University of Virginia Library D21 .W44 1923 ALD KOMNLO iit X 00 444 bb. A short history of the world /ve ; i RE a I % Sooners Soe Pras (sea ee pace ee ve Peer aes oye Siar aeeeres onenessLIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA FROM THE BOOKS OF EMILY DINWIDDIE 1879-1949i i | i i 3 * a . = ee hie ee oe eeA SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLDq Mr. WELLS has also written the follow- ing novels: LOVE AND MR. LEWISHAM KIPPS MR. POLLY THE WHEELS OF CHANCE THE NEW MACHIAVELLI ANN VERONICA TONO BUNGAY MARRIAGE BEALBY THE PASSIONATE FRIENDS THE WIFE OF SIR ISAAC HARMON THE RESEARCH MAGNIFICENT MR. BRITLING SEES IT THROUGH THE SOUL OF A BISHOP JOAN AND PETER THE UNDYING FIRE q The following fantastic and imaginative romances: THE WAR OF THE WORLDS THE TIME MACHINE THE WONDERFUL VISIT THE ISLAND OF DR. MOREAU THE SEA LADY THE SLEEPER AWAKES THE FOOD OF THE GODS THE WAR IN THE AIR THE FIRST MEN IN THE MOON IN THE DAYS OF THE COMET THE WORLD SET FREE And numerous Short Stories now collected in ne Volume under the title of THE COUNTRY OF THE BLIND q A Series of books on Social, Religious, and Political questions: ANTICIPATIONS (1900) MANKIND IN THE MAKING FIRST AND LAST THINGS NEW WORLDS FOR OLD A MODERN UTOPIA THE FUTURE IN AMERICA AN ENGLISHMAN LOOKS AT THE WORLD . WHAT IS COMING? WAR AND THE FUTURE IN THE FOURTH YEAR GOD THE INVISIBLE KING THE OUTLINE OF HISTORY WASHINGTON AND THE RIDDLE OF PEACE q And two little books about children’s play, called FLOOR GAMES and LITTLE WARSA Short History of [he World BY H. G. WELLS ILLUSTRATED THE REVIEW OF REVIEWS CORPORATION PUBLISHERS NEW YORK 192% Published by arrangement with the Maemillan Company ALL RIGHTS RESERVEDPRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Copyricut, 1922, By H. G. WELLS. Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1922.PREFACE Tuts SuHort History or THE WoRLD is meant to be read straight- forwardly almost as a novel is read. It gives in the most general way an account of our present knowledge of history, shorn of elabora- tions and complications. It has been amply illustrated and every- thing has been done to make it vivid and clear. From it the reader should be able to get that general view of history which is so neces- sary a framework for the study of a particular period or the history of a particular country. It may be found useful as a preparatory excursion before the reading of the author’s much fuller and more explicit Outline of History is undertaken. But its especial end is to meet the needs of the busy general reader, too driven to study the maps and time charts of that Outline in detail, who wishes to refresh and repair his faded or fragmentary conceptions of the great adventure of mankind. It is not an abstract or condensation of that former work. Within its aim the Outline admits of no further condensation. This is a much more generalized History, planned and written afresh. H. G. WELLS.CHAPTER I Me VIE VII. VITI. IX. xe x1: XII. XIII. SIV. DV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XGT. SOT. XXIIT. XXIV. XXYV. XXVI. XXVII. CONTENTS THe WoRLD IN SPACE. ‘ : : i: Tue Wor.xp IN TIME : : : ‘ Tue BEGINNINGS OF LIFE : : Tue AGE oF FISHES Tue AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS Tue AcE or REPTILES Tue First Brrps AND THE First MAMMALS Tue AGE or MAMMALS Monxkrys, APES AND SUB-MEN Tur NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN Tue First Trur MEN PRIMITIVE THOUGHT Tue BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION PrimitivE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS SuMERIA, EARLY Ecypt AND WRITING PRIMITIVE NoMADIC PEOPLES Tue First SEA-GOING PEOPLES Ecyrt, BABYLON AND ASSYRIA Tue PrimitIvE ARYANS Tue Last BABYLONIAN EMPIRE AND THE EMPIRE OF Darius I Tue Earty History oF THE JEWS PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA THE GREEKS Tue Wars OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS Tue SPLENDOUR OF GREECE Tue Empire oF ALEXANDER THE GREAT Tue Museum AND LipraARy AT ALEXANDRIA vii 109 115 122 127 134 139 145 150viii XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XX XIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVIT. XXX VIII. XX XIX. XL. XLI. XLI. XLII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVITI. XLVIII. XLIX. L. LI. LI. LIII. LIV. LV. Contents Tue Lire or GAutaMA BuppDHA Kine AsoKa ConFucius AND Lao TsE ; , Rome Comes into History RoME AND CARTHAGE 5 Tue GrRowTH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE BETWEEN ROME AND CHINA Tue Common Man’s LIFE UNDER THE EARLY RoMAN EMPIRE : : Reticious DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE RoMAN EMPIRE Tue TEACHING OF JESUS : Tur DEVELOPMENT OF DocTRINAL CHRISTIANITY Tue BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO EAST AND WEsT Tue Huns AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE . Ture ByZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES Ture DyNAsTIES OF Suy AND TANG IN CHINA MuHAMMAD AND ISLAM Tue Great Days oF THE ARABS Tue DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM Tue CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF Papat DOMINION RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM Ture Moncot ConQuEstTs Tue INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS Tue REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH Tue Emprror CHARLES V THE oF GRAND Ace oF PouiticAL EXPERIMENTS; MonARCHY AND PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE Tur New Empires OF THE EvROPEANS IN ASIA AND OVERSEAS Tue AMERICAN War OF INDEPENDENCE . é : Tur FRENcH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MonarRcHY IN FRANCE ; : : : : PAGE 156 163 167 174 180 185 196 201 208 214 229 227 233 238 Q45 248 253 258 267 277 287 294 304 309 318 329 335 341CHAPTER Vik LVII. LVILII. LIX. LX. LXI. LXII. LXIII. LXIV. LXV. LXVI. LXVII. Contents Tur Uneasy PEACE IN EUROPE THAT FOLLOWED THE Fatt or NAPOLEON THe DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE Tue InpustTRIAL REVOLUTION THE DkrEvVELOPMENT OF MoprerRN POLITICAL AND SocraL IDEAS Tur EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES Tue Rise ofr GERMANY TO PREDOMINANCE IN EUROPE NEw RAILWAY. THE OvERSEAS EMPIRES OF STEAMSHIP AND EvuROPEAN AGGRESSION IN AsIA, AND THE RISE OF JAPAN Tue British EMPIRE IN 1914 Ture AGE or ARMAMENT IN EUROPE, AND THE GREAT War or 1914-18 THe REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN Russia THE PouiticAL AND SocIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE WoRLD CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE INDEX 1X PAGE 349 355 365 370 382 390 399 405 409 415 421 429 439Luminous Spiral Clouds of Matter : : Nebula seen Edge-on ; : : ; : The Great Spiral Nebula. : ; ; : A Dark Nebula ‘ ‘ : : Another Spiral Nebula : ; : Landscape before Life ; Marine Life in the Cambrian Period Fossil Trilobite , Early Paleozoic Fossils of various epee cies of neon Fossilized Footprints of a Labyrinthodont, Cheirotherium Pterichthys Milleri Fossil of Cladoselache : Sharks and Ganoids of the Devonian Pe riod A Carboniferous Swamp Skull of a Labyrinthodont, Capitosaurus Skeleton of a Labyrinthodont: The Eryops A Fossil Ichthyosaurus : : ; A Pterodactyl . : : ; : : The Diplodocus . : Fossil of Archeopteryx ; ; : : : Hesperornis in its Native Seas. : ; ; The Ki-wi : . : Slab of Marl Rich in Cainozoic Fossils ‘ : Titanotherium Robustum . : ; : ; Skeleton of Giraffe-camel Skeleton of Early Horse Comparative Sizes of Brains of mine eros acd Dinos eras A Mammoth Flint Implements from Biltdewn Revon : : : A Pithecanthropean Man . : : : : The Heidelberg Man . ; : ; : : : The Piltdown Skull . é : : : ° ; A Neanderthaler LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS c ~ a Mm ¢ ~} ~ ¢ OO c ~~ we e c aa ww WN QY ww 46 46 47xil List of Illustrations Europe and Western Asia 50,000 years ago . : . Map Comparison of Modern Skull and Rhodesian Skull Altamira Cave Paintings Later Paleolithic Carvings . Bust of Cro-magnon Man Later Paleolithic Art Relics of the Stone Age Gray’s Inn Lane Flint Implement Somaliland Flint Implement Neolithic Flint Implements Australian Spearheads Neolithic Pottery ; : ; ‘ Relationship of Human Races ‘ : , . Map A Maya Stele European Neolithic Warrior Babylonian Brick Egyptian Cylinder Seals of First Dy ety The Sakhara Pyramids The Pyramid of Cheops: Scene from Span The Temple of Hathor Pottery and Implements of the fake Dw eller TS A Lake Village Flint Knives of 4500 B.c. Egyptian Wall Paintings of Nomads Egyptian Peasants Going to Work Stele of Naram Sin The Treasure House at Myc cene . The Palace at Cnossos Temple at Abu Simbel Avenue of Sphinxes at Karnak . : : .° The Hypostyle Hall at Karnak Frieze of Slaves The Temple of Horus, E afi Archaic Amphora The Mound of Nippur : ; : : : Median and Chaldean Empires . : : ; : . Map The Empire of Darius : ; : : : . Map A Persian Monarch The Ruins of Persepolis The Great Porch of Xerxes 60 CO at = ~~ m SO © CO Cr C 82 COCO HOH DH SC Csr 2 OS Cr 89 93 95 97 98 99 101 103 105 107 110 tel 112 113The Land of the Hebrews Nebuchadnezzar’s Mound at Baby lon The Ishtar Gateway, Babylon Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II . Captive Princes making Obeisance Statue of Meleager Ruins of Temple of Zeus The Temple of Neptune, Pzestum Greek Ships on Ancient Pottery The Temple of Corinth The Temple of Neptune at Cape Sunium Frieze of the Parthenon, Athens . The Acropolis, Athens Theatre at Epidauros, Greece The Caryatides of the Erechtheum Athene of the Parthenon Alexander the Great Alexander’s Victory at Issus The Apollo Belvedere Aristotle Statuette of Maitreya The Death of Buddha Tibetan Buddha A Burmese Buddha The Dhamékh Tower, Sarnath A Chinese Buddhist Apostle The Court of Asoka Asoka Panel from Bharhut The Pillar of Lions (Asokan) Confucius The Great Wall of ¢ hana Early Chinese Bronze Bell . The Dying Gaul Ancient Roman Cisterns at Cc aethi ge Hannibal Roman Empire and its Alliances, 150 B.c. The Forum, Rome Ruined Coliseum in Tunis Roman Arch at Ctesiphon The Column of Trajan, Rome List of Illustrations Map Map 117 118 120 124 bp 128 130 132 135 137 138 140 14] 141 142 143 146 147 148 152 153 154 158 159 160 164 165 165 166 169 171 172 175 Lad 181 183 188 189 190 193xiv List of Illustrations PAGE Glazed Jar of Han Dynasty : ; : : : LG Vase of Han Dynasty ; : ‘ » Ios Chinese Vessel in Bronze. . : . al99 A Gladiator (contemporary representation) . ; : . , 202 A Street in Pompeii. ; ; : . 204 The Coliseum, Rome . : : : : 20G Interior of Coliseum . P : : : ; ; : AT Mithras Sacrificing a Bull . : ~ 20 Isis and Horus . ’ : . a0] Bust of Emperor Commodus ‘ : ; : : oe Zarly Portrait of Jesus Christ. ~ BIG Road from Nazareth to Tiberias . : ie David’s Tower and Wall of Jerusalem . ; : . S18 A Street in Jerusalem : : : é - AS The Peter and Paul Mosaic at Rome . : . 22S Baptism of Christ (Ivory Panel) . : : : = 8220 Roman Empire and the Barbarians : ; . Map 228 Constantine’s Pillar, Constantinople —. : : ; . 1229 The Obelisk of Theodosius, Constantinople . : : eal Head of Barbarian Chief. : : : ea The Church of 5. Sophia, Constantinople. : ‘ : 230 Roof-work in $ Sophia : : ; s . 240 Justinian and his Court : ‘ : : ; een The Rock-hewn Temple at Petra ‘ : : : one Chinese Earthenware of Tang Dynasty , : : : . 246 At Prayer in the Desert : : : 3250 Looking Across the Sea of Sand . : : ; aot Growth of Moslem Power . ; : ‘ . Map 254 The Moslem Empire . : ; . Map 54 The Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem ; : : .. 255 Cairo Mosques . : : : f 2D6 Frankish Dominions of Martel . : ; : ; . Map 260 Statue of Charlemagne ; : ; : : co eG? Europe at Death of Charlemagne : ‘ : 3 . Map 264 Crusader Tombs, Exeter Cathedral ‘ : ; ; : (4268 View of Cairo . : ‘ ; ; 2 . 269 The Horses of S. Mark, Venice . ‘ ; : ‘ F al Courtyard in the Alhambra : : ‘ : ~ 93 Milan Cathedral (showing spires) ‘ : : : = 28 A Typical Crusader . : : : : : -2 280List of Illustrations Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes) . The Empire of Jengis Khan : . Map Ottoman Empire before 1453 : : : . Map Tartar Horsemen : . Ottoman Empire, 1566 : : : . Map An Early Printing Press Ancient Bronze from Benin Negro Bronze-work : Early Sailing Ship (Italian Bey ing) Portrait of Martin Luther ; The Church Triumphant (Italian Ravolicn ore L 543) Charles V (the Titian Portrait) S. Peter’s, Rome: the High Altar Cromwell Dissolves the Long Parliament The Court at Versailles Sack of a Village, French Rev alution Central Europe after Peace of Westphalia, 1648 : : . Map European Territory in America, 1750. : . Map Europeans Tiger Hunting in India Fall of Tippoo Sultan George Washington The Battle of Bunker Hill : ; ‘ : The U.S.A., 1790 : ; : : , . Map The Trial of Louis X VI Execution of Marie Antoinette Portrait of Napoleon . Europe after the Congress of Vienna . . Map Early Rolling Stock, Liverpool and Manc Hester Rava Passenger Train in 1833 The Steamboat Clermont Eighteenth Century Spinning Wheel Arkwright’s Spinning Jenny An Early Weaving Machine An Incident of the Slave Trade Early Factory, in Colebrookdale . Carl Marx ' Electric Conveyor, in Goal Mine Constructional Detail, Forth Bridge American River Steamer. : Abraham Lincoln XV PAGE - 283-4 288 289 291 292 296 299 300 301 305 307 311 315 32] 3: 30) 331 332 337 338 339 344. 346 352 353 356 356 357 361 361 363 367 368 372 376 378 385 387Xvi List of Illustrations Europe, 1848-71 . Map Victoria Falls, Zambes! : : : The British Empire, 1815. : : : : . Map Japanese Soldier, Eighteenth Century . A Street in Tokio Overseas Empires of Europe, 1914 : ; : ‘ . Map Gibraltar . Street in Hong Kong . British Tank in Battle The Ruins of Ypres Modern War: War Entanglements A View in Petersburg under Bolshevik Rule . Passenger Aeroplane in Flight A Peaceful Garden in England PAGE 391° 395 397 401 403 406 407 408 410 411 412 418 423 426A SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLDSE Pe Tea TTA SHORT HISTORY OF THE WORLD I Tue WorLD IN SPACE HE story of our world is a story that is still very imperfectly known. A couple of hundred years ago men possessed the history of little more than the last three thousand years. What happened before that time was a matter of legend and specula- tion. Over a large part of the civilized world it was believed and taught that the world had been created suddenly in 4004 B.c., though authorities differed as to whether this had occurred in the spring or autumn of that year. This fantastically precise miscon- ception was based upon a too literal interpretation of the Hebrew Bible, and upon rather arbitrary theological assumptions connected therewith. Such ideas have long since been abandoned by religious teachers, and it is universally recognized that the universe in which we live has to all appearances existed for an enormous period of time and possibly for endless time. Of course there may be decep- tion in these appearances, as a room may be made to seem endless by putting mirrors facing each other at either end. But that the universe in which we live has existed only for six or seven thousand years may be regarded as an altogether exploded idea. The earth, as everybody knows nowadays, is a spheroid, a sphere slightly compressed, orange fashion, with a diameter of nearly 8.000 miles. Its spherical shape has been known at least to a limited number of intelligent people for nearly 2,500 years, but before that time it was supposed to be flat, and various ideas which now seem fantastic were entertained about its relations to the sky and the stars and planets. We know now that it rotates upon its I2 A Short History of the World axis (which is about 24 miles shorter than its equatorial diameter) every twenty-four hours, and that this is the cause of the alterna- tions of day and night, that it circles about the sun in a slightly distorted and slowly variable oval path in a year. Its distance from the sun varies between ninety-one and a half millions at its nearest and ninety-four and a half million miles. About the earth circles a smaller sphere, the moon, at an average Photo: G. W. Ritchey “LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER” (Nebula photographed 1910) distance of 239,- 000 miles. Earth and moon are not the only bodies to travel round the sun. There are the planets, Mercury and Venus, at dis- tances of thirty- six and sixty- seven millions of and_ be- yond the circle of the earth and disregarding a belt of numerous smaller bodies, the planetoids, there are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune at mean distances of 141, 483, 886, 1,782, and 1,793 millions of miles respectively. These figures in also miles;millions of miles are very difficult for the mind to grasp. It may help the reader's imagination — if we reduce the sun and planets to a smaller, more concelv- able scale. If, then,:.we represent our earth as a little ball of one inch diameter, the sun would be a big globe nine feet across and 323 yards away, that is about a fifth of a mile, four or five min- utes walking. The moon would be a smal] pea two feet and a half from the world. Between earth and sun there would be the two inner planets, Mer- The World in Space Photo: G. W. Ritchey THE NEBULA SEEN EDGE-ON Note the central core which, through millions of years, is cooling to solidity cury and Venus, at distances of one hundred and twenty-five and two hundred and fifty yards from the sun. All round and about these bodies there would be emptiness until you came to Mars, a hundred and seventy-five feet beyond the earth; Jupiter4 A Short History of the World nearly a mile away, a foot in diameter; Saturn, a little smaller, two miles off; Uranus four miles off and Neptune six miles off. Then nothingness and nothingness except for small particles and drifting scraps of attenuated vapour for thousands of miles. The nearest star to earth on this scale would be 40,000 miles away. These figures will serve perhaps to give one some conception of the immense emptiness of space in which the drama of life goes on. For in all this enormous vacancy of space we know certainly of life only upon the surface of our earth. It does not penetrate much more than three miles down into the 4,000 miles that separate us from the centre of our globe, and it does not reach more than five miles above its surface. Apparently all the limitlessness of space is otherwise empty and dead. The deepest ocean dredgings go down to five miles. The highest recorded flight of an aeroplane 1s little more than four miles. Men have reached to seven miles up in balloons, but at a cost of great suffering. No bird can fly so high as five miles, and small birds and insects which have been carried up by aeroplanes drop off insensible far below that level.II Tue Wor.tp IN TIME N the last fifty years there has been much very fine and interest- ing speculation on the part of scientific men upon the age and origin of our earth. Here we cannot pretend to give even a summary of such speculations because they involve the most subtle mathematical and physical considerations. The truth is that the physical and astronomical sciences are still too undeveloped as yet to make anything of the sort more than an illustrative guesswork. The general tendency has been to make the estimated age of our globe longer and longer. It now seems probable that the earth has had an independent existence as a spinning planet flying round and round the sun for a longer period than 2,000,000,000 years. It may have been much longer than that. This is a length of time that absolutely overpowers the imagination. Before that vast period of separate existence, the sun and earth and the other planets that circulate round the sun may have been a great swirl of diffused matter in space. The telescope reveals to us in various parts of the heavens luminous spiral clouds of matter, the spiral nebulz, which appear to be in rotation about a centre. It is supposed by many astronomers that the sun and its planets were once such a spiral, and that their matter has undergone con- centration into its present form. Through majestic ons that con- centration went on until in that vast remoteness of the past for which we have given figures, the world and its moon were distin- guishable. They were spinning then much faster than they are spinning now; they were at a lesser distance from the sun; they travelled round it very much faster, and they were probably incan- descent or molten at the surface. The sun itself was a much greater blaze in the heavens.“SETI EE PE Ge Re ae ee A Short History of the World If we could go back through that infinitude of time and see the earth in this earlier stage of its history, we should behold a scene more like the interior of a blast furnace or the surface of a lava flow before it cools and cakes over than any other contemporary scene. Photo: G. W. Ritchey THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA No water would be visible because all the water there was would still be superheated steam in a stormy atmosphere of sulphurous and metallic vapours. Beneath this would swirl and boil an ocean of molten rock substance. Across a sky of fiery clouds the glare of the hurrying sun and moon would sweep swiftly like hot breaths of flame. oe Slowly by degrees as one million of years followed another, thisA DARK NEBULA Taken in 1920 with the aid of the largest telescope in the world. One of the first photographs taken by the Mount Wilson telescope There are dark nebulz and bright nebule. Prof. Henry Norris Russell, against the British theory, holds that the dark nebulz preceded the bright nebulve 7Sa Te Ma aT SAE la PE ARN NB Sag aA ARR AN RE ca SR NS SE ah ES 8 A Short History of the World : fiery scene would lose its eruptive incandescence. The vapours in o the sky would rain down and become less dense overhead; great | slaggy cakes of solidifying rock would appear upon the surface of the molten sea, and sink under it, to be replaced by other floating masses. The sun and moon growing now each more distant and each smaller, would rush with diminishing swiftness across the heavens. The moon now, because of its smaller size, would be already cooled far below incandescence, and would be alternately obstructing and reflecting the sunlight in a series of eclipses and full moons. And so with a tremendous slowness through the vastness of time, the earth would grow more and more like the earth on which we live, until at last an age would come when, in the cooling air, steam would begin to condense into clouds, and the first rain would fall hissing upon the first rocks below. For endless millenia the greater part of the earth’s water would still be vaporized in the atmosphere, but there would now be hot streams running over the crystallizing Photo: G. W. Ritchey ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULAThe World in Time iets. - os fs _ se pe er ve. * oe : s aa . L——— = Te. er LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE “Great lava-like masses of rock without traces of soil” rocks below and pools and lakes into which these streams would be carrying detritus and depositing sediment. At last a condition of things must have man might have stood up on earth and looked about him and lived. If we could have visited the earth at that time we should have stood on great lava-like masses of rock without a trace of soil a storm-rent sky. Hot and or touch of living vegetation, under violent winds, exceeding the fiercest tornado that ever blows, and downpours of rain such as our milder, slower earth to-day knows nothing of, might have assailed us. The water of the downpour would have rushed by us, muddy with the spoils of the rocks, coming together into torrents, cutting deep gorges and canyons as they hurried past to deposit their sediment in the earliest seas. Through the clouds we should have glimpsed a great sun moving visibly across the sky, and in ‘ts wake and in the wake of the moon would have come a diurnal tide of earthquake and upheaval. And been attained in which amS PUN AAR eg GAR ee NP ga a a ok ee oe er aed 10 A Short History of the World the moon, which nowadays keeps one constant face to earth, would then have been rotating visibly and showing the side it now hides so inexorably. The earth aged. One million years followed another, and the day lengthened, the sun grew more distant and milder, the moon’s pace in the sky slackened; the intensity of rain and storm dimin- ‘shed and the water in the first seas increased and ran together into the ocean garment our planet henceforth wore. But there was no life as yet upon the earth; the seas were life- less, and the rocks were barren.III THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE S everybody knows nowadays, the knowledge we possess of life before the beginnings of human memory and tradition is derived from the markings and fossils of living things in the stratified rocks. We find preserved in shale and slate, lime- stone, and sandstone, bones, shells, fibres, stems, fruits, footmarks, scratchings and the like, side by side with the ripple marks of the earliest tides and the pittings of the earliest rain-falls. It is by the sedulous examination of this Record of the Rocks that the past history of the earth’s life has been pieced together. That much nearly everybody knows to-day. The sedimentary rocks do not lie neatly stratum above stratum; they have been crumpled, bent, thrust about, distorted and mixed together like the leaves of a library that has been repeatedly looted and burnt, and it is only as a result of many devoted lifetimes of work that the record has been put into order and read. The whole compass of time represented by the record of the rocks is now estimated as 1,600,000,000 years. The earliest rocks in the record are called by geologists the Azoic rocks, because they show no traces of life. Great areas of these Azoic rocks lie uncovered in North America, and they are of such a thickness that geologists consider that they represent a period of at least half of the 1,600,000,000 which they assign to the whole geological record. Let me repeat this profoundly significant fact. Half the great interval of time since land and sea were first distinguishable on earth has left us no traces of life. There are ripplings and rain marks still to be found in these rocks, but no marks nor vestiges of any living thing. Then, as we come up the record, signs of past life appear and in- crease. The age of the world’s history in which we find these past VEEVO LL ES LS str APASAIFG c i “ MARINE LIFE IN THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD 1 and 8, Jellyfishes; 2, Hyolithes (swimming snail); 3, Hymenocaris; 4, Proto- spongia; 5, Lampshells (Obolella); 6, Orthoceras; 7, Trilobite (Paradoxides) — see fossil on page 13; 9, Coral (Archeocyathus); 10, Bryograptus; 11, Tri- lobite (Olenellus); 12, PalesterinaThe Beginnings of Life 13 traces is called by geologists the Lower Palzeozoic age. The first indications that life was astir are vestiges of comparatively simple and lowly things: the shells of small shellfish, the stems and flower- like heads of zoophytes, seaweeds and the tracks and remains of sea worms and crustacea. Very early appear certain creatures rather like plant-lice, crawling creatures which could roll themselves up into balls as the plant-lice do, the trilobites. Later by a few million years or so come certain sea scorpions, more mobile and powerful creatures than the world had ever seen before. None of these creatures were of very great size. Among the largest were certain of the sea scorpions, which measured nine feet in length. There are no signs whatever of land life of any sort, plant or animal; there are no fishes nor any vertebrated creatures in this part of the record. Essentially all the plants and creatures S Ree tT Saka CU ETENPTESS: which have left us their traces FOSSIL TRILOBITE (SLIGHTLY from this period of the earth’s BS eae history are shallow-water and intertidal beings. If we wished to parallel the flora and fauna of the Lower Paleozoic rocks on the earth to-day, we should do it best, except in the matter of size, by taking a drop of water from a rock pool or scummy ditch and ex- amining it under a microscope. The little crustacea, the small shellfish, the zoophytes and alge we should find there would display a quite striking resemblance to these clumsier, larger prototypes that once were the crown of life upon our planet. It is well, however, to bear in mind that the Lower Palzeozoic rocks probably do not give us anything at all representative of the first beginnings of life on our planet. Unless a creature has bones : PGES oe ee aie r ee Sys a a[4 A Short History of the World | or other hard parts, unless it wears a shell or is big enough and heavy enough to make characteristic footprints and trails in mud, it is unlikely to leave any fossilized traces of its existence behind. To-day there are hundreds of thousands of species of small soft- bodied creatures in our world which it is inconceivable can ever EARLY PALZOZOIC FOSSILS OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF LINGULA Species of this most ancient genus of shellfish still live to-day (In Natural History Museum, London) leave any mark for future geologists to discover. In the world’s past, millions of millions of species of such creatures may have lived and multiplied and flourished and passed away without a trace remaining. The waters of the warm and shallow lakes and seas of the so-called Azoic period may have teemed with an infinite varietyThe Beginnings of Life Te a ~ - ye een a en — oe — Victeek' ‘Pn are Thy : - PIT ees FOSSILIZED FOOTPRINTS OF A LABYRINTHODONT CHEIROTHERIUM In Natural History Museum, Lond of lowly, jelly-like, shell-less and boneless creatures, and a multi- tude of green scummy plants may have spread over the sunlit inter- tidal rocks and beaches. The Record of the Rocks is no more a complete record of life in the past than the books of a bank are a record of the existence of everybody in the neighbourhood. It is only when a species begins to secrete a shell or a spicule or a cara- pace or a lime-supported stem, and so put by something for the future, that it goes upon the Record. But in rocks of an age prior to those which bear any fossil traces, graphite, a form of uncom- bined carbon, is sometimes found, and some authorities consider that it may have been separated out from combination through the vital activities of unknown living things.IV Tue AGE oF FISHES N the days when the world was supposed to have endured for only a few thousand years, it was supposed that the different species of plants and animals were fixed and final; they had all been created exactly as they are to-day, each species by itself. But as men began to discover and study the Record of the Rocks this belief gave place to the suspicion that many species had changed and developed slowly through the course of ages, and this again expanded into a belief in what is called Organic Evolution, a belief that all species of life upon earth, animal and vegetable alike, are descended by slow continuous processes of change from some very simple ancestral form of life, some almost structureless living sub- stance, far back in the so-called Azoic seas. This question of Organic Evolution, like the question of the age of the earth, has in the past been the subject of much bitter con- troversy. ‘There was a time when a belief in organic evolution was for rather obscure reasons supposed to be incompatible with sound Christian, Jewish and Moslem doctrine. That time has passed, and the men of the most orthodox Catholic, Protestant, Jewish and Mohammedan belief are now free to accept this newer and broader view of a common origin of all living things. No life seems to have happened suddenly upon earth. Life grew and grows. Age by age through gulfs of time at which imagination reels, life has been growing from a mere stirring in the intertidal slime towards free- dom, power and consciousness. Life consists of individuals. These individuals are definite things, they are not like the lumps and masses, nor even the limit- less and motionless crystals, of non-living matter, and they have two characteristics no dead matter possesses. They can assimilate other matter into themselves and make it part of themselves, and 16The Age of Fishes 17 they can reproduce themselves. They eat and they breed. They can give rise to other individuals, for the most part like themselves, but always also a little different from themselves. There is a spe- cific and family resemblance be- tween an individual and its off- spring, and there is an individual difference between every parent and every offspring it produces, and this is true in every species and at every stage of life. Now scientific men are not able to explain to us either why off- spring should resemble nor why they should differ from their par- ents. But seeing that offspring do at once resemble and differ, it is a matter rather of common sense than of scientific knowledge that, if the conditions under which a species live are changed, the species should undergo some correlated changes. Because in any genera- tion of the species there must be a number of individuals whose indi- vidual differences make them better adapted to the new conditions under which the species has to live, and a number whose individ- ual differences make it rather harder for them to live. And on the whole the former sort will live longer, bear more offspring, and reproduce themselves more abun- dantly than the latter, and so SPECIMEN OF THE PTERICHTHYS MILLERI OR SEA SCORPION SHOW- ING BODY ARMOUR generation by generation the average of the species will change 1n the favourable direction. This pr Selection, is not so much a scientific theory as a necessary deduc- ocess, which is called Natural18 A Short History of the World tion from the facts of reproduction and individual difference. There may be many forces at work varying, destroying and preserving species, about which science may still be unaware or undecided, but the man who can deny the operation of this process of natural selection upon life since its beginning must be either ignorant of the elementary facts of life or incapable of ordinary thought. Many scientific men have speculated about the first beginning of life and their speculations are often of great interest, but there 1s absolutely no definite knowledge and no convincing guess yet of the way in which life began. But nearly all authorities are agreed that it probably began upon mud or sand in warm sunlit shallow brackish water, and that it spread up the beaches to the intertidal lines and out to the open waters. That early world was a world of strong tides and currents. An incessant destruc- tion of individuals must have been going on through their being swept up the beaches and dried, or by their being swept out to sea and sinking down out of reach of airand sun. Early conditions favoured the development of every tendency to root 7 and hold on, every tendency to form an Nat. Hist. Mus. . . BROIL ITICresnNOnnTCuLce skin and casing to protect the A DEVONIAN SHARK stranded individual from immediate desic- cation. From the very earliest any ten- dency to sensitiveness to taste would turn the individual in the direction of food, and any sensitiveness to light would assist it to struggle back out of the darkness of the sea deeps and caverns or to wriggle back out of the excessive glare of the dangerous shallows. Probably the first shells and body armour of living things were protections against drying rather than against active enemies. But tooth and claw come early into our earthly history. We have already noted the size of the earlier water scorpions. For long ages such creatures were the supreme lords of life. ThenThe Age of Fishes 19 in a division of these Paleozoic rocks called the Silurian division, which many geologists now suppose to be as old as five hundred million years, there appears a new type of being, equipped with eyes and teeth and swimming powers of an altogether more powerful — ae By Alice Woodu ard SHARKS AND GANOIDS OF THE DEVONIAN PERLOD kind. These were the first known backboned animals, the sarliest fishes. the first known Vertebrata. atly in the next division of rocks, the These fishes increase gre They are so prevalent that rocks known as the Devonian system. this period of the Record of the Rocks has been called the Age of20 A Short History of the World Fishes. Fishes of a pattern now gone from the earth, and fishes allied to the sharks and sturgeons of to-day, rushed through the waters, leapt in the air, browsed among the seaweeds, pursued and preyed upon one another, and gave a new liveliness to the waters of the world. None of these were excessively big by our present stand- ards.. Few of them were more than two or three feet long, but there were exceptional forms which were as long as twenty feet. We know nothing from geology of the ancestors of these fishes. They do not appear to be related to any of the forms that preceded them. Zoologists have the most interesting views of their ancestry, but these they derive from the study of the development of the eggs of their still living relations, and from other sources. Apparently the ancestors of the vertebrata were soft-bodied and perhaps quite small swimming creatures who began first to develop hard parts as teeth round and about their mouths. The teeth of a skate or dog- fish cover the roof and floor of its mouth and pass at the lip into the flattened toothlike scales that encase most of its body. As the fishes develop these teeth scales in the geological record, they swim out of the hidden darkness of the past into the light, the first verte- brated animals visible in the record.V Tur AGE OF THE COAL SWAMPS HE land during this Age of Fishes was apparently quite lifeless. Crags and uplands of barren rock lay under the sun and rain. There was no real soil—for as yet there were no earthworms which help to make a soil, and no plants to break up the rock particles into mould; there was no trace of moss or lichen. Life was still only in the sea. Over this world of barren rock played great changes of climate. The causes of these changes of climate were very complex and they have still to be properly estimated. The changing shape of the earth’s orbit, the gradual shifting of the poles of rotation, changes in the shapes of the continents, probably even fluctuations in the warmth of the sun, now conspired to plunge great areas of the earth’s surface into long periods of cold and ice and now again for millions of years spread a warm or equable climate over this planet. There seem to have been phases of great internal activity in the world’s history, when in the course of a few million years accumu- lated upthrusts would break out in lines of volcanic eruption and upheaval and rearrange the mountain and continental outlines of the globe, increasing the depth of the sea and the height of the mountains and exaggerating the extremes of climate. And these would be followed by vast ages of comparative quiescence, when frost, rain and river would wear down the mountain heights and carry great masses of silt to fill and raise the sea bottoms and spread the seas, ever shallower and wider, over more and more of the land. There have been “high and deep” ages in the world’s history and “low and level” ages. The reader must dismiss from his mind any idea that the surface of the earth has been growing steadily cooler since its crust grew solid. After that much cooling had been achieved, the internal temperature ceased to affect sur- 2X22 A Short History of the World face conditions. There are traces of periods of superabundant ice and snow, of “‘Glacial Ages,” that is, even in the Azoic period. It was only towards the close of the Age of Fishes, in a period of extensive shallow seas and lagoons, that life spread itself out in any effectual way from the waters on to the land. No doubt A CARBONIFEROUS SWAMP A Coal Seam in the Making the earlier types of the forms that now begin to appear in great abundance had already been developing in a rare and obscure manner for many scores of millions of years. But now came their opportunity. Plants no doubt preceded animal forms in this invasion of the land, but the animals probably followed up the plant emigrationThe Age of the Coal Swamps very closely. The first problem that the plant had to solve was the problem of some sustaining stiff support to hold up its fronds to the sunlight when the buoyant water was withdrawn; the second was the problem of getting water from the swampy ground below to the tissues of the plant, now that it was no longer close at hand. The two problems were solved by the development of woody tissue which both sustained the plant and acted as water carrier to the leaves. The Record of the Rocks is suddenly crowded by a vast variety of woody swamp plants, many of them of great size, big tree mosses, tree ferns, gigantic horsetails and the like. And with these, age by age, there crawled out of the water a great variety of animal forms. There were centipedes and milli- pedes; there were the first primitive insects; there were creatures related to the ancient king crabs and — Nat, Hist, Mus sea scorpions which _ be- ae Oe eon aeene came the earliest spiders and land scorpions, and presently there were vertebrated animals. Some of the earlier insects were very large. There were dragon flies in this period with wings that spread out to twenty-nine inches. In various ways these new orders and genera had adapted themselves to breathing air. Hitherto all animals had breathed air dissolved in water, and that indeed is what all animals still have to do. But now in divers fashions the animal kingdom was acquiring the power of supplying its own moisture where it was needed. A man with a perfectly dry lung would suffocate to-day;24 A Short History of the World his lung surfaces must be moist in order that air may pass through them into his blood. The adaptation to air breathing consists in all cases either in the development of a cover to the old-fashioned gills to stop evaporation, or in the development of tubes or other new breathing organs lying deep inside the body and moistened by a watery secretion. The old gills with which the ancestral fish of the vertebrated line had breathed were inadaptable to breathing upon land, and in the case of this division of the animal kingdom it is the swimming bladder of the fish which becomes a new, deep- seated breathing organ, the lung. The kind of animals known as amphibia, the frogs and newts of to-day, begin their lives in the Cyt g Bh Syne wes oro apis s Nat. Hist. Mus. ETT das Sr SKELETON OF A LABYRINTHODONT: THE ERYOPS water and breathe by gills; and subsequently the lung, develop- ing In the same way as the swimming bladder of many fishes do, as a baglike outgrowth from the throat, takes over the business of breathing, the animal comes out on land, and the gills dwindle and the gill slits disappear. (AIl except an outgrowth of one gill slit, which becomes the passage of the ear and ear-drum.) The animal can now live only in the air, but it must return at least to the edge of the water to lay its eggs and reproduce its kind. All the air-breathing vertebrata of this age of swamps and piants belonged to the class amphibia. They were nearly all of them forms related to the newts of to-day, and some of them at- tained a considerable size. They were land animals, it is true, but they were land animals needing to live in and near moist and swampy places, and all the great trees of this period were equallyThe Age of the Coai Swamps 26 amphibious in their habits. None of them had yet developed fruits and seeds of a kind that could fall on land and develop with the help only of such moisture as dew and rain could bring. They all had to shed their spores in water, it would seem, if they were to germinate. It is one of the most beautiful interests of that beautiful sci- ence, comparative anatomy, to trace the complex and wonderful adaptations of living things to the necessities of existence in air. All living things, plants and animals alike, are primarily water things. For example all the higher vertebrated animals above the fishes, up to and including man, pass through a stage in their de- velopment in the egg or before birth in which they have gill slits which are obliterated before the young emerge. The bare, water- washed eye of the fish is protected in the higher forms from drying up by eyelids and glands which secrete moisture. The weaker sound vibrations of air necessitate an ear-drum. In nearly every organ of the body similar modifications and adaptations are to be detected, similar patchings-up to meet aerial conditions. This Carboniferous age, this age of the amphibia, was an age of life in the swamps and lagoons and on the low banks among these waters. Thus far life had now extended. The hills and high lands were still quite barren and lifeless. Life had learnt to breathe air indeed, but it still had its roots in its native water; it still had to return to the water to reproduce its kind.RD Nn OT ea ee VI Ture AGE or REPTILES HE abundant life of the Carboniferous period was succeeded by a vast cycle of dry and bitter ages. ‘They are represented in the Record of the Rocks by thick deposits of sandstones and the like, in which fossils are comparatively few. ‘The tempera- ture of the world fluctuated widely, and there were long periods of glacial cold. Over great areas the former profusion of swamp vege- tation ceased, and, overlaid by these newer deposits, it began that process of compression and mineralization that gave the world most of the coal deposits of to-day. But it is during periods of change that life undergoes its most rapid modifications, and under hardship that it learns its hardest lessons. As conditions revert towards warmth and moisture again we find a new series of animal and plant forms established. We find in the record the remains of vertebrated animals that laid eggs which, instead of hatching out tadpoles which needed to live for a time in water, carried on their development before hatching to a stage so nearly like the adult form that the young could live in air from the first moment of independent existence. Gulls had been cut out altogether, and the gill slits only appeared as an embryonic phase. These new creatures without a tadpole stage were the Reptiles. Concurrently there had been a development of seed-bearing trees, which could spread their seed, independently of swamp or lakes. There were now palmlike cycads and many tropical conifers, though as yet there were no flowering plants and no grasses. There was a great number of ferns. And there was now also an increased variety of insects. There were beetles, though bees and butterflies had yet to come. But all the fundamental forms of a new real land fauna and flora had been laid down during these vast ages of severity. 20The Age of Reptiles 27 This new land life needed only the opportunity of favourable con- ditions to flourish and prevail. Age by age and with abundant fluctuations that mitigation came. The still incalculable movements of the earth’s crust, the changes in its orbit, the increase and diminution of the mutual inclination of orbit and pole, worked together to produce a great spell of widely diffused warm conditions. The period lasted altogether, it is now supposed, upwards of two hundred million years. It is called the Nat. Hist. Mus. A FOSSIL ICHTHYOSAURUS, A MESOZOIC FISH-LIZARD Found in the Lower Lias in Somersetshire Mesozoic period, to distinguish it from the altogether vaster Palzo- zoic and Azoic periods (together fourteen hundred millions) that preceded it, and from the Cainozoic or new life period that inter- vened between its close and the present time, and it is also called the Age of Reptiles because of the astonishing predominance and variety of this form of life. It came to an end some eighty million years ago. In the world to-day the genera of Reptiles are comparatively few and their distribution is very limited. ‘They are more various, it is true, than are the few surviving members of the order of the amphibia which once in the Carboniferous period ruled the world. We still have the snakes, the turtles and tortoises (the Chelonia),28 A Short History of the World the alligators and crocodiles, and the lizards. Without exception they are creatures requiring warmth all the year round; they cannot stand exposure to cold, and it is probable that all the reptilian beings of the Mesozoic suffered under the same limitation. It was a hot- house fauna, living amidst a hothouse flora. It endured no frosts. But the world had at least attained a real dry land fauna and flora as distinguished from the mud and swamp fauna and flora of the previous heyday of life upon earth. All the sorts of reptile we know now were much more abundantly represented then, great turtles and tortoises, big crocodiles and many lizards and snakes, but in addition there was a number of series of "Nat. Hist. Mus. A PTERODACTYL wonderful creatures that have now vanished altogether from the earth. ‘There was a vast variety of beings called the Dinosaurs. Vegetation was now spreading over the lower levels of the world, reeds, brakes of fern and the like; and browsing upon this abun- dance came a multitude of herbivorous reptiles, which increased in size as the Mesozoic period rose to its climax. Some of these beasts exceeded in size any other land animals that have ever lived; they were as large as whales. The Dvzplodocus Carnegu for example measured eighty-four feet from snout to tail; the Gigantosaurus was even greater; it measured a hundred feet. Living upon these monsters was a swarm of carnivorous Dinosaurs of a corresponding size. One of these, the Tyrannosaurus, is figured and described in many books as the last word in reptilian frightfulness.The Age of Reptiles eS ak EE Nat. Hist. Mus A BIG SWAMP-INHABITING DINOSAUR, THE DIPLODOCUS, OVER EIGHTY FEET FROM SNOUT TO TAIL-TIP While these great creatures pastured and pursued amidst the fronds and evergreens of the Mesozoic jungles, another now van- ished tribe of reptiles, with a bat-like development of the fore limbs, pursued insects and one another, first leapt and parachuted and presently flew amidst the fronds and branches of the forest trees. These were the Pterodactyls. These were the first flying creatures with backbones; they mark a new achievement in the growing powers of vertebrated life. Moreover some of the reptiles were returning to the sea waters. Three groups of big swimming beings had invaded the sea from which their ancestors had come: the Mososaurs, the Plesiosaurs, and Ichthyosaurs. Some of these again approached the propor- tions of our present whales. The Ichthyosaurs seem to have been quite seagoing creatures, but the Plesiosaurs were a type of animal that has no cognate form to-day. The body was stout and big with paddles, adapted either for swimming or crawling through marshes, or along the bottom of shallow waters. The comparatively small30 A Short History of the World head was poised on a vast snake of neck, altogether outdoing the neck of the swan. Either the Plesiosaur swam and searched for food under the water and fed as the swan will do, or it lurked under water and snatched at passing fish or beast. Such was the predominant land life throughout the Mesozoic age. It was by our human standards an advance upon anything that had preceded it. It had produced land animals greater in size, range, power and activity, more “vital” as people say, than anything the world had seen before. In the seas there had been no such advance but a great proliferation of new forms of life. An enormous variety of squid-like creatures with chambered shells, for the most part coiled, had appeared in the shallow seas, the Ammonites. They had had predecessors in the Paleozoic seas, but now was their age of glory. To-day they have left no survivors at all; their nearest relation is the pearly Nautilus, an inhabitant of tropical waters. And a new and more prolific type of fish with lighter, finer scales than the plate-like and tooth-like coverings that had hitherto pre- vailed, became and has since remained predominant in the seas and rivers.VII Tue First Brrps AND THE First MAMMALS N a few paragraphs a picture of the lush vegetation and swarming reptiles of that first great summer of life, the Mesozoic period, has been sketched. But while the Dinosaurs lorded it over the hot selvas and marshy plains and the Pterodactyls filled the for- ests with their flutterings and possibly with shrieks and croakings as they pursued the humming insect life of the still flowerless shrubs and trees, some less conspicuous and less abundant forms upon the margins of this abounding life were acquiring certain powers and learning certain lessons of endurance, that were to be of the utmost value to their race when at last the smiling generos- ity of sun and earth began to fade. A group of tribes and genera of hopping reptiles, small creatures of the dinosaur type, seem to have been pushed by competition and the pursuit of their enemies towards the alternatives of ex- tinction or adaptation to colder conditions in the higher hills or by the sea. Among these distressed tribes there was developed a new type of scale — scales that were elongated into quill-like forms and that presently branched into the crude beginnings of feathers. These quill-like scales lay over one another and formed a heat- retaining covering more efficient than any reptilian covering that had hitherto existed. So they permitted an invasion of colder re- gions that were otherwise uninhabited. Perhaps simultaneously with these changes there arose in these creatures a greater solici- tude for their eggs. Most reptiles are apparently quite careless about their eggs, which are left for sun and season to hatch. But some of the varieties upon this new branch of the tree of life were acquiring a habit of guarding their eggs and keeping them warm with the warmth of their bodies. With these adaptations to cold other internal modifications jt32 A Short History of the World were going on that made these crea- tures, the primitive birds, warm-blooded and independent of basking. The very earliest birds seem to have been sea- birds living upon fish, and their fore limbs were not wings but paddles rather after the penguin type. Phat pe- culiarly primitive bird, the New Zea- land Ki-wi, has feathers of a very simple sort, and neither flies nor ap- pears to be de- scended from flying ancestors. In the development of the birds, feathers came before wings. But once the feather was devel- oped the possibility of making a light spread of feathers led inevi- tably to the wing. We know of the fossil remains of one bird at least which had reptilian teeth in its jaw and a long reptilian tail, but which also had a true bird’s wing and which certainly flew and held its own among the pterodactyls of the Mesozoic time. Nevertheless birds were neither varied nor abundant in Mesozoic times. If a man could go back to typical Mesozoic country, he might walk for days and never see or hear such a thing as a bird, though he would see a great abundance of pterodactyls and insects among the fronds and reeds. And another thing he would probably never see, and that would be any sign of a mammal. Probably the first mammals were in Sete ie Nat. Hist. Mus. FOSSIL OF THE ARCHEOPTERYX; ONE OF THE EARLIEST BIRDSexistence mil- lions of years before the first thing one could eall a bird, but they were al- together too small and ob- scure and re- mote for atten- tion. The earliest mammals, like the earliest birds, were Grea uure's driven by com- petition and pursuit into a life of hardship and adaptation to cold. With them also the scale became quill-like, and was developed into a heat-re- taining cover- ing; and they The First Birds and the First Mammals Gas te Atay | naa feast . ~ ae. AG ae ¥ Sheed ALE B RODE LES Svat et eee. Soe EE te BS ss SAGE Wo PAARGE HESPERORNIS IN ITS NATIVE SEAS too underwent modifications, similar in kind though different in de- tail, to become warm-blooded and independent of basking. Instead of feathers they developed hairs, and instead of guarding and in- cubating their eggs they kept them warm and safe by retaining them inside their bodies until they were almost mature. Most of them became altogether vivaparous and brought their young into the world alive. And even after their young were born they tended to maintain a protective and nutritive association with them. Most34 A Short History of the World but not all mammals to-day have mamme and suckle their young. Two mammals still live which lay eggs and which have not proper mammee, though they nourish their young by a nutritive secretion of the under skin; these are the duck-billed platypus and the echidna. The echidna lays leathery eggs and then puts them into a pouch under its belly, and so carries them about warm and safe until they hatch. But just as a visitor to the Mesozoic world might have searched for days and weeks before finding a bird, so, unless he knew exactly where to go and look, he might have searched in vain for any traces ofa mammal. Both birds and mammals would have seemed very ec- centric and secondary and unimportant creatures in Mesozoic times. The Age of Reptiles lasted, it is now