H ILLINGI S UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN PRODUCTION NOTE University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library Brittle Books Project, 2009. fi !~ft~ ~.~rr'"" ~:7:9r b 5*ei j pil THE UNIVERSIT Y OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY. a3O7 The Study of History in Schools 00 01" The Study of History in Schools REPORT TO THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION BY The Committee of Seven ANDREW C. McLAUGHLIN, Chairman CHARLES H. HASKINS HERBERT B.- ADAMS GEORGE L. FOX LUCY M. SALMON ALBERT BUSHNELL HART H. MORSE STEPHENS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD. 1906 All rights reserved COPYRIGHT, '1899, By THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. Set up and electrotyped June, 1899. Reprinted January,. xgoo, November, 190! March, :1903; July, '1904; December, 1906. J. S. Gushing &Co. -Berwiek &Smith Norwood Mass. U.S.A. Preface IN the early winter of 1896 the committee making the following report was appointed by the American Historical Association to consider the subject of history in the secondary schools and to draw up a scheme of college entrance requirements in history. Since that time we have held five meetings, each lasting several days; at each of these meetings all the members of the committee have been present, except that Professor Salmon was absent in Europe during the last two. Every question involving doubt has been carefully, thoroughly, and systematically discussed, and in the conclusions here presented all the members concur. Of the seven persons composing the committee only one is a teacher in a secondary school; three others, however, have been secondary-school teachers, while others have been actively interested for years in the general problems under considera- vi Preface tion. Although we felt that we had at the beginning some knowledge of the situation, and knew of the difficulties and limitations as well as of the accomplishments of the schools, it seemed necessary to make a careful study of the whole question and to gather information concerning the conditions and the tendencies of historical instruction. We have endeavored, in the light of the actual facts, to prepare a report that may be useful and suggestive to teachers of history and that may furnish to superintendents and principals some assistance in the task of framing programmes and in determining methods of work. We have sought to be helpful rather than merely critical or depreciatory, and have tried to consider the whole field in a broad and general way, remembering that we were making suggestions and recommendations, not for the schools of one section or of one kind, but for the schools of the nation. Contents PAGE Preliminary Work of the Committee Value of Historical Study . Continuity of Historical Study and the Relation of History to Other Subjects Four Years' Course, consisting of Four Blocks or . Periods .. .. Why no Short Course in General History is recom. mended . .. . . How the Different Blocks or Periods may be treated Ancient History . . . . . . . . Mediaeval and Modern European History English History . . . . . American History . . . . . . . Civil Government . . . . ... . . . S . Methods of Instruction Sources . Intensive Study . . . . . . The Need of Trained Teachers College Entrance Requirements Entrance Examinations vii . I I6 27 35 44 53 53 59 67 74 8 86' . . . 101 . . . III . . . 130 . viii Contents APPENDIX I PAGE The Present Condition of History in American Secondary Schools Choice of Subjects Order of Subjects Separate College Course Time given to History Text-books . . Collateral Reading . . . Written Work . . Use of Sources . . . Teachers . College Requirements . . . Summary . . . Circular Examples of Extended Courses APPEN0 His 0 o ion 137 139 140 142 142 143 144 tot0 145 146 147 148 149 150 153 APPENDIX II Study of History below the Secondary Schools 1 x58 APPENDIX III History in the German Gymnasia. . '173 APPENDIX IV History in French Lycdes 199 Contents ix APPENDIX V PAGE History in English Secondary Schools. 210 APPENDIX VI History in Canadian Secondary Schools 231 APPENDIX VII Some Books and Articles on the Teaching of History Books with which Every Teacher of History should be acquainted . . . . . . 239 240 Other Noteworthy Books on Historical Methods . 242 Ten Useful Articles on Methods of teaching History in Secondary Schools. . . . 243 . . 245 Valuable Works in Foreign Languages . Articles on the Teaching of History written from . . 246 the Point of View of English Schools APPENDIX VIII . Maps and Atlases Ancient History . Mediseval and Modern English History . American History . Index. . . . . . . History . . . . . . . . 248 . . . . . . . . 249 250 . . . . 254 . . . . 254 . . . . . 257 . Preliminary Work of the Committee HISTORY as a secondary study now cmands serious attention. The report of the National Commissioner of Education for 1896-97 shows that there were at that time 186,581 pupils in the secondary schools studying history (other than United States history). No statistics have been collected to show the number studying the history and government of the United States; but there is good ground for saying that, if such students were taken into account, the number of history pupils would be found to exceed two hundred thousand, and would perhaps equal if not exceed in number those engaged in the study of any other subject save algebra. According to the statistics of the Bureau of Education, the number of pupils studying history (other than United States history) has increased one hundred andfifty-two per cent in the last ten years, a rate of increase below that of only one subject in the curriculum. These simple facts 2 Preliminary Work seem to make it plain that college entrance requirements, that are properly based upon the work and tendencies of the secondaryschools, should include a liberal amount of history among the prescribed and optional studies. An investigation of the subject of history, as it is studied and taught in the secondary schools, presents many difficulties. Even before the committee began seriously to consider what work was to be done, it became apparent that only a thorough study would be profitable, that general conclusions or recommendations, even on such a question as that of college entrance requirements, could not be made without an examination of the whole field and a consideration of many fundamental principles, or without ascertaining what was now doing in the high schools and academies of the country. Before this work was undertaken, there had not been any systematic attempt of this kind; nor had there been any prolonged effort by any national association to present the claims of.history, or to set before the schoolmen a statement of what might be considered the value of historical study and the place which it should occupy in the school programme. We do not leave out of consideration the work of the Committee of Ten, nor do we underestimate the value or the effect of the able and highly interesting report of the Madison Con- Previous Discussions 3 ference on History, Civil Government, and Economics; 1 and we do not lose sight of the fact that historical instruction in the secondary schools had often been discussed in pedagogical conferences and teachers' ..associations. Before we began our work, it was plain that there was an awakening interest in this whole subject, and the time seemed to be at hand when a systematic effort would meet with response and produce results. But in spite of all that had been done, and in spite of this awakened interest, there was no recognized consensus of opinion in the country at large, not one generally accepted judgment, not even one wellknown point of agreement, which would serve as a beginning for a consideration of the place of history in the high-school curriculum. Such a statement cannot be made concerning any oher subject commonly taught in the secondary schools. The- task of the committee was, therefore, to discover the actual situation, to see what was doing and what was the prevailing sentiment, to localize and establish a modicum of practices and principles, however small and limited it might be; and, having apprehended what was best and most help1 This conference was held in December, 1892 ; its conclusions form a part of the report of the Committee of Ten, published by the Bureau of Education in 1893, and reprinted by the American Book Company, New York, 1894, 4 Preliminary Work ful in spirit and tendency among teachers of the country, to seek to give that spirit expression ina report that would be helpful and suggestive, and that would be of service in widening the field of agreement and in laying the foundations for a common understanding. In all of our work we have endeavored not only to discover any agreement or common understanding that may exist among American teachers, but to keep in mind the fact that local conditions and environments vary exceedingly,- that what may be expected of a large and well-equipped school need not be expected of a small one, and that large preparatory schools and academies, some of them intentionally fitting boys for one or two universities, are in a situation quite unlike that in which the great majority of high schools are compelled to work. We have sought chiefly to discuss, in an argumentative way, the general subject submitted for consideration, to offer suggestions as to methods of historical teaching and as to the place of history on the school programme, being fully aware that, when all is said and done, only so much will be adopted as appeals to the sense and judgment of the secondary teachers and superintendents; and that any rigid list of requirements, or any body of peremptory demands, however judiciously framed, not only would, but should, Present Conditions 5 be disregarded in schools whose local conditions make it unwise to accept them. The committee determined that every reasonable-means should be used to ascertain the preseilt condition of historical study. Several hundred circulars asking for information were sent out to schools in all parts of the United States, selected not because they were supposed to be exceptionally good or exceptionally bad, or unusually strong in historical work, but because they were recommended to the committee by competent authority as typical schools. Circulars were sent to different kinds of schools, to those in small towns as well as to those in large cities, and to private academies as well as to public high schools. About two hundred and fifty replies have been received, and the information thus gathered is presented and discussed in Appendix I. to this report. But to seek information through printed interrogatories is always somewhat unsatisfactory; and the committee therefore used other means also. Steps were taken to secure full discussions in the different educational associations of the country, in order that many teachers might become interested in the work of the committee and give needful information, and in order that there might be a free interchange of opinion on some of the more important problems that called for solution. Dis- 6 Preliminary Work cussions on some portions of our report have been held by the New England History Teachers' Association, the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland, the Michigan Schoolmasters' Club, the Round Table in History of the National Educational Association, and by other educational bodies, as well as at two meetings of the American Historical Association. Moreover, at various times in the course of the past two years, different members of the committee have personally consulted teachers and talked the subject over with them. These efforts seem to demonstrate that we have not reached conclusions hastily, and that our report is not merely the expression of the theoretical aspirations of college professors who are unacquainted with the conditions of the secondary schools. It is in a very proper sense the result of careful examination and systematic inquiry concerning the secondary conditions of the country. It is not necessary to review here in detail the conclusions reached from a study of the circulars received from the schools. It will be seen by an examination of these conclusions, as presented in -the Appendix, that in regard to many matters on which we sought information there' is little or no Concerning the amount of history agreement. offered, the fields of history studied, the order Information from Teachers 7 in which the different fields are taken up, and the years in which the subject is taught, there is much diversity of practice; but, on the other hand, we find marked approach to uniformity in one particular; namely, that good schools in all parts of the United States have adopted substantially similar methods of instruction. It is perfectly plain that the old rote system is going by the board. Practically every school now reports the use of material outside the text-book, and recognizes that a library is necessary for efficient work; and nearly all teachers assign topics for investigation by the pupil, or give written recitations, or adopt like means of arousing the pupil's interest and of leading him to think and work in some measure independently, in order that he may acquire power as well as information.' Of course these methods are more extensively developed in some schools than in others; but the facts point to a common understanding, or at least to the approach toward a common understanding, of what history teaching should be, and to a growing appreciation of what historical study can do. We venture to say that' if a school has well-trained teachers, who knowwhy they teach and how to teach, the order of 1 Undoubtedly the report of the Madison Conference had a very beneficial influence in this direction, by calling the attention of the teachers of the country to what ideals of historical instruction are. 8 Preliminary Work historical studies, or the exact method of handling a field of historical inquiry, is comparatively unimportant; and it is this evidence of a realization that history has a value as a pedagogical subject, indicating as it does a new interest on the part of teachers and directors of schools, and bringing surely in its train a demand for skilful teachers, which should give courage and hope to those who are interested in the successful use of history as a means of discipline and culture. In matters of detail, the conclusions that could be drawn from the replies to the circulars were somewhat meagre, but they were helpful in enabling the committee to judge of tendencies and to form a general opinion as to existing conditions. But, as we have already said,we have not contented ourselves with this method of ascertaining the situation. By the more personal means adopted we have gained information which cannot readily be tabulated, but which enables us to have some assurance concerning the tendencies of the time, and to feel that in many respects present conditions are not satisfactory to the active, progressive teachers of the country. It is often more valuable to find out how one highly successful teacher attains his end than how twenty unsuccessful teachers do not; and to discover what practical, experienced teachers, who have given thought to Results from Circulars 9 the subject, think can be done and should be done, than to know the static condition of twenty others who are content with the semi-success or thefailure of the present. In the summer of 1897 three members of the committee were studying educational problems in Europe. Miss Salmon spent the summer in Germany and German Switzerland, studying the methods of historical instruction in the secondary schools. The results of her investigations were given in a paper read before the American Historical Association in December, 1897. Mr. Haskins has at different times studied the educational system of France; after a further examination of secondary conditions in 1897, he prepared a report on the subject of history teaching in that country. Mr. Fox has a thorough acquaintance with the English public schools, and has prepared a report on the teaching of history in the secondary schools of England. These articles on the conditions of historical instruction in European countries are given as Appendices to this report. They are not offered as furnishing us models to which we ought to conform, but as investigations in the study of comparative education; they may, however, give to teachers of this country suggestions on the subject of general pedagogical values, methods of historical instruction, and the arrangement of I0 Preliminary Work studies. The committee has not supposed that it is possible to import a foreign-made r6gime to which the American schools can be asked to adapt themselves. It will be seen that of foreign countries Germany is the one that offers to America the most lessons, of which probably the most important is that suggested by the great advantage resulting from having the subject of history, as well as other subjects, in the hands of thoroughly equipped teachers, who have received instruction in method, and are versed in the art of imparting information with due regard to the pupil's age and degree of mental advancement. In the German'gymnasia the course of history, from Homeric times to the present day, is covered with great thoroughness and system. To this part of the report on the German schools we wish to call special attention; for while we do not think that it is profitable for us, even in this particular, to follow the German curriculum exactly, we believe that there should be an effort on the part of those who are organizing programmes to reach toward this ideal, by extending the course of history over a number of years, and by developing it in accordance with the psychological principles which have been adhered to in the preparation of the German course of study. It should be noticed too that in German schools, history is German Experience II correlated with other subjects: the teacher of history, where opportunity offers, makes use of the foreign language which the pupils arestudying, and the language teacher refers to historical facts; one subject in the curriculum thus helps to reenforce another. The methods of the German teacher also deserve careful consideration: interest is aroused by skilful oral teaching, in which the teacher adapts his story to the minds and capacities of his hearers, and so holds their attention that concentration of mind and ability to grasp the subject are developed. It must be confessed that Miss Salmon's description of how a teacher in Bale, in the middle of a hot summer day, held the breathless attention of a class of boys for fifty minutes, while he told the story of the dramatic struggle between Henry IV. and Gregory VIi., suggests not only phenomenal methods, but unusual boys; but withal we must attribute the teacher's success to his skill, and to the previous training which the boys had received in the lower grades, where inattention or heedlessness was not tolerated. Doubtless teachers of history in this country cannot follow the example of German teachers in all respects. The German believes that, until the boy reaches the university, he has no judgment to be appealed to, and no great reasoning faculty to be 12 Preliminary Work developed; that it is his business, until eighteen or nineteen years of age, to absorb, not to argue or discuss. He is not expected to ask questions; he is expected to do what he is told. Such, however, is not the system for making American citizens, and such is not the atmosphere in which the American boy or girl should live. Nor can it be said that under our present conditions the teacher of history should attempt to give instruction to secondary pupils without the help of a text. The system and methods of instruction in the schools of France are interesting, but somewhat less suggestive than those of the German schools. There, as in Germany, history is in the hands of trained teachers, who have a capacity for holding the pupil's attention, arousing interest, and developing a love for historical study, as well as for giving a vast amount of historical information. The course of study is long, thorough, and systematically organized. The conditions of German Switzerland are essentially similar to those of Germany itself. The situation in England does not offer many valuable lessons to American teachers. The most noticeable features are a lack of historical instruction, a common failure to recognize the value of history, and a certain incoherence and general confusion. We cannot here discuss the reasons for France and England 13 these conditions. It is enough to say that the laissez faire idea has been carried farther and is more marked in England than in America; for, on the whole, we have an educational system, and each passing year shows an increase in the common stock of principles. And yet one who examines the condition of historical instruction in this country, and compares it with that of France and Germany, feels that Englishmen and Americans are of one blood: the individualistic spirit of the race has found unusual expression in educational practices, and has made against co6peration and harmony, while instinctive aversion to theoretical arrangement has hindered the development of general principles. A comparison of English conditions with those of the continent will be likely to show the value of system and order, and the advantage resulting from the sway of good pedar gogical doctrines. We must endeavor in America to reach a system of our own, and to recognize the force of sound principles, without losing sight of the fact that our local conditions are many, and that we must rely on individual initiative and enthusiasm, if not on impulse. Nevertheless, in spite of local diversity, and in spite of the fact that a rigid rdgime-seems on the whole impossible if not undesirable, in this country, there are sound general principles that may be termed absolute rather 14 Preliminary Work than relative; there is a proper method of unfolding the subject, and there are improper methods; or, to speak more justly, method and system, which recognize the true character of the study and the principles by which it may be adapted to pupils of different ages, are certainly wiser and better than any haphazard method and lack of system can be. While it is impossible to transplant any foreign course of study to our schools, and unwise to imitate blindly European methods of instruction, there areat least two lessons that may be learned from foreign schools, namely, the wisdom of demanding thoroughly trained teachers of history, and that of giving a large place to historical instruction in all courses. In both France and Germany, history is taught by special teachers, whose historical training has been carried to a point well beyond our American bachelor's degree, and whose pedagogical ability has been specially tested. In France an hour and a half each week is given to history throughout the ten years of the elementary school and lyce; in Germany, history is pursued two or three hours weekly in every year of the nine years of the gymnasium ; and even in Russia the time given to history is much longer than in the average American school. Not merely on these grounds, however, do we ask larger recognition for history; we hope Lessons from Abroad 15 to present, in the course, of this report, substantial reasons for such recognition drawn from the nature of the subject and from its relations to the development of the American' boys and girls; but we call attention to what is now done in other countries as evidence that our recommendations are not fanciful or revolutionary. Value of Historical Study IT may seem to be unnecessary to consider the value of historical study in itself, or to show how history may be related to other subjects in the school curriculum. As a matter of fact, however, the educational value of every other subject has received more attention than that of history; indeed, only within the last few years has there been anything like a thoughtful discussion, by practical teachers, of the worth of history as a disciplinary study. When so much has been said of the necessity of studying the natural. sciences, in order that one may come to some realization of the physical and vital world about him, and may know himself better as he knows his surroundings more thoroughly, and in order that his powers of observation may be quickened and strengthened, it seems strange indeed that the same method of argument has not been used in behalf of historical work. If it is desirable that the high-school pupil should know the physical /world, that he should know the habits of ants and bees, the laws of floral 16 Purpose of Education 17 growth, the simple reactions in the chemical retort, it is certainly even more desirable that he-should be led to see the steps in the development of the human race, and should have some dim perception of his own place, and of his country's place, in the great movements of men. One does not need to say in these latter days 'that secondary education ought to fit boys and girls to become,, not scholastics, but men and women who know their surroundings and have come to a sympathetic knowledge of their environment; and it does not seem necessary now to argue that the most essential result of secondary education is acquaintance with political and spcial environment, some appreciation of the nature of the atpte anO society, some sense of the duties and responsibilities of citizenship, some capacity in dealing with political and governmental questions, something of the broad and tolerant spirit which is bred by the study of past times and conditions. It is a law well recognized by psychologists, a law of which the teacher in school or college sees daily application and illustration, that one obtains knowledge by adding to the ideas which one already has new ideas organically related to the old. Recent psychological pedagogy looks upon the child as a reacting organism, and declares that he should be trained in those reactions which he Value of History will most need as an adult. The chief object of every experienced teacher is to get pupils to think properly after the method adopted in his particular line of work; not an accumulation of information, but the habit of correct thinking, is the supreme re1sult of good teaching in every branch of instruction. All this simply means that the student who is taught to consider political subjects in school, who is led to look at matters historically, has some mental equipment for a comprehension of the political and social problems that will confront him in everyday life, and has received practical preparation for social adaptation and for forceful participation in civic activities. We do not think that this preparation is satisfactorily acquired merely through the study of civil government, which, strictly construed, has to The pupil do only with existing institutions. should see the growth of the institutions which surround him; he should see the work of men; he should study the living concrete facts of the past; he should know of nations that have risen and fallen; he should see tyranny, vulgarity, greed, benevolence, patriotism, self-sacrifice, brought out So strongly in the lives and works of men. has this very thought taken hold of writers of civil government, that they no longer content themselves with a description of the government Relation to Government '9 as it is, but describe at considerable length the origin and development of the institutions of which they speak. While we have no desire to underestimate the value of civil government as a secondary study, especially if it is written and taught from the historical point of view, we desire to emphasize the thought that appreciation and sympathy for the present is best secured by a study of the past; and while we believe that it is the imperative duty of every high school and academy to teach boys and girls the elementary knowledge of the political machinery which they will be called upon to manage as citizens of a free state, we insist also that they should have the broader knowledge, the more intelligent spirit, that comes from a study of other men and of other times. They should be led to see that society is in movement, that what one sees about him is not the eternal but the transient, and that in the processes of change virtue must be militant if it is to be triumphant. While it is doubtless true that too much may be made of the idea that history furnishes us with rules, precepts, and maxims which may be used as immutable principles, as unerring guides for the conduct of the statesman and the practical politician, or as means of foretelling the future, it is equally true that progress comes by making addi- 20 Value of History tions to the past or by its silent modification. All our institutions, our habits of thought and modes of action, are inheritances from preceding ages: no conscious advance, no worthy.reform, can be secured without both a knowledge of the present and an appreciation of how forces have worked in the social and political organization of former times. If this be so, need we seriously argue that the boys and girls in the schoolroom should be introduced to the past, which has created the present, - that historical-mindedness should be in some slight measure bred within them, and that they should be given the habit, or the beginnings of a habit, of considering what has been, when they discuss what is or what should be? Believing, then, that one of the chief objects of study is to bring boys and girls to some knowledge of their environment and to fit them to become intelligent citizens, we need hardly say that, if the study of history helps to accomplish this object, the public schools of the country are under the heaviest obligations to foster the study, and not to treat it as anintruder entitled only to a berth in a. cold corner, after language, mathematics, science, music, drawing, and gymnastics have been comfortably provided for. "It is clear," as Thomas Arnold has said, "that in whatever it is our duty to act, those matters also it is our duty to study." It is Training in Citizenship 21 true that any subject which aids the pupil to think correctly, to be accurate and painstaking, which awakens his interest in books and gives him resources within himself, in reality fits him for good and useful citizenship; but what other subjects do in this direction more or less indirectly, history does directly; and moreover, if properly taught, it is not inferior to other subjects as a disciplinary and educational study. Fortunately, an examination of school programmes, educational periodicals, and like material will now convince any one that educators are coming to the conclusion that history must receive more attention, and must be taught wisely and well. History cultivates the judgment by leading the pupil to see the relation between cause and effect, as cause and effect appear in human affairs. We do not mean by this that his attention should be directed solely to great moving causes, or that he should study what is sometimes called the "philosophy of history," -far from it; nor do we mean that time should be consumed in discussing the meaning of facts when the facts themselves are not known. iBut history has to do with the becoming of past events, -not simply with what was, but with what came to be,- and in studying the simplest forms of historical narrative even the average pupil comes to see that one thing leads to 22 Value of History another; he begins quite unconsciously to see that events do not simply succeed each other in time, but that one grows out of another, or rather out of a combination of many others. Thus, before the end of the secondary course, the well-trained pupil has acquired some power in seeing relationships and detecting analogies. While it is perfectly true that the generalizing faculty is developed late, and that the secondary pupil will often learn unrelated data with ease, if not with avidity, it is equally true that history in the hands of the competent teacher is a great instrument for developing in the pupil capacity for seeing underlying reasons and for comprehending motives. In the ordinary classroom work, both in science and in mathematics, there is little opportunity for discussion, for differences of opinion, for balancing of probabilities; and yet in everyday life we do not deal with mathematical demonstrations, or concern ourselves with scientific observations; we reach conclusions by a judicious consideration of circumstances and conditions, some of them in apparent conflict with one another, and none of them susceptible of exact measurement and determination. The study Of history gives training not only in acquiring facts, but in arranging and systematizing them and in putting forth individual product. Power of gathering information is important, and Training in Judgment 23 this power the study of history cultivates; but the power of using information is of greater importance, and this power too is developed by historical work. We do not ask that pupils should be required to do so-called "laboratory work,"-we abjure the phrase, - and create histories out of absolutely unhewn and unframed material; we simply say that, if a pupil is taught to get ideas and facts from various books, and to put those facts together into a new form, his ability to make use of knowledge is increased and strengthened. By assigning wellchosen topics that are adapted to the capacity of the pupil, and by requiring him to gather his information in various places, the, teacher may train the pupil to collect historical material, to arrange it, and to put it forth. This practice, we repeat, develops capacity for effective work, not capacity 1 for absorption alone. History is also helpful in developing what is sometimes called the scientific habit of mind and thought. In one sense, this may mean the habit of thorough investigation for one's self of all sources of information, before one reaches conclusions or expresses decided Opinions. But only the learned specialist can thus test more than the 1 A consideration of what is said, in a later division of this report, on the methods of teaching, will show more fully how history may be used to this end. 24 Value of History most ordinary and commonplace truths or princi. ples in any field of work. The scientific habit of mind in a broader sense means a recognition of the fact that sound conclusions do rest on somebody's patient investigations; that, although we must accept the work of others, everybody is required to study and think and examine before he positively asserts; that every question should be approached without prejudice; that open-mindedness, candor, honesty, are requisites for the attainThe thoughtful ment of scientific knowledge. teacher of experience will probably say that, even in the earlier years of the secondary course, these prime requisites of wholesome education may in some measure be cultivated; and that, when opportunity for comparative work is given in the later years, historical-mindedness may be so developed as materially to influence the character and habits of the pupil. While we believe that power and not information must be the chief end.of all school work, we must not underestimate the value of a store of historical material. By the study of history the pupil acquires a knowledge of facts that is to him a source of pleasure and gratification in his after life. If there be any truth in the saying that culture consists of an acquaintance with the best which the past has produced, - a very insufficient Training in Character 25 definition, to be sure, -we need not argue about the value of historical information. But we may emphasize that brighter and broader culture which springs from a sympathy with the onward movements of the past, and an intelligent comprehension of the duties of the present. Many a teacher has found that, in dealing with the great and noble acts and struggles of bygone men, he has succeeded in reaching the inner nature of the real boys and girls of his classes, and has given them impulses and honorable prejudices that are the surest sources of permanent and worthy refinement. We may venture to suggest that character is of even greater value than culture. A no less important result of historical study is the training which pupils receive in the handling of books. History, more than any other subject in the secondary curriculum, demands for effective work a library and the ability to use it. Skill in extracting knowledge from the printed page, or in thumbing indexes and fingering tables of contents, is of great value to any one who is called upon to use books. The inability to discover what a book contains or where information is to be found is one of the common failings of the unschooled and the untrained man. Through the study of history this facility in handling material may be cultivated, and at the same time the pupil 26 Value of History may be introduced to good literature and inspired with a love for reading which will prove a priceless treasure to him. In this latter respect the study of history is second to that of English literature alone. With these results of historical study two others of decided value may in conclusion be briefly mentioned: by the reading of good books, and by constant efforts to re-create the real past and make it live again, the pupil's imagination is at once quickened, strengthened, and disciplined; and by means of the ordinary oral recitation, if properly conducted, he may be taught to express himself in well-chosen words. In the study of foreign language, he learns words and sees distinctions in their meanings; in the study of science, he learns to speak with technical exactness and care; in the study of history, while he must speak truthfully and accurately, he must seek to find apt words of his own with which to describe past conditions and to clothe his ideas, in a broad field of work which has no technical method of expression and no peculiar phraseology. Continuity of Historical Study and the Relation of History to other Subjects WE have no intention of framing a secondaryschool course, in which each study shall be carefully related in time and space with every other; such a process is, for the present at least, a task for each superintendent or principal in the conduct of his own work. Certain suggestions, however, are pertinent, and may be helpful. We believe that, whenever possible, history should be a continuous study. In some schools it is now given in three successive years; in others it is offered in each of the four years of at least one course. Some practical teachers, impressed with this need of continuity, and feeling unable to give more time to the work, have thought it wise to give the subject in periods of only two recitations per week for one year or more; and such a plan may prove desirable for the purpose of connecting two years in which the work is given four or five times per week, or for the purpose of 27 28 Relations of History extending the course. Probably two periods a week, however, will seem altogether impracticable to the great majority of teachers, and we do not recommend that this step be taken when the circumstances allow more substantial work. A practical working programme in one of the very best western schools presents the following course :. 7th grade, American History .... 8th grade, American History . . . . . 9 th grade: (Ist year of high school), Greek and Roman History . . . .... . roth grade, English History . . . . . . 4 periods. 2 periods. I Ith grade, Institutional History 2 periods. . 12th grade, American History . . . . 3 periods. 3 periods. . 2 periods. Another school of high grade, where effective work is done, gives history in three periods per week for two years, and in five periods per week for two more years, viz. Ist year of high school, Oriental, Greek, and Roman History . . . . . 2d year, Medimeval and Modern European History . . . . . . . . . 3d year, English History . . . . . 4th year, American History, Economics, and Civics . . . . . . . . 3 times. 3 times. 5 times. 