procured, they merely require cleaning, which may be done by steeping for a few days in fresh
water, which should, however, be frequently changed.
The brain can be removed by the occipital orifice without injuring any of the bones of which the skull is composed ; a casualty to be in all cases carefully avoided.
When dry, the name of the race, and, if known, the
name, age, and sex of the individual, as well as the lo* " A vocabulary should be taken down from the mouths of intelligent natives. Care should be taken to compare the words given
by one person with the testimony of others, in order to correct any
defect or peculiarity of pronunciation.
" It is important to select properly the classes of words. The following should be chosen :—
" 1. Numerals up to a hundred or more. Ascertain how far the
people of each tribe can reckon.
" 2. Words denoting family relations, such as father, mother, brother,
sister, &c.
" 3. Names of the different parts of the body,—head, arm, foot, &c.
" 4. Names of visible natural objects, elements, &c.,—sun, moon,
fire, water, &c.
" 5. Names of animals, especially domestic animals.
" 6. Verbs expressive of universal bodily acts, such as eat, drink,
sleep, see, hear, &c.
" 7. Personal pronouns,—I, thou, he, &c.
" 8. Prepositions,—in, from, to, &c—if they can be obtained."—Dr
PRICHARD, in his "Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry."

'8

MAMMALIA.

cality, should be written with ink on the top of the
skull. A little hay, dry leaves, sawdust, or paper, will
answer for packing.
The weapons will require very little attention, though
it is of importance to ascertain whether any of them
are poisoned, and use precautions accordingly. The
dresses should be thoroughly dried, and packed in closefitting boxes, with a quantity of any strong-smelling
plant the locality may afford, to keep insects at a distance. A piece of tow or sponge saturated with naphtha
or turpentine will answer better. They should be frequently examined, and if tending to mould, again
thoroughly dried.
Mammalia in General.—For the sake of illustration,
suppose that we have just procured a monkey or fox,
or indeed any other moderately-sized quadruped, and
means being at hand for the preservation of its skin,
we proceed as follows :—The mouth, nostrils, and anus,
are filled with tow or cotton, to prevent the blood or
feculent matter from oozing out and so injuring the
fur. The animal is laid on its back on a clean dry
board or table, the legs pressed out, and having turned
back the hair from a line exactly in the middle of the
body, an incision is made through the skin at the posterior end of the abdomen, taking care to cut the skin
only, and not the underlying muscles as well. This incision is to be carried up the line indicated by the turned
hair till near the union of the neck with the body.
With the left hand the skin is raised first on the one
side and then on the other • at the same time the right
hand is employed to loosen it by means of the handle
of a scalpel or any flat piece of wood. The portion of
the skin thus disengaged is kept from the flesh of the
body by the insertion of quantities of tow or rags, or by
sprinkling it with plaster of Paris or fine sand. The
anus is next cut through, and immediately after, the tail
at its junction with the body. The hind legs are then
cut off at the upper thigh-joint, and the posterior portion
of the body turned out of the skin. A hook suspended

MAMMALIA.

9

from the wall or roof having been provided before commencing operations, the carcase is now suspended by
the pelvis, and the skin gently pulled down from the
back, the handle of the scalpel or flattened stick being
employed as before to facilitate its removal. The neck
is then uncovered, and the head proceeded with. In
skinning the latter great care must be taken to cut off
the ears as close to the skull as possible, and to preserve
uninjured the eyelids, nostrils, and lips. The trunk is
now removed from the hook and laid aside, and the legs
successively hung on it by their fleshy parts, and the
skin drawn down as far as the toes. The flesh is then
removed with the aid of the scalpel, leaving, however,
the tendons which unite the joints. Should the creature
be rather large, and the bones in consequence of considerable size, it would be well to drill a hole in each
end, and with a wire or thin metal rod force out the
marrow. In order to skin the tail, the first and second
vertebrge are laid bare, and attached to the hook or a
strong cord. A cleft stick is then made to embrace the
portion already skinned, and gradually forced down towards the extremity, carrying before it the freed skin.
The skin being separated, it is now carefully examined,
and any fatty or fleshy matter still adhering is removed
with the knife. The bones of the legs are to be rubbed
over with powdered burnt alum, which speedily dries
them, or, if preferred, with arsenical soap (A.). The inner side of the skin is to be completely annointed with
the latter preservative ; and the bones of the legs being
wrapt round with tow, are returned to their proper envelopes. The skull next requires attention. It should
be separated from the neck, and the brain removed by the
opening behind. This may not be very easily effected
in some instances, and a portion of the bone will require
to be removed in order to enlarge the orifice. In all
cases, however, this should be avoided if possible, as the
skulls of many foreign animals are of as much real value
as ' the stuffed animal; and thus, when from any cause
the skin gets destroyed (an occurrence by no means uncommon), the specimen still retains a scientific value.

10

MAMMALIA.

Where time will permit, it is well to macerate the skull
in water until it is completely divested of flesh, and the
brain so decomposed as to be easily shaken out. Cleaned,
by whatever means, the skull must be treated with preservative, and, the place of the flesh on it being supplied
by tow, put back into the skin of the head. The tail
may have a wire wrapt round with tow forced into it.
A quantity of tow or thoroughly dried grass supplies the
place of the body by distending the skin into something
like its natural shape.
The larger Mammals, as the elephant, rhinoceros,
zebra, and deer, do not admit of such easy manipulation
as the illustration chosen, and consequently should not
be attempted unless really required for a special purpose,
or in the event of their appearing to present some
specific difference from those already known. A skull,
with the antlers or horns attached in the case of deer
and wild oxen, is often of as great value as a skin preserved for stuffing, and may be readily prepared by first
removing the skin and the flesh from the cheeks and under
part of the jaws, and then macerating in water until the
remaining flesh parts easily from the bone, and the brain,
in a softened state, may be shaken out by the occipital
opening. When the skull is prepared without the skin,
it is of the highest importance that it should be perfectly free from damages, and on no account whatever
should the hole be enlarged to admit of the more easy
removal of the brain. Where practicable, a suite of
skulls should be obtained from the earliest age up to
the matured adult. A number or mark should be
written on the upper part of the skull, and any particulars of the size, sex, habits, &c, of the creature, together with the exact locality, must be written in a
journal or list, with a corresponding mark or number at
the head of the paragraph, after the following fashion:—
" 2 A. MALE.—Native name Muntjah; height to shoulder,
about 2 ft. 2 in.; colour, reddish-brown, inclining to yellow ;
female darker than male ; face with two course folds of skin

MAMMALIA.

11

like the letter Y ; pedestals of horns covered with skin ; in
elevated regions ; motions swift, and, when pursued, returns
by circuitous route to place from which it started ; Java.
"2B.

FEMALE of 2 A."

The skull being macerated, dried, and marked, it may
be packed in straw, dry grass, or indeed any material at
hand, and no further trouble taken with it. Even in the
event of sending home a skin for stuffing, it is well to send
also a good illustration of the skull, as much real scientific
value attaches to the conformation of the bones of the head.
In skinning the larger Mammalia, especially the Pachyderms, it will be necessary to make three cuts on the
under surface like the sign J. The longitudinal incision is passed from the mouth on to the anus, and the
cross cuts from the right legs to the left. The operation is then proceeded with in the same way as for
smaller quadrupeds, with the exception, that it is more
troublesome, and must often be done under great disadvantages, on account of the difficulty of obtaining the
means of suspending such weighty subjects. To prepare a skin of an elephant, a yak, or a large stag, with
arsenical soap, would, under most circumstances, be extremely injudicious; and fortunately it is found that
steeping in a saturated solution of alum answers the
purpose equally well. In many instances, even alum
cannot be procured in sufficient quantity, and then
salting has been tried, but with bad results. In the
absence of alum or other preservatives, a large skin
should be spread, with the hairy side on the ground,
and dried in the sun. If cleanly prepared in this way,
and rapidly dried, it will, in all probability, reach this
country in a state of perfect preservation. When dry,
the skin is folded horizontally, with the hair inside, and
keeping the head on the outside of the bundle, in order
that the lips, &c, may be frequently inspected.
Kangaroos, and other allied animals, require to have
the marsupial sac well annointed with the preservative,
—whether arsenical soap or alum,—and distended by
means of a piece of card. Should the pouch contain
young at the time of death, these must be removed, with

12

MAMMALIA.

the portion of the skin bearing the teats to which they
are attached, and preserved in fluid.
Bats may be opened either before or behind, and the
body removed. The wings must be well washed with
preservative, and the creature laid on its back on a
board, and the membranes spread out in a flying position, and secured by pins, one at each finger-point, until
dry. The ears afford important zoological characters,
and should therefore be kept from shrinking. The
smaller species, such as those of this country, may be,
when dry, prepared for the cabinet by simply glueing
them by the wings to suitable pieces of card-board.
The armadillo and manis require no stuffing, on account of the hardness of their skins. I t is, however,
quite necessary to apply the preservative.
Seals are more easily stuffed than the majority of
Mammals; and, if prepared in the way indicated for
Mammalia generally, will have an appearance as natural
as that of most animals in a museum. Much information is yet wanting on the subject of the seals of the
Arctic and Antarctic Seas, and even of those of our own
shores. In every instance, where practicable, an extra
skull should be obtained.
Whales, porpesses, and dolphins, are often ranked
among the " great fishes of the sea," yet, being true
Mammals, come in appropriately in this place. Great
care is necessary in skinning, and still more in removing
from the skin the fat which adheres to it. To accomplish this latter, it will sometimes be well to steep the
skin in water until it approaches a state of putrescence,
when the fat may be easily drawn away. The skull
must be preserved, as also the baleen, when it occurs.
A note should be made of the number and direction of
wrinkles, and the colour of the skin; and, if possible, a
water-colour drawing should be made exhibiting both.
Parasites, external as well as internal, should be sought
for.
USEFUL MEMOKANDA.

Always skin the creature, especially if covered with

MAMMALIA.

13

hair, as soon after death as possible, taking care not to
allow it to get wet. Wipe off the blood with a sponge
before it dries.
Never use corrosive sublimate for the preservation of
any skin which may be intended to be ultimately
stuffed, as this substance renders it brittle, and effectually prevents the softening necessary for that operation.
Make particular note of the colour of the eyes, as also
of their prominence and diameter.
Note the colour of any bare portions of skin, as on the
cheeks and hips of some monkeys.
Note the character of the hair on the recent animal,
t.e., whether naturally sleek, or rough; also the attitudes
of the animal in sitting, running, and leaping.
Take careful measurements from the recently killed
specimen:—1st, From the nose to the insertion of the
tail; 2d, From the nose to the shoulders; 3d, The
length of the tail; Uh, The girth of the chest; bth, The
girth anterior to the hind legs; 6th, The length from
the shoulder to the fore paw, and from the upper part
of the hip to the hind paw.
Skeletons of Mammals are, in a purely scientific point
of view, even more valuable than stuffed specimens;
hence the acquisition of the necessary materials for their
formation is of the highest importance. Yet it must be
distinctly understood that, however good the intentions,
and careful the manipulation, the operator will, in the
majority of cases, completely fail in his object, unless
he have some knowledge of the anatomy of the vertebrate animal.
Skeletons are generally divided into natural and artificial, i.e., those in which the ligaments are not removed
from the bones, but are left for the purpose of connecting them, and those in which, by maceration or other
means, the bones are entirely freed from the ligaments
and artificially articulated. Natural skeletons can only be
successfully made when the animals are of a small size,
in no case exceeding that of the fox. The first part of

14

MAMMALIA.

the process is to remove the skin as far as the points
of the claws, and completely off the head and tail.
The head is then separated, and the viscera being extracted, the body is put to macerate. In this country,
except in the summer months, it may be well to accelerate the decomposition of the flesh, either by heat or
by the addition to the water of a little caustic, soda, or
potash. For the first few days it will be necessary to
change the water every day, and, when the flesh has become bleached and partially decomposed, it may then
be time to remove it with a knife, taking care not to
injure any of the ligaments which serve to unite the
bones. The greater part of the flesh being removed, the
skeleton is again put into the macerating basin with
fresh water, and on the succeeding days subjected to the
operation of cleaning until all the flesh is removed.
Great care must be taken not to injure the bones during
the manipulation, as a scratched bone is really, worth
less than nothing. The brain being previously broken
up and removed with a flattened piece of wood, the head
is treated in a similar way to the body. Some operators boil the head and trunk for a greater or less time,
according to the size of the animal, and then proceed to
remove the flesh. This plan, though it may be necessary
in very cold weather, should be avoided whenever maceration in cold water is practicable. When finally removed
from the macerating basin the skeleton must be kept in
a suitable position, by means of wires or threads attached
to any frame-work which may be easily procurable, and
left to dry; a wire, however, is previously passed down
the spinal canal, and the end left projecting. When
dry, the skull is attached by passing the wire which projects from the vertebrae of the neck into it by the opening in the base', and then binding the skull and vertebrae
together by means of a piece of copper or brass wire,
passed through the thick part of the latter and the occipital lobes of the skull, and tightly twisted.
It has been proposed to employ ants and wasps in the
dissection of small animals, but I doubt whether the
process is quite so successful as some of its advocates

BIRDS.

15

would make it appear. The animal, being skinned, is
smeared over with honey or treacle, put in a pasteboard
box well perforated with holes, and inserted in an anthill, or placed in a situation much frequented by wasps.
The former will, it is said, clean a mouse in a week, and
the latter in a few hours.*
The traveller who intends to forward materials for
skeletons to this country had better, in the case of small
animals, send them in the flesh preserved in spirit; and,
in the case of the larger mammals, disarticulated and
cleaned by maceration. In order effectually to macerate
larger animals, the following particulars should be attended to :—
1st. They should be disarticulated at the neck,
shoulders, and hip-joints, before being placed in the
water.
2d. The water should be changed every day for a
week, or even more in the case of large animals.
3d. The flesh being quite putrid, the water must be
removed by a syphon or stop-cock, and passed through
a sieve, to prevent the escape of small bones.
4ih. The larger bones being picked out, the residue
of decomposed flesh must be examined in small quan-.
tities for minute bones, &c.
5th. The bones are next to be thoroughly washed,
and dried in an airy situation.
6th. G-reat care must be taken not to mix the bones
of two animals together in packing.
1th. The same particulars as to the living animals
should be recorded, as in the case of preserving a skull

(p. io).
BIRDS.
From the comparative ease with which they are procured, as well as on account of their graceful forms and
splendid plumage, birds are more general favourites
among collectors than any other class in the animal
* Pole, " Anatomical Instructor."

16

BIRDS.

kingdom, molluscous shells and insects only excepted;
and as a consequence ever occupy a large space in every
public museum. Perhaps no more striking proof of the
favour with which birds are viewed could be adduced
than the number of valuable and expensive works on
Ornithology which have from time to time issued from
the press; and the host of illustrations by naturalists
who have specially devoted themselves to this subject.
I t will be sufficient to mention the names of Alexander
Wilson, the precursor of ornithological science in America, Bonaparte, Audubon, the late 0. J. Temminck of
Leyden, Gould, Selby, the late William Yarrell, M'G-illivray, and lastly, Sir William Jardine, Bart., who, by
the publication of his " Naturalist's Library," has brought
the study of birds, as well as many other departments
of Zoology, within the means of almost every one.
To Procure Birds.—No one who is in the habit of
using a gun need be told how to procure birds, as that
instrument is, at least in this country, more frequently
employed in dealing death among the feathered tribe
than on any other game. Of the manner of handling
the gun it is not necessary here to speak, because it can
only be learned by practice, under a competent teacher.
Even the size of the shot cannot be dogmatically prescribed, as that must be in a great measure regulated
by circumstances ; however, as a general rule, No. 8 will
be found large enough for birds under the size of a
pigeon, and No. 5 for those of greater bulk. I t must
be insisted on, however, that the sportsman fire at any
other part of the bird rather than the head, as that part,
once seriously injured, can never be successfully repaired. A bird being merely wounded is to be killed
by strangulation. This may be effected by tying a
running knot on a pocket-handkerchief, and passing the
noose thus formed over the neck and tightening it.
Some birds, when wounded, require to be very cautiously
approached. The heron is particularly dangerous, on
account of the length and sharpness of his bill, as well
as the rapidity of his motions. A firm knock on the

17

BIRDS.

head from a walking-stick may have the effect of subduing him.
In the absence of a gun, a trap or traps of various
kinds may be used. The sieve, or the brick trap so
often used by school-boys, will frequently be found serviceable. In other instances, a cage, with a decoy-bird,
may be judiciously employed. Bird-lime is frequently
used in catching birds for caging, and might occasionally be used by the naturalist, as it can be easily
removed from the feathers with the aid of a little spirit
of wine. I t may be purchased from bird-dealers.
Another source from whence the British zoologist
may replenish his cabinet is the poultry market, or shops.
Many of the most valuable additions made to the British
Fauna within the last quarter of a century have been
derived from this source. Here, however, it is necessary to offer a word of caution. The purchaser must
see that the birds are fresh in appearance, and not cold,
moist, and icy; otherwise the valued additions to the
cabinet may after all turn out to be frozen Norwegian
or Canadian specimens, imported by an enterprising
poulterer to satisfy the British appetite. Capercailzie,
grouse, ducks, geese, and waders, are thus imported
every season in immense quantities.
Suppose that the collector be his own caterer, it will
be necessary for him to carry to the field, in addition to
his gun and bag, a quantity of cotton wadding, some
squares of paper, and a memorandum-book. "With the,
cotton he stuffs the mouth, anus, and wounds,—the latter to prevent further bleeding;—after which he ties
the beak close. Any spots of blood which may have
escaped are to be carefully wiped from the plumage with
the corner of a pocket-handkerchief dipped in water. A
piece of paper of convenient size is twisted into a conical bag, such as are used by grocers, and the bird is put
head-foremost into it. The mouth of the bag is then
closed, taking especial care not to injure the feathers of
the tail. The bird thus wrapped is placed in the gamebag, and others similarly treated added to the stock while
the day's shooting lasts. The memorandum-book, how£

18

BIRDS.

ever, must first be put into use, especially if the bird be
a rare one, and the following particulars stated.* They
are copied from a very useful tract published by order
of the Smithsonian Institution of Washington in 1852,
and comprise almost all the observations required to be
made on the recent bird :—
u
Whenever convenient, the following notes should be
made previous to commencing the operation of skinning, as
they will add much to the value of the specimens:—
" 1. The length in inches from the tip of the bill to the
end of the tail; the distance between the two extremities of
the outstretched wings ; and the length of the wing from the
carpal-joint. The numbers may be recorded as follows,—44,
66, 12 (as for the swan), without any explanation ; it being
well understood that the above measurements follow each
other in a fixed succession. These numbers may be written
on the back of the label appended to each specimen.
" 2. The colour of the eyes, that of the feet, bill, gums,
membranes, caruncles, &c.
" 3. Are the heels covered or uncovered by the feathers
of the belly?
" 4. Attitude of the body while at rest, whether vertical,
oblique, or horizontal. Does the bird perch or not ?
* 5. Position of the wings, whether supported or hanging,
*
crossing on the tail or not. Are they continuous and covered
by the feathers of the mantle (back) and breast for the upper
third, half, or the two-thirds of their length? Their extremity;
does it reach the end of the tail, the half, or the fourth of
its length ? The three last points will be of great use in
mounting the specimens."