guessed, eighty million years. Had any quasi-human intelligence been watching the world _ through that in- eo conceivable | length of time, how safe and eternal the sun- shine and abun- dance must have seemed, how as- sured the wal- lowing prosper- ity of the dino- saurs and the flapping abun- dance of the fly- ing lizards! And then the mys- terious rhythms and accumulat- ing forces of the universe began to turn against that) quash - eternal stability. Photo: ~ rr THE KI-WI, APTERYX, STILL FOUND IN NEW ZEALAND That run of luckNat. Hist. Mus. SLAB OF LOWER PLIOCENE MARL Discovered in Greece; it is rich in fossilized bones of early mammals 3536 A Short History of the World for life was running out. Age by age, myriad of years after myriad of years, with halts no doubt and retrogressions, came a change towards hardship and extreme conditions, came great alterations of level and great redistributions of mountain and sea. We find one thing in the Record of the Rocks during the decadence of the long Mesozoic age of prosperity that is very significant of steadily sus- tained changes of condition, and that is a violent fluctuation of living forms and the appearance of new and strange species. Under the gathering threat of extinction the older orders and genera are displaying their utmost capacity for variation and adaptation. The Ammonites for example in these last pages of the Mesozoic chapter exhibit a multitude of fantastic forms. Under settled conditions there is no encouragement for novelties; they do not develop, they are suppressed; what is best adapted is already there. Under novel conditions it is the ordinary type that suffers, and the novelty that may have a better chance to survive and establish itself. . . . There comes a break in the Record of the Rocks that may rep- resent several million years. There is a veil here still, over even the outline of the history of life. When it lifts again, the Age of Reptiles is at an end; the Dinosaurs, the Plesiosaurs and Ichthyo- saurs, the Pterodactyls, the innumerable genera and species of Ammonite have all gone absolutely. In all their stupendous vari- ety they have died out and left no descendants. The cold has killed them. All their final variations were insufficient: they had never hit upon survival conditions. The world had passed through a phase of extreme conditions beyond their powers of endurance, a slow and complete massacre of Mesozoic life has occurred, and we find now a new scene, a new and hardier flora, and a new and hardier fauna in possession of the world. It is still a bleak and impoverished scene with which this new volume of the book of life begins. The cycads and tropical conifers have given place very largely to trees that shed their leaves to avoid destruction by the snows of winter and to flowering plants and shrubs, and where there was formerly a profusion of reptiles, an Increasing variety of birds and mammals is entering into their inheritance,VIII Tue Ace oF MAMMALS HE opening of the next great period in the life of the earth, the Cainozoic period, was a period of upheaval and ex- treme volcanic activity. Now it was that the vast masses of the Alps and Himalayas and the mountain backbone of the Rockies and Andes were thrust up, and that the rude outlines of our present oceans and continents appeared. The map of the world begins to display a first dim resemblance to the map of to-day. It is estimated now that between forty and eighty million years have elapsed from the beginnings of the Cainozoic period to the present time. At the outset of the Cainozoic period the climate of the world was austere. It grew generally warmer until a fresh phase of great abundance was reached, after which conditions grew hard again and the earth passed into a series of extremely cold cycles, the Glacial Ages, from which apparently it 1s now slowly emerging. But we do not know sufficient of the causes of climatic change at present to forecast the possible fluctuations of climatic condi- tions that lie before us. We may be moving towards increasing sunshine or lapsing towards another glacial age; voleanic activity and the upheaval of mountain masses may be increasing or dimin- ishing; we do not know; we lack sufficient science. With the opening of this period the grasses appear; for the first time there is pasture in the world; and with the full development of the once obscure mammalian type, appear a numbe ing grazing animals and of carnivorous types which prey r of interest- upon these. At first these early mammals seem to differ only in a few ch acters from the great herbivorous and carnivorous reptiles that ages before had flourished and then vanished from the earth. A 37 ar-38 A Short History of the World careless observer might suppose that in this second long age of warmth and plenty that was now beginning, nature was merely re- peating the first, with herbivorous and carnivorous mammals to parallel the herbivorous and carnivorous dinosaurs, with birds re- placing pterodactyls and so on. But this would be an altogether superficial comparison. The variety of the universe is infinite and incessant; it progresses eternally; history never repeats itself and no parallels are precisely true. The differences between the life of the Cainozoic and Mesozoic periods are far profounder than the resemblances. The most fundamental of all these differences lies in the mental life of the two periods. It arises essentially out of the continuing contact of parent and offspring which distinguishes mammalian and in a lesser degree bird life, from the life of the reptile. With very few exceptions the reptile abandons its egg to hatch alone. The young reptile has no knowledge whatever of its parent; its a ne, ea ’ ¥ +4 0 pee ae, eres iy ee ABtE? Warpwakb__ A MAMMAL OF THE EARLY CAINOZOIC PERIOD The Titanotherium (Brontops) RobustumThe Age of Mammals 30 It may tolerate the existence of its fellows but it has no communi- cation with them; it never imitates, never learns from them, is in- capable of concerted action with them. Its life is that of an isolated individual. But with the suckling and cherishing of young which was distinctive of the new mammalian and avian strains arose the possibility of learning by imitation, of communication, by warning cries and other concerted action, of mutual control and instruction. A teachable type of life had come into the world. The earliest mammals of the Cainozoic period are but little superior in brain size to the more active carnivorous dinosaurs, but as we read on through the record towards modern times we find, in ry tribe and race of the mammalian animals, a steady universal eve For instance we find at a comparatively increase in brain capacity. early stage that rhinoceros-like beasts appear. There is a creature, the Titanotherium, which lived in the earliest division of this It was probably very like a modern rhinoceros in its hab- period. But its brain capacity was not one tenth that of its its and needs. living successor. The earlier mammals probably parted from their offspring as soon as suckling was over, but, once the capacity for mutual under- standing has arisen, the advantages of continuing the association are very great; and we presently find a number of mammalian true social life and keeping species displaying the beginnings of a h other, imitating together in herds, packs and flocks, watching eac .ach other, taking warning from each other’s acts and cries. This 1t the world had not seen before among vertebrated and fish may no doubt be found in swarms and .d in quantities and similar condi- but in the case of the social and s not simply from a com- is something th: animals. Reptiles shoals; they have been hatche tions have kept them together gregarious mammals the association arise munity of external forces, it is sustained by an inner impulse. They are not merely like one another and so found in the same places at the same times; they like one another and so they keep together. This difference between the reptile world and the world of our m unable to pass. We can- human minds is one our sympathies see of a in ourselves the swilt uncomplicated urgency not conceive fears and hates. We reptile’s instinctive motives, its appetites,Me Si Nat. Hist. Mus. STENOMYLUS HITCHCOCKI—A GIRAFFE-CAMEL : i Nat. Hist. Mus. SKELETON OF PROTOHIPPUS VENTICOLUS — EARLY HORSE 40The Age of Mammals AI cannot understand them in their simplicity because all our motives are complicated; ours are balances and resultants and not simple urgencies. But the mammals and birds have self-restraint and . consideration for other individuals, a social appeal, a self-control | that is, at its lower level, after our own fashion. We can in conse- quence establish relations with almost all sorts of them. When they suffer they utter cries and make moyements that rouse our ae a MEOULLA OBLONSAT A ; » F ~ 7 ; _ ofREBELLUM yor ’ c % , oraceeeeuM “ ; " i : , p> -< % ' a ‘3a iva CEREBRAL_HEM SPHERES a CEREBR ; » A E 4 9 Fag Ta LORE 7 Nat. Hist. Mus COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BRAINS OF RHINOCEROS AND DINOCERAS feelings. We can make understanding pets of them with a mutual i recognition. They can be tamed to self-restraint towards us, | domesticated and taught. That unusual growth of brain which is the central fact of Caino- zoic times marks a new communication and interdependence of individuals. It foreshadows the development of human societies of which we shall soon be telling. As the Cainozoic period unrolled, the resemblance of its flora and fauna to the plants and animals that inhabit the world to-day42 A Short History of the World increased. The big clumsy Uintatheres and Titanotheres, the En- telodonts and Hyracodons, big clumsy brutes like nothing living, disappeared. On the other hand a series of forms led up by steady degrees from grotesque and clumsy predecessors to the giraffes, camels, horses, elephants, deer, dogs and lions and tigers of the existing world. The evolution of the horse is particularly legible upon the geological record. We have a fairly complete series of forms from a small tapir-like ancestor in the early Cainozoic. An- other line of development that has now been pieced together with some precision is that of the llamas and camels.xX Monkeys, APES AND SUB-MEN ATURALISTS divide the class Mammalia into a number of orders. At the head of these is the order Primates, which includes the lemurs, the monkeys, apes and man. Their classification was based originally upon anatomical resemblanves and took no account of any mental qualities. Now the past history of the Primates is one very difficult to de- cipher in the geological record. They are for the most part animals which live in forests like the lemurs and monkeys or in bare rocky places like the baboons. They are rarely drowned and covered up by sediment, nor are-most of them very numerous species, and so they do not figure so largely among the fossils as the ancestors of the horses, camels and so forth do. But we know that quite early in the Cainozoic period, that is to say some forty million years ago or so, primitive monkeys and lemuroid creatures had appeared, poorer in brain and not so specialized as their later successors. The great world summer of the middle Cainozoic period drew at last to an end. It was to follow those other two great summers in the history of life, the summer of the Coal Swamps and the vast sum- mer of the Age of Reptiles. Once more the earth spun towards an ice age. The world chilled, grew milder for a time and chilled again. In the warm past hippopotami had wallowed through a lush sub-tropical vegetation, and a tremendous tiger with fangs like sabres, the sabre-toothed tiger, had hunted its prey where now the journalists of Fleet Street go to and fro. Now came a bleaker age and still bleaker ages. A great weeding and extinction of species occurred. A woolly rhinoceros, adapted to a cold climate, and the mammoth, a big woolly cousin of the elephants, the Arctic musk ox and the reindeer passed across the scene. Then century by cen- tury the Arctic ice cap, the wintry death of the great Ice Age, crept 42 a9oan FS a ee a Ce ie ee i kek Re a AA A Short History of the World | southward. In England it came almost down to the Thames, in America it reached Ohio. There would be warmer spells of a few thousand years and relapses towards a bitterer cold. Geologists talk of these wintry phases as the First, Second, Third and Fourth Glacial Ages, and of the interludes as Interglacial periods. We live to-day in a world that is still impoverished and scarred by that terrible winter. The First Glacial Age was coming on 600,000 years ago; the Fourth Glacial Age reached its bitterest A MAMMOTH some fifty thousand years ago. And it was amidst the snows of this long universal winter that the first man-like beings lived upon our planet. By the middle Cainozoie period there have appeared various apes with many quasi-human attributes of the jaws and leg bones, but it is only as we approach these Glacial Ages that we find traces of creatures that we can speak of as “almost human.” These traces are not bones but implements. In Europe, in deposits of this period, between half a million and a million years old, we find flintsMonkeys, Apes and Sub-men 45 and stones that have evidently been chipped intentionally by some handy creature desirous of hammering, scraping or fighting with the sharpened edge. These things have been called “Eoliths”’ (dawn stones). In Europe there are no bones nor other remains of the creature which made these objects, simply the objects themselves. For all the certainty we have it may have been some entirely un- human but intelligent monkey. But at Trinil in Java, in accumula- tions of this age, a piece of a skull and various teeth and bones have been found of a sort of ape man, with a brain case bigger than that of any liv- ing apes, which seems to have walked erect. This creature is now called Pithecanthropus erectus, the walking ape man, and the little trayful of its bones is the only help our imagina- tions have as yet in figuring to our- selves the makers of the Eoliths. It is not until we come to sands that are almost a quarter of a million years old that we find any other par- ticle of a sub-human being. But there are plenty of implements, and they are steadily improving in quality as we read on through the record. ‘They are no longer clumsy Eoliths; they are now shapely instruments made "Nat. Hist. Mus. al considerable skill. And they are FLINT IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN ¥ ith conside : rhe J PILTDOWN REGION much bigger than the similar implements afterwards made by true man. Then, in a sandpit at Heidelberg, appears a single quasi-human jaw-bone, a clumsy jaw-bone, absolutely chinless, far heavier than a true human jaw-bone and narrower, so that it is improbable the creature’s tongue could have moved about for articulate speech. On the strength of this jaw-bone, scientific men suppose this creature to have been a heavy, almost human monster, possibly with huge limbs and hands, pos- sibly with a thick felt of hair, and they call it the Heidelberg Man.A THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF THE PITHECAN- THROPUS ERECTUS BY PROF. RUTOT THE HEIDELBERG MAN The Heidelberg Man, as modelled under the supervision of Prof. Rutot A Short History of the World This jaw-bone is, I think, one of the most tormenting objects in the world to our human curiosity. To see it is like looking through a defective glass into the past and catching just one blurred and tantaliz- ing glimpse of this Thing, shambling through the bleak wilderness, clam- bering toavoid thesabre- toothed tiger, watching the woolly rhinoceros in the woods. Then before we can scrutinize the monster, he vanishes. Yet the soil is littered abundantly with the indestructible imple- ments he chipped out for his uses. Still more fascinat- ingly enigmatical are the remains of a creature found at Piltdown in Sussex in a deposit that may indicate an age be- tween a hundred and a hundred and fifty thou- sand years ago, though some authorities would put these particular re- mains back in time to before the Heidelberg jJaw-bone. Here thereMonkeys, Apes and Sub-men 47 are the remains of a thick sub-human skull much larger than any existing ape’s, and a chimpanzee-like jaw-bone which may or may not belong to it, and, in addition, a bat-shaped piece of elephant bone evidently carefully manufactured, through which a hole had apparently been bored. ‘There is also the thigh-bone of a deer with cuts upon it like a tally. That is all. What sort of beast was this creature which sat and bored holes in bones? Scientific men have named him Eoanthropus, a, : the Dawn Man. He stands yy apart from his kindred; a very different being either from the Heidelberg crea- ture or from any living ape. i. eee g No other vestige like him tn —y “TTHO is known. But the gravels and deposits of from one | . hundred thousand years i | Nat. Hist. Mus. THE PILTDOWN SKULL, AS RECONSTRU¢ TED FROM ORIGINAL FRAGMENT onward are _ increasingly rich in implements of flint and similar stone. And these implements are no longer rude ~ Eoliths.”’ are presently able to distinguish scrapers, borers, The archeologists knives, darts, throwing stones and hand axes. We are drawing very near to man. have to describe the strangest of all these precursors of humanity, the Neanderthalers, the men who were almost, but not quite, true men. But it may be well perhaps to state quite clearly here that no scientific man supposes either of these creatures, the Heidelberg Man or Eoanthropus, to be direct ancestors of the men of to-day. These are, at the closest, related forms. In our next section we shallx Tur NEANDERTHALER AND THE RHODESIAN MAN BOUT fifty or sixty thousand years ago, before the climax of the Fourth Glacial Age, there lived a creature on earth so like a man that until a few years ago its remains were considered to be altogether human. We have skulls and bones of it and a great accumulation of the large implements it made and used. It made fires. It sheltered in caves from the cold. It prob- ably dressed skins roughly and wore them. It was right-handed as men are. Yet now the ethnologists tell us these creatures were not true men. They were of a different species of the same genus. They had heavy protruding jaws and great brow ridges above the eyes and very low foreheads. Their thumbs were not opposable to the fingers as men’s are; their necks were so poised that they could not turn back their heads and look up to the sky. They probably slouched along, head down and forward. Their chinless jaw-bones resemble the Heidelberg jaw-bone and are markedly unlike human jaw-bones. And there were great differences from the human pat- tern in their teeth. Their cheek teeth were more complicated in structure than ours, more complicated and not less so; they had not the long fangs of our cheek teeth; and also these quasi-men had not the marked canines (dog teeth) of an ordinary human being. The capacity of their skulls was quite human, but the brain was bigger behind and lower in front than the human brain. Their intellectual faculties were differently arranged. They were not ancestral to the human line. Mentally and physically they were upon a differ- ent line from the human line. Skulls and bones of this extinct species of man were found at Neanderthal among other places, and from that place these strange proto-men have been christened Neanderthal Men, or Neander- 48The Neanderthaler and the Rhodesian Man 49 thalers. ‘They must have endured in Europe for many hundreds or even thousands of years. At that time the climate and geography of our world was very different from what they are at the present time. Europe for example was covered with ice reaching as far south as the and into Central Germany and Russia; there was no Channel sepa- rating Britain from France; the Mediterranean and the Red Sea Thames re ; <2 Ont Ag we ANERNBERIIE ES enna eT Be THE*NEANDERTHALER, ACCORDING TO PROF. RUTOT were great valleys, with perhaps a chain of lakes in their deeper por- tions, and a great inland sea spread from the present Black Sea across South Russia and far into Central Asia. Spain and all of Europe not actually under ice consisted of bleak uplands under a harder climate than that of Labrador, and it was only when North Africa was reached that one would have found a temperate climate. Across the cold steppes of Southern Europe with its sparse arctic vegetation, drifted such hardy creatures as the woolly mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros, great oxen and reindeer, no doubt following the vegetation northward in spring and southward in autumn.A Short History of the World YY; Possible Outline of ty/A EUROPE ¢ Western AST Re Yy, at the Maximum of the Fourth Ice Such was the scene through which the Neanderthaler wandered, gathering such subsistence as he could from small game or fruits and berries and roots. Possibly he was mainly a vegetarian, chew- ing twigs and roots. His level elaborate teeth suggest a largely vegetarian dietary. But we also find the long marrow bones of great animals in his caves, cracked to extract the marrow. His weapons could not have been of much avail in open conflict with great beasts, but it is supposed that he attacked them with spears at difficult river crossings and even constructed pitfalls for them. Possibly he followed the herds and preyed upon any dead that were killed in fights, and perhaps he played the part of jackal to the sabre-toothed tiger which still survived in his day. Possibly in the bitter hardships of the Glacial Ages this creature had taken to attacking animals after long ages of vegetarian adaptation. We cannot guess what this Neanderthal man looked like. He may have been very hairy and very inhuman-looking indeed. It is even doubtful if he went erect. He may have used his knuckles as well as his feet to hold himself up. Probably he went aboutThe Neanderthaler and the Rhodesian Man sr alone or in small family groups. It is inferred from the structure of his jaw that he was incapable of speech as we understand it. For thousands of years these Neanderthalers were the highest animals that the European area had ever seen; and then some thirty or thirty-five thousand years ago as the climate grew warmer a race of kindred beings, more intelligent, knowing more, talking and co-operating together, came drifting into the Neanderthaler’s world from the south. They ousted the Neanderthalers from their caves and squatting places; they hunted the same food; they prob- ably made war upon their grisly predecessors and killed them off. These newcomers from the south or the east — for at present we do not know their region of origin — who at last drove the Neander- thalers out of existence altogether, were beings of our own blood and kin, the first True Men. Their brain-cases and thumbs and necks and teeth were anatomically the same as our own. In a cave at Cro-Magnon and in another at Grimaldi, a number of skeletons have been found, the earliest truly human remains that are so far known. So it is our race comes into the Record of the Rocks, and the story of mankind begins. The world was growing liker our own in those days though the climate was still austere. The glaciers of the Ice Age were receding in Europe; the reindeer of France and Spain presently gave way to great herds of horses as grass increased upon the steppes, and the tea 2. Nat. Hist. Mus. COMPARISON OF (1) MODERN SKULL AND (2) RHODESIAN SKULL52 A Short History of the World mammoth became more and more rare in southern Europe and fi- nally receded northward altogether. We do not know where the True Men first originated. But in the summer of 1921, an extremely interesting skull was found to- gether with pieces of a skeleton at Broken Hill in South Africa, which seems to be a relic of a third sort of man, intermediate in its characteristics between the Neanderthaler and the human being. The brain-case indicates a brain bigger in front and smaller behind than the Neanderthaler’s, and the skull was poised erect upon the backbone in a quite human way. The teeth also and the bones are quite human. But the face must have been ape-like with enormous brow ridges and a ridge along the middle of the skull. The creature was indeed a true man, so to speak, with an ape-like, Neanderthaler face. This Rhodesian Man is evidently still closer to real men than the Neanderthal Man. This Rhodesian skull is probably only the second of what in the end may prove to be a long list of finds of sub-human species which lived on the earth in the vast interval of time between the begin- nings of the Ice Age and the appearance of their common heir, and perhaps their common exterminator, the True Man. The Rhode- sian skull itself may not be very ancient. Up to the time of pub- lishing this book there has been no exact determination of its prob- able age. It may be that this sub-human creature survived in South Africa until quite recent times.xl Tue First True MEN HE earliest signs and traces at present known to science, of a humanity which is indisputably kindred with ourselves, have 1 in western Europe and particularly in France scratchings upon bone and rock, in caves and upon rock been foun and Spain. Bones, weapons, carved fragments of bone, and paintings surfaces dating, it is supposed, from 30,000 years ago or more, have been discovered in both these countries. world in these first relics of our real human Spain is at present the richest country in the ancestors. Of course our present collections of the beginnings of the accumulations we may hope for in the future, when there are searchers enough to make a thorough examination of all possible sources and when other countries in the world, now ‘naccessible to archeologists, have been explored in some detail. The greater part of Africa and Asia has never even been traversed yet by a trained observer interested in these matters and free to explore, and we must be very careful therefore not to conclude that the early true men were distinctively inhabitants of western Europe or that they first appeared in that region. In Asia or Africa or submerged beneath the sea of to-day there may be richer and much earlier deposits of real human remains than anything that has yet come to light. I write in Asia or Africa, and I do not mention Ameri¢a because so far there have been no finds at all of any of the higher;Prirhates, either of great apes, sub-men, Neanderthalers nor early true men. This development of life seems been an exclusively old world development, and it was only at the end of the Old Stone Age that humé 1d connexion that is now c se things are the merest to have apparently made their way across the lat Straits, into the American continent. 53 in beings first ut by BehringA Short History of the World | These first real human beings we know of in Europe appear already to have belonged to one or other of at least two very distinct races. One of these races was of a very high type indeed; it was tall and big brained. One of the women’s skulls found exceeds in ¢a- pacity that of the average man of to-day. One of the men’s skele- tons is over six feet in height. The physical type resembled that of the North American Indian. From the Cro-Magnon cave in ~ aa Ste . " at ‘ i bet es im, ONE OF THE MARVELLOUS CAVE PAINTINGS OF ALTAMIRA, NORTH SPAIN 5 The Walls of the Caves are covered in these representations of Bulls, etc., painted in soft tones of red shaded to black. They may be fifteen or twenty thousand years old which the first skeletons were found these people have been called Cro-Magnards. They were savages, but savages of a high order. The second race, the race of the Grimaldi cave remains, was dis- tinctly negroid in its characters. Its nearest livi ing affinities are the Bushmen and Hottentots of Sauth. Africa. It is interesting to find at the very outset of the knotyi A Ingm: an story, that mankind was already racially divided into at least two main varieties: and one is tempted to such unwarrantable guesses as that the former race was probably brownish rather than black and that it came from the East or North, and that the latter was bl: ackish rather than brown and came from the equatorial south.+ e a ot “* ¢ Se Jet a ig ASR KF ES BONE CARVINGS OF THE PALAOLITHIC PERIOD leer, (3) Dagger Handle ’ Heads (1 and 2) Mammoth tusk carved to shape of Rein |! J representing Mammoth, and (4) Bone engraved with Horses56 A Short History of the World And these savages of perhaps forty thousand years ago were so human that they pierced shells to make necklaces, painted them- selves, carved images of bone and stone, scratched figures on rocks and bones, and painted rude but often very able sketches of beasts and the like upon the smooth walls of caves and upon inviting rock surfaces. They made a great variety of implements, much smaller in scale and finer than those of the Neanderthal men. We have now in our museums great quantities of their implements, their statuettes, their rock drawings and the like. The earliest of them were hunters. Their chief pursuit was the wild horse, the little bearded pony of that time. They followed it as it moved after pasture. And also they followed the bison. They knew the mammoth, because they have left us strikingly effective pictures of that creature. To judge by one rather ambiguous draw- ing they trapped and killed it. They hunted with spears and throwing stones. They do not seem to have had the bow, and it is doubtful if they had yet learnt to tame any animals. They had no dogs. There is one carving of a horse’s head and one or two drawings that suggest a bridled horse, with a twisted skin or tendon round it. But the little horses of that age and region could not have carried a man, and if the horse was domesticated it was used as a led horse. It is doubtful and improbable that they had yet learnt the rather unnatural use of animal’s milk as food. They do not seem to have erected any buildings though they may have had tents of skins, and though they made clay figures they never rose to the making of pottery. Since they had no cook- ing implements their cookery must have been rudimentary or non- existent. They knew nothing of cultivation and nothing of any sort of basket work or woven cloth. Except for their robes of skin or fur they were naked painted savages. These earliest known men hunted the open steppes of Europe for a hundred centuries perhaps, and then slowly drifted and changed before a change of climate. turope, century by century, was growing milder and damper. Reindeer receded northward and eastward, and bison and horse followed. The steppes gave way to forests, and red deer took the place of horse and bison. There is aThe First True Men 57 change in the character of the implements with this change in their application. River and lake fishing becomes of great importance to men, and fine implements of bone increased. “The bone needles of this age,” says de Mortillet, ““are much superior to those of later, even historical times, down to the Renaissance. The Romans, for example, never had needles comparable to those of this epoch.” THE RUTOT BUST OF A CRO-MAGNON MAN Almost fifteen or twelve thousand years ago a fresh people drifted into the south of Spain, and left very remarkable drawings of themselves upon exposed rock faces there. These were the Azilians (named from the Mas d’Azil cave). They had the bow; they seem to have worn feather headdresses; they drew vividly; but also they had reduced their drawings to a sort of symbolism — a man for instance would be represented by a vertical dab with two or three horizontal dabs—that suggest the dawn of the writ- ing idea. Against hunting sketches there are often marks like tallies. One drawing shows two men smoking out a bees’ nest.| THE HONEY GATHERER AMONG THE BEES He is ona rope-ladder FIGHT OF BOWMEN Among the most recent discoveries of Palzolithic Art are these specimens found in 1920 in Spain. They are probably ten or twelve thousand years oldThe First True Men | 59 These are the latest of the men that we call Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) because they had only chipped implements. By ten or twelve thousand years a new sort of life has dawned in Europe, men have learnt not only to chip but to polish and grind stone im- plements, and they have begun cultivation. The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) was beginning. It is interesting to note that less than a century ago there still survived in a remote part of the world, in Tasmania, a race of human beings at a lower level of physical and intellectual develop- ment than any of these earliest races of mankind who have left traces in Europe. These people had long ago been cut off by geo- graphical changes from the rest of the species, and from stimulation and improvement. They seem te have degenerated rather than developed. They lived a base life subsisting upon shellfish and small game. They had no habitations but only squatting places. They were real men of our species, but they had neither the manual dexterity nor the artistic powers of the first true men.XT PRIMITIVE THOUGHT ND now let us indulge in a very interesting speculation; how did it feel to be a man in those early days of the human adventure? How did men think and what did they think in those remote days of hunting and wandering four hundred cen- turies ago before seed time and harvest began. Those were days long before the written record of any human impressions, and we are left almost entirely to inference and guesswork in our answers to these questions. The sources to which scientific men have gone in their attempts to reconstruct that primitive mentality are very various. Recently the science of psycho-analysis, which analyzes the way in which the egotistic and passionate impulses of the child are restrained, suppressed, modified or overlaid, to adapt them to the needs of social life, seems to have thrown a considerable amount of light upon the history of primitive society; and another fruitful source of suggestion has been the study of the ideas and customs of such contemporary savages as still survive. Again there is a sort of mental fossilization which we find in folk-lore and the deep-lying irrational superstitions and prejudices that still survive among modern civilized people. And finally we have in the increasingly numerous pictures, statues, carvings, symbols and the like, as we draw near to our own time, clearer and clearer indications of what man found interesting and worthy of record and representation. Primitive man probably thought very much as a child thinks, that is to say in a series of imaginative pictures. He conjured up images or images presented themselves to his mind, and he acted in accordance with the emotions they aroused. So a child or an un- educated person does to-day. Systematic thinking is apparently a comparatively late development in human experience; it has not 60Primitive Thought 61 played any great part in human life until within the last three thousand years. And even to-day those who really control and order their thoughts are but a small minority of mankind. Most of the world still lives by imagination and passion. Probably the earliest human societies, in the opening stages of the true human story, were small family groups. Just as the flocks and herds of the earlier mammals arose out of families which remained together and multiplied, so probably did the earliest tribes. But before this could happen a certain restraint upon the primitive egotisms of the individual had to be established. The fear of the father and respect for the mother had to be extended into adult life, and the natural jealousy of the old man of the group for the younger males as they grew up had to be mitigated. The mother on the other hand was the natural adviser and protector of the young. Human social life grew up out of the reaction between the crude instinct of the young to go off and pair by themselves as they grew up, on the one hand, and the dangers and disadvantages of separation on the other. An anthropological writer of great genius, J. J. Atkinson, in his Primal Law, has shown how much of the customary law of savages, the Tabus, that are so remarkable a fact in tribal life, can be ascribed to such a mental adjustment of the needs of the primitive human animal to a developing social life, and the later work of the psycho-analysts has done much to confirm his interpretation of these possibilities. Some speculative writers would have us believe that respect and fear of the Old Man and the emotional reaction of the primi- tive savage to older protective women, exaggerated in dreams and enriched by fanciful mental play, played a large part in the begin- nings of primitive religion and in the conception of gods and god- desses. Associated with this respect for powerful or helpful person- alities was a dread and exaltation of such personages after their deaths, due to their reappearance in dreams. It was easy to believe they were not truly dead but only fantastically transferred to a remoteness of greater power. The dreams, imaginations and fears of a child are far more vivid and real than those of a modern adult, and primitive man was always something of a child. He was nearer to the animalsij Be A Short History of the World | also, and he could suppose them to have motives and reactions HT like his own. He could imagine animal helpers, animal enemies, animal gods. One needs to have been an imaginative child oneself to realize again how important, significant, portentous or friendly, strangely shaped rocks, lumps of wood, exceptional trees or the like may have appeared to the men of the Old Stone Age, and how dream and faney would create stories and legends about such Brit. Mus. RELICS OF THE STONE AGE Chert implements from Somaliland. In general form they are similar to those found in estern and Northern Europe things that would become credible as they told them. Some of these stories would be good enough to remember and tell again. The women would tell them to the children and so establish a tra- dition. ‘To this day most imaginative children invent long stories in which some favourite doll or animal or some fantastic semi- human being figures as the hero, and primitive man probably did the same For the very earliest of the true men that we know of were with a much stronger disposition to believe his hero real. probably quite talkative beings. In that way they have differed from the Neanderthalers and had an advantage over them. The Neanderthaler may have been a dumb animal. Of course the primi-Primitive Thought 63 tive human speech was probably a very scanty collection of names, and may have been eked out with gestures and signs. There is no sort of savage so low as not to have a kind of sci- ence of cause and effect. But primitive man was not very critical in his associations of cause with effect; he very easily connected an effect with something quite wrong as its cause. “You do so and so,” he said, ‘“‘and so and so happens.” You give a child a poison- ous berry and it dies. You eat the heart of a valiant enemy and you become strong. There we have two bits of cause and effect association, one true one false. We call the system of cause and effect in the mind of a savage, Fetish; but Fetish is simply savage science. It differs from modern science in that it is totally unsys- tematic and uncritical and so more frequently wrong. In many cases it is not difficult to link cause and effect, in Brit. Mus. WIDESPREAD SIMILARITY OF MEN OF THE STONE AGE On the left is a flint implement excavated in Gray’s Inn Lane. London; on the right one of similar form chipped by primitive men of Somaliland64 A Short History of the World many others erroneous ideas were soon corrected by experience; but there was a large series of issues of very great importance to primitive man, where he sought persistently for causes and found explanations that were wrong but not sufficiently wrong nor so obviously wrong as to be detected. It was a matter of great im- portance to him that game should be abundant or fish plentiful and easily caught, and no doubt he tried and believed in a thou- sand charms, incantations and omens to determine these desirable results. Another great concern of his was illness and death. Occa- sionally infections crept through the land and men died of them. Occasionally men were stricken by illness and died or were en- feebled without any manifest cause. This too must have given the hasty, emotional mind of primitive man much feverish exercise. Dreams and fantastic guesses made him blame this, or appeal for help to that man or beast or thing. He had the child’s aptitude for fear and panic. Quite early in the little human tribe, older, steadier minds sharing the fears, sharing the imaginations, but a little more force- ful than the others, must have asserted themselves, to advise, to prescribe, to command. This they declared unpropitious and that imperative, this an omen of good and that an omen of evil. The expert in Fetish, the Medicine Man, was the first priest. He ex- horted, he interpreted dreams, he warned, he performed the com- plicated hocus pocus that brought luck or averted calamity. Primi- tive religion was not so much what we now call religion as practice and observance, and the early priest dictated what was indeed an arbitrary primitive practical science.XT Tue BEGINNINGS OF CULTIVATION E are still very ignorant about the beginnings of culti- vation and settlement in the world although a vast amount of research and speculation has been given to these matters in the last fifty years. All that we can say with any confidence at present is that somewhen about 15,000 and 12,000 s.c. while the Azilian people were in the south of Spain and while the remnants of the earlier hunters were drifting northward and eastward, somewhere in North Africa or Western Asia or in that great Mediterranean valley that is now submerged under the waters of the Mediterranean sea, there were people who, age by age, were working out two vitally important things: they were beginning cultivation and they were domesticating animals. They were also beginning to make, in addition to the chipped implements of their hunter forebears, implements of polished stone. They had discov- ered the possibility of basketwork and roughly woven textiles of plant fibre, and they were beginning to make a rudely modelled pottery. They were entering upon a new phase in human culture, the Neolithic phase (New Stone Age) as distinguished from the Palzo- lithic (Old Stone) phase of the Cro-Magnards, the Grimaldi people, the Azilians and their like.1 Slowly these Neolithic people spread over the warmer parts of the world; and the arts they had mas- tered, the plants and animals they had learnt to use, spread by imitation and acquisition even more widely than they did. By 10,000 B.c., most of mankind was at the Neolithic level. 1The term Paleolithic we may note is also used to cover the Neanderthaler and even the Eolithic implements. The pre-human age is called the ‘Older Palsolithic,”’ the age of true men using unpolished stones in the ‘Newer Paleolithic.”’ 6566 A Short History of the World Now the ploughing of land, the sowing of seed, the reaping of harvest, threshing and grinding, may seem the most obviously rea- sonable steps to a modern mind just as to a modern mind it is a commonplace that the world is round. What else could you do? people will ask. What else can it be? But to the primitive man of twenty thousand years ago neither of the systems of action and reasoning that seem so sure and manifest to us to-day were at all obvious. He felt his way to effectual practice through a multitude of trials and misconceptions, with fantastic and unnecessary elabo- rations and false interpretations at every turn. Somewhere in the Mediterranean region, wheat grew wild; and man may have learnt to pound and then grind up its seeds for food long before he learnt to sow. He reaped before he sowed. And it is a very remarkable thing that throughout the world wherever there is sowing and harvesting there is still traceable the vestiges of a strong primitive association of the idea of sowing with the idea of a blood sacrifice, and primarily of the sacrifice of a human being. The study of the original entanglement of these two things is a profoundly attractive one to the curious mind; the in- terested reader will find it very fully developed in that monumen- tal work, Sir J. G. Frazer’s Golden Bough. It was an entangle- ment, we must remember, in the childish, dreaming, myth-making primitive mind; no reasoned process will explain it. But in that world of 12,000 to 20,000 years ago, it would seem that whenever seed time came round to the Neolithic peoples there was a human sacrifice. And it was not the sacrifice of any mean or outcast per- son; it was the sacrifice usually of a chosen youth or maiden, a youth more often who was treated with profound deference and even worship up to the moment of his immolation. He was a sort of sacrificial god-king, and all the details of his killing had become a ritual directed by the old, knowing men and sanctioned by the accumulated usage of ages. At first primitive men, with only a very rough idea of the sea- sons, must have found great difficulty in determining when was the propitious moment for the seed-time sacrifice and the sowing. There is some reason for supposing that there was an arly stage in human experience when men had no idea of a year. The firstee Brit. Mus. NEOLITHIC FLINT IMPLEMENTS 07Brit. Mus. NEOLITHICISM OF TO-DAY Spearheads, exactly as n the true Neolithic days, but made recently by Australian Natives. (1) Made from a_ telegraph insulator; (2) from a _ piece of broken bottle glass. A Short History of the World chronology was in lunar months; it is sup- posed that the years of the Biblical patriarchs are really moons, and the Babylonian calendar shows distinct traces of an attempt to reckon seed time by taking thirteen lunar months to see it round. This lunar influence upon the calendar reaches down to our own days. If usage did not dull our sense of its strangeness we should think it a very remarkable thing indeed that the Christian Church does not commemorate the Crucifixion and Resurrec- tion of Christ on the proper anniversaries but on dates that vary year by year with the phases of the moon. It may be doubted whether the first agri- culturalists made any observation of the stars. It is more likely that stars were first observed by migratory herdsmen, who found them a convenient mark of direction. But once their use In determining seasons was realized, their importance to agriculture became very great. The seed-time sacrifice was linked up with the southing or northing of some prominent star. A myth and worship of that star was for primitive man an almost inevitable conse- quence. It is easy to see how important the man of knowledge and experience, the man who knew about the blood sacrifice and the stars, became in this early Neolithic world. The fear of uncleanness and _ pollution, and the methods of cleansing that were ad- visable, constituted another source of power for the knowledgeable men and women. For there have always been witches as well as wizards, and priestesses as well as priests. The early priest was really not so much aThe Beginnings of Cultivation 69 religious man as a man of applied science. His science was gener- ally empirical and often bad; he kept it secret from the generality of men very jealously; but that does not alter the fact that his primary function was knowledge and that his primary use was a practical use. Twelve or fifteen thousand years ago, in all the warm and fairly well-watered parts of the Old World these Neolithic human com- munities, with their class and tradition of priests and priestesses and their cultivated fields and their development of villages and little walled cities, were spreading. Age by age a drift and ex- change of ideas went on between these communities. Eliot Smith Brit. Mus. SPECIMEN OF NEOLITHIC POTTERY Dug up at Mortlake from the Thames Bed and Rivers have used the term “‘Heliolithic culture” for the cul- ture of these first agricultural peoples. ‘“Heliolithic’” (Sun and Stone) is not perhaps the best possible word to use for this, but until scientific men give us a better one we shall have to use it. Originating somewhere in the Mediterranean and western Asiatic area, it spread age by age eastward and from island to island across the Pacific until it may even have reached America and mingled with the more primitive ways of living of the Mongoloid immi- grants coming down from the North. Wherever the brownish people with the Heliolithic culture went they took with them all or most of a certain group of curious ideas and practices. Some of them are such queer ideas that they call for the explanation of the mental expert. They made pyramids70 A Short History of the World and great mounds, and set up great circles of big stones, perhaps to facilitate the astronomical observation of the priests; they made mummies of some or all of their dead; they tattooed and cir- cumcized; they had the old custom, known as the couvade, of send- ing the father to bed and rest when a child was born, and they had as a luck symbol the well-known Swastika. If we were to make a map of the world with dots to show how far these group practices have left their traces, we should make a belt along the temperate and sub-tropical coasts of the world from Stonehenge and Spain across the world to Mexico and Peru. But Africa below the equator, north central Europe, and north Asia would show none of these dottings; there lived races who were developing along practically independent lines.ya AY PRIMITIVE NEOLITHIC CIVILIZATIONS BOUT 10,000 s.c. the geography of the world was very simi- lar in its general outline to that of the world to-day. It is probable that by that time the great barrier across the Straits of Gibraltar that had hitherto banked back the ocean waters from the Mediterranean valley had been eaten through, and that the Mediterranean was a sea following much the same coastlines as it does now. The Caspian Sea was probably still far more extensive than it is at present, and it may have been continuous with the Black Sea to the north of the Caucasus Mountains. About this great Central Asian sea lands that are now steppes and deserts were fertile and habitable. Generally it was a moister and more fertile world. European Russia was much more a land of swamp and lake than it is now, and there may still have been a land connexion between Asia and America at Behring Straits. It would have been already possible at that time to have dis- tinguished the main racial divisions of mankind as we know them to-day. Across the warm temperate regions of this rather warmer and better-wooded world, and along the coasts, stretched the brown- ish peoples of the Heliolithic culture, the ancestors of the bulk of the living inhabitants of the Mediterranean world, of the Berbers, the Egyptians and of much of the population of South and Eastern Asia. This great race had of course a number of varieties. The Iberian or Mediterranean or “dark-white” race of the Atlantic and Mediterranean coast, the ““Hamitic” peoples which include the Berbers and Egyptians, the Dravidians, the darker people of India, a multitude of East Indian people, many Polynesian races and the Maoris are all divisions of various value of this great main mass of humanity. Its western varieties are whiter than its eastern. In the forests of central and northern Europe a more blonde variety 7172 A Short History of the World of men with blue eyes was becoming distinguishable, branching off from the main mass of brownish people, a variety which many people now speak of as the Nordic race. In the more open regions of north- eastern Asia was another differentiation of this brownish humanity in the direction of a type with more oblique eyes, high cheek-bones, a yellowish skin, and very straight black hair, the Mongolian peo- ples. In South Africa, Australia, in many tropical islands in the south of Asia were remains of the early negroid peoples. The cen- tral parts of Africa were already a region of racial intermixture. Nearly all the coloured races of Africa to-day seem to be blends of the brownish peoples of the north with a negroid substratum. We have to remember that human races can all interbreed freely and that they separate, mingle and reunite as clouds do. Human races do not branch out like trees with branches that never come together again. It is a thing we need to bear constantly in mind, this remingling of races at any opportunity. It will save us from many cruel delusions and prejudices if we do so. People will use such a word as race in the loosest manner, and base the most pre- posterous generalizations upon it. They will speak of a “British” Lapps Eaton Scandinavians Amerindians Mexicans ‘Teurtons > ae pets aoe RniS : erentahon Irish ( ae Italians els AR eo an Indi ee — Welsh Iberian an Mediter/. ie Rian aoicuiese “|e 25 BE aN cut 75h is Kyrocesians : Maori of CROMAGNARD Piper] [GRIMALDI types Bushmen Australoids N. MALDI t LATER PALZOLITHIC RACES Neanderthal True!Mén Tasmanians one ADi atic Sur rary oS ranint mut of ese ae Ideas of the 296 Piltdown RELATIONS HIP Pera Man) Pithecanthropus of HUMAN RACES EARLIER PALEOLTHIC "RACES sf Arboreal i ——— Apes (Tt must be borne un mind that li.c.widd, oR fe) Ground Apes human races interbreed freely.)Primitive Neolithic Civilizations Brit. Mus. A MAYA STELE Showing a worshipper and a Serpent God. Note the grotesque faces in the writing race or of a ““European”’ race. But nearly all the European nations are confused mixtures of brownish, dark-white, white and Mon- golian elements. It was at the Neolithic phase of human development that peoples of the Mongolian breed first made their way into America. Appar- ently they came by way of Behring Straits and spread southward. They found caribou, the American reindeer, in the north and great74 A Short History of the World herds of bison in the south. When they reached South America there were still living the Glyptodon, a gigantic armadillo, and the Megatherium, a monstrous clumsy sloth as high as an elephant. They probably exterminated the latter beast, which was as helpless as it was big. The greater portion of these American tribes never rose above a hunting nomadic Neolithic life. They never discovered the use of iron, and their chief metal possessions were native gold and copper. But in Mexico, Yucatan and Peru conditions existed favourable to settled cultivation, and here about 1000 B.c. or so arose very inter- esting civilizations of a parallel but different type from the old-world civilization. Like the much earlier primitive civilizations of the old world these communities displayed a great development of human sacrifice about the processes of seed time and harvest; but while in the old world, as we shall see, these primary ideas were ultimately mitigated, complicated and overlaid by others, in America they developed and were elaborated to a very high degree of intensity. These American civilized countries were essentially priest-ruled countries; their war chiefs and rulers were under a rigorous rule of law and omen. These priests carried astronomical science to a high level of accuracy. They knew their year better than the Babylonians of whom we shall presently tell. In Yucatan they had a kind of writing, the Maya writing, of the most curious and elaborate char- acter. So far as we have been able to decipher it, it was used mainly for keeping the exact and complicated calendars upon which the priests expended their intelligence. The art of the Maya civiliza- tion came to a climax about 700 or 800 a.p. The sculptured work of these people amazes the modern observer by its great plastic power and its frequent beauty, and perplexes him by a grotesqueness and by a sort of insane conventionality and intricacy outside the circle of his ideas. There is nothing quite like it in the old world. The nearest approach, and that is a remote one, is found in archaic Indian carvings. Everywhere there are woven feathers and s®r- pents twine in and out. Many Maya inscriptions resemble a certain sort of elaborate drawing made by lunatics in European asylums, more than any other old-world work. It is as if the Maya mindPrimitive Neolithic Civilizations 75 / had developed upon a different line from the old-world mind, had a different twist to its ideas, was not, by old-world standard:, a rational mind at all. This linking of these aberrant American civilizations to the idea of a general mental aberration finds support in their extraordinary obsession by the shedding of human blood. The Mexican civiliza- tion in particular ran blood; it offered thou- sands of human victims yearly. The cutting open of living victims, the tearing out of the still beating heart, was an act that dominated the minds and lives of these strange _priest- hoods. The public life, the national festiv- ities all turned on this fantastically horri- ble act. The ordinary exist- ence of the common people in these commu- nities was very like the ordinary existence of any other barbaric peas- antry. Their pottery, weaving and dyeing was very good. ‘The Maya writing was not only carven on stone NEOLITHIC WARRIOR Modelled from drawing by Prof. Rutot but written and painted upon skins and the like. The European and American museums contain many enigmatical Maya manu- scripts of which at present little has been deciphered except the dates. In Peru there were beginnings of a similar writing but they were superseded by a method of keeping records by knotting76 A Short History of the World / cords. A similar method of mnemonics was in use 1n China thou- sands of years ago. In the old world before 4000 or 5000 B.c., that is to say three or four thousand years earlier, there were primitive civilizations not unlike these American civilizations; civilizations based upon a temple, having a vast quantity of blood sacrifices and with an in- tensely astronomical priesthood. But in the old world the primi- tive civilizations reacted upon one another and developed towards the conditions of our own world. In America these primitive civili- zations never progressed beyond this primitive stage. Each of them was in a little world of its own. Mexico it seems knew little or nothing of Peru, until the Europeans came to America. The potato, which was the principal food stuff in Peru, was unknown in Mexico. Age by age these peoples lived and marvelled at their gods and made their sacrifices and died. Maya art rose to high levels of decorative beauty. Men made love and tribes made war. Drought and plenty, pestilence and health, followed one another. The priests elaborated their calendar and their sacrificial ritual through long centuries, but made little progress in other directions.XV SumeriA, Earty Eaypt anp WRITING HE old world is a wider, more varied stage than the new. By 6000 or 7000 B.c. there were already quasi-civilized communities almost at the Peruvian level, appearing in various fertile regions of Asia and in the Nile valley. At that time north Persia and western Turkestan and south Arabia were all more fertile than they are now, and there are traces of very early communities in these regions. It is in lower Mesopotamia however and in Egypt that there first appear cities, temples, systematic irri- gation, and evidences of a social organization rising above the level of a mere barbaric village-town. In those days the Euphrates and Tigris flowed by separate mouths into the Persian Gulf, and it was in the country between them that the Sumerians built their first cities. About the same time, for chronology is still vague, the great history of Egypt was beginning. These Sumerians appear to have been a brownish people with prominent noses. They employed a sort of writing that has been deciphered, and their language is now known. They had discov- ered the use of bronze and they built great tower-like temples of sun-dried brick. The clay of this country is very fine; they used it to write upon, and so it is that their inscriptions have been pre- served to us. They had cattle, sheep, goats and asses, but no horses. They fought on foot, in close formation, carrying spears and shields of skin. Their clothing was of wool and they shaved their heads. Each of the Sumerian cities seems generally to have been ar. independent state with a god of its own and priests of its own. But sometimes one city would establish an ascendancy over others and exact tribute from their population. A very ancient inscrip- 7778 A Short History of the World / tion at Nippur records the “empire,” the first recorded empire, of the Sumerian city of Erech. Its god and its priest-king claimed an authority from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea. At first writing was merely an abbreviated method of pictorial record. Even before Neolithic times men were beginning to write. The Azilian rock pictures to which we have already referred show the beginning of the process. Many of them record hunts and ex- peditions, and in most of these the human fig- ures are p lain iy drawn. But in some the pain ter would not bother with head and limbs; he just indicat- ed men by a vertical and one or two transverse strokes. | . 