5 times. In both of these schools some of the historical work is optional or elective, other parts are re- Continuity 29 quired, These courses are given here simply to show how a long, continuous course may be arranged, where the circumstances make it inadvisable to give work four or five times per week for four years. We do not recommend courses in which the study comes twice a week, but only say that in some instances they may prove advisable as a means of keeping the parts of the course in connection. We cannot see our way clear to proposing the acceptance of a two-hour course in history for entrance to college, if units are counted or definite requirements are laid down. A secondary-school course in which there are many distinct subjects may furnish to the pupil only bits of information, and not give the discipline resulting from a prolonged and continuous application to one subject, which is gradually unfolded as the pupil's mind and powers are developed. A course without unity may be distracting, and not educating in the original and best sense of the word. At least in some courses of the high school or academy, history is the best subject to give unity, continuity, and strength. Where a foreign language is pursued for four consecutive years, it serves this purpose; but in other cases it is doubtful whether anything can do the work so well as history. Even science has so many branches and distinct divisions, - at all events, as it is customarily 30 Relations of History taught, - that it does not seem to be a continuous subject. Doubtless there are relationships between physiology, chemistry, physics, botany, and physical geography, and of course the methods of work in all of them are similar; but to treat science as one subject, so that it may give opportunity for continuous development of the pupil, and for a gradual unfolding of the problems of a single field of human study, seems to us to present many almost insurmountable difficulties. A committee of historical students may be pardoned therefore for thinking that history furnishes a better instrument than science for such purposes. The ,tpry of the human race is one subject; and a course O four years can be so arranged as to make the study a continually developing and enlarging one, as the needs and capacities of the pupil are developed/ and enlarged. History should not be set at one side, as if it had no relation with other subjects in the secondary course. Ideal conditions will prevail when the teachers in one field of work are able to take wise advantage of what their pupils are doing in another; when the teacher of Latin or Greek will call the attention of his pupils, as they read Caesar or Xenophon, to the facts which they have learned in their history classes; when the teachers of French and German and English will do the same; Unity 31 when the teacher of physical geography will remember that the earth is man's dwelling-place, or more properly his growing-place, and will be able to relate the mountains, seas, and tides of which he speaks with the growth and progress of men; when he will remember that Marco Polo and Henry the Navigator and Meriwether Lewis were unfolding geography and making history, and that Cape Verde not only juts out into the Atlantic, but stands forth as a promontory in human history. Is the time far distant when the march of the Ten Thousand will be looked upon not merely as a procession of optative moods and conditional clauses, but as an account of the great victory won by Greek skill, discipline, and intelligence over the helplessness of Oriental confusion? And will Caesar long be taught only as a compound of ablative absolutes and indirect discourses, rather than as a story, told by one of history's greatest men, of how our Teutonic forefathers were brought face to face with Roman power, and how the peoples of Gaul were subjected to the art and the arms of Rome, and made to pass under the yoke of bondage to southern civilization and southern law? The teacher of history, if he knows the foreign languages which his pupils are studying, may connect the words they have learned with concrete things; and he may, above all, help to 32 Relations of History give the young people who are trying to master a foreign tongue, some appreciation of the tone, temper, and spirit of the people, without which a language seems void and characterless. History has a central position among the subjects of the curriculum. Like literature, it deals with man, and appeals to the sympathy, the imagination, and the emotional nature of the pupils. Like natural science, it employs methods of careful and unprejudiced investigation. It belongs to the humanities, for its essential purpose is to disclose human life; but it also searches for data, groups them, and builds generalizations from them. Though it may not be a science itself, its methods are similar to scientific methods, and are valuable in inculcating in the pupil a regard for accuracy and a reverence for truth. It corrects the formalistic bias of language, by bringing the pupil into sympathetic contact with actualities and with the mind of man as it has reacted on his environment. It gives breadth, outlook, and human interest, which are not easily developed by the study of natural phenomena. Thus, as a theoretical proposition, at least, the assertion that the story of life and the onward movement of men, not their language or their physical environment, should form the centre of a liberal course, would seem to leave little ground for argument. A Central Subject 33 We may add to all these considerations the fact that even in the natural sciences, as well as in other subjects, the historical method is not seldom used by advanced scholars and thinkers. The scholarly scientific investigator knows from careful study the development of his subject; he sees the successes and the failures of the past, and recognizes the lasting contributions that have from time to time been made in his field of investigation; he often studies the civilization that gave birth to bygone and obsolete theories, and comes thus to a knowledge of his department of work as a growing and developing department. So, too, the advanced linguistic scholar is frequently engaged, not so much in the study of language, as in the examination of successive intellectual movements which have found expression in literature. This practice of linking the present with the past, of watching progress and studying change, has become one"'f the marked characteristics of modern learning; and it indicates that history, in the broad field of human affairs, is a subject which is contributory to others, is indeed a part of them, and occupies a central position among them. Four Years' Course, consisting of Four Blocks or Periods As a thorough and systematic course of study, we recommend four years of work, beginning with ancient history and ending with American history. For these four years we propose the division of the general field into four blocks or periods, and recommend that they be studied in the order in which they are here set down, which in large measure accords with the natural order of events; and shows the sequence of historical facts (i) Ancient History, with special reference to Greek and--Reman history, but including also a short introductory study* of the more ancient nations. This period should also embrace the early Middle Ages, and should close with the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire (8oo), or with the death of Charlemagne (814), or with the treaty of Verdun (843). Mediaeval and Modern European History, (2) from the close of the first period to the present time. 34 The Four Fields 35 (3) English History. (4) American History and Civil Government. No one of these fields can be omitted without leaving serious lacune in the pupil's knowledge of history. Each department has its special value and teaches its special lesson; above all, the study of the whole field gives a meaning to each portion that it cannot have by itself. Greek and Roman civilization contributed so much to the world, the work which these nations accomplished, the thoughts which they brought forth, the ideas which they embodied, form so large a part of the past, - that in any systematic course their history must be studied. The student of modern politics cannot afford to be ignorant of the problems, the strivings, the failures, of the republics and democracies of the ancient world. We speak of these nations as belonging to antiquity, but we have much of them with us to-day. The law of Rome has not gone; the highest thought of Greece is eternal. We might justly insist that mediaeval history is worthy of a place in the school programme for its own sake, recounting as it does the development of the papacy and the Church, the establishment of feudalism, the foundation of modern states, the Renaissance, and the beginning of the Reformation. But, if for no other reason, the history of the Middle Ages deserves study because without 36 Four Years' Course it Greece and Rome are isolated and seem to dwell in a world apart. On the other hand, the character of the forces of modern times cannot be understood by one who examines them without reference to their medieval origins. Nor will any one seriously maintain in these latter days, when men are studying world movements,- when, as we are told, America has become a world power, -that the intelligent citizen has no concern with the chief events and leading tendencies of the last four centuries of European history Indeed, it is especially desirable that American pupils should learn something of European history, since, by seeing the history of their own country in its proper perspective, they may appreciate its meaning, and may be relieved of a temptation to a narrow intolerance, which resembles patriotism only as bigotry resembles faith. Furthermore, English history until 1776 is our history; Edward I. and Pym, Hampden and William Pitt, belong to our past and helped to make us what we are. Any argument in favor of American history, therefore, holds almost equally true for the study of English history. A realization of present duties, a comprehension of present responsibilities, an appreciation of present opportunities, cannot better be inculcated than by a study of the centuries in which Englishmen were Chronological Sequence 37 struggling for representation, free speech, and due process of law. The orderly chronological course which we here advocate has its marked advantages, but it should be so arranged that the pupil will do more than follow the main facts as he traces them from the earliest times to the present. The work must be so developed and widened, as time goes on, that in the later years the pupil will be dealing with broader and deeper problems than in the early years, and will be making use of the skill and scholarly sense that have been awakened and called into action by previous training. By a course of this sort, pupils will obtain a conspectus of history which is fairly complete and satisfactory, will follow the forward march of events, and will come to see the present as a product of the past; while the teacher, at the same time, will have opportunity to unfold the problems and difficulties of historical study. The desirability of arranging historical fields of work in their natural chronological order will probably appeal to every one, and need not be dwelt upon. Some persons, however, may object to the arrangement as unwise, in the light of other considerations. It may be contended that pupils should pass "from the known to the unknown," from the familiar to the unfamiliar and strange. 38 Four Years' Course This precept we do not care formally to accept or to reject; but it will be remembered, that in all primary and grammar schools some historical work is given, and that we can take for granted, probably, that all pupils know something of American history, and perhaps of other history in addition. As a matter of fact, therefore, we are not running counter to the doctrine above referred to, or violating the law of apperception. A like objection may be met with a similar answer. American history, some will say, should come the first year in the high school, because many pupils leave school before the later years. But this objection proves too much, for a large percentage of boys and girls do not enter the high school at all. American history should therefore be given in the grammar school. In fact, it is given in the eighth and lower grades in probably the vast majority of schools; to repeat the course therefore in the first year of the secondary course is almost a waste of time, inasmuch as any marked development in the method of treatment is impossible. On the other hand, by putting the study late in the course, the pupil can work along new lines and attack new problems; the development of American institutions can be studied; new and more difficult books can be read, and more advanced methods used. Order of Fields 39 Some teachers, believing that American history is essential in every course, will object to the curriculum here suggested, on the ground that the last year is already overcrowded, and that we are asking the impossible when we suggest that the study be placed in that year. In any argument on such a question, history is at a disadvantage, because other subjects have from time immemorial been considered first, while history has been treated as a poor and needy relative: other subjects have their places, and claim at once nine full points in law. If it is more important that pupils should have knowledge of chemistry, solid geometry, physics, Greek, English literature, Latin, and what not, than a knowledge of the essentials of the political and social life about them, of the nature and origin of the federal Constitution, of their duties and rights as citizens, and of the fundamental ideas for which their country stands, then of course American history need not enter into the contest at all. In making these recommendations, however, we are not acting upon merely theoretical grounds: an investigation of existing conditions leads us to believe that there is a strong tendency to place American history in the last year of the course. It will be argued, again, that Greek and Roman history is too difficult for the first year. To this 40 Four Years' Course we may answer, (I) that a number of excellent and successful teachers give the subject in the first year, and (2) that it is not necessary to fathom all the mysteries of the Athenian Constitution, or to penetrate the innermost secrets of Roman imperialism. It is not impossible to know the main outlines of Greek and Roman history and to see the main features of Greek and Roman life. If Caesar, a great source of Roman history, can be studied in the original in the tenth grade, with all the supplementary information on military and historical matters which recent editors present, cannot secondary material in the vernacular be studied in the ninth? While we do not think that Greek and Roman history should be treated as a handmaiden of the Latin and Greek languages (to treat the subjects thus is to invert the natural relationship), we suggest that a course in ancient history in the first year will serve to give life and meaning to all the work in the classic tongues: the idea may come home to the pupil that Caesar and Cicero were real living, thinking, acting men, and not imaginary creatures begotten by the brains of modern grammar-mongers to vex the soul of the schoolboy. If this basis of fact is in the pupil's mind, the classical teacher can amplify it in the later years of the high-school course, and can with far greater assurance use the language that he is teaching as Not too difficult 41 a medium for bringing his pupils into contact with the thoughts and moving sentiments of antiquity. Some one may object that medimval and modern European history is too difficult for the tenth grade, and that other subjects should come at that time. The answer to such objection is, of course, that any other subject is too difficult if taught in its height and depth and breadth, but that the cardinal facts of European history can be understood, interesting and intelligible books can be read, the significant lessons can be learned. How many boys, when they are sixteen years old, cannot understand "The Scottish Chiefs," "The Three Musketeers," "Twenty Years After," "Ivanhoe," "The Talisman," "With Fire and Sword"? And is the simple, truthful historic tale of border conflict, the life and purposes of Richelieu, the death of Charles I., the career of Richard the Lionhearted, the character of Saladin, the horrible barbarism of Tartar hordes, harder to be understood than the plot of an elaborate historical novel dealing with the same facts ? Is truth necessarily more difficult, as well as stranger, than fiction ? But the conclusive answer to this objection is the fact that European history in its most difficult form, "general history," is now taught in the second year in the greater part of the schools which offer the subject. 42 Four Years' Course The committee may be criticised for outlining a four years' course at all, on the ground that no schools can devote so much time to history. This criticism is so important that the reasons which influenced us to take this action should be given seriatim. (I) Some schools do offer history in every year of the high school, either as a required or as an optional study; and the delineation of what seems to us a thorough and systematic rigime may be of service to these schools, and to all others that desire to devote considerable time and energy to the subject. (2) If some schools cannot give all that is here proposed, that fact presents no reason why an adequate course should not be outlined. We are not seeking to induce schools to give history a great amount of attention at the expense of other subjects; but a course altogether complete and adequate needs to be outlined before one can rightly discuss the availability of anything else. (3) An approach to an ideal course, in order of subjects, method, treatment, and time, is better than one that is constructed without any reference to the best and most symmetrical system. (4) As a general rule, definite parts of the plan which we here outline may be taken as a working scheme. It is not necessary to draw up, on an entirely new theory, a briefer curriculum for schools that cannot take the whole Question of Time 43 of what we here recommend: the simplest and wisest plan under such circumstances is to omit one or more of the blocks or periods into which we have divided the general field. If only three years can be devoted to historical work, three of the periods outlined above may be chosen, and one omitted; such omission seems to us to be better than any condensation of the whole. But if any teacher desires to compress two of the periods into a single year's work, one of the following plans may be wisely adopted. (i) Combine" English and American history in such a manner that the more important principles wrought out in English history, and the main facts of English expansion, will be taught in connection with American colonial and later political history. (2) Treat English history in such a way as to include the most important elements of medieval and modern European history. Why no Short Course in General History is Recommended FROM the foregoing remarks, it will be seen that the committee believes that history should be given in four consecutive years in the secondary school, and that the study should be developed in an orderly fashion, with reasonable regard for chronological sequence; in other words, that four years should be devoted to the study of the world's history, giving the pupil some knowledge of the progress of the race, enabling him to survey a broad field and to see the main acts in the historical drama. While, of course, three years for such study are better than two, as two are better than one, a careful consideration of the problem in all its aspects has led us to the conclusion that we cannot strongly recommend, as altogether adequate, courses covering the whole field in less than four years. We do not recommend a short course in general history, because such a course necessitates one of two modes of treatment, neither of which is sound 44 No Short Course 45 and reasonable. By one method, energy is devoted to the dreary, and perhaps profitless, task of memorizing facts, dates, names of kings and queens, and the rise and fall of dynasties; there is no opportunity to see how facts arose or what they effected, or to study the material properly, or to see the events in simple form as one followed upon another, or to become acquainted with the historical method of handling definite concrete facts and drawing inferences from them. The pupil is not introduced to the first principles of historical thinking; he is not brought into sympathy with men and ideas, or led to see the play of human forces, or given such a real knowledge of past times and conditions that he can realize that history has to do with life, with the thoughts, aspirations, and struggles of men. By the second method,. pupils are led to deal with large anu general ideas which are often quite beyond their comprehension, ideas which are general inferences drawn by the learned historian from a wellstored treasure-house of definite data; they are taught to accept unquestioningly broad generalizations,' the foundations of which they cannot possibly examine,- as they must do if they are to know how the historical student builds his inferences, or how one gains knowledge of the general truths of history. The first method is apt to heap 46 General History meaningless data tQoether facts crowd one upon another; there is no moving drama, but at the very best, perhaps, a series of kaleidoscopic pictures, in which the figures are arranged with seeming arbitrariness. If the second alternative be followed, all is order and system; the pawns of the great game are folks and nations; the more effective chessmen are world-moving ideas. The experienced college teacher knows full well that students entering upon historical work will learn facts without seeing relationships; that "tendency" is a word of unknown dimensions; and that his first task is to lead his pupils to see how definite facts may be grouped into general facts, and how one condition of things led to another, until they come to a realizing sense of the fact that history deals with dynamics, not statics, and that drifts, tendencies, and movements are to be searched for by the proper interpretation of definite data, and the proper correlation of definite deeds and acts, with special reference to chronological sequence. If college students must thus be led to the comprehension of historical forces and general ideas, what hope is there that a general history, dealing only with tendencies, will be adapted to high-school needs? But while we do not think that a secondaryschool pupil can be brought to handle large gen- Practical Basis 47 eralizations, we do believe that, if the time devoted to a period of history be sufficiently long to enable him to deal with the acts of individual men and to see their work, he can be taught to group his facts; and that a power of analysis and construction, a capacity for seeing relationships and causes, an ability to grasp a general situation and to understand how it came to be, can be developed in him; and that he can be brought to see that for the historian nothing is, but everything is becoming. In all such work, however, the teacher must begin with ideas and facts that are not altogether unfamiliar, - with the activities, the impulses, the concrete conduct of men. We do not mean by this that constitutional and social questions cannot be studied, that political movements cannot be interpreted, or that the biographical system suitable for the lower grades should be continued through the secondary course. On the contrary, the pupil should be led to general facts just as soon as possible, and should be induced to see'inferences and the meanings of acts at the earliest possible moment. 1 He must not only have a well-articulated 1 Let it be remembered that the course in history in the high school should have for its purpose the gradual awakening and developing of power. Pupils are often precipitated into general history, and asked to tax their powers of imagination and to grasp movements, when they are entirely without experience or training. 48 General History skeleton of facts, but he must see movement, life, human energy. And yet the average pupil will follow the course of Julius Cesar or Augustus, when he cannot understand just why the Roman Republic was overthrown; he can know much of the work of Constantine, when he cannot appreciate the influence of Christianity on the destinies of Rome and the world; he can see what Charlemagne did, when he cannot comprehend the nature or character of the Holy Roman Empire; he is interested in Danton and Mirabeau, when he cannot realize the causes, characteristics, and effects of the French Revolution. It is impossible for one who knows only of mayors, constables, and county clerks, to reach out at once into a comprehension of the great motive forces in the world's history. We ask, then, for a course in history of such length that the pupil may get a broad and somewhat comprehensive view of the general field, without having, on the one hand, to cram his memory with unrelated, meaningless facts, or, on the other hand, to struggle with generalizations and philosophical ideas beyond his ken. We ,think that a course covering the whole field of history is desirable, because it gives something like a proper perspective and proportion; because the history of man's activities is one subject, and the present is the product of all the past; because What may be done 49 such a study broadens the mental horizon and gives breadth and culture; because it is desirable that pupils should come to as full a realization as possible of their present surroundings, by seeing the long course of the race behind them; because they ought to have a general conspectus of history, in order that more particular studies of nations or of periods may be seen in something like actual relation with others. We think, however, that quite as important as perspective or proportion are method and training, and a comprehension of the essential character of the study. In exact accord with the principles here advocated all work in natural science is now conducted: a pupil is taught to understand how the simple laws of physics or chemistry are drawn up; he is induced to think carefully and logically about what he sees, and about the meaning of the rules and fundamental truths which he is studying, in order that he may learn the science by thinking in it rather than by getting a bird's-eye view of the field. We do not argue that secondary pupils can be made constructive historians, that a power can be bred in them to seize for themselves essential data and weave a new fabric, that the mysteries of the historian's art can be disclosed to them, or that they can be'taught to play upon a nation's stops with an assured and cunning hand. But 50 General History every study has its methods, its characteristic thinking, its own essential purpose; and the pupil must be brought into some sympathy with the subject. He must know history as history, just as he knows science as science. Any comparison between history and science is The method of the one apt to be misleading. study, for purposes of instruction at least, is not the method of the other: we do not suppose that Richelieu or William the Silent can be treated with any sort of moral reagent, or examined as a specimen under any high-power lens. And yet in some respects we may learn lessons from methods of scientific instruction. The modern teacher of botany does not endeavor to have his pupils learn a long list of classified shrubs, to know all the families and species by heart, or to make a telling synopsis of even any considerable section of the world's flora;, he examines a more limited field with care, and asks the students to see how seeds germinate and how plants grow, and to study with a microscope a piece of woodThis he fibre or the cross-section of a seed. does in order that the pupils may see the real subject, may know botany and acquire the habit of thinking as men of science think; not, let it be understood, that he may discover new laws of floral growth or develop for himself a Compared with Science 5' single principle, rule, or system of classification. And so in history: while we do not urge that pupils be asked to extort their knowledge from the raw material, or to search through the documents to find the data which learned scholars have already found for them, we do ask that the old system of classification, and the old idea that one must see the whole field before he studies a part of it, be altogether given up, if an effort to know the outlines of the whole means that the pupil has not sufficient opportunity to study history as history, to see how men moved and acted, to know that history deals with the sequence of events in time. To insist upon a general comprehension of the world's history before examining a part with care, would be quite as reasonable as to ask a pupil to study the circle of the sciences before he analyzes a flower or works an air-pump. While we believe that pupils can advantageously use the sources, chiefly as illustrative matter, we are not now arguing for the "source system'" or insisting that they should be trained to handle original material. Skill in finding facts in documents or contemporary narratives, however desirable that may be, is not the sole end of historical instruction anywhere, and above all in the secondary schools. Even the historian is doing but a small part of his work when he is mousing through 52 General History his material, and gathering this fact and another from forgotten corners. One of his most important and most difficult tasks is to detect the real meaning of events, and so to put his well-tested data together that their proper import and their actual inter-relations are brought to view. History, we say again, has to do with the sequence of events in time; and what we contend foris such a course in history as will enable one to see sequence and movement, - the words. are not synonymous; this simple essential of historical work, an essential, however, often lost sight of completely, must not be neglected. We believe that the pupil should study history, and not something else under the name of history, - neither philosophy on the one hand, nor the art of historical investigation on the other. How the Different Blocks or Periods may be Treated WE may now briefly consider each one of the main divisions of the general field, and discuss the method in which it may best be handled. This portion of our report might be greatly extended, but we wish to confine ourselves to a consideration of general propositions, which are deemed important because they have to do with the essential character and purpose of the study. I. Ancient History Greek and Roman history is taught in a large number of the secondary schools, and in some schools no other branch of history is offered. This preference is explained by the evolution of the curriculum in which the Greek and Latin languages were long the dominant subjects, Greek and Roman history being thrust in at a later time as ancillary to the study of the ancient languages. In some schools the history remains a subordinate sub53 54 Treatment ject, coming once or twice a week, and, even then, it is often in the hands of a classical instructor who is more interested in linguistics than in history and has had no training in historical method. The course is apt to be confined to the histories of Greece and Rome; the Orient is not infrequently omitted; the mediaeval relations of Rome are usually ignored. The perspective and emphasis within the field covered have been determined by literary and linguistic, rather than by historical, considerations, with the result that the chief attention is devoted to the periods when great writers lived and wrote. Too much time, for example, is commonly given to the Peloponnesian war, while the Hellenistic period is neglected. The history of the early Roman Republic is dwelt upon at the expense of the Empire, although very little is known of the early times. It sometimes seems as if the ghost of Livy were with us yet. The committee thinks that the time has come when ancient history may be studied independently as an interesting, instructive, and valuable par of the history of the human race. Classical pupils need such a study, not to support their classical work, but to give them a wider and deeper knowledge of the life, thought, and character of the ancient world; and non-classical pupils need the work still more than the classical, for in this study they Ancient History 55 are likely to find their only opportunity of coming into contact with ancient ideas. We ask, then, that ancient history be taught as history, for the same purpose that any other branch of history is taught, -in order that pupils may learn the story of human achievement and be trained in historical thinking. To bring out the value of ancient history, it is especially important that Greek and Roman history should not be isolated, but that there should be some reference to the life and influence of other nations, and some comprehension of the wide field, which has a certain unity of its own. There should be a short introductory survey of Oriental history, as an indispensable background for a study of the classical peoples. This survey must be brief, and in the opinion of the committee should not exceed one-eighth of the entire time devoted to ancient history. It should aim to give (a) an idea of the remoteness of these Oriental beginnings, of the length and reach of recorded history; (b) a definite knowledge of the names, location, and chronological succession of the early Oriental nations; (c) the distinguishing features of their civilizations, as concretely as possible; (d) the recognizable lines of their influence on later times. The essential factors in this period may perhaps best be seen by concentrating attention first on the kingdoms of the 56 Treatment two great valleys, - that of the Nile and that of the Tigris and Euphrates, - and by bringing in the lesser peoples of the connecting regions as the great empires spread northward and meet. Persia may be taken up afterward, and its conquests may serve as a review of the others. Although, of course, -Greek history should include a short study of early times, and should disclose the growth of Athens and Sparta and the characteristic life of the great classical period, it should not, on the other hand, omit an account of the chief events of the Hellenistic age, but should give some idea of the conquests of Alexander, of the kingdoms that arose out of them, and of the spread of Greek civilization over the East, so important in relation to the influence of Greece upon later times. It shouldi also give the main events in the later history of Greece, and should show the connection between Greek and Roman history. Time for this survey may well be saved by omitting the details of the Peloponnesian war, which crowd so many text-books. This period should rather be used largely as connective tissue, to hold Greek and Roman history together; it should be approached first from the Greek side, and be reviewed afterward in connection with the Roman conquest of the East. Care should be taken to show the overlapping of Greek and Ro- Ancient History 57 man history chronologically, and to avoid the not uncommon impression among pupils that Rome was founded after the destruction of Corinth. The treatment of Roman history should be sufficiently full to correspond to its importance. Too much time, as it seems to the committee, is often spent upon the period of the Republic, especially on the early years, and too little upon that of the Empire. Adequate attention is not always paid to the development of Roman power and the expansion of Roman dominion. Some idea should be given of the organization of the world-state and of the extension of Roman civilization. Recognizing fully the difficulty of this period, and not seeking to force upon the pupils general ideas that confuse them, the teacher should endeavor to make them acquainted, not simply with emperors and proetorian guards, but with the wide sway of Rome; and not so much with the "falling" of Rome, as with the impression left upon western Christendom by the spirit and character of the eternal city. This, we think, can be done by the careful use of concrete facts and illustrations, not by the use of philosophical generalizations. Probably most of us remember that our impressions from early study were that Rome really gave up the ghost with the accession of Augustus, - is that idea due to that good republican Livy again? And if we 58 Treatment studied the Empire at all, we wondered why it took four hundred years and more for her to tread all the slippery way to Avernus, when once she had entered upon the road. To get such an impression is to lose the truth of Rome. The continuation of ancient history into the early Middle Ages has a manifest convenience in a programme of two years' work in European history. It secures an equitable adjustment of time, and a reasonable distribution of emphasis between the earlier and later periods. If the pupil stops his historical work at the end of the first year, it is desirable that he should not look upon classical history as a thing apart, but that he should be brought to see something of what followed the socalled "Fall" of the western Empire. Moreover, it is difficult to find a logical stopping-place at an earlier date: one cannot end with the introduction of Christianity, or with the Germanic invasions, or with the rise of Mohammedanism; and to break off with the year 476 is to leave the pupil in a world of confusion, - the invasions only begun, the church not fully organized, the Empire not wholly "fallen." Hence, from motives of clearness alone, there is a gain in carrying the pupil on to an age of comparative order and simplicity, such as one finds in the time of Charlemagne. Further study of the Middle Ages then Mediaeval and Modern 59 begins with the dissolution of the Frankish Empire and the formation of new states.' II. Mediaeval and Modern European History This field covers a period of a thousand years, and the history of at least four or five important nations; it is necessarily, therefore, a matter of considerable difficulty to determine the best method by which the subject may be handled. Whether the whole field be covered superficially, or only the main lines be treated, it is highly desirable that some unity should be discovered if possible, or that there should be some central line with which events or movements can be correlated. To find an assured principle of unity is exceedingly difficult, perhaps impossible; and it is very likely that writers will continue to disagree as to the best method of traversing this vast area. One way to get unity and continuity is to study general movements alone, without endeavoring to 1 Such a survey of the beginnings of the Middle Ages must needs be quite brief, and should be confined to the primary features of the period, -to the Barbarian invasions, the rise of the Christian church and of Mohammedan civilization, the persistence of the empire in the East, and the growth of Frankish power to its culmination under Charlemagne. This practice of combining ancient and medioeval history has been followed in a number of schools, and the results have been satisfactory. 6o Treatment follow the life of any one nation; but while this method is possible for college classes, it may not be found feasible for secondary schools, where pupils have greater difficulty in comprehending general tendencies. Still, we think that certain essential characteristics of at least the mediaeval period may perhaps be studied. The period extending from Charlemagne to the Revival of Learning has a "strongly marked character, almost a personality of its own"; and by a selection of proper facts some of the main characteristics may be .brought home to the knowledge of the high-school pupils. The teacher or text-writer who attempts this method must naturally proceed with great caution, getting general ideas before the students by a judicious use of concrete facts and illustrations, and not failing to give some of the more important events and dates that mark the period. He will probably find that the most characteristic feature of the age is the unbroken dominance of the Roman church, and should therefore bring out clearly the essential features of its organization, and explain the methods by which it exercised control in all departments of mediaeval life. If this is done, as it can and should be done, with care and impartiality, the pupil will receive a valuable lesson in historical truthfulness and objectivity, at the same. time that he comes Mediaeval 61 to appreciate one of the great moving forces of European history. This method of treating continental history can be carried throughout the Reformation period by remembering that while that period marks the end of the Middle Ages it also forms the basis for modern European history. This epoch must therefore be taught with both points of view in mind. The main aspects of the time must be brought broadly before the pupil, and he must be led to see that the sixteenth century is a century oftransition; that the old order has been swept away; that religious, political, material, intellectual, and social life has been profoundly affected, not only by the teachings of Luther and Calvin, but by the development of the printingpress, the use of gunpowder, the voyages of Magellan and Drake, and the change in economic values. The wars of religion mark the last efforts to reestablish united Christendom; and, although the treaty of Westphalia (1648) seems well within the sphere of modern history, it may not improperly be selected as the end of this era of transition. From the close of this period, it will be found very difficult to treat only of movements of a general character attecting the life of Europe. There is now no great institution, like the church, which forms the centre of Christendom; the different 62 Treatment nations no longer belong to a system, but act as independent sovereigns; the development of distinct national life is now of primary concern to the historical student. But even in modern history, the method of treating epochs of international importance can be used tosome extent. In order that this may be done, it will be necessary, probably, so to connect movements or epochal characteristics with the history of particular nations that the separate development of the European states may be discerned. For example, the period from 1648 to 1715 can be treated as the age of Louis XIV.; while the history of the seventeenth-century monarchy, illustrated by the attitude and the administration of Louis, is brought to light, the history of western Europe may be studied in its relations with France. The period from 1715 to 1763 is the age of colonial expansion, Of rivalry between France and England; and it can be studied from either England or France as a point of view. The age of Frederick the Great (1740-1786) brings before us not only the rise of Prussia and the significance of that great fact, but the theory of enlightened despotism, of which Frederick was an exponent, and which was exemplified by the work of Catherine of Russia, Joseph II., and other enlightened monarchs and ministers. For the period of the French Revolution and the Empire (1789-1815), Modern 63 France again may be taken as th& centre from which to consider the international relations of European states, the development of the new principles of nationality, the sovereignty of the people, and the liberty of the individual. From 1815 to I848 Metternich may be regarded as the central figure; the reactionary characteristics of this time will naturally be dwelt upon, but the growth of new principles may also be illustrated, as seen in the establishment of independence in Greece and Belgium, and in the liberal monarchy of Louis Philippe. The system of Metternich broke down in 1848, and from that time to 1871 study is naturally directed to the work of Cavour and Bismarck, to the unification of Italy and Germany, and to topics that may be easily considered in connection with these events. In attempting to give the pupil some idea of modern Eurbpean politics since the establishment of the German Empire, it may be found advisable to treat Bismarck as the central figure down to 189o, and the Emperor William II. as the successor of Bismarck. In this connection, the extra-European ambitions and achievements of Germany, since 1871, will serve to bring out the fact that the history of the great European nations is now not only the history of Europe, but the history of Asia and Africa as well. In some such manner as this it may be possible 64 Treatment to study the broad field of European history with special reference to movements or epochs. The outline is not given here as a proposal for a hard and fast system, but rather to illustrate the main principle for which we are contending; namely, that some principle of unity should be discovered which will allow definite concrete treatment, avoiding, on the one hand, philosophical generalization, and, on the other, tangled accounts of detailed events which are made meaningless by the absence of proper connotation. Another method. of securing unity and continuity is to Seclc the history of o onpreferably that of France, as a central thread, and study the development of its life. It may be that an understanding of the chief transitions in the history of one nation for a thousand years is all that the second-year pupil should be asked to acquire. But probably it will be quite possible for him to acquire more; the Germanic migrations, the growth of the church, the invasions of the Saracens, the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire, feudalism, the crusades, the Renaissance, the rise of national monarchies, the religious wars, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, the unification of Germany and Italy, the democratic movements of the present 6 entury, - these and other important topics have immediate rela- Episodic or Central 65 tion to French history, and may well be studied in connection with it. This. mthod of tret.ent has been followed satisfactorily in some schools. Many teachers have used English history for the purpose with some success, and have thus given to their pupils no small knowledge of what went on upon the continent. England however does not serve this purpose so well as France; we speak of this use of English history simply to show the practicability of the plan. Of course if any one nation is chosen, the student is apt to get an exalted idea of the part which that particular nation has played; and there is danger, too, of a lack of proportion. But consistency, simplicity, and unity are more essential than general comprehension; or, it might more truly be said, general comprehension and appreciation of proportions are almost impossible for boys and girls, and, if simplicity and compactness are wanting, there is apt to be no grasp of fundamentals at all. If France be taken as a centre, events can be studied in sequence, the primary historical way of looking at things can be cultivated, and the concrete acts of men can be examined and discussed. If neither of the methods here suggested appeals to the teacher, he must seemingly do one of-lwo things: he must endeavor to get a very general 66 Treatment view of the field, give all the main facts and dates, and follow the histories of the nations in parallel lines; or hemust omitlge portionsQf the historical field altogether, and content himself with the study of a few important epochs. By either of these modes of treatment, any effort to unify is in large measure given up. The first way is not uncommonly followed, but it often results, as the committee thinks, in cramming the memory with indigestible facts and in mental confusion; though an occasional effort to bind the parallel lines together by horizontal lines will help to give unity and wholeness to the structure, or, to change the figure, an occasional view of a cross-section will have a like effect. The second method is adopted by some teachers, and they could with difficulty be convinced that it is not the best: they believe that by the intensive study of two or three epochs the best educational results are obtained. The Reformation, the age of Louis XIV., the French Revolution, and the nineteenth century might be selected as characteristic periods. We do not, however, urge this method upon the schools, or insist that it is the proper one. We know that it has been successfully used, and believe that under advantageous circumstances it will be likely to prove satisfactory; although the failure to give a general view of European history is to be regretted. English History 67 III. English History English history, coming in the third year of the school course, and completing the survey of European development, is exceedingly important. Significant as is the history of the English nation in itself, the study may be made doubly useful if the work is so conducted that it serves in some measure as a review of continental history and as a preparation for American history. The pupils in our schools, as we have already suggested, can ill afford to lose such an introduction to the study of the history and institutions of the United States; for, without a knowledge of how the English people developed and English principles matured, they can have slight appreciation of what America means. Even the Revolution, for example, if studied as an isolated phenomenon, is bereft of half its meaning, to say the least, because the movement that ended in the separation of the colonies from the mother country and in the adoption of the Federal Constitution, began long before the colonies were founded, and because the Declaration of Independence was the formal announcement of democratic ideas that had their tap-root in English soil. We believe that considerable, if not the chief, attention should be paid to the gradual develop. 