To the above may be afterwards added the following
particulars worthy of note—i.e., sex of the bird; food,
determined by examination of the contents of crop and
gizzard; the elate of capture; and precise information
as to the locality. The native name, in case of a
foreign specimen, is also of importance.
Birds require to be skinned almost so soon as cold, as
they spoil sooner than Mammals. Where this is not
practicable, and any considerable delay is anticipated,
* The beginner should practice noting the characteristics even of
common birds, in order to acquire the habit of doing so with accuracy.

BIED3

19

the intestines may be removed and abdominal cavity
well sprinkled with powdered charcoal, chalk, pepper,
or even fresh-ground coffee.
To Skin Birds well requires a considerable amount of
patience, neat-handedness, and practice; nevertheless,
it may be taught in a very short lesson. The adjuncts
necessary are a scalpel or knife, a hook suspended from the
ceiling by means of a cord, a quantity of chalk or plaster <
of Paris, some calico or linen rags, a needle and thread,
and a supply of tow, flax, hemp, or cotton, for stuffing.
Before commencing to skin it is necessary to take a
slip of cartridge or other strong paper, and bring it
round the middle of the body over the wings so as tc
take the girth. This is pinned in the form of a ring,
and slipped off in the direction of the feet. The plugs
are to be removed from the mouth, anus, and wounds,
and their places supplied with fresh pieces of stuffing.
A string or strong thread is passed through the nostrils
by means of a needle, and tied under the mandibles,
leaving a long end loose.
The bird being laid on its back on a table, with the
head pointing obliquely towards the left hand of the
operator, the feathers along the middle line of the abdomen are gently pushed on either side with the fingers
and thumb of the left hand, and a slit is made in the
skin thus exposed, care being taken not to penetrate
through the muscles into the intestines. The extent of
this slit will vary with the expertness of the operator.
The beginner will, in all probability, find it necessary
to cut from the upper angle of the ridge of the sternum
to the anus; though with practice he will in the end
succeed in skinning without carrying the incision so
high. The slit being made, the fingers are inserted between the skin and the flesh, and a little of the chalk or
plaster dusted over the part thus exposed, in order
to prevent the adhesion of the feathers to it. Strips of
linen or calico, of proper width,* are now taken and
* The width for a goose will he about three to four inches, and

20

BIRDS.

carefully sewed on the cut edges of the skin, after the mariner of binding, in order not only to keep the exposed rows
of feathers clean, but to prevent stretching of the skin
in subsequent operations. The legs are now successively
pushed forward and divided at the knee-joints, after
which the vertebral column is also divided, leaving the
last joint in the skin as a support to the tail-feathers.
The body is then suspended on the hook by the rump
end, and, with the fingers or the handle of the scalpel,
the skin is separated from the back and sides until the
shoulder-joints appear. Should the bird in hand be a
gull, or, indeed, any of the order of waterfowl, it will be
necessary to separate the wings at the shoulder-joints;
but in all others it will be as well to make the division
at the elbow-joint. The neck is next to be skinned,
and then the head so far as the bill. The tongue
and muscles of the head being removed, the head is separated from the neck, and, enlarging the opening behind (foramen magnum), the brain is scooped out with
a flat piece of wood or a cut quill, according to the size
of the bird. In skinning the head great care must betaken not to injure the external ears and the part surrounding the eyes. The bone (tibia) left in each leg is
next to be well cleaned and anointed with preservative
(A.) A little tow or flax is to be wrapt round it, and the
skin of the leg itself being rubbed with preservative, the
bone is to be restored to its original position by gently
pushing it in. Where the upper bone of the arm (humerus) is retained, it also must be treated in a similar
way. Except in large birds it is not necessary to do
anything to the fore-arm (radius and ulna). In these,
however, the muscles must be removed by cutting a slit
in the skin along the inside of the arm. The next
operation—the fatty matter, of course, having been previously removed—is to anoint the whole of the inside
of the skin, as well as the skull, with preservative.
may be increased or diminished according to the size of the bird.
This admirable plan, for which I am indebted to the suggestion of Mr
Small, taxidermist, George Street, Edinburgh, is especially useful in
skinning water-fowl with fat bodies and light-coloured plumage.

BIRDS,

21

A wire, of about the length of the neck when skinned,
is taken, and one end being fastened into the base of
the skull, a little cotton, tow, or flax, impregnated with
preservative, is wrapped round it, and then, by means' of
the string attached to the bill, the head is pulled out of
the skin of the neck. If the specimen be intended for
stuffing, the calico may be left on it; but if for a cabinet,
this should now be removed, and a quantity of stuffing
put in so as to distend the body. The wings being
properly disposed on each side, the paper ring is now
put round the body, and the stuffing continued until the
whole fits tightly. It is then only necessary to sew up
the slit, arrange any displaced feathers, and label, when
the skin is ready for the cabinet.
Should the sex of the bird not be sufficiently obvious
from the plumage, it will be necessary to remove the
vicera from the abdomen, and the presence of ovas or
testis will at once decide the question.
The sternum may be preserved as an accompanyment
to the skin. In order to do this, it is necessary to remove so much as can be conveniently done of the pec^
toral muscles, pass the knife under the shoulder-blades
to separate them from the muscles of the back, and cut
through the ribs at a little distance from the sternum,
when the whole may be easily removed. Steeping from
a few days to a fortnight or three weeks in water, with a
little soda or potash, will render the flesh soft enough to
be removed with the thumb-nail. The bones are then
to be cleaned with a nail or tooth-brush. The water
must be changed every second day.
Specimens prepared in this way, consisting, as they
do, of the sternum, the coracoid bones, the furcula^ and
the scapulas, are not only beautiful objects, but of great
interest, as illustrating the power of flight of the birds.
The foregoing directions, though generally applicable,
yet admit of some modifications to suit individual cases.
Several birds—as the vultures—have a considerable
space of the skin destitute of feathers. This part must
be skinned with more than ordinary care, as its nakedness exposes even the slightest rupture. I t is some-

22

BIRDS.

times recommended that these parts, when dry, should
be painted with varnishes, in imitation of the colours in
the living bird. Though this adds to the beauty of the
specimen as a meie show-thing,it should never be tolerated
by the naturalist; because, however well done, it has
always an unnatural appearance.
The feet of most of the larger birds of prey are thick
and fleshy. In these cases it will be necessary to cut a
slit along the under side of each toe, and perhaps up the
back of the tarsi, to remove the tendons. A little stuffing, well saturated with arsenical soap, must be used to
supply the place of the parts removed; and a few stitches
wilj close the openings. "In no case should corrosive
sublimate be employed, as it hardens the feet too much,
and effectually prevents their subsequent softening, in
the event of the skin being stuffed for a public collection. The same remark applies to herons, bitterns,
ducks, and to all birds having fleshy feet and legs.
The webs on the feet of swimming-birds had better
be skinned below, and must in all cases be well anointed
with arsenical soap.
Grebes, and other water-fowl with white silky bellies,
may be skinned from a slit in the back instead of the
abdomen.
In some birds, as the creepers, humming-birds, and
toucans, the tongue is horny, resembling either a folded
strap or a feather. In these cases it may be judicious
to leave it in the skull, provided the muscles at its root
are entirely removed, and the whole well anointed with
the preservative.
When the head of a bird is of such a size, as in the
flamingo and the majority of web-footed birds, that the
skin of the neck cannot be brought over it, it will be
.necessary to make an incision in the neck close to the
head, and thence remove the brain, &c. This operation
is one of considerable nicety, as the feathers are very
apt to get daubed.
Humming-birds, from their diminutive size, are by no
means easily skinned. Should the operator fear to risk
a valuable specimen, he may have recourse to one of two

BIRDS,

23

following methods of preservation suggested by Mr
George Loddiges:—
" 1st, Make an incision as if for skinning, and with a
small pair of scissors remove so much of the soft parts
as practicable, and supply the vacancy with cotton.
" 2d, Merely dry the specimen, but as rapidly as possible, over a stove or oven, and pack with plenty of camphor."
It is needless to say that the only really satisfactory
way of preserving a bird is to skin i t ; and this should,
in all cases where practicable, be attempted.
When a valuable skin is so completely broken up that
it is impossible to make a specimen of it by the ordinary
methods, it is recommended that it should be set up,
feather by feather, on a model of the bird's body previously prepared. This, however, is by no means a satisfactory method, and is more the work of an artist or a
taxidermist than a naturalist.
The same may be said of a method of mounting much
in vogue on the Continent, and termed by the French
en demi-bosse. Yery pretty relieved pictures are produced ; but they are fitter for the nursery or school-room
than the zoological cabinet.
Skeletons of foreign birds are always acceptable in
public museums. The method of preparing them is not
sufficiently different from that adopted with Mammals
to require explanation. As a general rule, birds of the
size of a goose, or under, should not be disarticulated,
but prepared as natural skeletons.
The Nests and Eggs of Birds, apart from their mere
beauty, are objects of sufficient scientific interest to warrant their preservation : indeed, it would be well, if
practicable, to place beside the male and female of every
species of bird, in a public collection, a nest, with the
usual complement of eggs. So highly is the study of
eggs esteemed, that instances are known of L.21 being

24

BIRDS,

paid for a single specimen ;* while L.5 is by no means
an unusual price for the egg of the golden eagle.
To be a good collector of eggs and nests implies a
thorough knowledge of the haunts and habits of birds;
and this can only be acquired by out-door study.
I t is not always practicable to preserve the nests of
birds. Some, as the eagles, merely gather a quantity of dry
sticks and leaves, and form loose, untransportable nests
of such dimensions that few naturalist's cabinets could
accommodate them. Others form no nest at all, but
deposit their eggs in the sand. The great majority
of nests, however, may be preserved. With the exception of thoroughly drying them, very little aid is
necessary for their preservation. A little corrosive sublimate (B.) may be gently brushed over them ; and in
the event of their being composed of earthy matter, and
becoming very friable, they may be treated with gum
trajacanth (C). Each nest should be packed in a box,
as nearly its own size as possible, and the eggs deposited
in it as nearly as may be the positions originally occupied by them. The whole may be covered with cotton
in sufficient quantity to prevent shaking, but not so
much as to endanger the safety of the eggs when the
lid is applied.
The eggs require to be emptied of their contents,
which should be done by making a suitable hole in the
side, by means of a counter-sink in the case of large
eggs, or an angular pricker in the case of small ones.
Should the egg contain a young bird, the hole must be
of larger dimensions, and the foetus cut out piecemeal.
The inside may then be washed with corrosive sublimate (B.), and a piece of oiled silk, goldbeater's skin, or
thin paper, pasted over the opening.
It is often recommended to pierce the egg at each
end ; but while this method presents no advantages over
the one described above, it has the serious disadvantage
that it is apt to destroy one of the chief characteristics
of the specimen, i.e., the contour of the ends.
* The egg of the great auk, in the collection of the late William
Yarrell, Esq., fetched that price in London at an auction sale.

EEPTILIA AND AMPHIBIA.

25

EEPTILIA AND AMPHIBIA.
Though, to the popular mind, the word reptile conveys
the idea of an animal mean and loathsome to a degree,
yet the naturalist thinks far otherwise. To him the
Eeptilia, and the associated class Amphibia, present some
of the most interesting genera in the whole sub-kingdom
Vertebrata. Until of late years it was customary to include both of these classes under the comprehensive
term Eeptilia. They have, however, been very properly
divided, chiefly on the ground that the Amphibia breathe
in the early stage (when they are known as tadpoles) by
gills ; while in the true Eeptilia, respiration is always,
even in the youngest condition, carried on by means of
lungs. Perhaps the readiest way of distinguishing the
two classes is by the skin, which, in reptiles, as tortoises,
lizards, and serpents, is covered with scales of greater or
less dimensions; while in Amphibia, as newts or salamanders, syrens, frogs, and toads, the skin is quite destitute of scales, and is either perfectly smooth or warty.
Ghelonians or Tortoises, including the turtle, so highly
esteemed at aldermanic feasts,, are defended by two
strong plates ; one on the back (carapace), and the other
on the under side (plastrum), which are generally united
at the sides, forming a compact boney shell, with an
opening in the anterior end for the extrusion of the head
and fore-feet, and another at the posterior end for the
hind feet and tail.
Two methods of preservation present themselves :—
1st, To remove the head and limbs, and cut out so
much of the flesh as can conveniently be done by passing the knife and scissors in at either opening; then
macerate the remainder out, and dry. In this case, the
skull should also be cleaned and preserved along with
the shell.
2d, By means of a chisel or strong short knife, and a
mallet or hammer, the under shell or plastrum is removed, leaving the head and limbs attached to the cara-

26

REPTILIA AND AMPHIBIA.

pace. These are then to be skinned as in Mammals;
well anointed with preservative; and stuffed out with
tow. The inner surfaces of the shields are also to be
rubbed with arsenical soap; after which they may be
united by means of wire.
If dirty externally, the shields should be washed with
arsenical soap, and then rubbed with a woollen cloth or
wash-leather till thoroughly dry.
The writer does not approve of oiling—far less varnishing—the shields, as is often done for the sake of
effect.
Saurians or Lizards, Crocodiles, and Chamasleons, unless of very small size—in which case they require to be
put up as wet preparations—* can be readily skinned
much in the same way as Mammals; removing, however, the bones of the legs down to the foot. After
being rubbed internally with arsenical soap, they are
generally filled with sand during the process of sewing,
and put in appropriate positions to dry ; after which the
sand is let out, and the strength and thickness of the
skin retain them in their proper shapes. Some species,
from the comparative softness of their skins, cannot be
so treated, and require to be stuffed with flax or cotton.
When the specimen—as is frequently the case—is too
large to be easily transportable, the skull should be preserved. This will often be the case with a collector in
India, especially if he have limited assistance ; the species of crocodile and gavial being often of great size.
In collecting Saurians, whether in the skin, or merely
as skulls, it is of importance to note the character of the
tongue, whether extensible and bifid; thick, fleshy, and
non-extensible; or fleshy, cylindrical, and capable of
being protruded to a great distance. On these characters very important sub-divisions are founded.
The three native lizards—of which two are pretty
generally distributed over Britain, and one is confined
to the Channel Islands—are found in dry, sandy places*
* See chapter on "Wet Preparations."

REPTILIA AND AMPHIBIA.