4 . BRICK OF HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLON ABOUT 2200 see. I Nae this to Note the cuneiform characters of the inscription, which records the building ofatemple @ CONVeN- to a Sun God tional con- densed picture writing was an easy transition. In Sumeria, where the writing was done on clay with a stick, the dabs of the charac- ters soon became unrecognizably unlike the things they stood for, but in Egypt where men painted on walls and on strips of the papyrus reed (the first paper) the likeness to the thing imitated remained. From the fact that the wooden styles used in Sumeria made wedge-shaped marks, the Sumerian writing is called cunei- form (= wedge-shaped).Sumeria, Early Egypt and Writing 79 An important step towards writing was made when pictures were used to indicate not the thing represented but some similar thing. In the rebus dear to children of a suitable age, this is still done to-day. We draw a camp with tents and a bell, and the child is delighted to guess that this is the Scotch name Campbell. The Sumerian language was a languagemade up of accumulated syllables rather like some contemporary Amerindian lan- guages, and it lent itself very readily to this syllabic method of writing words ex- pressing ideas that could not be con- veyed by pictures directly. Egyptian writing underwent parallel develop- ments. Later on, when foreign peoples with less distinctly syllabled methods of speech were to learn anduse these picture scripts they were to make those further EBONY CYLINDER SEALS OF FIRST EG YPTIAN modifications and DYNASTY at Abydos in 1921 by the British School of Ar- Recovered from the Tombs simplifications that theology. They give evider developed at last into alphabetical writing. world derived from a mixture Egyptian hieroglyphic (priest writing). to develop a conventionalized picture writing, never got to the alphabetical stage. ice of early form of block printing All the true alphabets of the later of the Sumerian cuneiform and the Later in China there was but in China it80 A Short History of the World | The invention of writing was of very great importance in the _ development of human societies. It put agreements, laws, com- i mandments on record. It made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. It made a continuous historical conscious- ness possible. The command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death. It is interesting to note that in ancient Sumeria seals were greatly used. s Paks} Pholo: 5. Boyer THE SAKHARA PYRAMIDS The Pyramid to right, the step Pyramid, is the oldest stone building in the world A king or a nobleman or a merchant would have his seal often very artistically carved, and would impress it on any clay document he wished to authorize. So close had civilization got to printing six thousand years ago. Then the clay was dried hard and became permanent. For the reader must remember that in the land of Meso- potamia for countless years, letters, records and accounts were all written on comparatively indestructible tiles. To that fact we owe a great wealth of recovered knowledge. Bronze, copper, gold, silver and, as a precious rarity,. meteoric iron were known in both Sumeria and Egypt at a very early stage. Daily life in those first city lands of the old world must have beenPhoto: D. McLeish VIEW FROM THE SUMMIT OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS Showing how these great monuments dominate the plain 8Ies fh. al Photo: D. McLeish THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDEREH 2Sumeria, Early Egypt and Writing 83 very similar in both Egypt and Sumeria. And except for the asses and cattle in the streets it must have been not unlike the life in the Maya cities of America three or four thousand years later. Most of the people in peace time were busy with irrigation and cultivation except on days of religious fest:vity. They had no money and no need for it. They managed their small occasional trades by barter. The princes and rulers who alone had more than a few possessions used gold and silver bars and precious stones for any incidental act of trade. The temple dominated life; in Sumeria it was a great towering temple that went up to a roof from which the stars were observed; in Egypt it was a massive building with only a ground floor. In Sumeria the priest ruler was the greatest, most splendid of beings. In Egypt however there was one who was raised above the priests; he was the living incarnation of the chief god of the land, the Pharaoh, the god king. There were few changes in the world in those days; men’s days were sunny, toilsome and conventional. Few strangers came into the land and such as did fared uncomfortably. The priest directed life according to immemorial rules and watched the stars for seed time and marked the omens of the sacrifices and interpreted the warnings of dreams. Men worked and loved and died, not un- happily, forgetful of the savage past of their race and heedless of its future. Sometimes the ruler was benign. Such was Pepi II, who reigned in Egypt for ninety years. Sometimes he was ambitious and took men’s sons to be soldiers and sent them against neighbour- ing city states to war and plunder, or he made them toil to build great buildings. Such were Cheops and Chephren and Mycerinus, who built those vast sepulchral piles, the pyramids at Gizeh. The largest of these is 450 feet high and the weight of stone in itis 4,883,000 tons. All this was brought down the Nile in boats and lugged into place chiefly by human muscle. Its erection must have exhausted Egypt more than a great war would have done.XVI PrimiItivE NomMapic PEOPLES T was not only in Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley that men were settling down to agriculture and the formation of city states in the centuries between 6000 and 3000 B.c. Wherever there were possibilities of irrigation and a steady all-the-year-round food supply men were exchanging the uncertainties and hardships of hunting and wandering for the routines of settlement. On the upper Tigris a people called the Assyrians were founding cities; in the valleys of Asia Minor and on the Mediterranean shores and islands, there were small communities growing up to civilization. Possibly parallel developments of human life were already going on in favourable regions of India and China. In many parts of Europe where there were lakes well stocked with fish, little communities of men had long settled in dwellings built on piles over the water, and were eking out agriculture by fishing and hunting. But over much larger areas of the old world no such settlement was possible. The land was too harsh, too thickly wooded or too arid, or the seasons too uncertain for mankind, with only the implements and science of that age to take root. For settlement under the conditions of the primitive civilizations men needed a constant water supply and warmth and sunshine. Where these needs were not satisfied, man could live as a transient, as a hunter following his game, as a herdsman following the seasonal grass, but he could not settle. The transition from the hunting to the herding life may have been very gradual. " From following herds of wild cattle or (in Asia) wild horses, men may have come to an idea of property in them, have learnt to pen them into valleys, have fought for them against wolves, wild dogs and other predatory beasts. 84POTTERY AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE LAKE DWELLERS Brit. Mus. 85A CONTEMPORARY LAKE VILLAGE These Borneo dwellings are practically counterparts of the homes of European neolithic communities 6000 B.c. So while the primitive civilizations of the cultivators were grow- ing up chiefly in the great river valleys, a different way of living, the nomadic life, a life in constant movement to and fro from winter pasture to summer pasture, was also growing up. The nomadic peoples were on the whole hardier than the agriculturalists; they were less prolific and numerous, they had no permanent temples and no highly organized priesthood; they had less gear; but the reader must not suppose that theirs was necessarily a less highly developed way of living on that account. In many ways this free life was a fuller life than that of the tillers of the soil. The in- dividual was more self-reliant; less of a unit in a crowd. The leader was more important; the medicine man perhaps less so.large the nomad took a wider view of life. He the confines of this settled land Moving over stretches of country touched on and that. He was used to the sight of strange faces. He had to scheme and treat for pasture with competing tribes. He knew minerals than the folk upon more of the plough lands because he went over mountain passes and into rocky places. He been a_ better Possibly may have metallurgist. bronze and much more prob- smelting were ably iron nomadic discoveries. Some of the earliest implements of iron reduced from its ores have been found in Central Europe far away from the early civilizations. Primitive Nomadic Peoples FLINT KNIVES OF 4500 B.C. Excavated 1922 by the British Schoo! of Archeology in Egypt from First Dynasty Tombs On the other hand the settled folk had their textiles and their pottery and made many desirable things. It was inevitable that as the two sorts of life, the agricultural and the nomadic differentiated, a certain amount of looting and trading should develop between the two. In Sumeria particularly which had deserts and seasonal “WAN & » ~~ Wu N ae | SPA. . Ft NOMADS IN EGYPT Egyptian wall painting in a tomb near ancient Beni Hassan, middle Egypt. It depicts the arriva! of a tribe of Semitic Nomads in Egypt about the year 1895 B.c88 A Short History of the World country on either hand it must have been usual to have the nomads camping close to the cultivated fields, trading and stealing and per- haps tinkering, as gipsies do to this day. (But hens they would not steal, because the domestic fowl — an Indian jungle fowl originally — was not domesticated by man until about 1000 B.c.) They would bring precious stones and things of metal and leather. If they were hunters they would bring skins. They would get in exchange pottery and beads and glass, garments and suchlike manufactured things. Three main regions and three main kinds of wandering and im- perfectly settled people there were in those remote days of the first civilizations in Sumeria and early Egypt. Away in the forests of Europe were the blonde Nordic peo- ples, hunters and herdsmen, a lowly race. ‘The primitive civilizations saw very little of this race before 1500 B.c. Away on thesteppes of eastern Asia vari- ous Mongolian EGYPT PEASANTS GOING TO WORK tribes, the Hunnish From an ancient and curiously painted model in the British Museum peoples, were do- mesticating the horse and developing a very wide sweeping habit of seasonal move- ment between their summer and winter camping places. Possibly the Nordic and Hunnish peoples were still separated from one another by the swamps of Russia and the greater Caspian Sea of that time. For very much of Russia there was swamp and lake. In the deserts, which were growing more arid now, of Syria and Arabia, tribes of a dark white or brownish people, the Semitic tribes, were driving flocks of sheep and goats and asses from pasture to pasture. It was these Semitic shepherds and certain more negroid people from southern Persia, the Elamites, who were the first nomads to come into close contact with the early civilizations. 'They cameSTELE GLORIFYING KING NARAM SIN, OF AKKAD This monarch, son of Sargon I, was a great architect as well as a famous conqueror. Discovered in 1898 among the ruins of Susa, Persia 89go A Short History of the World as traders and as raiders. Finally there arose leaders among them with bolder imaginations, and they became conquerors. About 2750 B.c. a great Semitic leader, Sargon, had conquered the whole Sumerian land and was master of all the world from the Persian Gulf. to the Mediterranean Sea. He was an illiterate bar- barian and his people, the Akkadians, learnt the Sumerian writing and adopted the Sumerian language as the speech of the officials and the learned. The empire he founded decayed after two cen- turies, and after one inundation of Elamites a fresh Semitic people, the Amorites, by degrees established their rule over Sumeria. They made their capital in what had hitherto been a small up-river town, Babylon, and their empire is called the first Babylonian Empire. It was consolidated by a great king called Hammurabi (circa 2100 B.c.) who made the earliest code of laws yet known to history. The narrow valley of the Nile lies less open to nomadic invasion than Mesopotamia, but about the time of Hammurabi occurred a successful Semitic invasion of Egypt and a line of Pharaohs was set up, the Hyksos or “‘shepherd kings,’”’ which lasted for several cen- turies. These Semitic conquerors never assimilated themselves with the Egyptians; they were always regarded with hostility as foreigners and barbarians; and they were at last expelled by a popular uprising about 1600 B.c. But the Semites had come into Sumeria for good and all, the two races assimilated and the Babylonian Empire became Semitic in its language and character.XVII Ture First SEA-GOING PEOPLES HE earliest boats and ships must have come into use some twenty-five or thirty thousand years ago. Man was prob- ably paddling about on the water with a log of wood or an inflated skin to assist him, at latest in the beginnings of the Neolithic period. A basketwork boat covered with skin and caulked was used in Egypt and Sumeria from the beginnings of our knowledge. Such boats are still used there. They are used to this day in Ireland and Wales and in Alaska; sealskin boats still make the crossing of Behring Straits. The hollow log followed as tools improved. The building of boats and then ships came in a natural succession. Perhaps the legend of Noah’s Ark preserves the memory of some early exploit in shipbuilding, just as the story of the Flood, so widely distributed among the peoples of the world, may be the tradition of the flooding of the Mediterranean basin. There were ships upon the Red Sea long before the pyramids were built, and there were ships on the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf by 7000 s.c. Mostly these were the ships of fishermen, but some were already trading and pirate ships — for knowing what we do of mankind we may guess pretty safely that the first sailors plundered where they could and traded where they had to do so. The seas on which these first ships adventured were inland seas on which the wind blew fitfully and which were often at a dead calm for days together, so that sailing did not develop beyond an accessory use. It is only in the last four hundred years that the well-rigged, ocean-going, sailing ship has developed. The ships of the ancient world were essentially rowing ships which hugged the shore and went into harbour at the first sign of rough weather. As ships grew into big galleys they caused a demand for war captives as galley slaves. We have already noted the appearance of the Semitic people as wanderers and nomads in the region of Syria and Arabia, and how they conquered Sumeria and set up first the Akkadian and then the first Babylonian Empire. In the west these same Semitic peoples QI92 A Short History of the World were taking to the sea. They set up a string of harbour towns along the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean, of which Tyre and Sidon were the chief; and by the time of Hammurabi in Babylon, they had spread as traders, wanderers and colonizers over the whole Mediter- ranean basin. These sea Semites were called the Phoenicians. They settled largely in Spain, pushing back the old Iberian Basque popula- tion and sending coasting expeditions through the straits of Gibraltar; and they set up colonies upon the north coast of Africa. Of Carthage, one of these Phoenician cities, we shall have much more to tell later. But the Phcenicians were not the first people to have galleys in the Mediterranean waters. There was already a series of towns and cities among the islands and coasts of that sea belonging to a race or races apparently connected by blood and language with the Basques to the west and the Berbers and Egyptians to the south, the A¢gean peoples. These peoples must not be confused with the Greeks, who come much later into our, story; they were pre-Greek, but they had cities in Greece and Asia Minor, Mycenez and Troy for example, and they had a great and prosperous establishment at Cnossos in Crete. It is only in the last half century that the industry of excavating archeologists has brought the extent and civilization of the Augean peoples to our knowledge. Cnossos has been most thoroughly explored; it was happily not succeeded by any city big enough to destroy its ruins, and so it is our chief source of information about this once almost forgotten civilization. The history of Cnossos goes back as far as the history of Egypt; the two countries were trading actively across the sea by 4000 B.c. By 2500 s.c., that is between the time of Sargon I and Hammurabi, Cretan civilization was at its zenith. Cnossos was not so much a town as a great palace for the Cretan monarch and his people. It was not even fortified. It was only forti- fied later as the Phoenicians grew strong, and as a new and more ter- rible breed of pirates, the Greeks, came upon the sea from the north. The monarch was called Minos, as the Egyptian monarch was called Pharaoh; and he kept his state in a palace fitted with running water, with bathrooms and the like conveniences such as we know of in no other ancient remains. There he held great festivals and shows. There was bull-fighting, singularly like the bull-fighting thatThe First Sea-going Peoples 93 still survives in Spain; there was resemblance even in the costumes of the bull-fighters; and there were gymnastic displays. The Photo: Fred Botssonnas THE TREASURE HOUSE AT MYCEN women’s clothes were remarkably modern in spirit; they wore corsets and flounced dresses. The pottery, the textile manufactures, the sculpture, painting, jewellery, ivory, metal and inlay work of these94 A Short History of the World Cretans was often astonishingly beautiful. And they had a system of writing, but that still remains to be deciphered. This happy and sunny and civilized life lasted for some score of centuries. About 2000 s.c. Cnossos and Babylon abounded in comfortable and cultivated people who probably led very pleasant lives. They had shows and they had religious festivals, they had domestic slaves to look after them and industrial slaves to make a profit for them. Life must have seemed very secure in Cnossos for such people, sunlit and girdled by the blue sea. Egypt of course must have appeared rather a declining country in those days under the rule of her half-barbaric shepherd kings, and if one took an in- terest in politics one must have noticed how the Semitic people seemed to be getting everywhere, ruling Egypt, ruling distant Babylon, building Nineveh on the upper Tigris, sailing west to the Pillars of Hercules (the straits of Gibraltar) and setting up their colonies on those distant coasts. There were some active and curious minds in Cnossos, because later on the Greeks told legends of a certain skilful Cretan artificer, Deedalus, who attempted to make some sort of flying machine, perhaps a glider, which collapsed and fell into the sea. It is interesting to note some of the differences as well as the resemblances between the life of Cnossos and our own. ‘Toa Cretan gentleman of 2500 B.c. iron was a rare metal which fell out of the sky and was curious rather than useful —for as yet only meteoric iron was known, iron had not been obtained from its ores. Compare that with our modern state of affairs pervaded by iron everywhere. The horse again would be a quite legendary creature to our Cretan, a sort of super-ass which lived in the bleak northern lands far away beyond the Black Sea. Civilization for him dwelt chiefly in Agean Greece and Asia Minor, where Lydians and Carians and Trojans lived a life and probably spoke languages like his own. - There were Pheenicians and AXgeans settled in Spain and North Africa, but those were very remote regions to his imagination. Italy was still a desolate land covered with dense forests; the brown-skinned Etrus- cans had not yet gone there from Asia Minor. And one day perhaps this Cretan gentleman went down to the harbour and saw a captive who attracted his attention because he was very fair-complexionedThe First Sea-going Peoples Qs and had blue eyes. Perhaps our Cretan tried to talk to him and was answered in an unintelligible gibberish. This creature came from somewhere beyond the Black Sea and seemed to be an altogether benighted savage. But indeed he was an Aryan tribesman, of a race and culture of which we shall soon have much to tell, and the strange gibberish he spoke was to differentiate some day into Sanskrit, Ft i ; “ye — LY Sy la Ly Ye ba oF) fi K Nine’ 2} ay 67 ¢ ‘ ys Ls f * ay an So 4 Vy EON ea, e E26 Ly ex G60) rr X > A "& ee is - lee showing the relation of the MEDIAN and Second BABY LONIAN (Chaldxzan)EMPIRES in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar the Great [MounTaINS Shaded vertical ly.)The Last Babylonian Empire The Caspi ea were ly less extensive .. Samarkand So, sul OoDTA The length of the at road from Sardis*to Susa , across Armenia, would be over 1600 mules, Sardanapalus, though an Assyrian, had been quite Babylon-ized. He made a library, a library not of paper but of the clay tablets that were used for writing in Mesopotamia since early Sumerian days. His collection has been unearthed and is perhaps the most precious store of historical material in the world. The last of the Chaldean line of Babylonian monarchs, Nabonidus, had even keener literary tastes. He patronized antiquarian researches, and when a date was worked out by his investigators for the accession of Sargon I he com- memorated the fact by inscriptions. But there were many signs of disunion in his empire, and he sought to centralize it by bringing a number of the various local gods to Babylon and setting up temples to them there. This device was to be practised quite successfully by the Romans in later times, but in Babylon it roused the jealousy of the powerful priesthood of Bel Marduk, the dominant god of the Babylonians. They cast about for a possible alternative to Naboni- dus and found it in Cyrus the Persian, the ruler of the adjacent Median Empire. Cyrus had already distingu’shed himself by conquering Croesus, the rich king of Lydia in Eastern Asia Minor,ep titanate ee cee ee 112 A Short History of the World He came up against Babylon, there was a battle outside the walls, and the gates of the city were opened to him (538 B.c.). His soldiers entered the city without fighting. The crown prince Belshazzar, the son of Nabonidus, was feasting, the Bible relates, when a hand appeared and wrote in letters of fire upon the wall these mystical words: “‘Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin,” which was interpreted by the prophet Daniel, whom he summoned to read the riddle, as “God has numbered thy kingdom and fin- ished it; thou art weighed in the bal- ance and found wanting and thy kingdom is given to the Medes and Persians.’ Possibly the priests of Bel Marduk knew something about that writing on the wall. Belshazzar was killed that night, says the Bible. Nabonidus was taken prisoner, and the occupation of the city was so peaceful that the services of Bel Mar- duk continued without intermission. Thus it was the Babylonian and Median empires were united. Cam- byses, the son of Cyrus, subjugated Egypt. Cambyses went mad and was accidentally killed, and was pres- ently succeeded by Darius the Mede, Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, one of the chief councillors of Cyrus. Photo: Miss ¥. Biggs The Persian Empire of Darius I, PERSIAN MONARCH From the ruins of Persepolis the first of the new Aryan empires in the seat of the old civilizations, was the greatest empire the world had hitherto seen. It included all Asia Minor and Syria, all the old Assyrian and Babylonian empires, Egypt, the Caucasus and Caspian regions, Media, Persia, and it extended into India as far as the Indus. Such an empire was possible because the horse and rider and the chariot and the made- road had now been brought into the world. Hitherto the ass and ox and the camel for desert use had afforded the swiftest method of" ; 8 ome - ne ates 40 nin +. ' : “ + * i NEP tae 2 re WIRES Jet ere PRR pegs Rey IH ithe : sr : = ean fo GS eee | | eer ee ge EPS Ree mu scp os soit cs 4% * oem Photo: Major W. ¥. P. Rodd THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS The capital city of the Persian Empire; burnt by Alexander th Great eee: Roto: | Majer Wise woes . THE GREAT PORCH OF XERXES, AT PERSEPOLIS | II3sal lian ti Ag ilar nha imran ep bh 114 A Short History of the World transport. Great arterial roads were made by the Persian rulers to hold their new empire, and post horses were always in waiting for the imperial messenger or the traveller with an official permit. Moreover the world was now beginning to use coined money, which greatly facilitated trade and intercourse. But the capital of this vast empire was no longer Babylon. In the long run the priest- hood of Bel Marduk gained nothing by their treason. Babylon though still important was now a declining city, and the great cities of the new empire were Persepolis and Susa and Ecbatana. The capital was Susa. Nineveh was already abandoned and sinking into ruins.xO Ture Earty History OF THE JEWS ND now we can tell of the Hebrews, a Semitic people, not so important in their own time as in their influence upon the later history of the world. They were settled in Judea long before 1000 B.c., and their capital city after that time was Jerusalem. Their story is interwoven with that of the great empires on either side of them, Egypt to the south and the changing empires of Syria, Assyria and Babylon to the north. Their country was an inevitable high road between these latter powers and Egypt. Their importance in the world is due to the fact that they pro- duced a written literature, a world history, a collection of laws, chronicles, psalms, books of wisdom, poetry and fiction and political utterances which became at last what Christians know as the Old Testament, the Hebrew Bible. This literature appears in history in the fourth or fifth century B.c. Probably this literature was first put together in Babylon. We have already told how the Pharaoh, Necho II, invaded the Assyrian Empire while Assyria was fighting for life against Medes, Persians and Chaldeans. Josiah King of Judah opposed him, and was de- feated and slain at Megiddo (608 B.c.). Judah became a tributary to Egypt, and when Nebuchadnezzar the Great, the new Chaldean king in Babylon, rolled back Necho into Egypt, he attempted to manage Judah by setting up puppet kings in Jerusalem. The experiment failed, the people massacred his Babylonian officials, and he then determined to break up this little state altogether, which had long been playing off Egypt against the northern empire. Jerusalem was sacked and burnt, and the remnant of the people was carried off captive to Babylon. II5derailed diame plana 116 A Short History of the World There they remained until Cyrus took Babylon (538 B.c.). He then collected them together and sent them back to resettle their country and rebuild the walls and temple of Jerusalem. Before that time the Jews do not seem to have been a very civi- lized or united people. Probably only a very few of them could read or write. In their own history one never hears of the early books of the Bible being read; the first mention of a book is in the time of Josiah. The Babylonian captivity civilized them and consolidated them. They returned aware of their own literature, an acutely self- conscious and political people. Their Bible at that time seems to have consisted only of the Pentateuch, that is to say the first five books of the Old Testament as we know it. In addition, as separate books they already had many of the other books that have since been incorporated with the Pentateuch into the present Hebrew Bible, Chronicles, the Psalms and Proverbs for example. The accounts of the Creation of the World, of Adam and Eve and of the Flood, with which the Bible begins, run closely parallel with similar Babylonian legends; they seem to have been part of the com- mon beliefs of all the Semitic peoples. So too the stories of Moses and of Samson have Sumerian and Babylonian parallels. But with the story of Abraham and onward begins something more special to the Jewish race. Abraham may have lived as early as the days of Hammurabi in Babylon. He was a patriarchal Semitig nomad. To the book of Genesis the reader must go for the story of his wanderings and for the stories of his sons and grandchildren and how they became captive in the Land of Egypt. He travelled through Canaan, and the God of Abraham, says the Bible story, promised this smiling land of pros- perous cities to him and to his children. And after a long sojourn in Egypt and after fifty years of wander- ing in the wilderness under the leadership of Moses, the children of Abraham, grown now to a host of twelve tribes, invaded the land of Canaan from the Arabian deserts to the East. They may have done this somewhen between 1600 B.c. and 1300 B.c.; there are no igyptian records of Moses nor of Canaan at this time to help out the story. But at any rate they did not succeed in conquering anymorethanthe hilly back- grounds of the promised land. The coast wasnow in the hands, not of ‘the Canaanites but of new- comers, those Aigean peo- ples, the Phi- listines; and their cities, Gaza, Gath, Ashdod, As- calonandJop- pa success- fully with- stood the Hebrew _at- tack. For many genera- tions the children of Abraham re- mained anob- scure people of the hilly back country engaged in The Early History of the Jews 117 | The LAND of the HEBREWS [The dist ance from, yre to err salem ts rougt uby 100 — about that of ae to | Pistol Fron 5 Gabe Te » the Red ¢ Sea is ab ane the same distance as frorn Londor to Newcastle .] AshaZa Oe Zl Ash ikelort 7 'G at i, N of ri TLa TT |p| Hill country shad2d 111 | sil || } || a site || Route from Phoenicia || Route to the Red Sea, across to Babylon Palestne...-— —— p= eee Damascus O 50 100 l i incessant bickerings with the Philistines and with the kindred tribes about them, the Moabites, the Midianites so forth. The reader will find in the book of Judges a record of their struggles and disasters during this period. disasters and failures frankly told. For very largely it is a record of118 A Short History of the World For most of this period the Hebrews were ruled, so far as there was any rule among them, by priestly judges selected by the elders of the people, but at last somewhen towards 1000 B.c. they chose | themselves a king, Saul, to lead them in battle. But Saul!’s leading tik was no great improvement upon the leading of the Judges; he A perished under the hail of Philistine arrows at the battle of Mount Gilboa, his armour went into the temple of the Philistine Venus, and his body was nailed to the walls of Beth-shan. His successor David was more successful and more politic. With Fin David dawned rare eee the only period of prosperity the Hebrew peoples were) €Vern to know. It was based on a close alliance with the Phoenician city of Tyre, whose Kane Hiram seems to have been a man of very great intel- ligence and en- terprise. He wished to secure a trade route to the Red Sea through the He- brewhillcountry. Normally Phee- nician trade went to the Red Sea by Egypt, but Kgypt was in a state of profound disorder at this MOUND AT BABYLON Beneath which are the remains of a great palace of NebuchadnezzarThe Early History of the Jews IIQ time; there may have been other obstructions to Phoenician trade along this line, and at any rate Hiram established the very closest relations both with David and with his son and successor Solomon. Under Hiram’s auspices the walls, palace and temple of Jerusalem arose, and in return Hiram built and launched his ships on the Red Sea. A very considerable trade passed northward and southward through Jerusalem. And Solomon achieved a prosperity and mag- nificence unprecedented in the experience of his people. He was even given a daughter of Pharaoh in marriage. But it is well to keep the proportion of things in mind. At the climax of his glories Solomon was only a little subordinate king in a little city. His power was so transitory that within a few years of his death, Shishak the first Pharaoh of the twenty-second dynasty, had taken Jerusalem and looted most of its splendours. The ac- count of Solomon’s magnificence given in the books of Kings and Chronicles is questioned by many critics. They say that it was added to and exaggerated by the patriotic pride of later writers. But the Bible account read carefully is not so overwhelming as it appears at the first reading. Solomon’s temple, if one works out the measurements, would go inside a small suburban church, and his fourteen hundred chariots cease to impress us when we learn from an Assyrian monument that his successor Ahab sent a contingent of two thousand to the Assyrian army. It is also plainly manifest from the Bible narrative that Solomon spent himself in display and overtaxed and overworked his people. At his death the northern part of his kingdom broke off from Jerusalem and became the independent kingdom of Israel. Jerusalem remained the capital city of Judah. The prosperity of the Hebrew people was short-lived. Hiram died, and the help of Tyre ceased to strengthen Jerusalem. Egypt grew strong again. The history of the kings of Israel and the kings of Judah becomes a history of two little states ground between, first, Syria, then Assyria and then Babylon to the north and Egypt to the south. Itisa tale of disasters and of deliverances that only delayed disaster. It is a tale of barbaric kings ruling a barbaric people. In 721 z.c. the kingdom of Israel was swept away into captivity by the Assyrians and its people utterly lost to history. Judah strugglederr ged as hea) t No Br a sym = . Fr. yuck A : Ie SPN Te ey cee: ; Aa Photo: Underwood & Underwood THE ISHTAR GATEWAY, BABYLON The bulls are in richly coloured enamel on baked brick I20The Early History of the Jews 121 on until in 604 B.c., as we have told, it shared the fate of Israel. There may be details open to criticism in the Bible story of Hebrew history from the days of the Judges onward, but on the whole it is evidently a true story which squares with all that has been learnt in the excavation of Egypt and Assyria and Babylon during the past century. It was in Babylon that the Hebrew people got their history to- gether and evolved their tradition. The people who came back to Jerusalem at the command of Cyrus were a very different people in spirit and knowledge from those who had gone into captivity. They had learnt civilization. Inthe development of their peculiar charac- ter a very great part was played by certain men, a new sort of men, the Prophets, to whom we must now direct our attention. These Prophets mark the appearance of new and remarkable forces in the steady development of human society.XXII PRIESTS AND PROPHETS IN JUDEA HE fall of Assyria and Babylon were only the first of a series of disasters that were to happen to the Semitic peoples. In the seventh century B.c. it would have seemed as though the whole civilized world was to be dominated by Semitic rulers. They ruled the great Assyrian empire and they had conquered Egypt; Assyria, Babylon, Syria were all Semitic, speaking languages that were mutually intelligible. The trade of the world was in Semitic hands. Tyre, Sidon, the great mother cities of the Phoenician coast, had thrown out colonies that grew at last to even greater proportion in Spain, Sicily and Africa. Carthage, founded before 800 B.c., had risen to a population of more than a million. It was for a time the greatest city on earth. Its ships went to Britain and out into the Atlantic. They may have reached Madeira. We have already noted how Hiram co-operated with Solomon to build ships on the Red Sea for the Arabian and perhaps for the Indian trade. In the time of the Pharaoh Necho, a Phoenician expedition sailed completely round Africa. At that time the Aryan peoples were still barbarians. Only the Greeks were reconstructing a new civilization of the ruins of the one they had destroyed, and the Medes were becoming “for- midable,” as an Assyrian inscription calls them, in central Asia. In 800 B.c. no one could have prophesied that before the third cen- tury B.c. every trace of Semitic dominion would be wiped out by Aryan-speaking conquerors, and that everywhere the Semitic peoples would be subjects or tributaries or scattered altogether. Every- where except in the northern deserts of Arabia, where the Bedouin adhered steadily to the nomadic way of life, the ancient way of life of the Semites before Sargon I and his Akkadians went down to conquer Sumeria. But the Arab Bedouin were never conquered by Aryan masters. 122Priests and Prophets in Judea 123 Now of all these civilized Semites who were beaten and overrun in these five eventful centuries one people only held together and clung to its ancient traditions and that was this little people, the Jews, who were sent back to build their city of Jerusalem by Cyrus the Persian. And they were able to do this, because they had got together this literature of theirs, their Bible, in Babylon. It is not so much the Jews who made the Bible as the Bible which made the Jews. Running through this Bible were certain ideas, different from the ideas of the people about them, very stimulating and sus- taining ideas, to which they were destined to cling through five and twenty centuries of hardship, adventure and oppression. Foremost of these Jewish ideas was this, that their God was in- visible and remote, an invisible God in a temple not made with hands, a Lord of Righteousness throughout the earth. All other peoples had national gods embodied in images that lived in temples. If the image was smashed and the temple razed, presently that god died out. But this was a new idea, this God of the Jews, in the heavens, high above priests and sacrifices. And this God of Abra- ham, the Jews believed, had chosen them to be his peculiar people, to restore Jerusalem and make it the capital of Righteousness in the World. They were a people exalted by their sense of a common destiny. This belief saturated them all when they returned to Jerusalem after the captivity in Babylon. Is it any miracle that in their days of overthrow and subjugation many Babylonians and Syrians and so forth and later on many Phoenicians, speaking practically the same language and having endless customs, habits, tastes and traditions in common, should be attracted by this inspiring cult and should seek to share in its fellow- ship and its promise? After the fall of Tyre, Sidon, Carthage and the Spanish Pheenician cities, the Phoenicians suddenly vanish from history; and as suddenly we find, not simply in Jerusalem but in Spain, Africa, Egypt, Arabia, the East, wherever the Phoenicians had set their feet, communities of Jews. And they were all held together by the Bible and by the reading of the Bible. Jerusalem was from the first only their nominal capital; their real city was this book of books. This is a new sort of thing in history. It is some- thing of which the seeds were sown long before, when the Sumerians124 A Short History of the World and Egyptians began to turn their hieroglyphics into writing. The Jews were a new thing, a people without a king and presently with- out a temple (for as we shall tell Jerusalem itself was broken up in 70 a.p.), held together and consolidated out of heterogeneous elements by nothing but the power of the written word. And this mental welding of the Jews was neither planned nor foreseen nor done by either priests or statesmen. Not only a new kind of community but a new kind of man comes into history with the development of the Jews. In the days of Solomon the Hebrews looked like becoming a little people just like any other little people of that time clustering around court and temple, ruled by the wis- dom of the priest and led by the ambition of the king. But already, the reader may learn from the Bible, this new sort of man of which we speak, the Prophet, was in evidence. As troubles thicken round the divided Hebrews the importance of these Prophets increases. What were these Prophets? They were men of the most diverse origins. The Prophet Ezekiel was of the priestly caste and the Prophet Amos wore the goatskin mantle of a shepherd, but all had this in common, that they gave allegiance to no one but to the God of Righteousness and that they spoke directly to the people. They os ai z Ady THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II his obelisk (in the British Museum) of the King of Assyria mentions, in cuneiform, “Jehu the son of mri Panel showing Jewish captives bringing tributePriests and Prophets in Judea 125 ANOTHER PANEL OF THE BLACK OBELISK Captive Princes making obeisance to Shalmaneser II ‘ame without licence or consecration. ‘“‘Now the word of the Lord came unto me;” that was the formula. They were intensely political. They exhorted the people against Egypt, “that broken reed,” or against Assyria or Babylon; they denounced the indolence of the priestly order or the flagrant sins of the King. Some of them turned their attention to what we should now call “social reform.” The rich were “grinding the faces of the poor,” the luxurious were consuming the children’s bread; wealthy people made friends with and imitated the splendours and vices of foreigners; and this was hateful to Jehovah, the God of Abraham, who would certainly punish this land. These fulminations were written down and preserved and studied. They went wherever the Jews went, and wherever they went they spread a new religious spirit. They carried the common man past priest and temple, past court and king and brought him face to face with the Rule of Righteousness. That is their supreme importance in the history of mankind. In the great utterances of Isaiah the prophetic voice rises to a pitch of splendid anticipation and foreshadows the whole earth united and at peace under one God. Therein the Jewish prophecies culminate. All the Prophets did not speak in this fashion, and the intelligent reader of the prophetic books will find much hate in them, much prejudice, and much that will remind him of the propaganda pam-126 A Short History of the World phlets of the present time. Nevertheless it is the Hebrew Prophets of the period round and about the Babylonian captivity who mark the appearance of a new power in the world, the power of individual moral appeal, of an appeal to the free conscience of mankind against the fetish sacrifices and slavish loyalties that had hitherto bridled and harnessed our race.OX Tur GREEKS OW while after Solomon (whose reign was probably about 960 B.c.) the divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah were suffering destruction and deportation, and while the Jewish people were developing their tradition in captivity in Babylon, an- other great power over the human mind, the Greek tradition, was also arising. While the Hebrew prophets were working out a new sense of direct moral responsibility between the people and an eter- nal and universal God of Right, the Greek philosophers were train- ing the human mind in a new method and spirit of intellectual adventure. The Greek tribes as we have told were a branch of the Aryan- speaking stem. They had come down among the Aigean cities and islands some centuries before 1000 B.c. They were probably already in southward movement before the Pharaoh Thothmes hunted his first elephants beyond the conquered Euphrates. For in those days there were elephants in Mesopotamia and lions in Greece. It is possible that it was a Greek raid that burnt Cnossos, but there are no Greek legends of such a victory though there are stories of Minos and his palace (the Labyrinth) and of the skill of the Cre- tan artificers. Like most of the Aryans these Greeks had singers and reciters whose performances were an important social link, and these handed down from the barbaric beginnings of their people two great epics, the Iliad, telling how a league of Greek tribes besieged and took and sacked the town of Troy in Asia Minor, and the Odyssey, being a long adventure story of the return of the sage captain, Odysseus, from Troy to his own island. These epics were written down somewhen in the eighth or seventh century B.c., when the Greeks had acquired the use of an alphabet from their more civilized neighbours, but they 127Photo: Sebah & ¥onillier STATUE OF MELEAGER Note the progress in plastic power from the earlier wooden statue on leftThe Greeks 129 are supposed to have been in existence very much earlier. Formerly they were ascribed to a particular blind bard, Homer, who was sup- posed to have sat down and composed them as Milton composed Paradise Lost. Whether there really was such a poet, whether he composed or only wrote down and polished these epics and so forth, is a favourite quarrelling ground for the erudite. We need not con- cern ourselves with such bickerings here. The thing that matters from our point of view is that the Greeks were in possession of their epics in the eighth century B.c., and that they were a common possession and a link between their various tribes, giving them a sense of fellowship as against the outer barbarians. They were a eroup of kindred peoples linked by the spoken and afterwards by the written word, and sharing common ideals of courage and behaviour. The epics showed the Greeks a barbaric people without iron, without writing, and still not living in cities. They seem to have lived at first in open villages of huts around the halls of their chiefs outside the ruins of the AXgean cities they had destroyed. Then they began to wall their cities and to adopt the idea of temples from the people they had conquered. It has been said that the cities of the primitive civilizations grew up about the altar of some tribal god, and that the wall was added; in the cities of the Greeks the wall preceded the temple. They began to trade and send out colo- nies. By the seventh century B.c. a new series of cities had grown up in the valleys and islands of Greece, forgetful of the AXgean cities and civilization that had preceded them; Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Samos, Miletus among the chief. There were already Greek settlements along the coast of the Black Sea and in Italy and Sicily. The heel and toe of Italy was called Magna Grecia. Mar- seilles was a Greek town established on the site of an earlier Phoeni- cian colony. Now countries which are great plains or which have as a chief Euphrates or Nile tend means of transport some great river like the The cities of Egypt to become united under some common rule. and the cities of Sumeria, for example, ran together under one system of government. But the Greek peoples were cut up among islands and mountain valleys; both Greece and Magna Grecia are very mountainous; and the tendency was all the other way. When the130 A Short History of the World Greeks come into history they are divided up into a number of little states which showed no signs of coalescence. They are different even in race. Some consist chiefly of citizens of this or that Greek tribe, Ionic, Aolian or Doric; some have a mingled population of Greeks and descendants of the pre-Greek ‘‘Mediterranean”’ folk; some have an unmixed free citizenship of Greeks lording it over an enslaved conquered population like the ‘“‘Helots”’ in Sparta. In some the old leaderly Aryan families have become a close aristocracy ; Photo: Fred Botssonnas RUINS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA in some there is a democracy of all the Aryan citizens; in some there are elected or even hereditary kings, in some usurpers or tyrants. And the same geographical conditions that kept the Greek states divided and various, kept them small. The largest states were smaller than many English counties, and it is doubtful if the popula- tion of any of their cities ever exceeded a third of a million. Few came up even to 50,000. There were unions of interest and sym- pathy but no coalescences. Cities made leagues and alliances asThe Greeks trade increased, and small cities put themselves under the protection of great ones. Yet all Greece was held together in a certain com- munity of feeling by two things, by the epics and by the custom of taking part every fourth year in the athletic contests at Olympia. This did not prevent wars and feuds, but it mitigated something of the savagery of war between them, and a truce protected all travel- lers to and from the games. As time went on the sentiment of a common heritage grew and the number of states participating in the Olympic games increased until at last not only Greeks but com- petitors from the closely kindred countries of Epirus and Macedonia to the north were admitted. The Greek cities grew in trade and importance, and the quality of their civilization rose steadily in the seventh and sixth centuries B.c. Their social life differed in many interesting points from the social life of the A2gean and river valley civilizations. They had splendid temples but the priesthood was not the great traditional body it was in the cities of the older world, the repository of all knowledge, the storehouse of ideas. They had leaders and noble families, but no quasi-divine monarch surrounded by an elaborately organize -d court. Rather their organization was aristocratic, with leading families which kept each other in order. Even their so-called * democracies ”’ were aristocratic; every citizen had a share in public affairs and came to the assembly in a democracy, but everybody was not a citizen. The Greek democracies were not like our modern “‘democracies” in which everyone has a vote. Many of the Greek democracies had a few hundred or a few thousand citizens and then many thousands of slaves, freedmen and so forth, with no share in public affairs. Generally in Greece affairs were in the hands of a ee of sub- stantial men. Their kings and their tyrants alike were Just men sel in front of other men or usurping a leadership; they were not quasi- divine overmen like Pharaoh or Minos or the monarchs of Mesopo- tamia. Both thought and government therefore had ¢ . freedom under Greek conditions such as they had known in none of the older civilizations. "The Greeks had brought down into cities the indi- vidualism, the personal initiative of the wandering life of the north- ern parklands. They were the first republicans of importance in history.132 A Short History of the World . And we find that as they emerge from a condition of barbaric M warfare a new thing becomes apparent in their intellectual life. th We find men who are not priests seeking and recording knowledge a, and enquiring into the mysteries of life and being, in a way that has Hi hitherto been the sublime privilege of priesthood or the presumptu- Photo: Alinart THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON), PASSTUM, SICILY ous amusement of kings. We find already in the sixth century B.c. — perhaps while Isaiah was still prophesying in Babylon — such men Bie as Thales and Anaximander of Miletus and Heraclitus of Ephesus, elk who were what we should now call independent gentlemen, giving their minds to shrewd questionings of the world in which we live, asking what its real nature was, whence it came and what its destiny might be, and refusing all ready-made or evasive answers. Of these questionings of the universe by the Greek mind, we shall have more to say a little later in this history. These Greek enquirersThe Greeks who begin to be remarkable in the sixth century B.c. are the first philosophers, the first ““wisdom-lovers,”’ in the world. And it may be noted here how important a century this sixth century B.c. was in the history of humanity. For not only were these Greek philosophers beginning the research for clear ideas about this universe and man’s place in it and Isaiah carrying Jewish prophecy to its sublimest levels, but as we shall tell later Gautama Buddha was then teaching in India and Confucius and Lao T’se in China. From Athens to the Pacific the human mind was astir.XOV Ture WARS OF THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS HILE the Greeks in the cities in Greece, South Italy and Asia Minor were embarking upon free intellectual enquiry and while in Babylon and Jerusalem the last of the Hebrew prophets were creating a free conscience for mankind, two adventurous Aryan peoples, the Medes and the Persians, were in possession of the civilization of the ancient world and were making a great empire, the Persian empire, which was far larger in extent than any empire the world had seen hitherto. Under Cyrus, Babylon and the rich and ancient civilization of Lydia had been added to the Persian rule; the Phoenician cities of the Levant and all the Greek cities in Asia Minor had been made tributary, Cambyses had sub- jected Egypt, and Darius I, the Mede, the third of the Persian rulers (521 B.c.), found himself monarch as it seemed of all the world. His couriers rode with his decrees from the Dardanelles to the Indus and from Upper Egypt to Central Asia. The Greeks in Europe, it is true, Italy, Carthage, Sicily and the Spanish Phoenician settlements, were not under the Persian Peace; but they treated it with respect and the only people who gave any serious trouble were the old parent hordes of Nordic people in South Russia and Central Asia, the Seythians, who raided the northern and north-eastern borders. Of course the population of this great Persian empire was not a population of Persians. ‘The Persians were only the small conquer- ing minority of this enormous realm. ‘The rest of the population was what it had been before the Persians came from time imme- morial, only that Persian was the administrative language. Trade and finance were still largely Semitic, Tyre and Sidon as of old were the great Mediterranean ports and Semitic shipping plied upon the seas. But many of these Semitic merchants and business people as 134The Wars of the Greeks and Persians Brit. Mus FINE PIECE OF ATHENIAN POTTERY Showing Greek merchant vessels with sails and oars they went from place to place already found a sympathetic and con- venient common history in the Hebrew tradition and the Hebrew scriptures. A new element which was increasing rapidly in this empire was the Greek element. The Greeks were becoming serious rivals to the Semites upon the sea, and their detached and vigorous intelligence made them useful and unprejudiced officials. It was on account of the Scythians that Darius I invaded Europe. He wanted to reach South Russia, the homeland of the Seythian horsemen. He crossed the Bosphorus with a great army and marched through Bulgaria to the Danube, crossed this by a bridge of boats and pushed far northward. His army suffered terribly. It was largely an infantry force and the mounted Scythians rode all round it, cut off its supplies, destroyed any stragglers and never came to a pitched battle. Darius was forced into an inglorious retreat. He returned himself to Susa but he left an army in Thrace and Macedonia, and Macedonia submitted to Darius. Insurrect ons of the Greek cities in Asia followed this failure, and the Kuropean Greeks were drawn into the contest. Darius resolved upon the sub- jugation of the Greeks in Europe. With the Phoenician fleet at his disposal he was able to subdue one island after another, and finally in 490 B.c. he made his main attack upon Athens. A considerable Armada sailed from the ports of Asia Minor and the eastern Mediter- ranean, and the expedition landed its troops at Marathon to the north of Athens. There they were met and s gnally defeated by the Athenians.hele Ladi Dh a Taide aia eee eee : 136 A Short History of the World An extraordinary thing happened at this time. The bitterest | rival of Athens in Greece was Sparta, but now Athens appealed to Sparta, sending a herald, a swift runner, imploring the Spartans not to let Greeks become slaves to barbarians. This runner (the prototype of all “Marathon” runners) did over a hundred miles of broken country in less than two days. The Spartans responded | promptly and generously; but when, in three days, the Spartan force reached Athens, there was nothing for it to do but to view the battlefield and the bodies of the defeated Persian soldiers. The Persian fleet had returned to Asia. So ended the first Persian attack on Greece. The next was much more impressive. Darius died soon after the news of his defeat at Marathon reached him, and for four years his son and successor, Xerxes, prepared a host to crush the Greeks. For a time terror united all the Greeks. The army of Xerxes was certainly the greatest that had hitherto been assembled in the world. It was a huge assembly of discordant elements. It crossed the Dardanelles, 480 B.c., by a bridge of boats; and along the coast as it advanced moved an equally miscellaneous fleet carrying sup- plies. At the narrow pass of Thermopyle a small force of 1400 men under the Spartan Leonidas resisted this multitude, and after a fight of unsurpassed heroism was completely destroyed. Every man was killed. But the losses they inflicted upon the Persians were enormous, and the army of Xerxes pushed on to Thebes and a Athens in a chastened mood. Thebes surrendered and made terms. A The Athenians abandoned their city and it was burnt. Greece seemed in the hands of the conqueror, but again came victory against the odds and all expectations. The Greek fleet, though not a third the size of the Persian, assailed it in the bay of Salamis and destroyed it. Xerxes found himself and his immense army cut off from supplies and his heart failed him. He retreated to Asia with one half of his army, leaving the rest to be defeated at Platea (479 B.c.) what time the remnants of the Persian fleet were hunted down by the Greeks and destroyed at Mycale in Asia Minor. The Persian danger was at an end. Most of the Greek cities in Asia became free. All this is told in great detail and with much picturesqueness in the first of written histories, the History ofPat we ¥ & . & a & es Syne ok , ns td] nthe SG os REDS spas eo wae —* a \y >, ioe en: SOS FS © epee eRe Ree 3 yi, Siete tia s Ca SoS e Photo: Fred Botssonnas THE TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE (POSEIDON) AT CAPE SUNIUM Herodotus. This Herodotus was born about 484 B.c. in the Ionian city of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, and he visited Babylon and Egypt in his search for exact particulars. From Mycale onward Persia sank into a confusion of dynastic troubles. Xerxes was murdered in 465 B.c. and rebellions in Egypt, Syria and Media broke up the brief order of that mighty realm. The history of Herodotus lays stress on the weakness of Persia. ‘This history is indeed what we should now eall propaganda — propaganda for Greece to unite and conquer Persia. Herodotus makes one character, Aristagoras, go to the Spartans with a map of the known world and say to them: “These Barbarians are not valiant in fight. You on the other hand have now attained the utmost skill in war. . . . No other nations in the world have what they possess: gold, silver, bronze, embroi- dered garments, beasts and slaves. All this you might have for your- selves, if you so desired.”XXV Tue SPLENDOUR OF GREECE HE century and a half that followed the defeat of Persia was one of very great splendour for the Greek civilization. True that Greece was torn by a desperate struggle for ascendancy between Athens, Sparta and other states (the Peloponnesian War 431 to 404 B.c.) and that in 338 B.c. the Macedonians became virtually masters of Greece; nevertheless during this period the thought and the creative and artistic impulse of the Greeks rose to levels that made their achievement a lamp to mankind for all the rest of history. The head and centre of this mental activity was Athens. For over thirty years (466 to 428 B.c.) Athens was dominated by a man of great vigour and liberality of mind, Pericles, who set himself to rebuild the city from the ashes to which the Persians had reduced it. The beautiful ruins that still glorify Athens to-day are chiefly the remains of this great effort. And he did not simply rebuild a material Athens. He rebuilt Athens intellectually. He gathered about him not only architects and sculptors but poets, dramatists, philosophers and teachers. Herodotus came to Athens to recite his history (438 B.c.). Anaxagoras came with the beginnings of a scientific description of the sun and stars. A®schylus, Sophocles and Euripides one after the other carried the Greek drama to its highest levels of beauty and nobility. The impetus Pericles gave to the intellectual life of Athens lived on after his death, and in spite of the fact that the peace of Greece was now broken by the Peloponnesian War and a long and wasteful struggle for “‘ascendancy”’ was beginning. Indeed the darkling of the political horizon seems for a time to have quickened rather than discouraged men’s minds. Already long before the time of Pericles the peculiar freedom of Greek institutions had given great importance to skill in discussion. 