68 Treatment ment of English political institutions. These words may sound forbidding, but it is to be hoped that the reader of this report will not imagine that we think of plunging the pupil into Stubbs or Hallam. We mean simply that the main features, the fundamental principles and practices of constitutional government should be studied, and that the steps in its development should be marked. It is not impossible to know the leading features of the work of William I. and its results, the principal reforms of Henry II., the chief developments of the thirteenth century, the actual meanings of Tudor supremacy, the underlying causes, purposes, and results of the Puritan Revolution, the work of Pym and Eliot, of Robert Walpole or of Earl Grey. One might almost as well object to mathematics in the high school because quaternions or the integral calculus are hard and abstruse, as to complain of the difficulty of the constitutional history of England because, when studied profoundly, it is, like every other subject, full of perplexities. The treatment must be simple, direct, and forcible, and its supreme object must be to show the long struggle for political and civil privileges, and the gradual growth of the cardinal forms and salient ideas of the English state. One cannot forget, even in a high-school course, that England is the mother of modern constitutional English History 69 government; that by the force of example she has become the law-giver of the nations. The pupil should be led to see how the state grew in power, how the government developed, and how it became more and more responsive to the popular will and watchful of individual interests. But he ought to see more than merely political progress: he can be made to see, at least to some small extent, how the life of men broadened as the years went by, and can note some of the many changes in habits of living and in industry. Such a reign as that of Elizabeth would yield but little of its meaning if the student should content himself with the hackneyed phrase of "Tudor absolutism " (but half true at the best), and did not see the social and industrial movements, the great human uprising, "the general awakening of national life, the increase of wealth, of refinement and leisure," in. that age when the "sphere of human interest was widened as it had never been widened before .... by the revelation of a new heaven and a new earth." The wise teacher will not neglect the collateral study of literature, but will endeavor to show that it partook of the character of its time, as the best literature is always the best exponent of the age which brings it forth. In the study of English institutions, it is not wise to dwell at length upon conditions prior to the 70 Treatment Norman period, and indeed even the ordinary political events before the time of Egbert should be passed over rapidly. To the secondary pupil the details of what Milton called the "battles of the kites and crows" are dreary and unprofitable: apocryphal martyrdoms, legends of doubtful authenticity, and scores of unpronounceable names are useless burdens to the healthful memory of a boy of sixteen, whose mind promptly refuses assimilation. But the origins of later institutions, so far as they appear in Anglo-Saxon times, are not uninteresting and may well be noticed. When institutions familiar to us in modern life are fairly established the pupil's interest is naturally awakened, and time is rightly devoted to their study. The jury, the offices of sheriff and coroner, and like matters, deserve attention; and something may be done even with the development of the common law in early England. But, in all the work, effort should be made to understand institutions that have lived rather than those that have perished; such study cannot fail to bring home a sense of our indebtedness to the past. It is unnecessary, however, to indicate here in detail how the successive steps in the development of English institutions and of English liberties may be brought out; such a presentation would involve a longer treatment than can be given English Institutions 7' here; but it is not out of place to say that stress should be laid chiefly upon the important constitutional movements and the establishment of principles which mark a stage of progress, and are preparations for institutions, principles, and ideas that are to follow. In teaching English constitutional history, it is the institutions of south Britain that demand chief attention; but in teaching the history of the nation, as apart from that of the state, it is essential that the common practice of neglecting Welsh, Scottish, and Irish history be abandoned in American schools; otherwise no idea is gained of the composite nature of the nation which has built up the British Empire, and spread abroad the knowledge of English institutions and the use of the Even in studying the early English language. history, care should be taken to bring out the fact that there were such people as the Welsh, Scots, and Irish; and, although it is not advisable to consider in any detail the history of these nations in later times, yet some of the more important events should be dwelt upon; the relationships with south Britain should be kept in mind; and such knowledge of their development should be given that the final welding of all into a single British kingdom becomes intelligible. .It is very desirable that the expansion and the 72 Treatment imperial development of Britain should receive adequate notice. School-books rarely lay sufficient emphasis upon this phase of the subject: the real meaning of the American Revolution is usually not disclosed; Dettingen, Fontenoy, and Minden sometimes obscure Louisburg, Quebec, and Plassey. Without Drake, Raleigh, Clive, and Gordon, English history of the last three centuries is not English history at all. The colonial system also, and the general colonial policy of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, demand attention in American schools; and the foundation of British dominion in India cannot rightly be made subordinate to party struggles in parliament or to ministerial successions. Finally, to trace the growth of the British Empire in the nineteenth century; to see how the colonists of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa have obtained and used the right of selfgovernment, and how the East India Company's settlements have developed into an imperial dependency under the British crown,-- these topics are more important than any study of ordinary party politics within the old sea-girt realm of England. By paying attention to the continental relations of England it will be possible to review the more important movements of European history, and to Relation to European 73 give the pupil new views of their meanings. If these side-views of continental conditions are offered too frequently, the class may become confused, and lose sight even of the well-worn paths of English constitutional progress; judicious reference and comparison, however, will not be distracting, but will assist the pupils in appreciating the meaning of what was going on within the four seas. A study of English feudalism will give an opportunity to review what has been learned of the continental characteristics of that institution. The crusades cannot be studied as if Richard I. were the only king who took the cross. Who can understand the quarrel between Henry I. and Anselm, if he has no knowledge of the contest between Gregory and Henry of Germany? Can even the Norman conquest be known without some sense of who the Northmen were and what they had been doing? Does one get the force of the great liberal movements of the seventeenth century without some slight comparison between the Charleses of England and the Louises of France? Although this comparative method may be ovrerdone, we believe that careful and judicious comparisons and illustrations will prove illuminat. ing, suggestive, and in all ways helpful. 74 Treatment IV. American History If American history is studied, as the commit tee recommends, in the last year of the secondary school, it should be taken up as an advanced subject, with the purpose of getting a clear idea of the course of events in the building of the American Republic and the development of its political ideas. Its chief objects should be to lead the pupil to a knowledge of the fundamentals of the state and society of which he is a part, to an appreciation of his duties as a citizen, and to an intelligent, tolerant patriotism. It is not desirable that much time should be devoted to the colonial history. The period is especially interesting if viewed as a chapter in the expansion of England, a chapter in the story of the struggle between the nations of western Europe for colonies, commerce, and dominion. It must be viewed, too, as a time when the spirit of self-sufficiency and self-determination was growing, - a spirit which accounts for the Revolution and for the dominating vigor of the later democracy. Attention may be paid to the establishment of industrial conditions and of habits of industrial activity as explaining political differences in subsequent times, especially as explaining the divergence of North and South after constitutional union had American History 75 been formed. Slight notice should be taken of military campaigns in any portion of the study, though the importance of intercolonial wars can easily be underestimated, and the main facts of other wars, especially, of course, the Revolutionary and the Civil war, cannot be neglected. In the study of American history it is erpecially desirable that the develomentof the political organizations be rlearly biugh: forth. Nothing should be allowed to obscurdthe leading features of our constitutional system. The pupil must see the characteristics of American political life and know the forms and methods, as well as the principles, of political activity. He must have knowledge of the ideals of American life, and must study the principles of American society as they have expressed themselves in institutions and embodied themselves in civic forms. Much has been said about the necessity of studying the social and industrial history of the United States, and some practical teachers have declared that chief stress should be laid upon social and economic features ' of the past life of the people. Such a study is certainly very desirable; the student should come to a realization of the nature of the problems of the industrial world about him, 1 There is a marked difference between studying economic history and studying economic features or conditions. 76 Treatment and should see the gradual changes that have been wrought as the years have gone by. History should be made real to him through the study of the daily ordinary life of man, and he should be led to feel that only a very small portion of man's activities or strivings is expressed by legislatures, congresses, or cabinets; that, especially under a government such as ours, the rndusitrial conditions, the bodily needs, the social desires the moral longings of the people, determine 'ditimately, if not immediately, the character of the law and the nature of the government itself. We do not think, however, that economic or social facts should be emphasized at the expense of governmental or political facts. It seems wise to say that the greatest aim of educa on Is to impress upon the learner a sense of duty and responsibility, and an acquaintance with his human obligations; and that a manifest function of the historical instruction in the school is to give to the pupil a sense of duty as a responsible member of that organized society of which he is a part, and some appreciation of its principles and its fundamental character. In tther words, while industrial and social phases of progress should by no means be slighted, it is an absolute necessity that a course in American history should aim to give a connected narrative of political events and to record the gradual upbuilding of institu- Industrial and Social 77 tions, the slow establishment of political ideals and practices. Fortunately, as we have already suggested, many of the most important events in our social and industrial history are so intinately connected with the course of our political history that the two subjects seem not two but one. Changes in modes of industry or in social conditions, improvements in methods of labor, intellectual and moral movements, have manifested themselves in political action, have influenced party creeds, or in some other way affected the forms or the conduct of the body politic. In a democratic country, any important change in the life of the people is of importance in political history, because the people are the state. Many of the economic and social changes, therefore, can best be studied as they show themselves in organized effort or are embodied in political institutions. If one looks at political activities or endeavors to understand constitutions, without knowledge of the lives and hopes of the people, the strivings of trade and commerce, the influence of inventions and discoveries, the effects of immigration, he knows but little of the whence or the how, and deals with symbols, not with things. While we believe, then, that the chief aim should be to give the pupil knowledge of the progress of 78 Treatment political institutions, ideas, and tendencies, we believe also that he should know the economic phases of life; that whenever possible, attention should be directed not merely to economic and social conditions, but to economic and social developments; and that those economic, industrial, or social modifications should receive chief attention which have permanently altered social organization, or have become imbedded in institutions, ideas, or governmental forms. We should in our study endeavor to see the full importance, because we see the results, of the fact that Virginia grew tobacco and South Carolina rice, and that the New Englanders were fishermen and went down to the sea in ships; we should try to recognize the meanings of slavery and white servitude, of cotton and the sugar trade, of the steamboat, the railroad, the telegraph, the rotary press, the sewing machine. We should see, if we can, how such things influenced human progress and had effect on the nature, organization, and destinies of the American people. Now a careful study like this is not possible for students in their early years. In the grades below the secondary school, use may well be made of mere descriptions of past times, of houses and apparel, of the snuff-boxes, wigs, and silken hose of our great-grandfathers; for such pictures help Economic History 79 to awaken the imagination, to furnish it with food, to bring home the idea that men and their surroundings have changed, and to prepare the mind for the later growth of historical power and capacities. 1 But though the pupil must know bygone conditions and must seek to get a vivid picture of the past, the ultimate aim of history is to disclose not what was, but what became. Totally unrelated facts are of antiquarian rather than of historical interest. In the secondary school, then, and especially in the later years of the course, attention must be paid to movements, and an effort must be made to cultivate the faculty for drawing truthful generalizations, for seeing and comprehending tendencies. We hope that from this statement no one will get the idea that we are waging war on economic history, or the study of what the Germans have happily called "cu/turgeschichte." But we con1 We recognize fully the historical value of many things that seem at first sight unimportant. When, for example, we are told that the old Federalists wore wigs and the Republicans did not, we recognize a fact that marks a change and symbolizes political creeds and party differences. Taine says that about the twentieth year of Elizabeth's reign the nobles gave up the shield and twohanded sword for the rapier, -" a little, almost imperceptible fact," he remarks, "yet vast, for it is like the change which sixty years ago made us give up the sword at court, to leave r.ur arms swinging about in our black coats." 80 Treatment tend that, since there is so much to be done in a single year, there is no time for the study of such past industrial and social conditions -though they may be indeed interesting phenomena - as stand unrelated, isolated, and hence meaningless, and are perhaps without real historical value. Time must rather be given to the important, to conditions which were fruitful of results, to movements, changes, and impulses in industrial as well as in political society. No study of economic forms or social phases should hide from view the political and social ideas for which our country stands, and which have been the developments of our history. We have entered upon this subject at some length in connection with a consideration of American history, because many of the statements seem important, and because much that is said, while peculiarly applicable to American history, is likewise true of other fields. Especially in the study of English history should effort be made to connect economic and intellectual conditions with the progress of England, to look for changes in the succeeding centuries, and to see how political organization and social needs reacted one upon the other. And yet how often has Wat Tyler's insurrection been studied as a mere uprising of political malcontents endangering the safety or the bodily ease of young Richard II.! How Civil Government 81 often has the devastation of the North been studied as if it had a bearing only on the fortunes of the Norman dynasty! How often have inventions and discoveries been stated as merely isolated phenomena, - such changes, for example, as that marked by the use of pit-coal in the making of iron, as if they were of only scientific interest! V. Civil Government Much time will be saved and better results obtained if history and civil government be studied in large measure together, as one subject rather than as two distinct subjects. We are sure that, in the light of what has been said in the earlier portions of this report about the desirability of school pupils knowing their political surroundings and duties, no one will suppose that in what we here recommend we underestimate the value of civil government or wish to lessen the effectiveness of the study. I What we desire to emphasize is the fact that the two subjects are in some respects one, and that there is a distinct loss of energy in studying a small book on American history and afterward a small book on civil government, or vice versa, when by combining the two a substantial course may be given. In any complete and thorough secondary course 82 Treatment in these subjects there must be, probably, a separate study of civil government, in which may be discussed such topics as municipal government, state institutions, the nature and origin of civil society, some fundamental notions of law and justice, and like matters; and it may even be necessary, if the teacher desires to give a complete course and can command the time, to supplement work in American history with a formal study of the Constitution and the workings of the national government. But we repeat that a great deal of what is commonly called civil government can best be studied as a part of history. To know the present form of our institutions well, one should see whence they came and how they developed; but to show origins, developments, changes, is the task of history, and in the proper study of history one sees just these movements and knows their results. It would of course be foolish to say that the secondary pupil can trace the steps in the development of all our institutions, laws, political theories, and practices; but some of them he can trace, and he should be enabled to do so in his course in American history. How it came about that we have a federal system of government rather than a centralized state; what were the colonial beginnings of our systems of local government; how Government and History 83 the Union itself grew into being; why the Constitution provided against general warrants; why the first ten amendments were adopted; why the American people objected to bills of attainder and declared against them in their fundamental law, these, and a score of other questions, naturally arise in the study of history, and an answer to them gives meaning to our Constitution. Moreover, the most fundamental ideas in the political structure of the United States may best be seen in a study of the problems of history. The nature of the Constitution as an instrument of government, the relation of the central authority to the states, the theory of state sovereignty or that of national unity, the rise of parties and the growth of party machinery,- these subjects are best understood when seen in their historical settings. But in addition to this, many, if not all, of the provisions of the Constitution may be seen in the study of history, not as mere descriptions written on a piece of parchment, but as they are embodied in working institutions. The best way to understand institutions is to see them in action; the best way to understand forms is to see them used. By studying civil government in1 connection with history, the pupil studies the concrete and the actual. The process of impeachment, the appointing power of the president, the make-up of the 84 Treatment cabinet, the power of the speaker, the organization of the territories, the adoption and purpose of the amendments, the methods of annexing territory, the distribution of the powers of government and their working relations, indeed all the important parts of the Constitution that have been translated into existing, acting institutions, may be studied as they have acted. If one does not pay attention to such subjects as these in the study of history, what is left but wars and rumors of wars, partisan contentions and meaningless details? We do not advise that text-books on civil government be discarded, even when there is no opportunity to give a separate course in the subject. On the contrary, such a book should always be ready for use, in order that the teacher may properly illustrate the past by reference to the present. If the pupils can make use of good books on the Constitution and laws, so much the better. What we desire to recommend is simply this, that in any school where there is no time for sound, substantial courses in both civil government and history, the history be taught in such a way that the pupil will gain a knowledge of the essentials of the political system which is the product of that history; and that, where there is time for separate courses, they be taught, not as isolated, but as interrelated and interdependent subjects. Bishop Stubbs in a Teaching of Government 85 memorable sentence has said, "The roots of the present lie deep in the past, and nothing in the past is dead to the man who would learn how the present comes to be what it is." Though we must not distort the past in an effort to give meaning to the present, yet we can fully understand the present only by a study of the past; and the past, on the other hand, is appreciated only by those who know the present. Methods of Instruction IN the early part of this report, attention is called to the fact that there seems to be some agreement among teachers of history concerning the methods of teaching; and we have attributed this agreement in some measure to the recommendation of the Madison Conference, whose report has been widely read and used throughout the country. Doubtless there are many other reasons for the improvement of the last ten years, chief among which is the increased supply of well-trained teachers. There has been also a new recognition of the purpose of history teaching, a growing realization on the part of teachers of why they teach the subject and of what they hope to accomplish. If one has distinctly in his mind the end that he seeks to gain, he will be likely to discover suitable means and methods of teaching. More impor tant, therefore, than method, is object: means are valueless to one who has no end to be attained. The teacher who is seeking means and methods should first inquire whether he is sure that he knows what he wishes to accomplish. 86 Interest in Methods 87 It is unnecessary for us to go into this subject at very great length. If teachers have been stimulated by the report of the Madison Conference, and have learned to obtain from it what is adapted to their wants, and to disregard what seems to them to be unsuited to their needs, they can continue to follow it. In spite of the six years of experience that have elapsed since that report was published, this committee will perhaps be no wiser in its recommendations and suggestions; and if there is now a manifest drift toward what we may be suffered to call" advanced" methods, the best plan may be to leave well enough alone, with the firm assurance that the best methods will be widely used only when there is a full realization of the purposes and the nature of the study. While discussing the value of historical work, we have necessarily considered the aims and objects of instruction. The chief purpose is not to fill the boy's head with a mass of material, which he may perchance put forth again when a college examiner demands its production. Without underestimating the value of historical knowledge, and deprecating nothing more than a readiness to argue and contend about the meaning of facts that have not been established,' we contend that the 1 History, unlike some other subjects in the curriculum, is a subject to be studied for its own sake and not merely for discipli- 88 Methods accumulation of facts is not the sole, or perhaps not the leading, purpose of studying history. No other subject in the high-school curriculum is stigmatized as an information study simply, rather than an educational study. Not even arithmetic - beyond decimals and percentage is looked upon as valuable for the stubble that it stores away in the head, where the brain has not been called into activity or taught to use the material which it is asked to retain. But for some unaccountable reason, it has been held that boys and girls must not think about historical material, or be taught to reason or be led to approach events with the historical spirit. The scientific spirit can be awakened and methods of scientific thinking cultivated; power in handling language and an ability for grasping grammatical distinctions can be developed; even the literary sense can be fostered and promoted; but the historical sense, the beginnings of historical thinking, it is sometimes gravely nary purposes. The information obtained by the study is a continuous source of pleasure and profit. Moreover, no subject can have the best pedagogical results if its acknowledged purpose is not to acquire knowledge but to get training. The mind naturally seizes and uses information which is at once interesting and useful; above all, it grasps that which is interesting because it is useful. By what is said in the text, we wish to emphasize the disciplinary value of the study, but not to belittle its value for information and culture. Training 89 said, cannot be expected; all that one can do is to give information, in the hope that in some distant day pleasant and helpful reactions will take place within the brain. Fortunately, the number of persons who argue in this way has decreased and is decreasing, and we may well leave those that remain to the intelligent teachers of history throughout the land, who are awake to the possibilities of their subject, and who see the boys and girls growing in power and efficiency under their hands.' Pupils who can study physics and geometry, or read Cicero's orations, must be presumed to have powers of logic and capacity to follow argument. Teachers of English put into their pupils' hands such masterpieces as Burke's "Speech on Conciliation with America" and Webster's "Reply to Hayne." It is certainly unwise to use such material for English work if it is impossible for boys and girls of sixteen to understand what these statesmen were talking about, or to see the force 'We may justly contend that an effort to store facts in pupils' heads often defeats its own ends. College professors who have looked over entrance examination papers for many years, as most members of this committee have done, are struck by the marvellous accumulation of misinformation which has been acquired and held with calm belief and placid assurance. We may seriously inquire whether instruction in method of looking at facts and training in thinking about them would not leave a greater residuum of actual information. 90 Methods of their arguments; for, if language is conceded to be a vehicle of ideas, it cannot be studied as a thing apart, without reference to its content. And if Burke and Cicero and Patrick Henry and Daniel Webster can be understood in language work, it seems reasonable to hold that they can be understood in history work, and hence that pupils may fairly be asked to think of what they see and read. It is not our purpose to give minute and particular directions concerning methods of historical instruction. A short list of books from which teachers may obtain helpful suggestions for classroom work will be found in Appendix VII. to this report. In drafting the recommendations which follow here, we have had in mind only certain general methods which we think specially useful for bringing out the educational value of the study. I. We believe that in most cases the teacher should use a text-book. If the book is prepared by a practical teacher and a scholar, it is probably the product of much toil, which has been devoted to a consideration of proportion and order as well as to accuracy, and it is therefore likely to unfold the subject more systematically than a teacher can possibly do unless he has wide training, long experience, and, in addition, daily opportunity carefully to examine the field and to search out the nature of the problems that he is called upon to discuss. Text-Books 1 Without the use of a text it is difficult to hold the pupils to a definite line of work: there is danger of incoherence and confusion. While, therefore, we strongly advise the use of material outside of the text, we feel that the use of the topical method alone will in the great majority of instances result in the pupils' having unconnected information. They will lose sight of the main current; and it is the current and not the eddies which they should watch., In some classes, especially in the more advanced grades, it may be possible to use more than one text-book. "By preparing in different books, or, by using more than one book on a lesson, pupils will acquire the habit of comparison, and the no less important habit of doubting whether any one book covers the ground." 1 In an attempt to discover the truth they may be led to study more widely for themselves, and will surely find that there are sources of information outside of the printed page. The use of more than one text will, however, often present many practical difficulties to the teacher; and this will surely be the case unless he has the time and opportunity to master all the texts himself and to examine outside material with care. In most schools there is a decided,,advantage in having one line along which the class 1 Report of the Committee [of Ten] (Washington, 1893), 189. 92 Methods Often it may prove helpful to use may move. supplementary texts, in order to amplify and modify the regular class-book; this may be done by the teacher when comparison by the class might prove distracting.' II. Material outside of the text-book should be used in all branches of historical study and in every year of the secondary course. Life and interest may in this way be given to the work; pupils may be introduced to good literature and be taught to handle books. This collateral material may be used in various ways, and of course much more should be expected of the later classes than of the earlier; indeed, there should be a consistent purpose to develop gradually and systematically this power of using books. Often, especially in the earlier years, the teacher will read to the class passages from entertaining histories. Younger pupils without previous training should not be expected to find the books ' After this portion of the report, dealing with methods, was read, at the meeting of the American Historical Association, in 1898, one teacher expressed the opinion that the report did not sufficiently emphasize the oral recitations; another, that we did not sufficiently emphasize written work ; another, that we did not sufficiently emphasize the value of more than one text-book. We do not wish to underestimate any means which any teacher finds suited to his needs and productive of good results. -Teachers must of course use their own discretion as to how far various methods may be followed; but we think that all of the ideas and plans here suggested will prove helpful. Reading 93 that treat of certain topics, or to know how to find the portions desired. Let the pupil learn how to understand and use pages before he uses books; and let him learn how to use one or two books before he is set to rummaging in a library. For example, a class in the first year of the secondary school may be asked to tell what is said of Marathon in Botsford's "History of Greece," p. 121. A twelfth-grade class, properly trained, may be asked to compare Lecky's account of the Stamp Act with Bancroft's, or to find out what they can in the books of the library concerning the defects of the Articles of Confederation. III. Something in the way of written work should be done in every year of the secondary school. It is unnecessary to caution teachers against requiring the sort of work in the early years that may reasonably be expected in the later part of the course. Younger pupils, who have had little or no training in doing written work of this character, might be required simply to condense and put into their own language a few pages of Grote or Mommsen, or to write out in simple form some abstract of Thucydides's account of the fate of the Sicilian expedition, or of Herodotus's description of the battle of Thermopylae, or to do similar tasks. In the later years more difficult tasks may be assigned, demanding the use of sev- 94 Methods eral books and the weaving together of various narratives or opinions. It may be said by some persons that such work as this is for the English teacher, not for the history teacher; but it can hardly be asserted that skill in the use of historical books, practice in acquiring historical information, and the ability to put forth in one's own language what has been read, are not objects of historical training. IV. It may at times prove helpful to have written recitations or tests. Teachers have often found that this method secures accuracy and defiSome pupils who have niteness of statement. difficulty in organizing and arranging the information which they possess, and who consequently are not so successful as others in oral recitations, often succeed admirably in written exercises, and by their success are stimulated and encouraged to do thoughtful and systematic work. V. Many teachers have been aided in their work by requiring the class to keep note-books; and the committee favors the adoption of this system, which has proved so serviceable in the study of the sciences. These books may contain analyses of the text, notes on outside matter presented in class, a list of books with which the pupil has himself become acquainted, and perhaps also some condensations of his reading. An analytical ar- Written Work 95 rangement of the more important topics that are discussed in the course of the study may also be placed in the note-book; this plan will help the student to see the different lines of development and change. For example, under the head of "Slavery" short statements may be inserted of the facts that have been learned from the text; by so doing the pupil will have at the end of his work a condensed narrative of the introduction, growth, and effect of slavery, and will be led to see the continuity of the slavery question as he would probably be unable to see it by any other means. VI. Fortunately it is unnecessary in these latter days to call the teacher's attention to the use of maps, and to the idea that geography and history are inextricably interwoven. Most text-books now have a number of maps, all of which however are by no means faultless. Good wall-maps may be obtained at reasonable prices; and every school should have at least one good historical atlas. The class should use physical maps, as well as those showing political and national divisions, for often the simplest and most evident facts with which the pupil is well acquainted need to be forced sharply upon his attention in connection with history. The Nile, the Euphrates, the Tiber, the Rhine, the Thames, the Mississippi, the Alps, the 96 Methods Pyrenees, the Alleghanies, - their very names call up to the mind of the historical scholar troops of facts and forces affecting the progress of the race and moulding the destinies of nations. The pupils should not lose sight of the physical causes that have acted in history any more than they should ignore the human causes; and they must remember that, although history deals with the succession of events, there is always a place relation as well as a time relation. As new meaning is given to geography when physical conditions are seen in relation with human life, so reality is added to historical occurrences and new interest is awakened in historical facts by the study of the theatre within which men acted and notable events took place. "Groupings of historical figures and scenes around geographical centres make these centres instinct with life and motion, while the centres themselves, binding the figures and scenes together, give them a new permanence and solidity." 1%. The careful study of physical geography and of historical geography is of value, therefore, not only in bringing out the nature or the true import of facts, but in helping the pupils to retain information because they see natural causes and relations, and because events are thus made to appear definite and actual. 1 Hinsdale, How to Study and Teach History, 99. Geography 97 If these methods are to be followed,- as they must be if history is to be a study of high educa. tional value, - books for reference and reading are as necessary as is apparatus for efficient work in physics or chemistry. Not many years ago all subjects except "natural philosophy" were taught without the help of any material save a text-book for each pupil, and perhaps a few dusty cyclopaedias often deftly concealed in a closet behind the teacher's desk. Great changes have been made; nearly all schools now have some books, but even at the present time it is easier to get five thousand dollars for physical and chemical laboratories than five hundred dollars for reference books; and even when libraries have been provided, their material is sometimes not wisely chosen, and they are often allowed to fall behind by a failure to purchase new and useful literature as it comes out. The library should be the centre and soul of all study in history and literature; no vital work can be carried on without books to which pupils may have ready and constant access. Without these opportunities historical work is likely to be arid, if not unprofitable; there cannot be collateral reading, or written work of the most valuable sort, or study of the sources, or knowledge of illustrative material. Even a small expenditure of money may change the dull routine of historical study into 98 Methods a voyage of pleasurable discovery, awakening the interest, the enthusiasm, and the whole mental power of the pupils. No school is so poor that something cannot be done in the way of collecting material. The first necessity of a school library is that it be accessible. It should be in the school building, open during the whole of school hours and as much longer as possible; it should be furnished with working tables and provided with good light, and so arranged that it serves, not as something helpful outside the school, but as the source and centre of inspiration, to which the classroom work is contributory. The books should be freely used, for a library is no longer considered a place for the preservation and concealment of books, but a centre from which they may be put into circulation, and where the best facilities are offered for acquiring information. The question as to whether the books should be left in open shelves or handed out by an attendant must be decided of course by the school authorities, in light of all the circumstances; but it must be remembered that the opportunity to touch and handle the volumes, to glance at their pages, to discover the subjects of which they treat, to look, as it were, into their faces, is of great value, and that more can be learned by a few minutes of familiar intercourse Libraries 99 with a book in the hand than by many inquiries of an attendant or by anxious searchings in a catalogue. The fewer the barriers and obstacles in the way the better will be the results; and the more will the pupil be tempted to refer to the authorities or to read the great masters in history and literature, an acquaintance with whose words, thoughts, and sentiments constitutes in itself no small part of education. In employing the library for historical purposes, care should be taken to teach the pupils how to use intelligently tables of contents and indexes, and also how to turn to their account the library catalogues and the indexes to general and periodical literature. The teacher will remember that the habit of referring to authorities to settle doubtful points or to discover additional evidence is a most important part, not only of historical training, but of the outfit of an educated person, and that wide reading should bring breadth of view and also a broadening and deepening of the judgment. The well-equipped library should contain (i) good historical atlases and atlases of modern geography; (2) one or two historical handbooks, or dictionaries of dates; (3) an ample supply of secondary histories, such as those of Holm, Mommsen, Lecky, Parkman; with these may be classed, as especially useful, good, interesting bi- Ioo Methods ographies, such as Dodge's "Alexander the Great," Stanhope's "Pitt "; (4) there should certainly be some collections of sources, many of which are now accessible; and some of the recent leaflets and collections of extracts of primary and secondary material will be found of service; (5) a good encyclopaedia and one or two annual compendiums, such as the various political almanacs. Sources THE use of sources in secondary work is now a matter of so much importance, that it seems to demand special and distinct treatment. We believe in the proper use of sources for proper pupils, with proper guarantees that there shall also be secured a clear outline view of the whole subject studied; but we find ourselves unable to approve a method of teaching, sometimes called the "source method," in which pupils have in their hands little more than a series of extracts, for the most part brief, and not very closely related. The difficulty with this system is, that while it suggests the basis of original record upon which all history rests, -on the other hand it expects valuable generalizations from insufficient bases. Within the covers of one book it is impossible to bring together one hundredth part of the material which any careful historical writer would examine for himself before coming to a conclusion; and it is not to be expected that inexperienced and immature minds can form correct notions without some systematic survey of the field. Indeed the attempts to teach history wholly from the IOI 102 Sources sources ignore the fact that the actual knowledge of the facts of history in the minds of the most highly trained teachers of history, comes largely from secondary books; it is only in limited fields, where a large mass of material can be examined and sifted, that historians and teachers can safely rely for their information entirely on sources, and even there they find it useful to refer to the secondary work of other writers for new points of view. The first essential, then, for any practical use of sources by pupils, is that their work shall be done in connection with a good text-book, in which the sequence and relation of events can be made clear. The aim of historical study in the secondary school, let it be repeated, is the training of pupils, not so much in the art of historical investigation as in that of thinking historically. Pupils should be led to grasp facts and to see them in relations, for one who has been taught to establish certain facts with unerring accuracy may still be unable to understand the historical significance of those facts. In the second place, we disclaim any confidence in investigation" by pupils, if by investigation is meant a mental process of the same order as that of the practised historian and the special student of a limited field, or of the teacher preparing material for his classes. In our judgment, sources Use of Text-Book 103 are not intended to be either the sole or the principal materials for school study. There is, indeed, a . close analogy between the proposed processes of historical study and those of the study of natural science. In physics, for example, it has been thought expedient to require a well-ordered textbook in connection with a series of experiments; yet physics cannot be efficiently taught unless the pupil has some contact with materials, not because they form the only foundation of his knowledge, but because he learns to look for himself, and to understand that the knowledge which he receives at second-hand must be based upon patient investigation by somebody else. By the study of properly selected materials, the pupil realizes that historical characters were living persons, and he learns to distinguish between them and the z and y of algebra or the formulas of physics. When one reads the loving letter written from before Antioch by Count Stephen of Blois some eight hundred years ago, 1 in which he charges his wife to do right and to remember her duty to her children and her vassals, one realizes that the Crusaders were real men, imbued with many of the purposes, hopes, and sentiments with which men of the present day are moved and influenced. 