27

They are too small to be successfully stuffed, and do
not suffer much change of colour in spirit.
Ophidians or Serpents are the third order of true rep*
tiles. Unlike the two former, they are always destitute
of feet, and have along the under surface a row of plates
considerably larger than the scales of the general surface of the body. Only two species are found in Britain :
the viper, a native of dry heaths, and the innocuous
snake, which frequents damp woods, and frequently forms
its nest in a dung-heap, much to the terror of the simple
rustic. The latter is often exposed for sale in Covent
Garden Market; and when properly tended becomes, as
the writer can vouch from personal experience, an amusing pet. I t may be fed on young frogs. As a general
rule, serpents should be put up as wet preparations. If
judged too large for this purpose, they may be slit along
the under side and skinned ; the space being filled up
with tow wrapt round a wire proportioned in size to the
bulk of the specimen. To economise space, as well
as for the purpose of effect, serpents are usually
coiled or arranged in fanciful attitudes. Two mistakes, of very frequent occurrence, should be guarded
against:—
1st, In giving the serpent the form of a flat coil the
tail is often made to assume the outside instead of the
inside whorl. This is a mistake, which no one who has
ever seen a serpent coil itself should make.
2d, Serpents are often represented lending hack ; an
attitude which the dorsal spinous processes render impossible in the living creature.
Many foreign serpents being venomous, great caution
must be exercised both in their capture and in subsequent manipulations. All such should, if possible, be
preserved in spirit.
Skulls of serpents, particularly if the fangs and teeth
be perfect, are always valuable.
I n collecting any of the Eeptilia for the purpose of
stuffing,' it is of importance to make a note of the colour
of the eyes; and also of the nature of the food, which

28

EEPTILIA AND AMPHIBIA.

may be ascertained by an examination of the contents
of the stomach.
Amphibians are all more valuable as wet preparations,
than when stuffed: indeed, with the exception of frogs
and toads, none of the class can be successfully set up
dry. I t is of importance to procure male and female,
and, if possible, the tadpole condition of each species.
The male newts in this country are distinguished during
the spawning season by a beautiful crest running along
the back. This occurs in spring.
There are seven species of Amphibians, natives of
Britain,—one frog, two toads, and four water-newts.
The latter, as well as frogs, are not uncommon in little
pools and ditches. The common toad is easily procured
on road-sides on damp summer evenings. The Natterjack toad is more local in its distribution, being confined
to the marshes on the Solway Frith, and a locality in
the county Kerry, Ireland.
Frogs and toads are very easily skinned and stuffed.
First the mouth is opened, and with a pair of scissors the
skull is cut, so as to remove from the inside the eyes and
brain. Then the vertebral column is separated from
the neck, and the arm bones at the shoulder; with a
pair of forceps, the arms, as far as the fingers, are drawn
out and cut off. The vertebral column is then laid hold
of, and the whole body drawn out at the mouth. The
legs being separated at the toes, the skin is returned
into its natural position, and filled to a proper bulk with
the following stuffing:—
A quantity of fine sawdust or bran, moistened with
hot glue, and a few drops of the dissolved corrosive sublimate (B.)
Eyes are to be put in from the inside before the filling is completed ; afterwards the mouth is to be secured
with a single stitch, and the toad or frog modelled with
the fingers into a proper shape. When dry the skin is
washed with spirit of wine, to remove any of the stuffing
which may have adhered to it.
The female of the pipa or Surinam toad, bears on her

FISHES.

29

back in little cells the eggs and young while in their
tadpole condition. In this state it forms a highly-in^
teresting specimen.

FISHES.
The student of Ichthyology will find a valuable coadjutor in the fishmonger. In attempting to form a collection of the fishes of any country the fish-shops and
stalls should be inspected daily. Even in this country
many rare specimens may thus be occasionally picked
up. A still better plan is to win the good graces of the
fishermen, and either accompany them to sea, or inspect
the result of their labour on return to land : and seeing
that many specimens are by them thrown away as unmarketable, they should be induced to bring everything
to shore by a promise of purchase. On the sea-shore
many specimens may be picked up from the pools left
by the retiring tide, whence they may be taken with a
small hand-net. The fresh-water species are caught
with the rod, with trimmers, or nets. Those who have
devoted themselves to this art will care for no hints as
to procedure, while the novice will require either to study
some of the books specially devoted to the subject,—-as
the "Kodand Gun," by the late James Wilson, Esq.; or
the "Practical Angler," by Stewart; or, what is still better, receive practical instruction from some adept in the
art.
Eishes are preserved in two ways: either skinned
and stuffed in whole or in half, or put up as wet preparations.
To Stuff Fishes.—When practicable, the fish, so soon
as taken out of water, should be wrapped in fine silk
paper. In all cases it should be skinned while perfectly
fresh, because the colours are very evanescent.
The plan adopted by the writer for stuffing such fishes
as the pike, perch, the salmonidse, breams, haddocks, &c,

30

FISHES.

is as follows:*—-A clean soft deal-board of convenient
size, a quantity of pins, a knife or scalpel, a pair of scissors, some corrosive sublimate in spirit (B.), a shallow
basin of water, and a quantity of fine tow or flax, must
be first provided. Having determined by previous examination which side is to be preserved, the fish is laid
on the clean board, with that side uppermost, and the
dorsal, anal, and caudal fins distended, and with a blacklead pencil its outline is accurately traced on the board,
indicating by diverging lines the anterior angles of the
fins. Placing the fish in the shallow basin, and, beginning at the head, an incision is made in the skin down
the middle of the back to the tail, and a similar one
down the belly. The dorsal, anal, and caudal fins must
of course be left attached to the side to be preserved.
The head is next split in two, and the half to be preserved detached from the vertebrae. The skinning is
now proceeded with, commencing at the head. The interspinal bones which support the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins, are cut through with the scissors close to the
skin. Having removed the half desired, so much as
possible of internal bones and muscle of the head are
cleared away with the scissors. The eyes are removed
from within, so as to leave entire the integument
which, in many fishes, as the Gadidce, covers them.
The skin and skull are now to be brushed internally
with the preservative (B.), and any superfluous fluid remaining is to be carefully wiped off. On no account
must the solution be allowed to touch the scales, as it
immediately dims them. While the skin is yet moist
and pliable, the back edge of it is pinned to the dorsal
line on board. In doing this, it is necessary to commence with the head; having fixed it, a pin is put in
at the base of the anterior margin of the dorsal fin, and
another at the upper edge of the tail fin, distending
them thereby: the remainder of the back is then
pinned down. A quantity of tow is taken, and rolled
* The writer understands that to Dr Richard Parnell is due the
credit of proposing the outlines of this plan.
*

FISHES.

31

into a shape somewhat resembling that of the fish, but
considerably more slender, and pressed well back between the skin and the board. A pin is fixed in the front
under-edge of the skin ; and we continue to pin down
to the pencil line on the board until the tail is reached,
all the while stuffing in tow so as to give the fish a proper rotundity. Should the anal fin be dry before this
part of the operation is completed, a damp sponge will
immediately restore its pliability. The pectoral and abdominal fins are now to be moistened and distended
by means of pins on pieces of cork. When dry, which
will be in the course of a single day, or at most two,
the pins are removed, the eyes are put in, and the skin
fastened to a strong card-board by means of glue, and
coated with turpentine varnish.
The eye of a fish being generally flat on the surface,
is easily imitated by cutting a disc of silver paper of the
same diameter as the eye, and another of black paper,
to correspond with the pupil. These being gummed together, are placed behind the membraneous integument,
where such exists, and secured with gum.
The advantage of having an outline on the board, to
which to pin the edges of the skin, will be very apparent to any one who attempts to stuff, say a pike, without this guide. Fishes' skins have a tendency to stretch
longitudinally, and the result is, that it is by no means
an easy matter to preserve the proper contour.
An easier plan, though one by no means so satisfactory, is to press the skin between blotting-paper (like a
plant) till dry, and then glue it on cardboard. With
some fishes it is almost quite necessary to adopt this
plan, if they are to be skinned at all, on account of the
softness of the scales and tenderness of the skin.
Larger species, such as sharks, sturgeons, sun-fish,
and the tunny, are skinned in a way similar to that described as applicable to Mammals and birds, and the
cavity being filled with tow, the sides of the opening
are sewed together. For sharks, arsenical soap is better
than corrosive sublimate. They should not be varnished.
Lampreys may be treated as described for frogs.

32

ANNUL0SA.

Fishes preserved in fluid are far more valuable for purely
scientific purposes than if prepared by either of the above
processes. At a subsequent page will be found instructions for putting up fluid, or, as they are technically
termed, wet preparations.
I n cases where the entire fish cannot be conveniently
preserved, the head should at all events be secured.
Heads or macerated skulls of sturgeons, sharks, skate,
&c, are desiderata in most public collections.
The naturalist, especially if residing abroad, may do
much for economic science, as well as for pure Zoology,
by recording particulars regarding the season of spawning, the particular habitats, especially as to depth in the
sea, and general statistics as to the abundance or scarcity
of such species as afford food to man.

Sub-Kingdom ANNTJLOSA.
Until very recently this sub-kingdom was styled Articulata, a term which has now been very judiciously restricted to an important section in it. The members of
the whole group are characterized by the annulated or
ringed appearance of the body, as in the lobster, in insects, in centipeds, and worms.
Section ARTICULATA.
The members of this section are distinguished by
having, in addition to an annulate body, truly jointed or
articulate limbs. They comprise the four classes of
Crustacea; or crabs, lobsters, woodlice, &c.; Arachnida,
or spiders ; Myriajooda, or centipeds ; and Insecta.
CRUSTACEA.
The habitats of Crustaceans are as diverse as their
forms. The great majority of them live in salt water,

ANNULOSA.

33

and may be picked up on the shore, or in pools among
rocks, or caught in crab cages. Many forms may be
found among the refuse of the oyster dredge ; while the
stomachs of the larger fishes, as the cod, and even the
mantels of bivalves, yield a fair supply. One genus, Pinnotheres, is only found in bivalves, as Modiola and
Pinna. The larger masses of sea-weeds, as Laminaria,
and the Gulf-weed, often afford a home to small species.
Many Crustaceans are truly parasitic, and attach themselves to the eyes and gills of fishes; or even the abdomens of higher forms, as in the case of parasites on
the hermit crab and on the common shore crab. Woodlice are terrestrial in their habits, and frequent damp
places; they are more familiarly known in Scotland as
sclaters. A large group of this class, the JEntomostraca,
are microscopic, or nearly so, and inhabit both salt and
fresh water.
To Prepare Crustaceans.—They should be allowed to die
in cold fresh water. On no account whatever should hot
water be employed, as it immediately changes the colour.
In the case of a crab the carapace or large shell should
first be removed, leaving the limbs attached to the under
portion. So much as possible of the flesh of the body
and claws is then to be taken out, in the latter case employing a hooked wire. Except in large crabs it is not
advisable to disarticulate the claws in order to clean
them ; but, when necessary, it may be done without materially injuring the specimen. Sometimes a piece is
removed from the shell of the claw to facilitate the extraction of the muscle, and afterwards replaced and
fastened in with cement. The whole of the inside is
washed with corrosive sublimate, by means of a camel's
hair brush, the limbs put in the desired position, and the
shell is laid aside to dry, after which the parts are
united with cement (I.) Should the specimen be a
female, the false limbs on which the eggs are borne require to be preserved. Lobsters should have the carapace removed, and the limbs treated in the same way as
crabs; the abdomen is then removed, and the contents
c

34

ANNTJLOSA,

of it extracted by means of a hooked wire. Preserva-*
tive (A. or B.) may then be applied, and a little cotton
pushed into the abdomen. In drying, care must be
taken to give a proper set to the small limbs on the abdomen, and the tail; this will best be accomplished by
laying it upside down on a board, and propping such of
the limbs as require it with pieces of cork.
Hermit crabs should have the soft abdomen slit open,
the contents extracted, and the space filled with cotton.
A little gum on the cotton will secure the edges of the
slit. When dry they may be replaced in the shells in
which they were found.
All Crustaceans, but especially the smaller species,
are better preserved in fluid than in any other way.
Nevertheless, it may be thought desirable to dry the
smaller crabs, shrimps, sand-hoppers, and wood-lice.
When the carapace is not too hard, a pin is passed
through it into a flat piece of cork, and the Crustacean
is set in the same way as an insect, with this exception,
that slips of paper are not required, the limbs and
feelers being kept in their places by pins bent obliquely
over them. The chief thing to be attended to in setting is symmetry of parts. Nothing looks worse than
a shrimp or crab with its limbs twisted about in every
direction but the right one. Cirripeds or barnacles may
be either dried or put up as wet preparations. They
should be kept attached to the piece of stone or wood
on which they are found.
Crustaceans should be dried in the shade, without
artificial heat, and, if possible, in a place where there is
a good current of air.
Parasitic Crustaceans and Entomostraca, the former
on account of their softness, and the latter from their
minute size, can only be preserved in fluid. The latter
may, however, be put up as dry preparations for the microscope, though not very successfully.
Many parties apply varnishes of various kinds to the
shells of Crustaceans when dry, but this had as well be
dispensed with.
When covered with barnacles, or bivalve Mollusca,

ANNULOSA.

35

the point of a knife should he passed under the shell
when dry ; but if this does not remove it, on no account
should acid be employed. A crab or lobster covered
with these shells is not so uncouth an object as one
blotched and corroded with acid.
Where opportunities occur, much good may be done to
science by the study of the metamorphoses of Crustaceans;
but as a considerable amount of physiological knowledge
is necessary for the task, the reader is recommended to
consult works specially devoted to such subjects.
AKACHNIDA AND MYMAPODA.
Spiders, scorpions, and centipedes, as, indeed, all members of the above classes, are better preserved in fluid
than dry. They are, however, frequently dried, and set
up in the same manner as insects or small Crustaceans.
The abdomens of spiders almost invariably shrink in
drying; and to obviate this a small opening is made in
their under surface, through which the viscera is pressed
out, and fine cotton is introduced with the aid of the
head of a pin. Mr Donovan found that by making the
hole very small, and after having pressed out the contents, inflating with a blow-pipe, and drying, he preserved the colours better than by any other method.
Mr Samouelle filled the abdomens with fine sand, instead
of cotton. Hahn* recommends that centipeds should
be steeped for a month in strong spirit of wine, in order
that the soft parts may be hardened. They are then
dried on blotting-paper, and the larger species fastened
with pins ; the smaller being glued to strips of paper or
card-board.
INSECTA.
Insects, not less from the facility with which they may
be collected in almost any locality, and their convenient
size for the cabinet, than the taste and neat-handedness
called into play in setting them, have always been fa* Griindliche Anweisung, Krustentjhiere, &c. Zu sammeln, zu
prapariren, &c. Yon C. W. Hahn, Niirnberg, 1854.

36

ANNUOLSA.

vourites with collecting naturalists. The almost incalculable number of species contained in the class, and
the very minute characters by which even genera are
often distinguished, make the study of Entomology one
of the best fitted of all departments of Zoology for
training the faculties of observation and generalization.
To Procure Insects.—It would be more difficult to
point out a locality where insects are not to be procured, than to tell where they may. As a general rule,
however, it may be stated that places with a southern
exposure and a dry soil are more favourable to the production of insects, particularly Lepidoptera, than those
otherwise situated.
Lepidoptera abound in gardens, on heaths and commons, in woods, and on hill-sides. Many of them are
extremely local in their distribution, while others are
found almost everywhere. The early part of the day is
the time best suited for their capture, with the exception
of the moths, which are generally taken in the dusk or even
towards midnight. I n the latter case the collector proceeds to the known habitat with a lantern, round which
the moths soon gather. Should the fruit-bearing trees
not be in full blossom, the collector may have recourse
to sugaring, i.e., brushing a sweet compound (D. or E.)
over the trunks of trees, and on stones and posts. This
attracts moths.
1
By beating the branches and twigs of trees, great
numbers of Lepidopterous and other insects, especially
in the larval state, are dislodged, and may be caught in
a net, an inverted umbrella, or a sheet spread underneath. Nearly every plant may be found at one period
or another with some of its leaves curled up or folded
together, and containing grubs. By collecting these,
and rearing them, many Micro-Lepidoptera, which would
otherwise escape detection, may be obtained. Beetles
are seldom seen on the wing, except at night, but may
be easily obtained in the day-time by those who know
their haunts. Some are aquatic in their habits; others
lurk beneath stones, in the bark and at the roots of

ANNUL0SA.

37

plants, and even in their blossoms; while not a few
prefer less inviting places, and may be found among the
droppings of oxen and other quadrupeds.
Nearly all the Mammalia, man himself not excepted,
are the prey of wingless parasitic insects—as lice (Pediculi) and mites. Three species of Pediculi infest man;
and in the disease called phthiriasis are found mites.
The larval state of many insects is passed in water,
and these have to be searched for in shallow pools.
Seeing that insects are to be found everywhere, the only
general direction to be given to the searcher is to search
everywhere, until by experience, or the study of works
specially devoted to the order he pursues, he attains
sufficient knowledge of habitats to guide him.
A collection of insects of any order, which merely
contains the perfect or imago condition, is to a certain
extent imperfect. Whenever practicable, the grub and
chrysalis should also be preserved. I t might not be
amiss for the young collector, when he obtains a number of grubs of a species of which he cannot fix the
name, to dry, as directed hereafter, say one or two
grubs, place the remainder in the breeding-cage, and,
when the nymph state has been attained, dry one or two
more. By this means he will, in the course of time, be
possessed of the insect in its three stages, forming
together a most interesting suite. The writer is not
aware of any successful attempts to rear the caddis
worm and its allies, nor yet to dry the larva well; but
the case in which it lives, composed as it often is of
beautiful fresh water-shells (Cyclas and Planorbis), may
be easily preserved. Nests of social insects are also
objects of scientific interest, as well as leaves, wood, and
nuts pierced by them.
Apparatus for Collecting, &c.—These depend very
much on the circumstances in which the collector is
placed. In many instances insects may be knocked
down with a hat or pocket-handkerchief, and, in the
absence of a collecting box, placed in a twisted paper, or
pinned inside the hat.

38

ANNULOSA.

A Net is of importance to the proper pursuit of insects. This may be made according to the taste of the
collector, but in the absence of any pet form, either, or
both of those here figured will be found serviceable.
Fig. 1 consists simply of two rods of wood of convenir
ent dimensions (five feet will be about the maximum
length), united at about two-fifths the length from the
end by means of a screw-nail, so as to open and shut
like a pair of scissors. The bag is made of gauze, crape,
or strong muslin. I t may be either white, green, or
black. The latter is by many preferred. The rods
may be, and frequently are, left unattached to each other.
Fig. 2 is simply a ring of brass wire, a foot or more

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

in diameter, with a ferule soldered to it, in which may
be inserted the end of a walking-stick, The bag is of
the same material as the former. This net is useful in

ANNULOSA.