13040 A Short History of the World Decision rested neither with king nor with priest but in the assem- blies of the people or of leading men. Eloquence and able argument became very desirable accomplishments therefore, and a class of teachers arose, the Sophists, who undertook to strengthen young men ‘in these arts. But one cannot reason without matter, and knowl- edge followed in the wake of speech. The activities and rivalries of these Sophists led very naturally to an acute examination of style, of methods of thought and of the validity of ar omen tise When Pericles died a_ certain Socrates was becoming prom- inent as an able and destructive eritic of bad argument —and much of the teaching of the Sophists was Photo: Fred Boissonnas PART OF THE FAMOUS FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, ATHENS A specimen of Grecian sculpture in its finest expression. Compare the advance of art with that seen in the animals shown on p. 105 A group of bril- hant young men gathered about Socrates. In the end Socrates was executed for disturbing people’s minds (399 B.c.), he was condemned after the dignified fashion of the Athens of those days to drink in his own house and among his own friends a poisonous draught made from hemlock, but the disturbance of people’s minds went on in spite of his condemnation. His young men carried on his teaching. Chief among these young men was Plato (427 to 347 B.c.) who presently began to teach philosophy in the grove of the Academy. His teaching fell into two main divisions, an examination of the foundations and methods of human thinking and an examination of political institutions. He was the first man to write a Utopia, that is to say the plan of a community different from and better than any bad argument.mn be ATI I yeony one ail ‘ Photo: Fred Botssonnas THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS The marvellous group of Temples and monuments built under the inspiration of Pericles Photo: Fred Botssonnas THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS, GREECE A wonderfully preserved specimen showing the vast auditorium I4I142 A Short History of the World existing community. This shows an altogether unprecedented boldness in the human mind which had hitherto accepted social traditions and usages with scarcely a question. Plato said plainly to mankind: ‘Most of the social and political ills from which you suffer are under your control, given only the will and courage to change them. You can live in another and a wiser fashion if you choose to think it out and work it out. You are not awake to your own power.” That is a high adventurous teaching that has still to soak in to the common intell'gence of our race. One of his earliest works was the Republic, a dream of a communist aristocracy; his last unfinished work was the Laws, a scheme of regulation for another such Utopian state. The criticism of methods of thinking and methods of govern- ment was carried on after Plato’s death by Aristotle, who had been his pupil and who taught in the Lyceum. Aristotle came from the city of Stagira in Macedonia, and his father was court physician to the Macedonian king. For a time Aristotle was tutor to Alex- THE CARYATIDES OF THE ERECHTHEUM Pee The ancient sanctuary on the Acropolis at AtbensPhoto: Alinart ATHENE OF THE PARTHENON 143144 A Short History of the World ander, the king’s son, who was destined to achieve very great things of which we shall soon be telling. Aristotle’s work upon methods of thinking carried the science of Logic to a level at which it remained for fifteen hundred years or more, until the medizeval schoolmen took up the ancient questions again. He made no Utopias. Before man could really control his destiny as Plato taught, Aristotle perceived that he needed far more knowledge and far more accurate knowledge than he possessed. And so Aristotle began that systematic collec- tion of knowledge which nowadays we call Science. He sent out explorers to collect facts. He was the father of natural history. He was the founder of political science. His students at the Lyceum examined and compared the constitutions of 158 different states. Here in the fourth century B.c. we find men who are practically ‘modern thinkers.” The child-like, dream-like methods of primi- tive thought had given way to a disciplined and critical attack upon the problems of life. The weird and monstrous symbolism and imagery of the gods and god monsters, and all the taboos and awes and restraints that have hitherto encumbered thinking are here completely set aside. Free, exact and systematic thinking has begun. The fresh and unencumbered mind of these newcomers out of the northern forests has thrust itself into the mysteries of the temple and let the daylight in. ‘XOX VE Tue EMPIRE oF ALEXANDER THE GREAT ROM 431 to 404 B.c. the Peloponnesian War wasted Greece. Meanwhile to the north of Greece, the kindred country of Macedonia was rising slowly to power and civilization. The Macedonians spoke a language closely akin to Greek, and on several occasions Macedonian competitors had taken part in the Olympic games. In 359 B.c. a man of very great abilities and ambition became king of this litt e country — Philip. Philip had previously been a hostage in Greece; he had had a thoroughly Greek education and he was probably aware of the ideas of Herodotus — which had also been developed by the philosopher Isocrates— of a possible conquest of Asia by a consolidated Greece. He set himself first to extend and organize his own realm and to remodel his army. For a thousand years now the charging horse- chariot had been the decisive factor in battles, that and the close- fighting infantry. Mounted horsemen had also fought, but as a cloud of skirmishers, individually and without discipline. Philip made his infantry fight in a closely packed mass, the Macedonian phalanx, and he trained his mounted gentlemen, the knights or companions, to fight in formation and so invented cavalry. The master move in most of his battles and in the battles of his son Alexander was a cavalry charge. The phalanx held the enemy infantry in front while the cavalry swept away the enemy horse on his wings and poured in on the flank and rear of his infantry. Chari- ots were disabled by bowmen, who shot the horses. With this new army Philip extended his frontiers through Thes- saly to Greece; and the battle of Cheronia (338 B.c.), fought against Athens and her allies, put all Greece at his feet. At last the dream of Herodotus was bearing fruit. A congress of all the Greek states appointed Philip captain-general of the Grzco-Macedonian con- 145£46 A Short History of the World federacy against Persia, and in 336 B.c. his advanced guard crossed into Asia upon this long premeditated adventure. But he never followed it. He was assassinated; it is believed at the instigation of his queen Olympias, Alexander’s mother. She was jealous because Philip had mar- ried a second wife. But Philip had taken unusual pains with his son’s education. He had not only secured Aristotle, the greatest philosopher in the world, as this boy’s tutor, but he had shared his ideas with him and thrust military experi- ence upon him. At Cheronia Alexander, who was then only eighteen years old, had been in command of the cavalry. And so it was possible for this young man, who was still only twenty years old at the time of his accession, to take up his father’s task a i ae ac eg a at once and to proceed BUST OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT successfully with the (As in the British Museum) ° Persian adventure. In 334 B.c. — for two years were needed to establish and confirm his position in Macedonia and Greece he crossed into Asia, de- feated a not very much bigger Persian army at the battle of the Granicus and captured a number of cities in Asia Minor. He kept along the sea-coast. It was necessary for him to reduce and garrison all the coast towns as he advanced because the Persians had control of the fleets of Tyre and Sidon and so had command of the sea,The Empire of Alexander the Great 147 Had he left a hostile port in his rear the Persians might have landed forces to raid his communications and cut him off. At Issus (333 B.c.) he met and smashed a vast conglomerate host under ) Darius III. Like the host of Xerxes that had crossed the Darda- nelles a century and a half before, it was an incoherent accumula- tion of contingents and it was encumbered with a multitude of court officials, the harem of Darius and many camp followers. Sidon surrendered to Alexander but Tyre resisted obstinately. Finally that great city was stormed and plundered and destroyed. Gaza ALEXANDER’S VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS AT ISSUS From the Pompeian Mosaic Alexander charges in on the left, Darius is in the chariot to the right also was stormed, and towards the end of 332 B.c. the conqueror entered Egypt and took over its rule from the At Alexandretta and at Alexandria in Egypt he built great cities, accessible from the land and so incapable of revolt. To these the | trade of the Phoenician cities was diverted. The Phoenicians of the | western Mediterranean suddenly disappear from history — and as immediately the Jews of Alexandria and the other new trading cities created by Alexander appear. In 331 B.c. Alexander marched out of Egypt upon Babylon as | Thothmes and Rameses and Necho had done before him. But he “ad marched by way of Tyre. At Arbela near the ruins of Nineveh, j Oo Persians.ee ek leer tdci A Short History of the World which was al- ready a forgot- ten city, he met Dariws ard fought the deci- sive battle of the war: he Persian chariot charge failed, a Macedonian cavalry charge broke up the great composite host and_ the phalanx com- pleted the vic- tory;. Dariurs led the retreat. He made no further attempt to resist the in- vader but fled aN , northward into THE APOLLO BELVEDERE veg = the country, soi (In the Vatican Museum) the Medes. Alexander marched on to Babylon, still prosperous and important, and then to Susa and Persepolis. There after a drunken festival he burnt down the palace of Darius, the king of kings. Thence Alexander presently made a military parade of central Asia, going to the utmost bounds of the Persian empire. At first he turned northward. Darius was pursued; and he was overtaken at dawn dying in his chariot, having been murdered by his own people. He was still living when the foremost Greeks reached him. Alexan- der came up to find him dead. Alexander skirted the Caspian Sea, he went up into the mountains of western Turkestan, he came down by Herat (which he founded) and Cabul and the Khyber Pass intoThe Empire of Alexander the Great 140 India. He fought a great battle on the Indus with an Indian king, Porus, and here the Macedonian troops met elephants for the first time and defeated them. Finally he built himself ships, sailed down to the mouth of the Indus, and marched back by the coast of Be- luchistan, reaching Susa again in 324 B.c. after an absence of six years. He then prepared to consolidate and organize this vast empire he had won. He sought to win over his new subjects. He assumed the robes and tiara of a Persian monarch, and this roused the jealousy of his Macedonian commanders. He had much trouble with them. He arranged a number of marriages between these Macedonian officers and Persian and Babylonian women: the “Marriage of the East and West.” He never lived to effect the consolidation he had planned. A fever seized him after a drinking bout in Babylon and he died in 323 B.c. Immediately this vast dominion fell to pieces. One of his gen- erals, Seleucus, retained most of the old Persian empire from the Indus to Ephesus; another, Ptolemy, seized Egypt, and Antigonus secured Macedonia. The rest of the empire remained unstable, passing under the control of a succession of local adventurers. Bar- barian raids began from the north and grew in scope and intensity. Until at last, as we shall tell, a new power, the power of the Roman republic, came out of the west to subjugate one fragment after an- other and weld them together into a new and more enduring empire.XXOVit i Tue MuseuM AND LIBRARY AT ALEXANDRIA EFORE the time of Alexander Greeks had already been Hi spreading as merchants, artists, officials, mercenary soldiers, over most of the Persian dominions. In the dynastic dis- putes that followed the death of Xerxes, a band of ten thousand Greek mercenaries played a part under the leadership of Xenophon. Their return to Asiatic Greece from Babylon is described in his Retreat of the Ten Thousand, one of the first war stories that was ever written by a general in command. But the conquests of Alexander and the division of his brief empire among his subordinate generals, greatly stimulated this permeation of the ancient world by the Greeks and their language and fashions and culture. Traces of this Greek dissemination are to be found far away in central Asia and in north-west India. Their influence upon the development of Indian art was profound. For many centuries Athens retained her prestige as a centre of art and culture; her schools went on indeed to 529 a.p., that is to | say for nearly a thousand years; but the leadership in the intellec- a tual activity of the world passed presently across the Mediterranean | to Alexandria, the new trading city that Alexander had founded. Here the Macedonian general Ptolemy had become Pharaoh, with a court that spoke Greek. He had become an intimate of Alexander before he became king, and he was deeply saturated with the ideas of Aristotle. He set himself, with great energy and capacity, to organize knowledge and investigation. He also wrote a history of Alexander’s campaigns which, unhappily, is lost to the world. Alexander had already devoted considerable sums to finance the enquiries of Aristotle, but Ptolemy I was the first person to make a permanent endowment of science. He set up a foundation in Alexandria which was formerly dedicated to the Muses, the Museum 150The Museum and Library at Alexandria 151 of Alexandria. For two or three generations the scientific work done at Alexandria was extraordinarily good. Euclid, Eratosthenes who measured the size of the earth and came within fifty miles of its true diameter, Apollonius who wrote on conic sections, Hipparchus who made the first star map and catalogue, and Hero who devised the first steam engine are among the greater stars of an extraordinary constellation of scientific pioneers. Archimedes came from Syra- cuse to Alexandria to study, and was a frequent correspondent of the Museum. Herophilus was one of the greatest of Greek anato- mists, and is said to have practised vivisection. For a generation or so during the reigns of Ptolemy I and Ptol- emy II there was such a blaze of knowledge and discovery at Alex- andria as the world was not to see again until the sixteenth century ap. But it did not continue. There may have been several causes of this decline. Chief among them, the late Professor Mahaffty suggested, was the fact that the Museum was a ~ royal” college and all its professors and fellows were appointed and paid by Pharaoh. This was all very well when Pharaoh was Ptolemy I, the pupil and friend of Aristotle. But as the dynasty of the Ptolemies went on they became Egyptianized, they fell under the sway of Egyptian priests and Egyptian religious developments, they ceased to follow the work that was done, and their control stifled the spirit of en- quiry altogether. The Museum produced little good work after its first century of activity. Ptolemy I not only sought in the most modern spirit to organize the finding of fresh knowledge. He tried also to set up an encyclo- peedic storehouse of wisdom in the Library of Alexandria. It was not simply a storehouse, it was also a book-copying and book-selling organization. A great army of copyists was set to work perpetually multiplying copies of books. Here then we have the definite first opening up of the intellectual process in which we live to-day; here we have the systematic gath- ering and distribution of knowledge. The foundation of this Mu- seum and Library marks one of the great epochs in the history of mankind. It is the true beginning of Modern History. Both the work of research and the work of dissemination went on under serious handicaps. One of these was the great social gap that152 A Short History of the World separated the philosopher, who was a gentleman, from the trader and the artisan. There were glass workers and metal workers in abundance in those days, but they were not in mental contact with the thinkers. The glass worker was making the most beautifully coloured beads and phials and so forth, but he never made a Flor- entine flask or a lens. Clear glass does not seem to have inter- ested him. The metal worker made weapons and jewel- lery but he never made a chemical bal- ance. The philoso- pher speculated loft- ily about atoms and the nature of things, but he had no prac- tical experience of enamels and pig- ments and _ philters and so forth. He was not interested in substances. So Alexandria in its brief day of oppor- tunity produced no microscopes and no ARISTOTLE chemistry. And From Herculaneum, probably Fourth Century B.c. though Hero in- vented a steam en- gine it was never set either to pump or drive a boat or do any use- ful thing. There were few practical applications of science except in the realm of medicine, and the progress of science was not stimulated and sustained by the interest and excitement of prac- tical applications. There was nothing to keep the work going therefore when the intellectual curiosity of Ptolemy I and Ptol-The Museum and Library at Alexandria emy ITI was withdrawn. The discoveries of the Museum went on rec- ord in obscure manuscripts and never, until the revival of scientific curiosity at the Renascence, reached out to the mass of mankind. Nor did the Library produce any improvements in book making. That ancient world had no paper made in definite sizes from rag pulp. Paper was a Chinese invention and it did not reach the western world until the ninth century A.D. The only book materials were parch- ment and strips of the papyrus reed joined edge to edge. These strips were kept on rolls which were very unwieldy to wind to and fro and read, and very inconvenient for reference. It was these things that pre- vented the development of paged and printed books. Print’ng itself was known in the world it would seem as early as the Old Stone Age; there were seals in ancient Sumeria; but without abundant paper there was little advantage in printing books, an improvement that may further have been resisted by trades unionism on the part of the copyists employed. Alexandria produced abundant books but not cheap books, and it never spread knowledge into the population of the ancient world below the level of a wealthy and influential class. So it was that this blaze of intellectual enterprise never reached beyond a small circle of people in touch with the group of philosophers collected by the first two Ptolemies. It was like the light in a dark TE STATUETTE OF MAITREYA: THE BUDDHA TO COME A Greco-Buddhist sculpture of the Third Century A.D. (From Malakand, N. W. Province, now in the ndia Museum) lantern which is shut off from the world at large. Within the blaze may be blindingly bright, but nevertheless it 1s unseen. The rest of the world went on its old ways unaware that the seed of scientific knowledge that was one day to revolutionize it altogether had been sown. Presently a darkness of bigotry fell even uponi 154 A Short History of the World Alexandria. Thereafter for a thousand years of darkness the seed | that Aristotle had sown lay hidden. Then it stirred and began to germinate. In a few centuries it had become that widespread srowth of knowledge and clear ideas that is now changing the whole of human life. Alexandria was not the only centre of Greek intellectual activity in the third century B.c. There were many other cities that dis- played a brilliant intellectual life amidst the disintegrating frag- ments of the brief empire of Alexander. ‘There was, for example, € _~ jpn 7 India Mus. THE DEATH OF BUDDHA am Greco-Buddhist carving from Sivat Valley, N. W. Province, probably a.p. 350 the Greek city of Syracuse in Sicily, where thought and science flourished for two centuries; there was Pergamum in Asia Minor, which also had a great library. But this brilliant Hellenic world was now stricken by invasion from the north. New Nordic bar- barians, the Gauls, were striking down along the tracks that had once been followed by the ancestors of the Greeks and Phrygians and Macedonians. ‘They raided, shattered and destroyed. And in the wake of the Gauls came a new conquering people out of Italy, the Romans, who gradually subjugated all the western half of the vast realm of Darius and Alexander. ‘They were an able but un- imaginative people, preferring law and profit to either science or art.The Museum and Library at Alexandria T55 New invaders were also coming down out of central Asia to shatter and subdue the Seleucid empire and to cut off the western world again from India. These were the Parthians, hosts of mounted bowmen, who treated the Greeco-Persian empire of Persepolis and Susa in the third century B.c. in much the same fashion that the Medes and Persians had treated it in the seventh and sixth. And there were now other nomadic peoples also coming out of the north- ‘ast, peoples who were not fair and Nordic and Aryan-speaking but yellow-skinned and black-haired and with a Mongolian speech. But of these latter people we shall tell more in a subsequent chapter.DOXCVIT Tur Lire or GAUTAMA BUDDHA UT now we must go back three centuries in our story to tell of a great teacher who came near to revolutionizing the re- igious thought and feeling of all Asia. This was Gautama Buddha, who taught his disciples at Benares in India about the same time that Isaiah was prophesying among the Jews in Babylon and Heraclitus was carrying on his speculative enquiries into the nature of things at Ephesus. All these men were in the world at the same time, in the sixth century B.c. — unaware of one another. This sixth century B.c. was indeed one of the most remarkable in all history. Everywhere — for as we shall tel! it was also the case in China — men’s minds were displaying a new boldness. Every- where they were waking up out of the traditions of kingships and priests and blood sacrifices and asking the most penetrating ques- tions. It is as if the race had reached a stage of adolescence — after a childhood of twenty thousand years. The early history of India is still very obscure. Somewhen perhaps about 2000 B.c., an Aryan-speaking people came down from the north-west into India either in one invasion or in a series of invasions; and was able to spread its language and traditions over most of north India. Its peculiar variety of Aryan speech was the Sanskrit. They found a brunette people with a more elaborate civilization and less vigour of will, in possession of the country of the Indus and Ganges. But they do not seem to have mingled with their predecessors as freely as did the Greeks and Persians. They remained aloof. When the past of India becomes dimly visible to the historian, Indian society is already stratified into’ several layers, with a variable number of sub-divisions, which do not eat together nor intermarry nor associate freely. And throughout history this 150stratification The Life of Gautama Buddha 157 into castes continues. This makes the Indian popula- tion something different from the simple, freely inter-breeding European or communities. Siddhatth ruled a small at nineteen tc Mongolian communities. It is really a community of a Gautama was the son of an aristocratic family which district on the Himalayan slopes. He was married » a beautiful cousin. He hunted and played and went about in his sunny world of gardens and groves and irrigated rice- fields. And it was amidst this life that a great discontent fell upon him. It was the unhappiness of a fine brain that seeks employment. He felt that the existence he was leading was not the reality of life, but a holiday a holiday that had gone on too long. The sense of disease and mortality, the insecurity and the un- satisfactorine ss of all happiness, descended upon the mind of Gau- tama. While he was in this mood he met one of those wandering ascetics who already existed in great numbers in India. These men lived under s evere rules, spending much time in meditation and in religious discussion. They were supposed to be seeking some deeper reality in life, and a passionate desire to do likewise took possession of Gautama. He was meditating upon this project, says the story, when the news was brought to him that his wife had been delivered of his first-born son. ‘‘This is another tie to break,” said Gau- tama. He returned to the village amidst the rejoicings of his fellow clansmen. There was a great feast and a Nautch dance to cele- brate the birth of this new tie, and in the night Gautama awoke in a great agony of spirit, “like a man who is told that his house is on fire.’ He resolved to leave his happy aimless life forthwith. He went softly t the light of a o the threshold of his wife’s chamber, and saw her by little oil lamp, sleeping sweetly, surrounded by flowers, with his infant son in her arms. He felt a great craving to take up the child in one first and last embrace before he departed, but the fear of waking his wife prevented him, and at last he turned away and went ou t into the bright Indian moonshine and mounted his horse and rode off into the world. Very far he rode that night, and in the morning he stopped out-Indta Mus, TIBETAN BUDDHA Gilt Brass Casting in India Museum, showing Gautama Buddha in the “‘earth S ° > ; © witness’ attitude Y IseThe Life of Gautama Buddha 150 side the lands of his clan, and dismounted beside a sandy river. There he cut off his flowing locks with his sword, removed all his ornaments and sent them and his horse and sword back to his house. Going on he presently met a ragged man and exchanged clothes with him, and so having divested himself of all worldly entanglements he was free to pursue his search after wisdom. He made his way south- ward to a resort of hermits and teachers in a hilly spur of the Vind- hya Mountains. There lived a number of wise men in a warren of caves, going into the town for their simple supplies and imparting their knowledge by word of mouth to such as cared to come to them. Gautama became versed in all the metaphysics of his age. But his acute intelligence was dissatisfied with the solutions offered him. The Indian mind has always been disposed to believe that power and know- ledge may be obtained by ex- treme asceti- cism, by fasting, sleeplessness, and self-tor- ment, and these ideas Gautama now put to the test. He betook himself with five disciple com- panions to the jungle and there he gave himself up to fasting and terrible pen- ances. His fame . +f ce 7 » » s ore 25 ag spread, “‘like the A BURMESE BUDDHA sound of a great Marble Figure from Mandalay, eighteenth century work, now in the India MuseumA Short History of the World | | bell hung in the canopy of | ae. the skies.””’ But it brought | | 7 him no sense of truth achieved. One day he was walking up and down, try- ing to think in spite of his enfeebled state. Suddenly he fell unconscious. When he recovered, the prepos- terousness of these semi- magical ways to wisdom was plain to him. He horrified his com- mano panions by demanding or- ERE dinary food and refusing to continue his mortifications. He had realized that what- ever truth a man may reach is reached best by a nour- THE DHAMEKH TOWER inte oe en ished brain in a_ healthy eee IPR chs the Tad Musson body. Such a conception was absolutely foreign to the ideas of the land and age. His disciples deserted him, and went off in a melancholy state to Benares. Gautama wandered alone. When the mind grapples with a great and intricate problem, it makes its advances step by step, with but little realization of the gains it has made, until suddenly, with an effect of abrupt illumina- tion, it realizes its victory. So it happened to Gautama. He had seated himself under a great tree by the side of a river to eat, when this sense of clear vision came to him. It seemed to him that he saw life plam. He is said to have sat all day and all night in profound thought, and then he rose up to impart his vision to the world. He went on to Benares and there he sought out and won back his lost disciples to his new teaching. In the King’s Deer Park at Benares they built themselves huts and set up a sort of school to which came many who were seeking after wisdom. The starting point of his teaching was his own question as a for-The Life of Gautama Buddha 161 tunate young man, ““Why am I not completely happy?” It was an introspective question. It was a question very different in quality from the frank and self-forgetful externalized curiosity with which Thales and Heraclitus were attacking the problems of the universe, or the equally self-forgetful burthen of moral obligation that the culminating prophets were imposing upon the Hebrew mind. The Indian teacher did not forget self, he concentrated upon self and sought to destroy it. All suffering, he taught, was due to the greedy desires of the individual. Until man has conquered his personal cravings his life is trouble and his end sorrow. There were three principal forms that the craving for life took and they were all evil. The first was the desire of the appetites, greed and all forms of sensuousness, the second was the desire for a personal and egotistic immortality, the third was the craving for personal success, worldli- ness, avarice and the like. All these forms of desire had to be over- come to escape from the distresses and chagrins of life. When they were overcome, when self had vanished altogether, then serenity of soul, Nirvana, the highest good was attained. This was the gist of his teaching, a very subtle and metaphysical teaching indeed, not nearly so easy to understand as the Greek in- junction to see and know fearlessly and rightly and the Hebrew command to fear God and accomplish righteousness. It was a teaching much beyond the understanding of even Gautama’s im- mediate disciples, and it is no wonder that so soon as his personal influence was withdrawn it became corrupted and coarsened. ‘There was a widespread belief in India at that time that at long intervals Wisdom came to earth and was incarnate in some chosen person who was known as the Buddha. Gautama’s disciples declared that he was a Buddha, the latest of the Buddhas, though there is no evidence that he himself ever accepted the title. Before he was well dead, a cycle of fantastic legends began to be woven about him. The human heart has always preferred a wonder story to a moral effort, and Gautama Buddha became very wonderful. Yet there remained a substantial gain in the world. If Nirvana was too high and subtle for most men’s imaginations, if the myth- making impulse in the race was too strong for the simple facts of Gautama’s life, they could at least grasp something of the intention162 A Short History of the World of what Gautama called the Eight-fold way, the Aryan or Nobk Path in life. In this there was an insistence upon mental upright ness, upon right aims and speech, right conduct and honest liveli- hood. There was a quickening of the conscience and an app sal to generous and self-forgetful ends.POX Kine ASOKA OR some generations after the death of Gautama, these high and noble Buddhist teachings, this first plain teaching that the highest good for man is the subjugation of self, made comparatively little headway in the world. Then they conquered the imagination of one of the greatest monarchs the world has ever seen. We have already mentioned how Alexander the Great came down into India and fought with Porus upon the Indus. It is related by the Greek historians that a certain Chandragupta Maurya came into Alexander’s camp and tried to persuade him to go on to the Ganges and conquer all India. Alexander could not do this because of the refusal of his Macedonians to go further into what was for them an unknown world, and later on (321 B.c.) Chandragupta was able to secure the help of various hill tribes and realize his dream without Greek help. He built up an empire in North India and was presently (303 B.c.) able to attack Seleucus I in the Punjab and drive the last vestige of Greek power out of India. His son extended this new empire. His grandson, Asoka, the monarch of whom we now have to tell, found himself in 264 b.c. ruling from Afghanistan to Madras. Asoka was at first disposed to follow the example of his father and grandfather and complete the conquest of the Indian peninsula. He invaded Kalinga (255 8B.c.),a country on the east coast of Madras, he was successful in his military operations and — alone among con- querors — he was so disgusted by the cruelty and horror of war that he renounced it. He would have no more of it. He adopted the peaceful doctrines of Buddhism and declared that henceforth his conquests should be the conquests of religion. His reign for eight-and-twenty years was one of the brightest interludes in the troubled history of mankind. He organized a 103164 A Short History of the World great digging of wells in India and the planting of trees for shade. He founded hospitals and public gardens and gardens for the growing of medicinal herbs. He created a ministry for the care of the A LOHAN OR BUDDHIST APOSTLE (Tang Dynasty) (From the statue in the British Museum) aborigines and subject races of India. He made provision for the education of women. He made vast benefactions to the Buddhist teaching orders, and tried to stimulate them to a better and more energetic criticism of their own accumulated literature. For corruptions and superstitious accretions had accumulated veryKing Asoka TRANSOME SHOWING THE COURT OF ASOKA speedily upon the pure and simple teaching of the great Indian master. Missionaries went from Asoka to Kashmir, to Persia, to Ceylon and Alexandria. Such was Asoka, greatest of kings. He was far in advance of his age. He left no prince and no organization of men to carry on his work, and within a century of his death the great days of his reign had become a glorious memory in a shattered and decaying India. The priestly caste of the Brahmins, the highest and most privileged caste in the Indian social body, has always been opposed to the frank and open teaching of Buddha. Gradually they undermined the Buddhist influence in the land. The old monstrous gods, the innumerable cults of Hinduism, resumed their sway. Caste became india Mus. ASOKA PANEL FROM BHARHUTTHE PILLAR OF LIONS Capital of the Pillar (column lying on side) erected in Deer Park in the time of Asoka, where Buddha preached his first sermon (From a print in the India Museum) more rigorous and complicated. For long centuries Buddhism and Brahminism flourished side by side, and then slowly Buddhism decayed and Brahminism in a multitude of forms replaced it. But beyond the confines of India and the realms of caste Buddhism spread — until it had won China and Siam and Burma and Japan, countries in which it is predominant to this day.OK ConFrucius AND Lao TSE E have still to tell of two other great men, Confucius and Lao Tse, who lived in that wonderful century which began the adolescence of mankind, the sixth century B.c, In this history thus far we have told very little of the early story of China. At present that early history is still very obscure, and we look to Chinese explorers and archeologists in the new China that is now arising to work out their past as thoroughly as the Euro- pean past has been worked out during the last century. Very long ago the first primitive Chinese civilizations arose in the great river valleys out of the primordial heliolithic culture. They had, like Egypt and Sumeria, the general characteristics of that culture, and they centred upon temples in which priests and priest kings offered the seasonal blood sacrifices. The life in those cities must have been very like the Egyptian and Sumerian life of six or seven thousand years ago and very like the Maya life of Central America a thousand years ago. If there were human sacrifices they had long given way to animal sacrifices before the dawn of history. And a form of picture writing was growing up long before a thousand years B.c. And just as the primitive civilizations of Europe and western Asia were in conflict with the nomads of the desert and the nomads of the north, so the primitive Chinese civilizations had a great cloud of nomadic peoples on their northern borders. There was a number of tribes akin in language and ways of living, who are spoken of in history in succession as the Huns, the Mongols, the Turks and Tartars. They changed and divided and combined and re-combined, just as the Nordic peoples in north Europe and central Asia changed and varied in name rather than in nature. These Mongolian nomads had horses earlier than the Nordic peoples, and it may 107168 A Short History of the World be that in the region of the Altai Mountains they made an independent discovery of iron somewhen after 1000 B.c. And just as in the western case so ever and again these eastern nomads would achieve a sort of political unity, and become the con- querors and masters and revivers of this or that settled and civilized region. [t is quite possible that the earliest civilization of China was not Mongolian at all any more than the earliest civilization of Europe and western Asia was Nordic or Semitic. It is quite possible that the earliest civilization of China was a brunette civilization and of a piece with the earliest Egyptian, Sumerian and Dravidian civiliza- tiors, and that when the first recorded history of China began there had already been conquests and intermixture. At any rate we find that by 1750 B.c. China was already a vast system of little kingdoms and city states, all acknowledging a loose allegiance and paying more or less regularly, more or less definite feudal dues to one great priest emperor, the “Son of Heaven.” The “Shang” dynasty came to an end in 1125 B.c. A “Chow” dynasty succeeded “Shang,” and maintained China in a relaxing unity until the days of Asoka in India and of the Ptolemies in Egypt. Gradually China went to pieces during that long “Chow” period. Hunnish peoples came down and set up principalities; local rulers discontinued their tribute and became independent. There was in the sixth century B.c., says one Chinese authority, five or six thousand practically inde- pendent states in China. It was what the Chinese call in their records an ““Age of Confusion.” But this Age of Confusion was compatible with much intel- lectual activity and with the existence of many local centres of art and civilized living. When we know more of Chinese history we shall find that China also had her Miletus and her Athens, her Per- gamum and her Macedonia. At present we must be vague and brief about this period of Chinese division simply because our knowledge is not sufficient for us to frame a coherent and con- secutive story. And just as in divided Greece there were philosophers and in shattered and captive Jewry prophets, so in disordered China there were philosophers and teachers at this time. In all these casesCONFUCIUS Copy of stone carving in the Temple of Confucius at K’iu Fu (From the records of the Archeological Mission to North China (Chavannes)170 A Short History of the World insecurity and uncertainty seemed to have quickened the better sort of mind. Confucius was a man of aristocratic origin and some official importance in a small state called Lu. Here in a very parallel mood to the Greek impulse he set up a sort of Academy for discovering and teaching Wisdom. The lawlessness and disorder of China distressed him profoundly. He conceived an ideal of a better government and a better life, and travelled from state to state seek- ing a prince who would carry out his legislative and educational ideas. He never found his prince; he found a prince, but court intrigues undermined the influence of the teacher and finally defeated his reforming proposals. It is interesting to note that a century and a half later the Greek philosopher Plato also sought a prince, and was for a time adviser to the tyrant Dionysius who ruled Syra- cuse In Sicily. Confucius died a disappointed man. “No intelligent ruler arises to take me as his master,”’ he said, ““and my time has come to die.’ But his teaching had more vitality than he imagined in his declining and hopeless years, and it became a great formative in- fluence with the Chinese people. It became one of what the Chinese call the Three Teachings, the other two being those of Buddha and of Lao Tse. The gist of the teaching of Confucius was the way of the noble or aristocratic man. He was concerned with personal conduct as much as Gautama was concerned with the peace of self-forgetfulness and the Greek with external knowledge and the Jew with righteous- ness. He was the most public-minded of all great teachers. He was supremely concerned by the confusion and miseries of the world, and he wanted to make men noble in order to bring about a noble world. He sought’to regulate conduct to an extraordinary extent; to provide sound rules for every occasion in life. A polite, public- spirited gentleman, rather sternly self-disciplined, was the ideal he found already developing in the northern Chinese world and one to which he gave a permanent form. The teaching of Lao Tse, who was for a long time in charge of the imperial library of the Chow dynasty, was much more mystical and vague and elusive than that of Confucius. He seems to have preached a stoical indifference to the pleasures and powers of theSake ~~ series ae ee a ay i ee be pall GTS odes 5 pe: 2 Sami ' , ae Age hh Inderwood Photo: Underwood & L THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA As it crosses the mountains in Manchuria 171a EARLY CHINESE BRONZE BELL Inscribed in archaic characters: “made for use by the elder of Hing village (In the Victoria and Albert Museum) 172 A Short History of the World world and a return to an imaginary simple life of the past. He left | writings very contracted in style and very obscure. He wrote in _ riddles. After his death his teachings, like the teachings of Gautama | Buddha, were corrupted and overlaid by legends and had the most complex and extraordinary _ob- servances and super- stitious ideas grafted upon them. In China just as in India primordial ideas of magic and monstrous legends out of the childish past of our race struggled against the new thinking in the world and _ suc- ceeded in plastering it over with gro- tesque, irrational and antiquated ob- servances. Both Buddhism and Tao- ism (which ascribes itself largely to Lao Tse) as one finds them in China now, arereligions of monk, temple, priest and offering of a type as ancient in form, if not in thought, as the _ sacrificial __re- ligions of ancient Sumeria and Egypt. But the teachingConfucius and Lao Tse 173 of Confucius was not so overlaid because it was limited and plain and straightforward and lent itself to no such distortions. North China, the China of the Hwang-ho River, became Confu- cian in thought and spirit; south China, Yang-tse-Kiang China, became Taoist. Since those days a conflict has always been tracea- ble in Chinese affairs between these two spirits, the spirit of the north and the spirit of the south, between (in latter times) Pekin and Nankin, between the official-minded, upright and conservative north, and the sceptical, artistic, lax and experimental south. The divisions of China of the Age of Confusion reached their worst stage in the sixth century B.c. The Chow dynasty was so enfeebled and so discredited that Lao Tse left the unhappy court and retired into private life. Three nominally subordinate powers dominated the situation in those days, Ts’i and Ts’in, both northern powers, and Ch’u, which was an aggressive military power in the Yangtse valley. At last Ts’i and Ts’in formed an alliance, subdued Ch’u and imposed a gen- eral treaty of disarmament and peace in China. The power of Ts’in became predominant. Finally about the time of Asoka in India the Ts’in monarch seized upon the sacrificial vessels of the Chow emperor and took over his sacrificial duties. His son, Shi- Hwang-ti (king in 246 B.c., emperor in 220 B.c.), is called in the Chinese Chronicles ‘‘the First Universal Emperor.” More fortunate than Alexander, Shi-Hwang-ti reigned for thirty- six years as king and emperor. His energetic reign marks the beginning of a new era of unity and prosperity for the Chinese people. He fought vigorously against the Hunnish invaders from the northern deserts, and he began that immense work, the Great Wall of China, to set a limit to their incursions.OO Rome Comes into History HE reader will note a general similarity in the history of all these civilizations in spite of the effectual separation caused by the great barriers of the Indian north-west frontier and of the mountain masses of Central Asia and further India. First for thousands of years the heliolithic culture spread over all the warm and fertile river valleys of the old world and developed a temple system and priest rulers about its sacrificial traditions. Apparently its first makers were always those brunette peoples we have spoken of as the central race of mankind. Then the nomads came in from the regions of seasonal grass and seasonal migrations and superposed their own characteristics and often their own language on the primi- tive civilization. They subjugated and stimulated it, and were stimulated to fresh developments and made it here one thing and here another. In Mesopotamia it was the Elamite and then the Semite, and at last the Nordic Medes and Persians and the Greeks who supplied the ferment; over the region of the Aigean peoples it was the Greeks; in India it was the Aryan-speakers; in Egypt there was a thinner infusion of conquerors into a more intensely saturated priestly civilization; in China, the Hun conquered and was absorbed and was followed by fresh Huns. China was Mongolized just as Greece and North India were Aryanized and Mesopotamia Semitized and Aryanized. Everywhere the nomads destroyed much, but everywhere they brought in a new spirit of free enquiry and moral innovation. ‘They questioned the beliefs of immemorial ages. They let daylight into the temples. They set up kings who were neither priests nor gods but mere leaders among their -aptains and companions. In the centuries following the sixth century B.c. we find every- where a great breaking down of ancient traditions and a new spirit 174Gi , Photo: Anderaoe THE DYING GAUL ig a Gaul stabbing himself, after YY e ~- e . ° ‘ihe statue in the National Museum, Rome, depict f his enemies killing his wife, in the presence 0 175176 A Short History of the World of moral and intellectual enquiry awake, a spirit never more to be altogether stilled in the great progressive movement of mankind. We find reading and writing becoming common and accessible accomplishments among the ruling and prosperous minority; they were no longer the jealously guarded secret of the priests. Travel is increasing and transport growing easier by reason of horses and roads. A new and easy device to facilitate trade has been found in coined money. Let us now transfer our attention back from China in the ex- treme east of the old world to the western half of the Mediterranean. Here we have to note the appearance of a city which was destined to play at last a very great part indeed in human affairs, Rome. Hitherto we have told very little about Italy in our story. It was before 1000 B.c. a land of mountain and forest and thinly popu- lated. Aryan-speaking tribes had pressed down this peninsula and formed little towns and cities, and the southern extremity was studded with Greek settlements. The noble ruins of Pzstum pre- serve for us to this day something of the dignity and splendour of these early Greek establishments. A non-Aryan people, probably akin to the A‘gean peoples, the Etruscans, had established them- selves in the central part of the peninsula. They had reversed the usual process by subjugating various Aryan tribes. Rome, when it comes into the light of history, is a little trading city at a ford on the Tiber, with a Latin-speaking population ruled over by Etruscan kings. The old chronologies gave 753 B.c. as the date of the found- ing of Rome, half a century later than the founding of the great Phoenician city of Carthage and twenty-three years after the first Olympiad. Etruscan tombs of a much earlier date than 753 B.c. have, however, been excavated in the Roman Forum. In that red-letter century, the sixth century B.c., the Etruscan kings were expelled (510 B.c.) and Rome became an aristocratic republic with a lordly class of “‘patrician”’ families dominating a commonalty of “plebeians.” Except that it spoke Latin it was not unlike many aristocratic Greek republics. For some centuries the internal history of Rome was the story of a long and obstinate struggle for freedom and a share in the govern- ment on the part of the plebeians. It would not be difficult to findRome Comes into History 17 “I Greek parallels to this conflict, which the Greeks would have called a conflict of aristocracy with democracy. In the end the plebeians broke down most of the exclusive barriers of the old families and established a working equality with them. They destroyed the old exclusiveness, and made it possible and acceptable for Rome to extend her citizenship by the inclusion of more and more “out- A tens Photo: Underwood & Underwood REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE siders.” For while she still struggled at home, she was extending her power abroad. The extension of Roman power began in the fifth century B.c. Until that time they had waged war, and generally unsuccessful war, with the Etruscans. There was an Etruscan fort, Veii, only < few miles from Rome which the Romans had never been able to cap- ture. In 474 B.c., however, a great misfortune came to the Etrus- cans. Their fleet was destroyed by the Greeks of Syracuse in Sicily.178 A Short History of the World At the same time a wave of Nordic invaders came down upon them from the north, the Gauls. Caught between Roman and Gaul, the ‘truscans fell— and disappear from history. Veii was captured by the Romans. The Gauls came through to Rome and sacked the city (390 B.c.) but could not capture the Capitol. An attempted night surprise was betrayed by the cackling of some geese, and fi- nally the invaders were bought off and retired to the north of Italy again. The Gaulish raid seems to have invigorated rather than weakened Rome. The Romans conquered and assimilated the Etruscans, and extended their power over all central Italy from the Arno to Naples. To this they had reached within a few years of 300 B.c. Their conquests in Italy were going on simultaneously with the growth of Philip’s power in Macedonia and Greece, and the tre- mendous raid of Alexander to Egypt and the Indus. The Romans had become notable people in the civilized world to the east of them by the break-up of Alexander’s empire. To the north of the Roman power were the Gauls; to the south of them were the Greek settlements of Magna Grecia, that is to say of Sicily and of the toe and heel of Italy. The Gauls were a hardy, warlike people and the Romans held that boundary by a line of forts and fortified settlements. The Greek cities in the south headed by Tarentum (now Taranto) and by Syracuse in Sicily, did not so much threaten as fear the Romans. They looked about for some help against these new conquerors. We have already told how the empire of Alexander fell to pieces and was divided among his generals and companions. Among these adventurers was a kinsman of Alexander’s named Pyrrhus, who estabiished himself in Epirus, which is across the Adriatic Sea over against the heel of Italy. It was his ambition to play the part of Philip of Macedonia to Magna Grecia, and to become protector and master-general of Tarentum, Syracuse and the rest of that part of the world. He had what was then a very efficient modern army; he had an infantry phalanx, cavalry from Thessaly — which was now quite as good as the original Macedonian cavalry — and twenty fight- ing elephants; he invaded Italy and routed the Romans in two con- siderable battles, Heraclea (280 B.c.) and Ausculum (279 B.c.), andRome Comes into History 179 having driven them north, he turned his attention to the subjuga- tion of Sicily. But this brought against him a more formidable enemy than were the Romans at that time, the Phoenician trading city of Car- thage, which was probably then the greatest city in the world. Sicily was too near Carthage for a new Alexander to be welcome there, and Carthage was mindful of the fate that had befallen her mother city Tyre half a century before. So she sent a fleet to encourage or compel Rome to continue the struggle, and she cut the overseas communications of Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus found himself freshly as- sailed by the Romans, and suffered a disastrous repulse in an attack he had made upon their camp at Beneventum between Naples and Rome. And suddenly came news that recalled him to Epirus. The Gauls were raiding south. But this time they were not raiding down into Italy; the Roman frontier, fortified and guarded, had become too formidable for them. They were raiding down through Illyria (which is now Serbia and Albania) to Macedonia and Epirus. Re- pulsed by the Romans, endangered at sea by the Carthaginians, and threatened at home by the Gauls, Pyrrhus abandoned his dream of conquest and went home (275 B.c.), and the power of Rome was extended to the Straits of Messina. On the Sicilian side of the Straits was the Greek city of Messina, and this presently fell into the hands of a gang of pirates. The Carthaginians, who were already practically overlords of Sicily and allies of Syracuse, suppressed these pirates (270 B.c.) and put in a Carthaginian garrison there. The pirates appealed to Rome and Rome listened to their complaint. And so across the Straits of Mes- sina the great trading power of Carthage and this new conquering people, the Romans, found themselves in antagonism, face to face.KOON T RomME AND CARTHAGE T was in 264 B.c. that the great struggle between Rome and Car- thage, the Punic Wars, began. In that year Asoka was begin- ning his reign in Behar and Shi-Hwang-ti was a little child, the Museum in Alexandria was still doing good scientific work, and the barbaric Gauls were now in Asia Minor and exacting a tribute from Pergamum. The different regions of the world were still separated by insurmountable distances, and probably the rest of mankind heard only vague and remote rumours of the mortal fight that went on for a century and a half in Spain, Italy, North Africa and the western Mediterranean, between the last stronghold of Semitic power and Rome, this newcomer among Aryan-speaking peoples. That war has left its traces upon issues that still stir the world. Rome triumphed over Carthage, but the rivalry of Aryan and Semite was to merge itself later on in the conflict of Gentile and Jew. Our history now is coming to events whose consequences and distorted traditions still maintain a lingering and expiring vitality in, and exercise a complicating and confusing influence upon, the conflicts and controversies of to-day. The First Punic War began in 264 B.c. about the pirates of Mes- sina. It developed into a struggle for the possession of all Sicily except the dominions of the Greek king of Syracuse. The advan- tage of the sea was at first with the Carthaginians. They had great fighting ships of what was hitherto an unheard-of size, quinqueremes, galleys with five banks of oars and a huge ram. At the battle of Salamis, two centuries before, the leading battleships had only been triremes with three banks. But the Romans, with extraordinary energy and in spite of the fact that they had little naval experience, set themselves to outbuild the Carthaginians. They manned the new havy they created chiefly with Greek seamen, and they invented 180Rome and Carthage 181 grappling and boarding to make up for the superior seamanship of the enemy. When the Carthaginian came up to ram or shear the oars of the Roman, huge grappling irons seized him and the Roman soldiers swarmed aboard him. At Myle (260 B.c.) and at Ecnomus 7 ms. Paolo cancel HANNIBAL Bust in the National Museum at Naples (256 B.c.) the Carthaginians were disastrously beaten. They re- pulsed a Roman landing near Carthage but were badly beaten at Palermo, losing one hundred and four elephants there—to grace such a triumphal procession through the Forum as Rome had never seen before. But after that came two Roman defeats and then a Roman recovery. The last naval forces of Carthage were defeated182 A Short History of the World by a last Roman effort at the battle of the Aigatian Isles (241 B.C.) and Carthage sued for peace. All Sicily except the dominions of Hiero, king of Syracuse, was ceded to the Romans. For twenty-two years Rome and Carthage kept the peace. Both had trouble enough at home. In Italy the Gauls came south again, threatened Rome — which in a state of panic offered human sacrifices to the Gods! — and were routed at Telamon. Rome pushed forward to the Alps, and even extended her dominions down the Adriatic coast to Illyria. Carthage suffered from domestic insurrections and from revolts in Corsica and Sardinia, and displayed far less recu- perative power. Finally, an act of intolerable aggression, Rome seized and annexed the two revolting islands. Spain at that time was Carthaginian as far north as the river Ebro. To that boundary the Romans restricted them. Any cross- ing of the Ebro by the Carthaginians was to be considered an act of war against the Romans. At last in 218 B.c. the Carthaginians, provoked by new Roman aggressions, did cross this river under a young general named Hannibal, one of the most brilliant com- manders in the whole of history. He marched his army from Spain over the Alps into Italy, raised the Gauls against the Romans, and carried on the Second Punic War in Italy itself for fifteen years. He inflicted tremendous defeats upon the Romans at Lake Trasimere and at Cann, and throughout all his Italian campaigns no Roman army stood against him and escaped disaster. But a Roman army had landed at Marseilles and cut his communications with Spa‘n; he had no siege train, and he could never capture Rome. Finally the Carthaginians, threatened by the revolt of the Numidians at home, were forced back upon the defence of their own city in Africa, a Roman army crossed into Africa, and Hannibal experienced his first defeat under its walls at the battle of Zama (202 B.c.) at the hands of Scipio Africanus the Elder. The battle of Zama ended this Second Punic War. Carthage capitulated; she surrendered Spain and her war fleet; she paid an enormous indemnity and agreed to give up Hannibal to the vengeance of the Romans. But Hannibal escaped ‘and fled to Asia where later, being in danger of falling into the hands of his relentless enemies, he took poison and died.Rome and Carthage 183 For fifty-six years Rome and the shorn city of Carthage were at peace. And meanwhile Rome spread her empire over confused and divided Greece, invaded Asia Minor, and defeated Antiochus III, the Seleucid monarch, at Magnesia in Lydia. She made Egypt, still under the Ptolemies, and Pergamum and most of the small states of Asia Minor into “Allies,” or, as we should call them now, ‘“protected states.” Meanwhile Carthage, subjugated and enfeebled, had been slowly regaining something of her former prosperity. Her recovery revived the hate and suspicion of the Romans. She was attacked upon the most shallow and artificial of quarrels (149 B.c.), she made an obstinate and bitter resistance, stood a long siege and was stormed (146 B.c.). The street fighting, or massacre, lasted six days; it was extraordinarily bloody, and when the citadel capitulated only about fifty thousand of the Carthaginian population remained alive out of a quarter of a million. They were sold into slavery, and the city was burnt and elaborately destroyed. The blackened ruins were ploughed and sown as a sort of ceremonial effacement. So ended the Third Punic War. Of all the Semitic states and cities that had flourished in the world five centuries before only one little country remained free under native rulers. This was Judea, which had liberated itself from the Seleucids and was under the rule The EXTENT of the ROMAN POWER & its BLLIANE ES ‘about 150 B.C [ie., on the eve of the Re | Thaxtl Punic War. J ee 6 Ss AL ie Sram 2 nk INTERIOR OF THE COLISEUM AS IT APPEARS TO-DAY 200Man’s Life under Early Roman Empire 207 tives were not so abundant for one thing, and slaves were dearer. And slave-owners began to realize that the profit and comfort they got from their slaves increased with the self-respect of these unfor- tunates. But also the moral tone of the community was rising, and a sense of justice was becoming effective. The higher mentality of Greece was qualifying the old Roman harshness. Restrictions upon cruelty were made, a master might no longer sell his slave to fight beasts, a slave was given property rights in what was called his peculium, slaves were paid wages as an encouragement and stimulus, a form of slave marriage was recognized. Very many forms of agri- culture do not lend themselves to gang working, or require gang workers only at certain seasons. In regions where such conditions prevailed the slave presently became a serf, paying his owner part of his produce or working for him at certain seasons. When we begin to realize how essentially this great Latin and Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the first two centuries A.D. was a slave state and how small was the minority who had any pride or freedom in their lives, we lay our hands on the clues to its decay and collapse. There was little of what we should call family life, few homes of temperate living and active thought and study; schools and colleges were few and far between. The free will and the free mind were nowhere to be found. The great roads, the ruins of splendid buildings, the tradition of law and power it left for the as- tonishment of succeeding generations must not conceal from us that all its outer splendour was built upon thwarted wills, stifled intelli- gence, and crippled and perverted desires. And even the minority who lorded it over that wide realm of subjugation and of restraint and forced labour were uneasy and unhappy in their souls; art and literature, science and philosophy, which are the fruits of free and happy minds, waned in that atmosphere. There was much copy- ing and imitation, an abundance of artistic artificers, much slavish pedantry among the servile men of learning, but the whole Roman empire in four centuries produced nothing to set beside the bold and noble intellectual activities of the comparatively little city of Athens during its one century of greatness. Athens decayed under the Roman sceptre. The science of Alexandria decayed. The spirit of man, it seemed, was decaying in those days.ROO Reticious DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE HE soul of man under that Latin and Greek empire of the first two centuries of the Christian era was a worried and frustrated soul. Compulsion and cruelty reigned; there were pride and display but little honour; little serenity or steadfast happiness. The unfortunate were despised and wretched; the fortunate were insecure and feverishly eager for gratifications. In a great number of cities life centred on the red excitement of the arena, where men and beasts fought and were tormented and slain. Amphitheatres are the most characteristic of Roman ruins. Life went on in that key. The uneasiness of men’s hearts manifested it- self in profound religious unrest. From the days when the Aryan hordes first broke in upon the ancient civilizations, it was inevitable that the old gods of the tem- ples and priesthoods should suffer great adaptations or disappear. In the course of hundreds of generations the agricultural peoples of the brunette civilizations had shaped their lives and thoughts to the temple-centred life. Observances and the fear of disturbed routines, sacrifices and mysteries, dominated their minds. Their gods seem monstrous and illogical to our modern minds because we belong to an Aryanized world, but to these older peoples these deities had the immediate conviction and vividness of things seen in an intense dream. The conquest of one city state by another in Sumeria or early Egypt meant a change or a renaming of gods or goddesses, but left the shape and spirit of the worship intact. There was no change in its general character. The figures in the dream changed, but the dream went on and it was the same sort of dream. And the early Semitic conquerors were sufficiently akin in spirit to the Sume- rians to take over the religion of the Mesopotamian civilization they subjugated without any profound alteration. Egypt was never 208Religious Developments 200 indeed subjugated to the extent of a religious revolution. Under the Ptolemies and under the Cesars, her temples and altars and priesthoods remained essentially Egyptian. So long as conquests went on between people of similar social and religious habits it was possible to get over the clash between the god of this temple and region and the god of that by a process of grouping or assimilation. If the two gods were alike in character they were identified. It was really the same god under another name, said the priests and the people. This fusion of gods is called theocrasia; and the age of the great conquests of the thousand years B.C. was an age of theocrasia. Over wide areas the local gods were displaced by, or rather they were swallowed up in, a general god. So that when at last Hebrew prophets in Babylon proclaimed one God of Righteousness in all the earth men’s minds were fully prepared for that idea. But often the gods were too dissimilar for such an assimilation, and then they were grouped together in some plausible relationship. A female god — and the Hgean world before the coming of the Greek was much addicted to Mother Gods— would be married to a male god, and an animal god or a star god would be humanized and the animal or astronomical aspect, the serpent or the sun or the star, made into an ornament orasymbol. Or the god of a defeated people would become a malignant antagonist to the brighter gods. The history of theology is full of such adaptations, compromises and rationalizations of once local gods. As Egypt developed from city states into one united kingdom there was much of this theocrasia. The chief god so to speak was Osiris, a sacrificial harvest god of whom Pharaoh was supposed to be the earthly incarnation. Osiris was represented as repeatedly dying and rising again; he was not only the seed and the harvest but also by a natural extension of thought the means of human immortality. Among his symbols was the wide-winged scarabeus beetle which buries its eggs to rise again, and also the effulgent sun which sets to rise. Later on he was to be identified with Apis, the sacred bull. Associated with him was the goddess Isis. Isis was also Hathor, a cow-goddess, and the crescent moon and the Star of the sea. Osiris dies and she bears a child, Horus, who is also a210 A Short History of the World hawk-god and the dawn, and who grows to become Osiris again. The effigies of Isis represent her as bearing the infant Horus in her arms and standing on the crescent moon. These are not logical relationships, but they were devised by the human mind before the development of hard and systematic thinking and they have a dream-like coherence. Beneath this triple group there are other and darker Egyptian gods, bad gods, the dog-headed Anubis, black night and the like, devourers, tempters, enemies of god and man. Every religious system does in the course of time fit itself to the shape of the human soul, and there can be no doubt that out of these illogical and even uncouth symbols, Egyptian people were able to fashion for themselves ways of genuine devotion and consolation. The desire for immortality was very strong in the Egyptian mind, and the religious life of Egypt turned on that desire. The Egyp- MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN (In tne British Museum)Religious Developments 211 tian religion Was an see > immortality religion as no other religion prs had ever been. As Egypt went down under foreign con- querors and_ the Egyptian gods ceased to have any satisfactory political craving for a life of after, intensified. significance, this compensations here- After the Greek city of Alexandria conquest, the new ‘ became the centre gious life, and indeed of the whole Hel- great temple, the up by Ptolemy I at of Egyptian reli- of the religious life lenic world. A Serapeum, was set | which a sort of ISIS AND HORUS trinity of gods was ° ry ‘ . worshipped. These were Serapis (who was Osiris-Apis rechristened), Isis and Horus. These were not regarded as separate gods but as three aspects of one god, and Serapis was identified with the Greek Zeus, the Roman Jupiter and the Persian sun-god. This worship spread wherever the Hellenic influence extended, even into North India and Western China. The idea of immortality, an immortality of compensa- tions and consolation, was eagerly received by a world in which the common life was hopelessly wretched. Serapis was called ‘the saviour of souls.” ‘“‘After death,” said the hymns of that time, “*we are still in the care of his providence.” Isis attracted many devotees. Her images stood in her temples, as Queen of Heaven, bearing the infant Horus in her arms. Candles were burnt before her, votive offerings were made to her, shaven priests consecrated to celibacy waited on her altar. The rise of the Roman empire opened the western European world to this growing cult. The temples of Serapis-Isis, the chant- ing of the priests and the hope of immortal life, followed the Roman standards to Scotland and Holland. But there were many rivals to the Serapis-Isis religion. Prominent among these was Mithraism. This was a religion of Persian origin, and it centred upon some now forgotten mysteries about Mithras sacrificing a sacred and benevo- lent bull. Here we seem to have something more primordial than212 A Short History of the World the complicated and sophisticated Serapis-Isis beliefs. We are car- ried back directly to the blood sacrifices of the heliolithic stage in human culture. The bull upon the Mithraic monuments always bleeds copiously from a wound in its side, and from this blood springs new life. The votary to Mithraism actually bathed in the blood of the sacrificial bull. At his initiation he went beneath a scaffolding upon which a bull was killed so that the blood could actually run down on him. Both these religions, and the same is true of many other of the numerous parallel cults that sought the allegiance of the slaves and citizens under the earlier Roman emperors, are personal religions. They aim at personal salvation and personal immortality. The older religions were not personal like that; they were social. The older fashion of divinity was god or goddess of the city first or of the state, and only secondarily of the individual. ‘The sacrifices were a public and not a private function. They concerned collective prac- tical needs in this world in which we live. But the Greeks first and now the Romans had pushed religion out of politics. Guided by the Egyptian tradition religion had retreated to the other world. These new private immortality religions took all the heart and emotion out of the ae old state religions, but they did not | | | actually replace them. —— PP REAE AGN offering and burn a waa Gn pinch of incense to show one’s loyalty. COMMODUS, a.v. 180-192 But it would be to ‘ a Represented as the God Mithras, the temple of Isis, “®Roman, Cirea 4.0. 190 the dear Queen of Heaven, one would (In the British Museum) go with the burthenReligious Developments of one’s private troubles for advice and relief. There might be local and eccentric gods. Seville, for example, long affected the worship of the old Carthaginian Venus. In a cave or an under- ground temple there would certainly be an altar to Mithras, attended by legionaries and slaves. And probably also there would be a synagogue where the Jews gathered to read their Bible and uphold their faith in the unseen God of all the Earth. Sometimes there would be trouble with the Jews about the po- litical side of the state religion. They held that their God was a jealous God intolerant of idolatry, and they would refuse to take part in the public sacrifices to Caesar. They would not even salute the Roman standards for fear of idolatry. In the East long before the time of Buddha there had been ascetics, men and women who gave up most of the delights of life, who repudiated marriage and property and sought spiritual powers and an escape from the stresses and mortifications of the world in abstinence, pain and solitude. Buddha himself set his face against ascetic extravagances, but many of his disciples followed a monkish life of great severity. Obscure Greek cults practised similar dis- ciplines even to the extent of self-mutilation. Asceticism appeared in the Jewish communities of Judea and Alexandria also in the first century B.c. Communities of men abandoned the world and gave themselves to austerities and mystical contemplation. Such was the sect of the Essenes. Throughout the first and second centuries A.p. there was an almost world-wide resort to such repudiations of life, a universal search for “‘salvation”’ from the distresses of the time. The old sense of an established order, the old confidence in priest and temple and law and custom, had gone. Amidst the pre- vailing slavery, cruelty, fear, anxiety, waste, display and hectic self- indulgence, went this epidemic of self-disgust and mental insecurity, this agonized search for peace even at the price of renunciation and voluntary suffering. This it was that filled the Serapeum with weep- ing penitents and brought the converts into the gloom and gore of the Mithraic cave.DOO TL TuE TEACHING OF JESUS T was while Augustus Czesar, the first of the Emperors, was reigning in Rome that Jesus who is the Christ of Christianity was born in Judea. In his name a religion was to arise which was destined to become the official religion of the entire Roman Empire. Now it is on the whole more convenient to keep history and theology apart. A large proportion of the Christian world believes that Jesus was an incarnation of that God of all the Earth whom the Jews first recognized. The historian, if he is to remain historian, can neither accept nor deny that interpretation. Materially Jesus appeared in the likeness of a man, and it is as a man that the his- torian must deal with him. He appeared in Judea in the reign of Tiberius Cesar. He was a prophet. He preached after the fashion of the preceding Jewish prophets. He was a man of about thirty, and we are in the pro- foundest ignorance of his manner of life before his preaching began. Our only direct sources of information about the life and teaching of Jesus are the four Gospels. All four agree in giving us a picture of a very definite personality. One is obliged to say, “Here was aman. This could not have been invented.” But just as the personality of Gautama Buddha has been dis- torted and obscured by the stiff squatting figure, the gilded idol of later Buddhism, so one feels that the lean and strenuous personality of Jesus is much wronged by the unreality and conventionality that a mistaken reverence has imposed upon his figure in modern Chris- tian art. Jesus was a penniless teacher, who wandered about the dusty sun-bit country of Judea, living upon castal gifts of food; yet he is always represented clean, combed and sleek, in spotless raiment, erect and with something motionless about him as though 214The Teaching of Jesus he was gliding through the air. This alone has made him unreal and incredible to many people who cannot distinguish the core of the story from the ornamental and unwise additions of the unin- telligently devout. We are left, if we do strip this record of these difficult accessories. with the figure of a being, very human, very earnest and passionate, capable of swift anger, and teaching a new and simple and profound doctrine — namely, the universal loving Fatherhood of God and the coming of the Kingdom of Heaven. He was clearly a person — to use a common phrase— of intense personal magnetism. He at- tracted followers and filled them with love and courage. Weak and ailing people were heartened and healed by his presence. Yet he was probably of a delicate physique, because of the swiftness with which he died under the pains of crucifixion. There is a tradition that he fainted when, according to the custom, he was made to bear his cross to the place of execution. He went about the country for three years spreading his doctrine and then he came to Jerusalem and was accused of trying to set up a strange kingdom in Judea; he was tried upon this charge, and crucified together with two thieves. Long before these two were dead his sufferings were over. The doctrine of the Kingdom of Heaven, which was the main teaching of Jesus, is certainly one of the most revolutionary doc- trines that ever stirred and changed human thought. It is small wonder if the world of that time failed to grasp its full significance, and recoiled in dismay from even a half apprehension of its tremen- dous challenges to the established habits and institutions of man- kind. For the doctrine of the Kingdom of Heaven, as Jesus seems to have preached it, was no less than a bold and uncompromising demand for a complete change and cleansing of the life of our struggling race, an utter cleansing, without and within. To the vospels the reader must go for all that is preserved of this tremendous teaching; here we are only concerned with the jar of its impact upon established ideas. The Jews were persuaded that God, the one God of the whole world, was a righteous god, but they also thought of him as a trading god who had made a bargain with their Father Abrahami oe EARLY IDEAL PORTRAIT, IN GILDED GLASS, OF JESUS CHRIST IN WHICH THE TRADITIONAL BEARD IS NOT SHOWN about them, a very good bargain indeed for them, to bring them at last to predominance in the earth. With dismay and anger they heard Jesus sweeping away their dear securities. God, he taught, was no bargainer; there were no chosen people and no favourites in the Kingdom of Heaven. God was the loving father of all life, as incapable of showing favour as the universal sun. And all men were brothers — sinners alike and beloved sons alike — of this divine father. In the parable of the Good Samaritan Jesus cast scorn upon that natural tendency we all obey, to glorify our own people and to minimize the righteousness of other creeds and other races. In the parable of the labourers he thrust aside the obstinate claim of the Jews to have a special claim upon God. All whom God takes into the kingdom, he taught, God serves alike; there is no dis- tinction in his treatment, because there is no measure to his bounty. From all, moreover, as the parable of the buried talent witnesses, and as the incident of the widow’s mite enforces, he demands the utmost. There are no privileges, no rebates and no excuses in the Kingdom of Heaven.The Teaching of Jesus 217 But it is not only the intense tribal patriotism of the Jews that Jesus outraged. They were a people of intense family loyalty, and he would have swept away all the narrow and restrictive family affections in the great flood of the love of God. The whole kingdom of Heaven was to be the family of his followers. We are told that, “While he yet talked to the people, behold, his mother and his brethren stood without, desiring to speak with him. Then one said unto him, Behold, thy mother and thy brethren stand without, desiring to speak with thee. But he answered and said unto him that told him, Who is my mother? and who are my brethren? And he stretched forth his hands towards his disciples, and said, Behold my mother and my brethren! For whosoever shall do the will of my Father which is in heaven, the same is my brother, and sister, and mother.” ! And not only did Jesus strike at patriotism and the bonds of family loyalty in the name of God’s universal fatherhood and broth- erhood of all mankind, but it is clear that his teaching condemned all the gradations of the economic system, all private wealth, and 1 Matt, xii, 46-50. ee : ¥annaway218 A Short History of the World personal advantages. All men belonged to the kingdom; all their possessions belonged to the kingdom; the righteous life for all men, the only righteous life, was the service of God’s will with all that we had, with all that we were. Again and again he denounced private riches and the reservation of any private life. ‘And when he was gone forth into the way, there came one run- ning, and kneeled to him, and asked him, Good Master, what shall I do that I may inherit eter- nal life? And Jesus said to him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good es but one, that is God. Thou SP 4 = knowest the command- ; = ments, Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Defraud not, Honour thy father and mother. And he answered and said unto him, Master, all these things have I ob- served from my _ youth. Then Jesus beholding him loved him, and said unto him, One thing thou lack- est; go thy way, sell what- sia soever thou hast, and give on to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven: and come, take up the cross, and follow me. And he was sad at that saying, and went away grieved: for he had great "Photo: DAVID’S TOWER AND WALL OF JERUSALEM possessions. ““And Jesus looked round about, and saith unto his disciples, How hardly shall they that have riches enter into the Kingdom of God! And the disciples were astonished at his words. But Jesus answered again, and saith unto them, Children, how hard is it for them that trust in riches to enter into the Kingdom of God! It is~ WO Le ND IDS OS “RR eet * Photo: Yannaway A STREET IN JERUSALEM Along such a thoroughfare Christ carried his cross to the place of execution oe 219220 A Short History of the World easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the Kingdom of God.”’! Moreover, in his tremendous prophecy of this kingdom which was to make all men one together in God, Jesus had small patience for the bargaining righteousness of formal religion. Another large part of his recorded utterances is aimed against the meticulous observance of the rules of the pious career. ‘Then the Pharisees and scribes asked him, Why walk not thy disciples according to the tradition of the elders, but eat bread with unwashen hands? He answered and said unto them, Well hath Isaiah prophesied of you hypocrites, as it is written, “This people honoureth me with their lips, “But their heart is far from me. “Howbeit in vain do they worship me, “Teaching for doctrines the commandments of men. “For laying aside the commandment of God, ye hold the tradi- tion of men, as the washing of pots and cups: and many other such things ye do. And he said unto them, Full well ye reject the com- mandment of God, that ye may keep your own tradition.”’? It was not merely a moral and a social revolution that Jesus proclaimed; it is clear from a score of indications that his teaching had a political bent of the plainest sort. It is true that he said his kingdom was not of this world, that it was in the hearts of men and not upon a throne; but it is equally clear that wherever and in what measure his kingdom was set up in the hearts of men, the outer world would be in that measure revolutionized and made new. Whatever else the deafness and blindness of his hearers may have missed in his utterances, it is plain they did not miss his resolve to revolutionize the world. The whole tenor of the opposition to him and the circumstances of his trial and execution show clearly that to his contemporaries he seemed to propose plainly, and did propose plainly, to change and fuse and enlarge all human life. In view of what he plainly said, is it any wonder that all who were rich and prosperous felt a horror of strange things, a swimming of their world at his teaching? He was dragging out all the little private reservations they had made from social service into the light 1 Mark x. 17-25. 2 Mark vii. 1-9.The Teaching of Jesus 221 of a universal religious life. He was like some terrible moral hunts- man digging mankind out of the snug burrows in which they had lived hitherto. In the white blaze of this kingdom of his there was to be no property, no privilege, no pride and precedence; no motive indeed and no reward but love. Is it any wonder that men were dazzled and blinded and cried out against him? Even his dis- ciples cried out when he would not spare them the light. Is it any wonder that the priests realized that between this man and them- selves there was no choice but that he or priestcraft should perish? Is it any wonder that the Roman soldiers, confronted and amazed by something soaring over their comprehension and threatening all their disciplines, should take refuge in wild laughter, and crown him with thorns and robe him in purple and make a mock Ceesar of him? For to take him seriously was to enter upon a strange and alarming life, to abandon habits, to control instincts and impulses, to essay an incredible happiness. .. .OD, OVA HEE Ture DEVELOPMENT OF DocTRINAL CHRISTIANITY N the four gospels we find the personality and teachings of Jesus but very little of the dogmas of the Christian church. It is in the epistles, a series of writings by the immediate followers of Jesus, that the broad lines of Christian belief are laid down. Chief among the makers of Christian doctrine was St. Paul. He had never seen Jesus nor heard him preach. Paul’s name was originally Saul, and he was conspicuous at first as an active perse- cutor of the little band of disciples after the crucifixion. Then he was suddenly converted to Christianity, and he changed his name to Paul. He was a man of great intellectual vigour and deeply and passionately interested in the religious movements of the time. He was well versed in Judaism and in the Mithraism and Alexandrian religion of the day. He carried over many of their ideas and terms of expression into Christianity. He did very little to enlarge or develop the original teaching of Jesus, the teaching of the Kingdom of Heaven. But he taught that Jesus was not only the promised Christ, the promised leader of the Jews, but also that his death was a sacrifice, like the deaths of the ancient sacrificial victims of the primordial civilizations, for the redemption of mankind. When religions flourish side by side they tend to pick up each other’s ceremonial and other outward peculiarities. Buddhism, for example, in China has now almost the same sort of temples and priests and uses as ‘Taoism, which follows in the teachings of Lao Tse. Yet the original teachings of Buddhism and Taoism were almost flatly opposed. And it reflects no doubt or discredit upon the essentials of Christian teaching that it took over not merely such formal things as the shaven priest, the votive offering, the altars, candles, chanting and images of the Alexandrian and Mithraie faiths, but adopted even their devotional phrases and their theo- 222Development of Doctrinal Christianity 22 MOSAIC OF SS. PETER AND PAUL POINTING TO A THRONE, ON GOLD BACKGROUND From the Ninth Century original, in the Church of Sta. Prassede, Rome (In the Victoria and Albert Museum) logical ideas. All these religions were flourishing side by side with many less prominent cults. Each was seeking adherents, and there must have been a constant going and coming of converts between them. Sometimes one or other would be in favour with the government. But Christianity was regarded with more suspicion than its rivals because, like the Jews, its adherents would not perform acts of worship to the God Cesar. This made it a seditious religion, quite apart from the revolutionary spirit of the teachings of Jesus himself. St. Paul familiarized his disciples with the idea that Jesus, like224 A Short History of the World Osiris, was a god who died to rise again and give men immortality. And presently the spreading Christian community was greatly torn by complicated theological disputes about the relationship of this God Jesus to God the Father of Mankind. The Arians taught that Jesus was divine, but distant from and inferior to the Father. The Sabellians taught that Jesus was merely an aspect of the Father, and that God was Jesus and Father at the same time just as a man may be a father and an artificer at the same time; and the Trini- tarians taught a more subtle doctrine that God was both one and three, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. For a time it seemed that Arianism would prevail over its rivals, and then after disputes, violence and wars, the Trinitarian formula became the accepted formula of all Christendom. It may be found in its completest expression in the Athanasian Creed. We offer no comment on these controversies here. ‘They do not sway history as the personal teaching of Jesus sways history. The personal teaching of Jesus does seem to mark a new phase in the moral and spiritual life of our race. Its insistence upon the uni- versal Fatherhood of God and the implicit brotherhood of all men, its insistence upon the sacredness of every human personality as a living temple of God, was to have the profoundest effect upon all the subsequent social and political life of mankind. With Christianity, with the spreading teachings of Jesus, a new respect appears in the world for man as man. It may be true, as hostile critics of Chris- tianity have urged, that St. Paul preached obedience to slaves, but it is equally true that the whole spirit of the teachings of Jesus pre- served in the gospels was against the subjugation of man by man. And still more distinctly was Christianity opposed to such outrages upon human dignity as the gladiatorial combats in the arena. Throughout the first two centuries after Christ, the Christian religion spread throughout the Roman Empire, weaving together an ever-growing multitude of converts into a new community of ideas and will. The attitude of the emperors varied between hos- tility and toleration. There were attempts to suppress this new faith in both the second and third centuries; and finally in 303 and the following years a great persecution under the Emperor Diocle- tian. The considerable accumulations of Church property wereDevelopment of Doctrinal Christianity 22. Me name mmm i na ~ >. THE BAPTISM OF CHRIST (Sixth Century Ivory Panel in the British Museum) seized, all bibles and religious writings were confiscated and de- stroyed, Christians were put out of the protection of the law and many executed. ‘The destruction of the books is particularly nota- | ble. It shows how the power of the written word in holding to- af226 A Short History of the World gether the new faith was appreciated by the authorities. These “book religions,” Christianity and Judaism, were religions that educated. Their continued existence depended very largely on people being able to read and understand their doctrinal ideas. The older religions had made no such appeal to the personal intelli- gence. In the ages of barbaric confusion that were now at hand in western Europe it was the Christian church that was mainly instru- mental in preserving the tradition of learning. The persecution of Diocletian failed completely to suppress the growing Christian community. In many provinces it was ineffec- tive because the bulk of the population and many of the officials were Christian. In 317 an edict of toleration was issued by the associated 2mperor Galerius, and in 324 Constantine the Great, a friend and on his deathbed a baptized convert to Christianity, became sole ruler of the Roman world. He abandoned all divine pretensions and put Christian symbols on the shields and banners of his troops. In a few years Christianity was securely established as the official religion of the empire. The competing religions disappeared or were absorbed with extraordinary celerity, and in 390 Theodosius the Great caused the great statue of Jupiter Serapis at Alexandria to be destroyed. From the outset of the fifth century onward the only priests or temples in the Roman Empire were Christian priests and temples.OXON IOX Tue BARBARIANS BREAK THE EMPIRE INTO East AND West HROUGHOUT the third century the Roman Empire, decay- ing socially and disintegr: ating morally, faced the barbarians. The emperors of this period were fighting milit: ary autocrats, and the capital of the empire shifted with the necessities of their military policy. Now the imperial headquarters would be at Milan in north Italy, now in what is now Serbia at Sirmium or Nish. now in Nicomedia in Asia Minor.. Rome halfway down Italy was too far from the centre of interest to be a convenient imperial seat. It was a declining city. Over most of the empire peace still prevailed and men went about without arms. The armies continued to be the sole repositories of power; the emperors, dependent on their legions, became more and more autocratic to the rest of the empire and their state more and more like that of the Persian and other oriental monarchs. Diocletian assumed a royal diadem and oriental robes. All along the imperial frontier, which ran roughly along the Rhine and Danube, enemies were now pressing. The Franks and other German tribes had come up to the Rhine. In north Hungary were the Vandals; in what was once Dacia and is now Roumania, the Visigoths or West Goths. Behind these in south Russia were the East Goths or Ostrogoths, and beyond these again in the V olga region the Alans. But now Mongolian peoples were forcing their way towards Europe. The Huns were already exacting tribute from the Alans and Ostrogoths and pushing them to the west. In Asia the Roman frontiers were crumpling back under the push of a renascent Persia. This new Persia, the Persia of the Sassenid kings, was to be a vigorous and on the whole a successful rival of the Roman Empire in Asia for the next three centuries. A glance at the map of Europe will show the reader the peculiar weakness of the empire. The river Danube comes down to witbin 227228 A Short History of the World a couple of hundred miles of the Adriatic Sea in the region of what is now Bosnia and Serbia. It makes a square re-entrant angle there. The Romans never kept their sea communications in good order, and this two hundred mile strip of land was their line of communica- tion between the western Latin-speaking part of the empire and the eastern Greek-speaking portion. Against this square angle of the Danube the barbarian pressure was greatest. When they broke through there it was inevitable that the empire should fall into two parts. The EMPIRE and the _ BARBARIANS 9 11} Pill | | 1137 saw i} ] i . Mutt tt| Hy ® 4) | f sUUU oO Mo UU LOU HH A more vigorous empire might have thrust forward and recon- quered Dacia, but the Roman Empire lacked any such vigour. Con- stantine the Great was certainly a monarch of great devotion and intelligence. He beat back a raid of the Goths from just these vital Balkan regions, but he had no force to carry the frontier across the Danube. He was too pre-occupied with the internal weaknesses of the empire. He brought the solidarity and moral force of Chris- tianity to revive the spirit of the declining empire, and he decided to create a new permanent capital at Byzantium upon the Helles- pont. This new-made Byzantium, which was re-christened Con- stantinople in his honour, was still building when he died. ‘Towards the end of his reign occurred a remarkable transaction. TheThe Barbarians Break the Empire 229 Vandals, being pressed by the Goths, asked to be received into the : r e . . . . Roman Empire. They were assigned lands in Pannonia, which is now that part of Hungary west of the Danube, and their fighting men became nominally legionaries. But these new legionaries re- mained under their own chiefs. Rome failed to di- gest them. Constantine died work- ing to reorganize his great realm, and soon the fron- tiers were ruptured again and the Visigoths came al- most to Constantinople. They defeated the Emperor Valens at Adrianople and made a settlement in what is now Bulgaria, similar to the settlement of the Van- dals in Pannonia. Nomi- nally they were subjects of the emperor, practically they were conquerors. From 379 to 395 A.D. reigned the Emperor Theo- dosius the Great, and while he reigned the empire was still formally intact. Over the armies of Italy and Pan- nonia presided Stilicho, a Vandal, over the armies in the Balkan peninsula, Alaric, a Goth. When Theo- dosius died at the close of the fourth eentury he left —_— Eee Photo: Sebah & Foatllter CONSTANTINE’S PILLAR, CONSTANTINOPLE230 A Short History of the World two sons. Alaric supported one of these, Arcadius, in Constantino- ple, and Stilicho the other, Honorius, in Italy. In other words Alaric and Stilicho fought for the empire with the princes as puppets. In the course of their struggle Alaric marched into Italy and after a short siege took Rome (410 a.p.). The opening half of the fifth century saw the whole of the Roman Empire in Europe the prey of robber armies of barbarians. It is difficult to visualize the state of affairs in the world at that time. Over France, Spain, Italy and the Balkan peninsula, the great cities that had flourished under the early empire still stood, impoverished, partly depopulated and falling into decay. Life in them must have been shallow, mean and full of uncertainty. Local officials asserted their authority and went on with their work with such conscience as they had, no doubt in the name of a now remote and inaccessible emperor. The churches went on, but usually with illiterate priests. There was little reading and much superstition and fear. But everywhere except where looters had destroyed them, books and pictures and statuary and such-like works of art were still to be found. The life of the countryside had also degenerated. Everywhere this Roman world was much more weedy and untidy than it had been. In some regions war and pestilence had brought the land down to the level of a waste. Roads and forests were infested with robbers. Into such regions the barbarians marched, with little or no opposition, and set up their chiefs as rulers, often with Roman official titles. If they were half civilized barbarians they would give the conquered districts tolerable terms, they would take possession of the towns, associate and intermarry, and acquire (with an accent) the Latin speech; but the Jutes, the Angles and Saxons who sub- merged the Roman province of Britain were agriculturalists and had no use for towns, they seem to have swept south Britain clear of the Romanized population and they replaced the language by their own Teutonic dialects, which became at last English. It is impossible in the space at our disposal to trace the move- ments of all the various German and Slavonic tribes as they went to and fro in the disorganized empire in search of plunder and a pleasant home. But let the Vandals serve as an example. They came iatoi ses i. ix F i ‘ nis x yet te ee re : - s % + ’ ee th. : ~*~. ie ats, 53? Cra ’ <3 paged : t ¢ : : } ae * ay Be ey 2 is i ag S04 tt a be aS eA 7 <2 bs ey J ; ; ee j -- ; ; +2. rede ee LR ast oR J 4 ores | aay ug ~* = te: iy , bb poets ’ 344, Frew OS eeeti ats ieee “@ - : s ~ : 7 \ — : , in. \ { ‘ > tee , 8 or Py Se La re pee a ws i ati — adhe aa A 3 Photo: Sebah & ¥oatliter BASE OF THE “OBELISK OF THEODOSIUS,” CONSTANTINOPLE The obelisk of Thothmes, taken from Egypt to Constantinople by Theodosius and placed upon the pedestal here shown: an interesting example of early Byzantine art. The complete obelisk is seen on page 239. 