1 Translated in Letters of the Crusaders (University of Pennsyl vania Translations and Reprints), 1-4. 104 Sources The use of sources which we advocate is, theret fore, a limited contact with a limited body of materials, an examination of which may show the child the nature of the historical process, and at the same time may make the people and events of bygone times more real to him. We believe that some acquaintance with sources vitalizes the subject, and thus makes it easier for the teacher and more stimulating for the pupil. But all sources are not of equal value for this purpose; some of those which are very important for more mature students are too dry and unattractive to be useful for younger persons. John Adams's "Discourses of Davila" is a source, though thought exceedirgly Abigail Adams's dull even in his generation. letters to her husband, complaining of the fall of continental currency, are equally valuable* as sources, and much more interesting. Since discrimination in the selection of sources is of so much importance, the first criterion is, that authorities be chosen whose authenticity is beyond dispute. It is not worth while to introduce children to the controversies over the voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot; or to the arguments for and against the truthfulness of John Smith's account of his rescue by Pocahontas; or to the authorship of the letters found in the saddle-bags of Charles I. There is no difficulty in obtaining an abundance Limitations 105 of suggestive sources, about the value of which historians will agree and around which no interminable controversy is waging. Pains should also be taken to recommend the sources that may reasonably be brought within the knowledge of pupils; it is of no use to refer to rarities or to texts long out of print. In the next .place, few documents, in the usual significance of that term, are very useful in the schoolroom. A capitulary of Charlemagne, Magna Charta, a colonial -charter, or the Constitution of the United States may with careful explanation be made clear; but it is difficult to make them attractive. The growth of a nation, the enlargement of its political ideas, may be measurable by young intellects, but not the registration of that growth in great political documents. And yet even documents may be occasionally used. There seems to be no good reason for merely reading about the Declaration of Independence without seeing the printed instrument itself, or talking about the Ordinance of 1787 or the Proclamation of Emancipation without knowledge of the texts. There is, however, a large body of material of another kind which is as trustworthy as constitutional documents and is much more attractive. Such are books of travels, which from Herodotus down to James Bryce have-been one of the most io6 Sources entertaining and suggestive sources on the social and intellectual phenomena of history. Of equal interest, and perhaps of greater value, are the actual journals and letters of persons contemporary with the events which they describe. Such are Cicero's "Epistles," Luther's "Letters," Pepys' "Diary," Bradford's "History," and the more intimate writings of statesmen like Henry VIII. of England and Henry IV. of France, Frederick the Great, Franklin, Washington, and Gladstone. These are unfailing sources of historical information, and they give in addition a personal and human interest to the subjects which they illustrate. In dealing with young minds which are rapidly opening, it is of special importance to choose books or extracts which have a literary value. The annals of the race are founded on first-hand accounts of historical events, many of which are written in such a fashion as to be worth reading aside from their historical value. Such are, for example, Einhard's "Life of Charlemagne"; the naive accounts of the foundation of the Swiss Republic in 1292; the journ'als of the early voyagers to the Western world; the table-talk of Bismarck; the farewell letters of John Brown; and the memoranda of Lincoln's few brief, speeches. Such material used in schools gives part of the training Topical Work 7 and enjoyment to be had from good literature, and at the same time furnishes illustrations that make the text-book of history sparkle with human life. In connection with topical work, the pupils may with special advantage make use of the sources. To the child such work is as fresh as though it had never been undertaken by any other mind. In comparing the statements of various sources and arriving at a conclusion from taking them together, the pupil gets a valuable training of judgment. He must not suppose that he is making a history, or that his results are comparable with those of the trained historian; but he may have an intellectual enjoyment of the same kind as that of the historical writer. The committee is fully aware of the difficulty -of carrying on such methods as are here suggested; they require advantageous circumstances and material which is easily handled and with which the teacher has decided familiarity. As has been pointed out above, written work must not be the only or even the principal employment of the pupil, but in the preparation of written topics much may be. gained by dealing with 'sources, if a sufficient variety is available. Wherever written work is required, therefore, it is desirable to have some sources, to be used not merely for help in writing Io8 Sources but for reference. In this way the pupil may get an idea of the difficulties of ascertaining historical truth, and of the necessity for impartiality and accuracy. Besides the sources which have come down to us in written form and are reproduced upon the printed page, there is another important class of historical materials which is of great assistance in givactual, concrete ing reality to the past, -namely, remains, such as exist in the form of old buildings, monuments, and the contents of museums. Many schools have direct access to interesting survivals of this sort, while the various processes of pictorial reproduction have placed abundant stores of such material within reach of every teacher. The excellent illustrations of many recent text-books may be supplemented by special albums, such as are used in French and German schools, and by the school's own collections of engravings and photographs cut from magazines or procured from dealers.' Some schools have also provided sets 1 Selections from the Perry prints, and the cheap series of photographic reproductions issued by various American houses, are always available at a very moderate price, and have found a place in many schools. Good types of inexpensive foreign albums are Seemann's Kunsthistorische Bilderbogen and the Albums Historiques of Parmentier (Paris, Hachette). Holzel in Vienna publishes Langl's Bilder zur Geschichle, a set of sixty-two wall pictures of the great structures of all ages. Illustrative 109 of lantern slides. Of course in order to entitle such illustrations to serious use and to the rank of historical sources they must be real pictures, actual reproductions of buildings, statues, contemporary portraits, views of places, etc.,-and not inventions of modern artists. It is easy to make too much of illustrations and thus reduce history to a series of dissolving views; but many excellent teachers have found the judicious use of pictures helpful in the extreme, not merely in arousing interest in the picturesque aspects of the subject, but incultivating the historical imagination and in giving definiteness and vividness to the pupil's general ideas of the past. An appeal to the eye is of great assistance in bringing out the characteristic differences between past and present, and thus in checking that tendency to project the present into the past which is one of the most serious obstacles to sound views of history. The chief danger in the use of pictorial material lies in giving too much of it instead of dwelling at length on a few carefully chosen examples. To sum up this part of the subject, the committee looks upon sources as adjuncts to good textbook work, as something which may be u'ed for a part of the collateral reading and may also form the basis of some of the written work. Such use of material, with proper discrimination in choosing I Io Sources the sources, will add to the pleasure of the pupil, and will by sharpness of outline fix in his mind events and personalities that will slip away if he uses the text-books alone. Intensive Study we have not dwelt at any length upon the desirability of devoting time to what is termed by the Madison Conference "intensive study," is because we do not see how in many schools sufficient time can be given to such work, and not because we advise against the adoption of that plan of work if there is time and opportunity in the school course. Indeed, we believe that the careful examination of a very limited period is highly beneficial. By intensive study we do not mean original work in the sense in which the word "original " is used in advanced college classes ; we mean simply the careful and somewhat prolonged study of a short period. The shorter the period and the longer the time devoted to it, the more intensive the study will be. Perhaps in the courses in English and American history, time may be found to study one or two periods with special care and attention, so that the pupil may have exceptional opportunities to read the best secondary authorities, and even to examine pri. THAT III 112 Intensive Study mary material. For example, in English history it may prove possible to give two or three weeks, instead of two or three days, to a study of the important events and meanings of the Commonwealth, or to the ideas and progress of the whole Puritan movement. In American history it may be wise to study for a considerable time such subjects as the causes of the Revolution, or the Confederation and the formation of the Constitution, or the chief events of the decade from 1850 to 186o. When this plan of selecting a period or a topic for intensive examination is possible, the pupils can gain great advantage by the opportunity of delving deeper into the subject than is possible when all parts of the work are studied with equal thoroughness or superficiality: they can read more in the secondary material, can get a peep at the sources, and thus come to a fuller appreciation of what history is and how it is written. Only when good working facilities are at hand, however, and the teacher, knowing the material, has time to guide his pupils and give them constant aid and attention, will this plan prove very helpful. The Need of Trained Teachers IF history is to take and hold its proper place in the school curriculum, it must be in the hands of teachers who are thoroughly equipped for the task of bringing out its educational value. It is still not very unusual to find that history is taught, if such a word is appropriate, by those who have made no preparation, and that classes are sometimes managed - we hesitate to say instructed by persons who do not profess either to be prepared or to take interest in the subject. In one good school, for example, history a short time ago was turned over to the professor of athletics, not because he knew history, but apparently in order to fill up his time. In another school a teacher was seen at work who evidently did not have the first qualifications for the task; when the examiner inquired why this teacher was asked to teach history when she knew no history, the answer was that she did not know anything else. As long as other subjects in the course are given to specialists, while history is distributed here and 1 113 "14 Trained Teachers there to fill up interstices, there can be no great hope for its advancement. Fortunately, however, this condition of things is disappearing as history gradually finds its way to a place beside such subjects as Latin and mathematics, which claim a prescriptive right to first consideration. Doubtless to teach history properly is a difficult task. It requires not only wide information and accurate knowledge, but a capacity to awaken enthusiasm and to bring out the inner meanings of a great subject. Accuracy and definiteness must be inculcated in the pupil, and he must be led to think carefully and soberly; but he must also be tempted to range beyond the limits of the text and to give rein to his imagination. Pupils often complain that, while in other studies a lesson can be thoroughly mastered, in history every topic seems exhaustless. Teachers are constantly conSo many fronted with the same difficulties. problems arise and demand attention; so difficult is it to hold the pupil to definite facts, and yet help him to see that he is studying a scene in the great drama of human life which has its perpetual exits and entrances; so hard a task is it to stimulate the imagination while one is seeking to cultivate the reason and the judgment, that the highest teaching power is necessary to complete success. Knowledge 115 The first requisite for good teaching is knowledge. The teacher's duty is not simply to see that the pupils have learned a given amount, or that they understand the lesson, as one uses the word "understand" when speaking of a demonstration in geometry or an experiment in physics. His task is to bring out the real meaning and import of what is learned by adding illustrations, showing causes and suggesting results, to select the important and to pass over the unimportant, to emphasize essentials, and to enlarge upon significant facts and ideas. A person with a meagre information cannot have a wide outlook; he cannot see the relative importance of things unless he actually knows them in their relations. But knowledge of facts alone is not enough. In historical work pupils and teacher are constantly engaged in using books. These books the teacher must know; he must know the periods which they cover, their methods of treatment, their trustworthiness, their attractiveness, their general utility for the purposes of young students. He must have skill in handling books and in gleaning from them the information which he is seeking, because it is just this skill which he is trying to give to his pupils. No one would seriously think of putting in charge of a class in manual training a person who had himself n~ver shoved a plane or measured II6 Trained Teachers a board. To turn over a class in history to be in. structed by a person, who is not acquainted with the tools of the trade and has had no practice in manipulating them, is an equal absurdity. A successful teacher must have more than mere accurate information and professional knowledge. He needs to have a living sympathy with the tale which he tells. He must know how to bring out the dramatic aspects of his story. He must know how to awaken the interest and attention of his pupils, who will always be alert and eager if they feel that they are learning of the actual struggles and conflicts of men who had like passions with ourselves. Though stores of dates and names must be at the teacher's command, these are not enough. He must have had his own imagination fired and his enthusiasm kindled; he must know the sources of historical knowledge and the springs of historical inspiration; he must know the literature of history and be able to direct his pupils to stirring passages in the great historical masters; he must know how to illumine and brighten the page by readings from literature and by illustrations from art. "It were far better," says Professor Dicey, "as things now stand, to be charged with heresy, or even to be found guilty of petty larceny, than to fall under the suspicion of lacking historical-minded- Point of View IH7 ness, or of questioning the universal validity of the historical method." To cultivate historical-mindedness, to teach pupils to think historically and to approach facts with the historical spirit, - this is the chief object of instruction in any field of history. But unless the teacher has had practice in dealing with facts, unless he has acquired perspective, unless he has become historical-minded and knows himself what the historical method is, he cannot instruct his pupils. These characteristics cannot be absorbed from a text-book in an hour or two before the recitation; they are the products of time and toil. Possibly the day is far distant when all teachers in this country will be prepared for their duties by a long course of training such as is required of a teacher in European schools; but there are a few evidences that this time is slowly approaching. Beyond all question, some of the best teachers in our secondary schools are almost wholly self. trained; some of them are not college graduates. But these exceptions do not prove that advanced collegiate training and instruction are undesirable. In teaching a vital subject like history, much depends upon the personality of the teacher, upon his force, insight, tact, sympathy, upon qualities that cannot be imparted by the university courses or by prolonged research. Though all this be true, 118 Trained Teachers every teacher should have had some instruction in methods of teaching, and should have learned from precept what are the essentials of historical study and historical thinking; and-what is of much greater importance - he should have so worked that he knows himself what historical facts are and how they are to be interpreted and arranged. The highly successful teacher in any field of work needs to be a student as well as a teacher, to be in touch with the subject as a growing, developing, and enlarging field of human knowledge. College Entrance Requirements ANY consideration of college entrance require. ments presents many difficulties; but probably no field of work offers greater problems than does that of history, because the schools have no common understanding as to the amount of history that should be offered in the curriculum, and because the universities differ materially in their requirements. The first fundamental fact to be remembered is that a very large percentage of secondary pupils do not go to college, and that in a very great majority of schools the courses must be adapted primarily for the pupils who finish their study with 1 In 1896, the National Educational Association appointed a committee to consider the subject of college entrance requirements, and to report a scheme of uniform requirements. At the request of that committee, the American Historical Association appointed the Committee of Seven to draft a scheme of college entrance requirements in history. The portion of our report that here follows was prepared with that purpose in mind ; and substantially similar recommendations have, already been made to Superintendent Nightingale, as chairman of the committee of the National Educational Association. 119 120 Entrance Requirements the secondary school. It is often asserted that the course which fits pupils for college is equally well adapted to the uses of those who do not go to college. We do not care to argue this question, although we doubt very much if it be true that the requirements laid down for entrance to college, requirements which still bear the mark of the old rdgirne, are likely to furnish the best equipment for the work and play of everyday life. Whether this be true or not, it is certainly wrong to shape secondary courses primarily with a view to college needs. In the great majority of schools the cur riculum must be prepared with the purpose of developing boys and girls into young men and women, not with the purpose of fitting them to meet entrance examinations or of filling them with information which some faculty thinks desirable as a forerunner of college work. Many of the academies and some of the high schools can without much trouble meet the artificial requirements of the colleges; but a great majority of the high schools and some of the academies have great difficulty; and it is an almost impossible task so to arrange the programme that pupils can be fitted 1 for more than one institution. 1 For example, in a catalogue of a good high school, - a school rather large than small, and well-equipped with teachers, -we find these typical statements: that a pupil may prepare in that school Fitting Schools 121 For this reason we welcome the efforts of the committee of the National Educational Association to simplify and unifycollege entrance requirements. We believe, however, that the first requisite of a successful accomplishment of this task is a recognition of the fact that the great majority of schools are not fitting-schools for college; and it seems to us that any rigid and inelastic rgime, which does not take into consideration the fact that schools are working in many different environments and are subject to different limitations and conditions, cannot be very widely accepted or prove useful for any length of time. We venture to suggest, therefore, that in any effort to simplify the situation by relieving the schools from the burden of tryingto meet college requirements, two things are essential; one is, that the fundamental scope and purpose of the major part of the secondary schools be regarded; the other, that such elasticity be allowed that schools may fit pupils for college and yet adapt themselves to some extent to local environment and local needs.' for one of several universities, but that at the beginning of the second year he should know what he intends to do; and that a failure to choose accurately in any one semester involves the loss of a year. 1 It does not seem wise, even if it be possible, to outline the same rigid entrance requirements for the University of California, 122 Entrance Requirements We feel justified, therefore, as students and teachers, in marking out what we think is the best curriculum in history, in discussing the educational value of the study, in emphasizing the thought that history is peculiarly appropriate in a secondary course, which is fashioned with the thought of preparing boys and girls for the duties of daily life and intelligent citizenship, and in dwelling upon methods for bringing out the pedagogical effect of historical work. It seems to us that, in consideration of the value and importance of historical work, and in light of the fact that so many thousands of pupils are now engaged in historical study, the colleges should be ready to admit to their list of requirements a liberal amount of history; but we do not feel that we should seek to lay down hard-and-fast entrance requirements in history and ask the colleges or the committee of the National Educational Association to declare in favor of an inflexible r gime. For convenience of statement we have adopted, in the recommendations which follow, the term "unit"; by one unit we mean either one year of historical work wherein the study is given five University of Kansas, University of North Carolina, Yale, Harvard, Tulane, and a hundred others. This policy would mean that secondary schools everywhere throughout the country must disregard local conditions and yield to an outside force. Recommendations 123 times per week, or two years of historical work wherein the study is given three times per week. We have thought it best to take into consideration the fact that different colleges have now not only different requirements, but also entirely different methods of framing and proposing requirements. It has not seemed wise, therefore, to outline historical courses on the supposition that all colleges would at once conform to a uniform arrangement. I. If a college or a scientific school has a system of complete options in college entrance requirements, that is, if it accepts a given number of years' work, or units, without prescribing specific subjects of study (as at Leland Stanford University), we recommend that four units in history be accepted as an equivalent for a like amount of work in other subjects. Likewise, that one, two, or three units in history be accepted. 2. If a college or a scientific school requires a list of certain prescribed studies, and also demands additional subjects, to be chosen out of an optional list (as at Harvard University), we recommend that one unit of history be placed on the list of definitely prescribed studies, and that one, two, or three units of history be placed among the optional studies. 3. If a college or a scientific school has rigid 124 Entrance Requirements requirements without options (as at Yale College and the Sheffield Scientific School), we recommend that at least one unit of history be required for entrance. These recommendations do not seem to us unreasonable, and we do not believe that their adoption would impose any burden upon college or preparatory schools. If the traditional requirements in other subjects need to be diminished in order to allow one unit of history in any rgime of rigid requirements, we do not think that such diminution is unwise in light of the fact that history is now generally studied, and that the training obtained from historical work is an essential of good secondary education. It will be seen from the statement which follows (under 4), that we do not recommend any particular field or period of history as preferable to all others for the purpose of such requirements; to constitute this unit any one of the periods or blocks of history previously mentioned may be selected. 4. Where a college has several distinct courses leading to different degrees, and has different groups of preparatory studies, each group preparing for one of the college courses (as at the University of Michigan), the use to be made of history requires more detailed exposition. In one of these preparatory courses the ancient languages Units 125 receive chief attention; in a second, a modern language is substituted for one of the ancient languages; in a third, the chief energy is devoted to natural sciences; in a fourth, main stress is laid upon history and English language and literature. The general recommendations given above will aid somewhat in outlining preparatory courses in history when such definite routes for admission to college are marked out:-A. We believe that in each preparatory course there should be at least one unit of history. This recommendation means that classical students should have at least one full year of historical work. A course which purports to deal with the "humanities" cannot afford to be without one year's Work in a study whose sole theme is humanity. When four years are given to Latin, two or more to Greek, two or three to mathematics, one, or perchance two, to science, some room should be found for history, even if the time given to other studies be diminished. If we take for granted the fact that the great majority of secondary pupils do not go to college, can we declare that they should go out into life with no knowledge of the humanities save that acquired by the study of the Greek and Latin tongues ? To decide what field of history should be chosen is a matter of considerable difficulty. We believe 126 Entrance Requirements it desirable that pupils should know the life and thought of Greece and Rome and the development of their civilizatioi; that they should study the great facts of European history after the downfall of the Roman Empire; that they should have some knowledge of how England grew to be a great empire and English liberty developed; and that they should come to know their own political surroundings by studying American history and government. We hesitate, therefore, to recommend that any one particular field be chosen to the exclusion of the rest; and yet we think that far better educational results can be secured by devoting a year to a limited period than by attempting to cover the history of the world in that length of time. We believe that it is more important that pupils should acquire knowledge of what history is and how it should be studied than Jthat they should cover any particular field. Perhaps it is not impossible, in connection with the study of Greek and Latin, to pay such attention to the growth of Greece and Rome that the pupils may be led to an appreciation of the character and essential nature of ancient civilization. This is one of the great ends of historical work; and if the humanities can thus be humanized, there will be less need of prescribing Greek or Roman history as a distinct subject for classical Various Courses 127 students, 1 and some other historical field may then be chosen. We cannot be sure, however, that such methods of teaching the classics will prevail; and we must content ourselves with recommending one of the four blocks or periods which are marked out in the earlier portions of this paper, without designating any particular one. B. The secondary course, sometimes called the Latin course, in which a modern language takes the place of Greek, presents nearly the same problems as the classical course. It does not afford much time for the study of history; we therefore recommend that some one of the four blocks mentioned above be selected. C. In the scientific secondary course more opportunity for historical study is often allowed, and here two units of history may be given. At least one of them will naturally be a modern field, and yet it may be said that it is highly desirable that scientific pupils should by the study of ancient history obtain something of the culture which is not wrongly supposed to come from the study of classical civilization. 1 That the desirability of such a method is recognized by many classical teachers is shown, for example, by the paper by Professor Clifford Moore on How to Enrich the Classical Course, published in the School Review, September, 1898. 128 Entrance Requirements D. The fourth secondary course, commonly called the English course, should have history for its backbone, inasmuch as it is a study peculiarly capable of being continued throughout the four years, and of offering that opportunity for continuous development which the classical pupil obtains from the prolonged study of Latin. We strongly advise that sustained effort bedevoted to history in order that this course may have a certain consistency and unity. There are already schools that offer history for four years, and give four full units consisting substantially of the four blocks we have outlined. If the four full units cannot be given, it may be well to offer history only three times a week in one of the four years. If only three years can be devoted to the study, one of the four blocks must, as we have already said, be omitted, or two fields must be compressed in some such manner as that suggested in the earlier portion of this report.' The general recommendations under this head may then be summed up as follows: (a) for the classical course, one unit of history, to consist of one of the four blocks previously mentioned; (b) for the Latin course, the same; (c) for the scientific course, two units consisting of any two of the blocks; (d) for the English course, three units 1 See above, p. 43. Minimum 129 consisting of any three of the blocks, or consisting of two blocks and a combination of two others. We strongly recommend that four years of history be given in this course, in order to make history one of the central subjects. It should be said in conclusion that, in demanding but one unit of history as the minimum requirement for entrance to a college or a scientific school, the committee does not wish to be understood as expressing its approval of this amount as an adequate course in history for secondary schools. In this portion of the report we have been obliged to work within the limits of the systems of entrance requirements that now prevail, and to frame recommendations that may be adapted to existing conditions; but we do not believe that a single unit of history constitutes a sufficient course, viewed with reference either to the relative importance-of the subject, or to the possibility of realizing the aims of historical instruction within the time that would thus be at the teacher's disposal. The arguments for the necessity of a comprehensive and substantial course in history have been presented at length in the earlier sections of this report; and though it may not at present be feasible for every college to require more than one unit of history, the committee believes that two units should constitute the minimum amount offered in K 130 Entrance Requirements any school, and it maintains that a still more extended course in history has claims quite equal to those that may be urged on behalf of any other study in the secondary curriculum. Entrance Examinations One subject connected with college entrance requirements has peculiar importance in connection with the study of history, namely, that of entrance examinations. Higher institutions that admit students on the basis of certificates need have no administrative difficulty in giving large recognition to history as a preparatory subject; but in colleges and universities that can be entered only after passing examinations, the problem is somewhat different. As has been emphasized elsewhere in this report, the utility of historical study lies not only in the acquisition of certain important facts, but in great measure in its indirect results in training the powers of discrimination and judgment; it will often happen that pupils who have profited largely from their study of history will, especially after two or three years have elapsed, show surprising laczunce in their stores of historical information. While a course in history should be progressive and build steadily upon what has gone before, one stage does not depend so immediately Examinations '3' upon the preceding, and involve so persistent a review of earlier work, as is the case in language and mathematics: and besides, growth in power of historical thinking is much harder to measure than progress in mathematicalknowledge or in linguistic facility. These difficulties are present in some degree, even when the candidate is examined on work done in history in the last year of the secondary school; but they become exceedingly serious when the subject has been studied some years before, or when the course in history covers two, three, or four years of the period of secondary instruction. The remedy, in our opinion, lies, not in the exclusion or unnatural restriction of history as a subject for entrance, but in the reform of methods of examination in history; if the present system of entrance examination does not - and it generally does not - properly test the qualifications of candidates in history, it is time to consider how it may be changed. Certainly nothing has done more to discredit history as a subject for college entrance than the setting of papers which demand no more preparation than a few weeks' cram. The suggestions which follow are offered in the hope, not that they will afford a final solution of the problem, but that they may prove helpful in bringing about a more just and adequate system of examinations 132 Entrance Requirements in history. The complete adoption of them will naturally involve a larger allotment of time to history than is now given in examination schedules, and- will impose a heavier burden upon those to whose lot the reading of papers in history falls; but it is not likely that the demands on time and energy will prove greater than in other well-recognized admission subjects, and it is not unreasonable to expect college authorities to make suitable provision in these regards. The main element in entrance examinations in history must probably continue to be the written paper, but this should be set with the idea of testing to some extent the candidate's ability to use historical material, as well as his knowledge of important facts. The information questions should not demand the simple reproduction of the statement of the text, but should in large. measure be so framed as to require the grouping of facts in a different form from that followed in the books recommended for preparation. There should also be questions involving some power of discrimination and some use of legitimate comparison on the part of the candidate. It is not to be expected that skill in utilizing historical material will be present in a high degree in the candidate for admission to college, but the student who has learned how to handle books and to extract information from them Proper Tests 133 in the course of his secondary studies has the right, and the ability, to make this knowledge count for something toward college entrance. As suitable tests we may suggest comment on carefully chosen brief extracts from simple sources or modern works, analysis or discussion of more extended passages, supplemented perhaps by outline maps or concrete illustrations, - anything, in short, that will show the student's capacity of taking up a fresh question in a way that indicates some development of the historical sense. Naturally, attainments in this direction will be expected chiefly of those who present history as an additional option. Doubtless to many these tests will appear sufficient; but it must always be borne in mind that a written paper, even when the questions have been prepared with great care, cannot yield such decisive results in history as it can, for example, in a subject like English composition. The examiner should always have an opportunity - and particularly in doubtful cases - of supplementing by other means the information gained from the paper. One excellent adjunct is the submission by the candidate of written work done in connection with his study of history in school. 'This may include notebooks, abstracts of reading, and prepared papers, none of which, however, should be accepted without proper guarantees of authenticity and indepen- 1I34 Entrance Requirements dent preparation. Another supplementary test, which is largely used in European examinations and has commended itself to the experience of many American examiners, consists of a brief oral conference with the candidate. This should be quite informal in character, and should aim to discover, if possible, something concerning the personality of the candidate and the nature of his historical training, rather than to elicit brief answers to a few arbitrarily chosen questions. The following analytical statement will show at a glance our recommendation concerning the organization of the history course. Four Years' Course in History First year. - Ancient History to 8oo A.D. Second year. - Medieval and Modern European History. Third year.- English History. Fourth year. - American History and Civil Government. Three Years' Course in History A Any three of the above blocks. B First or second year.- Ancient History to 800 A.D. Summary 135 Second or thirdyear.- English History, with special reference to the chief events in the history of Continental Europe. Third or fourth year.- American History and Civil Government. C First or second year. - Ancient History to 8oo A.D. Second or third year.- Medieval and Modern European History. Third or fourth year. - American History, with a consideration of the chief events in the History of England. D Firstyear. - Ancient History to 800 A.D. Second year.- English History, with reference to the chief events in later Medieval history (three times per week.) Third year.- English History, with reference to the chief events in Modern European History (three times per week). Fourth year.- American History and Civil Government. E A.D. Firstyear.- Ancient History to 800oo Second year.- Medieval and Modern European History. Third year.- American History, with special reference to the development of English political principles and English expansion in connection with American colonial history (three times per week). Fourthyear.- American History and Civil Government (three times per week). 136 Entrance Requirements This report is offered with the hope that it may be of service to teachers of history and to those who have the task of arranging school programmes. We hope also that it does not inadequately express the opinion of progressive teachers and students as to what should be done for the development of secondary school work in history. ANDREW C. MCLAUGHLIN (chairman), Professor of American History in the University of Michigan. HERBERT B. ADAMS, CHARLES H. HASKINS, Professor of American and InProfessor of Institutional History in the University of stitutional History in Johns Hopkins University. Wisconsin. LucY M. SALMON, GEORGE L. Fox, Rector of the Hopkins GramProfessor of History in Vassar mar School, New Haven, College. Conn. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, H. MORSE STEPHENS, Professor of Modern EuroProfessor of History in Harvard University. pean History in Cornell University. Appendix I The Present Condition of History in American Secondary Schools AT the very outset of its work, the committee, believing that recommendations must proceed from a knowledge of the conditions and results in the schools, undertook to learn, so far as possible, what was actually being done by the secondary schools in the country in the subject of history. A circular was accordingly prepared in elaborate form in the hope that the answers to the questions thus proposed would give the committee a basis of fact. These circulars were not sent broadcast: in each state, so far as possible, some person acquainted with the educational work of that state sent us a short list of typical schools, large, middle-sized, and small, public and private; and we thus made up a list of about three hundred schools which would reflect the conditions of the whole country. From most of the schools thus approached answers were '37 138 American Schools received, perhaps two hundred and sixty in all. Of these, two hundred and ten were sufficiently full on most points to admit of some sort of tabulation from which general tendencies might be perceived. In going over the returns difficulties were encountered. Notwithstanding the combined efforts of the committee, some of the questions were not so framed as to bring out precisely what was wanted. Accordingly, toward the end of the investigation, a considerable number of the schools which had replied to the first circular were asked to send answers to a second much briefer and simpler set of questions, intended principally to make clear the practice and opinion of educators on the points that had proved the most difficult for the committee. A copy of this circular will be found at the end of this Appendix. As is usual in inquiries by correspondence, the returns show more certainly what schools do not do than what they do; the negative evidence is convincing that the schools have a great variety of programmes and methods: but it is hard to be sure that any considerable number have the same system, or attach the same meaning to such terms as "collateral reading,''" topics," " use of maps," "note-books," etc. The general inferences from the circulars, however, agree with the results of many personal conferences with teachers, by showing that Inquiries 139 a large number of schools set themselves earnestly to the task of teaching history; that a large number make a sufficient time allowance to deserve good results; and that the general notions as to methods are on the same lines throughout the country. Such generalizations as the committee thinks itself justified in making on question of details, from the returns to the two circulars, supplemented by its private information, may be briefly stated as follows :- Choice of Subjects The subjects in the order of their frequency are: (I) English and American history, taught in more than half the schools; (2)" General history," taught in almost exactly half the schools; (3) Greek and Roman history, taught in about half the schools; (4) European history, taught in about one-third of the schools, the three forms - mediaeval, modern, and French history - being about equally common. In a very few schools the history of the state in which they are situated is a subject. The favorite topics are, therefore, English and American history, usually both taught in the same school; Greek and Roman history, usually both taught in the same school; and some form of what is commonly called "general history." 