39

gathering aquatic insects, or in sweeping along the
grass or plants growing by the wayside.
A Collecting-box, about two inches deep, by whatever
length and breadth best suits the size of the collector's
pocket, with the bottom and lid lined with cork, should
also be carried. It may be made of tin, wood, or pasteboard. Pill-boxes, and small glass tubes or phials are
also useful.
Bottles with wide mouths, and fitted with corks, for
grubs; and stoppered bottles, with bruised laurel or other
poisonous leaves, or spirit, for beetles, must also be
carried. In addition to this, the collector should be
provided with a botanical spud, or a garden trowel, to
dig for grubs, &c, at the roots of plants and beneath
the bark of decayed trees; a pair of forceps; a quantity
of entomological pins of different sizes, ranging from
No. 7 to 12; and some slips of cartridge or writing paper.
To Kill Insects.—The great majority of Lepidopterous
insects may be killed by pinching the thorax on either
side with the nail of the thumb and forefinger; or even
by piercing it with the setting pin. When this fails,
as in some species of Bombyx, it has been recommended
to insert " a strong, red-hot needle into their thickest
parts, beginning at the front of the thorax." In justification of this plan, its originator adds,* " If this be
properly done, instead of lingering through several days,
they are dead in a moment."
Chloroform, prussic acid, and sulphurous acid gas-—
produced by burning a brimstone match—are also employed with success.
In using chloroform, the experimenter is apt to take
the insect out of the vapour too soon, and will perhaps
find it revive under his hands when in the act of
setting it.
Beetles and dragon-flies are ' also killed with difficulty. Hot water is often employed, after which they
are dried with blotting-paper, and set. They may be
with advantage immersed in the corrosive sublimate
* Haworth's " Lepidoptera Britannica."

40

ANNULOSA.

solution (B.); which, besides killing them rapidly, effectually preserves their bodies from the pests of the
cabinet.
In killing, by whatever method, the point to be kept in
mind is the preservation of the specimen free from mutilation of any of its parts. This is a matter of difficulty,
especially with Lepidoptera, and can only be properly
taught by experience. One caution, however, may be
given to the beginner;—never lay hold of a butterfly
or moth by the wings; the proper place is the thorax or
chest.
To Set Insects.—This is as easily done well as ill,
provided it be properly gone about; and, as nothing
looks so bad as a cabinet filled with twisted and unsymmetrical specimens, it is obviously a subject deserving the special attention of the young collector.
Among the variety of plans suggested for this purpose,
it is difficult to say which is the most deserving pf preference. I t may be safely stated, however, that as very
much depends on the neat-handedness and taste of the
manipulator, any plan in itself good will be found to
answer the purpose.
The following method of
setting Lepidoptera is, with
slight modifications, founded
on that most generally pursued on the Continent:—
Pieces of soft deal, about
three inches square, have
grooves cut in them, from a
quarter to three-eighths of
an inch deep. A thin piece
of cork may be glued in
the bottom of the groove if
desired. The insect is laid
hold of by the thorax, its
wings forced a little up, and
a pin passed through the
middle of the thorax. The pin is then fixed in the

ANNULOSA.

41

bottom of the groove, so that the body lies free of the
sides, and with ample space below for the legs, as in
fig. 3. A strip of card must be pinned to the board at
a, the other end being raised so that the wings may
be moved with freedom under it. The upper wing
is then laid hold of at its anterior edge with the
forceps, and moved forward to the requisite position,
in which it is retained by gently pressing the upper
end of the card on it until the under wing is also
brought into position, when the pin b may be inserted.
The same has now to be done with the wings on the
other side, taking care that they exactly correspond in
height. The antennas are also to be arranged symme^
trically, and, if necessary, kept in their places by having
pins inserted obliquely over them. The insect is then
put away to dry, which will usually take from one to
three weeks, depending on the size of the specimen, and
also on the state of the weather.
Some collectors have the sides of the wooden blocks
bevelled or curved downwards from the groove to the
edge, as in figs. 4 and 5 ; and there can be no doubt

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

that either of these arrangements have their advantages
in many cases. In France, and also in this country,
slips of glass, or of sheet lead, are sometimes employed
instead of card-board or paper.
The foregoing plan will be found suitable, with such

42

ANNULOSA.

modifications as circumstances may suggest to the great
majority of insects.
Beetles and Orthopterous insects are better set on flat
boards without any groove. Unless the under wings are
to be distended, beetles ought to be pierced through the
right elytron* Minute insects of all orders require to be
fastened by means of gum on small pieces of card,
either round or wedge-shaped, through which a pin is
passed to fasten them in the cabinet.
"When the abdomen is of such a nature, as in the
larger moths, the dragon flies, and many others, that it
shrivels in drying, it must be emptied and stuffed as
directed for spiders.
Larvce, from their destructibility, generally require
to have their contents removed, and the space either
filled with cotton as in spiders, or they are preserved in
either of the following ways. M. Dupont's plan is to
procure a vessel of sheet-iron in the form of a funnel,
and place its apex downwards in a charcoal fire. In the
caterpillar, previously killed, a small incision is made
at the vent through which the vicera are pressed out.
A glass tube or thin straw is introduced by this opening, and with a thread, the end of the grub is tied
round it. The skin is inflated by blowing in at the
open end of the tube; and placing it within the cone,
inflation is continued as often as the slightest collapse
makes its appearance, until the specimen is perfectly dry,
when it may be fastened with a little gum on a card or
in a small tray.
Mr Weatherhead's plan was to kill the grub by immersion in spirits, and having emptied the skin as
above, he filled it with fine sand, which he afterwards
shook out when the specimen was dry.
It may be suggested that the solution of corrosive
sublimate (B.) should be employed in killing, as it not
only gives hardness to the skin when dried, but effectually keeps off mites.
The Chrysalis, or nymph, may be preserved either by

ANNTJLOSA.

43

making an incision in the side, steeping in the corrosive
sublimate solution, and simply drying; or the slit may
be made to extend so far as to allow of the body being
altogether removed from the case. The cases cast off
.by insects on their entering the perfect or imago condition, are better suited for the cabinet than any which
we can prepare, and therefore should be carefully collected.
Breeding Gages may be varied in form and size according to the taste and means of the student. The
following particulars, however, must in all cases be
studied :—The ]arvse must be regularly supplied with
the food of which they partake most freely in a natural
state; a plentiful supply of air must be admitted;
moisture must also be secured; and in the case of such
as burrow in ground, some moist earth must be put in
the bottom of the cage. The form of cage usually recommended is a box of oak a few inches deep, and a
framework, with wire-gauze sides rising above it. The
writer has reared many insects, and among others, the
swallow-tail butterfly, in a flower-pot covered with an
inverted tumbler. There can be no doubt, however,
that the more complete the apparatus, the more certain
is success; and a well-made breeding-cage may be made
an ornamental, as well as a useful piece of furniture.
It is of importance that only one species should be
admitted to each breeding-cage, as they are apt to forsake vegetable for animal food.
Section VERMES.
The section Yermes, including worms and rotiferous
animalcules, is distinguished from the Articulata by the
absence of truly articulated limbs. They are chiefly
aquatic in their habits, living in the sea, in fresh water,
or in the juices of higher animals. A few, as the common earth worm, are terrestrial.
To Procure Worms,—The marine species may be ob-

44

ANNULOSA.

tained by dredging, or gathered on the beach. They
either lurk under stones or burrow in mud or sand. In
the latter case, they are frequently furnished with a
sheath, composed of minute fragments of sand and shells,
held together with a transparent cement and fine threads.
Some genera (Serpula and Spirorbis, &c.) form dense
calcareous tubes, which are found attached to shells of
Mollusca and Crustacea, or to sea-weeds. The parasitic
worms were formerly classed under the order Entozoa;
they are generally colourless, thread-like, or flat, as in
the tape-worm. In an early stage the tape-worm con^
sists merely of a head and an inflated sac. They inhabit the soft tissues of many vertebrate animals.
Measles in pork is caused by one of them.
Eotiferous Vermes are all microscopic. They are
found in stagnant water and vegetable infusions.
To Preserve Worms.—The first thing to be attended
to is killing. This is an easy matter with moderatelysized marine worms, but with the more elongated
genera, as Nemertis and Phyllodoce, it requires some
nicety. The plan which the writer pursues is as follows :—The worm is allowed to remain in a jar with seawater, until, by the vitiation of the latter, the creature
begins to lose its irritability. This can be easily put to
the test by touching it, and watching the effect. The
water is then to be nearly all poured off, and weak
spirit slowly added. The Nemertis will endeavour to
throw itself in pieces by producing sudden bends in its
body. When these are observed, the finger is gently
pressed against the outside of the curve to reduce it
until the worm dies. By adopting this plan, any worm
may be preserved without a single break. There is another advantage gained by allowing the worm to become enfeebled in the sea-water, i.e., that it generally
throws out its proboscis, an organ of much value in distinguishing genera. Serpulae and other shell-inhabiting worms should be preserved with the shell attached,
and, if possible, another specimen removed from the
shell should be placed in the same jar. Flat marine

ANNULOSA.

45

worms (Planaridge) can scarcely with safety be allowed
to linger in the water, owing to their extreme liability
to decay, but should be at once plunged into the preserving fluid.
Eresh-water worms, as well as tape-worms, may be
placed in spirits immediately after being caught.
No successful attempt has been made to preserve
worms dry. The sea-mouse (Aphrodite) has been sometimes stuffed, but not satisfactorily.
Eotatoria, being microscopic objects, do not come
within the compass of this work.

Sub-Kingdom MOLLUSCA.
Owing to the presence of two very well marked types
of organization in this sub-kingdom, it has been divided
up into two great sections, the Mollusca Proper and the
Molluscoida.
Section MOLLUSCA (Proper.)
To this group belong all the shell-bearing mollusks
known under the various names of snails, periwinkles,
whelks, buckies, cowries, conchs, ear-shells, limpets,
clams, oysters, mussels, cockles, &c, as well as the sepias
or cuttle-fishes. Their habits are extremely varied. By
far the greater number breathe by means of branchia or
gills, and inhabit the water, either salt or fresh ; while
another group—in this case all univalved—breathe by
means of true lungs, and are terrestrial in their habits.
As a general rule, they are provided with shells, though,
in many instances, comparatively small and internal;
yet a large group, the Nudibranchiata,' are quite destitute of even the internal rudiment of a shell.
To Procure Mollusca.—Marine species are chiefly obtained by dredging; by examining masses of floating

46

MOLLUSCA.

algae; by carefully observing the contents of pools of
the sea-shore, or the beach itself; and by dissecting the
stomach of the larger fishes, such as the cod. During
the low tides large quantities of Mollusca may be obtained by turning over the stones, and looking narrowly
into the crevices of rocks. Ear-shells, limpets, and
other allied genera, adhere to the rocks between tides,
and may be removed by applying a little warm water,
or by giving the shell a sudden jerk with the foot.
Naked Mollusca lurk under stones or among sea-weed
at low-water mark. Many bivalves bury themselves
in the sand, or in holes excavated in submerged shale
or wood. When in sand, they may be dug up with a
large fork; but they can only be successfully got out
of the rock by employing the hammer and chisel. Cuttle-fishes are often cast on shore; they are also caught
occasionally on the lines set by fishermen for cod; and
may also be obtained by trawling. Floating Mollusca
occur in every sea, but more especially in those enjoying a high temperature : the towing-net is the only
effective instrument for their capture.
Fresh-water Mollusca maybe gathered with a net similar
to that described at page
38 (fig. 2), or, still better,
by using the shell-spoon
(fig. 6). This consists of
a hemispherical cup of
white iron, about four inches in diameter, with a
half lid soldered on the
top, and an oblique socket
for the insertion of the
point of a walking-stick.
The whole cup is perforated with holes. When,
say a Limneeus, is obtained from the pool, the cup is
raised until the stick is nearly horizontal, and slightly
turned over on the side on which the covering is, so
that the creature lodges securely between the side of the;

MOLLUSCA.

47

cup and the partial lid. Bivalves seldom float; therefore they must be sought for either by lifting some of
the mud in the spoon, and washing, or by pulling up the
reeds and other plants, and examining the roots. Freshwater mussels stick in the mud at the bottom of ponds
and rivers: an iron rake is very useful in capturing
them.
Land Mollusca must be hand-picked among leaves,
roots, or the decaying stones of old walls. Their abundance in limestone and chalk districts has often been
the subject of remark.* The following notes on these
creatures are taken from Mr Woodward's admirable
" Treatise on Eecent and Fossil Shells," published in
Mr Weale's elementary series :—
" Land-shells are most abundant on calcareous soils,
and in warm and moist climates. The British species
are collected with advantage in autumn, when fullgrown, and showing themselves freely in .the dews of
morning and evening. Some species, like Bulimus
acutus, are found only near the sea; Bulimus Lackhamensis ascends beech-trees on the chalk downs and cotteswoldes; Pupa juniperi and Helix umbilicata occur
chiefly on rocks and stone walls. The moss-frequenting
Clausilice may be obtained, even in mild winter weather,
at the roots of trees; the small species of Pupa (or
Vertigo) are sometimes taken abundantly when sweeping wet grass with an insect net; Aciculafusca lives at
the roots of grass ; Cionella acicula is found in old bones
(such as occur in Danish burial grounds !), and occasionally in moving garden-bulbs; Helix aculeata has
been met with on the undersides of leaves (e.g., the
sycamore) a few feet from the earth."
For collecting land-shells, a few wide-mouthed bottles
or pill-boxes should be carried.
To Preserve Mollusca.—By far the greater number of
* On one occasion, on a fell side in Westmorland, the writer found
the common garden snail {Rdix hortensis) so plentiful, that it was
scarcely possible to put down the foot without treading on them.

48

MOLLUSCA.

collectors content themselves with the cleaned and dried
shells of Mollusca, without attempting to preserve their
softer parts. Indeed, a moderately-sized private cabinet
will not admit of anything more. I t is extremely desirable, however, that not only should the soft parts inhabiting shells be preserved, but more especially the
mollusks which either are destitute of a shell altogether,
or have only a small rudimentary one inside the mantle.
This, though applicable to the well-known species of our
own country, applies with far greater force to those of
little-known regions.
Gephalopods or cuttle-fishes should always be preserved in fluid. Two genera—Spirula and Nautilus, inhabiting the southern seas—are much wanted in a perfect condition in all public museums. In the case of
the latter, it will be well to make a small perforation in
the first chamber of the shell to allow the preservative
fluid to enter.
Naked Mollusca should be allowed to die in sea-water
before being placed in the spirit or other fluid. The
same remark applies to shell-bearing Mollusca, especially the univalved. Shells may be cleaned out either
by pouring hot water over the living creatures, or allowing them to die in the water. A bent pin will be found
useful in extracting the animal from the smaller shells.
The chief thing to be attended to is to have the shells
well cleaned and dried before being packed.
The operculum, which covers the opening in many
spiral shells, must be preserved, and if of a hard, calcareous substance, simply placed within the mouth of
the shell; but if thin and horny, a little cotton should
be put into the shell, and the operculum fastened to this
with gum.
In cleaning bivalve shells care must be taken not to
break the hinge, as otherwise the valves are apt to be
separated and lost. They should be tied together while
yet the hinge is soft.
No attempt should be made to remove the adherent
shells of other Mollusca or Crustacea. It ought especially to be kept in mind that the application of acids

MOLLUSOA,

49

Will injure the specimen far more than the presence of
scores of serpulse and barnacles.
The epidermis which covers the shell is, so far as
colour is concerned, the most characteristic feature in
all species; therefore it follows that this must be carefully preserved. An application of oil has been often
recommended; and, more recently, Gren. Totten has proposed the use of chloride of calcium for the purpose of
keeping the epidermis moist and clear. In the majority of instances no such application will be necessary, provided the shells are carefully dried and preserved.
Section MOLLUSCOIDA.
The animals included in this section are entirely destitute of a proper calcareous shell, and require to be
preserved in fluid.
The Tunimta, the highest group, are simply gelatinouslike sacs, generally colourless, though occasionally red
or tawny. They are sometimes so very transparent that
the functions of digestion and respiration may be seen
through their external tunics. Some are solitary, and
others are aggregated like a bunch of fruit; while more
minute forms resemble a layer of gelatinous matter
spread over the frond of a sea-weed, and dotted with
various colours. They are all marine, and chiefly obtained by dredging, though they are frequently cast on
shore by a heavy sea, and may be found attached to the
stalks of Algee, to shells, or stones.
The Polyzoa, or Bryozoa, are a group of plant-like
animals, inhabiting alike salt and fresh water, long confounded with Polyps, and with them associated under
the class Zoophyta. The Mustra, common on the seashore all round this country, and often preserved among
collections of Alges, is one of the most familiar examples
of this class. The marine species may be gathered on
the shore after a high tide, or obtained by dredging.
The fresh-water species are found in streams, ponds, and

50

ECHINODERMATA.

canals, adhering to stones and plants. Like the truer
Polypi, many of the Polyzoa may he preserved dry by
washing in fresh water, and pressing between sheets of
absorbent paper; but in this state they are far less
valuable than as wet preparations.