231232 A Short History of the World history ineast Germany. ‘They settled as we have told in Pannonia. Thence they moved somewhen about 425 a.p. through the interven- ing provinces to Spain. There they found Visigoths from South Russia and other German tribes setting up dukes and kings. From Spain the Vandals under Genseric sailed for North Africa (429), captured Carthage (439), and built a fleet. They secured the mastery of the sea and captured and pillaged Rome (455), which had recovered very imperfectly from her capture and looting by Alaric half a century earlier. ‘Then the Vandals made themselves masters of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia and most of the other islands of the western Mediterranean. They made, in fact, a sea empire very similar in its extent to the sea empire of Carthage seven hundred odd years before. They were at the climax of their power about 477. They were a mere handful of conquerors holding all this country. In the next century almost all their territory had been reconquered for the empire of Constantinople during a transitory blaze of energy under Justinian I. The story of the Vandals is but one sample of a host of similar adventures. But now there was coming into the European world the least ‘kindred and most redoubtable of all these devastators, the Mongolian Huns or Tartars, a yellow people active and able, such as the western world had never before encountered.xs Tue Huns AND THE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE HIS appearance of a conquering Mongolian people in Europe may be taken to mark a new stage in human history. Until the last century or so before the Christian era, the Mongol and the Nordic peoples had not been in close touch. Far away in the frozen lands beyond the northern forests the Lapps, a Mongolian people, had drifted westward as far as Lapland, but they played no part in the main current of history. For thousands of years the western world carried on the dramatic interplay of the Aryan, Semitic and fundamental brunette peoples with very little inter- ference (except for an Ethiopian invasion of Egypt or so) either from the black peoples to the south or from the Mongolian world in the far East. It is probable that there were two chief causes for the new west- ward drift of the nomadic Mongolians. One was the consolidation of the great empire of China, its extension northward and the in- crease of its population during the prosperous period of the Han dynasty. The other was some process of climatic change; a lesser rainfall that abolished swamps and forests perhaps, or a greater rain- fall that extended grazing over desert steppes, or even perhaps both these processes going on in different regions but which anyhow facilitated a westward migration. A third contributary cause was the economic wretchedness, internal decay and falling population of the Roman Empire. The rich men of the later Roman Republic, and then the tax-gatherers of the military emperors had utterly consumed its vitality. So we have the factors of thrust, means and opportunity. There was pressure from the east, rot in the west and an open road. The Hun had reached the eastern boundaries of European Russia by the first century A.D., but it was not until the fourth and 233234 A Short History of the World fifth centuries A.D. that these horsemen rose to predominance upon the steppes. The fifth century was the Hun’s century. The first Huns to come into Italy were mercenary bands in the pay of Stilicho the Vandal, the master of Honorius. Presently they were in posses- sion of Pannonia, the empty nest of the Vandals. By the second quarter of the fifth century a great war chief had arisen among the Huns, Attila. We have only vague and tantalizing glimpses of his power. He ruled not only over the Huns but over a conglomerate of tributary Germanic tribes; his empire extended from the Rhine cross the plains into Central Asia. He exchanged ambassadors with China. His head camp was in the plain of Hun- gary east of the Danube. There he was visited by an envoy from Constantinople, Priscus, who has left us an account of his state. The way of living of these Mongols was very like the way of living of the primitive Aryans they had replaced. The common folk were in huts and ‘tents; the chiefs lived in great stockaded timber halls. There were feasts and drinking and singing by the bards. The Homeric heroes and even the Macedonian companions of Alexander would probably have felt more at home in the camp-capital of Attila than they would have done in the cultivated and decadent court of Theodosius II, the son of Arcadius, who was then reigning in Constantinople. For a time it seemed as though the nomads under the leadership of the Huns and Attila would play the same part towards the Greco- Roman civilization of the Mediterranean countries that the barbaric Greeks had played long ago to the Agean civilization. It looked like history repeating itself upon a larger stage. But the Huns were much more wedded to the nomadic life than the early Greeks, who were rather migratory cattle farmers than true nomads. The Huns raided and plundered but did not settle. For some years Attila bullied Theodosius as he chose. His armies devastated and looted right down to the walls of Constanti- nople, Gibbon says that he totally destroyed no less than seventy cities in the Balkan peninsula, and Theodosius bought him off by payments of tribute and tried to get rid of him for good by sending secret agents to assassinate him. In 451 Attila turned his attention to the remains of the Latin-speaking half of the empire and invadedHuns and the End of the Western Empire 235 Gaul. Nearly every town in northern Gaul was sacked. Franks, Visigoths and the imperial forces united against him and he was defeated at Troyes in a vast dispersed battle in which a multitude of men, variously estimated as between 150,000 and 300,000, were killed. This checked him in Gaul, but it did not exhaust his Ee eT enormous mili- tary resources. Next year he came into Italy by way of Ve- netia, burnt Aquileia and Padua and looted Milan. Numbers of fugitives from these north Italian towns and particular- ly from Padua fled to islands in the lagoons at the head of the Adriatic and laid there the foundations ; 5 ne ee of the city state HEAD OF BARBARIAN CHIEF (In the British Museum) of Venice, which was to become one of the greatest of the trading centres in the middle ages. In 453 Attila died suddenly after a great feast to celebrate his marriage to a young woman, and at his death this plunder confedera- tion of his fell to pieces. The actual Huns disappear from history, mixed into the surrounding more numerous Aryan-speaking popula-A Short History of the World tions. But these great Hun raids practically consummated the end of the Latin Roman Empire. After his death ten different emperors ruled in Rome in twenty years, set up by Vandal and other merce- nary troops. The Vandals from Carthage took and sacked Rome in 455. Finally in 476 Odoacer, the chief of the barbarian troops, suppressed a Pannonian who was figuring as emperor under the impressive name of Romulus Augustulus, and informed the Court of Constantinople that there was no longer an emperor in the west. So ingloriously the Latin Roman Empire came to an end. In 493 Theodoric the Goth became King of Rome. All over western and central Europe now barbarian chiefs were reigning as kings, dukes and the like, practically independent but for the most part professing some sort of shadowy allegiance to the emperor. There were hundreds and perhaps thousands of such practically independent brigand rulers. In Gaul, Spain and Italy and in Dacia the Latin speech still prevailed in locally distorted forms, but in Britain and east of the Rhine languages of the German group (or in Bohemia a Slavonic language, Czech) were the common speech. The superior clergy and a small remnant of other educated men read and wrote Latin. Everywhere life was insecure and prop- erty was held by the strong arm. Castles multiplied and roads fell into decay. The dawn of the sixth century was an age of division and of intellectual darkness throughout the western world. Had it not been for the monks and Christian missionaries Latin learning might have perished altogether. Why had the Roman Empire grown and why had it so completely decayed? It grew because at first the idea of citizenship held it together. Throughout the days of the expanding republic, and even into the days of the early empire there remained a great number of men conscious of Roman citizenship, feeling it a privilege and an obligation to be a Roman citizen, confident of their rights under the Roman law and willing to make sacrifices in the name of Rome. The prestige of Rome as of something just and great and law-up- holding spread far beyond the Roman boundaries. But even as early as the Punic wars the sense of citizenship was being under- mined by the growth of wealth and slavery. Citizenship spread indeed but not the idea of citizenship.Huns and the End of the Western Empire 237 The Roman Empire was after all a very primitive organization: it did not educate, did not explain itself to its increasing multitudes of citizens, did not invite their co-operation in its decisions. ‘There was no network of schools to ensure a common understanding, no distribution of news to sustain collective activity. The adventurers who struggled for power from the days of Marius and Sulla onward had no idea of creating and calling in public opinion upon the im- perial affairs. The spirit of citizenship died of starvation and no one observed it die. All empires, all states, all organizations of human society are, in the ultimate, things of understanding and will. There remained no will for the Roman Empire in the World and so it came to an end. But though the Latin-speaking Roman Empire died in the fifth century, something else had been born within it that was to avail itself enormously of its prestige and tradition, and that was the Latin-speaking half of the Catholic Church. This lived while the empire died because it appealed to the minds and wills of men, because it had books and a great system of teachers and mission- aries to hold it together, things stronger than any law or Iegions. Throughout the fourth and fifth centuries A.p. while the empire was decaying, Christianity was spreading to a universal dominion in Europe. It conquered its conquerors, the barbarians. When Attila seemed disposed to march on Rome, the patriarch of Rome intercepted him and did what no armies could do, turning him back by sheer moral force. The Patriarch or Pope of Rome claimed to be the head of the entire Christian church. Now that there were no more emperors, he began to annex imperial titles and claims. He took the title of pontifer maximus, head sacrificial priest of the Roman dominion, the most ancient of all the titles that the emperors had enjoyed.XLI Tur BYZANTINE AND SASSANID EMPIRES HE Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire showed much more political tenacity than the western half. It weathered the disasters of the fifth century a.p., which saw a complete and final breaking up of the original Latin Roman power. Attila bullied the Emperor Theodosius II and sacked and raided almost to the walls of Constantinople, but that city remained intact. The Nubians came down the Nile and looted Upper Egypt, but Lower Egypt and Alexandria were left still fairly prosperous. Most of Asia Minor was held against the Sassanid Persians. The sixth century, which was an age of complete darkness for the West, saw indeed a considerable revival of the Greek power. Justinian I (527-565) was a ruler of very great ambition and energy, and he was married to the Empress Theodora, a woman of quite equal capacity who had begun life as an actress. Justinian recon- quered North Africa from the Vandals and most of Italy from the Goths. He even regained the south of Spain. He did not limit his energies to naval and military enterprises. He founded a university, built the great church of Sta. Sophia in Constantinople and codified the Roman law. But in order to destroy a rival to his university foundation he closed the schools of philosophy in Athens, which had been going on in unbroken continuity from the days of Plato, that is to say for nearly a thousand years. From the third century onwards the Persian Empire had been the steadfast rival of the Byzantine. The two empires kept Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt in a state of perpetual unrest and waste. In the first century a.p., these lands were still at a high level of civilization, wealthy and with an abundant population, but the con- tinual coming and going of armies, massacres, looting and war taxa- tion wore them down steadily until only shattered and ruinous 238The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires — 239 cities remained upon a countryside of scattered peasants. In this melancholy process of impoverishment and disorder lower Egypt fared perhaps less badly than the rest of the world. Alexandria, like Constantinople, continued a dwindling trade between the east and the west. Science and political philosophy seemed dead now in both these warring and decaying empires. The last philosophers of Athens, until their suppression, preserved the texts of the great literature of the past with an infinite reverence and want of understanding. But there remained no class of men in the world, no free gentlemen with bold and independent habits of thought, to carry on the tradi- tion of frank statement and enquiry embodied in these writings. The social and political chaos accounts largely for the disappearance of this class, but there was also another reason why the human in- telligence was sterile and feverish during this age. In both Persia and Byzantium it was an age of intolerance. Both empires were religious empires in a new way, in a way that greatly hampered the free activities of the human mind. Pie (ers ata peestie < a b eG Phra m Photo: Sebah & Yoatllter THE CHURCH (NOW A MOSQUE) OF S. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE The obelisk of Theodosius is in the foregroundShort History of the World Of course the oldest empires in the world were _ relig- ious empires, centring upon the worship of a god or of a god-king. Alexander was treated as a divinity and —t use Ceesars were gods in so much as they A ee had altars Bese) 67) 2 RE et and temples , or >. devoted to them and the offering of incense was made a test of loyalty to the Roman state. But these older religions were essentially religions of act and fact. They did not invade the mind. If a man offered his sacrifice and bowed to the god, he was left not only to think but to say prac- tically whatever he liked about the affair. But the new sort of religions that had come into the world, and particularly Christianity, turned inward. These new faiths demanded not simply conformity but understanding belief. Naturally fierce controversy ensued upon the exact meaning of the things believed. These new religions were creed religions. ‘The world was confronted with a new word, Orthodoxy, and with a stern resolve to keep not only acts but speech Photo: Sehah & Foatliter THE MAGNIFICENT ROOF-WORK IN S. SOPHIAThe Byzantine and Sassanid Empires 241 and private thought within the limits of a set teaching. For to hold a wrong opinion, much more to convey it to other people, was no longer regarded as an intellectual defect but a moral fault that - might condemn a soul to everlasting destruction. Both Ardashir I who founded the Sassanid dynasty in the third century A.D., and Constantine the Great who reconstructed the Roman Empire in the fourth, turned to religious organizations. for help, because in these organizations they saw a new means of using and controlling the wills of men. And already before the end of the fourth century both empires were persecuting free talk and re- ligious innovation. In Persia Ardashir found the ancient Persian religion of Zoroaster (or Zarathushtra) with its priests and temples and a sacred fire that burnt upon its altars, ready for his purpose as a state religion. Before the end of the third century Zoroastrianism OW was persecuting Christianity, and in 277 a.p. Mani, the founder of 3 err Photo: Alinart THE RAVENNA PANEL, DEPICTING JUSTINIAN AND HIS COURTPhoto: Callersood & aorta THE ROCK-HEWN TEMPLE AT PETRA 242The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires = 243 a new faith, the Manicheans, was crucified and his body flayed. Constantinople, on its side, was busy hunting out Christian heresies. Manicheean ideas infected Christianity and had to be fought with the fiercest methods; in return ideas from Christianity affected the purity of the Zoroastrian doctrine. All ideas became suspect. Science, which demands before all things the free action of an un- troubled mind, suffered a complete eclipse throughout this phase of intolerance. War, the bitterest theology, and the usual vices of mankind constituted Byzantine life of those days. It was picturesque, it was romantic; it had little sweetness or light. When Byzantium and Persia were not fighting the barbarians from the north, they wasted Asia Minor and Syria in dreary and destructive hostilities. Even in close alliance these two empires would have found it a hard task to turn back the barbarians and recover their prosperity. ‘The Turks or Tartars first come into history as the allies first of one power and then of another. In the sixth century the two chief antagonists were Justinian and Chosroes I; in the opening of the seventh the Emperor Heraclius was pitted against Chosroes IT (580). At first and until after Heraclius had become Emperor (610) Chosroes II carried all before him. He took Antioch, Damascus and Jerusalem and his armies reached Chalcedon, which is in Asia Minor over against Constantinople. In 619 he conquered Egypt. Then Heraclius pressed a counter attack home and routed a Persian army at Nineveh (627), although at that time there were still Persian troops at Chalcedon. In 628 Chosroes II was deposed and murdered by his son, Kavadh, and an inconclusive peace was made between the two exhausted empires. Byzantium and Persia had fought their last war. But few people as yet dreamt of the storm that was even then gathering in the deserts to put an end for ever to this aimless, chronic struggle. While Heraclius was restoring order in Syria a message reached him. It had been brought in to the imperial outpost at Bostra south of Damascus; it was in Arabic, an obscure Semitic desert language, and it was read to the Emperor, if it reached him at all, by an interpreter. It was from someone who called himself “ Mu- hammad the Prophet of God.” It called upon the Emperor tonn ee 244 A Short History of the World acknowledge the One True God and to serve him. What the Em- peror said is not recorded. A similar message came to Kavadh at Ctesiphon. He was an- noyed, tore up the letter, and bade the messenger begone. This Muhammad, it appeared, was a Bedouin leader whose head- quarters were in the mean little desert town of Medina. He was preaching a new religion of faith in the One True God. “Even so, O Lord!” he said; “rend thou his Kingdom from Kavadh.”’ a a : rhe 1 Saheeaen Ninna! —————————ec Tue Dynasties oF Suy AND TANG IN CHINA HROUGHOUT the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, there was a steady drift of Mongolian peoples westward. The Huns of Attila were merely precursors of this advance, which led at last to the establishment of Mongolian peoples in Fin- land, Esthonia, Hungary and Bulgaria, where their descendants, speaking languages akin to Turkish, survive to this day. The Mon- golian nomads were, in fact, playing a roéle towards the Aryanized civilizations of Europe and Persia and India that the Aryans had played to the Agean and Semitic civilizations ten or fifteen centuries before. In Central Asia the Turkish peoples had taken root in what is now Western Turkestan, and Persia already employed many Turk- ish officials and Turkish mercenaries. The Parthians had gone out of history, absorbed into the general population of Persia. There were no more Aryan nomads in the history of Central Asia; Mon- golian people had replaced them. The Turks became masters of Asia from China to the Caspian. The same great pestilence at the end of the second century A.D. that had shattered the Roman Empire had overthrown the Han dynasty in China. Then came a period of division and of Hunnish conquests from which China arose refreshed, more rapidly and more completely than Europe was destined to do. Before the end of the sixth century China was reunited under the Suy dynasty, and this by the time of Heraclius gave place to the Tang dynasty, whose reign marks another great period of prosperity for China. Throughout the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries China was the most secure and civilized country in the world. The Han dynasty had extended her boundaries in the north; the Suy and Tang dynasties now spread her civilization to the south, and China 245See ee Sees Le wae | | : Bt 7 CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TA G DYNASTY, 618-906 Specimens in glazed earthenw are, in brown, green and buff, discovered in tombs in China (In the Victoria and Albert Museum) 246The Dynasties of Suy and Tang in China 247 began to assume the proportions she has to-day. In Central Asia indeed she reached much further, extending at last, through tribu- tary Turkish tribes, to Persia and the Caspian Sea. The new China that had arisen was a very different land from the old China of the Hans. A new and more vigorous literary school appeared, there was a great poetic revival; Buddhism had revolutionized philosophical and religious thought. There were great advances in artistic work, in technical skill and in all the ameni- ties of life. Tea was first used, paper manufactured and wood-block printing began. Millions of people indeed were leading orderly, graceful and kindly lives in China during these centuries when the attenuated populations of Europe and Western Asia were living either in hovels, small walled cities or grim robber fortresses. While the mind of the west was black with theological obsessions, the mind of China was open and tolerant and enquiring. One of the earliest monarchs of the Tang dynasty was Tai-tsung, who began to reign in 627, the year of the victory of Heraclius at Nineveh. He received an embassy from Heraclius, who was prob- ably seeking an ally in the rear of Persia. From Persia itself came a party of Christian missionaries (635). They were allowed to ex- plain their creed to Tai-tsung and he examined a Chinese translation of their Scriptures. He pronounced this strange religion acceptable, and gave permission for the foundation of a church and monastery. To this monarch also (in 628) came messengers from Muhammad. They came to Canton on a trading ship. They had sailed the whole way from Arabia along the Indian coasts. Unlike Heraclius and Kavadh, Tai-tsung gave these envoys a courteous hearing. He ex- pressed his interest in their theological ideas and assisted them to build a mosque in Canton, a mosque which survives, it is said, to this day, the oldest mosque in the world.KT MuHAMMAD AND ISLAM PROPHETIC amateur of history surveying the world in the opening of the seventh century might have concluded very reasonably that it was only a question of a few centuries before the whole of Europe and Asia fell under Mongolian domina- tion. There were no signs of order or union in Western Europe, and the Byzantine and Persian Empires were manifestly bent upon a mutual destruction. India also was divided and wasted. On the other hand China was a steadily expanding empire which proba- bly at that time exceeded all Europe in population, and the Turkish people who were growing to power in Central Asia were disposed to work in accord with China. And such a prophecy would not have been an altogether vain one. A time was to come in the thirteenth century when a Mongolian overlord would rule from the Danub> to the Pacific, and Turkish dynasties were destined to reign over the entire Byzantine and Persian Empires, over Egypt and most of India. Where our prophet would have been most likely to have erred would have been in under-estimating the recuperative power of the Latin end of Europe and in ignoring the latent forces of the Arabian desert. Arabia would have seemed what it had been for times immemorial, the refuge of small and bickering nomadic tribes. No Semitic people had founded an empire now for more than a thousand years. Then suddenly the Bedouin flared out for a brief century of splendour. They spread their rule and language from Spain to the boundaries of China. They gave the world a new culture. They created a religion that is still to this day one of the most vital forces in the world. 248Muhammad and Islam 2409 The man who fired this Arab flame appears first in history as the young husband of the widow of a rich merchant of the town of Mecca, named Muhammad. Until he was forty he did very little to distinguish himself in the world. He seems to have taken con- siderable interest in religious discussion. Mecca was a pagan city at that time worshipping in particular a black stone, the Kaaba, of great repute throughout all Arabia and a centre of pilgrimages; but there were great numbers of Jews in the country — indeed all the southern portion of Arabia professed the Jewish faith— and there were Christian churches in Syria. About forty Muhammad began to develop prophetic character- istics like those of the Hebrew prophets twelve hundred years before him. He talked first to his wife of the One True God, and of the rewards and punishments of virtue and wickedness. There can be no doubt that his thoughts were very strongly influenced by Jewish and Christian ideas. He gathered about him a small circle of believers and presently began to preach in the town against the prevalent idolatry. This made him extremely unpopular with his fellow townsmen because the pilgrimages to the Kaaba were the chief source of such prosperity as Mecca enjoyed. He became bolder and more definite in his teaching, declaring himself to be the last chosen prophet of God entrusted with a mission to perfect religion. Abraham, he declared, and Jesus Christ were his fore- runners. He had been chosen to complete and perfect the revelation of God’s will. He produced verses which he said had been communicated to him by an angel, and he had a strange vision in which he was taken up through the Heavens to God and instructed in his mission. As his teaching increased in force the hostility of his fellow towns- men increased also. At last a plot was made to kill him; but he escaped with his faithful friend and disciple, Abu Bekr, to the friendly town of Medina which adopted his doctrine. Hostilities followed between Mecca and Medina which ended at last in a treaty. Mecca was to adopt the worship of the One True God and accept Muhummad as his prophet, but the adherents of the new farth were still to make the pilgrimage to Mecca just as they had done when they were pagans. So Muhammad established the One True God ins CPR 5 ay | SGI Bi: Pi, “a Bs Photo: Lehnert & Landrock AT PRAYER IN THE DESERT + 250 vvMuhammad and Islam 251 Mecca without injuring its pilgrim traffic. In 629 Muhammad returned to Mecca as its master, a year after he had sent out these envoys of his to Heraclius, Tai-tsung, Kavadh and all the rulers of the earth. Then for four years more until his death in 632, Muhammad spread his power over the rest of Arabia. He married a number of wives in his declining years, and his life on the whole was by modern standards unedifying. He seems to have been a man compounded of very considerable vanity, greed, cunning, self-deception and quite ~ at Ge. on ee ay ES Ci ses Photo: Lehnert & Landrock LOOKING ACROSS THE SEA OF SAND sincere religious passion. He dictated a book of injunctions and expositions, the Koran, which he declared was communicated to him from God. Regarded as literature or philosophy the Koran is cer- tainly unworthy of its alleged Divine authorship. Yet when the manifest defects of Muhammad’s life and writings have been allowed for, there remains in Islam, this faith he imposed upon the Arabs, much power and inspiration. One is its uncom- promising monotheism; its simple enthusiastic faith in the rule and fatherhood of God and its freedom from theological complications. Another is its complete detachment from the sacrificial priest and the temple. It is an entirely prophetic religion, proof against any possi- bility of relapse towards blood sacrifices. In the Koran the limited252 A Short History of the World and ceremonial nature of the pilgrimage to Mecca is stated beyond the possibility of dispute, and every precaution was taken by Mu- hammad to prevent the deification of himself after his death. And a third element of strength lay in the insistence of Islam upon the perfect brotherhood and equality before God of all believers, what- ever their colour, origin or status. These are the things that made Islam a power in human affairs. It has been said that the true founder of the Empire of Islam was not so much Muhammad as his friend and helper, Abu Bekr. If Muhammad, with his shifty character, was the mind and imagina- tion of primitive Islam, Abu Bekr was its conscience and its will. Whenever Muhammad wavered Abu Bekr sustained him. And when Muhammad died, Abu Bekr became Caliph (= successor), and with that faith that moves mountains, he set himself simply and sanely to organize the subjugation of the whole world to Allah — with little armies of 3,000 or 4,000 Arabs — according to those letters the prophet had written from Medina in 628 to all the monarchs of the world.XLIV Tue GREAT Days or THE ARABS HERE follows the most amazing story of conquest in the whole history of our race. The Byzantine army was smashed at the battle of the Yarmuk (a tributary of the Jordan) in 634; and the Emperor Heraclius, his energy sapped by dropsy and his resources exhausted by the Persian war, saw his new conquests in Syria, Damascus, Palmyra, Antioch, Jerusalem and the rest fall almost without resistance to the Moslim. Large elements in the population went over to Islam. Then the Moslim turned sast. The Persians had found an able general in Rustam; they had a great host with a force of elephants; and for three days they fought the Arabs at Kadessia (637) and broke at last in headlong rout. The conquest of all Persia followed, and the Moslem Empire pushed far into Western Turkestan and eastward until it met the Chinese. Egypt fell almost without resistance to the new con- querors, who full of a fanatical belief in the sufficiency of the Koran, wiped out the vestiges of the book-copying industry of the Alexan- dria Library. The tide of conquest poured along the north coast of Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar and Spain. Spain was invaded in 710 and the Pyrenees Mountains were reached in 720. In 732 the Arab advance had reached the centre of France, but here it was stopped for good at the battle of Poitiers and thrust back as far as the Pyrenees again. ‘The conquest of Egypt had given the Moslim a fleet, and for a time it looked as though they would take Con- stantinople. They made repeated sea attacks between 672 and 718 but the great city held out against them. The Arabs had little political aptitude and no political experi- ence, and this great empire with its capital now at Damascus, which stretched from Spain to China, was destined to break up very speedily. From the very beginning doctrinal differences under- 252254 A Short History of the World GROWTH of the MOSLEM POWER in 2 Moslem & Smpwe at the death of Muhammad , 632 at the death of Othman ,656.... mined its unity. But our interest here lies not with the story of its political disintegration but with its effect upon the human mind and upon the general destinies of our race. The Arab intelligence had been flung across the world even more swiftly and dramatically than had the Greek a thousand years before. The intellectual stimula- tion of the whole world west of China, the break-up of old ideas and development of new ones, was enormous.The Great Days of the Arabs 255 In Persia this fresh excited Arabic mind came into contact not only with Manichean, Zoroastrian and Christian doctrine, but with the scientific Greek literature, preserved not only in Greek but in Syrian translations. It found Greek learning in Egypt also. Every- where, and particularly in Spain, it discovered an active Jewish tradition of speculation and discussion. In Central Asia it met Buddhism and the material achievements of Chinese civilization. It learnt the manufacture of paper—which made printed books possible — from the Chinese. And finally it came into touch with Indian mathematics and philosophy. Very speedily the intolerant self-sufficiency of the early days of faith, which made the Koran seem the only possible book, was dropped. Learning sprang up everywhere in the footsteps of the Arab conquerors. By the eighth century there was an educational Photo: Lehnert & Landrock JERUSALEM. SHOWING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR ee256 A Short History of the World eeemteons mee Se ee era organization throughout the whole “‘Arabized”’ world. In the ninth learned men in the schools of Cordoba in Spain were corresponding with learned men in Cairo, Bagdad, Bokhara and Samarkand. The Jewish mind assimilated very readily with the Arab, and for a time the two Semitic races worked together through the medium of Arabic. Long after the political break-up and enfeeblement of the Arabs, this intellectual community of the Arab-speaking world endured. It was still producing very considerable results in the thirteenth century. So it was that the systematic accumulation and criticism of facts which was first begun by the Greeks was resumed in this astonish- ing renascence of the Semitic world. The seed of Aristotle and the museum of Alexandria that had lain so long inactive and neglected now germinated and began to grow towards fruition. Very great advances were made in mathematical, medical and physical science.The Great Days of the Arabs 257 The clumsy Roman numerals were ousted by the Arabic figures we use to this day and the zero sign was first employed. The very name algebra is Arabic. So is the word chemistry. The names of such stars as Algol, Aldebaran and Bodétes preserve the traces of Arab conquests in the sky. ‘Their philosophy was destined to reanimate the medieval philosophy of France and Italy and the whole Christian world. The Arab experimental chemists were called alchemists, and they were still sufficiently barbaric in spirit to keep their methods and results secret as far as possible. They realized from the very begin- ning what enormous advantages their possible discoveries might give them, and what far-reaching consequences they might have on human life. They came upon many metallurgical and technical devices of the utmost value, alloys and dyes, distilling, tinctures and essences, optical glass; but the two chief ends they sought, they sought in vain. One was “the philosopher’s stone’’— a means of changing the metallic elements one into another and so getting a control of artificial gold, and the other was the elzxir vite, a stimulant that would revivify age and prolong life indefinitely. The crabbed patient experimenting of these Arab alchemists spread into the Christian world. The fascination of their enquiries spread. Very gradually the activities of these alchemists became more social and co-operative. They found it profitable to exchange and compare ideas. By insensible gradations the last of the alchemists became the first of the experimental philosophers. The old alchemists sought the philosopher’s stone which was to transmute base metals to gold, and an elixir of immortality; they found the methods of modern experimental science which promise in the end to give man illimitable power over the world and over his own destiny.DGIEV. Toe DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN CHRISTENDOM T is worth while to note the extremely shrunken dimensions of the share of the world remaining under Aryan control in the seventh and eighth centuries. A thousand years before, the Aryan- speaking races were triumphant over all the civilized world west of China. Now the Mongol had thrust as far as Hungary, nothing of Asia remained under Aryan rule except the Byzantine dominions in Asia Minor, and all Africa was lost and nearly all Spain. The great Hellenic world had shrunken to a few possessions round the nucleus of the trading city of Constantinople, and the memory of the Roman world was kept alive by the Latin of the western Christian priests. In vivid contrast to this tale of retrogression, the Semitic tradition had risen again from subjugation and obscurity after a thousand years of darkness. Yet the vitality of the Nordic peoples was not exhausted. Con- fined now to Central and North-Western Europe and _ terribly muddled in their social and political ideas, they were nevertheless building up gradually and steadily a new social order and preparing unconsciously for the recovery of a power even more extensive than that they had previously enjoyed. We have told how at the beginning of the sixth century there remained no central government in Western Europe at all. That world was divided up among numbers of local rulers holding their own as they could. ‘This was too insecure a state of affairs to last; a system of co-operation and association grew up in this disorder, the feudal system, which has left its traces upon European life up to the present time. This feudal system was a sort of crystalliza- tion of society about power. Everywhere the lone man felt insecure and was prepared to barter a certain amount of his liberty for help and protection. He sought a stronger man as his lord and protector; Y 258The Development of Latin Christendom 2 en 264 A Short History of the World Roman Empire were the Saracens. They had made themselves largely masters of the sea; their only formidable adversaries upon the water were the Northmen, the Russian Northmen out of the Black Sea and the Northmen of the west. Hemmed in by these more vigorous and aggressive peoples, amidst forces they did not understand and dangers they could not EUROPE = the death of CHARLEMAGNE — 81 Finnish Tribes \\\ WANA \\ a. ea DNS A \\ \\\ estimate, Charlemagne and after him a series of other ambitious spirits took up the futile drama of restoring the Western Empire under the name of the Holy Roman Empire. From the time of Charlemagne onward this idea obsessed the political life of Western Europe, while in the East the Greek half of the Roman power de- cayed and dwindled until at last nothing remained of it at all but the corrupt trading city of Constantinople and a few miles of territory about it. Politically the continent of Europe remained traditional and uncreative from the time of Charlemagne onward for a thousand years.The Development of Latin Christendom 26; The name of Charlemagne looms large in European history but his personality is but indistinctly seen. He could not read nor write, but he had a considerable respect for learning; he liked to be read aloud to at meals and he had a weakness for theological discussion. At his winter quarters at Aix-la-Chapelle or Mayence he gathered about him a number of learned men and picked up much from their conversation. In the summer he made war, against the Spanish Saracens, against the Slavs and Magyars, against the Saxons, and other still heathen German tribes. It is doubtful whether the idea of becoming Ceesar in succession to Romulus Augustulus occurred to him before his acquisition of North Italy, or whether it was suggested to him by Pope Leo III, who was anxious to make the Latin Church independent of Constantinople. There were the most extraordinary manceuvres at Rome between the Pope and the prospective emperor in order to make it appear or not appear as if the Pope gave him the imperial crown. The Pope succeeded in crowning his visitor and conqueror by surprise in St. Peter’s on Christmas Day 800°4.p. He produced a crown, put it on the head of Charlemagne and hailed him Cesar and Augustus. There was great applause among the people. Charlemagne was by no means pleased at the way in which the thing was done, it rankled in his mind as a defeat; and he left the most careful instructions to his son that he was not to let the Pope crown him emperor; he was to seize the crown into his own hands and put it on his own head himself. So at the very outset of this imperial revival we see be- ginning the age-long dispute of Pope and Emperor for priority. But Louis the Pious, the son of Charlemagne, disregarded his father’s instructions and was entirely submissive to the Pope. The empire of Charlemagne fell apart at the death of Louis the Pious and the split between the French-speaking Franks and the German-speaking Franks widened. The next emperor to arise was Otto, the son of a certain Henry the Fowler, a Saxon, who had been elected King of Germany by an assembly of German princes and prelates in 919. Otto descended upon Rome and was crowned emperor there in 962. This Saxon line came to an end early in the eleventh century and gave place to other German rulers. The feudal princes and nobles to the west who spoke various French dia-266 A Short History of the World lects did not fall under the sway of these German emperors after the Carlovingian line, the line that is descended from Charlemagne, had come to an end, and no part of Britain ever came into the Holy Roman Empire. The Duke of Normandy, the King of France and a number of lesser feudal rulers remained outside. In 987 the Kingdom of France passed out of the possession of the Carlovingian line into the hands of Hugh Capet, whose descen- dants were still reigning in the eighteenth century. At the time of Hugh Capet the King of France ruled only a comparatively small territory round Paris. In 1066 England was attacked almost simultaneously by an in- vasion of the Norwegian Northmen under King Harold Hardrada and by the Latinized Northmen under the Duke of Normandy. Harold King of England defeated the former at the battle of Stam- ford Bridge, and was defeated by the latter at Hastings. England was conquered by the Normans, and so cut off from Scandinavian, Teutonic and Russian affairs, and brought into the most intimate relations and conflicts with the French. For the next four centuries the English were entangled in the conflicts of the French feudal princes and wasted upon the fields of France.MEVT THE CRUSADES AND THE AGE OF PAPAL DOMINION T is interesting to note that Charlemagne corresponded with the Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid, the Haroun-al-Raschid of the Arabian Nights. It is recorded that Haroun-al-Raschid sent ambassadors from Bagdad — which had now replaced Damascus as the Moslem capital — with a splendid tent, a water clock, an ele- phant and the keys of the Holy Sepulchre. This latter present was admirably calculated to set the Byzantine Empire and this new Holy Roman Empire by the ears as to which was the proper protector of the Christians in Jerusalem. These presents remind us that while Europe in the ninth century was still a weltering disorder of war and pillage, there flourished a great Arab Empire in Egypt and Mesopotamia, far more civilized than anything Europe could show. Here literature and science still lived; the arts flourished, and the mind of man could move without fear or superstition. And even in Spain and North Africa where the Saracenic dominions were falling into political confusion there was a vigorous intellectual life. Aristotle was read and discussed by these Jews and Arabs during these centuries of European dark- ness. They guarded the neglected seeds of science and philosophy. North-east of the Caliph’s dominions was a number of Turkish tribes. They had been converted to Islam, and they held the faith much more simply and fiercely than the actively intellectual Arabs and Persians to the south. In the tenth century the Turks were growing strong and vigorous while the Arab power was divided and decaying. The relations of the Turks to the Empire of the Caliphate became very similar to the relations of the Medes to the last Baby- lonian Empire fourteen centuries before. In the eleventh century a group of Turkish tribes, the Seljuk Turks, came down into Meso- potamia and made the Caliph their nominal ruler but really their 267268 A Short History of the World captive and tool. They conquered Armenia. Then they struck at the remnants of the Byzantine power in Asia Minor. In 1071 the Byzantine army was utterly smashed at the battle of Melasgird, and the Turks swept forward until not a trace of Byzantine rule remained in Asia. They took the fortress of Niczea over against Constanti- nople, and prepared to attempt that city. The Byzantine emperor, Michael VII, was overcome with terror. He was already heavily engaged in warfare with a band of Norman adventurers who had seized Durazzo, and with a fierce Turkish people, the Petschenegs, who were raiding over the Danube. In his extremity he sought help where he could, and it is notable that he did not appeal to the western emperor but to the Pope of Rome as the head of Latin Christendom. He wrote to Pope Gregory VII, and his successor Alexius Comnenus wrote still more urgently to Urban II. This was not a quarter of a century from the rupture of the Latin and Greek churches. That controversy was still vividly alive ‘n men’s minds, and this disaster to Byzantium must have presented itself to the Pope as a supreme opportunity for reasserting the supremacy of the Latin Church over the dissentient Greeks. More- over this occasion gave the Pope a chance to deal with two other matters that troubled western Christendom very greatly. One was the custom of “private war” which disordered social life, and the other was the superabundant fighting energy of the Low Germans and Christianized Northmen and particularly of the Franks and Normans. A religious war, the Crusade, the War of the Cross, was CRUSADER TOMBS IN EXETER CATHEDRALpreached against the Turkish eap- tors of Jeru- salem, and a truce to all warfare amongst Christians (1095). The declared ob- ject of this war was the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre from the un- believers. A man called Peter the Hermit car- ried ona pop- ular prop- af an da throughout France and Crusades and Age of Papal Dominion 26, ud rer SS. x e j AOS Photo: Lehnert & Landrock - c VIEW OF CAIRO Germany on broadly democratic lines. He went clad in a coarse garment, barefooted on an ass, he carried a huge cross and harangued the crowd in street or market-place or church. He denounced the cruelties practised upon the Christian pilgrims by the Turks, and the shame of the Holy Sepulchre being in any but Christian hands. The fruits of centuries of Christian teaching be- "ame apparent in the response. A great wave of enthusiasm swept the western world, and popular Christendom discovered itself. Such a widespread uprising of the common people in relation to a single idea as now occurred was a new thing in the history of our race. ‘There is nothing to parallel it in the previous history of the270 A Short History of the World Roman Empire or of India or China. On a smaller scale, however, there had been similar movements among the Jewish people after their liberation from the Babylonian captivity, and later on Islam was to display a parallel susceptibility to collective feeling. Such movements were certainly connected with the new spirit that had come into life with the development of the missionary-teaching religions. The Hebrew prophets, Jesus and his disciples, Mani, Muhammad, were all exhorters of men’s individual souls. They brought the personal conscience face to face with God. Before that time religion had been much more a business of fetish, of pseudo- science, than of conscience. The old kind of religion turned upon temple, initiated priest and mystical sacrifice, and ruled the common man like a slave by fear. The new kind of religion made a man of him. The preaching of the First Crusade was the first stirring of the common people in European history. It may be too much to call it the birth of modern democracy, but certainly at that time modern democracy stirred. Before very long we shall find it stirring again, and raising the most disturbing social and religious questions. Certainly this first stirring of democracy ended very pitifully and lamentably. Considerable bodies of common people, crowds rather than armies, set out eastward from France and the Rhineland and Central Europe without waiting for leaders or proper equip- ment to rescue the Holy Sepulchre. This was the “‘people’s cru- sade.” Two great mobs blundered into Hungary, mistook the recently converted Magyars for pagans, committed atrocities and were massacred. A third multitude with a similarly confused mind, after a great pogrom of the Jews in the Rhineland, marched east- ward, and was also destroyed in Hungary. ‘Two other huge crowds, under the leadership of Peter the Hermit himself, reached Con- stantinople, crossed the Bosphorus, and were massacred rather than defeated by the Seljuk Turks. So began and ended this first move- ment of the European people, as people. Next year (1097) the real fighting forces crossed the Bosphorus. Essentially they were Norman in leadership and spirit. They stormed Nicsea, marched by much the same route as Alexander had followed fourteen centuries before, to Antioch. The siege of An-Crusades and Age of Papal Dominion 271 tioch kept them a year, and in June 1099 they invested Jerusalem. It was stormed after a month’s siege. The slaughter was terrible. Men riding on horseback were splashed by the blood in the streets. At nightfall on July 15th the Crusaders had fought their way into the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and overcome all opposition there: blood-stained, weary and “sob- bing from excess of joy they knelt down in prayer. Immediately the hostility of Latin and Greek broke out again. The Crusaders were the servants of the Latin Church, and the Greek patriarch of Jerusalem found himself in a far worse case under the triumphant Lat- ins than under the Turks. The Crusa- ders discovered themselves between Byzantine and Turk and fighting both. EE Se Bf Photo: D. McLeish THE HORSES OF S MARK, VENICE Originally on the arch of Trajan at Constantinople, the Doge Dandalo V took them after the Fourth Crusade, to Venice, whence Napoleon I removed them to Paris, but in 1815 they were returned to Venice. During the Great War of 1914-18 they were hidden away for fear of air raids. Much of Asia Minor was recovered by the Byzantine Empire, and the Latin princes were left, a buffer between Turk and Greek, with Jerusalem and a few small principalities, of which Edessa was one of the chief, in Syria. Their grip even on these possessions was precarious, and in 1144 Edessa fell to the Moslim, leading to an ineffective Second Crusade, which failed to recover Edessa but saved Antioch from a similar fate.272 A Short History of the World In 1169 the forces of Islam were rallied under a Kurdish adven- turer named Saladin who had made himself master of Egypt. He preached a Holy War against the Christians, recaptured Jerusalem in 1187, and so provoked the Third Crusade. This failed to recover Jerusalem. In the Fourth Crusade (1202-4) the Latin Church turned frankly upon the Greek Empire, and there was not even a pretence of fighting the Turks. It started from Venice and in 1204 it stormed Constantinople. The great rising trading city of Venice was the leader in this adventure, and most of the coasts and islands of the Byzantine Empire were annexed by the Venetians. A “Latin” emperor (Baldwin of Flanders) was set up in Constanti- nople and the Latin and Greek Church were declared to be reunited. The Latin emperors ruled in Constantinople from 1204 to 1261 when the Greek world shook itself free again from Roman predominance. The twelfth century then and the opening of the thirteenth was the age of papal ascendancy just as the eleventh was the age of the ascendancy of the Seljuk Turks and the tenth the age of the North- men. A united Christendom under the rule of the Pope came nearer to being a working reality than it ever was before or after that time. In those centuries a simple Christian faith was real and wide- spread over great areas of Europe. Rome itself had passed through some dark and discreditable phases; few writers can be found to excuse the lives of Popes John XI and John XII in the tenth century; they were abominable creatures; but the heart and body of Latin Christendom had remained earnest and simple; the generality of the common priests and monks and nuns had lived exemplary and faithful lives. Upon the wealth of confidence such lives created rested the power of the church. Among the great Popes of the past had been Gregory the Great, Gregory I (590-604) and Leo II (795-816) who invited Charlemagne to be Cesar and crowned him in spite of himself. ‘Towards the close of the eleventh century there arose a great clerical statesman, Hildebrand, who ended his life as Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085). Next but one after him came Urban II (1087-1099), the Pope of the First Crusade. These two were the founders of this period of papal greatness during which the Popes lorded it over the Emperors. From Bulgaria to Ireland andniet Abe 7 . Photo: Lehnert & Landrock A COURTYARD IN THE ALHAMBRAsteel mntlhett:oTo 274 A Short History of the World from Norway to Sicily and Jerusalem the Pope was supreme. Greg- ory VII obliged the Emperor Henry IV to come in penitence to him at Canossa and to await forgiveness for three days and nights in the courtyard of the castle, clad in sackcloth and barefooted to the snow. In 1176 at Venice the Emperor Frederick (Frederick Bar- barossa), knelt to Pope Alexander III and swore fealty to him. The great power of the church in the beginning of the eleventh century lay in the wills and consciences of men. It failed to retain the moral prestige on which its power was based. In the opening decades of the fourteenth century it was discovered that the power of the Pope had evaporated. What was it that destroyed the naive confidence of the common people of Christendom in the church so that they would no longer rally to its appeal and serve its purposes? The first trouble was certainly the accumulation of wealth by the church. The church never died, and there was a frequent dis- position on the part of dying childless people to leave lands to the church. Penitent sinners were exhorted to do so. Accordingly in many European countries as much as a fourth of the land became church property. The appetite for property grows with what it feeds upon. Already in the thirteenth century it was being said everywhere that the priests were not good men, that they were always hunting for money and legacies. The kings and princes disliked this alienation of property very greatly. In the place of feudal lords capable of military support, they found their land supporting abbeys and monks and nuns. And these lands were really under foreign dominion. Even before the time of Pope Gregory VII there had been a struggle between the princes and the papacy over the question of “‘investitures,”’ the question that is of who should appoint the bishops. If that power rested with the Pope and not the King, then the latter lost control not only of the consciences of his subjects but of a considerable part of his dominions. For also the clergy claimed exemption from taxation. They paid their taxes to Rome. And not only that, but the church also claimed the right to levy a tax of one-tenth upon the property of the layman in addition to the taxes he paid his prince.Crusades and Age of Papal Dominion 27; The history of nearly every country in Latin Christendom tells of the same phase in the eleventh century, a phase of struggle between monarch and Pope on the issue of investitures and generally it tells of a victory for the Pope. He claimed to be able to excommunicate the prince, to absolve his subjects from their allegiance to him, to recognize a successor. He claimed to be able to put a nation under an interdict, and then nearly all priestly functions ceased except the sacraments of baptism, confirmation and penance; the priests could neither hold the ordinary services, marry people, nor bury the dead. With these two weapons it was possible for the twelfth century Popes to curb the most recalcitrant princes and overawe the most restive peoples. These were enormous powers, and enormous powers are only to be used on extraordinary occasions. The Popes used them at last with a frequency that staled their effect. Within thirty years at the end of the twelfth century we find Scotland, France and England in turn under an interdict. And also the Popes could not resist the temptation to preach crusades against offending princes — until the crusading spirit was extinct. It is possible that if the Church of Rome had struggled simply against the princes and had had a care to keep its hold upon the general mind, it might have achieved a permanent dominion over all Christendom. But the high claims of the Pope were reflected as arrogance in the conduct of the clergy. Before the eleventh century the Roman priests could marry; they had close ties with the people among whom they lived; they were indeed a part of the people. Gregory VII made them celibates; he cut the priests off from too ereat an intimacy with the laymen in order to bind them more closely to Rome, but indeed he opened a fissure between the church and the commonalty. The church had its own law courts. Cases involving not merely priests but monks, students, crusaders, widows, orphans and the helpless were reserved for the clerical courts, and so were all matters relating to wills, marriages and oaths and all cases of sorcery, heresy and blasphemy. Whenever the layman found himself in conflict with the priest he had to go to a clerical court. The obligations of peace and war fell upon his shoulders alone and left the priest free. It is no great wonder that jealousy and hatred of the priests grew up in the Christian world. = a Nt a A Bis Ra ils ae reine le276 A Short History of the World Never did Rome seem to realize that its power was in the con- sciences of common men. It fought against religious enthusiasm, which should have been its ally, and it forced doctrinal orthodoxy upon honest doubt and aberrant opinion. When the church inter- fered in matters of morality it had the common man with it, but not when it interfered in matters of doctrine. When in the south of France Waldo taught a return to the simplicity of Jesus in faith and life, Innocent III preached a crusade against the Waldenses, Waldo’s followers, and permitted them to be suppressed with fire, sword, rape and the most abominable cruelties. When again St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) taught the imitation of Christ and a life of poverty and service, his followers, the Franciscans, were persecuted, scourged, imprisoned and dispersed. In 1318 four of them were burnt alive at Marseilles. On the other hand the fiercely orthodox order of the Dominicans, founded by St. Dominic (1170-1221) was strongly supported by Innocent III, who with its assistance set up an organization, the Inquisition, for the hunting of heresy and the affliction of free thought. So it was that the church by excessive claims, by unrighteous privileges, and by an irrational intolerance destroyed that free faith of the common man which was the final source of all its power. The story of its decline tells of no adequate foemen from without but continually of decay from within.XLVII RECALCITRANT PRINCES AND THE GREAT SCHISM NE very great weakness of the Roman Church in its strug- gle to secure the headship of all Christendom was the manner in which the Pope was chosen. If indeed the papacy was to achieve its manifest ambition and establish one rule and one peace throughout Christendom, then it was vitally necessary that it should have a strong, steady and con- tinuous direction. In those great days of its opportunity it needed before all things that the Popes when they took office should be able men in the prime of life, that each should have his successor-desig- nate with whom he could discuss the policy of the church, and that the forms and processes of election should be clear, definite, unalter- able and unassailable. Unhappily none of these things obtained. It was not even clear who could vote in the election of a Pope, nor whether the Byzantine or Holy Roman Emperor had a voice in the matter. That very great papal statesman Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII, 1073-1085) did much to regularize the election. He confined the votes to the Roman cardinals and he reduced the Emperor’s share to a formula of assent conceded to him by the church, but he made no provision for a successor-designate and he left it possible for the disputes of the cardinals to keep the See vacant, as in some cases it was kept vacant, for a year or more. The consequences of this want of firm definition are to be seen in the whole history of the papacy up to the sixteenth century. From quite early times onward there were disputed elections and two or more men each claiming to be Pope. The church would then be subjected to the indignity of going to the Emperor or some other outside arbiter to settle the dispute. And the career of every one of the great Popes ended in a note of interrogation. At his death the church might be left headless and as ineffective as a decapitated 277MILAN CATHEDRAL View showing the exquisite carvings characteristic of the 98 spires of the edifice 2 78 nt i | i;Recalcitrant Princes and Great Schism 279 body. Or he might be replaced by some old rival eager only to dis- credit and undo his work. Or some enfeebled old man tottering on the brink of the grave might succeed him. : It was inevitable that this peculiar weakness of the papal organiza- tion should attract the interference of the various German princes, the French King, and the Norman and French Kings who ruled in England; that they should all try to influence the elections, and have a Pope in their own interest established in the Lateran Palace at Rome. And the more powerful and important the Pope became in European affairs, the more urgent did these interventions become. Under the circumstances it is no great wonder that many of the Popes were weak and futile. The astonishing thing is that many of them were able and courageous men. One of the most vigorous and interesting of the Popes of this ereat period was Innocent III (1198-1216) who was so fortunate as to become Pope before he was thirty-eight. He and his successors were pitted against an even more interesting personality, the Emperor Frederick II; Stupor mundi he was called, the Wonder of the world. The struggle of this monarch against Rome is a turning place in history. In the end Rome defeated him and destroyed his dynasty, but he left the prestige of the church and Pope so badly wounded that its wounds festered and led to its decay. Frederick was the son of the Emperor Henry VI and his mother was the daughter of Roger I, the Norman King of Sicily. He in- herited this kingdom in 1198 when he was a child of four years. Innocent III had been made his guardian. Sicily in those days had been but recently conquered by the Normans; the Court was half oriental and full of highly educated Arabs; and some of these were associated in the education of the young king. No doubt they were at some pains to make their point of view clear to him. He got a Moslem view of Christianity as well as a Christian view of Islam, and the unhappy result of this double system of instruction was a view, exceptional in that age of faith, that all religions were impostures. He talked freely on the subject; his heresies and blasphemies are on record. As the young man grew up he found himself in conflict with his guardian. Innocent III wanted altogether too much from his ward.a y eee 38 nh ell } @ y as AS j | i A TYPICAL CRUSADER: DON RODRIGO DE CARDENAS From the Church of S. Pedro at Ocana, Spain (In the Victoria and Albert Museum) A Short History of the World When the opportunity came for Frederick to succeed as Emperor, the Pope intervened with condi- tions. Frederick must promise to put down heresy in Germany with a strong hand. Moreover he must relinquish his crown in Sicily and South Italy, because otherwise he would be too strong for the Pope. And the German clergy were to be freed from all taxation. Frederick agreed — but with no intention of keeping his word. The Pope had already induced the French King to make war upon his own subjects in France, the cruel and_ bloody crusade against the Waldenses; he wanted Frederick to do the same thing in Germany. But Frederick being far more of a heretic than any of the simple pietists who had incurred the Pope’s animosity, lacked the crusading impulse. And when Innocent urged him to crusade against the Moslim and recover Jerusalem he was equally ready to promise and equally slack in his performance. Having secured the imperial crown Frederick II stayed in Sicily, which he greatly preferred to Germany as a residence, and did nothing to redeem any of his promises to Innocent III, who died baffled in 1216.Recalcitrant Princes and Great Schism 238; Honorius III, who succeeded Innocent, could do no better with Frederick, and Gregory IX (1227) came to the papal throne evidently resolved to settle accounts with this young man at any cost. He excommunicated him. Frederick II was denied all the comforts of religion. In the half-Arab Court of Sicily this produced singu- larly little discomfort. And also the Pope addressed a public letter to the Emperor reciting his vices (which were indisputable), his heresies, and his general misconduct. To this Frederick replied in a document of diabolical ability. It was addressed to all the princes of Europe, and it made the first clear statement of the issue between the Pope and the princes. He made a shattering attack upon the manifest ambition of the Pope to become the absolute ruler of all Europe. He suggested a union of princes against this usurpation. He directed the attention of the princes specifically to the wealth of the church. Having fired off this deadly missile Frederick resolved to perform his twelve-year-old promise and go upon a crusade. ‘This was the Sixth Crusade (1228). It was, as a crusade, farcical. Frederick II went to Egypt and met and discussed affairs with the Sultan. These two gentlemen, both of sceptical opinions, exchanged congenial views, made a commercial convention to their mutual advantage, and agreed to transfer Jerusalem to Frederick. This indeed was a new sort of crusade, a crusade by private treaty. Here was no blood splashing the conqueror, no “weeping with excess of joy.” As this astonishing crusader was an excommunicated man, he had to be content with a purely secular coronation as King of Jerusalem, taking the crown from the altar with his own hand — for all the clergy were bound to shun him. He then returned to Italy, chased the papal armies which had invaded his dominions back to their own territories, and obliged the Pope to grant him absolution from his excommunication. So a prince might treat the Pope in the thirteenth century, and there was now no storm of popular indig- nation to avenge him. ‘Those days were past. In 1239 Gregory IX resumed his struggle with Frederick, excom- municated him for a second time, and renewed that warfare of public abuse in which the papacy had already suffered severely. ‘The con- troversy was revived after Gregory [IX was dead, when Innocent IV282 A Short History of the World was Pope; and again a devastating letter, which men were bound to remember, was written by Frederick against the church. He denounced the pride and irreligion of the clergy, and ascribed all the corruptions of the time to their pride and wealth. He proposed to his fellow princes a general confiscation of church property — for the good of the church. It was a suggestion that never afterwards leit the imagination of the European princes. We will not go on to tell of his last years. The particular events of his life are far less significant than its general atmosphere. It is possible to piece together something of his court life in Sicily. He was luxurious in his way of living, and fond of beautiful things. He is described as licentious. But it is clear that he was a man of very effectual curiosity and inquiry. He gathered Jewish and Moslem as well as Christian philosophers at his court, and he did much to irrigate the Italian mind with Saracenic influences. Through him the Arabic numerals and algebra were introduced to Christian students, and among other philosophers at his court was Michael Seott, who translated portions of Aristotle and the commentaries thereon of the great Arab philosopher Averroes (of Cordoba). In 1224 Frederick founded the University of Naples, and he enlarged and enriched the great medical school at Salerno University. He also founded a zoological garden. He left a book on hawking, which shows him to have been an acute observer of the habits of birds, and he was one of the first Italians to write Italian verse. Italian poetry was indeed born at his court. He has been called by an able writer, ‘‘the first of the moderns,’’ and the phrase expresses aptly the unprejudiced detachment of his intellectual side. A still more striking intimation of the decay of the living and sus- taining forces of the papacy appeared when presently the Popes came into conflict with the growing power of the French King. During the lifetime of the Emperor Frederick II, Germany fell into disunion, and the French King began to play the role of guard, sup- porter and rival to the Pope that had hitherto fallen to the Hohen- staufen Emperors. A series of Popes pursued the policy of support- ing the French monarchs. French princes were established in the kinedom of Sicily and Naples, with the support and approval of Rome, and the French Kings saw before them the possibility ofRecalcitrant Princes and Great Schism 28, COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY restoring and ruling the Empire of Charlemagne. When, however, the German interregnum after the death of Frederick II, the last of the Hohenstaufens, came to an end and Rudolf of Habsburg was elected first Habsburg Emperor (1273), the policy of Rome began to fluctuate between France and Germany, veering about with the sympathies of each successive Pope. In the East in 1261 the Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latin emperors, and the founder of the new Greek dynasty, Michael Palzeologus, Michael VIII, after some unreal tentatives of reconciliation with the Pope, broke away from the Roman communion altogether, and with that, and the fall of the Latin kingdoms in Asia, the eastward ascendancy of the Popes came to an end In 1294 Boniface VIII became Pope. He was an Italian, hostile to the French, and full of a sense of the great traditions and mission of Rome. For a time he carried things with a high hand. In 1300 he held a jubilee, and a vast multitude of pilgrims assembled in Rome. ‘So great was the influx of money into the papal treasury, that two assistants were kept busy with the rakes collecting the284 A Short History of the World offerings that were deposited at the tomb of St. Peter.”