140 American Schools On the subject of general history there appears to be wide divergence of practice as well as of opinion. In the Middle states, most of the schools reporting have a one-year course, as have also a considerable number in the West; in New England, preponderance of sentiment is against such a course. In some cases the course takes the form of mediaeval history alone, in some cases that of French history as a groundwork, - the system recommended by the Madison Conference; in most instances the course is apparently a general survey based on one text-book, with little or no collateral reading or illustrative work. Order of Subjects The committee has taken pains to ascertain the more common preferences as to the succession of historical subjects, and finds that in general four different systems have been followed: (i) About onethird of the schools follow the chronological method, taking up in succession ancient history, general history, and modern history in some form, usually English or American or both; that is, they use general history as a bridge between ancient times and our modern nations. (2) A much smaller number of schools, perhaps a seventh of the whole, prefer the order - general, ancient, and modern; that is, first Subjects '4' of all a survey of the whole field, and then more detailed study, first of the ancient period, then of the modern. This method is apparently less common in New England than in the West. (3) The third method begins with American, or sometimes with English history, and then takes general history, bringing in ancient history last. About one-fifth of the schools reporting use this system, which is least common in the Middle states, and which would seem to be devised to bring ancient history into a place convenient for college examinations. (4) A fourth method, which prevails in more than a quarter of the schools, is that of beginning with American, following with ancient history, and ending with a general course; that is, they proceed from the particular to the general. To make the generalization in broader form: the returns from a body of schools most interested in the subject of history show that one-half prefer to begin high-school work with the history nearest to the pupils in experience, and then to take up wider choices, while one-third have the chronological system, and the remainder begin with the general survey of the whole field. 142 American Schools Separate College Course The report of the Committee of Ten bore very strongly against establishing courses in any one subject for the benefit of only those pupils who expect to go to college; and that recommendation exactly coincides with the actual experience of the schools so far as the study of history is concerned. Threefourths of them advocate, and probably practice, the system of having the same teaching for both classes of pupils. This generalization applies also to New England, although in that section there is a large number of special preparatory schools. Time Given to History One of the arguments frequently urged against insisting on a good secondary course in history is that there is no time for it. The committee, therefore, has taken some trouble to ascertain the time allowance now made in various schools, asking in the second circular the specific question: "What is the maximum number of exercises in history in your whole curriculum (allowing forty weeks as a school year), open to a pupil who chooses that course which has most history in it?" There seems no reason to doubt the sincerity and accuracy of the replies to this question, although the results are surprising. Courses and Time '43 Only one-seventh of the schools offer less than two hundred exercises in one or another of their curricula. Probably there are courses, as the classical or the scientific, in which this maximum number of exercises is not attainable by any one pupil, even although the facilities of the school permit the offering of detached parts of a good course. Three-fourths of the seventy schools scattered throughout the country which report on this question offer more than four hundred exercises, that is the equivalent of five exercises a week during two years. The Middle and Western states are rather more alive than New England to the importance of history; and some schools, both in the East and West allow as much as eight hundred exercises: it is therefore safe to assume that good secondary schools can so arrange their schedules as to make a proper time allowance for history. Text-Books Knowledge as to the actual methods pursued in schools is difficult to gain from written circulars because so much depends upon the understanding and use of terms; but the experience of the members of the committee gained by association with secondary teachers, and in many cases by actual personal knowledge of their work, supplements and corrects '44 American Schools such generalizations as may be made from the returns to our circulars. The text-books used are legion, and without mentioning titles it is the judgment of the committee that, although the old-fashioned and discarded books are now disappearing, the favorite text-books seem still to be the briefer ones. Few schools appear to select a book with a good round amount of reading matter; hence, unless supplemented by other work, the text-books used are likely to furnish an insufficient mental pabulum. Some specific information has been obtained about the opinion of selected teachers as to the wisdom of using more than one kind of textbook in the same class. Opinion seems about evenly divided, with a preponderance against the practice. Collateral Reading On the question of supplementing text-books with additional reading of some sort there seems little difference of opinion: only one principal known to the committee advocates the extensive use of the textbook with little or no additional work; about onehalf the selected principals favor a large amount of collateral reading; the other half prefer more searching text-book work and less reading. In view of this very distinct preference, it is surprising to find how few of the schools really seem fitted Books; Written Work '45 out with good collections of standard secondary writers, suitable either for reading or for written Even schools with considerable libraries work. appear unable to keep up with the new general books, which would be so useful to pupils. Perhaps this lack of material accounts for the facts that very few schools (most of them in the Middle states) actually require as many as three hundred pages of collateral reading in connection with a course of five hours per week for a year, and that three-fourths of the schools have no specified requirements. Apparently pupils are invited to browse, but there is no system of enforcing the reading. Perhaps some of these schools may, without specifying a fixed number of pages, require results which may be gained from any one of several books; but it seems a fair inference from the replies, that as yet the schools have not fully introduced the system of collateral reading, and that many of them have not the necessary library. Written Work From the replies received, written work seems to be reasonably well established; very few schools report that they require none. In most cases this work makes up less than one-third of the time spent by the pupils in a course. A great variety of written exer- 146 American Schools cises are in use, and the schools seem eager to further the method; but in many schools it appears not to be a very exacting part of the historical work. Many teachers are struck with the effect of written work in training the memory and the powers of selection and in developing a capacity for individual thought. They see also that accuracy of arrangement and the power of analysis are induced, as well as an acquaintance with the material, and an ability to learn facts and to state them cogently. The criticisms most often passed upon such work are three: that it runs to routine and copying; that it consumes too much time; and that "it kills off good teachers." It appears, however, that these disadvantages have not been sufficient to cause the giving up of the system, which in a considerable body of schools is now fairly established. Use of Sources The reports of more than sixty principals on the subject of using historical sources either as collateral reading or as material for written work, show that this system has little hold in the Middle states, much in New England, and some in the West. Nearly half the principals do not favor it, and some who like it have not sufficient books. The objections appear to be: first, that it is a time-consuming, Sources; Teachers '47 method; second, that it throws upon the pupils an undue responsibility beyond their years and understanding; and third, that it is "an attempt to foist upon the preparatory student the work of the university specialist." The arguments used in favor of the method are, that it teaches the habit of getting at the bottom of a question; that it induces methods of correct note-taking and record; that it trains individual judgment; and that it "vitalizes" history and leads to greater interest and zeal. From the replies it seems doubtful whether all the teachers know what is meant by "sources," or understand where to stop in using them in connection with busy school work. Teachers One question asked of the selected principals was: "Are your teachers of history especially prepared for that work, as your teachers of languages or science are expected to be prepared ?" To this question one-fourth frankly answered that they had no teachers of history who had been especially prepared. About another fourth put part of their history work into the hands of untrained teachers. Something more than half give no work except to those who have special preparation. The Middle and Western states have in this respect a great American Schools 148 advantage over New England, where the idea that none but persons who know history can teach history seems slow of infiltration. College Requirements It is not the function of this committee to make up a college entrance system, but rather to suggest a plan of study for the schools; and the committee has abstained from recommending any distinct system or method. As a means of collecting information it asked for the opinions Of teachers as to a plan which has become known through the country. One of the specific questions asked was therefore as to the state of mind toward "the recommendation of the New York Conference of 1896," which was substantially as follows - * (a) Minimum time, two years, three exercises per week (or one year, five exercises per week). (b) A good text-book. (c) Collateral reading. (d) Written work (a note-book, to be certified by the teacher). (e) Presumably two subjects, as Greek and Roman, or English and American. College Requirements '49 This recommendation has the qualified, or slightly qualified, approval of a little more than half the principals replying; and seems to meet with little objection in New England, where various colleges have indeed adopted it. The criticisms are most numerous from the West, but about half the objectors take exception only to the time requirement; they urge that the colleges ought to require more subjects, or at least that the minimum time ought to be enlarged. Four persons object to the collateral reading -none from New England. To written work there is little or no specific objection. The most frequent criticism is as to the note-book requirement; on that point one-ninth of the answers protest. A small number object to the choice of subjects stated by the Conference. To sum up the returns on this question, the serious objections raised are not against a wider allowance of history, but against details, of which the note-book suggestion is the point most criticized. Summary In this attempt to state in a few words the practices and preferences of the three thousand secondary schools in the country, the committee has availed itself, first, of the experience of its own members, four of whom have been teachers 150 American Schools in secondary schools and all of whom have gained some familiarity with instruction in these subjects, whether as examiners, inspectors, or members of school boards; second, of the acquaintance of the members of the committee with teachers, schools, and conditions in the various parts of the country; third, of answers to the circulars sent to schools, stated by educational authorities to be representative, some of which are very large and strong, some smaller, and some weak. In the 260 schools replying out of this category, an attempt has been made to discover the practice in teaching history; and a second inquiry has been sent out to a body of schools which from their answers to the first circulars seemed in a position to furnish representative information. If the committee has misjudged what the schools are doing and may be expected to do, it has not been from lack of effort, or from preconceptions as to what the schools ought to do, but from the impossibility of generalizing where the practices of the schools are so varied. Circular It has not seemed necessary to reprint the first circular of inquiry; but we add a copy of the second circular, since it was directed to the questions which in the course of the investigation seemed vital. Summary '5' My Dear Sir: Some time ago you were good enough, at the request of this Committee, to fill out a circular of inquiry as to the teaching of history in your school. We beg to thank you for your courtesy, and to express our sense of the helpfulness of your answers. In attempting to collect the answers from various sources, and to arrive at a just estimate of what the schools are doing and can do, we need definite statements on a few points, in a form for comparison; and we therefore ask you to add to the obligation under which you have placed the Committee and all those interested in the proper teaching of history, by briefly stating your practice and your preferences with regard to the subjects mentioned below. The Committee will feel very grateful for suggestions of any difficulties which you foresee in the new methods which have recently been brought forward. We want to know both sides, so that we may make no recommendations which will not commend themselves to intelligent teachers. In order to be available,your answer should reach the Secretary of the Committee by December 17. Please answer on this sheet or otherwise, numbering the answers in sequence. Your answer is not to be made public; and even the briefest replies will be much appreciated, if time presses. 152 American Schools I. Courses. - What is your practice and what is your opinion on having a separate course in history for those only who expect to go to college; and another course for others? 2. Orderof Courses. - What do you consider the best order in which to take up the five subjects most frequently offered: viz., American, English, General, Greek, Roman? 3. General History. -What is your practice and what is your opinion as to a one year's course (of five exercises a week) in "general history"? 4. Time given to History. - What is the maximum number of exercises in history In your whole curriculum (allowing forty weeks as a school year), open to a pupil who chooses that course which has most history in it? 5. Text-books.- What is your practice and your opinion as to using more than one kind of text-books in the same class ? 6. CollateralReading. - Which of the following systems do you prefer: Simply a text-book drilled over and over; or a text-book thoroughly taught, with some collateral reading; or a text-book carefully read as a backbone with much collateral reading? How many pages of collateral reading do you actually require in a course of five hours a week for a year? 7. Written Work. - Do your pupils do substantial and systematic written work throughout their history courses - sufficient to make up say a third of their history work ? What advantages and disadvantages do you notice in written work? 8. Sources.- Do you use sources for any purpose -either as collateral reading or as material for written work? What do you consider the advantages and disadvantages of the method? Circular I53 9. Teachers.- Are your teachers of history especially prepared for that work, as your teachers of languages or science are expected to be prepared? io. College Requirements. - What is your judgment of the recommendation of the New York Conference of 1896 for a uniform entrance requirement? It is substantially as follows: a. Minimum time: 2 years, 3 exercises a week (or x year, 5 exercises a week). b. A good text-book. c. Collateral reading. d. Written work (a note-book to be certified by the teacher). e. Presumably two subjects, as Greek and Roman, or English and American. Examples of Extended Courses On the next four pages are examples of courses of study actually carried out, which justify the confidence of the committee in long and continuous courses in history. The first (pp. 154-155) is the course of an Eastern high school; the second (pp. 156-157), of a Western high school. They are offered here as exhibits, showing how practical teachers in the secondary schools have arranged their programmes so as to give time for the subject. 154 American Schools CLASSICAL. SCIENTIFIC. NORMAL PREPARATORY. English I. Mathematics I. Latin I. History I. English I. Mathematics I. Latin I. or History I. or German I. Physical Geography I. English I. Mathematics I. Latin I. or French I. or German I. Physical Geography. English II. Mathematics II. Latin II. Greek I. or French I. or German I. English II. Mathematics II. Latin II. or History II. or German II. Physics I. English II. Mathematics II. Latin I . or French II. or German II. Physics I. Latin III. Greek II. or French II. or German II. Physics I. or Mathematics III. History II. or III. orMathematics III. English III. or Mathematics III. History I. or III. or Physics II. Latin I I I. or History III. Mathematics III. or French I. or German I. Chemistry. English III. History I. Latin III. or French III. or German III. Chemistry. Latin IV. Greek III. or French III. or German III. History IV. English III. English III. or Mathematics III. History IV. Latin IV. or Mathematics IV. or French II. or German II. Biology. Latin IV. or Special Drawing and Music. Mathematics III. or History III. History IV. Biology. First Year. Second Year. Third Year. Fourth Year. History I. is Ancient History to the death of Charlemagne. History II. is European History from 8r4 to the nineteenth century. History III. is English An Eastern Programme LITERARY. BUSINESS. MANUAL TRAINING. Eriglish I. M athematics I. Fr ench I. or German I. or Latin I. Hi story I. English I. Mathematics French I. or German I. History I. or Physical Geography I. English I. E nglish II. M athematics II. Hi story II. French II. or German II. or Latin II. English II. Mathematics FrenchII. orGerman II. Bookkeeping. Commercial Arithmetic I. English I I. I. Drawing I. and Manual Training I. a. or b. History I. or Physical Geography. II. Physics I. (Drawing II. and Manual Training II. a. or b. Bookkeeping and History I., II., or E nglish III. History III. Commercial III. P hysics I. or BiLaw II. Mathematics III. ology I. French III. or I. or History III. or German III. Chemistry I. or French III. or I. or German III. or I. English III. or I. or Latin Stenography, Drawing III. III. Typewriting I. and Manual or English III. Training III. a. or b. History I., II., or a._rb Ill. III. English IV. History IV. Chemistry I. or Biology I. French I. or II. or German I. or II. or Latin IV. History. History IV. History IV. Mathematics III. Stenography, or English III. Typewriting I I. or Commercial or Chemistry. Elements of EcoHistory and nomics. Geography. Drawing IV. Elements of Ecoand Manual nomics. Training IV. French I. or II. a. orb. or German I. or II. 155 ART. English I. Mathematics I. Drawing I. Clay Modelling. History I. English II. Mathematics II. History II. Drawing II. and Woodcarving. English III. or III. Chemistry or French I. or German I. History III. Drawing III. Clay Modelling and Woodcarving. History IV. English III. or IV. or History of Art. History of Art or French II. or German II. Drawing IV. Clay Modelling and Woodcarving. History IV. is the history of the government of the United States. American Schools 156 FIRST YEAR. LATIN-GERMAN. English (3), History (Ancient) Algebra (5). Physical Geography (5), Latin or German (5). LATIN. English and American Lit. (5). English (3), History (Ancient) (2). Algebra (5). Physical Geography (5). Latin (5). Second English (5). Algebra (5). History (Ancient) (5). Latin (5). SECOND YEAR. Algebra (5). History (European) (5). English ). Latin, Viri Romae (5) Second Geometry (5). History (European) (5). English (5). Latin, Caesar (5). THIRD YEAR. English and American Lit. (5). Latin (5). German (5). History (English) (5). Latin, Caesar (5). (2). English (5). Algebra (5). History (Ancient) (5). Latin or German (5). Algebra (5). History (European) (5). English (5). Latin or German (5). Geometry (5). History (European) (5). English (5). Latin or German (5). Geometry (3), Physics (2). English and American Lit. (5). Physics (5). Latin (5). German (5). U. S. History and Civics ().Geom. and Higher Arithmetic (5). Latin (5). German (5). U. S. History and Civics (5). Geom. and Higher Arithmetic (5). Latin (5). German (5). Geometry (3), Physics (2). Second English and American Lit. (5). Physics (5). History (English) (5). Latin (5), Cicero. FOURTH YEAR. U. S. History and Civics (5). Geom. and Higher Arithmetic (5). Latin (5), Virgil. English and English Literature (5). Second U. S. History and Civics (5). Geom. and Higher Arithmetic (5). Latin, Virgil (5). English and English Literature (5). Numbers in parentheses designate the number of recitations per week. Ancient history is continued to 800 A.D. In the third year a few weeks are given to A Western Programme 157 First Term. GERMAN. English (3), History (Ancient) (2). Algebra (5). Physical Geography (5). German (5). Term. English (5). Algebra (5). History (Ancient) (5). German (5). First Term. Algebra (5). History (European) (5). English (5). German (5). Term. Geometry (5). History (European) (5). English (5). German (5). First Term. English and American Lit. (5). Geometry (3), Physics (2). History (English) (5). German (5). Term. English and American Lit. (5). Physics (5). History (English) (5). German (5). First Term. U. S. History and Civics (5). Geom. and Higher Arithmetic (5). German (5). English and English Literature (5). Term. U. S. History and Civics (5). Geom. and Higher Arithmetic (5). German (5). English and English Literature (5). ENGLISH. English (3), History (Ancient) (2). Algebra (5). Physical Geography (5). Botany (5). English (5). Algebra (5), History (Ancient) (5) Botany (5). Algebra (5). History (European) (5). English (5). Zology (5). Geometry (5). History (European) (5). English (5). Physiology (5). English and American Lit. (5). Geometry (3), Physics (2). History (English) (5). Physiology (3), Physics (2). English and American Lit. (5). Physics (5). History (English) (5). Geometry. U. S. History and Civics (5). Geom. and Higher Arithmetic (5). Chemistry and Summary (5). English and English Literature (5). U. S. History and Civics (5), Geom. and Higher Arithmetic (5). Chemistry and Summary (5). English and English Literature (5). French history. The rest of the time to English. All the work in civil govern. ment is done in connection with the work in history. Appendix II Study of History Below the Secondary School' BY LUCY M. SALMON THE question of instruction in history in the grades below the high school is one that concerns the present condition of such instruction and also one of an ideal condition toward which it may be possible to work. An inquiry 2 in regard to history 1 This report has been prepared by the writer while in Paris, and it has not received the benefit of criticism from the other members of the committee. The writer therefore desires to assume the personal responsibility of the recommendations included in it. 2 The inquiry was addressed to the superintendents of public instruction, and the result was as follows :. . . 22 States having a uniform course in history . States having such a course in preparation . * 4 . . . 10 . . States having no uniform course Indefinite replies . . . . . . 4 ' Noreply . . . . . . . . . . 45 158 Present Condition '59 in the public schools of the different states leads to the conclusion that the instruction at present given in this subject leaves much to be desired. A superficial examination of the replies received shows that only one-half of the states have a uniform course in history and that even in those states having such a course adherence to it is sometimes 'optional with the schools,' It is not possible to discuss here the advantages of uniform curricula within limited areas, but it may be noted that progress in education has invariably followed the adoption of such a uniform course, and that those nations that have uniformity to-day have, as a rule, the best systems of education. With two exceptions, the ten states of the Union that have no uniform course of instruction are among the most backward in America in all matters of public education. The second noteworthy fact is the absence in nearly all of the states of a clear and definite understanding of the place of history in the curriculum. History is generally taught " because every one ought to know something of the history of his own country," yet no explanation is given 1 "No school in the commonwealth (Massachusetts) is required to pursue this course of study. I do not know of any school that adheres to it in all its details." - F. A. HILL, Secretary of the State Board of Education. i6o Lower Schools for this assertion, and there is often no appreciation of the educational value of historical study. Any course of instruction leaves something to be desired if it does not show obvious reasons for its existence. The corresponding noteworthy fact is that, if a definite reason for the study of history is presented, it is the factitious one of patriotism.' The idea that the chief object in teaching history is to teach patriotism is so thoroughly ingrained, not only in America but in other countries, 2 that it is extremely difficult to combat it. Yet it must be evident that the patriotism thus advocated is more or less a spurious one, a patriotism that would seek to present distorted ideas of the past 1 "Kindle - the fires of patriotism and feed them constantly." Nevada. "Develop patriotism." - Colorado. The object "is to make our boys and girls true patriots."North Carolina. 2 In France the question was asked of the candidates for the modern baccalaureate, July, 1897, "What purpose does the teaching of history serve ?" and eighty per cent answered, "to promote patriotism." - Langlois and Seignobos, Introduction aux 9tudes Historiques,288, 289. The theories of the emperor of Germany are well known, and it is perhaps inevitable, in view of the long struggle of Germany for nationality, that the teaching of history in Germany should be more or less colored by a desire to emphasize the progress the empire has made in this direction. Patriotism with the idea of glorifying one country at the possible expense of truth. If the facts of the FrancoPrussian war should be used both in France and in Germany to inculcate this kind of patriotism, diametrically opposite results would be reached; if the American Revolution is to teach this patriotism both in England and in America, one nation or the other must be illogical; if the Northern and the Southern states of America should use the facts of the Civil War to promote either a national or a sectional patriotism of this character, those facts would have to be perverted. That the ultimate object of history, as of all sciences, is the search for truth, and that that search entails the responsibility of abiding by the results when found, is yet to be learned by many of our teachers of history. The present condition of instruction in history in the schools is open to criticism for another reason. The curriculum has in many cases not been the result of educational experience or a product of educational theory. This fact explains in large measure the prevailing desire to use history as a vehicle for teaching patriotism. It probably does not admit of question that the curriculum of the public schools must and should be enacted by the state legislatures, but it is equally true that behind these legislatures should be organized. bodies of M 162 Lower Schools competent advisers to whose decisions on educational matters the state legislatures should give the weight of their authority rather than themselves assume the initiative. Another result of the condition just mentioned is the tendency to attempt only the teaching of United States history. The makers of our programmes have encouraged the public to believe that the history of the United States is the only history worth studying, in that it is as a rule the only history prescribed; it is studied in the seventh grade from 1492 to I789, and in the eighth grade from I789 to the present; in at least eleven of the states the history of the state is also prescribed, and in only five does the curriculum contain any suggestion as to teaching the history of other countries. Their argument, in which much truth lies, is the double one of sentiment and of utility, of sentiment because we should keep an unbroken connection with our past, of utility because citizenship should be based on an intelligent understanding of past as well as of present political conditions. Yet there are grave objections to this exclusive study of the history of the United States. Such study must be first of all insufficient. It gives but a warped, narrow, circumscribed view of history, - it is history detached from its natural foundation - European history, it is history sus- United States History 163 pended in mid-air, it is history that has no natural beginning apart from its connection with European history. It is indeed difficult to decide where the with the history of America should begin, -if period of discovery and exploration, then it is in reality European history; if with the period of colonization, then it is rather English history; if with the adoption of the Constitution, then it is the history of a youth after he has attained his majority but whose past is in oblivion. If it is true that the history of England is the only history studied in the elementary and the higher grade board schools of England, it is also true that the history of England is so intimately connected with that of the Continent that some knowledge of general European history must of necessity be acquired through this study of a limited field. Yet it is also true that the teaching of history in England is far inferior to that in Germany and in France, and no small element in this inferiority is the limitation of the course to the history of England. If the instruction in history in France and in Germany is confessedly superior to that given in other countries, it is in no small part due to the breadth of view gained through the careful study of the history of other nations. The social unit, the political unit, the ecclesiastical unit, is constantly enlarging, and the educational curriculum must widen its 164 Lower Schools boundaries if it is to keep pace with the evolution in other directions. But difficult as it is to find substantial reasons for the exclusive study of United States history as a whole, it is still more difficult to find them for the study of the history of the individual states. This history, prescribed by at least eleven of the state legislatures, is an evidence of misdirected patriotism and also probably a result of the pedagogical cry that swept the country a few years ago, "from the known to the unknown." But the demand for state history rests on no substantial basis either historical or pedagogical. Every state in the Union has artificial boundary lines determined by provincial grants or by legislative acts according to parallels of latitude and longitude, and to attempt to endow these artificially created states with the attributes of organic states is to distort historical truth. It is equally true that the demand that a study should proceed "from the known to the unknown" may involve a fallacy, that what lies nearest may sometimes be most obscure, and what is remote in time or place be most easily understood. It must be understood that this criticism is not one of the study of American history, but of its exclusive study and of the reasons so often assigned for this study. Any study of American State History 165 history must be worse than barren that demands the memorizing of a text-book, but that leaves a boy in ignorance as to what are the fundamental facts in American history; that insists upon detailed information in regard to the campaigns of the Revolutionary War, but that has implanted no notion of personal responsibility to the government established through that war. In many states where the foreign element is large, there is absolute ignorance of the nature of republican institutions. In others, where the native-born element predominates, there is often no appreciation either of the duties or of the privileges or of the opportunities of citizenship. History as taught in either of these classes of states is open to the same criticism as is historical instruction in the European schools where the history of the past is taught without reference to the conditions of the present. These grave faults must be avoided in American schools by the insistence at all times upon the fact that "good citizenship must be the religion of the common schools." 1 1 Much of this work of inculcating right ideas of personal responsibility may be done incidentally in connection with other parts of the programme. Washington's birthday, Lincoln's birthday, Decoration Day, election day, general exercises, debating clubs, work in English, and a score of other occasions, present constant opportunity for giving incidental and yet serious information in regard to American affairs, and for awakening an interest in them. I66 Lower Schools Other defects in the study of history in the grades are apparent. The history of the United States is studied during the last two years of the grammar grade, when the boy or girl is from twelve to fourteen years old. This means that valuable time has been lost, that long before this age the interest of the child should have been awakened and held by the pictures of the past. Again there is little evidence to show that history is united either with geography or literature. In several of the states history is not begun until geography is finished, and in others history is absolutely divorced from the instruction in English. Text-books are used without collateral reading, and sometimes the subject is divided by administrations, sometimes by pages.' In one state the work in history is given during the first three years in the form of stories, and the instructions published for the ensuing four years are, to repeat the previous stories. In another state civics alternates with physiology. In apparently but four of the states has there been any consultation whatever with competent advisers in historical instruction regarding the course in history to be prescribed for the grades. Examination therefore seems to show that the 1 In one state the text-book used during the -eighth year is divided into ten parts of about thirty pages each, and one part is assigned for each month. Inferior Methods 167 present condition of instruction in history in the grades below the high school is defective in that uniformity is so seldom found, that there is no definite, well-defined object in teaching history, that when an object is presented it is generally the factitious one of patriotism, that as a rule the course is not prescribed by experts '1ier in history or in education, that only United -aftes history and state history are taught, that 1.istory is not studied in connection with other tojects in the curriculum, that a slavish use is too often made of the text-book,' that a mechanical division of the subject matter by pages or by administrations is often adopted, and that all instruction in this subject is deferred until so late in the course. No criticism of existing institutions is justified unless it carries with it a recommendation of changes that will possibly bring improvement. In addition to the study that has been made of what is actually done in some of the best American schools, a careful study has been made of the programmes of the work in history in the schools of England, France, and Germany, and many of 1 In 1893, 82 schools in New Haven County, Connecticut, were asked, " Is the memoriter method used ?" 37 schools answered "Yes," 39, "No," and 6, "In part." One teacher in another county was "not particular about the words of the text if the pupils gave words as good." 168 Lower Schools these schools have been personally visited. It is believed that the following scheme of work in history can not only be justified by appeal to educational theory, but that it can also be defended as practical inasmuch as it is already carried out either wholly or in part in many schools. Grade III. Stories from the "Iliad," the " Odyssey," the "IEneid," the Sagas, the " Nibelungen Lied;" the stories of King Arthur, Roland, Hiawatha. Grade IV. Biographies of characters prominent in history: Greece, - Lycurgus, Solon, Darius, Miltiades, Leonidas, Pericles, Socrates, Alexander, Demosthenes, Plutarch; Rome, - Romulus, Virginia, Horatius, Cincinnatus, Regulus, Hannibal, Cato, Pompey, Caesar, Agricola; Germany, Arminius, Alaric, Charlemagne, Henry IV., Frederick Barbarossa, Gutenberg, Charles V., Luther, Frederick the Great, Bismarck; France,- Clovis, Charlemagne, Louis IX., Joan of Arc, Bayard, Palissy, Francis I., Henry IV., Richelieu, Napoleon; England,- Alfred, William I., Richard I., Warwick, Elizabeth, Sidney, Raleigh, Cromwell, Pitt, Clive, Nelson, Stephenson, Gladstone; Southern Europe, - Mohammed, Francis of Assisi, Loyola, Prince Henry, Isabella, Columbus, Lorenzo de' Medici, Michel Angelo, Galileo, Garibaldi; A practicable Scheme 169 Northern Europe, - Robert Bruce, William of Orange, Henry Hudson, Gustavus Adolphus, Rembrandt, Peter the Great, Kossuth; America, - John Smith, Miles Standish, William Penn, La Salle, Patrick Henry, Franklin, Washington, Daniel Boone, Lincoln, Lee. These names are suggested, not as a final selection to be rigorously adopted, but as indicating one way of arousing interest and of conveying historical information at the age when ideas of time and place relations are only imperfectly developed, but when interest in individuals is keen and active. The list may be changed in toto, but the, principle still be retained. The plan for these two years (Grade III. and Grade IV.) implies that the object is to arouse interest, that the method used is to be wholly the oral one, that the stories are to be united with lessons given in language and in geography, that the selection of myths and stories should aim to give universal rather than particular notions, and that the teacher should have a sufficient acquaintance with history and literature to be able to decide wisely concerning the selection to be made. Grade V. Greek and Roman History to 8oo A.D. circa. 170 Lower Schools Grade VI. Mediaeval and Modern European His. tory, from the close of the first period to the present time. Grade VII. English History. Grade VIII. American History. The reasons for recommending the order of subjects to be taken up from Grade V. through Grade VIII., are the same as those given by the Chairman of the Committee in the body of the Report, and need not be repeated here. The reasons for recommending the preliminary survey of European history before taking up the same period in the high school are that the underlying principle is similar to one that is in successful operation in Germany,- educational principles discovered by one group of instructors and successfully put into practice by them can be adapted to meet the needs of other groups of instructors without the necessity of rediscovery; that it gives a good basis for high-school work, since it follows the law "that one obtains knowledge by adding to the ideas which one already has, new ideas organically related to the old;' 1 that the substitution of a brief course in European history for a portion of the American history now taught will conduce to a better appreciation of the important facts in 1 Above, p. 17. European History '7' American history, and that as a result the pupil will have a better understanding of the history of America after one year of special study giyen to it than he now has after two years' study without this preliminary acquaintance with European history; that it gives an outlook into the world of history and of literature to those who cannot complete a high-school course, and thus gives them resources within themselves that must be of value in their future lives; that it would do something to make fruitful what is now too often a barren waste, -the curriculum of the primary and the .grammar grades; that its adoption would do something to raise the educational and professional qualifications of teachers, since the knowledge required -to carry it out would be more extensive than that demanded by the present curriculum; that through it something would be done to unify the subjects in the curriculum, which is now too often vague and formless; that since many schools in America now have a course similar to the one here advocated, it is a practical one. The plan of work in history here presented is suggested, not as being absolutely ideal in itself, but as one that more nearly approximates that ideal than the one often found-in the public schools; it is suggested with full realization of the fact that it probably cannot be at once adopted in extenso 172 Lower Schools by a single school; it is recommended because of the belief that it is better to have an ideal toward which to work than to remain content with unsatisfactory conditions.' 1 Lack of space prevents the elaboration of the principles suggested in this report. A more detailed presentation of them may be found in articles on History in Elementary Schools and Unity in College Entrance History, in the Educational Review, April, 1891, and September, 1896; and also in Appendix III below. Appendix III History in the German Gymnasia BY LUCY M. SALMON THE paper is largely based on a personal visit extending over three months' time and including 32 gymnasia in 18 different places; in 23 of these gymnasia 70 classes in history were heard, having an aggregate attendance of about 1500 boys. It was the plan to select places differing widely in conditions, from small provincial towns to large commercial and educational centres, and also those representing quite diverse political and religious interests. In some cases all the gymnasia in the city were visited; in some the work in every class in history was seen; in others the same class was seen in several successive lessons in history; the work of one class was visited in history and in 1 This paper, prepared for the committee, was read at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association held at Cleveland, Ohio, December 28-30, 1897, and afterwards printed in the Educational Review. 