Sub-Kingdom RADIATA.
The members of this group of animals are generally
characterized by the ray-like arrangement of their parts.
In general form they are either cup-shaped, with tentacles fringing the lip ; star-shaped, spherical, or hemispherical; though in one group they bear a considerable
resemblance to melons or cucumbers." They are entirely
aquatic in their habits, and, with very few exceptions
(only two in Britain), live in salt water.
Well-marked characteristics lead to the natural division of this group into three classes,—Uchinodermata,
Actinozoa, and Hydrozoa; and each class demands special
treatment, on account of the differences of texture which
they severally present.
ECHINODERMATA.
This, the highest class of radiate animals, includes
what are familiarly known as sea-urchins, star-fishes,
and sea-cucumbers.
They are all best obtained by dredging, though many
star-fishes may be seen at low-water creeping over the
rocks and sea-weeds, or lying outstretched in little pools
left by the retiring tide. Sea-urchins, or Echini, are
also to be met with on the shore, and even occasionally
a sea-cucumber.
• Echini and star-fishes may be preserved dry. With
the former it is necessary to cut a slit in the membrane
which surrounds the dental apparatus (where such exists),
on the lower part of the sphere, and thence remove the
viscera. In drying it is well to suspend in a place where

ECHINODERMATA.

51

there is a thorough draught of air. Some collectors, with
a view to keeping the spines erect, fasten a hook in the
soft skin at the mouth, and, without removing the viscera, hang the Echinus to dry, either exposed to the
heat of the sun or to artificial heat.
The larger star-fishes (Solaster, Uraster, &c), may be
either plunged in hot water, and laid out to dry, or may
be first cleaned in the following manner:—A hooked
wire is passed in at the mouth, on the under surface,
and into each limb, from which so much as possible
of the soft matter is removed; the mouth is then held
close to a water-pipe, and the force of water carries out
what cannot be extracted with the wire. A little of
the corrosive sublimate solution (B.) may be poured in
at the mouth with advantage.
Slender-armed star-fishes (Ophiocoma, Ojohiura, &c),
merely require to be steeped for a short time, say twentyfour hours, in spirit, and laid in a situation where they
will dry rapidly. The same treatment will answer
equally well for the Medusa-head star-fish.
These
forms are all extremely brittle, but with tolerable care
need not be injured either in capturing or preparing.
The beautiful Comatula is equally tender, and certainly
more difficult to preserve well. Like all other marine
animals, it is better preserved in fluid than dry. To
those who wish to dry it, the following plan, pursued by
a lady with great success during several seasons at
Lamlash, will be acceptable. The great merit of the
plan is its simplicity :—The Comatula, so soon as possible after its capture, is placed in a shallow basin of
fresh water, and, when flaccid, floated out on a piece of
strong white paper, in the same manner as a sea-weed.
Any pinnules that may appear to be distorted are
moved into a proper position by means of a camel's
hair brush, and the paper with the Comatula spread on
it, immediately subjected to pressure between absorbing
paper.
Sea-cucumbers (HolotJiuroida) being destitute of
the dense bony plates which cover the other orders
of Echinoderms, cannot be successfully dried. The

52

ACTIN0Z0A.

chief thing to he attended to in putting Tip as wet
preparations is to let them die in sea-water, so as to
preserve their branched tentacles in an extended condition.
ACTINOZOA.
The members of this class, though agreeing in anatomical details, vary much in external appearance. I t includes the precious coral, the island building corals, the
Actiniae or sea-anemones of our shores, sea-fans, the
Alcyonium, or dead men's fingers, Neptune's cup, the
phosphorescent sea-pens, and other equally varied
forms.
With the exception of Actinia, and one or two allied
genera, they are all compound animals, consisting of a
large number of zooids, or individuals aggregated together.
Actinias may be procured among rocks on the seashore during low-water. The Alcyonium is sometimes
cast on shore, as also the Pennatula (sea-pen). I n
gathering the other Actinozoa, the dredge is the only
efficient assistant.
Only one species of true coral (Caryophyllia Smithii)
is a native of the British seas, though some other forms,
as the sea-fan, have occasionally been procured.
Corals, if wanted to be preserved dry, merely require
to have the animal washed out with fresh water, and
the calcareous skeleton dried. Specimens in fluid are
great desiderata, and should be sent home whenever opportunity permits.
Sea-pens, Alcyoniums, and other allied animals, must
be put up as wet preparations. This remark also applies to Actiniae, though the means usually adopted,
«—i.e., spirit or saline solutions,—so destroy the colour
and appearance of the specimens, that it is hardly possible to distinguish one species from another when preserved. The writer, as the result of his own experiments,*
* It is necessary to state that these experiments, commenced in
July J.856, are not yet completed; but, as the results already obtained

&YDR0Z0A*

53

proposes the following method of preserving something
of the natural form and colour of these animals:—The
Actinia is allowed to remain in sea-water until nearly
dead. While the tentacles are completely distended with
sea-water, the animal is gently lifted into a smaller
vessel, and the end of a glass tube of suitable size, and
previously filled with glycerine, is pushed in at the
mouth, and the contents forced into the body by blowing.
The tube is again and again filled and applied, until
the fluid which exudes at the points of the tentacles
has lost its saline taste : the surrounding fluid is then
removed, and replaced with glycerine. Large specimens will require to have the glycerine again changed
before fastening up the preparation, which may be done
in a month.
HYDROZOA.
The lowest class of Eadiata contains the Polyps and
Jelly-fishes.
The Polyps may all, with the exception of the Hydra,
be easily preserved. In general form they very much resemble the Polyzoa (page 49)$ as also in their habits, with
this exception, that only two genera are found in fresh
water. They are preserved in exactly the same manner
as Polyzoa, with which they are often confounded.*
Jelly-fishes (Acalejohd) are variable in form; but the
most conspicuous kinds in this country resemble a
flattened hemisphere, and are familiarly known as seablubbers or sea-nettles, the latter name being conferred
on them from the stinging properties which some of
them possess. The term Medusae is also applied to
them. The more minute species occur plentifully in
sheltered places, and have either the form of the larger
kinds, or are spherical or cylindrical.
The larger species are frequently cast on shore, or
seem satisfactory, it is thought judicious to publish them so far as they
go.
* It is worthy of remark, as showing the difficulty of deciding many
zoological questions, that even Professor Owen retains together the
Polyzoa or Bryozoa and Polypi under one class—Zoophyta.

m

PROTOZOA.

may be caught with a sieve held over the edge of n
small boat. The smaller kinds are caught in a towingnet. Eeing extremely fragile, they all require to be
handled with the greatest care.
Medusae are preserved with difficulty. Spirit, diluted
vinegar, and other preparations have been tried, but
with very little success; until Mr G-oadby proposed a
modification of his solution (E. 3), which certainly surpasses anything previously in use, although it is open to
the same objections as all other saline solutions. "Where
these objections are not deemed important, the collector
cannot do better than use his method.
After a series of experiments conducted last year, the
writer obtained a solution which he thinks possesses
fully all the advantages of Mr G-oadby's, without any
of its disadvantages. (See (j.) The largest specimens
may be preserved in it.
Small Medusae (Beroe, Thaumantia, &c), can be very
well preserved in glycerine in tubes.
Before being put into the solution, they may be set
aside for a short time to drain. To insure the thorough
preservation of fleshy Medusas, they should be injected
with the solution at the oral and ovarian orifices.
Yellela and Physalia may be preserved in solution
G, or in weak spirit,

Sub-Kingdom PE0T0Z0A.
The members of this group, though extensive numerically, are very partially represented in all collections,
on account of their minute size. They are the lowest
of all animals in organization; hence the least capable
of preservation. Sponges and infusorial animalcules,
the latter of which were by Ehrenberg erroneously
termed polygastric animals, are the most characteristic
of the group.
Sponges are readily procurable, during low tides,
under the projecting ledges of rocks. They are also

DREDGING, AND COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS.

55

abundantly yielded by the dredge in most places. One
genus (Clione) attacks tbe shells of oysters and other
bivalves, in which it pierces numerous minute holes.
In rivers and canals the fresh-water sponge (Spongilla
fluviatilis) may be found by examining piers, and more
especially such as are of wood-work, under water.
In order to preserve sponges dry, it is only necessary to wash them well in fresh water, and dry them
thoroughly. Many of them are very brittle, however, and
require delicate handling. They are occasionally pressed
between paper, in the same manner as botanical specimens.
Infusoria can only be employed as microscopical specimens, if we except, perhaps, one genus (OpJirydium), a
globular, jelly-like mass, of a greenish colour, growing
attached to the stems of plants in ponds. Even this
never looks well in spirit, and it is doubtful whether it
repays the trouble spent on it.

DREDGING, AND COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS,
The apparatus necessary for a successful dredging
excursion are, a good dredge, of a size suited to the
boat and capabilities of the rowers,* a dredgingbasket fitted with glass jars of various sizes, sieves, a
tub, a bucket, a dredging-board, some thin tinfoil, a
quantity of preserving fluid, and a pocket lens. To
these may be added, where practicable, a trawl-net, and
in all cases a towing-net, for floating animals of small
size, and a grapnel, to secure masses of Laminaria.
Dredges are simply,iron frames so constructed that
they shall scrape the bed of the sea, with a net or bag
.attached, in which the specimens are retained. Any
form, then, which will secure this end may be adopted,
though the judicious collector will do well to profit by
* Convenient size of boat for a two-feet dredge is about 20 feet long,
foy 5 feet in breadth of beam.

56

DREDGING, AND COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS.

the experience of those who have travelled the field
before him; and if he does not fully approve of the
forms of dredge now in use, he should at least make
them the groundwork of his own improvements. To
the late lamented Dr Ball of Dublin is due, more than
to any other naturalist, the thanks of all dredgers for
the many improvements on that useful instrument
which not inappropriately bears his name.
The dredge about to be described contains all the
latest improvements made by Dr Ball, and may be fairly
termed the best dxedg© now in use (fig. 7). I t consists of two plates of iron
placed at a slightly outward angle, and connected
at their lower edge by transverse rods. On each of these
rods is placed a triangular
plate, which moves outwards
and inwards like a hinge.
To the upper angle of each
plate is jointed a rod of iron?
so as to move at right angles
with the movement of the
plate itself. Each rod has
at its upper extremity a
chain, and these are united
Fig. 7.
by a strong ring, which is
itself succeeded by a broad
pulley-like ring for the reception of the rope. The
upper edges of the scraper-plates are made considerably
thinner than the under edges, and in the latter are
drilled a number of holes to permit of the bag being
attached. The object sought by adding the chain to
the rods, as well as the extra number of joints, is to
afford greater freedom of action.
The size of the dredge will depend on the ground to
be worked, the dimensions of the boat, and the propelling force. For a common row-boat, with two men or
lads pulling at the oars, it will be as follows :—Scrapers,
two feet by two inches, five aixd-a-half inches apart at

DREDGING, AND COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS.

57

connecting rods, and six and a-half inches apart at
scraping edges; arms, including triangular plate, one
foot two inches, with nine inches of chain to each.
Larger sizes may he employed where circumstances
warrant; and, in the case of dredging in shallow water
in a very small hoat, or in ponds and canals, a miniature dredge, capable of being stowed away in a small
carpet-bag, will be found useful.
The dredge above described is not yet. generally
known, but is likely soon to supersede that now in use,
and commonly styled " Ball's Dredge." This resembles
the former, except in the arms, which each consists of
two rods united into one at the upper extremity, and
made to hinge directly on the connecting cross-rods of
the frame, without the intervention of a triangular
plate. These rods are either united at the top by means
of a bolt passing through them, and at the same time
through the ends of an overlapping horse-shoe-like ring
for the rope; or they are each provided with a swivelring.
Oyster dredges may be employed where better are not
to be had; but the meshes are too wide for the retention of a great many valuable specimens, and the unwieldy nature of the framework renders it an unpleasant
instrument in the hands of any other than professed
fishermen.
Bags for dredges should seldom, except in very small
sizes, exceed in depth one half the length of the scrapers.
They may be nets made of good strong string, with the
meshes as small as it is possible to work them; or, in
some instances, of canvas, with a window of wire-gauze
in each side for the egress of the water. So far as
the writer's own experience goes, the nets are far preferable to the canvas bags, except for the collection of Diatomacese and other very minute objects. Thick copper
wire, or thongs of undressed hides, should be employed
in lacing the bags on the frames. Bag-nets of undressed
hide are used with advantage on very stony ground, on
account of their tenacity.
The strength of the rope will depend on circumstances.

'58

DREDGING, AND COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS.

I t is better to err on the safe side, so as to prevent the
mortification of leaving the dredge fast at the bottom
of the water. In length the rope should be at least
double the depth of the water, to allow the dredge to
scrape properly; besides which a quantity of slack should
-be at command, to be let out on event of fouling.
Trawl-nets, such as are used by fishermen, may be
advantageously employed where the bottom is either
clay or sand. They are of a larger size than dredges,
and differ from them chiefly in simply passing over
the surface of the ground, instead of sinking into it.
The framework, which is proportion ably stronger than
that of a dredge, is partly of wood and partly of
iron. Of the latter material are two side frames, somewhat triangular in shape, united at the upper angles by
a long beam of wood, and having attached to the posterior inferior angles a strong chain. The beam is
about eight inches square^ by forty or more feet in
length; and the iron frames are from two to three feet
across. To the general frame is attached a net thirty
yards in depth, bearing inside of it another funnelshaped net, like that represented in the towing-net
(fig. 8). Fishes, Crustacese, Mollusca, and Eadiata,
are taken in abundance by means of this net. " They
are used (at Scarbro') by boats of thirty-five to sixty
tons, by crews of from four to six men, and two to three
boys."* The collector may easily extemporize a trawlnet with such materials as he has at hand, provided he
can secure sufficient weight to sink it. The size may
vary according to circumstances.
Towing-nets are invaluable in the pursuit of minute
floating Crustacea, Mollusca, and Medusae. The simplest form is a bag, which may be made of hunting, the
material used for flags; of thin canvas, technically called
scrim; or indeed any fabric which combines a moderate
degree of strength with closeness of texture and ready
* See Supplement to Woodward's Shells, page 426.

DREDGING, AND COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS.

59

porosity. The bag may be sewn round a hoop, say a
foot in diameter; or it may have a stick fastened across
the mouth, and a few leaden weights attached to one
side, and pieces of cork to the other.
A more perfect and satisfactory instrument, the invention of the late Dr Ball, is that represented in fig. 8. There are two nets attached to the ring, one of which opens
as a funnel, about half-way down the
inside of the other, to prevent the escape
of objects after they have once got in.
A glass jar, with a strong bead-rim (a
cupping-glass answers very well), is fastened about half-way through a thick bung
by means of string, and the open end of
the outer bag is passed over the rim, and
temporarily retained, either by a cord or
a strong India-rubber band. For greater
security a string passes from the cork to
the ring at the mouth of the net. Either
three or four strings are placed at equal
distances on the hoop, and united by a
common knot to the line. The advantage of the glass vessel is, that the collector can tell at once what fias been captured, and can remove the specimens without the slightest injury, by undoing the
string or taking off the elastic band. A
wide-mouthed bottle will be found to be
Fig. 8.
a capital substitute for the cupping-glass.
A Dredging-basket ought to contain a number of glass
jars,—one of which, for the reception of the contents of
the towing-net, should be at least six inches in diameter by a foot in depth,—so fitted that they may be easily
removed with the hand, but not liable to break from
shaking. A quantity of glass bottles, with wide mouths
and corks, and a few tubes, also fitted with corks, will
be found useful. Should the collector desire to preserve fishes, or the larger Crustacea and Mollusca, it will

60

DREDGING, AND COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS.

be advisable to add to the above a few wide-mouthed
earthenware jars, of sizes varying from three inches to
nine inches in diameter. These should be well fitted
with bungs.
Sieves are used for washing the contents of the dredge,
and one of them should be so fine that no shell can possibly pass through it. The other may have the meshes
half an inch wide. I t is convenient to have the sieves
attached, the finer being under to retain the specimens
that pass through the other. They should be made of
copper.
A Dredging-board is very useful in a small row-boat.
I t is made so as to lie right across from one gunwale of
the boat to the other, and has a ledge of wood, about an
inch high, along each side, to keep the water off the knees
and feet of the searchers. The contents of the dredge
are emptied on this board, and when examined, are
either transferred to the sieves for further search, or
simply swept overboard.
Dredging, if performed in the British seas, should
always be done with the assistance of a fisherman who
knows the nature of the ground. If this assistance
cannot be commanded, a good chart should be secured.
The most prolific ground is that known as the Laminarian Zone, from the quantity of Laminaria growing in
part of it. I t extends from the low-water mark to a
depth of about fifteen fathoms, and includes the oysterbanks in Europe, and the pearl-fisheries of Asia.
Having everything in readiness, and the boat in good
easy motion, the rope is coiled in the bottom of the boat
so that it may be let out without knotting, and the end
attached to the ring of the dredge by being passed twice
through it and then tied. The dredge is then put over
the stern of the boat, and the rope run out until the
strain on it tells that the scraper is biting on the ground.
A sudden strain will indicate that the dredge has caught
on some ledge of rock, when the slack must be let out,

DREDGING, AND COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS.