! But this festival was a delusive triumph. Boniface came into conflict with the French King in 1302, and in 1303, as he was about to pronounce sentence of excommunication against that monarch, he was sur- prised and arrested in his own ancestral palace at Anagni, by Guil- laume de Nogaret. This agent from the French King forced an entrance into the palace, made his way into the bedroom of the frightened Pope — he was lying in bed with a cross in his hands — and heaped threats and insults upon him. The Pope was liberated a day or so later by the townspeople, and returned to Rome; but there he was seized upon and again made prisoner by the Orsini family, and in a few weeks’ time the shocked and disillusioned old man died a prisoner in their hands. The people of Anagni did resent the first outrage, and rose against Nogaret to liberate Boniface, but then Anagni was the Pope’s native town. ‘The impertant point to note is that the French King 1 J. lal Robinson. COSTUMES OF THE BURGUNDIAN NOBILITY: FLEMISH WORK OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY This series is from casts in the Victoria and Albert Museum of the original brass statuettes in the Rijks Museum, AmsterdamRecalcitrant Princes and Great Schism 28; in this rough treatment of the head of Christendom was acting with the full approval of his people; he had summoned a council of the Three Estates of France (lords, church and commons) and gained their consent before proceeding to extremities. Neither in Italy, Germany nor England was there the slightest general manifestation of disapproval at this free handling of the sovereign pontiff. The idea of Christendom had decayed until its power over the minds of men had gone. Throughout the fourteenth century the papacy did nothing to recover its moral sway. ‘The next Pope elected, Clement V, was a Frenchman, the choice of King Philip of France. He never came to Rome. He set up his court in the town of Avignon, which then belonged not to France but to the papal See, though embedded in French territory, and there his successors remained until 1377, when Pope Gregory XI returned to the Vatican palace in Rome. But Gregory XI did not take the sympathies of the whole church with him. Many of the cardinals were of French origin and their habits and associations were rooted deep at Avignon. When in 1378 Gregory XI died, and an Italian, Urban VI, was elected, these dis- sentient cardinals declared the election invalid, and elected another Pope, the anti-Pope, Clement VII. ‘This split is called the Great Schism. The Popes remained in Rome, and all the anti-French powers, the Emperor, the King of England, Hungary, Poland and the North of Europe were loyal to them. ‘The anti-Popes, on the other hand, continued in Avignon, and were supported by the King of France, his ally the King of Scotland, Spain, Portugal and various German princes. Each Pope excommunicated and cursed the adherents of his rival (1378-1417). Is it any wonder that presently all over Europe people began to think for themselves in matters of religion? The beginnings of the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which we have noted in the preceding chapters, were but two among manv of the new forces that were arising in Christendom, either to hold or shatter the church as its own wisdom might decide. Those two orders the church did assimilate and use, though with a little violence in the case of the former. But other forces were more frankly disobedient and critical. A century and a half later286 A Short History of the World came Wycliffe (1320-1384). He was a learned Doctor at Oxford. Quite late in his life he began a series of outspoken criticisms of the corruption of the clergy and the unwisdom of the church. He organized a number of poor priests, the Wycliffites, to spread his ideas throughout England; and in order that people should judge between the church and himself, he translated the Bible into Eng- lish. He was a more learned and far abler man than either St. Francis or St. Dominic. He had supporters in high places and a great following among the people; and though Rome raged against him, and ordered his imprisonment, he died a free man. But the black and ancient spirit that was leading the Catholic Church to its destruction would not let his bones rest in the grave. By a decree of the Council of Constance in 1415, his remains were ordered to be dug up and burnt, an order which was carried out at the command of Pope Martin V by Bishop Fleming in 1428. This desecration was not the act of some isolated fanatic; it was the official act of the church.XV THrt Moncout CoNnQuEsts UT in the thirteenth century, while this strange and finally in- effectual struggle to unify Christendom under the rule of the Pope was going on in Europe, far more momentous events were afoot upon the larger stage of Asia. A Turkish people from the country to the north of China rose suddenly to prominence in the world’s affairs, and achieved such a series of conquests as has no parallel in history. These were the Mongols. At the opening of the thirteenth century they were a horde of nomadic horsemen, living very much as their predecessors, the Huns, had done, sub- sisting chiefly upon meat and mare’s milk and living in tents of skin. They had shaken themselves free from Chinese dominion, and brought a number of other Turkish tribes into a military confederacy. Their central camp was at Karakorum in Mongolia. At this time China was in a state of division. The great dynasty of Tang had passed into decay by the tenth century, and after a phase of division into warring states, three main empires, that of Kin in the north with Pekin as its capital and that of Sung in the south with a capital at Nankin, and Hsia in the centre, remain. In 1214 Jengis Khan, the leader of the Mongol confederates, made war on the Kin Empire and captured Pekin (1214). He then turned westward and conquered Western Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, India down to Lahore, and South Russia as far as Kieff. He died master of a vast empire that reached from the Pacific to the Dnieper. His successor, Ogdai Khan, continued this astonishing career of conquest. His armies were organized to a very high level of effi- ciency; and they had with them a new Chinese invention, gun- powder, which they used in small field guns. He completed the conquest of the Kin Empire and then swept his hosts right across Asia to Russia (1235), an altogether amazing march. Kieff was 237A Short History of the World a aE lis dete? TU mY a EMPIRE ~ tse ae | destroyed in 1240, and nearly all Russia became tributary to the | Mongols. Poland was ravaged, and a mixed army of Poles and | Germans was annihilated at the battle of Liegnitz in Lower Silesia in 1241. The Emperor Frederick II does not seem to have made any great efforts to stay the advancing tide. “It is only recently,” says Bury in his notes to Gibbon’s Decline i and Fall of the Roman Empire, “that European history has begun to | understand that the successes of the Mongol army which overran Poland and occupied Hungary in the spring of a.p. 1241 were won by consummate strategy and were not due to a mere ov erwhelming superiority of numbers. But this fact has not yet become a matter of common knowledge; the vulgar opinion which represents the Tartars as a wild horde carrying all before them solely by their mul- titude, and galloping through Eastern Europe without a strategic plan, rushing at all obstacles and overcoming them by mere weight, still prevails. “It was wonderful how punctually and effectually the arrange- ments were carried out in operations extending from the Lower Vistula to Transylvania. Such a campaign was quite beyond theThe Mongol Conquests 280 power of any European army of the time, and it was beyond the vision of any European commander. There was no general in Eu- rope, from Frederick IT downward, who was not a tyro in strategy compared to Subutai. It should also be noticed that the Mongols embarked upon the enterprise with full knowledge of the political situation of Hungary and the condition of Poland — they had taken care to inform themselves by a well-organized system of spies; on the other hand, the Hungarians and the Christian powers, like childish barbarians, knew hardly anything about their enemies.” But though the Mongols were victorious at Liegnitz, they did not continue their drive westward. They were getting into woodlands and hilly country, which did not suit their tactics; and so they turned southward and prepared to settle in Hungary, massacring or assimilating the kindred Magyar, even as these had previously massacred and assimilated the mixed Scythians and Avars and Huns before them. From the Hungarian plain they would probably have made raids west and south as the Hungarians had done in the ninth century. the Avars in the seventh and eighth and the Huns in the fifth. But Ogdai died suddenly, and in 1242 there was trouble The ot TOMAN EMPIRE betove LEDS. we BQ YY) [xiv O “LT App = 28 St I ITY re py :° “ % ma. A | Yy Konia. a | [! JR, Sos : Pa, Pe @ "8 @ Ce AS Oe Osieh Mu Coq. sae L t ¢ c ic Re ahi J.FIH. —_— >290 A Short History of the World about the succession, and recalled by this, the undefeated hosts of Mongols began to pour back across Hungary and Roumania towards the east. Thereafter the Mongols concentrated their attention upon their Asiatic conquests. By the middle of the thirteenth century they had conquered the Sung Empire. Mangu Khan succeeded Ogdai Khan as Great Khan in 1251, and made his brother Kublai Khan governor of China. In 1280 Kublai Khan had been formally recog- nized Emperor of China, and so founded the Yuan dynasty which lasted until 1368. While the last ruins of the Sung rule were going down in China, another brother of Mangu, Hulagu, was conquering Persia and Syria. The Mongols displayed a bitter animosity to Islam at this time, and not only massacred the population of Bagdad when they captured that city, but set to work to destroy the imme- morial irrigation system which had kept Mesopotamia incessantly prosperous and populous from the early days of Sumeria. From that time until our own Mesopotamia has been a desert of ruins, sustaining only a scanty population. Into Egypt the Mongols never ypt completely defeated an army of x Co 4s, penetrated; the Sultan of | Hulagu’s in Palestine in 1260. After that disaster the tide of Mongol victory ebbed. The dominions of the Great Khan fell into a number of separate states. The eastern Mongols became Buddhists, like the Chinese; the western became Moslim. The Chinese threw off the rule of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, and set up the native Ming dynasty which flourished from 1368 to 1644. The Russians remained tributary to the Tartar hordes upon the south-east steppes until 1480, when the Grand Duke of Moscow repudiated his allegiance and laid the foundation of modern Russia. In the fourteenth century there was a brief revival of Mongol vigour under Timurlane, a descendant of Jengis Khan. He estab- lished himself in Western Turkestan, assumed the title of Grand Khan in 1369, and conquered from Syria to Delhi. He was the most savage and destructive of all the Mongol conquerors. He established an empire of desolation that did not survive his death. In 1505, however, a descendant of this Timur, an adventurer named Baber, got together an army with guns and swept down upon theTARTAR HORSEMEN (From a Chir eSt Print in the British Muse um) 291292 A Short History of the World plains of India. His grandson Akbar (1556-1605) completed his conquests, and this Mongol (or “Mogul” as the Arabs called it) dynasty ruled in Delhi over the greater part of India until the eighteenth century. One of the consequences of the first great sweep of Mongol con- quest in the thirteenth century was to drive a certain tribe of Turks, the Ottoman Turks, out of Turkestan into Asia Minor. They extended and consolidated their power in Asia Minor, crossed the GERMANS pp 2 ae Venn, ‘ LE The EMPIRE;?» “A OTTOMAN &EMPIRG Ww, at the death of” Suleiman the Magnificent’ ARMENI NIB 2g Dardanelles and conquered Macedonia, Serbia and Bulgaria, until at last Constantinople remained like an island amongst the Ottoman dominions. In 1453 the Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad II, took Constantinople, attacking it from the European side with a great number of guns. This event caused intense excitement in Europe and there was talk of a crusade, but the day of the crusades was past. In the course of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Sultans conquered Bagdad, Hungary, Egypt and most of North Africa, and their fleet made them masters of the Mediterranean. They very nearly took Vienna, and they exacted a tribute from the Emperor. There were but two items to offset the general ebb of ChristianThe Mongol Conquests 20 FS dominion in the fifteenth century. One was the restoration of the independence of Moscow (1480); the other was the gradual recon- quest of Spain by the Christians. In 1492, Granada, the last Moslem state in the peninsula, fell to King Ferdinand of Aragon and his Queen Isabella of Castile. But it was not until as late as 1571 that the naval battle of Lepanto broke the pride of the Ottomans, and restored the Mediter- ranean waters to Christian ascendancy.LE hoe ata ae —— + XX Tue INTELLECTUAL REVIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS HROUGHOUT the twelfth century there were many signs that the European intelligence was recovering courage and leisure, and preparing to take up again the intellectual enter- prises of the first Greek scientific enquiries and such speculations as those of the Italian Lucretius. The causes of this revival were many and complex. ‘The suppression of private war, the higher standards of comfort and security that followed the crusades, and the stimu- lation of men’s minds by the experiences of these expeditions were no doubt necessary preliminary conditions. Trade was reviving; cities were recovering ease and safety; the standard of education was arising in the church and spreading among laymen. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were a period of growing, independent or quasi-independent cities; Venice, Florence, Genoa, Lisbon, Paris, Bruges, London, Antwerp, Hamburg, Nuremberg, Novgorod, Wisby and Bergen for example. They were all trading cities with many travellers, and where men trade and travel they talk and think. The polemics of the Popes and princes, the conspicuous savagery and wickedness of the persecution of heretics, were exciting men to doubt the authority of the church and question and discuss funda- mental things. We have seen how the Arabs were the means of restoring Aristotle to Europe, and how such a prince as Frederick II acted as a channel through which Arabic philosophy and science played upon the renascent European mind. Still more influential in the stirring up of men’s ideas were the Jews. Their very existence was a note of interrogation to the claims of the church. And finally the secret, fascinating enquiries of the alchemists were spreading far and wide and setting men to the petty, furtive and yet fruitful resumption of experimental science. 204The Intellectual Revival of the Europeans 29; And the stir in men’s minds was by no means confined now to the independent and well educated. The mind of the common man was awake in the world as it had never been before in all the experience of mankind. In spite of priest and persecution, Christianity does seem to have carried a mental ferment wherever its teaching reached. It established a direct relation between the conscience of the indi- vidual man and the God of Righteousness, so that now if need arose he had the courage to form his own judgment upon prince or prelate or creed. As early as the eleventh century philosophical discussion had begun again in Europe, and there were great and growing univer- sities at Paris, Oxford, Bologna and other centres. There medieval ‘““schoolmen” took up again and thrashed out a series of questions upon the value and meaning of words that were a necessary pre- liminary to clear thinking in the scientific age that was to follow. And standing by himself because of his distinctive genius was Roger Bacon (circa 1210 to cirea 1293), a Franciscan of Oxford, the father of modern experimental science. His name deserves a prominence in our history second only to that of Aristotle. His writings are one long tirade against ignorance. He told his age it was ignorant, an incredibly bold thing to do. Nowadays a man may tell the world it is as silly as it is solemn, that all its methods are still infantile and clumsy and its dogmas childish assumptions, without much physical danger; but these peoples of the middle ages when they were not actually being massacred or starving or dying of pestilence, were passionately convinced of the wisdom, the com- pleteness and finality of their beliefs, and disposed to resent any re- flections upon them very bitterly. Roger Bacon’s writings were like a flash of light in a profound darkness. He combined his attack upon the ignorance of his times with a wealth of suggestion for the increase of knowledge. In his passionate insistence upon the need of experiment and of collecting knowledge, the spirit of Aristotle lives again in him. “Experiment, experiment,” that is the burthen of Roger Bacon. Yet of Aristotle himself Roger Bacon fell foul. He fell foul of him because men, instead of facing facts boldly, sat in rooms and pored over the bad Latin translations which were then all that was296 A Short History of the World _ available of the master. “If I had my way,’ he wrote, in his in- a || temperate fashion, “I should burn all the books of Aristotle, for the hs study of them can only lead to a loss of time, produce error, and increase ignorance,’ a sentiment that Aristotle would probably have echoed could he have returned to a world in which his works were not so much read as worshipped — and that, as Roger Bacon showed, i f in these most abominable translations. aS “—, = ieee —~ = = > B AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS (From an old print)The Intellectual Revival of the Europeans 207 Throughout his books, a little disguised by the necessity of seeming to square it all with orthodoxy for fear of the prison and worse, Roger Bacon shouted to mankind, “Cease to be ruled by dogmas and authorities; look at the world!’’ Four chief sources of ignorance he denounced; respect for authority, custom, the sense of the ignorant crowd, and the vain, proud unteachableness of our dispositions. Overcome but these, and a world of power would open to men: — “Machines for navigating are possible without rowers, so that great ships suited to river or ocean, guided by one man, may be borne with greater speed than if they were full of men. Likewise cars may be made so that without a draught animal they may be moved cum impetu inestimable, as we deem the scythed chariots to have been from which antiquity fought. And flying machines are possible, so that a man may sit in the middle turning some device by which artificial wings may beat the air in the manner of a flying bird.” So Roger Bacon wrote, but three more centuries were to elapse before men began any systematic attempts to explore the hidden stores of power and interest he realized so clearly existed beneath the dull surface of human affairs. But the Saracenic world not only gave Christendom the stimulus of its philosophers and alchemists; it also gave it paper. It is scarcely too much to say that paper made the intellectual revival of Europe possible. Paper originated in China, where its use prob- ably goes back to the second century B.c. In 751 the Chinese made an attack upon the Arab Moslems in Samarkand; they were re- pulsed, and among the prisoners taken from them were some skilled papermakers, from whom the art was learnt. Arabic paper manu- scripts from the ninth century onward still exist. The manu- facture entered Christendom either through Greece or by the capture of Moorish paper-mills during the Christian reconquest of Spain. But under the Christian Spanish the product deteriorated sadly. Good paper was not made in Christian Europe until the end of the thirteenth century, and then it was Italy which led the world. Only by the fourteenth century did the manufacture reach Germany, and not until the end of that century was it abundant and2098 A Short History of the World cheap enough for the printing of books to be a practicable business proposition. Thereupon printing followed naturally and neces- sarily, for printing is the most obvious of inventions, and the in- tellectual life of the world entered upon a new and far more vigorous phase. It ceased to be a little trickle from mind to mind; it became a broad flood, in which thousands and presently scores and hundreds of thousands of minds participated. One immediate result of this achievement of printing was the appearance of an abundance of Bibles in the world. Another was a cheapening of school-books. The knowledge of reading spread swiftly. There was not only a great increase of books in the world, but the books that were now made were plainer to read and so easier to understand. Instead of toiling at a crabbed text and then think- ing over its significance, readers now could think unimpeded as they read. With this increase in the facility of reading, the reading public grew. ‘The book ceased to be a highly decorated toy or a scholar’s mystery. People began to write books to be read as well as looked at by ordinary people. They wrote in the ordinary language and not in Latin. With the fourteenth century the real history of the European literature begins. So far we have been dealing only with the Saracenic share in the European revival. Let us turn now to the influence of the Mon- gol conquests. ‘They stimulated the geographical imagination of Europe enormously. For atime under the Great Khan, all Asia and Western Europe enjoyed an open intercourse; all the roads were temporarily open, and representatives of every nation appeared at the court of Karakorum. The barriers between Europe and Asia set up by the religious feud of Christianity and Islam were lowered. Great hopes were entertained by the papacy for the conversion of the Mongols to Christianity. Their only religion so far had been Shumanism, a primitive paganism. Envoys of the Pope, Buddhist priests from India, Parisian and Italian and Chinese artificers, Byzantine and Armenian merchants, mingled with Arab officials and Persian and Indian astronomers and mathematicians at the Mongol court. We hear too much in history of the campaigns and massacres of the Mongols, and not enough of their curiosity and desire for learning. Not perhaps as an originative people, but as transmittersThe Intellectual Revival of the Europeans 299 of knowledge and method their influence upon the world’s history has been very great. And everything one can learn of the vague and romantic personalities of Jengis or Kublai tends to confirm the impression that these men were at least as understanding and crea- tive monarchs as either that flamboyant Alexander the Great or that raiser of po- litical ghosts, that energetic but illiterate theologian Charlemagne. One of the most interesting of these visitors to the Mongol Court was a certain Venetian, Marco Polo, who afterwards set down his story in a book. He went to China about 1272 with his father and uncle, who had already once made the journey. The Great Khan had been deeply impressed by the elder Polos; they were the first men of the “Latin” peoples he had seen; and he sent them back with enquiries for teachers and learned men who could explain Christi- anity to him, and for various other Euro- pean things that had aroused his curiosity. Their visit with Marco was their second visit. The three Polos started by way of Palestine and not by the Crimea, as in their previous expedition. They had with them a gold tablet and other indications from the Great Khan that must have greatly facili- but egotistical figure ANCIENT BRONZE FIGURE FROM BENIN, W. AFRICA Note evidence in attire of knowl- edge of early European explorers (In the British Museum) tated their journey. The Great Khan had asked for some oil from the lamp that burns in the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem; and so thither they first went, and then by way of Cilicia into Armenia. They went thus far north because the Sultan of Egypt was raiding the Mongol domains at this time. Thence they came by way of Mesopotamia to Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, as if they contemplated a sea voyage. At Ormuz they met merchants from « India. For some reason they did not take ship, but instead turned northward through the Persian deserts, and so by way of Balkh over| on A Short History of the World 3 . the Pamir to Kashgar, and by way of Kotan and the Lob Nor into f te ; - . . = _ the Hwang-ho valley and on to Pekin. At Pekin was the Great _ Khan, and they were hospitably entertained. : Marco particularly pleased Kublai; he was young and clever, and 1 it is clear he had mastered the Tartar language very thoroughly. He was given an official position and sent on several missions, chiefly in south-west China. The tale he had to tell of vast stretches of smiling and pros- perous country, “all the way excellent hos- telries for travellers,’’ and “fine vineyards, fields and gardens,” of ““many abbeys” of Buddhist monks, of manufactures of “‘cloth of silk and gold and many fine taffetas,”’ a “constant succession of cities and boroughs,” and so on, first roused the incredulity and then fired the imagination of all Europe. He told of Burmah, and of its great armies with hundreds of elephants, and how these animals were defeated by the Mongol bow- men, and also of the Mongol conquest of Pegu. Hetold of Japan, and greatly exag- gerated the amount of gold in that country. For three years Marco ruled the city of . Yang-chow as governor, and he probably | at Senay ANGIEND NEGHO impressed the Chinese inhabitants as being 2 ae ns a very little more of a foreigner than any Tartar would have been. He may also have been sent on a mission to India. Chinese records mention a certain Polo attached to the imperial council in 1277, a very valuable confirmation of the general truth of the Polo story. | The publication of Marco Polo’s travels produced a profound effect upon the European imagination. ‘The European literature, and especially the European romance of the fifteenth century, echoes with the names in Marco Polo’s story, with Cathay (North China) and Cambulae (Pekin) and the like. Two centuries later, among the readers of the Travels of Marco Polo was a certain Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, who p iA H i H ;The Intellectual Revival of the Europeans the idea of conceived brilliant sailing westward round the world HonCinw aa. - bn Seville there is a copy of the Trav- els with marginal notes by Colum- bus. There were many reasons why the thought of a Genoese should be turned in this Until its capture by the Turks in 1453 Constantinople had been an im- partial trading mart between the Western world direction. and the East, and the Genoese had traded there But the “Latin” Vene- the bitter rivals of the Gen- freely. tians, oese, had been the allies and helpers of the Lurks against the Greeks, and with the coming of the Turks Constanti- nople turned an 301 i goliatial: 1g i H ' a \ AY fey i SA VN NY “LL i \ SY YY ~~ } hc \ \)\ \\ \ oR MAS ¥ \\ \ i ‘ : o | i} * ’ ; }Y ’ i - bh J/AL/ AAW iN et Cre Te A - rs YA sg Hi Ss , 4 } } He YZ 7 3 < Jif , . = 7 »7 , (\ hee | 4 Gy ios Z (7 4 \ Sm Aref Yr 4 \ +e / A\Z J 4 L\\ SS sm — - a Lx tg a pena NN \é SON NSS SSS nk -—- ae J gat Se — J ae ig wos : — ~ 7 Tt eR 4 oe ee _, et 5 ES eames 4 Lee pe Ox ——, ne gen ar : YS ; J Se hc 4 cae — + J Bier tcabte a Set Be Sadi sacs EARLY ITALIAN ENGRAVING OF A SAILING SHIP (In the British Museum)302 A Short History of the World uniriendly face upon Genoese trade. The long forgotten dis- covery that the world was round had gradually resumed its sway over men’s minds. The idea of going westward to China was there- fore a fairly obvious one. It was encouraged by two things. The mariner’s compass had now been invented and men were no longer left to the mercy of a fine night and the stars to determine the direc- tion in which they were sailing, and the Normans, Catalonians and Genoese and Portuguese had already pushed out into the Atlantic as far as the Canary Isles, Madeira and the Azores. Yet Columbus found many difficulties before he could get ships to put his idea to the test. He went from one European Court to another. Finally at Granada, just won from the Moors, he secured the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and was able to set out across the unknown ocean in three small ships. After a voyage of two months and nine days he came to a land which he believed to be India, but which was really a new continent, whose distinct existence the old world had never hitherto suspected. He returned to Spain with gold, cotton, strange beasts and birds, and two wild-eyed painted Indians to be baptized. They were called Indians be ause, to the end of his days, he believed that this land he had found was India. Only in the course of several years did men begin to realize that the whole new continent of America was added to the world’s resources. The success of Columbus stimulated overseas enterprise enor- mously. In 1497 the Portuguese sailed round Africa to India. and in 1515 there were Portuguese ships in Java. In 1519 Magellan, a Portuguese sailor in Spanish employment, sailed out of Seville west- ward with five ships, of which one, the Vittoria, came back up the river to Seville in 1522, the first ship that had ever circumnavigated the world. Thirty-one men were aboard her, survivors of two- hundred-and-eighty who had started. Magellan himself had been killed in the Philippine Isles. Printed paper books, a new realization of the round world as a thing altogether attainable, a new vision of strange lands, strange animals and plants, strange manners and customs, discoveries over- seas and in the skies and in the ways and materials of life burst upon the European mind. The Greek classics, buried and for gotten for soThe Intellectual Revival of the Europeans 303 long, were speedily being printed and studied, and were colouring men’s thoughts with the dreams of Plato and the traditions of an age of republican freedom and dignity. The Roman dominion had first brought law and order to Western Europe, and the Latin Church had restored it: but under both Pagan and Catholic Rome curiosity and innovation were subordinate to and restrained by organization. The reign of the Latin mind was now drawing to an end. Between the thirteenth and the sixteenth century the European Aryans, thanks to the stimulating influence of Semite and Mongol and the rediscovery of the Greek classics, broke away from the Latin tradi- tion and rose again to the intellectual and material leadership of mankind.IF Tue REFORMATION OF THE LATIN CHURCH HE Latin Church itself was enormously affected by this mental rebirth. It was dismembered; and even the portion that survived was extensively renewed. We have told how nearly the church came to the autocratic leadership of all Christendom in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and how in the fourteenth and fifteenth its power over men’s minds and affairs declined. We have described how popular religious enthusiasm which had in earlier ages been its support and power was turned against it by its pride, persecutions and centralization, and how the insidious scepticism of Frederick IT bore fruit in a growing insubordination of the princes. The Great Schism had reduced its religious and political prestige to negligible proportions. The forces of insurrection struck it now from both sides. The teachings of the Englishman Wycliffe spread widely through- out Europe. In 1398 a learned Czech, John Huss, delivered a series of lectures upon Wycliffe’s teachings in the university of Prague. This teaching spread rapidly beyond the educated class and aroused great popular enthusiasm. In 1414-18 a Council of the whole church was held at Constance to settle the Great Schism. Huss was invited to this Council under promise of a safe conduct from the emperor, seized, put on trial for heresy and burnt alive (1415). So far from tranquillizing the Bohemian people, this led to an insurrec- tion of the Hussites in that country, the first 0. a series of religious wars that inaugurated the break-up of Latin Christendom. Against this insurrection Pope Martin V, the Pope specially elected at Constance as the head of a reunited Christendom, preached a Crusade. Five Crusades in all were launched upon this sturdy little people and all of them failed. All the unemployed ruffianism of Europe was 304The Reformation of the Latin Church 395 turned upon Bohemia in the fifteenth century, just as in the thir- teenth it had been turned upon the Waldenses. Czechs, unlike the Waldenses, believed in armed resistance. But the Bohemian The Bohemian Crusade dissolved and streamed away from the battle- field at the sound of the Hussites’ the distant chanting of waggons and their troops; it did even wait to (battle of 1431). agree- not fight Domazlice, In 1436 an ment was patched up with the Hussites by a new Council of the church at Basle in which many of the special objec- tions to Latin prac- tice were conceded. In the fifteenth century a_ great pestilence had pro- duced much social disorganization throughout Europe. There had been ex- treme misery and discontent among the common people, and peasant risings against the landlords and the wealthy in os. = —— | | |. . |AETHERNA IPSE SVAE\MENTIS SIMVLACHRA LVTHERVS |, ExPRIMIT:AT WILTVS CERA LVCAE OCCIDVOS } ; | “M:DXXX: | iin PORTRAIT OF LUTHER (From an early German engraving in the British Museum) England and France. After the Hussite Wars these peasant insurrections increased in gravity in Germany and took on a religious character. came in as an influence upon this development. Printing By the middle of the fifteenth century there were printers at work with movable type306 A Short History of the World in Holland and the Rhineland. The art spread to Italy and England, where Caxton was printing in Westminster in 1477. The immediate consequence was a great increase and distribution of Bibles, and greatly increased facilities for widespread popular controversies. The European world became a world of readers, to an extent that had never happened to any community in the past. And this sudden irrigation of the general mind with clearer ideas and more accessible information occurred just at a time when the church was confused and divided and not ina position to defend itself effectively, and when many princes were looking for means to weaken its hold upon the vast wealth it claimed in their dominions. In Germany the attack upon the church gathered round the personality of an ex-monk, Martin Luther | 1483-1546), who appeared in Wittenberg in 1517 offering disputations against various orthodox doctrines and practices. At first he disputed in Latin in the fashion of the Schoolmen. Then he took up the new weapon of the printed word and scattered his views far and wide in German addressed to the ordinary people. An attempt was made to suppress him as Huss had been suppressed, but the printing press had changed conditions and he had too many open and secret friends among the German princes for this fate to overtake him. For now in this age of multiplying ideas and weakened faith there were many rulers who saw their advantage in breaking the religious ties between their people and Rome. They sought to make them- selves in person the heads of a more nationalized religion. England, Scotland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, North Germany and Bohe- mia, one after another, separated themselves from the Roman Com- munion. They have remained separated ever since. The various princes concerned cared very little for the moral and intellectual freedom of their subjects. They used the religious doubts and insurgence of their people s to strengthen them against Rome, but they tried to keep a grip upon the popular movement as soon as that rupture was achieved and a national church set up under the control of the crown. But there has always been curious vitality in the teaching of Jesus, a direct a appeal to righteous- ness and a man’s self-respect over every loyalty and every subor- dination, lay or ecclesiastical. None of these princely churches brokeThe Reformation of the Latin Church 30 W I A MAJOLICA DISH PAINTED IN COLOURS An allegory of the Church triumphant over heretics and infidels. Italian (Urbino), dated 1543 (In the Victoria and Albert Museum) off without also breaking off a number of fragmentary sects that would admit the intervention of neither prince nor Pope between a man and his God. In England and Scotland, for example, there was a number of sects who now held firmly to the Bible as their one guide ‘n life and belief. ‘They refused the disciplines of a state church. In England these dissentients were the Non-conformists, who played a very large part in the politics of that country in the seventeenth308 A Short History of the World and eighteenth centuries. In England they carried their objection to a princely head to the church so far as to decapitate King Charles I (1649), and for eleven prosperous years England was a republic under Non-conformist rule. The breaking away of this large section of Northern Europe from Latin Christendom is what is generally spoken of as the Reforma- tion. But the shock and stress of these losses produced changes perhaps as profound in the Roman Church itself. The church was reorganized and a new spirit came into its life. One of the dominant figures in this revival was a young Spanish soldier, Inigo Lopez de Recalde, better known to the world as St. Ignatius of Loyola. After some romantic beginnings he became a priest (1538) and was per- mitted to found the Society of Jesus, a direct attempt to bring the generous and chivalrous traditions of military discipline into the service of religion. This Society of Jesus, the Jesuits, became one of the greatest teaching and missionary societies the world has ever seen. It carried Christianity to India, China and America. It arrested the rapid disintegration of the Roman Church. It raised the standard of education throughout the whole Catholic world: it raised the level of Catholic intelligence and quickened the Catholic conscience everywhere; it stimulated Protestant Europe to competi- tive educational efforts. The vigorous and aggressive Roman Catholic Church we know to-day is largely the product of this Jesuit revival.el THe Emprror CHarutes V HE Holy Roman Empire came to a sort of climax in the reign of the Emperor Charles V. He was one of the most ex- traordinary monarchs that Europe has ever seen. For a time he had the air of being the greatest monarch since Charlemagne. His greatness was not of his own making. It was largely the creation of his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian I (1459-1519). Some families have fought, others have intrigued their way to world power; the Habsburgs married their way. Maximilian began his career with Austria, Styria, part of Alsace and other districts, the original Habsburg patrimony; he married — the lady’s name scarcely matters to us — the Netherlands and Burgundy. Most of Burgundy slipped from him after his first wife’s death, but the Netherlands he held. Then he tried unsuccessfully to marry Brittany. He became Emperor in succession to his father, Frederick III, in 1493, and married the duchy of Milan. Finally he married his son to the weak-minded daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Ferdinand and Isabella of Columbus, who not only reigned over a freshly united Spain and over Sardinia and the kingdom of the two Sicilies, but over all America west of Brazil. So it was that this Charles V, his grandson, inherited most of the American continent and between a third and a half of what the Turks had left of Europe. He suc- ceeded to the Netherlands in 1506. When his grandfather Ferdinand died in 1516, he became practically king of the Spanish dominions, his mother being imbecile; and his grandfather Maximilian dying in 1519, he was in 1520 elected Emperor at the still comparatively tender age of twenty. He was a fair young man with a not very intelligent face, a thick upper lip and a long clumsy chin. He found himself in a world of young and vigorous personalities. It was an age of brilliant young 309 ee | 4 | | |a REE TE oS Re Ae SE 310 A Short History of the World monarchs. Francis I had succeeded to the French throne in 1515 at the age of twenty-one, Henry VIII had become King of England in 1509 at eighteen. It was the age of Baber in India (1526-1530) and Suleiman the Magnificent in Turkey (1520), both exceptionally capable monarchs, and the Pope Leo X (1513) was also a very dis- tinguished Pope. The Pope and Francis I attempted to prevent the election of Charles as Emperor because they dreaded the concentra- tion of so much power in the hands of one man. Both Francis I and Henry VIII offered themselves to the imperial electors. But there was now a long established tradition of Habsburg Emperors (since 1273), and some energetic bribery secured the election for Charles. At first the young man was very much a magnificent puppet in the hands of his ministers. Then slowly he began to assert himself and take control. He began to realize something of the threatening complexities of his exalted position. It was a position as unsound as it was splendid. From the very outset of his reign he was faced by the situation created by Luther’s agitations in Germany. The Emperor had one reason for siding with the reformers in the opposition of the Pope to his election. But he had been brought up in Spain, that most Catholic of countries, and he decided against Luther. So he came into conflict with the Protestant princes and particularly the Elector of Saxony. He found himself in the presence of an opening rift that was to split the outworn fabric of Christendom into two con- tending camps. His attempts to close that rift were strenuous and honest and ineffective. There was an extensive peasant revolt in Germany which interwove with the general political and religious disturbance. And these internal troubles were complicated by attacks upon the Empire from east and west alike. On the west of Charles was his spirited rival, Francis I; to the east was the ever advancing Turk, who was now in Hungary, in alliance with Francis and clamouring for certain arrears of tribute from the Austrian dominions. Charles had the money and army of Spain at his disposal, but it was extremely difficult to get any effective sup- port in money from Germany. His social and political troubles were complicated by financial distresses. He was forced to ruinous borrowing.Photo: Anderson THE CHARLES V PORTRAIT BY TITIAN (In the Gallery del Prado, Madrid)312 A Short History of the World On the whole, Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII, was success- ful against Francis I and the Turk. Their chief battlefield was North Italy; the generalship was dull on both sides; their advances and retreats depended mainly on the arrival of reinforcements. The German army invaded France, failed to take Marseilles, fell back into Italy, lost Milan, and was besieged in Pavia. Francis I made a long and unsuccessful siege of Pavia, was caught by fresh German forces, defeated, wounded and taken prisoner. But thereupon the Pope and Henry VIII, still haunted by the fear of his attaining excessive power, turned against Charles. The German troops in Milan, under the Constable of Bourbon, being unpaid, forced rather than followed their commander into a raid upon Rome. They stormed the city and pillaged it (1527). The Pope took refuge in the Castle of St. Angelo while the looting and slaughter went on. He bought off the German troops at last by the payment of four hundred thousand ducats. Ten years of such confused fighting impoverished all Europe. At last the Emperor found himself triumphant in Italy. In 1530, he was crowned by the Pope—he was the last German Emperor to be so crowned —at Bologna. Meanwhile the Turks were making great headway in Hungary. They had defeated and killed the king of Hungary in 1526, they held Buda-Pesth, and in 1529 Suleiman the Magnificent very nearly took Vienna. The Emperor was greatly concerned by these advances, and did his utmost to drive back the Turks, but he found the greatest difficulty in getting the German princes to unite even with this formidable enemy upon their very borders. Francis I remained im- placable for a time, and there was a new French war: but in 1538 Charies won his rival over to a more friendly attitude after ravaging the south of France. Francis and Charles then formed an alliance against the Turk. But the Protestant princes, the German princes who were resolved to break away from Rome, had formed a league, the Schmalkaldic League, against the Emperor, and in the place of a great campaign to recover Hungary for Christendom Charles had to turn his mind to the gathering internal struggle in Germany. Of that struggle he saw only the opening war. It was a struggle, a sanguinary irrational bickering of princes, for ascendancy, nowThe Emperor Charles V 313 flaming into war and destruction, now sinking back to intrigues and diplomacies; it was a snake’s sack of princely policies that was to go on writhing incurably right into the nineteenth century and to waste and desolate Central Europe again and again. The Emperor never seems to have grasped the true forces at work in these gathering troubles. He was for his time and station an ex- ceptionally worthy man, and he seems to have taken the religious dissensions that were tearing Europe into warring fragments as genuine theological differences. He gathered diets and councils in futile attempts at reconciliation. Formule and confessions were tried over. The student of German history must struggle with the details of the Religious Peace of Nuremberg, the settlement at the Diet of Ratisbon, the Interim of Augsburg, and the like. Here we do but mention them as details in the worried life of this culminat- ing Emperor. As a matter of fact, hardly one of the multifarious princes and rulers in Europe seems to have been acting in good faith.. The widespread religious trouble of the world, the desire of the common people for truth and social righteousness, the spreading knowledge of the time, all those things were merely counters in the imaginations of princely diplomacy. Henry VIII of England, who had begun his career with a book against heresy, and who had been rewarded by the Pope with the title of “Defender of the Faith,” being anxious to divorce his first wife in favour of a young lady named Anne Boleyn, and wishing also to loot the vast wealth of the church in England, joined the company of Protestant princes in 1530. Sweden, Denmark and Norway had already gone over to the Protestant side. The German religious war began in 1546, a few months after the death of Martin Luther. We need not trouble about the incidents of the campaign. The Protestant Saxon army was badly beaten at Lochau. By something very like a breach of faith Philip of Hesse, the Emperor’s chief remaining antagonist, was caught and im- prisoned, and the Turks were bought off by the promise of an annual tribute. In 1547, to the great relief of the Emperor, Fran- cis died. So by 1547 Charles got to a kind of settlement, and made his last efforts to effect peace where there was no peace. In 1552 all Germany was at war again, only a precipitate flight from Innsbruck314 A Short History of the World saved Charles from capture, and in 1552, with the treaty of Passau, came another unstable equilibrium. Such is the brief outline of the politics of the Empire for thirty- two years. It is interesting to note how entirely the European mind was concentrated upon the struggle for European ascendancy. Neither Turks, French, English nor Germans had yet discovered any political interest in the great continent of America, nor any signifi- cance in the new sea routes to Asia. Great things were happening in America; Cortez with a mere handful of men had conquered the great Neolithic empire of Mexico for Spain, Pizarro had crossed the Isthmus of Panama (1530) and subjugated another wonder-land, Peru. But as yet these events meant no more to Europe than a useful and stimulating influx of silver to the Spanish treasury. It was after the treaty of Passau that Charles began to display his distinctive originality of mind. He was now entirely bored and disillusioned by his imperial greatness. A sense of the intolerable futility of these European rivalries came upon him. He had. never been of a very sound