173 '74 German Schools other subjects, and also all of the classes in history taught by one instructor; the same instructor was heard in other subjects as well, and different sections of the same class taught by different instructors -every possible combination was made as regards town, school, instructor, and class. This has been supplemented by a careful study of the school laws and programmes of the twenty-six states making up the German Empire, including those of the twelve provinces that form the Kingdom of Prussia. Except for incurring the charge of generalizing from one particular, a visit to one school and the study of one programme would have sufficed. There are indeed variations in detail, but the fundamental principles in the arrangement of the work in history are the same - a uniformity that is especially noteworthy in view of the contrast it presents to our own system, or lack of system. The result of this study gives a composite photograph of the work in history in the schools for boys, which bears a striking likeness to each of the individual parts making up the photograph. The reign of Louis Philippe began without glory and ended without honor; but for one thing it is entitled to the grateful remembrance, not alone of France, but of America as well. In 1831 M. Cousin, holding a government commission, visited the schools of Prussia, Saxony, and Frankfort, The Gymnasium '75 Sand, on his return, published those celebrated reports which for the first time made the German system of education familiar in France and subsequently in this country. From that time to the present our interest in German education has been a growing one. It has, however, been naturally the German universities whose organization Americans have studied- the German schools have less often been visited, and their place in the educational system is less clearly seen. Just what this part is, however, must be briefly recalled in order to understand the place in the curriculum occupied by history. The German gymnasium- whether the gymnasium proper with its course based on the classics and mathematics, the real-gymnasium which omits Greek from its curriculum, or the oberrealsc ule which omits both Latin and Greek -the German school, whatever its variety, takes the boy when nine years old, and at eighteen sends him to the university, the higher technical schools, or into business life with a well-rounded symmetrical education. This symmetrical education is made possible through the careful construction of the school curriculum. The curriculum is a sacred thing, not lightly formed or to be tampered with when made, for into it goes the best trained and most expert 176 German Schools educational service that the state can command. The curriculum in every state is the same in the same class of schools, and the uniformity among the twenty-six different state systems is far greater It than among the forty-five states of America. may or it may not be due to the conscious influence of Herbart, - in many places there is a positive disclaimer of all such influence, -but, whatever the cause, the result is everywhere a curriculum that gives a compact, articulated, organic system, in strong contrast to our own. The result may be in part attributed, in spite of disclaimers, to the influence of Herbart, and in part to the fact that the Germans as individuals are less prone than the Americans to fly off on tangents of their own, and consequently have a capacity for working together that shows itself as strongly in educational as in municipal affairs. The curriculum is a unit; it is complete in itself, but it represents, at the same time, one stage in the development of the educational system. This fact must never be lost sight of, or the corresponding fact that the American programme of studies presents an absolute contrast to the German Lehrplan. The American programme is often regarded as a convenient vehicle for conveying the instruction desired by interested parties. Does a state legislature believe that the schools exist for the purpose of implanting pa- Curriculum '77 triotism, they are forthwith commanded to teach American history; if a group of business men believe that the schools should have a bread-andbutter aim, stenography and typewriting are made compulsory; if one branch of the Church considers that the schools exist for the purpose of teaching religion, the study of the catechism is -demanded; if an association deems that it is the first duty of the schools to inculcate the principles advocated by that association, it asks for the study of physiology with special reference to the injurious effects of alcoholic drinks. The American programme represents the idiosyncrasies of individuals, not the wisdom of the many. It must therefore be seen that the place occupied by history in the German gymnasia, unlike its place in the American schools, is given it because the most eminent educators of Germany have agreed upon the place it ought to have in the educational system. What, then, are the characteristic features of history instruction in Germany, especially those that differ from instruction in history in America? Dr. Holmes was wont to say that it was necessary to begin a boy's education with the education of his grandfather. In a similar way, any discussion of history in the German schools must begin with the German boy, -a boy much like 178 German Schools other boys, but living in a military atmosphere, where obedience is the first law of men, as order is heaven's first law elsewhere, - a boy who, from his earliest recollections, is taught that every one obeys some one else, -- "Children obey their par- ents, the wife obeys her husband, the husband obeys the king, the king obeys God," - a boywho is taught respect for authority, but a boy who is also taught that self-control and self-knowledge are as much a part and an object of education as is the training of the mind. Until the boy is ready for the university, that is, until he is eighteen or nineteen years old, he is a minor; he is so regarded by his instructors and he so regards himself. He is under a constant supervision that, to an American boy, would be intolerable;he is in the gymnasium to be taught, and it is not expected that, before leaving the gymnasium, he should express his personal opinion on any subject under consideration.1 Instruction thus seems to be freed from some of the questions of discipline that accompany instruction here, and the instructor is 1 The director of one gymnasium said, "Our boys are not encouraged to speculate about what historians themselves do not know." Another remarked, " It is inconceivable that boys in the gymnasium should discuss political questions about which mature men disagree." I did not hear a boy asked his opinion on any subject in the classroom, or a single boy ask a question; everything was apparently given and accepted on authority. Discipline 179 unhampered by the apparent necessity of sacrificing legitimate drill to the immediate object of maintaining a specious interest. The German instructor thus finds at hand a military system that is of help in the method of instruction, and he also finds a programme of studies arranged by expert educators and unaffected by political or religious considerations; a programme the key-note of which is concentration - concentration of work, concentration of thought, concentration of time. The part, then, that history plays in the curriculum is not an independent one, but one correlated with other subjects. Yet the place that each subject has in this articulated system is cearly understood and defined. In historical instruction, according to the educational laws of Saxony, a knowledge of the epoch-making events in the history of the world, and of their mutual relation, origin, and development is to be specially sought. The Prussian programme of 1882 states the object to be "to arouse in the pupils respect for the moral greatness of men and nations, to make them conscious of their own imperfect insight, and to give them the ability to read understandingly the greatest historical classics." This position Prussia has modified by the programme of 1892 into one involving special emphasis on the development of i 8o German Schools Prussia's greatness and the centring of the new national life about her; but her former position is the one rather held by the other German states. History is thus to be an organic part of the school curriculum, but it is also to have a distinct definite aim of its own. That aim is to be the placing of high ideals before the boy, the development of his moral character through the study of these ideals; it is to be a part of "liberal culture and is to serve as a means of intellectual training." The work in history, in the gymnasium itself, must be considered under the two heads- subjectmatter and method. As regards subject-matter, the nine years may be divided into three groups, the first group comprising the first two years, the second the following four years, and the third the last three years. During the first two years, the boy, then nine or ten years old, is given the legends from classical and German mythology. The next four years form a second group. The boy, during this period, is from eleven to fourteen years old, and he begins a systematic study of Greek and Roman history, followed by a study of mediaeval and modern history, often with special reference to the history of Germany. The last three, when the boy is from fifteen to eighteen years old, form the third group; and, Subjects I8I in this group, he has a second course in classical, mediaeval, and modern history. This, then, gives us the three concentric circles of historical instruction of Germany. During the first circle of two years no attempt is made to give formal instruction in chronological sequence; the work is introductory to that of the subsequent course, and it is intended by it to bring before the imagination of the boy in a series of vivid pictures the deeds of great heroes, to fill his thoughts with them, and thus to lay the foundation for the later more connected historical instruction. 1 This systematic instruction begins with the third year in the gymnasium, and during the remainder of his course, the work in history and geography forms the two regular concentric circles. The object in the first of these is to give a connected account of the origin and development of the great events in the world's history, and especially of the relation of Germany to these events. 2 The work of the four years, therefore, begins at the beginning, and comprises a study for one year of Greek and Roman history, with the addition of the little necessarily pertaining to it from the history of the Oriental peoples. The next two years - that is, 1 Prussian LeArplan, 1892, § 7. 2 Die Sckulordnung far die humanistiscken Gymnasien im Xonigreick Bayern, i891, § 14. 182 German Schools the boy's fourth and fifth years in school- are given to mediaeval and early modern history, but mediaeval history is treated as predominantly German, and the theory that the history of the Middle Ages is, in reality, a history of Germany, is commonly accepted. With the close of the Middle Ages the point of view is changed somewhat, since modern history cannot be treated from the distinctively German standpoint, as can the previous period. But if modern history cannot be treated as world history, it is, at least, always regarded and treated from the European standpoint.' Especially during the last of the four years is the material handled from the general European, not from the special German or Prussian, point of view. 2 During the second circle of systematic study, or the third circle it the introducLory work is considered, the boy, at the age of fifteen, begins "the second wandering through'the broad field of history," but, with the object of laying the foundations deeper, of giving a broader outlook, of understanding present conditions through their development in the past, of building upon the love of the fatherland, that has been awakened in the earliest years, a sense of personal responsibility to it, of inspiring high ideals and creating ethical I Oskar Jdiger, Geschickte, 82, 83. 2Ibid., 49. Three Circles 183 standards.' Professor Jiger has well pointed out 2 that every age has its special favorite ideas and prevailing interests, and that these necessarily affect the historical instruction in the higher schools.8 To-day such interest is social and economic, and it is, therefore, to be expected that social and economic questions shall be treated with a certain partiality, and this is especially seen during the second review of historical events. What is the difference in the point of view in the three surveys of history? It may perhaps be said that, in the first circle, heroes, in the second, states - particularly the German state, in the third circle, the world, form the objective points. High ideals of action are the end sought in the first circle, a connected account of the great events in the world's history that of the second, a knowledge of the civilizing influences that have prevailed in the world's If the centre of each history that of the third. I Das hkere Schulwesen im Konigreiche Sachsen, I1889 ; Lekrpline und Lehraufgaben fir die hiheren Schulen, Berlin, 1892. 2 Geschichte, 74. 8 This is illustrated by the interest taken during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in dogmatic religious questions; at the close of the eighteenth century, in literary and aesthetic subjects; during the early part of the present century, the time of the predominance of the Hegelian philosophy, in the philosophy of history. The history of each period shows more or less clearly the prevailing interests of the age when it was written. 184 German Schools circle is sometimes Germany, and if it is a part of the imperial theory that the radii of the circle should begin at the circumference and verge toward the centre, it is more often found in practice that the centre forms only a starting-point for the construction of the radii diverging to the circumference. Especially in German Switzerland is an appreciation found of the fact that it is unwise to distort history in order to magnify Switzerland or to foster an exaggerated patriotism. In Germany itself, while there is acquiescence in the imperial theory that the cultivation of the national spirit should be a special aim of historical instruction, there is also a recognition of the fact, as Professor Russell has pointed out, that the theory is pedagogically shortsighted, "that patriotism should be more than mere enthusiasm, more enduring than the frothy exuberance of spirits that arises from the contemplation of great deeds; that love of country and of king depends upon a firm and unchangeable character." I If Sedan Day is observed as an event marking a victory over a rival power, rather than as a day that means the unification of Germany, it is because that event is, as yet, necessarily regarded at short range; if the day is universally celebrated throughout the Ger1 History and Geography in the Higher Schools of Germany, in The School Review, May, 1897. Effect of the Circles 185 man schools, it is because the consciousness is yet strong that it was the Prussian schoolmaster that won Alsace and Lorraine. That exalted patriotism that calls the whole world akin does not immediately follow a triumphant national victory, but Germany will soon look at those events of German history that concern her immediate present in their true perspective. What has the boy gained as a result of this threefold division of subject-matter into concentric circles ? Compulsory education keeps him in school until he is fourteen years old, that is, until he has completed the introductory work and the first circle of systematic study of history. If circumstances then compel him to leave the gymnasium, as forty per cent of German boys are obliged to do,' he has in hand such an outline of the great events in the world's history as ought to save him from premature or hasty judgments. But, if he completes the gymnasial course, he has gained not only this, but he has learned something of the deeper meaning of history. He has a knowledge of the art and literature of Greece that has rounded out his partial knowledge of these subjects gained tlirough the Greek classics he has read; he understands the organization of the government of the Romans 1 The School Review, October, 1897. I86 German Schools and what has been contributed to the civilization of the world by that eminentl practical people; the Middle Ages are not, to him, dark ages, for he understands the place in that period occupied by the Holy Roman Empire; modern history means to him, not the unrelated history of Germany alone, but it means the study of new conditions made possible through the discovery of America, and the industrial development of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; he compares the centralization of power under Louis XIV. with the low inorganic form of political life in Germany during the corresponding period, and learns the odds against which Germany has struggled in reaching her present position. He has, from the time he was nine years old, had constantly put before him for nine years these developments, and has been made to realize "that mankind is an ethical whole." The method has been called one of concentric circles, but is, rather, one of an ever-ascending spiral from the apex of which an outlook over the past is obtained. To change the figure, the three surveys are the three readings through which any legislative measure must pass before it becomes an act acconp.ished. As the three readings have given ample, time for discussion, for sifting essentials from non-essentials, for presenting all possible arguments for and against a proposed measure, Correlation . 187 so the three surveys must leave in the boy's mind a residuum of all that is best in the world's history, and this residuum becomes his abiding possession. The question naturally arises as to how far, in the selection of the subject-matter, the psychological condition of the boy is considered, and how far both matter and treatment are adapted to this condition. It must have been inferred, from what has already been said, that this psychological condition has not only never been lost sight of, but that it has been made the basis of arrangement at every step of the way. "The primary condition of historical perception is the readiness to think or to feel the past as present," says Professor Jager. This ability to feel the past, the development of the historical imagination, is the object of the instruction in the first part of the course. During the second division of the course, "the instruction as a whole," says Professor Jdger, "must give the boy forceful suggestions, strong impulses; must work from different sides for the one end of giving a check and a counterpoise to the distracting, selfwilled, and disintegrating tendencies that beset this time of life." 2 With the broadening out of the boy's sympathies and interests he is brought, during the latter part of his course, face to face with those complex questions of present interest for the con2 Ibid., 28. 1 Geschichte,. 9. 188 German Schools sideration of which there is needed a mind stored with knowledge, and the boy learns "a respect for knowledge for the knowledge's own sake." 1 The importance that is attached to historical instruction is evident not only from the care with which the course of study is planned, but from the time allotted to it. This is an average of three hours per week, including the time given geography, during the entire nine years' course, a total of twenty-seven hours during the course, or one-ninth of the entire time throughout the course is given to these subjects.2 1 Geschickte, 67. 2 The following list will indicate the amount of time allotted to history in the different gymnasia : Altenburg, Friedrichs-Gymnasium . . Berlin, K6nigstiidtisches Gymnasium . . . Bonn, Oberrealschule Bremen, Gymnasium . .. . Brunswick, Gymnasium Martino-Katharineum Frankfurt, Goethe-Gymnasium .. .... .... . ...... ..... . . Freiburg, Oberrealschule . . . . Hamburg, Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums Heidelberg Gymnasium . .. . Jena, Gymnasium Carolo-Alexandrinum . Landeshut, Realgymnasium . . Leipzig, Nicolai-Gymnasium ... Magdeburg, Guericke-Oberrealschule . Munich, K6nigliches Maximilians-Gymnasium Neu-Strelitz, Gymnasium Carolinum . . . ...... . ..... . Oldenburg, Grossherz6gliches Gymnasium . . .... 27 . 26 *32 34 . 26 o . 30 S . . 27 . 28 24 . 28 21 ..... . . . . . . 30 30 25 25 27 Time Allowance 189 But it must not be inferred that the historical instruction the boy receives is confined to the three hours per week of formal instruction in this line. Extreme specialization has no place in a German gymnasium. Instead of each person imagining that he has preempted a portion, large or small, of the field of knowledge, and keeping jealous watch lest some one else trespass on his preserves, each instructor seeks to bind his subject with every other. In the hours allotted to religion the boys read from the Greek New Testament; and Oriental history, as well as church history, is taught, though these are in the history classes proper. Herodotus and Livy are not regarded as mere vehicles for teaching Greek and Latin construction, but are taught as Greek and Roman history, and much of English and French history is taught through these languages. But even this correlation of history with every other subject is not all. One may study the programmes and visit classes, and yet not understand or see clearly all of the influences at work that . . . . 26 Strassburg, Protestantisches Gymnasium . Stuttgart, Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium Weimar, Wilhelm-Ernstisches Gymnasium . . 25 . . . . . . . Rudolstadt, Fiirstliches Gymnasium . 25 28 It is thus seen that while the general average is 27 hours, I gymnasia have 27 or more hours, while only 9 have less. Igo9 German Schools Maps, charts, collections of make for history. pictures freely used; busts of all the authors read in the school; quotations from great men inscribed on the walls of classrooms;the memorizing of historical poems and passages from historical dramas; the observance of national and historic holidays; most of all, frequent excursions to points of historical interest, - all this is history, all these are influences that make history unconsciously grow into the boy and become a part of his very self. History is developed in him, he is developed through it. The subject of method of instruction must not be omitted, although it will demand but a brief consideration. The method is, in essence, the same throughout the course. In the first part it is story-telling, pure and simple; in the second part it is pure narration; in the third part it becomes more formal and During resembles, somewhat, a college lecture. the first of the hour the class is questioned on what has been narrated during the previous lesson; then comes the narration of fresh material, and, with the younger boys, the hour is closed with The questions on what has just been narrated. theory is that the boy learns best from the living voice, that thus his interest is aroused and maintained, and that history, in this way, becomes to Methods 191 him a living, life-giving presence. The work of the teacher is supplemented by the use of a textbook (Leitfaden), but this contains only the barest outline of the events and is in no sense a text-book in the American usage of the term. The instructor cannot expect that the boy will spend more than fifteen or twenty minutes in preparation of his history work, and, therefore, he is practically restricted to the use of the narrative method. It is the German theory that an excessive amount of outside study should not be demanded or given; that it is best for the boys to get as much education from each other as possible; that, since one plans to become a lawyer, another a physician, a third a business man, and a fourth a teacher, each should talk over with the other his plans for the future, and thus become educated in ways not reached by the school. The narrative method does not lend itself easily, especially in the higher grades, to securing some of the best results that are secured in the best American schools. It must seem to Americans to fail in developing the power of independent judgment, and to afford no opportunity for the exercise of that faculty known in the child as curiosity, and in the man as research. The boy absorbs and assimilates, but the creative faculty lies dormant. That this should be so, however, is a-part of the German 192 German Schools theory of education. But the German method does secure certain admirable ends. On the positive side it results in concentration of attention, alertness of mind, quickness of apprehension, and an enviable ability to grasp the salient features of a subject considered as a whole. The double and triple course gives constant opportunity for comparison, especially during the last survey, and this basis for comparison and the constant advantage taken of it are one of the most valuable parts of the method. On its negative side the German method has the advantage that it leaves little room for crudity of opinion or for generalizations from insufficient data. The study of history in the German gymnasia thus shows seven distinctive features: first, the entire field of history is covered in three distinct surveys; second, the work in history is correlated with every other subject in the curriculum, and,, in a sense, becomes its unifying force; third, ample time is given for its consideration, and it receives the same serious treatment as do other subjects in the course; fourth, the division of material and the method of treatment are based on the boy's psychological development; fifth, the narrative method of instruction gives the boy a vivid impression of reality of the past; sixth, the course is complete in itself, and, at the same time, it forms an ideal Advantages 193 preparation for university work; seventh, every teacher of history is an absolute master of the subject taught. What are the lessons to be learned by Americans from this examination of historical instruction in the German gymnasia ? The first great lesson we should all do well to heed is this: That the course in history serves the double purpose of being complete in itself and of being an ideal preparation for university work. The course is complete in itself; because, if the boy does not go beyond the gymnasium, or, if he leaves at the end of the sixth year in school, he has gained a wide outlook into the future because of this thorough study of the past; he has gained a proper historical perspective and he has learned that "hkinter dem Gebirge sind auck Leute." He has resources within himself that must contribute not only to the upbuilding of his own character, but that must redound to the advantage of the community in which his lot is cast. How great an advantage this broad outlook is can be seen by comparing the course in history in the gymnasia with that of the normal schools, where only German history is taught. One can but feel that the young men who are to be the teachers in the volkssckule are losing much, that the volksschule are losing much through them, when the historical '94 German Schools horizon is bounded by Germany. Such minds must, in middle life, be stunted and dwarfed because, in early years, they have lacked that mental and spiritual inspiration that the study of the largest life must give. Equally stunted and dwarfed must be the minds of our own American boys and girls when they leave school at the end of the grammar grade with a knowledge, insufficient at best, of only American history. It must indeed be said that he who knows only American history does not at all know that history. "The profounder our study of ourselves," says Professor Sloane, " the stronger will grow our conviction of the organic relation between our own history and that of the world." 16 American history is in the air, - a balloon sailing in mid heaven, - unless it is anchored fast to European history. It is no more true to say that American history begins in 1492 than it is true to say that a man's life begins when he goes into business for himself. English history does not begin with the reign of William III., or French history with the Third Republic, or German history with the establishment of the present Empire. A new stage of development in each country is marked by these events, and the development of Europe, on the New World soil, is but a corresponding one. America, like Europe, 1 History and Democracy, in American HistoricalReview, I. 22. American Conditions '95 is the heir of all the ages, and the American boy has the right to enter into his inheritance. The great demand in industrial life to-day is for such a change in methods of work as will have regard to the effects of work on the laborer rather than the results on the product. To the attainment of this end the work of William Morris and of John Ruskin has been directed, and to the attainmentof a similar end must the work of educators tend. How disastrous this restricted view of the past may be on our political, industrial, and educational growth is easily imagined when it is recalled that it was estimated, in 1886, that eighty per cent of the pupils in the public schools never reach the high school. 1 Of those who pass through the high school, but a small proportion enter college. But it is not only possible, it is more than probable, that even this small percentage who go through the high school, or through college, will complete their school or college life knowing nothing of historical conditions or developments. A man with this lack of preparation may enter Congress and legislate on financial matters in absolute ignorance of the history of finance; he legislates on labor questions with no knowledge of the agrarian difficulties of Rome, the peasants' rebellions 'F. N. Thorpe, The Study of History in American Colleges, 232, 233. 196 German Schools of the Middle Ages, or the national workshops of Louis Blanc. He legislates gold-standard educators out of office at the West, and silver advocates out of office in the East, not knowing that, for four hundred years, Luther and the Wartburg have stood for independence of judgment and the search for truth. Not only is he lacking in the actual knowledge that history affords, but he lacks still more that mental training that history gives in analysis, comparison, classification; in holding the judgment in suspense until all sides of a question have been presented. The German boy is given both a body of facts and a mental training that ought to keep him from superficial judgments or hasty conclusions. But the special object of the German gymnasial course is to prepare for the university.' And here, in the case of the boy who enters the university, as in the case of the boy who does not, the German arrangement of historical work seems superior to our own. The university knows precisely what work in history has been done, and, therefore, it can assume this admirable preparation and shape its advanced courses accordingly. But the American university or college makes its entrance require1 "If one seeks to set forth in a word the real specific purpose of gymnasial training, it is clearly to prepare for the university." - Oskar Jiger, Geschichte, 4. University Relations '97 ment in history in deference to the antiquated idea that preparation in history should be the one that will most assist the study of Latin and Greek, and that every boy should know something of the history of his own country. The boy, therefore, studies American history in the grammar grades, and Greek and Roman history in the high school, an arrangement of studies radically wrong, because false chronologically and false in principle. On such a basis it is impossible to build up a systematic course of history in the college or the university without doing, in the college, a part of the work that should have been done before entrance. "The larger universities," says Professor Sloane, in speaking of American institutions, "have an imposing array of historical chairs, but they do not demand, as a condition of entrance to their lecture rooms, a thorough knowledge of general history." ' College students everywhere must feel the irrelevancy as well as the inadequacy of their work in history before entering college, when considered as a preparation for that college work. This conclusion must follow: The work in history in American schools will never be on a rational basis until, as in Germany, it recognizes the double purpose that history in these schools is to serve; until it is so organized as to give the boy or girl x History and Democracy, in American HistoricalReview, I. 18. I98 German Schools who does not go to college a well-rounded conception of the epoch-making events in the world's history; until it plans its college entrance requirements in history with reference to the college work in history; until it makes the course of history in the schools identical for those who do, and for those who do not, go to college; until it correlates the work done in history with the work of every other subject in the school curriculum. Appendix IV History in French Lycees' BY CHARLES H. HASKINS IN France, as elsewhere, history is a comparatively recent addition to the subjects of the sec1 The following report does not profess to represent the results of a detailed examination of a considerable number of schools. The information upon which it is based has been gathered in the course of two visits to France, partly from official programmes and other printed sources, partly from observation of classes in lyces and courses for the training of teachers, and partly from conversation with French professors who possess special familiarity with the conditions in secondary schools. I regret that the number of classes visited was not larger; but there is great uniformity of system and administration in French education, and I am informed by competent authority that wider observation would not have materially modified the account here given. The official programmes and instructions are published by Delalain at Paris. The brief appendix on "The Secondary Teaching of History in France " in the Introduction to the Study of History of Langlois and Seignobos is excellent, and many of the suggestions will be found valuable outside of France as well. Altamira's discussion of history in secondary schools in his Enseianza de la Historia (chapters 8 and 9) has much to say of France. 199 200 French Lyc es ondary curriculum. Long taught simply as an unimportant adjunct of the ancient languages, it is only in the course of the present century, and largely for the purpose of stimulating patriotism, that it has gained the right to an independent place in secondary schools. The desire to develop patriotic emotion by familiarity with the nation's past still occupies in France, as in Germany, an important place in the minds of secondary teachers; but a broader conception of the aims of historical study has spread in recent years and found expression in the official instructions issued in connection with the course of study. History, they declare, contributes to the education of the mind by exercising the memory, developing the imagination, and training the judgment; it contributes to moral education by cultivating the love of truth and preparing youth for their civic duties. "To give the pupil an exact idea of the successive civilizations of the world and definite knowledge of the formation and growth of France; to show him the action of the world on our country and of our country on the world; to teach him to render to all peoples their just dues, to widen the horizon of his mind, and finally to leave him in possession, not only of an understanding of the present condition of his country and of the world, but also of a clear notion of his duties as a Frenchman The School System 201 and as a man - such is the function of history in education." 1 The French system of public secondary instruction comprises two types of schools: the lyc/es, schools maintained and directed by the central government, of which there are now about one hundred distributed throughout France; and the colldges, local high schools, which receive some assistance from the general treasury, and are usually less completely equipped than the lyc/es. For the purposes of the present report, however, the two institutions may be classed together, as the programme of studies is the same in both. The regular course of the lyc/e covers ten years, but as the studies of the first three years are identical with those of the elementary schools, the pupil does not enter the lycle proper until he arrives at the class of the sixi'me, where he begins Latin, if a classical student, or German, if he be a "modern." This stage is ordinarily reached at the age of eleven, so that the boy who spends seven years in the lycie will complete the course and present himself for his bachelor's examination at eighteen. 1 Lavisse, A propos de nos icoles, 81; Instructions concernant les programmes de l'enseignement secondaireclassique, xlvii-1. The portion of these instructions which relates to history was prepared by Lavisse, and may be found, somewhat abridged, in his A -ropos de nos coles, 77-107. 202 French Lyc es To state the matter in American terms, the French boy spends in the ycie the period that the American boy spends in the high school, plus the last year or two years of the grammar grade and the first year or two of college, but he reaches the close of his lyce course about two years earlier than the American youth comes to the corresponding point in his education. 1 Throughout the whole course of the yce, as well as in the three preliminary years, an hour and a half a week is devoted to history and an hour to the related subject of geography, except in the last year, where from two to four hours are given to history. The total number of hours varies from fifteen to twenty-two, according to year and course, decreasing in the later years of the classical course, but remaining undiminished in the modern, so that the proportion of time devoted to history, which is 1 In what is said above, and in this account generally, the institutions for boys are taken as the type. The secondary schools for girls have a course of five years, divided into two "periods," and history has an allotment of two hours a week throughout. In the first period, for pupils between twelve and fifteen, the programme covers the history of France, with "summary notions of general history." In the second period a survey of the history of civilization is given. While in general the same methods of instruction prevail in both classes of schools, their application to girls' schools is necessarily conditioned by the more general character of the course in history and the absence of classical studies from the curriculum. The Programme 203 but seven and one-half per cent in the lower years, rises to twenty or even more in the last year. The total number of hours of history for the entire ten years is sixteen and one-half for classical and literary, and thirteen and one-half for scientific, students. In the elementary classes the historical instruction is necessarily of an informal character, and consists of biographical narration in the first year, followed by a two years' survey of the history of France studied biographically. Then with the grammar division of the lycee begins the systematic and continuous study of the world's history. Three years are devoted to the history of the Orient, Greece, and Rome, and the remaining four years are occupied with the history of mediaeval and modern Europe, studied with special reference to France and divided into the following yearly blocks: 375 to 1270, 1270 to 16io, 16io to 1789, and 1789 to the present. This is the programme for classical students. For the "modern" course, which is one year shorter, Oriental and Greek history are combined in one year, and in the last year additional instruction is offered in the general history of art and civilization, and in the elements of civil government and political economy. The most important feature of this programme is that it affords a comprehensive survey of the world's history in its chronological development, 204 French Lyc es from the earliest period down to the present. In contrast to the two "concentric circles" of the German gymnasium, the pupil is taken over the field but once, so that a fuller treatment is possible in any one year; but the thorough review of the German system is lost, much to the detriment of the subjects studied early in the course. In other respects the general distribution of time is much the same as in the Prussian programme, except that in the one case it is France, in the other Germany and Prussia, that forms the centre of study in mediaeval and modern times. The existing arrangement seems on the whole to be popular in France, though some prefer the German "circles," and others demand for history, at some stage in the course, the preponderant place that rhetoric and philosophy now have in the last two years, urging that in no other way can the disciplinary value of history be realized, as a counterpoise to the formal studies of language and mathematics, and the only study which, by dealing with concrete social facts, brings the pupil into proper relations with his civic environment. Besides prescribing the general character of the course in history, the official programme contains an outline of the topics to be studied in each class, accompanied by brief suggestions as to the mode of treatment. The plan of each year's work is Methods 205 drawn up with considerable care, but it is designed to serve as a guide to the teacher rather than narrowly to control him. While there has been a noticeable improvement in the course of study in history since the middle of the century, the methods of instruction are still largely tinged with the spirit of formalism and routine inherited from the Second Empire. The lycde is still a semi-military institution, which has much of the appearance of barracks, and calls its pupils to class by the beating of a drum; and while professors are now free to dress and wear their beards as they choose, they have not all grasped the full consequences of the idea that the pupil is to be trained as a citizen and not as a subject. Indeed, pedagogical problems in general have received comparatively slight attention in France, and questions of what to teach and how to teach in history have been very little considered. A common practice is to dictate a brief summary of the hour's work, expand this into a lecture while the pupils take notes, and question them at the beginning of the next hour on the lecture and some pages of the textbook. The professor speaks from a raised platform, and the small blackboard is reserved for his personal use only. The scholars usually show interest, and they may be even required to prepare supplementary papers, but their attitude is largely 206 French Lyc es passive, and the system lacks the advantages of the steady German drill on hard facts, or the freer use of material characteristic of good American teaching. These conditions are, however, beginning to pass away as the professors who have grown old under the dictation system give place to younger men. It is coming to be realized that the pupil should get his fundamental facts from a text rather than from the instructor's lecture, and that the time spent in the classroom need not be wholly given up to the alternate repetition of statements by teacher and pupil. In addition to the text-book, classes may now have at their disposal excellent illustrative matter, such as is contained in the Albums istoriques of the Middle Ages, edited by Parmentier, and the Lectures historiques 1 designed for supplementary reading. In one way and another fresh life is being infused into the study of history, and in some schools remarkable results have already been attained in 1 These are published by Hachette. The three volumes for the ancient period consist of an interesting series of sketches of Egyptian and Assyrian life from the competent hand of Maspero, and excellent accounts of the public and private life of the Greeks and Romans by Guiraud. The later volumes are made up of wellchosen selections from modern historians, grouped according to the programme. The extracts from sources contained in the earlier editions have now been omitted, as they did not seem adapted to this stage of the pupil's development. Preparation of Teachers 207 securing the pupils' active participation in the work. 1 The professors, of history and geography in lyces - the subjects are usually combined - are appointed on the basis of a competitive examination. After having taken his baccalaureate degree the candidate must continue his work for two years, studying Latin, Greek, and French, as well as his specialty, until he receives the licence. Then comes a further year spent largely in the writing of a thesis, followed by a year's strenuous preparation for the final test, the agregation, for which the competition is very keen. As the examination bears upon the candidate's ability to present a subject before classes, as..well asgon his knowledge of history and geography, the preliminary courses include, not only lectures and seminaries, but numerous practical exercises in teaching, under the supervision and criticism of professors and fellow-students. The necessary preparation of a teacher of history accordingly consists of a substantial classical education as a foundation, and a period of special study of at least four years spent at one of the universities or at the Ecole Normale 1 See in the Revue universitaire, June 15, 1896, the examples printed by Seignobos of written work done in a small collge in the west of France, and notably the careful and intelligent comparisons of various ancient and modern institutions. 