61

and the boat stopped as soon as possible, and made to
pass back over the dredge, until freed. In hauling in
the dredge, precaution must be taken to coil the rope as
before. The contents being placed on a board or in
the tub, the dredge is returned again to the water for a
further supply. The bucket, as well as a number of the
glass jars, should be full of water for the reception of
the animals captured. Many creatures can never be
seen to perfection save in the dredging-boat; and the
naturalist who wishes to enjoy this treat will supply
himself abundantly with glass jars, as the best means to
that end. The branching Zoophytes, many Molluscous
animals, Crustaceans, and even fishes, display themselves
with great beauty, and some of them even with a certain
amount of grotesqueness, when newly taken out of their
ocean homes.
The towing-net is kept constantly out, its contents
from time to time being examined and secured. This
is easily enough managed with the improved form, as
it is only necessary to detach the cup, and pour its
treasured contents into a larger glass j a r ; but with the
bag-shaped nets it requires more care. In this latter
case, provided a jar sufficiently large is at hand, it will
be found most expedient simply to turn the net inside
out, and shake it gently up and down for a time in the
jar filled with sea-water. The Medusas will readily forsake the bunting bag for their own free element, and
swim away, sparkling in the sunbeams like little meteors.
If any one group of natural objects more than another excites the admiration of the onlooker, and makes him even
question at times the evidence of his own vision, it is
these tiny little morsels of animality, contracting and
expanding, glistening with rainbow hues, and then mysteriously vanishing from sight: things apparently so
impalpable that their existence as living organized
beings might almost be questioned; so slightly formed,
that the pressure of a feather might -annihilate them;
yet living and certainly enjoying life in that same element which destroys fleets, and with its resistless force
sets at nought alike the barriers raised by man and those

62

DREDGING, AND COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS.

of Nature's forming. While in the Laminarian Zone
the grapnel should be used, and the masses of sea-weed
hauled up examined for small Mollusca, Crustacea,
Sponges, &c.
Storing Specimens.—From time to time such of the
captures as are wanted for preservation in fluid are laid
aside and allowed to drain. Fishes, unless when very
small, have a slit cut in the abdomen to allow the fluid
to enter, and are wrapt separately in pieces of thin canvas (scrim). Crabs are also wrapt in canvas. In packing the store-jars, it is of importance to keep the smaller
specimens by themselves, to prevent breakage. A little
cotton, wool, or fine tow, may be placed as an additional
security between each layer. Labels, being little slips
of thin block-tin with numbers punched or scratched on
them, may be tied to specimens, and any particulars as
to locality, depth in water, scarcity or abundance, and
nature of the ground,—whether rocky, sandy, or muddy,—
stated in a log kept for the purpose. When large univalve Mollusca are preserved in fluid, a small hole should
be made in one of the whorls,—not at the point, as sometimes recommended,—to allow the spirit to enter. The
smaller Crustacea and other shells may be wrapt loosely
in thin tinfoil before being placed in the fluid.
The jars should be tightly corked, but must not be
yet finally sealed up for transmission, as the fluid willrequire to be renewed, or at least strengthened, in about
a week's time, to make up for the dilution caused by the
water passing out of the animals. After this has been
accomplished, they may be luted with Peron's composition (H.) Sealing-wax maybe employed where the preservative is either glycerine or a saline solution, but should
never be used where spirit is employed, on account of
its solubility in that fluid.
, The small Medusse from the towing-net should be put
separately in tubes of suitable size, and preserved either
in glycerine or the creosote solution (Gr.) While yet
floating in the large glass jar, the tube is inverted over
the Medusa like a diving-bell, and suddenly reversed,

WET PREPARATIONS.

63

when it will be found that the animal is captured. The
water is then carefully poured out of the tube, retaining
the animal in the bottom of it. After standing a short
time in this state, the preservative is added. Glycerine,
although it has a tendency to render most bodies too
transparent, answers very well for these diminutive
creatures.

WET PREPARATIONS.
Where time, space, and, what is still more important,
money, can be spared, a large portion of Invertebrate animals, and many of the Yertebrata as well, should be put
up as wet preparations. Thousands of interesting specimens' can neither be stuffed nor dried, and of those
that can, not a few are more valuable wet than dry. The
young of Mammals, as well as all the rarer species of
moderate size,—the young of Birds, Fishes, Beptiles,
and Amphibians ; Crustacea, Arachnida, Myriapoda;
many Insects, Molluscoida, Echinoderms, and Polyps,
are all more valuable in fluid than dry; while the
Vermes, naked Mollusca, and Medusas cannot be otherwise preserved than as wet preparations.
In the chapter on Dredging will be found instructions for placing the various specimens in fluid, with a
view to immediate preservation.
FLUIDS.
I t is quite obvious that the first desideratum is a
good antiseptic solution,—*.e., one which shall perfectly
reserve the natural form and texture of the specimen,
ould a liquid be obtained which, in addition to this,
would preserve the colour as well, and at the same time
be free from the objection of rapid evaporation or crys- ;
tallization, it would be hailed as the greatest boon to!

g

64

WET PREPARATIONS.

zoological science. Unfortunately, no such fluid has
yet been obtained, nor is it at all likely ever to be.
The antiseptic fluids most successfully employed are
saline solutions, turpentine, glycerine, and spirit of
various degrees of strength, and in combination with
other substances.
Saline solutions, of which the brine used in curing
meat may be taken as the type, have long been in use.
They consist of common salt, with various combinations
of alum, nitre, cream of tartar, &c, with water. To
Mr G-oadby is due the credit of perfecting these solutions ; and he has given three receipts for their preparation (F. 1, 2, and 3), the last being intended especially
for Medusae.
"While thankfully acknowledging the service rendered
to collectors by Mr G-oadby's solutions, the writer cannot recommend their use in fitting up specimens for a
public or a private collection, unless in the absence of
proper supplies of strong and colourless spirit, on account of their extreme liability to crystallize on any
portion of the specimen not quite covered, as well as on
the lip and sides of the jar.
Turpentine has frequently been recommended for preserving wet specimens. The chief objection to its use
is its non-solubility in water. The specimen, in order
to be put up in it, requires to be first thoroughly dried ;
an operation impossible in many cases, and injurious in
all.
Glycerine has of late obtained a large amount of attention as a preservative; but, unfortunately, its high
Erice, combined with the difficulty of obtaining it pure,
ave hitherto prevented its extensive use by zoologists.
Although glycerine communicates a somewhat unnatural degree of transparency to specimens preserved in it,
and renders them, in the majority of cases, unfit for
subsequent dissection, yet, when judiciously employed,
its value as an antiseptic solution is very great, seeing

65

FLUIDS.

that by means of it alone can the colours of many animals be at all preserved. Fishes, Crustaceans, Starfishes, Sea-Anemones, and the smaller Medusae, may be
successfully preserved in this fluid. The larger Medusas
and worms have not as yet been found to succeed. As
a general rule, the glycerine should not be diluted, and
in any case not more than a fourth of its bulk of water
should be added. A small piece of corrosive sublimate
will prevent moulding.
Spirit is, after all, the best medium known for the
preservation of wet preparations, whether zoological or
anatomical. Its usually high price has been urged as
an objection, but now that the G-overnment liberally
permits the use of methylated spirit for scientific purposes free of duty, all hindrance to its extensive use is
removed.
The spirit in which specimens are finally put up
should be perfectly transparent, and free from the
slightest tint. To secure this, it should be kept, not in
a cask, but in a glass carboy, and well corked up.
As a general rule, proof spirit will be found quite
strong enough for the preservation of any zoological
specimen; while many, as Zoophytes, do not require a
greater strength than 20 under proof. In the absence
of a hydrometer, the 60 over-proof spirit may be reduced to proof by adding three parts by measure of
water to five of spirit; and to 20 under-proof, by mixing
equal quantities of water and spirit.
If possible, distilled water should be employed, and in
all cases the mixture must stand some hours before
using, to allow the heat to escape.
Eorthe preservation of the larger Medusas, as also othergelatinous-like animals, the writer knows no fluid equal
to that obtained by him in the summer of 1857 (G)*
The proper quantity of creosote is dissolved separately
in a little spirit, and then added. If properly man^
aged, the fluid will generally be just sufficiently dense
to float the Medusae near its surface.
£

66
GLASS JARS.
These may be made of any form, to suit the accommodation for them in the museum, or the fancy of the
collector, always provided that the necks are of sufficient
width to admit the specimens. Many valuable collections of small subjects, intended more for use than ornament, are merely put into wide-mouthed stoppered
phials. When intended, however, for a museum, specimens require other treatment, and the selection of proper jars is a matter of some importance. One thing
must in all cases be attended to,—i.e., the clearness
and freeness from flaw of the glass.
Oval jars were formerly much in use, on account of
their economizing the spirit, but they are now seldom
employed, owing to their great liability to break. The
best form of jar is certainly the cylindrical, with a
slightly projecting base, to insure stability, and a rim
to secure the cover. This rim may be either a'mere
thin turned-over fold of the upper edge of the jar, as in
phials used by apothecaries, or a solid bead brought
round i t ; or, still better, it may be formed by forcing
out the upper edge into the form of a shallow cup,
about half an inch wider than the cylinder (in section
fig. 9). The latter form is undoubtedly the best, as it
affords a rest for a piece of whalebone from which to suspend the specimen.
Very beautiful wide-mouthed jars, with glass stoppers ground to them, are sometimes used, but they are
expensive. They have the recommendation, however,
that at any time the specimen can be removed for examination, and replaced without trouble.
A jar invented by Mr P . Stevenson, Lothian Street,
Edinburgh (the upper part of which is represented in
section in fig. 10), although, like the above, more expensive than the common form, deserves notice. I t ia
a cylinder without any lip, but with two small notches
placed opposite each other to receive the ends of a piece
of whalebone. The mouth of the jar is ground smooth,

MANIPULATION.

67

iand fitted with a circular plate of glass, held in position
by a metallic rim. The mouth of the jar, for further
security, is anointed with a mixture of lard and white
wax before the glass cover is put on. These jars, when
made very shallow in proportion to their width, answer
admirably for the larger Medusae, as their glass covers
permit of the specimen being seen from above.
In ordering glass jars it is well to fix a gradation of
sizes. Twelve, nine, six, and three inches in height,
by one and a-half, two, and three inches, or more, if required, will be found the most generally useful.
Glass tubes of various sizes are useful for serpents,
worms, and some zoophites. They can be readily
closed at the bottom, and may be fitted at the mouth
like other jars, or brought together by means of the
blow-pipe. In the latter case the tube must be longer
than ultimately required for the size of the specimen.
,The snake being inserted in the dry tube, the portion
to be closed is subjected to the flame of the blowpipe,
and, when sufficiently softened,' is drawn out to a point.
When cold this point is broken off, so as to leave a
small hole for the entrance of the spirit. The tube,
slightly heated so as to expand the air, is placed, opening downwards, in a vessel containing spirit until cold.
The tube is again heated slightly in the hand, to cause
the vapour of the spirit to fill it and expel the air; it is
then again inverted in a vessel of spirit, and this is repeated until there is sufficient fluid in the tube to cover
the specimen. I t is then only necessary to dry and
apply the thin point to the blowpipe, and twist it round
to close the opening. ,

MANIPULATION.
The preparation being well soaked, so as to remove
any colour likely to affect the fluid, the next thing, after
selecting the proper solution and jars, is to put up the
specimen.
. As a general rule, it is judicious to wait until subjects

68

WET PREPARATIONS.

for several jars are ready before commencing to put
them up.
Each jar should contain but one species only.
To Display Specimens in Jars.—In all cases the specimen chosen for display should be as perfect in all its
parts, and as free from distortion, as possible. If of
such a weight and consistency that it will support itself
in a proper attitude, it is merely required to slip the
animal' into the jar previously fijled to the required
height with the solution. This will be found to be the
case with Sponges, Zoophytes, most Star-fishes, many
Molluscs, and some of the larger Crustaceans.
By far the greater number of animals require support,
and this may be supplied in several ways.
Specimens may be simply suspended by threads from
pieces of whalebone, in such jars as afford a restingplace for them (figs. 9 and 10), The thread used is

Fig. 9.

£*g-10«

that known as "Barber's Twist," and should be of the

MANIPULATION.

69

very thinnest kind. Where this is not to be obtained?
very fine white sewing silk may be substituted.
Bound and thin-edged jars are not suitable for suspending specimens in, as the thread carries over the
fluid, and causes loss by evaporation. In these jars
the specimens require to be displayed on tablets, and
these may be used of three kinds,—i.e., glass, mica, or
bees' wax, coloured or white. The tablets should fit as
nearly as possible the width and height of the jar.
When glass is used, the specimen is secured to it by
simply tying both round with the strong twist.
Mica is better, as it is easily punctured, and the
threads may be passed through the holes by means of
a needle. In putting up thin intestinal worms, it will
be sufficient to make two holes in a perpendicular line,
and pass the specimen with care through each successively.
Waxen tablets are useful where parts dissected out
are to be displayed, as they can be easily fixed in the
required position by means of strong bristles, or small
splinters of quill. Pins are sometimes used, but they
are apt to corrode.
The chief objection to the use of wax is, that it only
permits of one side being seen.
To Secure Preparation Jars.—The method of enclosing preparation jars most generally in use, and, all
things considered, probably the best where expense is a
consideration, is the following:—
A circular piece of block tin, rather wider than the
mouth of the jar, is cut, and being laid on the rim, a hard
substance, such as a knife handle, is rubbed round it, until the overlapping edges fit like a cap over the rim.
This is then laid aside until wanted. Some ox bladder,
steeped till nearly putrid,* is then stretched firmly over
the mouth of the jar, and a thin but strong cord tightly
wound round several times under the lip and tied.
* This will require about four days in summer, and two to three
weeks in winter.

70

CABINETS, CATALOGUES, AND LABELS.

Before the bladder dries, the tin plate is applied over it,"
and over that again another layer of bladder, which is
treated like the first. The surplus bladder is now cut
off close to the string, and the preparation set aside
until the covering is dry, when it should receive several
—at least five—coats of paint. Some manipulators tie
on the last layer of bladder by means of coarse string,
which they remove before proceeding to paint. Common oil paint answers as well as, if not better, than
coloured varnishes, since the spirit does not act on it.
The last coating, however, should be what is technically
called " flatting," i.e., paint thinned with turpentine
instead of oil.
A very neat way of closing jars is by grinding the
rim* smooth, and fitting to it a circular piece of glass.
The glass is luted to the lip, and over all is tied a piece
of bladder as above. When dry, the bladder is cut from
the plate of glass, leaving only so much as will cover
the lip. The bladder which is left may be painted, and
then has the appearance of a clasp-rim. The luting
first employed was simply a solution of gum arabic.
Common glue, marine glue, or a lute proposed by M.
Peron for another purpose, and by him termed litliocolle (H.), will be found to answer even better than
gum.

CABINETS, CATALOGUES, AND LABELS.
The amateur living at home should endeavour by all
means to have his collections systematically arranged,
and for this purpose, it is of the first importance that
his cabinets should be properly planned. While much
will depend on the space which can be rendered available for museum purposes, as also on the condition of
the naturalist's pecuniary means, there are certain lead* This can only be done with thin-lipped and beaded jars.

CABINETS, CATALOGUES, AND LABELS.

71

ing principles which can always be more or less attended
to. Even the traveller abroad might, with advantage,
imitate, so far as in his power, the conditions required in
a home cabinet.
Cabinets may be of two kinds,—i.e., frames with sliding
drawers, or simply boxes into which are fitted a series of
wooden trays for the reception of the specimens. The
former, though more expensive, is without doubt the
better form, as it admits of access being had to any drawer
without disturbing the others. The drawers may be made
of well-dried deal, though wainscot is superior, from its
lesser tendency to warp. The sizes of the cabinets' will
of course vary with the space at disposal. It may be
remarked, however, that, for British birds, the drawers
or trays need in no instance exceed two and a-half feet
in length by two in width and six inches in depth. In
laying birds in the drawers, they should be placed, in a
single tier, on their backs, with their feet towards the
observer, so that they can be readily observed without the
necessity of handling. A layer of cotton-wad may be
placed with advantage in the bottom of the drawer.
For the protection of the specimens from mildew and
mites, the cabinets should be kept in a dry place, and
each drawer should have placed in the corner of it a
small vessel, containing either turpentine or naphtha ;
the latter is better than the former, because, if it should
be upset on the specimens, it completely evaporates
without leaving any mark,—but its smell is by no means
pleasant.
Drawers for British Eggs or Shells need not be more
than three inches deep inside. For some of the Crustaceans deeper drawers will be necessary.
Cabinets for Insects maybe made with sliding drawers
two and a-half inches deep, and lined at the bottom with
a layer of cork. A very neat plan is, to procure from
dealers, book-shaped boxes, made in the same form as
portable draught-boards. The collection may thus occupy a place on the book-shelves. Store boxes may be
made to contain permanently the collection, and these

72

CABINETS, CATALOGUES, AND LABELS.

can be got up by any joiner. They are made thus:
Two trays, say one foot square by two and a-half inches
deep, are joined at one side with an iron hinge or a piece
of leather tacked across the length, in such a way that
either tray will represent the lid of the other. For
further security the trays may be rabbeted. Each tray is
fitted with a layer of cork, about a quarter to three-eighths
of an inch in thickness. On the cork is to be pasted a
sheet of white cartridge paper, which covers the blemishes, and affords a good background for the insects.
The plan generally adopted in arranging insects permanently in a cabinet is to place them in perpendicular columns, beginning at the left upper corner of the
drawer or box. These columns should be marked off
with lines in red or black ink, and must be regulated
in width by the average size of the insects. If possible,
spaces should be left for such species as are not yet in
the collection, so that additions may be subsequently
made without, on the one hand, destroying the serial
order of the specimens, or on the other, necessitating
the constant readjustment of the whole.
In labelling insects, the name of the genus or subgenus should precede the species belonging to it. In
each drawer a small muslin bag filled with camphor
should be fastened in some convenient position by means
of a pin.
In sending insects home from abroad, store-boxes
should be used in preference to either books or cabinets
with drawers. Having taken precaution to make the
specimens, as well as the boxes themselves, thoroughly
dry, a supply of camphor bags is to be provided, and the
junction of the two halves of the box rendered air and
dust-tight by pasting a broad slip of strong calico round it.
In arranging Eggs, Crustacea, and Shells, in cabinets,
provision must be made to keep the specimens from
mixing. This may be done in two ways, either by useing small card-board trays, or by mounting the specimens on tablets of various kinds.
Tablets may be made of various materials, i.e., thick
cardboard, thin wood (as that used in making cigar

CABINETS, CATALOGUES, AND LABELS.

73

boxes), or glass. When wood or cardboard is employed,
it ought to be covered either with white or coloured
paper, according to the fancy of the manipulator. Should
coloured paper be preferred, it will be well to select a
material which is surface-coloured and not dyed through,
on account of the liability of the latter to fade. The
glass tablets may be either ground on the edges, or,
what is still better, bound with stripes of bookbinders'
cloth or paper. A mixture of stiff flour paste with glue
is the best substance for fastening the binding to the
glass.
The tablets, of whatever material, should be cut to
sizes varying in regular order according to the dimensions of the specimens. For British shells the tablets
may be cut as follows :—Three and a-half inches diameter, by two, four, six, eight, and ten inches. The Pinna
alone will require a larger tablet, which may be seven
inches by ten. By following this rule the tablets will
fit accurately into the drawer intended for their reception, without leaving irregular vacancies. For crustaceans and echinderms another series will be required,
the diameters of which will be eight inches, by four, six,
or eight, liable, however, to be reduced exactly one-half
for the accommodation of the smaller species.
In fastening specimens on the tablets, glue, a mixture
of glue and paste, marine glue, liquid glue, or Peron's
luting (H,), may be used. Minute or very delicate specimens should not be fastened directly on the tablets,
but may be protected in various ways. Minute shells
may be placed in a tube, either loose or on a slip of thin
card-board, fastened to the cork by means of a slit in the
latter, and a little luting. The tubes may be fixed with
threads on the tablets in such a way as to be removable
at pleasure.
The writer makes use of round glass-topped boxes for
the protection of delicate Crustaceans. The bottom is
first removed from the box, which is then fixed by means
of marine glue to the glass tablet in such a way that
the glass takes the place of the original bottom, and the
box being thus rendered transparent on both sides, per*

74

CABINETS, CATALOGUES, AND LABELS.

mits of the examination of the inclosed specimen without injury. The lid being left in its original condition, can be removed when more minute examination
is necessary.
I n placing eggs on tablets, they should be fixed with
the hole downwards.
Wet preparations require to be placed on shelves, in
such a position that, while they have a sufficient supply
of light, they are not exposed to the direct rays of the sun.
Catalogues are of such manifest value to all systematic collectors that their use need not be insisted on. They
are of two sorts ; i.e., chronological—recording the additions from day to day made to the collection; and
systematic. It may be safely left to the discretion of
the collector whether or not to form a catalogue of
the first kind, while the other must be looked upon as
indispensable.
The plan followed by the writer in forming systematic catalogues, though in the first instance entailing a
considerable amount of labour, is yet in the end so satisfactory that he confidently recommends its adoption.
In the first instance, it is necessary to select a book
which is to be taken as the authority for the classification of the group under study. Having done this, a
complete catalogue of all the species described is written
out on foolscap paper, the orders being written in a
larger hand than the families, and these again larger
than the genera. It should be so arranged that each
page will contain from six to eight specific names, under
each of which is left a clear space. As a species is obtained, the letter a is written under its name, and on the
same line the locality from whence procured, and the date
of its capture, when known. Should a second and third
specimen of the same species be added to the collection,
the letters b and c follow in the catalogue in the same
way as the letter a, and the like particulars are stated.
Each addition is thus catalogued in its systematic order,
while the blanks under specific names indicate at a
glance the extent of the desiderata. At page 80 is

CABINETS, CATALOGUES, AND LABELS.

75

printed the first page of a catalogue of British Echinodermata kept on this plan.
Labels.—Without exact records of the localities from
whence specimens have been procured, it is not too much
to say that they are all but worthless. Numbers referring to catalogues are sometimes affixed to specimens as
a means of identification ; but this plan should in most
cases be avoided, as liable to lead to confusion. Labels
should be affixed to all specimens, affording, as they do,
a ready means of ascertaining what is known of their
names and localities, without the trouble of turning up
catalogues. The size of the label must be regulated by
the bulk of the specimen, but need in no case exceed
three inches by two. Printed or lithographed forms
may be procured at a very trifling cost, and have always
a neat appearance. The following form will be found
to be very useful. I t is represented as filled up with
the name, &c, of the first specimen in the page of the
printed form of catalogue, the small capitals indicating
the words lithographed or printed on the label:—

FAMILY.—Comatulidse.
GENUS.—Comatula, Lam.
SPECIES.—rosacea, Link.
The Rosy Feather-Star (a).
LOCALITY.—Lamlash Bay.

8, 1854.

The letter a serves to identify it with the specimen recorded in the catalogue, while the figures 8,1854, show
that it was collected in August of the year 1854. The
first line may be left out, and the name of the family,
if desired, placed before the species composing it.
Labels for insects require to be of a smaller size, and
it is found convenient to have the titles of the family,
genus, and species on separate slips, each being distin-

76

HUCIPES;

guished by the relative size of the letters. The slip
bearing the specific name, however, should also have
recorded on it the habitat and date.

RECIPES.
A. ARSENICAL SOAPS, &c.
1.—BECCEUH'S.

Camphor
White Arsenic, in powder
White Soap
Salts of Tartar
Powdered Chalk

5 oz.
2 lbs.
2 lbs.
12 oz.
4 02.

The soap, cut in thin slices, is put in a vessel, with a
little water, over a slow fire, and stirred till melted,
when the chalk and salts of tartar are added. The pot
is then removed from the fire, the arsenic added, and
the whole thoroughly mixed and brought to the consistence of a thick paste. The camphor, beiiig previously
triturated in a mortar, with a little spirit of wine, is
finally added, and the paste put into a jelly-pot and
labelled.
2.—SWAINSON'S.

White Arsenic
White Soap..........
Carbonate of Potash
Distilled Water
Camphor

1 oz.
1 oz.
1 dr.
6 drs.
2 drs.

This composition is formed into cakes like ordinary
soap.
3.—SIMON'S.

Scented Soap
Alum.......
Pearl Ash
Common Salt

ljlb.
8 oz.
4 oz.
4 oz.

77

RECIPES.

Smox's—(continued).
Powdered Chalk*.
Powdered Camphor.
Water
...,
Oil of Petrolium

8 oz.
2 oz.
1£ lb.
2 oz.

The other ingredients being mixed, the oil of petrolium and camphor are last added.
4.—LAURENT'S.

Arseniate of Potash....
Sulphate of Alumina....
Powdered Camphor
White Soap
Spirits of Wine
Essence of Thyme

2 drs.
2 drs.
2 drs.
OJ oz.
6 oz.
3 drops.

The first two are to be placed in a bottle with the
soap, and the spirit poured over them. When dissolved, the other ingredients are added. This composition requires to be carefully stoppered.
5.—BULLOCK'S ARSENICAL POWDER.

White Arsenic.......
.,,,. 1 lb.
Burnt Alum
1 lb.
Tanners' Bark
2 lbs.
Camphor..
OJ lb.
Musk................
0 | oz.
The three first are to be powdered, mixed, and passed
through a sieve; after which the camphor and musk
are to be added, and the whole thoroughly mixed,
B. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE SOLUTION.
This is prepared by dissolving two drachms of corrosive sublimate in an ounce of spirit* I t should be applied with a earners hair brush.
C. GUM TRAGACANTH.
The gum is steeped in water until it swells into s
firm paste. When required for use, it is to be heated

78

, RECIPES.

by placing the vessel among boiling water.
of B. will keep it from moulding.

A few drops

D. SHIELD'S "SUGAR" FOR MOTHS.
Ale
.
Half a pint (nearly).
Common Honey ....... Half lb.
Sugar
Quarter lb.
Rum
Half a wine glassful.
ESSe

t l ^ i f B i t t e r } Five Drops.

The ale is heated, and then the sugar and honey added,
and, when cold, the rum and oil of almonds,—the latter
being previously mixed together.
E, ANOTHER " SUGAR."
A , thick syrup, made of brown sugar, with a small
quantity of rum.
F. GOADBY'S SOLUTIONS.
1. Bay Salt
4 oz.
Alum........
;...
2 oz.
Corrosive Sublimate
2 grains.
Rain-Water
1 quart.
2. Bay Salt
White Arsenic
Corrosive Sublimate
Boiling Rain-Water

Jib.
20 grains.
2 grains.
1 quart.

3. For Medusse a saturated solution of bay salt is
reduced to the strength indicated by a head marked
1148'. To the quart of this is added two ounces of alum,
and the whole diluted to half strength. The specimens
are macerated in this for twenty-four hours, and, if small,
are then transferred to the bay salt solution, of strength
1148. Larger specimens require to be steeped for two
or three weeks before being placed in the full strength
solution of bay salt. The aluminous fluid must be daily
changed during the process of steeping.

RECIPES.

79

G. FLUID FOR MEDUSJE.
Methylated Spirit, reduced to 30 underproof... 1 quart.
Creosote
40 drops.
H. PERON'S LUTING.
Common Resin.
Red Ochre, finely pulverized.
Yellow Wax.
Oil of Turpentine.
The wax being melted in a vessel over the fire, the resin
is next added, and then the ochre is gradually stirred
in. Lastly, the turpentine is poured in, and the whole
boiled for a short time.
In order to prevent the mixture taking fire, extreme
caution must be used; and the vessel ought to be capable of containing at least three times the quantity
made at a time. According as the ochre or other ingredients predominate, the substance will be brittle or
elastic.
I. NICOLAS' GUM PASTE *
Colocynth......
1 oz.
Gum Arabic, in powder
2 oz.
Starch
3 oz.
Cotton, finely cut...
OJoz.
The colocynth is cut into small fragments, and boiled
in about a pint of water; the liquor is then strained, and
the starch and gum added to it. The mixture is allowed
to simmer on a slow fire for a short time. The cotton,
being previously as finely reduced as possible by clipping with scissors, is added, and the whole well mixed.
A few drops of the corrosive sublimate solution will
be an improvement.
The cement may be softened by placing it in boiling
water.
* " Manuel du Naturaliste Preparateur," by M. Boitard. Paris,
Roret,1853

80
(SPECIMEN PAGE OF CATALOGUE IN PROGRESS.)

CLASS

ECHINODERMATA.

Order L—CRINOIDiE.
Family 1.—COMATULIDJE.

Comatula, Lam.—
C. rosacea, Link. Kosy Feather-Star.
a Lamlash Bay. Dry. 8, 1854.
b
Do.
Inspirit. 1857.
c
Do.
Stalked condition. Inspirit. 1857.

Order II.—OPHIURIDiE.
Family 2.—OPHIUILE.

Ophiura, Lam.—
0. texturata, Lam.

Common Sand-Star.

a St Abb's Head. Dry. 1856.

0. albida, Forbes. Lesser Sand-Star.
a Lamlash Bay. Dry. 1856.

Ophiocoma, Ag.—
0. neglecta, Johnston. Gray Brittle-Star,

0. Ballii, Thomson. Ball's Brittle-Star.

0, punctata, Forbes. Dotted Brittle-Star.

APPENDIX.*
IN revising, with a view to bringing out a new edition,
the little work of our much lamented friend, the late
James Boyd Davis, we find little either to acid to, or
amend in the preceding pages. Having now maintained
its place for the last fourteen years as one of the best of
the smaller manuals of its kind, our editorial duties consist in merely adding a note here and there, with a view
to bringing it up to the present state of knowledge in
regard to one or two points. Much might, no doubt, be
added to, but without, at the same time, materially
adding to its value, and with the certainty of destroying
the original distinctive character of the book.
I t has, however, been thought that a few observations
regarding the equipment of a naturalist about to visit a
wild or unexplored country, and the best method of transporting his collections when there, might prove useful to
many who, while anxious to add to our knowledge, fail
for want of the preliminary instruction. It must, however, be premised that these directions are not intended
for the information of the professional naturalist, but
only for the guidance of the traveller, military or naval
officer, and particularly of the medical officers of both
branches of the service, whose preliminary education
and opportunities peculiarly fit them for the task of collecting Natural History specimens. There are also
numerous amateurs, engaged in various civil occupations,
scattered over little known portions of the world, to
whom a hint here and there might not be unacceptable.
None but a musuem curator could believe in the lati* By MM. Brown and Middleton (April 1872).

82

APPENDIX.

tude with which well meaning but uninstructed amateurs regard the term " Natural History collections," or
the useless rubbish which, with much travail and expense, they convey to the too often unappreciative wardens of the storehouses of science ! The naturalist, pure
and simple, will require no such instruction. His experience will already have pointed out to him the best
outfit and method of transporting his treasures, or the
locality to which his researches can be best devoted to the
exploration of.
Outfit.—Double-barrel guns, with spare nipples; and
if he is going to a thickly populated country, it might
be well to take a few cheap spare ones to lend to native
hunters. The traveller ought always to remember that
a fowling-piece will throw ball perfectly well at short
distances, and that a bullet-mould of a size fit to cast
balls for his fowling-piece will be a welcome addition to
his outfit. In most wild countries, especially if wooded,
you can generally approach animals within thirty or forty
yards, so that a rifle is unnecessary, unless sport be the
chief object in view. Fine powder in canisters, and fine
shot (Nos. 8 and 11) ought, unless the traveller is bound
to a very civilised country, to be taken from England, as
the powder and shot sold in most out of the way places
are coarse.
As travellers often encumber themselves with a leadmelting ladle, or resort to the most elaborately inconvenient methods of melting lead in frying-pans, &c, it
may be useful to describe a method used by one of the
editors of this manual for melting lead. He learned it
among the Eocky Mountains hunters, and practised it for
years with entire success. Chip a deepish hole in a
convenient block of wood with the corner of an axe, or a
knife,—cut a groove therefrom to act as a spout, then
put into the hole a few bits of lead, lay over them a few
live coals (of wood, or whatever the camp fire is composed of), blow with the mouth, and in a short time the
lead is melted. Then pour into the mould, put on more
coals, and in more lead, until enough of bullets are melted.

APPENDIX.

83

By this method the lead is more quickly melted, and
the bullets better than if melted in a ladle exposed to
the air. The difference is also great, in so far, that the
temporary ladle can be thrown away, while the iron one
must be carried about.
Arsenical soap in tin cases; brushes of different sizes.
A shaving brush is a very useful kind for most purposes.
Scalpels, scissors, forceps of different lengths for inserting cotton into the necks of birds' skins; needles and
thread.
A few small traps with which to capture small (mostly
nocturnal) mammals.
Strong landing-net for water molluscs, &c. Two stout
insect sweeping nets.
A few dozen of small and strong broad-mouthed
bottles; empty quinine bottles are very useful, and can
generally be bought in small quantities from druggists ;
a couple of corked pocket boxes, and some small tubes
of glass with corks to fit; stone jars for reptiles and
fishes in spirits, to fit firm into a box with wooden partitions. " If animals in spirits are to be largely collected,
a supply of sheet tin or zinc, with a pair of soldering
irons, and a supply of soft solder, must be taken instead
of stone jars. Cylindrical cases can be then made of any
size required. By means of the soldering apparatus,
also, empty powder canisters and other tin vessels can
be easily converted into receptacles for specimens."*
A few gross of the best chip pill boxes in nests.
A dozen corked store boxes (about 14 inches by 11
inches, and 2J inches deep) fitted perpendicularly in a
tin chest.
A few yards of india-rubber waterproof sheeting, as a
temporary covering to collections in wet weather, or in
crossing rivers.
If in a new country, removed from villages, a set of
carpenter's tools would be useful, if not indispensable.
* H. "W. Bates in "Hints for Travellers," vol. xvi. Proceedings Royal Geographical Society, London.

84

APPENDIX.

If a sea voyage is before the naturalist, a small grappling-iron, with four or five curved hooks on the end of
it, to attach to a rope, and throw overboard to secure
floating masses of sea-weed, &c, which invariably harbour numerous objects of interest, would be a valuable
part of his equipment.
If he has botanical objects in view, he would require
to take drying paper, boards, tin cases, &c.; but, as these
do not come within the scope of this manual, we must
omit further notice of the botanist's equipment, which is,
however, even more simple. The geologist requires special
training, and in most geological text-books (such as Professor Page's) directions for collecting are given. The
naturalist will find that the lighter his equipment, and the
smaller the space he reduces his impedimenta to, the fewer
will be the troubles he is preparing for himself. If the
youthful traveller has a weakness, it is yielding to the
blandishments of travelling outfitters, and taking, as[a
consequence, a multiplicity of things useful perhaps, but
only negatively so,—being unnecessary. An outfit may
be much lightened by having all the provisions and other
consumable articles packed in square tin cases, and in
boxes and jars of such forms as to render them available
for containing specimens. If he is going to a tropical
country, he would require a drying cage for specimens
to prevent them being destroyed by insects before being
ready to be packed.
Unexplored Countries.—The botany of most countries
has been better explored than the zoology. New Guinea
and islands east of it, Northern Australia, Borneo,
Thibet, and Central Asia generally, Equatorial Africa,
and the eastern side of the Andes, from east of Bogota
to the south of Bolivia, &c, are, perhaps, the countries
from which the zoologist might expect to reap the
greatest harvest of discoveries. The traveller should be
particular in giving the exact localities of his specimens.
This has been much neglected, and accordingly confusion abounds regarding the distribution of many species.
Wooden labels, branded with a number or letter, or

APPENDIX.