208 French Lyc es Suplrieure, the whole tested by a rigid examination. Such, in brief outline, are the general features of historical instruction in the secondary schools of France. The French have realized the importance of history as an essential element in the sec- ondary curriculum, they have made provision for its systematic and continuous study throughout the whole of the school course, and they have established a system which assures the selection of vell-trained teachers. In these respects we can .dprofit by their example; but at present we have little to learn from their methods of instruction, beo the suggestions that may be derived from their clear and well-ordered text-books,' and from the arrangement ot topics in the programme, which Matthew Arnold declared no educated man could read "without profit - without being reminded of gaps in his knowledge and stimulated to fill 1 The Precis de l'istoire moderne of Michelet, once so popular, has gone out of use, and the famous school histories of Duruy are passing. A scholarly series is appearing under the editorship of Monod; the volume by Bemont and Monod on the Middle Ages is excellent, though somewhat beyond the grasp of the boys of fourteen for whom it was written. The text books of Seignobos on the Orient, Greece, and Rome, published by Colin, are very suggestive, and deserve to be better known in America; see particularly the Supplimenls a l'usage des pfrofesseurs issued in connection with the volumes on the Orient and Greece. Lessons from France 209 them." 1 We must, however, remember that it is only in recent years that historical studies, even in the universities, have been placed upon a substantial basis in France, so that it is too soon to expect the best results in secondary teaching. Already there are indications that as the possibilities of historical instruction become more generally recognized, and the improvements in higher education make themselves more widely felt in the schools, it may be well worth the while of American teachers to watch the progress of historical teaching in France; for in spite of all the differences in conditions in the two countries, the fundamental problem of the secondary teacher of history is the same in France as in America, ngmely, how to make the study of history tell most effectively for the general culture and the civic training of the future citizens of a great democracy. In solving this problem we shall need all the experience of both sides of the Atlantic. 1 A Frenck Eton and Schools and Universities in France, (edition of 1892), 375. Appendix V History in English Secondary Schools BY GEORGE L. FOX THE well-known chaotic character of the English system of education makes it difficult to give a satisfactory account of the scope and methods of teaching history in English secondary schools. There is great lack of system and uniformity of method. In France and Germany, order and symmetry prevail in the educational system, as it is controlled and determined by the state. A reasonable uniformity therefore results, and whatever assertions can be safely made about a few representative schools are likely to be true of most of the schools. In England, on the contrary, the secondary schools are almost entirely under private control, and are generally free from state supervision. Indeed, the secondary school supported wholly or partly by public taxation, and 210 Conditions 211 under the control of the state and local governments, like the high school in the United States, or the lycde in France or the gymnasium in Germany, does not exist in Great Britain, although some secondary school subjects are taught in the higher grade board school, and the evening continuttion schools. When English secondary schools are discussed in this report, the expression is to be understood as referring chiefly to the so-called public schools of England, of which Winchester, Eton, Harrow, and Rugby, are the familiar type. These institutions are, in most cases, endowed schools, controlled by a board of governors, in which the course of study and the methods of teaching are determined by the head-master. The pupils, when they enter these schools, are usually between twelve and sixteen years of age, and they have received their previous education either from private tutors, in local grammar schools or, more commonly, in small boarding schools, scattered over England, called preparatory schools, which are private venture-schools, that is, are owned by private individuals. In these schools they have usually studied elementary English history, and to some degree, Greek and Roman history as well. There is another reason also, why it is not easy to give an exact account of the teaching of history 212 English Schools in the English secondary schools, namely, because of the difficulty which the visitor has in seeing the teacher actually at work in his classroom. The visitor to French or German schools, if he has the proper authorization from the state authority, finds at once ready entrance to every classroom. But no such "open sesame" makes easy the pathway of the visitor to the English secondary schools. There seems to be an unwritten law that an English master's form-room is his castle, and it is not an easy thing to see the actual work of teaching. The writer of this report saw less than a dozen recitations in history in English schools, and the statements which are made are based on such limited inspection, the perusal of courses of study and examination papers, and on conversation with different teachers of history. While the course of study and the methods are largely determined by the head-master, he is limited in his decisions by the requirements of the higher educational institutions, for which most of the pupils are preparing. The English public school is commonly divided into two departments: the classical side and the modern side, which correspond, roughly, to the classical and scientific courses in our schools. The ultimate aim of the boy on the classical side is entrance to the universities of Oxford or Cam- University Influence 213 bridge. The goal of the boy on the modern side cannot be so definitely stated; but it is either business life, the engineering and scientific professions, or the army colleges. This last class, who intend to be officers in the army, are a considerable proportion of the boys on the modern side, and their needs are especially recognized by a subdivision in the later years of this course, called "The army class." The limitations, which are likely to govern the course of study of the army class, are the requirements imposed by the government for admission to the military colleges of Woolwich and Sandhurst, one of which educates officers for the artillery and engineering, the other for the infantry and cavalry branches of the service. Among these requirements, English history finds a place only as an optional subject, for which the maximum allowance is two thousand marks in a total of fourteen thousand. While in the secondary schools of England the State has no direct influence in determining the course of study, the influence of the universities in this respect is most important and effective. This influence is most directly exerted through what is known as the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board, which is made up of representatives of both universities. This board conducts examinations at the close 214 English Schools of the school year at most of the leading schools in England, and issues certificates of proficiency to those who have successfully passed the examinations. These higher certificates give exemption, under certain conditions, from the earlier examinations in the university course, known as "Smalls" at Oxford, and "The Little Go" at Cambridge. The subjects of the examination are classified in four groups; (I) a language group, including four subjects, Greek, Latin, French, German; (2) a mathematics group divided into two subjects; (3) an English group divided into scripture knowledge, English, and history, and (4) a science group divided into six subjects. Candidates are usually required to pass in four subjects in not less than three groups. If they offer history, they may choose between Greek, Roman, and English history. The whole field of each country's history is not necessarily included. Often a period covering less than three centuries is prescribed, together with a special knowledge of a smaller period included within it. In 1897 the general period in Greek history extended to 323 B.C., while the special period extended from 403 B.C. to 362 B.C. In Roman history the general period was from 72 B.C. to I80 A.D., while special knowledge was required of the period from 14 A.D. to 96 A.D. In English history the exami- University Examinations 215 nation covered from 1485 to I66o, with a special knowledge of the period from 1555 to 1603. These specific instructions as to periods to be studied are changed every two or three years, but seldom is a period of English history prescribed later than I815. The two points to be noted in these requirements are, first, that the shorter period for study is included in the longer period, and second, that in each subject the examination covers only a portion of the nation's history. The colleges, at both the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, also endeavor to strengthen the instruction of history at the schools by establishing history scholarships, which yield from $250 to $400 a year to the successful candidates. These scholarships are offered either b single colleges or by two or three colleges combined. As is well known, this is a method characteristic of the English universities for promoting interest in any branch of learning, and serves to introduce into the schools a tendency to have a promising pupil in the upper classes specialize upon some subject for which he has a strong bent. The two most prominent of the Oxford colleges in awarding history scholarships are Balliol and New College, who hold the same examination for this purpose. The examinations for this purpose held on Nov. 16, 1897, consisted of (i) an essay written in the 216 English Schools examination on some historical subject, (2)two language papers showing candidate's knowledge of Latin, Greek, French, or German, (3) a general paper, (4) two papers either in ancient history or in medimeval history (including English history), or in the history of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries (including English history), at the option of the candidate. The regulations prescribed that the knowledge required for the general paper could be obtained from such books as the following: Guizot's "Civilization in Europe," Hallam's "Middle Ages" (Chapter IX.), Bagehot's "English Constitution," Maine's "Ancient Law," Macaulay's "Essays," and Walker's "Political Economy." These books, naturally, a successful candidate would be expected to have read thoroughly, although one of the Balliol examiners told me that it was not wholly acquaintance with books, but signs of promise shown by the candidate, that determined the award. Most stress is laid upon the essay and general papers which test natural ability. The scholarships that are offered at Oxford are open to all candidates who have not been in residence at the university more than eight terms, or two years; so that a candidate fresh from a public school may have to compete for a scholarship with students who have been for more than a year at the university. But still a few boys in the Field of Instruction 217 highest forms of the best schools will usually be They found in training for these scholarships. will receive especial attention in history work from one of the masters, will be excused from some other subjects in order to give time to collateral reading, in which they are tested from time to time by the special master. The certificate examination and the scholarship examination illustrate the two classes of pupils whose wants are considered in the colleges and schools of England, viz. the average pupil and the pupil of unusual ability in any direction. Because of this distinction there exist, side by side, at the universities, the pass and the honor examinations. Of course the needs of the latter class are not considered except in the higher forms of the school, but there they are very distinctly considered. Small classes of able pupils receive special instruction to fit them for the scholarship contests in different subjects. The eagerness to win these scholarships and thus to gain distinction forms a powerful incentive to earnest and wide reading in history, although, in the opinion of some critics, the scholarship system is one of the baneful features of English education. These two classes of pupils must be borne in mind, in considering the teaching of history in English schools. With regard to the field of history that is covered 218 English Schools in the schools, the course of study in most schools includes, on the classical side at least, Greek history, Roman history, and English history. In most cases the pupils will give at least one hour a week to history throughout the course, from the age of twelve to nineteen. A boy who has passed through all the forms of the secondary school, will very likely have taken up these subjects twice; first in an elementary way with a brief text-book, such as Gardiner's "Outline of English History," or Ransome's smaller book. Then at a later stage of the course comes a more thorough treatment of the subject with a more extensive text-book, and possibly collateral reading. Of course the chief object of the elementary course should be not only the learning of the main facts of history, but also an awakening of interest in the subject, which creates a thirst for individual study. Whether these ends are realized depends very much upon the character of the teaching and the enthusiasm of the teacher. Haileybury College in Hertfordshire, one of the youngest and less known public schools, has won especial distinction in this respect through two of the masters who are keenly interested in teaching the world's life of the past. The lecture-room is fitted with all necessary appliances for using the stereopticon in the daytime. Thousands of slides Programmes 219 have been made by these masters, from photographs of places, costumes, relics, armor, weapons, etc., and authentic illustrations in books, such as those in Gardiner's "History of England," or the illustrated edition of Green. Thus the imagination of the boys is stimulated, and the past is made to live before their eyes. Two dangers of this method they seem to have avoided at Haileybury. One is the disposition of a live boy "to take advantage of the darkness necessitated by the use of the lantern to riot or to sleep." The other is to look upon the exercise as a pleasant diversion for the hour only, leaving no permanent absorption of knowledge in the pupil's mind. At Haileybury the pupils are required to hand in reports of the lectures, and their knowledge is tested by viva voce questioning. The same method is utilized with the higher forms, where the history of the French Revolution is illustrated with contemporary portraits and caricatures, thrown upon the screen. I doubt if in any school in the world so extensive and efficient use of the stereopticon in history teaching is made as at the old college of the East India Company, now a public school, where Malthus was a teacher, and John Lawrence fought many a battle with his fists. I have spoken of the limited fields of history prescribed by the Oxford and Cambridge certifi- 220 English Schools cate examinations, but the schools naturally do not limit their courses of study by these requirements. In a number of them a prescribed cycle of history is laid down. This system is championed by some masters and condemned by others. As a specimen of such a cycle I will quote from the calendar for 1896, of Winchester College, the oldest public school in England, founded in 1387. The fall term at Winchester is known as the Short Half; the winter term as Common Time; and the term following Easter to August I, as Cloister Time. Common Time and Cloister Time together form the Long Half. The highest class is known as the Sixth Book, for which there was this history cycle covering four years. Long Half. Hallam's Middle Ages. Short Half. Greek History to 435 B.c. Long Half. The Reign of Henry VIII. Short Half. Roman History 133-31 B.c. Long Half. The Reign of Charles I. Skort Half. Roman History 31 B.c.-305 A.D. Long Half. English History 1215-1327. Short Half. Bryce's Holy Roman Empire. It is hard to make out much orderly sequence or deliberate teaching purpose in such an arrangement, and it would seem that a pupil following European History 221 such an order would get a confused impression of the course of the world's history. But probably, like many other things in the English school curriculum, it is a traditional growth and not founded on any distinct pedagogical purpose. Much easier to understand is the cycle for the other classes in the school as follows: I896. Short Half. Greek History after 432 B.c. 1897. Common Time. Roman History to 200 B.c. Cloister Time. Roman History after 200 B.C. Student's Gibbon to Justinian. Short Half. 1898. Common Time. Student's Gibbon from Mahomet. Cloister Time. English History, Tudor Period. English History, Stuart Period. Short Half. 1899. Common Time. Greek History to 432 B.C. It has been said that the fields of history usually covered in the English public schools are Greek, Roman, and English history. It should be added that in many schools there is considerable teaching of Biblical history under the head of scripture knowledge, as well as the outline history of the English Church. European history, except where it is in close 222 English Schools contact with English history, is not formally and generally recognized in the school curriculum. Occasionally a school will be found where the enthusiastic interest of a master has secured for his form some recognition of a particular period of European history apart from English history. To what extent this casual and incidental teaching of history goes on depends upon the enthusiastic zeal of the master and the disposition of the head-master to encourage or discourage it. In the year 1893-94 the upper bench of the Sixth at Rugby took Seebohm's " Era of the Protestant Reformation," and part of Oman's "The Dark Ages." Indeed, in this somewhat irregular way, the pupils learn considerable history outside of the stated and formal curriculum. The form masters in the higher forms on the classical side often lay stress upon the writings of Livy, Cicero, Tacitus, and Thucydides, as history as well as literature or philology. At Harrow, under Mr. Bowen, the master of the modern side, the books read are often distinctly of a historical character. Books like " Campagne de Russie," " Lazare Hoche," "Charles XII.," and Beresford-Webb's "German Historical Reading Book," are cases in point. They are studied not only from a language point of view, but also with regard to the study of history. English History 223 This incidental teaching of history in some schools takes the place of practice in writing Greek or Latin verse, and is known as verse equivalent. In 1897, at Rugby, the boys of some of the forms who were excused from verse-making, were compelled to take as verse equivalent the three following books: in the Lent term, Seeley's "The Expansion of England"; in the summer term as appropriate to the Diamond Jubilee, McCarthy's "Short History of Our Own Times," and during the winter term, Bosworth-Smith's "Rome and Carthage." There is one exercise a week when the class is tested on its knowledge of about thirty pages of the text-book, with comment by the teacher, and at the end of the term an examination is held on the work which has been covered. At Eton, a similar system prevails under the name of "extras," which, according to the syllabus, provides an interesting study of some historical and political questions. With regard to English history, I found that comparatively little attention was paid to the history of Great Britain during the present century, or to speak more accurately, since the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832. This is unfortunate and is hardly in accord with the Jubilee spirit in 1897, which gloried in the Victorian era. Verily, the social and constitutional progress of 224 English Schools England during the present century, makes it one of its most interesting and important epochs, especially with regard to colonial expansion and social betterment. Yet the pupil at the English secondary school does not receive much instruction in this important era of the nation. None of the Oxford and Cambridge examination papers, that I have examined since 189o, specify any period of English history later than 1815. The same is true of the examination papers of a number of schools, in which little was found touching upon the Victorian era, save in the case of Malvern and Clifton, two of the new schools. When I asked for an explanation of this fact, one reply given was that a careful study of the period would rake up burning questions, on which family and inherited prejudices were very strong. For this reason it was thought best to avoid anything that would lead to wrangling disputation. Possibly it may be due to the same insufficient reason that the study of what is called in this country, civil government, is almost entirely neglected in English secondary schools. It is not mentioned in their courses of study, and the only school, in which I found it pursued as an independent study, was Haileybury, where a small class was taught by one of the teachers of history already mentioned, who was using with his form Civil Government 225 Miss Buckland's little primer, "Our National Institutions." This seems to be a very serious defect of the secondary school course in England, as compared with Germany, France, or the United States. In support of this statement I would quote from a striking address on 1" The Teaching of Civic Duty," by an Englishman, for whom citizens of the United States have a high regard, the Hon. James Bryce. "Boys leave our so-called secondary schools at sixteen, seventeen, and eighteen, leave even some of the greatest and most costly schools in the country, having received no regular instruction in the principles and working of the British constitution, much less in their own system of local government, wherein many of them as local magnates are soon called upon to take part." Professor Bryce's noble plea was delivered to an audience of elementary schoolmasters, but it is a trumpet call to public schoolmasters as well as to the audience before which it was spoken. The admirable syllabus on "The Life and Duties of the Citizen," which is prescribed by the National Educational Department in the Evening Continuation School Code, might well be followed in the great public schools. The time allowance for the regular teaching of 1 Contemporary Review, July, 1893, 64, p. 14. Forum, July, 1893, 15, p. 552. 226 English Schools history in most English schools, shows less consideration for the subject than in France or Germany. In few schools are more than two hours per week given to classroom work in history; but at least one hour a week is given to history in each year of the school course, which in the case of most public schools covers five or six years. The order of teaching the different periods of history varies very much, and as in the cycles from Winchester, already quoted, seems not to have been arranged on any distinct pedagogical plan. The subordinate position of history in the school courses is indicated not only by the small time allotment, but also by the fact that not until recently was this subject taught by specialists, viz. by men that had been specially trained in the subject of history, and had devoted themselves very largely to teaching that subject. The spirit of the English secondary school is against specialization in teaching, except in the case of science, modern languages, and mathematics. The formmaster usually teaches Latin, Greek, Scripture, English, and history, while in the latter subject he may have had no special training. A welcome reform in this respect has already begun, which it is to be hoped will probably gain ground and improve the history teaching in the schools. Several of the larger schools have now on their staff his- Methods 227 tory masters who have won distinction in the honor schools of history at Oxford or Cambridge, and bring to the teaching of this important subject the enthusiasm and skill, which are likely to win a larger recognition for this subject in the school curriculum in the future. It is also to be hoped that it may win individual recognition and place on the printed course of study, and not, as is often the case at present, be classed under English with English literature. Then the searcher after knowledge will be able to tell more easily what is the average time allotment for history, and this worthy subject will gain something in estimation by being classed by itself, separate from other English branches. As to methods of teaching history, the system in the lower form generally consists of the thorough study of a reliable, but not elaborate, textbook. The work of the pupil is more often tested by written work than by oral questioning. The custom of "fluent" recitations on an assigned topic, which I have seen admirably carried on in German gymnasia, is not at all common in English schools. Certainly one of the valuable benefits of studying history ought to be the development of the power of oral expression, which such methods promote. Equally valuable also is the mental discipline and acuteness to be derived from rapid 228 English Schools and incisive questioning, and prompt answers, a system of cross-examination, which is commonly known in this country under the phrase "quiz." The absence of this system of fluent recitation of historical facts is probably due to the prejudice so common in England against fluency of speech as a possible indication of superficiality or lack of scholarship. The system of teaching known in the United States as the "library method," or the "laboratory method," viz. the use of several books in the study of a list of topics, is seldom found except in the highest forms where pupils are making special preparation for the history scholarship examinations at the universities. At this stage of the course the text-book work is supplemented by lectures by the teacher, so that the pupils attain facility in taking notes, and by collateral reading so that they learn how to consult with permanent profit the books in a library. In this way, to use Dr. Arnold's phrase, "they learn how to read." They thus become acquainted with the methods which will be of great service to them when they go in for honors in the School of History at Oxford, or the Historical Tripos at Cambridge. This power of going to the heart of a book and securing a deposit of its contents in their minds is a characteristic of the best boys in the Sixth at a Effectiveness 229 great public school. For hard and thorough reading is the essential condition of success in winning a school exhibition or an entrance college scholarship, which are the intellectual honors crowning an able boy's career at school. Such reading, however, is generally confined to secondary histories. The earnest use of the sources with secondary school pupils is very rare in England, and such methods are not much used with the average student at the universities. Essay writing on historical subjects is very commonly followed in the higher forms with success and profit, not only for its own sake, as a means of culture, but also as a means of preparatory training for this work in the university, inasmuch as in the Honor School of History at Oxford one of the most important and valuable means of training is the essay work with the tutor. In conclusion, it would hardly be proper for a visitor with so limited an experience of the actual teaching of history in English schools, to give a general judgment as to the quality of the teaching of this important subject in the great public schools. He may be permitted to quote, instead, the public testimony on this point of three Englishmen, who are competent judges. The first is Professor Bryce, who, in the article already referred to, says, "History is of all subjects which schools attempt to 230 English Schools handle perhaps the worst taught." The second is an eminent teacher and writer of history and an old public school boy. He says, "The teaching of history in the English public schools is not nearly so efficient as teaching in other branches of knowledge." The third is the editor of the London Journal of Education, and master of the modern side in Merchant Taylor's School, London. His words in the issue of February, 1899, are, "It is generally admitted that the teaching of history is exceedingly bad in our schools -with, of course, marked exceptions." Secondary education is at present the burning question among educators in England, and a great change in the relation of the schools to the government is at hand. Doubtless the next few years will see a general improvement in history teaching, especially if the classicists will be willing to surrender to the historians a little of the time allotment which they now demand for the ancient languages. Yet with all the deficiencies of the present situation, the writer, in his admiration for the work of the English public school, feels it but just to say that the history teaching reflects the general characteristics of the whole school system, thoroughness and virility. Appendix VI History in Canadian Secondary Schools BY GEORGE M. WRONG IN Canada there has been no really great crisis like that of the Revolution or of the Civil War in the United States to intensify historical interest. Many a citizen of Canada is not sure whether the old land of his ancestors or the new one of his birth or adoption is his real country. He still belongs to both, and his patriotic interest is widely diffused. Perhaps, as a result, he is more cosmopolitan, but he is usually wanting in that almost fierce love for his country's past which in the United States is so keen a stimulus to historical study. A natural situation in Canada ihimical 1 This short article on "History in the Canadian Schools" was written, at the request of the committee, by Professor Wrong, professor of history in the University of Toronto. No. study of Canadian schools has been made by the committee. 231 232 Canadian Schools to history has not been improved by enlightened policy. The Canadian universities, like the Scotch, have, until recently, quite neglected history. The subject had only a minor place in the curriculum, and no adequate training in historical method was furnished. Happily a marked change has taken place. In the two largest Canadian universities (the University of Toronto and McGill University) history now occupies a respectable place, though it still receives far less attention than universities of similar importance give it in the United States. There is no uniform educational system in Canada; the government of each Province is charged with education as is that of each State in the United States. The Federal Government in Canada has not even the shadowy oversight of education that is implied in the United States by the existence of a federal commissioner of education. Nearly five of the six millions of people in Canada are in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. In Quebec the schools are chiefly French, and are largely under the control of the Roman Catholic Church. Obviously the province of Ontario must be the principal field of our inquiries. This province, containing nearly half of the population of Canada, owes the first organization of its government to the American Revolution. Thousands of Loyalists, who refused to consent to the sever- Organization 233 ance of the American colonies from Great Britain, found a refuge in what is now Ontario. Many of them belonged to the educated classes, and had a zeal for education similar to that of the New England pioneers. The early governors too were on the whole enlightened men, who for many years wielded a power almost despotic. Extensive lands were set apart for educational purposes. For a long time the Anglican Church struggled to control state-aided education. She failed in the end. Roman Catholics still have separate schools supported by the rates levied on the taxpayers adhering to that Church, but the remainder of the state system is now completely secularized. The secondary schools are numerous, and are sometimes found in villages of less than one thousand inhabitants. The state university for a long time charged an annual fee of only ten dollars. Now it is but forty dollars, so that a college course is within the reach of a large number. It is becoming not uncommon for a farmer's son to take a degree in the university before settling down upon the farm. Until within the last ten years classics and mathematics claimed chief attention. Now, modern languages are on about the same footing with them, the relative standard in mathematics being probably the highest of all the subjects. History has 234 Canadian Schools a fairly good place in the lower forms, but an unimportant one in the work for the college entrance examination, being worth only one-third of the value of Greek or Latin, and one-sixth of that of mathematics. The curriculum in the secondary schools of Ontario is limited to the history of ancient Greece and Rome, of England, and of Canada. In some of the smaller provinces an outline of general History is compulsory in history is included. every year of the course, which usually extends over about four years. In some schools five hours a week are given to history; the average would be about three hours. The larger schools with five or more teachers have usually a specialist devoted to history alone. In some of the smaller schools any member of the staff may have a class in history thrust upon him. Let, me summarize briefly my criticisms and suggestions i. The adequate training of the teacher was for a long time neglected. There has been a twofold reason for this. On the one hand the real difficulties both of teaching and of learning history have been underestimated. Roederer, the minister of the first Napoleon, banished the teaching of history from the French schools on the ground that the subject could easily be learned without Teachers 235 being taught. This view is still widespread. In Canada it has hardly yet been realized that the truths of history are subtle, and may easily be missed, and that, to teach it, there must be added to a thoughtful study of the facts a vigorous and disciplined imagination, and the power of arranging complex material effectively. Because the teaching was usually bad, pupils came to regard history as a dreary and painful study. The other cause of the insufficient training of teachers of history has been the defective work of the universities, already referred to. The education department for Ontario has been quick to utilize for the schools the better work which the colleges are now doing in history. There is a system of specialist certificates for teachers. To teach classics, mathematics, etc., a high specialistic qualification had long been required. For a long time any one was allowed to teach history, but now a specialist in history must pass examinations hardly less difficult than those for an honor degree in modern history at Oxford. The improvement of the teaching of history, as a result of this policy, will probably soon be very marked. Of course it will still happen in the smaller schools that history will be taught by masters with no special qualifications, for these schools cannot have a master devoted exclusively to history. The point gained, however, 236 Canadian Schools is that history is now on the same footing as other departments with regard to specialist training. 2. The curriculum is defective. The history of Greece and Rome to the Augustan age, and that of England and Canada, do not form a wellbalanced course of historical study. It leaves untouched, almost, the great epochs of continental Europe, and makes it possible for a student to go up to the university, having scarcely heard of St. Bernard, Charles V., Frederick the Great, or Mirabeau. In Canada, a part of the British Empire, pupils know nothing of other portions of the same Empire - India or Australia; and, as far as I can learn, the history of the United States is not taught in any Canadian school. The curriculum suggested by the Committee of Seven is hardly suitable for Canada, but that portion of it which relates to the history of continental Europe might well be adopted in the Canadian schools. 3. The time given to history is usually, though not always, inadequate. New subjects are making claims, sometimes extravagant, upon the time of the schools. In a large secondary school in Toronto, the time available weekly was divided into thirty-five periods. Of these the physical sciences claimed at first twenty-two, much to the amusement of the other departments. History with no technical language, appears to be easier than chemistry, Subjects and Methods 237 and it may plausibly be urged that it should take a minor place upon the time-table. Friends of history ought to insist that an extension of the curriculum should go hand in hand with an extension of the time for instruction. It should be laid down as a general rule that the teaching must cover the whole ground of the curriculum. The pupils usually remember what they read in the text-book only when they hear it talked about in the class. 4. The text-books are inferior in quality. The Education Department requires the same text-book to be used in all the schools. For English history the highest classes use Green's "Short History of the English People" - by far the best book on the list, but in my opinion not a good text-book. The other books are, on the whole, colorless compilations, " confused in arrangement," as one teacher writes to me, "bad in diction, and with no sense of proportion." These defects are not peculiar to the boqks used in Canada. To pick out the salient features of a nation's history and to describe them with both scientific precision and literary charm are tasks requiring rare gifts. Until our best minds turn to the unattractive but useful task of writing history text-books, we shall not have what we need. One may say in closing that though history has 238 Canadian Schools not as yet really flourished in the Canadian schools, its status is steadily improving. The key of the situation is really with the colleges. These train the teacher, and an able teacher properly trained will give dignity to and win a place for the subject. With such teachers the dreary history lesson has been transformed in some places in Canada into an animated lecture. Nearly every school has a library--often very incomplete, of course. A good teacher with a good library accessible to him, to which the pupils may also be referred -these will be the two best agents for improving the status of history. It is still true that the subject is often neglected, and I see no hope that a uniform standard can be adopted in all the secondary schools. Those with a small staff sometimes try to cover as many subjects as do the larger schools, and the teaching of some branches must be slighted. One effective way of increasing the attention to history in the work for college entrance would be to establish competitive scholarships at matriculation for excellence in history. Such scholarships have done much for Greek, Latin, and Modern Languages. They have not yet been offered in connection with history, and naturally the best pupils bend their energies to the subjects that have the prospect of reward. Appendix VII Some Books and Articles on the Teaching of History THE following titles have been selected from the vast number of books and articles relating to history and its teaching, in the hope that they may prove helpful to teachers who may not already be acquainted with them. Longer lists will be found in Channing and Hart's Guide to the Study of American History, § 15, and at the beginning of the various chapters of Hinsdale's How to Study and Teach History; for discussions that have appeared since the publication of these works, see particularly the Educational Review, the School Review, and the Proceedings of the National Educational Association, the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools in the Middle States and the similar Association in New England, and the New England History Teachers' Association. Mr. J. I. Wyer, of the library of the University of Nebraska, has compiled for the American Histori239 240 Brief Bibliography cal Association an extensive Bibliography of the Study and Teaching of History, which it is hoped will soon be published. The prices quoted below are taken from the publishers' catalogues; in the case of works in foreign languages they do not include the cost of binding. Books with which every Teacher of History should be acquainted A Manual of Historical Literature. Third edition. New York, Harpers, 1889. CHARLES KENDALL ADAMS, $2.50. Contains an introduction on the study of history, "brief descriptions of the most important histories in English, French, and German," and suggestions as to courses of reading on particular countries or periods. The work needs revision. SONNENSCHEIN'S Bibliographyof History (reprinted from his Best Books and Reader's Guide, London, 1897, 4s. 6d.) is more recent, and, in some respects, more helpful. The American Historical Review. New York, Macmillan, quarterly since 1895. $3.oo a year (free to members of the American Historical Association). Every progressive teacher of history should keep abreast of current publications on historical topics. The most convenient method is by means of the book reviews and notes in the American HistoricalReview. Books on Methods 241 Guide Boston, Ginn, EDWARD CHANNING and ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, to the Study of American History. 1896. $2.00. Includes a consideration of methods and materials, a bibliography of American history, and a series of topical references. Especially intended for the teacher of American history. and Teach History, with Particular Reference to the History of the BURKE AARON HINSDALE, How to Study United States. (International Education Series.) New York, Appleton, 1894. $I.5o. "No effort is made to tell the teacher just what he shall teach, or just how he shall teach it. The aim is rather to state the uses of history, to define in a general way its field, to present and to illustrate criteria for the choice of facts, to emphasize the organization of facts with reference to the three principles of association, to indicate sources of information, to describe the qualifications of the teacher, and finally to illustrate causation and the grouping of facts by drawing the outlines of some important chapters of American history." Written particularly for teachers in elementary and secondary schools. Introduction to the Study of History. Translated by CHARLES VICTOR LANGLOIS and CHARLES SEIGNOBOS, G. G. Berry, with a preface by F. York Powell. New York, Holt, 1898. $2.25. The best brief treatise on the methods of historical investigation. Appendix I. treats briefly of history in French secondary schools. R 242 Brief Bibliography Report of the Committee [of Ten] on Secondary School Studies. Washington, Bureau of Education, I893. Now out of print in this form. Also reprinted by the American Book Company, New York, 1894. 30 cents. Pp. 162-203 contain the report of the Madison Conference on history, civil government, and political economy; pp. 185-200 are devoted to "methods of historical teaching." Other Noteworthy Books on Historical Methods MARY SHELDON BARNES, Studies in Historical Method. Boston, Heath, i896. 90 cents. "Written especially for the teacher who wishes to Sspecialize his work; " particularly suggestive in regard to children's ideas of history. Contains brief bibliographies : sources, pp. 8-io; helps for the study of current history, pp. 14-15 ; bibliographical aids, maps and atlases, chronologies, pp. 34-37; works on method, pp. 139-144. JOHANN GUSTAV DROYSEN, Outline of the Principles of History. Translated by E. Benjamin Andrews. Boston, Ginn, 1893. $1i.oo. A philosophical discussion of the nature of history. Methods of HistoricalStudy. London and New York, Macmillan, 1i886. Interesting lectures on various aspects of historical study in general. EDWARD A. FREEMAN, Books on Methods G. STANLEY HALL, 243 editor. Methods of Teaching History. Second edition. Boston, Heath, 1885. $1.50. A series of papers by teachers of history on various aspects of historical study, particularly as seen in colleges and universities. Now somewhat out of date; a third edition is proposed. in History. Boston, $I.oo. Treats of the "organization of historical material," particularly as illustrated by American history. WILLIAM HARRISON MACE, Method Ginn, 1897. Ten Useful Articles on Methods of Teaching History in Secondary Schools This short list contains only articles which deal directly and in a helpful way with problems of teaching; articles on the nature of historical study in general, on the place of history in schools, or on the arrangement of the curriculum in history, are not included. Teaching of Local History. In EducationalReview (December, 1895), X. 481- MARY SHELDON BARNES, The 488. A more special article on the same theme is that of R. G. Thwaites, The Study of Local History in the Wisconsin Schools, in Wisconsin Journalof Education (November, 1888), XVIII. 