85

strong parchment ones, ought to be firmly affixed to all
large specimens. However, if all the specimens from one
locality can be put into a single box, one label will
suffice for all. The initial letter of the localities might
be useful in case the catalogue got astray.
Boohs had better be left behind. They are only, in
most cases, encumbrances; though, if the traveller has
abundance of means of transportation, or head-quarters to
which he can frequently return, it is well to have the chief
books on the Natural History of the country, or of the
Orders to which the naturalist's attention may be principally directed, at hand to refer to. It often happens that,
if this is so, critical species may be detected, when, in the
absence of books, they may be passed over in ignorance of their characters. In most cases, if there are no
special works on the zoology of the country visited,
the British Museum catalogues (to be bought for a few
shillings each at the Museum) will be the explorer's best
and most concise guides. If he is studying a special
group or groups, he will know the best works on the
subject. If a scientific traveller, in the broadest sense of
the term, he will require mathematical tables, &c, which,
without any directions in this place, he will know how
to procure. Perhaps a study of the following works,
either in the course of his expedition, or before starting,
maybe of value to the inexperienced explorer:—Galton's " Art of Travel," Colonel Jackson's « How to Observe," edited by Norton Shaw, Lord's and Baines'
"Shifts and Experiences of Camp Life, Travel, and
Exploration" (especially Part XXI., which can be got
separately from the publisher (H. Cox), as it contains
directions for preserving objects of natural history), and
the " Admiralty Manual of Scientific Observation." Eor
the ordinary traveller, an admirable little manual has
been published by the Eoyal Geographical Society, entitled " Hints for Travellers." I t may be had by an intending explorer on making proper application to the
eminent secretary, Mr H. W. Bates, who has added to
it directions for Natural History collections (from which

86

APPENDIX.

we have extensively borrowed),—doubly valuable as
coming from the pen of the author of " The Naturalist
on the Amazon,"—perhaps the most successful zoologist collector who ever left this country. We believe
that we are not in error if we say that Mr Bates would
be glad to give the result of his extensive experience to
any bona fide intending collector, who might wish to
benefit by it. A few days' study in a museum, under
the direction of some qualified naturalist, would be of
more value than months study of books.*
Collecting..—He should try and get as many species as
possible, and if he does not know what would be most
valued at home, perhaps the safest general guide to go
upon, is to take the smallest and least showy specimens, as
he may safely calculate that these have had a less chance
to attract attention than the largest and more brilliant
forms. If, however, he is in a new region, or especially
in a distant oceanic island, he should endeavour to collect
every species he sees, as by that means remarkable facts
regarding the distribution of the flora or fauna may be
brought out. I t is often more valuable to find a speciea
extending its range to a particular locality, than to discover an entirely new species. If ascending a high
mountain, it is, in all cases, valuable to form a collection of characteristic species, or those which give character to particular elevations, marking the elevation at
which they occur, either by means of the boiling-point
of water, by the aneroid, or more accurately by that
awkward instrument to carry—the mountain barometer.
Reptiles, such as lizards, tree frogs, batrachians ^generally, &c, should all be secured, as they will generally
* Most of the items of a naturalist's outfit may be got at a few
days' notice from one or other of the various dealers in natural
history specimens in London, several of whom have shops in the
vicinity of the British Museum. Their addresses, and much
useful information regarding the natural history prospects of the
country about to be visited, can also generally be obtained by
applying to the courteous and distinguished officers in charge of
the zoological collections in the British, Edinburgh, Liverpool,
or other large public museums.

APPENDIX.

87

yield interesting forms. If in a country where snakes
abound, a long pair of piercers or a cleft stick will be
found useful to secure them, without injuring that characteristic portion—the head.
Fishes from inland lakes and rivers will always yield
interesting forms. Large animals will be difficult to carry,
but, if this is found to be impracticable, skulls should
be procured, especially of allied species, such as bears,
&c. The heads of all seals, no matter how seemingly
common, will be valued, as well as the heads of whales,
porpoises, &c, in which case the cervical vertebrae should
be allowed to remain attached to the skull. Never boil
the skulls to clean them, and, above all, do not attempt
to scrape the flesh off. Merely cut the rough of the flesh
off with a knife, break up the brain through the foramen magnum with a pointed stick, rinse it out with
water, and then lay the skull in the sun to drain, after
which, the specimen may be packed in crates, casks, or
boxes, among dried hay, leaves, grass, or sea-weed, and
properly macerated and prepared after arriving home.
In collecting beetles, it is best to drop them into spirits.
If there is no immediate opportunity of preparing them,
put a piece of rag among them to prevent them rubbing
against each other in transportation. Butterflies, and
many other such soft-bodied insects, may be readily preserved by pinching with the nail, or the forceps, the
chest, after which the wings fold back. Then wrap the
insect lonely in a slip of paper, with the wings folded
back as it died, and lay in a draft of air. After being
thoroughly dried, pack loosely among the folds of cotton
wool in air-tight boxes. After the naturalist arrives at
home, he can, at his leisure, soften and set the specimens
secundum artem. By this means a large collection can
be made speedily, and with little trouble. Spiders had
better be preserved in tubes with spirits.*
* In regard to the collecting and preserving of entomological,
as well as other collections, the Smithsonian Institution, at
Washington, have published various circulars which can either
be had on application, or are to be bought for a few pence from

88

APPENDIX.

Fishes and reptiles should in all cases, when at all
possible, be preserved in spirits, the specimens being
first steeped in spirits, and then, on account of water
being given out by the specimens, more fresh spirit
being added until the fluid is again got up to the proper
strength. A copper can is the best vessel to preserve
them in, the lid being easily unscrewed without disturbing the specimens or spilling the spirit whenever fresh
specimens require to be added. I n default of this,
tight jars, tubs, &c, with tightly fitted cork bungs,
may be used. Bare or delicate specimens should be
wrapped in rags or cotton wool, and preserved in separate
bottles. In packing for transportation home, the specimens should be packed between layers of rag or cotton
waste tightly as herrings in a barrel. If they are at all
loose the specimens will get broken, and the whole collection probably arrive home, after a long sea voyage, in
a state fit only to be thrown out of doors. Too great
care cannot be exercised on this point. One of the
editors after collecting, during two winters with infinite
toil and danger, nearly 200 species of North-West
American fishes—many of them new and rare—lost the
whole on the voyage home round Cape Horn by the
specimens being too loosely packed, though, knowing
the danger from this same point, the greatest care had
been taken to pack them; they had, however, settled
down with the rolling of the vessel et Jiinc illce lachrymce ! Land and fresh water shells may be enticed out
by being put in a basin of cold water, and then, after
draining off, killed by pouring boiling water over them
(Bates). Camphor and such like preservatives are of
little use in tropical climates. Arsenical soap and
arsenical powder are the naturalist's best allies, albeit
they ought to be carefully used, when natives not
remarkably addicted to cleanliness—but particularly to
gastronomic kleptomania—are around the naturalist's
its agent in London (Wesley, 28 Essex Street). The Ethnological Society (now the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain)
have also published similar directions for ethnological inquiry.

APPENDIX.

89

hut or camp fire. Never reject a specimen simply because it has the same name as some familiar home
animal. Popular names are not to be depended on,—
they are in most cases wrongly applied, for in popular
eyes there is no distinction between likeness and identity. Never reject the " crows/' " magpies/' " hawks/'
&c, of any country, though they are said to be only the
familiar old British species; if so, he will often miss
rare "representative forms."
" All collections/' Mr Bates remarks, " should be
sent to Europe with the least possible delay, as they
soon become deteriorated or spoilt unless great care be
bestowed on them. Dry skins of animals and birds
may be packed in wooden cases simply with sheets of
paper to separate the skins. Shells and skulls should
be provided with abundance of elastic padding, such as
cotton [hay or horse hair].
The boxes containing
insects and Crustacea should be placed in the middle of
large boxes surrounded by an ample bed of hay or other
light dry elastic material; if this last point be not carefully attended to, it will be doubtful whether such
collections will sustain a voyage without much injury."
If the collector is gifted with ordinary shrewdness and
bo-rihommie, he may derive much assistance from the
residents and natives of the country. The natives, as
soon as they see his daily work, will bring him specimens for sale, often rare, but as often exceedingly common. However, the young naturalist is warned not to
be led away by his enthusiasm, and give high prices for
what may be valuable; for what in his eyes may be
priceless, may be in those of the natives of small value
indeed. Accordingly, once commence giving a native
high prices for anything, and there is no stopping. He
will expect the same for everything he brings to you,
and if he does not get it, will lose heart and stop
collecting. If he should bring something very valuable,
say to him, if more should be desired, " Bring more of
this, and I will give you so and so." I t is, however,
better always to buy everything he brings, even though

90

APPENDIX.

a mere trifle should be given for it, rather than that the
aboriginal naturalist should stop collecting altogether,
as would most likely be the result if his native ardour
was restrained by a paucity of coins being forthcoming
for what may have cost him no small labour to obtain.
In selecting a country for his exploration, the naturalist should try and get one where there is abundant
means of transportation, such as along the banks of a
river, or along the side of a railway, or such like. To
transport specimens overland on men or horses' backs
from the interior of a continent, is in most cases so
expensive as to be prohibitory to any one without a
government subsidy at his back, or to whom the pecuniary view of the question is of no moment whatever.
Finally, though the outfit and mode of procedure
must vary in every country, patience, good humour,
untiring perseverance, courage, prudence, knowledge
of the native language and habits, and a faculty of
" getting along" with those around him, are parts of
the outfit of a naturalist which will never come wrong
to him, and will add infinitely to his success and pleasure in a life anxious it may be, as every earnest life is,
but yet happy and noble as any life spent in the study
of nature and in the enlargement of the boundaries of
knowledge must ever be.
Note, page 39.
Butterflies and moths are best killed by piercing the
body with a quill pen, or a grooved ivory point, dipped
in prussic acid. Placing them in a bottle with bruised
laurel leaves, is another good way of killing them. A
bottle having a few pieces of sesqui-carbonate of ammonia in it, has this advantage, that the insects killed
in it are perfectly relaxed, and are, in consequence, more
easily set.
Note, page 48.
Slugs are best preserved by the following method
given by a writer in the " Naturalist;"—" Make a cold

APPENDIX.

91

saturated solution of corrosive sublimate ; put it into a
deep wide-mouthed bottle; then take the slug you wish
to preserve, and let it crawl on a long slip of card.
When the tentacles are fully extended, plunge it suddenly into the solution; in a few minutes it will die
with the tentacles extended in the most life-like manner ; so much so, indeed, that if taken out of the fluid
it would be difficult to say whether it be alive or dead.
. . . A mixture of one and a half part of water and
one part of glycerine I find to be the best mounting
fluid. I t preserves the colour beautifully, and its antiseptic properties are unexceptional." They may be
mounted in a test-tube.
Note.—This solution of glycerine cannot be advantageously used for mounting mollusca or other animals
with shells, as glycerine has the property of dissolving
carbonate of lime.
TUNIC AT A.—Note, page 49.
Social and compound Ascidians, such as Botryllus,
may be preserved so as to retain at least some part of
their beautiful colouring. Mr C. W. Peach has mounted
them in cells with Canada balsam tolerably successfully,
but a better method would be to use " glycerine jelly,"
the composition of which is as follows :
Melted gelatine,
1 fluid ounce.
1 „ drachm.
White of egg,
2 ,, drachms.
Camphor water,
4 „ drachms.
Glycerine,
The white of egg is to be added to the melted gelatine
when cooling; this is then boiled and filtered through
fine flannel. The glycerine and camphor water, having
been previously mixed, are then added.
DREDGING.—Note, page 49.
The progress of dredging has made much advance of
late years. I t was formerly thought that no life existed
at the bottom of the deeper parts of the ocean. Later
investigations have gone to prove that there is an abun-

92

APPENDIX.

dance of living animals at all depths. In the late deepsea dredging expeditions, dredgings were taken from a
depth of about three miles, and these were teeming
with life. It would be out of place here to enter upon
the description of the apparatus used in dredging in
such immensely deep water, but one part of it may be of
use in ordinary work. The naval commander of these
expeditions (Capt. Calver, B.N.) suggested that hempen
tangles of freshly teased rope should be attached to the
dredge. His suggestion was adopted, and with the best
results; it was found that certain animals were invariably passed over by the dredge, and picked up by the
tangles. Probably such tangles sunk by weights and
drawn over rocky ground, where dredges would be useless, would give good results.
Note, page 74.
Eegarding the arrangement of microscopic objects,
the student will find the fullest and best directions we
are acquainted with in a paper by Dr James Murie on
the subject, in the Monthly Microscopical Journal,
1868, pp. 69-89.
CARBOLIC ACID.—Note, page 79.

Carbolic acid, which has been so much used of late
years as an antiseptic, is probably the best fluid medium
for preserving soft organisms. I t is, however, only in
storing specimens that its useful qualities are of advantage, as it always becomes dark in colour, and, of
course, obscures the specimens. The pure acid is useless,—it requires to be very much diluted. The following are good proportions—
Carbolic acid (crystallized), a dessert spoonful,
Boiling water, .
.
two quarts.
The crystallized acid must first be melted, and then
added to the hot water.
This solution is especially useful in preserving fishes,
care being taken to make an incision into the abdominal cavity.

INDEX.
Page

Acalephaa .
53
Actinias
52
Actinozoa .
52
Alcyonium
52
Amphibians
25,28
Annulosa, Sub-Kingdom
32
Apparatus for collecting
Insects .
37
Apparatus for Dredging
55
Arachnida .
35
Arsenical Soap
7Q
Powder
78
32
Articulata .
34
Barnacles .
12
Bats
39,42
Beetles
6
Bimana
15
Birds
20
Aquatics
23
Nests and Eggs of
23
Skeletons of
16
to Procure .
19
to Skin
85
Books
43
Breeding-cages
49
Bryozoa .
70
Cabinets .
92
Carbolic Acid
74
Catalogues
80
Specimen page of
79
Cements .
35
Centipedes
48
Cephalopods
,12
Cetaceans .
26
Chameleons
25
Chelonians
42
Chrysalids
34
Cirripeds .
86
Collecting .
39
Collecting-box for Insects

Collections, transportation of 89
52
Corals
77
Corrosive Sublimate
84, 90
Countries, unexplored
33
Crabs
34
Crabs, Hermit
26
Crocodiles .
32
Crustacea .
34
Parasitic
33
to Prepar
39
Dragon-Flies
4
Drawings of Animals
55
Dredges
57
Bags for
Dredging _.
55, < 91, 92
Board
Echinoderms
Eggs
Entomostraca
Eyes, Colour of
Fishes'
Fishes
Eyes
to Stuff .
Glass Jars .
Glycerine .
Jelly
Goadby's Solutions
Grebes
Gulls
Gum Tragacanth
Holothurias
Hydrozoa .
Humming Birds
Infusoria .
Insecta
Labels for
Parasitic
to Breed

59
60
50
23
34
13, 18
31
29. 87, 88
31
29

m
64
91
64,78
22
20
77
51
53
22
55
35, 87
75
37
43

94

INDEX.

Page
Insects, to Kill
39, 90
to Procure
36
to Set
.
40
Kangaroos.
11
Killing Animals .
4
Labels
75,84
Lamprey .
31
Larvge
42
Lizards
26
Lobsters
33
Maceration of Skeletons .
14
Mammals .
5
Skeletons of
13
Skulls of
10
to Procure
6
to";. Skin .
8
Measurement of Birds
18
of Mammals
13
Medusae
53
Preservatives for 78,79
Microscopic Preparations
92
Mollusca, sub-Kingdom .
45
Bivalve
48
Fresh-water
46
Land
47
Naked .
48
to Collect
45
to Preserve
47
Molluscoicla
49
Myriapoda
35
Neptune's Cup
52
Nests
23
Nets for Insects .
38
Towing .
58
Trawl
.
58
Newts
24
Nicolas' Gum Paste
79
Ophidians .
27
Outfit
.
.
82 83,84
Parasitic Crustaceans
34
Insects .
37
Peron's Cement
79
Planaria .
44
Polyps
53
Polyzoa
49
Preparation Jars .
66
Private Collections
3
Protozoa, Sub-Kingdom
54
Radiata, Sub-Kingdom
50
Kecipes
76
Reptiles .
. 25, 88
Rotifera
45

Page
Saurians .
26
Scorpions .
35
Sea-Cucumbers
51
Sea-Jellies
53
Pens .
52
Urchins
50
Seals
12
Serpents .
27
Shells
45
Spoon
46
to Collect
45
to Mount
73
Sieves
60
Skeletons, Artificial
13
Natural
13
of Birds
23
Skinning Birds
19
Fishes
29
Frogs
29
Mammals
8
Reptiles.
25, 28
Skulls, Human
7
Mammalian
87
Slugs, preservation of
90,91
Spiders
35
Spirit
65
Sponges
54
Star-fishes .
51
Stevenson's Jars .
Storing Specimens
62
Stuffing
2
Fishes
29
Grubs
42
Spiders
35
Sturgeon .
32
Sugar for Moths .
78
Toads
28
Tortoises .
25
Towing-Nets
55
Ball's
56
58
Trawl-Nets
Tunicata
49,91
64
Turpentine
Vermes
43
Vertebrata, Sub-Kingdom
5
Vocabularies
7
Wet Preparations .
63
to P u t tIp 67
Worms
43
44
Tape
to Preserve
44

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