465-476. Brief Bibliography 244 JAMES BRYCE, The Teaching of Civic -Du. In Forum (July, 1893), XV. 552-566; Contemporary Review (July, 1893), LXIV. 14-28. How to Teach History in Secondary Schools. In Syracuse Academy (September. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, October, 1887), II. 256-265, 3o6-315- Reprinted in his Studies in American Education (New York, Longmans, 1895), 91-121. History in Secondary Education. In Educational Review (May, June, 1894), VII. 448-459 ; VIII. 43-53- RAY GREENE HULING, J. W. MACDONALD, Civics by the ParliamentaryMethod. In Syracuse Academy (May, 1892), VII. 217-227. Practical Methods of Teaching History. In Educational Review (April, 1898), XV. 313-330. Report to the New England History Teachers' Association, with discussion by President Eliot. Printed also in the Register and Report of the FirstAnnual Meeting of the Association, Boston, 1897. Report of the Conference on Entrance Requirements in History (to the New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools). In School Review (October, 1895), III. 469-485. For discussion of this report, see School Review (December, 1895), III. 597-631; Educational Review (December, 1895), X. 417-429. Articles on Methods 245 E. RUSSELL, History and Geography in the Highef Schools of Germany. In School Review (May, October, 1897), V. 257-268, 539-547. Also forms part of his German Higher Schools (New York, Longmans, 1898), 291-311. JAMES Lucy M. SALMON, The Teaching of History in Academies and Colleges. In Syracuse Academy (September, 1890), V. 283-292. Reprinted in Woman and the Higher Education (New York, Harpers, 1893), I3I-152. ANNA BOYNTON THOMPSON, Suggestions to Teachers. In Channing's Students' History of the United States (New York, Macmillan, 1898), xxix-xxxv. Valuable Works in Foreign Languages Enseianza de la Historia. Second edition, Madrid, SuArez, 1895. $2.00. RAFAEL ALTAMIRA, La Largely a description of the secondary and higher instruction in history in Europe and America. ERNST BERNHEIM, Lehrbuch der historischen Methode. Second edition. Leipzig, Duncker and Humblot, 1894. $3.00; bound, $3.50. An admirable manual, discussing the nature of historical science, its relations to other subjects, and the principles of historical criticism and interpretation. Excellent bibliographies, Brief Bibliography 246 OSKAR JAGER, Didaktik und fethodik des Geschickhsunter- richts. Munich, Beck, 1895. 75 cents. (Reprinted from Baumeister's Handbuch der Erziekungs- und Unterrictslehre fiir hoakere Schulen.) Gives a detailed exposition of the methods of instruction in the various classes of the German gymnasium. CHARLES VICTOR LANGLOIS, Manuel de Bibliograpkie His- torique. Part I. Paris, Hachette, 1896. 6o cents. The best account of the bibliographical tools of the historian. ERNEST LAVISSE. A propos de nos Ecoles. Paris, Colin, 1895. 70 cents. M. Lavisse is an exceedingly stimulating writer on history and its teaching, but unfortunately his essays are scattered in various publications. This volume includes (pp. 77-107) his report of i890 on methods of teaching history in secondary schools. Articles on the Teaching of History written from the Point of View of English Schools Teacking Modern History to Senior Classes. In Work and Play in Girls' Schools (London and New York, Longmans, 1899), 124-158. ALICE ANDREWS, $2.25. Foreign Articles 247 OSCAR BROWNING, The Teaching of History in Schools. In Royal Historical Society Transactions, new series, IV. 69-84. R. F. CHARLES, History Teaching in Schools. In London Journalof Education (June, 1895), XVII. 379. A. H. GARLICK, A New Manual of Method. and New York, Longmans, I896. $x.2o. London Chapter XIII. deals with history. R. SOMERVELL, Modern History. In P. A. Barnett's Teaching and Organization (London and New York, Longmans, I897), 161-179. C. H. SPENCE, A. L. SMITH, $2.oo. The Teaching of Modern History. In Essays on Secondary Education, edited by Christopher Cookson (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1898), 161-195. J. $i.xo. WELLS, The Teaching of History in Schools. (A lecture delivered at the University Extension Summer Meeting in Oxford.) London, Methuen, 1892. 6 d. H. L. WITHERS, Ancient History. In P. A. Barnett's Teaching and Organization (London and New York, Longmans, 1897), 18o-198. $2.oo. Appendix VIII Maps and Atlases INTELLIGENT and effective teaching of history demands at every stage a well-chosen supply of maps and atlases. Besides a set of political and physical maps of the continents, such as are now found in almost every school, there are needed maps in greater detail, both political and physical, of the principal countries whose history is studied in the school, as well as sets of historical wall maps, indexed historical atlases, and a good modern reference atlas of the world.' Small outline maps in the possession of each pupil may also be used to advantage.2 This committee does not feel itself 1Maps on lantern slides are much cheaper than wall maps, and may easily be prepared or modified to illustrate any desired subject. A collection of map-slides sufficient for all the needs of secondary instruction in history may be got for $15.00oo $20.00, or even less. or Such are the Outline faps and Progressive Outline Mafis published by D. C. Heath & Co., Boston; the suggestive Relief PracticeMafs of William Beverly Harrison, New York; the Outline Mafs of Rand, McNally, & Co., Chicago; and the detailed sheets issued by the United States Geological Survey. 248 Ancient History 249 called upon to give a complete annotated catalogue of the maps and atlases available for use in secondary schools; but it has seemed within the province of the committee to suggest what may be regarded as the minimum geographical equipment for treating the various periods of history which have been outlined in the body of the report. The prices are quoted from publishers' price-lists; in case of foreign works they do not include the duty, when imported by an individual. I. Ancient History The best wall maps for the study of ancient geography are the Wandkarten zur alten Geschichte, prepared under the direction of Heinrich Kiepert and published in Berlin by D. Reimer. The American agents are Rand, McNally, & Co., Chicago. The American prices for individual maps, mounted on common rollers, run from $6.oo to $8.oo; the full set in a case, with spring rollers, costs $88.oo. In Germany single maps vary in price from 15 to 22 marks, according to map and mounting, and the cost of a set, without a case, is correspondingly less. The full set is desirable; the maps of Greece, Italy, and the Roman Empire are indispensable. The school should also possess good physical wall maps of Greece, Italy, and the Mediterranean lands as a whole. Maps and Atlases 250' The best desk atlas of ancient history is also:KIEPERT, Atlas Antiquus. Twelve Maps of the Ancient World. American edition, Boston, B. H. Sanborn & Co., 1892. $2.00. Others are:Ginn and Company's Classical Atlas. Boards, $1.40; cloth, $2.30. Longman's ClassicalAtlas. $2.oo. At least one such atlas should always be at hand, and it may often be possible to require pupils to procure copies for themselves. A more elaborate work is:Atlas Antiquus. Gotha, Perthes. In parts, 20 marks; separate maps, 8o pfennigs each. For maps illustrating the early Middle Ages, see the following section. Some of the collections there mentioned also cover ancient history; the first part of MacCoun's HistoricalGeography Charts of Europe is entitled "Ancient and Classical," and is sold separately (Boston, Silver, Burdett, & Co., SPRUNER-SIEGLIN, $i 5.oo). 2. Medieval and Modern History The first essential for the teaching of mediaeval and modern history is a large map of Europe; ordinary maps are apt to be too small to render Mediaeval and Modern 251 much service in historical instruction. If the school can have but one large map it should be physical, since the detail of the modern political map obscures the fundamental geographical features and confuses the pupil with modern boundary lines.' This should be supplemented by a series of historical wall maps, of which the most scholarly is the Historischer Wandatlas of Spruner-Bretschneider, a set of ten maps, 62 by 52 inches, covering the period from A.D. 350 to 1815. (Gotha, Perthes, 1894; in loose sheets, 56 marks; mounted, in a portfolio, 90 marks.) The mediaeval and modern section of the HistoricalGeography Charts of Europe,prepared by Townsend MacCoun (Boston, Silver, Burdett, & Co., $15.oo), consists of nineteen loose maps on manila paper, covering the period from A.D. 526 to 1894. Modern maps of individual European countries are also helpful, and, for the recent period, maps of the other continents are necessary. For special subjects and battle-fields, single sheets of the various government surveys will be found 1 Physical features are conveniently brought out, in exaggerated form, by the relief maps prepared by Giuseppe Roggero, and published by G. B. Paravia & Co., Turin, Rome, and Florence. The set includes maps of Italy, Spain, France, Scandinavia, Germany, the British Isles, and the Balkan Peninsula, varying in size from 8 x lo to o x 12 inches; the price of each map is 2 lire, or including packing and postage (but not the duty, when imported by an individual), about 50 cents. Maps and Atlases 252 useful, and can be had through any foreign bookseller. The best small atlas of European history is:F. W. PUTZGER, Historischer Schul-Atlas zur alten, mitleren und neuen Geschichle. Twenty-second edition, Bielefeld and Leipzig, Velhagen and Klasing, 1897. 2 marks; bound, 2 marks 70 pfennigs. It contains sixty-seven large and seventy-one small maps, but has no index of places. Other small atlases are the following: C. COLBECK, The Public Schools Historical Atlas. Fourth edition. London and New York, Longmans, 1894. $1.50. One hundred and one maps and plans, and an index of places. Begins with the fourth century A.D.; as the maps are for the most part reproduced from the Epochs of Modern History, they are not very well distributed over the period. Historischer Schul-Atlas zur alten, mittleren und neueren Geschichte. Seventh edition. Berlin, D. Reimer, 1896. Bound, 3 marks 60 pfennigs. Thirty-six maps. KIEPERT and WOLF, ROBERT HENLOPEN LABBERTON, Historical Atlas, 3800 B.C. to r886 A.D. Boston, Silver, Burdett, & Co., 1886. $1.25. Sixty-four pages of maps. Mediaeval and Modern 253 The school library should also possess one of the following excellent historical atlases, each of which covers ancient as well as mediaeval and modern history:GUSTAV DROYSEN, Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas. Bielefeld and Leipzig, Velhagen and Klasing, 1886. 20 marks; bound, 25 marks. Eighty-eight pages of maps, with descriptive text. Atlas de GiographieHistorique. Paris, Hachette, 1896. Bound, 35 francs. Fifty-five double-page plates and a large number of sketch-maps, with descriptive text and an index of places. FRANZ SCHRADER, Unfortunately, the only English atlas of the type of Schrader and Droysen, the HistoricalAtlas of Modern Europe now appearing at the Clarendon Press under the editorship of Reginald Lane Poole (to be completed in thirty parts at 3s. 6d. each), is much more expensive and covers only the mediaeval and modern periods. Freeman's HistoricalGeography of Europe (one volume of text and one of maps, London and New York, Longmans, 1881) is now out of print. Still greater detail will be found in Handatlas zur Geschichte des Mittelalters und der neuern Zeit. Gotha, Perthes, I 88o. In parts, 85 marks 60 pfennigs. Any map may be had separately at i mark 20 pfennigs. SPRUNER-MENKE, 254 Maps and Atlases 3. English History The study of English history requires in the first place large wall maps, political and physical, of the British Isles, and also SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, Shool Atlas of English His- tory. London and New York, Longmans, 1891, $1.50. For the proper comprehension of the continental and imperial aspects of English history there is also needed rhuch of the equipment necessary for the study of general mediaeval and modern history. This is the case particularly as regards wall maps; smaller maps of Europe and the colonies are largely represented in Gardiner's admirable Atlas. 4. American History Information concerning the most serviceable maps for use in connection with classes in American history will be found in Channing and Hart's Guide to American History, § 21, and in the List of the Publications of the United States Geological Survey, which will be furnished on application to the Director of that Survey, Washington, D.C. Schools should always possess a good general English and American 255 map of North America, and a large map of the United States, such as that published by the United States Land Office (price, unmounted, Also useful is Albert Bushnell Hart's $1.25). Epoch Maps Illustrating American History (New York, Longmans, 1891. 5o cents. Reprinted from the Epochs of American History). The United States Geological Survey publishes for its own use a three-sheet, and a reduced one-sheet, physical *map of the United States, giving only rivers, lakes, and contours, without political boundaries or names. This map may sometimes be obtained by special arrangement with the Survey, and it is almost indispensable, since the modern map with its state boundaries gives a wrong historical impression. These maps may best be supplemented by the various physiographic maps issued by the United States Geological Survey, and especially by the detailed topographic maps of small areas sold in sheets at 5 cents each (and in any combination of one hundred sheets at $2.00oo per hundred; a list may be obtained on application), and by sets of historical maps which the teacher may prepare on outlines, such as those mentioned in the note on page 248. Townsend MacCoun also has a series of HistoricalCharts of the United States (Boston, Silver, Burdett, & Co., $1 5.oo). Index K., Manualof ADAMS, C.Literature,240.Historical American schools, conditions in, Albums Historiques, 206. Alexander, conquests, 56. Altamira, Raphael, La Enseiianza 158, 172; information, how obtained, 137; choice of subjects, 139; order of subjects, 14o; separate college course, de la Historia, 199, 245. 12, 137-157; study of history, America, as a world power, 36. 142; time given, 142; textAmerican Historical Association, books, 143; collateral reading, discussions of history, 9; dis144; written work, 145; use of sources, 146; teachers, 147; cussion of report, 92; investigation of entrance requirements, college requirements, 148; summary, 149; copy of circuI19; paper on German schools, lar, 150; examples of courses, 173. American Historical Review, 153-157; history below secondary schools, 158-172; fun240. damentals in, I65. American History, time allowance, 28; discussion, 36, 38; Ancient History, time allowance, combination with English, 43; 28; as a field, 34, 39-41; importance, 35, 197; social, 4o; in grammar schools, 38; relaappreciation of, 48; Roman tions with England, 67; treatment of, 74-81; colonial, 74; Empire neglected, 54; relaindustrial, 74; military, 75; tions of Greece and Rome, 56; study of Orient, 54, 56; relainstitutional, 75; social and industrial, 75; economic, 76; tions with classics, 53, 127; Greek history, 56; Roman hismovement, 79; through intensive study, I I I, I 12; relation tory, 57; Livy, a good republican, 57; Augustus, 48, 57; with European, 170; in eighth importance, 126; in American grade, 170; not to be excluschools, 139, 140, 141; in fifth sive, 194; maps and atlases, grade, 169; in German schqols, 254. s - 257 258 Index I8o, I81; in French schools, Buildings, as sources, io8. 203; in English schools, 214, Bureau of Education, see Commission of Education. 218; maps and atlases, 249, 250. Burke, Edmund, masterpiece, 89, 90. Andrews, Alice, Teaching Modern History, 246; Work and Play in Girls' Schools, 246. ALVIN, John, place in history, Anglo-Saxon Period, less impor61. Canada, history in secondary tant, 70. Associations of Colleges and Preschools, 231-238; difficulties, paratory Schools, 5; proceed231 ; in universities, 232; ings, 239. Assyria, history of, 56. Athens, see Ancient History. Atlases, bibliography of, 248-255. See also Geography. educational system, 232; loy- alists, 233; history included, 233; programme, 234; training of teachers, 234-236; in- completeness of programme, 236; time allowance too small, 236; text-books inferior, 237; II. ALE, history in, S., Studies in improvement, 238. Barnes, Mary Historical MAethod, 242; Teach- Channing, Edward, Guide to the Study of American History, ing of Local History, 243. 239-241, 254; Students' HisBarnett, P. A., Teaching and tory of the United States, 245Organization, 247. Bernheim, Ernst, Lehrbuch der Charles, B.F., History Teaching in Schools, 247. hislorischen methode, 245. Bibliography, of the Teaching Chronological method in American schools, 140; in French of history, 239-247; of geo- B graphical works, 248-255. schools, 203. Biography, in fourth grade, 168, Church, history of, 35; central figure, 6o, 61; history, in Ger169. man schools, 189; relation with Books, use of, 25, 89, 91, 93. Canadian schools, 232, 233. See also Bibliography, ReadCircles, in German instruction, ing, Sources, Written Work. i8o-i85-. Botany, see Science. Browning, Oscar, Teaching of Circular of information, I37; History in Schools, 247. copy of, 150; sent out to Bryce, James, Teaching of Civic schools, 150-153; sent by Miss Salmon, 158. Duty, 244. Index Citizenship, through history, 1721, 122; study of European history, 36; religion in the common schools, 165.- See also Patriotism. Civil Government, preparation for citizenship, 18-21; as a field, 35; English institutions, 68-70; treatment, 81-85; importance, 81; topics, 82, 83; practical, 83; text-books, 84; intensive study, It 2; neglected in English schools, 224.- See also United States. Classics, correlation with history, 30, 53, 54; compared with history, 89, 125; in Germany, 185, 189.- See also Ancient History. Colbeck, C., Public Schools Historical Atlas, 252. Colleges, separate preparation for, in history, 142; actual requirements in history, 148; history in Canada, 232.- See also Entrance Requirements. Colleges, in France, 201. Colonies, development of English, 72; history, less important, 74.- See also America, United States. Commissioner of Education, statistics of historical pupils, i. Committee of Seven, how appointed, v, i19; methods of investigation, I-I 5; investigation by circular, 137; replies, 138; analysis of replies, 139- 259 15o; copy of circular, 15o153; examples of courses, 153I57; knowledge of schools, 149, 150; investigations in Germany, 173; investigations in France, 199; investigations in England, 210. Committee of Ten, on college courses, 142; Report on Secondary School Studies, 242. - See also Madison Conference. Concentric system, discussed, 604; in Germany, 18o-185. Constitution, see Civil Government. Continuity, of historical study, 27-33. Cookson, Christopher, Essays on Secondary Education, 247. Correlation of history, in Germany, I0o, II, 178; with clas- sics, 30; with modern languages, 30; with literature, 166.-See also Classics, Languages. Course of study, methods proposed, 27; time allowance, 27; four blocks, 34-43; history, 44-52; general specific treat- ment, 53-85; four years, 134; three years, 134; examples of actual, 153-157; variety of, 159; for lower schools, 168, 170o; German, 170o, 175, 180o; by legislatures, 177; French, 201l-206; English, 213, 219233; Canadian, 234, 236. 260 Index Crusaders, study of, 73. Curriculum, see Courses of Study. IndepenDECLARATION ofwith Engdence, relations land, 67. Discipline through history, I626, 29, 47; in German schools, 178. Documents, as sources, 105. Droysen, J. G., Outline of the Principles of History, 242; Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas, 25316EDUCATION, purpose of,16o; 26; in lower schools, in Germany, 177; in France, 200; in England, 218; in Canada, 230o. EducationalReview, articles on history, 239, 243, 244. Edward I., allusion to, 36. Egypt, history of, 56. England, historical methods in, 9, I12, 14; history teaching, 163; chaotic history teaching, 210, 220; private control, 210; public schools, 211 ; classrooms not visited, 212; classic side, 212; modern side, 213; university examinations, 213; programme, 214, 219-225; scholarships, 215, 216; pass and honor examinations, 217; field of history covered, 217; text-books, 218; succession of courses, 220, 221 ; scripture history, 221; European history, 221, 222; verse equivalent, 223; English history, 223; civil government included, 224; time allowance, 225 teachers little trained, 226; methods, 227, 229; text-books, 227; recitations, 227; laboratory method, 228; sources rare, 229 ; Bryce's opinion, 229; public impression, 230. English, study of, compared with history, 33, 39. English history, time allowance, 28; as a field, 35, 36; combination with European, 43; combination with American, 43; as a centre of modern history, 65, 66, 69; importance, 67; relation to the United States, 67; institutions, 68; treatment, 68; development, 69; Anglo-Saxon less important, 70; local institutions, 70; northern history, 71; imperial development, 72; empire, 72; relations with Europe, 73; feudalism, 73; economic and social, 8o; through intensive study, III, 112; in lower schools, 163 ; in seventh grade, 170o; when beginning, 194; in English schools, 211, 213, 218; examination subject in England, 214, 215; in England, 223; maps and atlases, 254. Index Entrance requirements to college, difficulty, iI9; purpose of this report, i19; for college pupils, 12o ; simplification, 122; unit, 122; with options, 123 ; with 121; importance, partial options, 123; with prescribed studies, 123; with fixed courses, 124; preparation for classical course, 125, 126; for Latin course, 127; for scientific course, 127; for English course, 128; general recommendations, 128; argument for a substantial course, 129; examinations, 130-134 ; separate preparatory course, 142, 152, college 193; New 261 130; remedy, 131; test of abilities, 132; command of extracts, 133; additional written work, 133; oral conferences, 134; courses in history recommended by the committee, 134-136. EDERATION, subject for intensive study, 112. Feudalism, English, 73. Field of history, see Courses. Foreign schools, see Canada, England, France, Germany. Four years' course, 34-43. Fox, George L., investigations in England, 9; Historyin English Secondary Schools, 210-230. York conference report, 148; France, historical methods in, 9, 12, I4; in medieval and modqueries on, 153; warped by ern history, 62, 64; patriotism classics, 196; in England, 213, through history, 16o; superior 215. history teaching, I63; report Epochs, in modern history, 62; on German schools, 174; relaepisodic method, 62. tion of history to classics, 199; Ethical value of history, 25. patriotism, 200; Lycees, 201; Europe, historical methods in, Colleges, 201; time allowance, 9-15; maps of, 248-254. 202; programme, 203; chronEuropean history, combination ological treatment, 204; comwith English, 43; in Ameriparison with German circles, can schools, 139, 141; neg204; routine spirit, 205; diclect in lower schools, 163; in tation system, 205, 206; illussixth grade, 170; relation with trations, 206; collateral readAmerican, 170, 171; in Gering, 206; appointment of man schools, 182; in English teachers, 207; training of schools, 220, 222-224.-- See teachers, 207; text-books, 208; also Medioeval, Modern. improvements, 209. Examinations, for entrance to college, 130, 131; difficulties, Freeman, E. A., Methods of Index 262 Historical Study, 242; Historical Geography of Europe, 253. French Revolution, appreciation of, 48. - See also France. G ARDINER, S. R., School Atlas of English History, 254. Garlick, A. H., New Manual of Method, 247. General history, discussion of, 4452; in American schools, 139141; query on, 152. - See also Courses. Geography, use of, 95, 96; in German schools, 19o; bibliography of maps and atlases, 248-255. Germany, historical methods in, 9-12, 14; patriotism through treatment, 187; time allowance, 188; correlation, 189; illustrations, 19o; story telling, 19o; text-book, 19o; assimilation, 191; centralization, 192; distinctive features, 192; lessons for Americans, 193; breadth of treatment, 194; preparation for universities, 196; double purpose, 197. Ginn, Classical Atlas, 250. Government, see Civil Government. Grades, history in, 158-172. Grammar School, history in, 38, 158-172. Greece, see Ancient History. Greek, correlation with history, 31, 39, 4o. history, 161; superior teaching, Gymnasia, Germany, history in, o10, 173-198. 163; information on schools, 173; programmes, 174; early reports on, 174; Gymnasia, 175; HAILEYBURY College, an English public school, 218, Real-gymnasia, 175; Ober219. real-schulen, 175; symmetric education, 175; influence of Hall, G. S., Methods of Teaching History, 243. Herbart, 176; expert influence, 177; German boy, 177; Hart, Albert Bushnell, Guide to American History, 239-241, no personal opinions, 178; 254; How to Teach History, correlation in, 179; object of history, 179; subject matter, 244; Studies in American Education, 244; Epoch Maps 180; three concentric circles, American History, illustrating I; 181 ; ancient history, 181 me255; Epochs of American Hisdieval history, 182; modern tory, 255. history, 182; second circle, 182; social and economic his- Haskins, Charles H., investigation in France, 9; History in tory, 183; patriotism, 184; French Lycies, 199-209. results, 185; psychological Index 263 Herbart, influence in Germany, Kiepert and Wolf, Historischer Schul-Atlas, 252. 176. High School, see American Schools, Courses. SABBERTON, R. H., Historical Atlas, 252. Hinsdale, B. A., How to Study and Teach History, 239-241. Laboratory work, see Sources. Historical-mindedness, habit of, Lange, Bilder zur Geschichte, 20. io8. Holidays, illustrations for history, Langlois, C. V., Manuel de Bibliograhie Historique,246. 165. Huling, R. G., History in Sec- Langlois, C. V., and Seignobos, Introduction to the Study of ondary Education, 244. History, 241, 299LLUSTRATIONS, as sources, Languages, compared with history, 33, 89. io8; in German schools, 19o; in French schools, 206. Lantern slides, as sources, 109; Industrial history, discussion, 74as historical illustrations, 248. Latin, correlation with history, 81. Information through history, 24, 31, 39, 40; relation with history, 127, 128. -See also 29, 49, 87, 88. Institutional history, time allowAncient History. Lavisse, Ernest, A frropos de nos ance, 28. .coles, 246. Intensive study, II I, 11 2. Investigation, compared with Lectures, in school, 206. laboratory work, 23; scientific Liberty, see Civil Government. habit, 23. - See also Sources. Library, for historical work, 25; for school work, 97-100oo; acIreland, history neglected, 7'. cessibility, 99; intelligent use, 99; proper selection, 99; in in AGER, Oskar, on history J English schools, 228. German schools, 183; Didaktik und methodik des Livy, ghost of, 54, 57. Longmans, Classical Atlas, 250. Geschichtsunterrichts,246. Judgment, training through his- Luther, place in history, 61. Lyc6es, French, 199-209. - See tory, 21-24. also France. H., Wandkarten zur alten Geschichte, 249; M AC COUN, T., Historical Atlas Antiquus, 250. SGeography ChartsofEurope, KIEPERT, 264 Index Middle Ages, see Medioeval. the United States, 255. Middle States, study of history Macdonald, J. W., Civics by in, 140, 141, 143, 145-147. the Parliamentary Method, Military history, discussion, 75. 244. Modern history, beginnings of, Mace, W. H., Method in History, 61; lack of concentration, 62; 243. studied through France, 62,64; Madison Conference, work of, recent, 63; studied through 2; suggestions by, 7; results England, 65; in German of, 86, 87; quotation from, schools, 182; in French 91; on intensive study, III, schools, 203; maps and atI 12; Report on History, 242. lases, 250, 253. Maps, see Geography. Modern languages, correlation Mathematics, compared with hiswith history, 30. tory, 88. Myths, in German instruction, Mediaeval and Modern European 18o. history, time allowance, 28; as a field, 34, 35; relation to AnATIONAL Educational Association, investigation of cient, 58; rise of Christianity, entrance requirements, 6, 119, 58; rise of Mohammedanism, 121; Proceedings,239. 58; treatment, 59-66; period covered, 59; in secondary New England, study of history in, 140-143, 146, 148, 149; schools, 60; characteristic features, 61; termination, 61; in a good course, 153-155. American schools, 14o; in sixth New England Association of Colgrade, 170; in German schools, leges and Preparatory Schools, 181, 182, 186; in French Report on Entrance Requireschools, 203; maps and atlases, ments, 244. 250, 253. New England History Teachers' Memorizing in history, 45. Association, 6, 239. Methods, general uniformity of, New York Conference, Report on Entrance Requirements, 7; discussion of, 86-ioo; means of, 87-89; in German 148. schools, 190-193; bibliogra- Note books, use of, 94; "inNew phy of, 239-247.-- See also York report, 148; criticism of, Courses, Reading, Recitations, 149. Text-books, Sources, Written Novels, illustrations of history, Work. 41. 250, 251; Historical Charts of N Index 265 re- Recitations, discussions of, 8698 ; written, 94 ; in German schools, Io; in French schools, Orient, history of, importance, 205; in English schools, 227. 54; survey of, 55; in German schools, 181, 189; in France, Reformation, history of, 35. Relief maps, 248, 251. 203. Order of courses, see Courses. Religion, in German schools, Outline maps, use of, 248. 189. Oxford, relations with English Renaissance, history of, 35. schools, 213, 214, 215. Revolution, American, relations with England, 67; importance, PARMENTIER, Albums His- 74, 75; subject for intensive toriques, io8. study, I I12; study of patriotism, 16I; study of, 165. Patriotism, as an object of history, 16o; in German schools, Rome, see Ancient History. 182. - See also Citizenship, Russell, J. E., History and Geography in the Higher Schools Civil Government. of Germany, 245; German Persia, history of, 50. Poole, R. L., Historical Atlas of Higher Schools, 245. Modern Europe, 253. Russia, history in, 14. Primary schools, history in, 158ALMON, Lucy, investigations 172. Programmes, see Course of Study. in Germany, 9; On the Study Prussia, see Germany. of History below the Secondary Psychology of historical study, Schools, 158-172; History in the German Gymnasia, 173I7 ; in German istruction, 198 ; Teaching of History, I187. Public schools, in England, 21I; 245; Woman and the Higher in America, see American Education, 245. Schools. Saxony, see Germany. Putzger, F. W., Historischer Scholarships, English, in history, OPTIONS, in quirements, entrance 123. S Schul-Atlas, 252. READING, collateral, 92; in America, 144; in New York report, 148; query on, 152; in French schools, 206; in English schools, 206. 215. Schrader, F., Atlas de Geographie Historique, 253. Science, comparison with history, 16, 20, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30, 32, 33, 39, 49, 50, 89, 97, 226. o103, 266 Index Scotland, history of, neglected, 7 1. Spruner-Sieglin, Atlds-Antiquus, Secondary Schools, see Ameri250. can Schools, Canada, England, States, history of, in lower schools, France, Germany. 164; in grammar grades, 167; Seemann, Kunsthistorische Bilhistory courses, 159; making derbogen, io8. of curricula, 161, 162, 176, Sequence of courses, 34-43; im177. portance of, 52. Stories, in lower schools, 166; in Smith, A. L., Teaching of Modthird grade, 168; in German ern History, 247. schools, 190. Social history, discussion, 74- Stubbs, Bishop, The Roots of the 81; study of, 195. Present, 84. Somervell, R., Modern History, Subjects, see Courses of Study. 247. Switzerland, historical methods Sources, caution, 45, 46; source, in, 9, 12; history in schools, method discussed, 45, 51, 100, 184. ioi; text-book necessary, 102; investigation disclaimed, 102; EACHERS, discipline of hiscomparison with science, 103; tory, I; value of training, 7; evidences of success, 8; personal interest, 103; vitalizing effect, 10 4 ; controversies trained foreign, 14; necessity avoided, 1o4; documents minfor training, 113, 147; diffiimized, 1o5; travels and meculty of history, 114; broad moirs, 105; literary value, io6; knowledge, 115; ability to use of topics,1 07; buildings and handle books, 15; sympathy, illustrations, io8; subject sum116; historical-mindedness, marized, lo9; in American 116; method of training, 117; schools, 146; query on, 152; queries on training, 153; in not used in French schools, German schools, 207; in 206; in English schools, 229. French schools, 207; in CaSparta, see Ancient History. nadian schools, 234. Spence, C. H., Teaching of Mod- Text-books, proper use of, 9goern History, 247. Spruner-Bretschneider, Historischer Wandatlas, 251. Spruner-Mencke, Handatlas zur Geschichte des Mittelalters und der neueren Zeit, 253. 92; more than one, 91; with sources, lo2; slavish use, 167; use in America, 143; in New York Report, 148; query on, 152; in lower schools, 166; in German schools, 191; in Index French schools, 206, 208; in English schools, 227; in Canadian schools, 237. 267 United States Land Office, map of, 255- University, see Colleges. Thompson, Anna B., Suggestions to Teachers, 245. Thwaites, R. G., Study of Local ALUE, of historical study, 16-26. History, 243. Time allowance, abroad, 14; WEBSTER, Daniel, masterpiece, 89, 90. defence of Committee's, 42; possible deviations, 43; in Wales, history neglected, 71. America, 142; in New York Wells, J., Teaching of History in Report, 148; query on, 152; Schools, 247in German schools, 188, 189; West, study of history in, 140, in France, 202, 203; in Eng141, 143, 146, 147, 149; a good western programme, 153, lish schools, 225, 226; in Canadian schools, 234, 236. 156. Topics, from sources, 107; in Weyer, J. I., Bibliography of the French schools, 205.- See also Study and Teaching of History, 239. Sources, Written Work. Training, through History, 49.Wigs,. historical significance, See also Teachers. 79. Training of teachers, in Canadian Withers, H. L., Ancient History, 247. schools, 234. Travels, as sources, 105. Written work, proper use, 93-95; for young pupils, 93; advanU NITED States, relations with tages, 93; written recitations, 94; notebooks, 94; in AmeriEngland, 67; history in can schools, 145; in New York lower schools, 162; in gramReport, 148; query on, 152. mar grades, 166, 167.- See Wrong, G. M., History in Canaalso American History. dian Secondary Schools, 231United States Geological Survey, List of Publications,254. 238. ' Decidedly the best one-volume American History yet published."' -American HistoricalReview. STUDENTS' HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. THE By EDWARD CHANNING, Professorof History in Harvard University, With Suggestions to Teachers By ANNA BOYNTON THOMPSON, Thayer Academy, South Braintree,Mass. 8vo. Half Leather. Price, $1.40 net. IIIPORTANT FEATURES. - Reproductions of Original Documents; Colored Maps; Excellent Illustrations; Accurate Copies of Well-known Portraits: Lists of Standard Works for Small Library, Good Library, Very Good Library; Suggestions to Teachers; a Perspective of United States History; List of Books for Consultation at the Beginning of Each Chapter; Suggestive Questions and Topics at the Close of Each Chapter; Table of Important Dates; Marginal Notes throughout. Professor A. A. Freeman, reviewing this work in The American Historical Review, says: "Decidedly the best one-volume American his. tory yet published. . . In the preface the author has explained that his purpose in the publication of this work is to provide a text-book suited to the needs of the senior class in high schools and academies. He believes that 'the serious study of American History more fitly follows than precedes other countries and belongs to the maturer years of school life.' The author assumes a considerable knowledge of American history on the part of pupils from the use of more elementary text-books in the lower grades. He accordingly omits all the stock stories and anecdotes which form so large a part of our elementary text-books. . . . It is full of suggestions for both teachers and pupils. Miss Anna Boynton Thompson, of Thayer Academy, has written a chapter entitled 'Suggestions to Teachers,' in which she has described her own method of teaching. These suggestions will be very helpful to the teacher if he accepts them as ' suggestions' and not as rules. S.. They should prove of peculiar value in preparing pupils for the new requirements for entrance to college. Especially valuable are the marginal references on every page to standard works which contain a fuller account of each topic. Each chapter is headed by a list of books, special accounts, sources and bibliography, maps and illustrative material. In the last are found the names of titles of books of American literature. Everything is done to stimulate and aid a more thorough investigation by the student. The introduction is a study of the land and its resources and shows the influence of geographical conditions in the development of the country . .. The author displays a judicial and impartial spirit in relation to all controverted questions. This is especially noticeable in the consideration of such topics as the administration of Andros in Massachusetts, the persecution of the Quakers at Boston, the effect of the English navigation laws, the character and treatment of the Loyalists, and the execution ofAndrd. . . . There is a gratifying absence of cheap illustrations. The volume contains many excellent portraits. The period since 1789 is treated by topics. The old arbitrary division by administrations is properly abandoned and is replaced by the following divisions: Federalist Supremacy, 1789-18oo; Jeffersonian Republicans, x8oi-Si&2; War and Peace, 1812-1829; The National Democracy, 1829-1844; Slavery in the Territories, 1844-1859; Secession, x86ox861: The Civil War, i86r-i865; National Development, 1863-1897." COMMENTS. J. M. Greenwood, Suft. of Schools, Kansas City, Mo.: "I have Just finished reading Channing's Students' History, and I closed it with the conviction that it is the best single-volume history of the Country that has yet been printed." Frederic A. Vogt, PrincialCentral High School, Bufalo, N. Y.: "It is a relief to see a history in which the military achievements give some space to the victories of peace and the growth of constitutional liberty. Mere incidents have been weeded out, and the essential whole has been preserved in a continuous story. There is a breadth of view and loftiness of exposition which is scientific and much more profitable than a mere string of dates and events. The schemes for study, the outlines for reading, and the suggestions to teachers ought to make the book very helpful." R. H. Bowles, Phillis Exeter Academy, Exeter, N.H.: "After examining the book carefully, I feel convinced that it is the best work of the kind that has ever been done, or perhaps it would be fairer to Mr. Channing to say that it is the only thing of the kind that has been done." Miss Mabel Hill, State Normal School, Lowell, Mass.: " In the publication of Professor Edward Channing's Students' History of the United States we have received a text-book of the first importance. Its spirited purpose, together with its philosophical point of view, sets it apart as peculiarly adapted for High School work, although its simple, strong style gives it a place in the school-rooms of the grammar grades as a reference reading book." Wallace E. Mason, Princihalof High School, Leominster, Mass. "In regard to the History by Channing, I want to say that it is the finest in plan and execution that I have ever seen." Arthur N. Burke, Princizal of Monson Academy, Monson, Mass.: "Channing's Students' History of the United States is certainly the best thing of its kind I have ever seen." A. C. Yeaton, Westbrook Seminary, Deering,Me.: "I am delighted with it, for it is just such a book as I have been searching for." Charles H. Keyes, Princ#alof High School, Holyoke, Mass.: "We have at last a text suited for High School use, and one that will help put the subject into the important place it ought to occupy in the curriculum of the secondary school. It is manifestly the work of one who is both an historian and a teacher, and it ought to meet with unprecedented success." : Miss Susan Osgood, Hikh School, Binghampton, N.Y. " I have examined it with care, and let me assure you, with ever increasing delight. It seems to me by far the strongest and in every way the best work of its kind that has yet appeared, and is exactly suited to our needs." Thomas M. Cann, School of the Lackawanna, Scranton, Pa.: "I am much pleased with the arrangement of the history. It is well adapted to the use of students in the higher classes." Reuben Post Halleck, Princial Male High School, Louisville, Ky.: "The statements are clear, definite, and interesting. The list of books for consultation is very wisely selected." John F. Haines, Sut. Schools, Noblesville, Ind.: "I can say most of enthusiastically that for clearness of statement and orderly arrangement I have never seen its equal." Albert A. Sanford, State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis.: "The Suggestive Questions and Topics are the best I have ever seen introduced isto a text. The maps showing movement of population are very useful." THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. 2 AMERICAN HISTORY TOLD BY CONTEMPORARIES. BY ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Harvard University. The Set of Four Volumes, $7.00. Each Volume sold separately, price $2.00. Vol. I. Era of Colonization, 1493-1689. Published 1897. Vol. II. Building of the Nation, 1689-1783. Published 1897. Vol. III. National Expansion, 1783-1844. In Preparation. Vol. IV. Welding of the Nation, 1845-1897. Zn Preparation. Professor T. H. WOOD, of Worcester Academy, Worcester, Mass., says of Vol. I.: "The plan and the contents are alike admirable. The set will be a necessity for libraries and for teachers of American History." THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. THE UNITED STATES. An Outline of Political History, 1492-1871. By GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L. Third Edition. With Map. Crown 8vo. $2.00. " His survey of events is luminous, his estimate of character is singularly keen and just, and his style is at once incisive, dignified, and scholarly. . . . No one who takes up Mr. Goldwin Smith's volume will readily lay it down before he has finished it; no one will lay it down without acknowledging the rare gifts of the writer." - The Times. "Is a literary masterpiece, as readable as a novel, remarkable for its compression without dryness, and its brilliancy without any rhetorical effort or display. What American could, with so broad a grasp and so perfect a style, have rehearsed our political history from Columbus to Grant in three hundred duodecimo pages of open type, or would have manifested greater candor in his judgment of men and events in a period of four centuries? It is enough to say that no one before Mr. Smith has attempted the feat, and that he has the field to himself." - The Nation. " It is a marvel of condensation and lucidity. In no other book is the same field covered so succinctly and so well. Of the five chapters, the first deals with the Colonial epoch, the second with the Revolutionary period, the third and fourth review the history of the Federal Government to the outbreak of the Civil War, and the fifth depicts the era of rupture and reconstruction. We have marked certain passages for extract; but the truth is that almost every page is enriched with striking comments that cause the reader to carefully reconsider, if not to change, his views of historical persons and events." - New York Sun. " To say that nothing comparable with this most instructive and enchanting volume has hitherto come from Professor Smith's pen, would, perhaps, be only anticipating the judgment of its readers." - Toronto Nail. " As a whole, has a comprehensiveness of view and a ready grasp of leading tendencies that should make it particularly useful to the busy man who desires a rapid survey of American political history. By deliberately neglecting details, Professor Smith has been able to fasten the attention upon salient points, and to concentrate interest around the career of the great leaders in our political development." - Boston Beacon. "No pen has ever been more eloquent than his in setting forth the merits of Washington, and Hamilton, and Webster, and Lincoln, and others of America's great citizens. The chapters on 'Democracy and Slavery' and ' Rupture and Reconstruction' deserve thoughtful perusal by every American, North and South." -Public Ogiinion. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. This book is a preservation facsimile produced for the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. It is made in compliance with copyright law and produced on acid-free archival 60# book weight paper which meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (permanence of paper). Preservation facsimile printing and binding by Northern Micrographics Brookhaven Bindery La Crosse, Wisconsin 2009