constitution, he was natually indolent and he was suffering greatly from gout. He abdicated. He made over all his sovereign rights in Germany to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain and the Netherlands he resigned to his son Philip. Then in a sort of magnificent dudgeon he retired to a monastery at Yuste, among the oak and chestnut forests in the hills to the north of the Tagus valley. There he died in 1558. Much has been written in a sentimental vein of this retirement, this renunciation of the world by this tired majestic Titan, world- weary, seeking in an austere solitude his peace with God. But his retreat was neither solitary nor austere; he had with him nearly a hundred and fifty attendants; his establishment had all the splendour and indulgences without the fatigues of a court, and Philip IT was a dutiful son to whom his father’s advice was a command. And if Charles had lost his living interest in the administration of European affairs, there were other motives of a more immediate sort to stir him. Says Prescott: “In the almost daily correspondence between Quixada, or Gaztelu, and the Secretary of State at Valla- dolid, there is scarcely a letter that does not turn more or less on the Emperor’s eating or his illness. The one seems naturally to follow,The Emperor Charles V alte, ae 1 RRO bs ba Photo: ‘Altnart INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME, SHOWING THE HIGH ALTAR like a running commentary, on the other. It is rare that such topics have formed the burden of communications with the department of state. It must have been no easy matter for the secretary to pre- serve his gravity in the perusal of despatches in which politics and gastronomy were so strangely mixed together. The courier from Valladolid to Lisbon was ordered to make a detour, so as to take Jarandilla in his route, and bring supplies to the royal table. On316 A Short History of the World Thursdays he was to bring fish to serve for the jour maigre that was to follow. The trout in the neighbourhood Charles thought too small, so others of a larger size were to be sent from Valladolid. Fish of every kind was to his taste, as, indeed, was anything that in its nature or habits at all approached to fish. Eels, frogs, oysters, occupied an important place in the royal bill of fare. Potted fish, especially anchovies, found great favour with him; and he regretted that he had not brought a better supply of these from the Low Countries. On an eel-pasty he particularly doted.” . . .1 In 1554 Charles had obtained a bull from Pope Julius III grant- ing him a dispensation from fasting, and allowing him to break his fast early in the morning even when he was to take the sacrament. Eating and doctoring! it was a return to elemental things. He had never acquired the habit of reading, but he would be read aloud to at meals after the fashion of Charlemagne, and would make what one narrator describes as a “sweet and heavenly commentary.” He also amused himself with mechanical toys, by listening to music or sermons, and by attending to the imperial business that still came drifting in to him. The death of the Empress, to whom he was greatly attached, had turned his mind towards religion, which in his case took a punctilious and ceremonial form; every Friday in Lent he scourged himself with the rest of the monks with such good will as to draw blood. These exercises and the gout released a bigotry in Charles that had hitherto been restrained by considerations of policy. The appearance of Protestant teaching close at hand in Valladolid roused him to fury. “Tell the grand inquisitor and his council from me to be at their posts, and to lay the axe at the root of the evil before it spreads further.” . . . He expressed a doubt whether it would not be well, in so black an affair, to dispense with the ordinary course of justice, and to show no merey; “lest the criminal, if pardoned, should have the opportunity of repeating his crime.” He recommended, as an example, his own mode of pro- ceeding in the Netherlands, “where all who remained obstinate in their errors were burned alive, and those who were admitted to penitence were beheaded.” And almost symbolical of his place and réle in history was his + Prescott’s Appendix to Robertson’s History of Charles V.The Emperor Charles V 317 preoccupation with funerals. He seems to have had an intuition that something great was dead in Europe and sorely needed burial, that there was a need to write Finis, overdue. He not only attended every actual funeral that was celebrated at Yuste, but he had sery- ices conducted for the absent dead, he held a funeral service in memory of his wife on the anniversary of her death, and finally he celebrated his own obsequles. “The chapel was hung with black, and the blaze of hundreds of wax-lights was scarcely sufficient to dispel the darkness. The brethren in their conventual dress, and ail the Emperor’s house- hold clad in deep mourning, gathered round a huge catafalque, shrouded also in black, which had been raised in the centre of the chapel. The service for the burial of the dead was then performed; and, amidst the dismal wail of the monks, the prayers ascended for the departed spirit, that it might be received into the mansions of the blessed. The sorrowful attendants were melted to tears, as the image of their master’s death was presented to their minds — or they were touched, it may be, with compassion by this pitiable display of weakness. Charles, muffled in a dark mantle, and bearing a lighted candle in his hand, mingled with his household, the spectator of his own obsequies; and the doleful ceremony was concluded by his placing the taper in the hands of the priest, in sign of his surrender- ing up his soul to the Almighty.” Within two months of this masquerade he was dead. And the brief greatness of the Holy Roman Empire died with him. His realm was already divided between his brother and his son. The Holy Roman Empire struggled on indeed to the days of Napoleon I but as an invalid and dying thing. ‘To this day its unburied tradi- tion still poisons the political air.LII THe Acer or PouiticaL ExprRIMENTS: OF GRAND MoNARCHY AND PARLIAMENTS AND REPUBLICANISM IN EUROPE HI Latin Church was broken, the Holy Roman Empire was in extreme decay; the history of Europe from the opening of the sixteenth century onward is a story of peoples feeling their way darkly to some new method of government, better adapted to the new conditions that were arising. In the Ancient World, over long periods of time, there had been changes of dynasty and even changes of ruling race and language, but the form of government through monarch and temple remained fairly stable, and still more stable was the ordinary way of living. In this modern Europe since the sixteenth century the dynastic changes are unimportant, and the interest of history lies in the wide and increasing variety of experi- ments in political and social organization. The political history of the world from the sixteenth century onward was, we have said, an effort, a largely unconscious effort, of mankind to adapt its political and social methods to certain new conditions that had now arisen. The effort to adapt was compli- cated by the fact that the conditions themselves were changing with a steadily increasing rapidity. The adaptation, mainly unconscious and almost always unwilling (for man in general hates voluntary change), has lagged more and more behind the alterations in condi- tions. From the sixteenth century onward the history of mankind is a story of political and social institutions becoming more and more plainly misfits, less comfortable and more vexatious, and of the slow reluctant realization of the need for a conscious and deliberate reconstruction of the whole scheme of human societies in the face of needs and possibilities new to all the former experiences of life. What are these changes in the conditions of human life that have disorganized that balance of empire, priest, peasant and trader, with 318The Age of Political Experiments 319 periodic refreshment by barbaric conquest, that has held human affairs in the Old World in a sort of working rhythm for more than a hundred centuries? They are manifold and various, for human affairs are multi- tudinously complex; but the main changes seem all to turn upon one cause, namely the growth and extension of a knowledge of the nature of things, beginning first of all in small groups of intelligent people and spreading at first slowly, and in the last five hundred years very rapidly, to larger and larger proportions of the general population. But there has also been a great change in human conditions due to a change in the spirit of human life. This change has gone on side by side with the increase and extension of knowledge, and is subtly connected with it. There has been an increasing disposition to treat a life based on the common and more elementary desires and gratifications as unsatisfactory, and to seek relationship with and service and participation in a larger life. This is the common characteristic of all the great religions that have spread throughout the world in the last twenty odd centuries, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam alike. They have had to do with the spirit of man in a way that the older religions did not have to do. They are forces quite different in their nature and effect from the old fetishistic blood- sacrifice religions of priest and temple that they have in part modified and in part replaced. They have gradually evolved a self-respect in the individual and a sense of participation and responsibility in the common concerns of mankind that did not exist among the populations of the earlier civilizations. The first considerable change in the conditions of political and social life was the simplification and extended use of writing in the ancient civilizations which made larger empires and wider political understandings practicable and inevitable. The next movement forward came with the introduction of the horse, and later on of the camel as a means of transport, the use of wheeled vehicles, the extension of roads and the increased military efficiency due to the discovery of terrestrial iron. Then followed the profound economic disturbances due to the device of coined money and the change in the nature of debt, proprietorship and trade due to this convenient but dangerous convention. The empires grew im size and range, and320 A Short History of the World men’s ideas grew likewise to correspond with these things. Came the disappearance of local gods, the age of theocrasia, and the teach- ing of the great world religions. Came also the beginnings of reasoned and recorded history and geography, the first realization by man of his profound ignorance, and the first systematic search for knowledge. For a time the scientific process which began so brilliantly in Greece and Alexandria was interrupted. The raids of the Teutonic barbarians, the westward drive of the Mongolian peoples, con- vulsive religious reconstruction and great pestilences put enormous strains upon political and social order. When civilization emerged again from this phase of conflict and confusion, slavery was no longer the basis of economic life; and the first paper-mills were pre- paring a new medium for collective information and co-operation in printed matter. Gradually at this point and that, the search for knowledge, the systematic scientific process, was resumed And now from the sixteenth century onward, as an inevitable by-product of systematic thought, appeared a steadily increasing series of inventions and devices affecting the intereommunication and interaction of men with one another. They all tended towards wider range of action, greater mutual benefits or injuries, and in- creased co-operation, and they came faster and faster. Men’s minds had not been prepared for anything of the sort, and until the great catastrophes at the beginning of the twentieth century quick- ened men’s minds, the historian has very little to tell of any intelli- gently planned attempts to.meet the new conditions this increasing flow of inventions was creating. The history of mankind for the last four centuries is rather like that of an imprisoned sleeper, stirring clumsily and uneasily while the prison that restrains and shelters him catches fire, not waking but incorporating the crackling and warmth of the fire with ancient and incongruous dreams, than like that of a man consciously awake to danger and opportunity. Since history is the story not of individual lives but of communi- ties, 1t is inevitable that the inventions that figure most in the historical record are inventions affecting communications. In the sixteenth century the chief new things that we have to note are the appearance of printed paper and the sea-worthy, ocean-going sailing ship using the new device of the mariner’s compass. The formerThe Age of Political Experiments 321 cheapened, spread, and revolutionized teaching, public information and discussion, and the fundamental operations of political activity. The latter made the round world one. But almost equally important was the ixcreased utilization and improvement of guns and gun- powder which the Mongols had first brought westward in the thir- ee CROMWELL DISSOLVES THE LONG PARLIAMENT AND SO BECOMES AUTOCRAT OF THE ENGLISH REPUBLIC (From a contemporary satirical print in the British Museum) teenth century. This destroyed the practical immunity of barons ‘n their castles and of walled cities. Guns swept away feudalism. Constantinople fell to guns. Mexico and Peru fell before the terror of the Spanish guns. The seventeenth century saw the development of systematic scientific publication, a less conspicuous but ultimately far more pregnant innovation. Conspicuous among the leaders in this great forward step was Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) afterwards LordA Short History of the World Verulam, Lord Chancellor of England. He was the pupil and perhaps the mouthpiece of another Englishman, Dr. Gilbert, the experimental philosopher of Colchester (1540-1603). This sec- ond Bacon, like the first, preached observation and experiment, and he used the inspiring and fruitful form of a Utopian story, The New Atlantis, to express his dream of a great service of scientific research. Presently arose the Royal Society of London, the Florentine Society, and later other national bodies for the encouragement of research and the publication and exchange of knowledge. These European scientific societies became fountains not only of countless inventions but also of a destructive criticism of the grotesque theo- logical history of the world that had dominated and crippled human thought for many centuries. Neither the seventeenth nor the eighteenth century witnessed any Innovations so immediately revolutionary in human conditions as printed paper and the ocean-going ship, but there was a steady accumulation of knowledge and scientific energy that was to bear its full fruits in the nineteenth century. The exploration and mapping of the world went on. Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand appeared on the map. In Great Britain in the eighteenth century coal coke began to be used for metallurgical purposes, leading to a considerable cheapening of iron and to the possibility of casting and using it in larger pieces than had been possible before, when it had been smelted with wood charcoal. Modern machinery dawned. Like the trees of the celestial city, science bears bud and flower and fruit at the same time and continuously. With the onset of the nineteenth century the real fruition of science — which indeed hence- forth may never cease— began. First came steam and steel, the railway, the great liner, vast bridges and buildings, machinery of almost limitless power, the possibility of a bountiful satisfaction of every material human need, and then, still more wonderful, the hidden treasures of electrical science were opened to men. We have compared the political and social life of man from the sixteenth century onward to that of a sleeping prisoner who lies and dreams while his prison burns about him. Yn the sixteenth century the European mind was still going on with its Latin Imperial dream,The Age of Political Experiments 323 its dream of a Holy Roman Empire, united under a Catholic Church. But just as some uncontrollable element in our composition will insist at times upon introducing into our dreams the most absurd and destructive comments, so thrust into this dream we find the sleeping face and craving stomach of the Emperor Charles V, while Gc Oo ae Be Bae Senne THE COURT AT VERSAILLES (From the print after Watteau in the British Museum) Henry VIII of England and Luther tear the unity of Catholicism to shreds. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the dream turned to personal monarchy. The history of nearly all Europe during this period tells with variations the story of an attempt to consolidate a monarchy, to make it absolute and to extend its power over weaker adjacent regions, and of the steady resistance, first of the land- owners and then with the increase of foreign trade and home indus- try, of the growing trading and moneyed class, to the exaction and interference of the crown. ‘There is no universal victory of either side: here it is the King who gets the upper hand while there it is the324 A Short History of the World man of private property who beats the King. In one case we find a King becoming the sun and centre of his national world, while just over his borders a sturdy mercantile class maintains a republic. So wide a range of variation shows how entirely experimental, what local accidents, were all the various governments of this period. A very common figure in these national dramas is the King’s minister, often in the still Catholic countries a prelate, who stands behind the King, serves him and dominates him by his indispensable services. Here in the limits set to us it is impossible to tell these various national dramas in detail. The trading folk of Holland went Protestant and republican, and cast off the rule of Philip IT of Spain, the son of the Emperor Charles V. In England Henry VIII and his minister Wolsey, Queen Elizabeth and her minister Burleigh, pre- pared the foundations of an absolutism that was wrecked by the folly of James I and CharlesI. Charles I was beheaded for treason to his people (1649), a new turn in the political thought of Europe. For a dozen years (until 1660) Britain was a republic; and the crown was an unstable power, much overshadowed by Parliament, until George III (1760-1820) made a strenuous and partly suc- cessful effort to restore its predominance. The King of France, on the other hand, was the most successful of all the European Kings in perfecting monarchy. Two great ministers, Richelieu (1585— 1642) and Mazarin (1602-1661), built up the power of the crown in that country, and the process was aided by the long reign and very considerable abilities of King Louis XIV, “the Grand Monarque”’ (1643-1715). Louis XIV was indeed the pattern King of Europe. He was, within his limitations, an exceptionally capable King; his ambition was stronger than his baser passions, and he guided his country towards bankruptcy through the complication of a spirited foreign policy with an elaborate dignity that still extorts our admiration. His immediate desire was to consolidate and extend France to the Rhine and Pyrenees, and to absorb the Spanish Netherlands; his remoter view saw the French Kings as the possible successors of Charlemagne in a recast Holy Roman Empire. He made bribery a state method almost more important than warfare. Charles IT ofThe Age of Political Experiments 325 England was in his pay, and so were most of the Polish nobility, presently to be described. His money, or rather the money of the tax-paying classes in France, went everywhere. But his pre- vailing occupation was splendour. His great palace at Versailles with its salons, its corridors, its mirrors, its terraces and fountains and parks and prospects, was the envy and admiration of the world. He provoked a universal imitation. Every king and princelet in Europe was building his own Versailles as much beyond his means as his subjects and credits would permit. Everywhere the nobility rebuilt or extended their chateaux to the new pattern. A great TTS SSS Se THE SACK OF A VILLAGE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION From Callot’s ‘“‘ Miseres de la Guerre’ industry of beautiful and elaborate fabrics and furnishings devel- oped. The luxurious arts flourished everywhere; sculpture in alabaster, faience, gilt woodwork, metal work, stamped leather, much music, magnificent painting, beautiful printing and bindings, fine crockery, fine vintages. Amidst the mirrors and fine furniture went a strange race of “gentlemen” in tall powdered wigs, silks and laces, poised upon high red heels, supported by amazing canes; and still more wonderful “ladies,’’ under towers of powdered hair and wearing vast expansions of silk and satin sustained on wire. Through it all postured the great Louis, the sun of his world, unaware of the meagre and sulky and bitter faces that watched him from those lower darknesses to which his sunshine did not penetrate. The German people remained politically divided throughout this period of the monarchies and experimental governments, and a con-320 A Short History of the World siderable number of ducal and princely courts aped the splendours of Versailles on varying scales. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-48), a devastating scramble among the Germans, Swedes and Bohemians for fluctuating political advantages, sapped the energies of Germany for a century. A map must show the crazy patchwork in which this struggle ended, a map of Europe according to the peace of West- phalia (1648). One sees a tangle of principalities, dukedoms, free states and the like, some partly in and partly out of the Empire. Sweden’s arm, the reader will note, reached far into Germany; and except for a few islands of territory within the imperial boundaries France was still far from the Rhine. Amidst this patchwork the Contral EUROPE after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648.] AN & KG y\ 5 r Gc RAM : \ ARK Rvp os yy a : u SX ~ = a Te = ( UA DE N{M SSF : sll i rl ie Sai Cologne. SL . = ‘Sees fp Swiss Y REPUBLIC Res Boundary of the ae Empire qsomests Colo, French ” Bex Austrian Habsburgs. INNS andenbur (Pras)... L000The Age of Political Experiments 327 Kingdom of Prussia — it became a Kingdom in 1701 — rose steadily to prominence and sustained a series of successful wars. Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-86) had his Versailles at Potsdam, where his court spoke French, read French literature and rivalled the culture of the French King. In 1714 the Elector of Hanover became King of England, adding one more to the list of monarchies half in and half out of the empire. The Austrian branch of the descendants of Charles V retained the title of Emperor; the Spanish branch retained Spain. But now there was also an Emperor of the East again. After the fall of Con- stantinople (1453), the grand duke of Moscow, Ivan the Great (1462-1505), claimed to be heir to the Byzantine throne and adopted the Byzantine double-headed eagle upon his arms. His grandson, Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584), assumed the imperial title of Cesar (Tsar). But only in the latter half of the seventeenth century did Russia cease to seem remote and Asiatic to the European mind. The Tsar Peter the Great (1682-1725) brought Russia into the arena of Western affairs. He built a new capital for his empire, Petersburg upon the Neva, that played the part of a window between Russia and Europe, and he set up his Versailles at Peterhof eighteen miles away, employing a French architect who gave him a terrace, fountains, cascades, picture gallery, park and all the recognized appointments of Grand Monarchy. In Russia as in Prussia French became the language of the court. Unhappily placed between Austria, Prussia and Russia was the Polish kingdom, an ill-organized state of great landed proprietors too jealous of their own individual grandeur to permit more than a nominal kingship to the monarch they elected. Her fate was divi- sion among these three neighbours, in spite of the efforts of France to retain her as an independent ally. Switzerland at this time was a group of republican cantons; Venice was a republic; Italy like so much of Germany was divided among minor dukes and princes. The Pope ruled like a prince in the papal states, too fearful now of losing the allegiance of the remaining Catholic princes to interfere between them and their subjects or to remind the world of the com- monweal of Christendom. There remained indeed no common328 A Short History of the World political idea in Europe at all; Europe was given over altogether to division and diversity. All these sovereign princes and republics carried on schemes of aggrandizement against each other. Each one of them pursued a “foreign policy” of aggression against its neighbours and of aggres- sive alliances. We Europeans still live to-day in the last phase of this age of the multifarious sovereign states, and still suffer from the hatreds, hostilities and suspicions it engendered. The history of this time becomes more and more manifestly “‘gossip,’’ more and more unmeaning and wearisome to a modern intelligence. You are told of how this war was caused by this King’s mistress, and how the jealousy of one minister for another caused that. A tittle-tattle of bribes and rivalries disgusts the intelligent student. The more permanently significant fact is that in spite of the obstruction of a score of frontiers, reading and thought still spread and increased and inventions multiplied. The eighteenth century saw the appear- ance of a literature profoundly sceptical and critical of the courts and policies of the time. In such a book as Voltaire’s Candide we have the expression of an infinite weariness with the planless confu- sion of the Kuropean world.LIII Tar New Empires of THE Evroprans in AsiA AND OVERSEAS HILE Central Europe thus remained divided and con- fused, the Western Europeans and particularly the Dutch, the Scandinavians, the Spanish, the Portu- guese, the French and the British were extending the area of their struggles across the seas of all the world. The printing press had dissolved the political ideas of Europe into a vast and at first inde- terminate fermentation, but that other great innovation, the ocean- going sailing ship, was inexorably extending the range of European experience to the furthermost limits of salt water. The first overseas settlements of the Dutch and Northern Atlan- tic Europeans were not for colonization but for trade and mining. The Spaniards were first in the field; they claimed dominion over the whole of this new world of America. Very soon however the Portuguese asked for a share. The Pope — it was one of the last acts of Rome as mistress of the world — divided the new continent between these two first-comers, giving Portugal Brazil and every- thing else east of a line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands. and all the rest to Spain (1494). The Portuguese at this time were also pushing overseas enterprise southward and eastward. In 1497 Vasco da Gama had sailed from Lisbon round the Cape to Zanzibar and then to Calicut in India. In 1515 there were Portuguese ships in Java and the Moluccas, and the Portuguese were setting up and fortifying trading stations round and about the coasts of the Indian Ocean. Mozambique, Goa, and two smaller possessions in India, Macao in China and a part of Timor are to this day Portu- guese possessions. The nations excluded from America by the papal settlement paid little heed to the rights of Spain and Portugal. The English, the Danes and Swedes, and presently the Dutch, were soon staking 329330 A Short History of the World out claims in North America and the West Indies, and his Most Catholic Majesty of France heeded the papal settlement as little as any Protestant. The wars of Europe extended themselves to these claims and possessions. In the long run the English were the most successful in this scramble for overseas possessions. The Danes and Swedes were too Britain, France 6'& S Spain 1 in America, 1750. N.B.- Shading does not indicate S S areas actually settled (of later maps) but general extent territories claimed. / (/ FLORIDA Ol PY BAHAMAS ; a (British) Gulf of Mexico eS "8. 0 GLEZ “ <4 Voy P* A gee Lc JAMAICA f/ Lay (British) LN See i, Tite / eon Y fy French m Sparish V///) 7) ly J.FLH, xThe New Empires of the Europeans EUROPEANS 11GER HUNTING IN INDIA (From the engraving of the picture by Zoffany in the British Museum) deeply entangled in the complicated affairs of Germany to sustain effective expeditions abroad. Sweden was wasted upon the German battlefields by a picturesque king, Gustavus Adolphus, the Protes- tant ‘Lion of the North.’ The Dutch were the heirs of such small settlements as Sweden made in America, and the Dutch were too near French aggressions to hold their own against the British. In the far East the chief rivals for empire were the British, Dutch and French, and in America the British, French and Spanish. The British had the supreme advantage of a water frontier, the “silver streak”? of the English Channel, against Europe. ‘The tradition of the Latin Empire entangled them least. France has always thought too much in terms of Europe. Throughout the eighteenth century she was wasting her oppor- tunities of expansion in West and East alike in order to dominate Spain, Italy and the German confusion. The religious and political dissensions of Britain in the seventeenth century had driven many332 A Short History of the World of the English to seek a permanent home in America. They struck root and increased and multiplied, giving the British a great ad- vantage in the American struggle. In 1756 and 1760 the French lost Canada to the British and their American colonists, and a few years later the British trading company found itself completely dominant over French, Dutch and Portuguese in the peninsula of India. The great Mongol Empire of Baber, Akbar and their successors had now far gone in decay, and the story of its practical -apture by a London trading company, the British East India Company, is one of the most extraordinary episodes in the whole history of conquest. This East India Company had been originally at the time of its incorporation under Queen Elizabeth no more than a company of sea adventurers. Step by step they had been forced to raise troops and arm their ships. And now this trading company, with its tradition of gain, found itself dealing not merely in spices and dyes and tea and jewels, but in the revenues and territories of princes (From the engraving of the picture by Singleton in the British Museum)The New Empires of the Europeans B32 and the destinies of India. It had come to buy and sell, and it found itself achieving a tremendous piracy. There was no one to challenge its proceedings. Is it any wonder that its captains and commanders and officials, nay, even its clerks and common soldiers, came back to England loaded with spoils? Men under such circumstances, with a great and wealthy land at their mercy, could not determine what they might or might not do. It was a strange land to them, with a strange sunlight; its brown people seemed a different race, outside their range of sympathy; its mysterious temples sustained fantastic standards of behaviour. Englishmen at home were perplexed when presently these generals and officials came back to make dark accusations against each other of extortions and cruelties. Upon Clive Parlia- ment passed a vote of censure. He committed suicide in 1774. In 1788 Warren Hastings, a second great Indian administrator, was impeached and acquitted (1792). It was a strange and un- precedented situation in the world’s history. The English Par- liament found itself ruling over a London trading company, which in its turn was dominating an empire far greater and more populous than all the domains of the British crown. To the bulk of the English people India was a remote, fantastic, almost inaccessible land, to which adventurous poor young men went out, to return after many years very rich and very choleric old gentlemen. It was difficult for the English to conceive what the life of these count- less brown millions in the eastern sunshine could be. Their imagi- nations declined the task. India remained romantically unreal. It was impossible for the English, therefore, to exert any effective supervision and control over the company’s proceedings. And while the Western European powers were thus fighting for these fantastic overseas empires upon every ocean in the world, two great land conquests were in progress in Asia. China had thrown off the Mongol yoke in 1360, and flourished under the great native dynasty of the Mings until 1644. Then the Manchus, an- other Mongol people, reeonquered China and remained masters of China until 1912. Meanwhile Russia was pushing East and growing to greatness in the world’s affairs. The rise of this great central power of the old world, which is neither altogether of the East nor334 A Short History of the World altogether of the West, is one of the utmost importance to our human destiny. Its expansion is very largely due to the appear- ance of a Christian steppe people, the Cossacks, who formed a barrier between the feudal agriculture of Poland and Hungary to the west and the Tartar to the east. The Cossacks were the wild east of Europe, and in many ways not unlike the wild west of the United States in the middle nineteenth century. All who had made Russia too hot to hold them, criminals as well as the persecuted innocent, rebellious serfs, religious secretaries, thieves, vagabonds, murderers, sought asylum in the southern steppes and there made a fresh start and fought for life and freedom against Pole, Russian and Tartar alike. Doubtless fugitives from the Tartars to the east also contributed to the Cossack mixture. Slowly these border folk were incorporated in the Russian imperial service, much as the highland clans of Scotland were converted into regiments by the British government. New lands were offered them in Asia. They became a weapon against the dwindling power of the Mongolian nomads, first in Turkestan and then across Siberia as far as the Amur. The decay of Mongol energy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is very difficult to explain. Within two or three centuries from the days of Jengis and Timurlane Central Asia had relapsed from a period of world ascendancy to extreme political impotence. Changes of climate, unrecorded pestilences, infections of a malarial type, may have played their part in this recession — which may be only a temporary recession measured by the scale of universal history — of the Central Asian peoples. Some authorities think that the spread of Buddhist teaching from China also had a pacifying influence upon them. At any rate, by the sixteenth century the Mongol, Tartar and Turkish peoples were no longer pressing out- ward, but were being invaded, subjugated and pushed back both by Christian Russia in the west and by China in the east. All through the seventeenth century the Cossacks were spread- ing eastward from European Russia, and settling wherever they found agricultural conditions. Cordons of forts and stations formed a moving frontier to these settlements to the south, where the Turkomans were still strong and active; to the north-east, however, Russia had no frontier until she reached right to the Pacific. . .eV; Tuer AMERICAN War or INDEPENDENCE HE third quarter of the eighteenth century thus saw the remarkable and unstable spectacle of a Europe divided against itself, and no longer with any unifying political or religious idea, yet through the immense stimulation of men’s imagi- nations by the printed book, the printed map, and the opportunity of the new ocean-going shipping, able in a disorganized and con- tentious manner to dominate all the coasts of the world. It was a planless, incoherent ebullition of enterprise due to temporary and almost accidental adyantages over the rest of mankind. By virtue of these advantages this new and still largely empty continent of America was peopled mainly from Western European sources, and South Africa and Australia and New Zealand marked down as prospective homes for a European population. The motive that had sent Columbus to America and Vasco da Gama to India was the perennial first motive of all sailors since the beginning of things—trade. But while in the already populous and productive East the trade motive remained dominant, and the European settlements remained trading settlements from which the European inhabitants hoped to return home to spend their money, the Europeans in America, dealing with communities at a very much lower level of productive activity, found a new in- ducement for persistence in the search for gold and silver. Par- ticularly did the mines of Spanish America yield silver. The Europeans had to go to America not simply as armed merchants but as prospectors, miners, searchers after natural products, and presently as planters. In the north they sought furs. Mines and plantations necessitated settlements. They obliged people to set up permanent overseas homes. Finally in some cases, as when the English Puritans went to New England in the early seven- 335336 A Short History of the World teenth century to escape religious persecution, when in the eigh- teenth Oglethorpe sent people from the English debtors’ prisons to Georgia, and when in the end of the eighteenth the Dutch sent orphans to the Cape of Good Hope, the Europeans frankly crossed the seas to find new homes for good. In the nineteenth century, and especially after the coming of the steamship, the stream of European emigration to the new empty lands of America and Australia rose for some decades to the scale of a great migration. So there grew up permanent overseas populations of Europeans, and the European culture was transplanted to much larger areas than those in which it had been developed. These new communities bringing a ready-made civilization with them to these new lands grew up, as it were, unplanned and unperceived; the statecraft of Europe did not foresee them, and was unprepared with any ideas about their treatment. The politicians and ministers of Europe continued to regard them as essentially expeditionary establish- ments, sources of revenue, “possessions” and “dependencies,” long after their peoples had developed a keen sense of their separate social life. And also they continued to treat them as helplessly subject to the mother country long after the population had spread inland out of reach of any effectual punitive operations from the sea. Because until right into the nineteenth century, it must be remembered, the link of all these overseas empires was the ocean- going sailing ship. On land the swiftest thing was still the horse, and the cohesion and unity of political systems on land was still limited by the limitations of horse communications. Now at the end of the third quarter of the eighteenth century the northern two-thirds of North America was under the British crown. France had abandoned America. Except for Brazil, which was Portuguese, and one or two small islands and areas in French, British, Danish and Dutch hands, Florida, Louisiana, California and all America to the south was Spanish. It was the British colonies south of Maine and Lake Ontario that first demon- strated the inadequacy of the sailing ship to hold overseas popula- tions together in one political system. These British colonies were very miscellaneous in their origin and character. There were French, Swedish and Dutch settle-The American War of Independence 337 ments as well as British; there were British Catholics in Maryland and British ultra-Protestants in New England, and while the New Englanders farmed their own land and denounced slavery, the British in Virginia and the south were planters employing a swelling multitude of imported negro slaves. There was no natural common unity in such states. To get from one to the other might mean a coasting voyage hardly less tedious than the transatlantic cross- ing. But the union that diverse origin and natural conditions denied the British Americans was forced upon them by the selfish- ness and stupidity of the British government in London. They were taxed without any voice in the spending of the taxes; their trade was sacrificed to British interests; the highly profitable slave trade was maintained by the British government in spite of the opposition of the Virginians who—though quite willing to hold and use slaves—feared to be swamped by an ever- growing barbaric black population. Britain at that time was lapsing towards an intenser form of monarchy, and the obstinate personality of George IIT (1760-1820) did much to force on a struggle between the home and the colonial governments. The conflict was precip- itated by legislation which favoured the London East India Company at the ex- pense of the American ship- per. Three cargoes of tea which were imported under the new conditions were thrown overboard in Boston harbour by a band of men GEORGE WIGHIR CHES disguised as Indians (1773). (Fram’alpatating'by | Gilbert setart) Le, *. ceaTHE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL, NEAR BOSTON (From the engraving of the picture by John Trumbull in the British Museum) Fighting only began in 1775 when the British government at- tempted to arrest two of the American leaders at Lexington near Boston. The first shots were fired in Lexington by the British; the first fighting occurred at Concord. So the American War of Independence began, though for more than a year the colonists showed themselves extremely unwilling to sever their links with the mother land. It was not until the middle of 1776 that the Congress of the insurgent states issued “The Declaration of Independence.” George Washington, who like many of the leading colonists of the time had had a military training in the wars against the French, was made commander- in-chief. In 1777 a British general, General Burgoyne, in an attempt to reach New York from Canada, was defeated at Free- mans Farm and obliged to surrender at Saratoga. In the same year the French and Spanish declared war upon Great Britain, greatly hampering her sea communications. A second British army under General Cornwallis was caught in the Yorktown pen- insula in Virginia and obliged to capitulate in 1781. In 1783 peaceThe American War of Independence 33 was made in Paris, and the Thirteen Colonies from Maine to Georgia became a union of independent sovereign States. So the United States of America came into existence. Canada remained loval to the British flag. The UNITED STATES, showing extent of sctlle. SS | ment i ut 1790. ye oe S T,. SUPERIOR. oh a "I | BSG 0 PENNS YVAN ti} Ure 5 1] | II ft LLIN? SS HAH = Hi Iq a= BS Cull Me i bef core 1760 SSN Areas settled S 1760-1790 : : + N.H.-NewHamepsHire avarmaht == = C.=ConneEcTICUT See ee ORE =ReoreIsuanp - - — Ne New JERSEY MARYLAND D. DELAWARE New Orlvans———— = — : = = ——] For four years these States had only a very feeble central govern- ment under certain Articles of Confederation, and they seemed des- tined to break up into separate independent communities. Their immediate separation was delayed by the hostility of the British and a certain aggressiveness on the part of the French which brought340 A Short History of the World home to them the immediate dangers of division. A Constitution was drawn up and ratified in 1788 establishing a more efficient Federal government with a President holding very considerable powers, and the weak sense of national unity was invigorated by a second war with Britain in 1812. Nevertheless the area covered by the States was so wide and their interests so diverse at that time, that — given only the means of communication then available —a disintegration of the Union into separate states on the European scale of size was merely a question of time. Attendance at Wash- ington meant a long, tedious and insecure journey for the senators and congressmen of the remoter districts, and the mechanical im- pediments to the diffusion of a common education and a common literature and intelligence were practically insurmountable. Forces were at work in the world however that were to arrest the process of differentiation altogether. Presently came the river steamboat and then the railway and the telegraph to save the United States from fragmentation, and weave its dispersed people together again into the first of great modern nations. Twenty-two years later the Spanish colonies in America were to follow the example of the Thirteen and break their connection with Europe. But being more dispersed over the continent and separated by great mountainous chains and deserts and forests and by the Portuguese Empire of Brazil, they did not achieve a union among themselves. They became a constellation of republi- can states, very prone at first to wars among themselves and to revolutions. Brazil followed a rather different line towards the inevitable separation. In 1807 the French armies under Napoleon had occu- pied the mother country of Portugal, and the monarchy had fled to Brazil. From that time on until they separated, Portugal was rather a dependency of Brazil than Brazil of Portugal. In 1822 Brazil declared itself a separate Empire under Pedro I, a son of the Portuguese King. But the new world has never been very favourable to monarchy. In 1889 the Emperor of Brazil was shipped off quietly to Europe, and the United States of Brazil fell into line with the rest of republican America.LV Tue FreNcuH REVOLUTION AND THE RESTORATION OF MONARCHY IN FRANCE RITAIN had hardly lost the Thirteen Colonies in America before a profound social and political convulsion at the very heart of Grand Monarchy was to remind Europe still more vividly of the essentially temporary nature of the political arrange- ments of the world. We have said that the French monarchy was the most suc- cessful of the personal monarchies in Europe. It was the envy and model of a multitude of competing and minor courts. But it flourished on a basis of injustice that led to its dramatic collapse. It was brilliant and aggressive, but it was wasteful of the life and substance of its common people. The clergy and nobility were protected from taxation by a system of exemption that threw the whole burden of the state upon the middle and lower classes. The peasants were ground down by taxation; the middle classes were dominated and humiliated by the nobility. In 1787 this French monarchy found itself bankrupt and obliged to call representatives of the different classes of the realm into consultation upon the perplexities of defective income and excessive expenditure. In 1789 the States General, a gathering of the nobles, clergy and commons, roughly equivalent to the earlier form of the British Parliament, was called together at Versailles. It had not assembled since 1610. For all that time France had been an abso- lute monarchy. Now the people found a means of expressing their long fermenting discontent. Disputes immediately broke out between the three estates, due to the resolve of the Third Estate, the Commons, to control the Assembly. The Commons got the better of these disputes and the States General became a National As- sembly, clearly resolved to keep the crown in order, as the British 341il 342 A Short History of the World Whereupon Paris and France revolted. destroyed, and the owners murdered or driven away. i : \ | Parliament kept the British crown in order. The king (Louis XVI) i prepared for a struggle and brought up troops from the provinces. struggle through to an effective modernized government. The collapse of the absolute monarchy was very swift. The grim-looking prison of the Bastille was stormed by the people of Paris, and the insurrection spread rapidly throughout France. In | the east and north-west provinces many chateaux belonging to the i nobility were burnt by the peasants, their title-deeds carefully In a month it the ancient and decayed system of the aristocratic order had col- | lapsed. Many of the leading princes and courtiers of the queen’s party fled abroad. A provisional city government was set up in Paris and in most of the other large cities, and a new armed force, il | the National Guard, a force designed primarily and plainly to resist the forces of the crown, was brought into existence by these i ba municipal bodies. The National Assembly found itself called i upon to create a new political and social system for a new age. It was a task that tried the powers of that gathering to the utmost. It made a great sweep of the chief injustices of the absolut- ist regime; it abolished tax exemptions, serfdom, aristocratic titles and privileges and sought to establish a constitutional monarchy in Paris. The king abandoned Versailles and its splendours and kept a diminished state in the palace of the Tuileries in Paris. For two years it seemed that the National Assembly might Much ie of its work was sound and still endures, if much was experimental and had to be undone. Much was ineffective. There was a clear- ing up of the penal code; torture, arbitrary imprisonment and persecutions for heresy were abolished. The ancient provinces of France, Normandy, Burgundy and the like gave place to eighty departments. Promotion to the highest ranks in the army was laid open to men of every class. An excellent and simple system of law courts was set up, but its value was much vitiated by having the judges appointed by popular election for short periods of time. This made the crowd a sort of final court of appeal, and the judges, like the members of the Assembly, were forced to play to the gallery. And the whole vast property of the church was seized and ad-The French Revolution 343 ministered by the state; religious establishments not engaged in education or works of charity were broken up, and the salaries of the clergy made a charge upon the nation. This in itself was not a bad thing for the lower clergy in France, who were often scandalously underpaid in comparison with the richer dignitaries. But in addi- tion the choice of priests and bishops was made elective, which struck at the very root idea of the Roman Church, which centred everything upon the Pope, and in which all authority is from above downward. Practically the National Assembly wanted at one blow to make the church in France Protestant, in organization if not in doctrine. Everywhere there were disputes and conflicts between the state priests created by the National Assembly and the recalcitrant (non-juring) priests who were loyal to Rome. In 1791 the experiment of Constitutional monarchy in France was brought to an abrupt end by the action of the king and queen, working in concert with their aristocratic and monarchist friends abroad. Foreign armies gathered on the Eastern frontier and one night in June the king and queen and their children slipped away from the Tuileries and fled to join the foreigners and the aristocratic exiles. They were caught at Varennes and brought back to Paris, and all France flamed up into a passion of patriotic republicanism. A Republic was proclaimed, open war with Austria and Prussia ensued, and the king was tried and executed (January, 1793) on the model already set by England, for treason to his people. And now followed a strange phase in the history of the French people. There arose a great flame of enthusiasm for France and the Republic. There was to be an end to compromise at home and abroad; at home royalists and every form of disloyalty were to be stamped out; abroad France was to be the protector and helper of all revolutionaries. All Europe, all the world, was to become Republican. The youth of France poured into the Re- publican armies; a new and wonderful song spread through the land, a song that still warms the blood like wine, the Marseillaise. Before that chant and the leaping columns of French bayonets and their enthusiastically served guns the foreign armies rolled back; before the end of 1792 the French armies had gone far beyond the utmost achievements of Louis XIV; everywhere they stood on344 A Short History of the World foreign soil. They were in Brussels, they had overrun Savoy, they had raided to Mayence; they had seized the Scheldt from Holland. Then the French Government did an unwise thing. It had been exasperated by the expulsion of its representative from England upon the execution of Louis, and it declared war against England. It was an unwise thing to do, because the revolution which had given France a new enthusiastic infantry and a brilliant artillery THE TRIAL OF LOUIS XVI (From a print in the British Museum) released from its aristocratic officers and many cramping conditions had destroyed the discipline of the navy, and the English were supreme upon the sea. And this provocation united all England against France, whereas there had been at first a very considerable liberal movement in Great Britain in sympathy with the revolution. Of the fight that France made in the next few years against a European coalition we cannot tell in any detail. She drove the Austrians for ever out of Belgium, and made Holland a republic. The Dutch fleet, frozen in the Texel, surrendered to a handful ofThe French Revolution 345 cavalry without firing its guns. For some time the French thrust towards Ita'y was hung up, and it was only in 1796 that a new general, Napoleon Bonaparte, led the ragged and hungry republican armies in triumph across Piedmont to Mantua and Verona. Says C. F. Atkinson,! “What astonished the Allies most of all was the number and the velocity of the Republicans. These improvised armies had in fact nothing to delay them. Tents were unprocurable for want of money, untransportable for want of the enormous number of wagons that would have been required, and also un- necessary, for the discomfort that woud have caused wholesale desertion in professional armies was cheerfully borne by the men of 1793-94. Supplies for armies of then unheard-of size could not be carried in convoys, and the French soon became familiar with ‘living on the country.’ Thus 1793 saw the birth of the modern system of war — rapidity of movement, full development of national strength, bivouacs, requisitions and force as against cautious manoeuvring, small professional armies, tents and full rations, and chicane. The first represented the decision-compelling spirit, the second the spirit of risking little to gain a little. = And while these ragged hosts of enthusiasts were chanting the Marseillaise and fighting for la France, manifestly never quite clear in their minds whether they were looting or liberating the countries into which they poured, the republican enthusiasm in Paris was spending itself in a far less glorious fashion. The revolution was now under the sway of a fanatical leader, Robespierre. This man is difficult to judge; he was a man of poor physique, naturally timid, and a prig. But he had that most necessary gift for power, faith. He set himself to save the Republic as he conceived it, and he imagined it could be saved by no other man than he. So that to keep in power was to save the Republic. The living spirit of the Republic, it seemed, had sprung from a slaughter of royalists and the execution of the king. There were insurrections; one in the west, in the district of La Vendée, where the people rose against the conscription and against the dispossession of the orthodox clergy, and were led by noblemen and priests; one in the south, where Lyons and Marseilles had risen and the royalists of Toulon 1 In his article, ‘French Revolutionary Wars,” in the Encyclopedia Britannica.346 A Short History of the World had admitted an English and Spanish garrison. ‘To which there seemed no more effectual reply than to go on killing royalists. The Revolutionary Tribunal went to work, and a steady slaugh- tering began. The invention of the guillotine was opportune to this mood. The queen was guillotined, most of Robespierre’s antagonists were guillotined, atheists who argued that there was no Supreme Being were guillotined; day by day, week by week, VET R PUBL fi. ate TRANSAW / THE EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE, QUEEN OF FRANCE, OCTOBER 16, 1793 (From a print in the British Museum) this infernal new machine chopped off heads and more heads and more. ‘The reign of Robespierre lived, it seemed, on blood; and needed more and more, as an opium-taker needs more and more opium. Finally in the summer of 1794 Robespierre himself was over- thrown and guillotined. He was succeeded by a Directory of five men which carried on the war of defence abroad and held France together at home for five years. Their reign formed a curious interlude in this history of violent changes. They took thingsThe French Revolution 347 as they found them. The propagandist zeal of the revolution carried the French armies into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, south Germany and north Italy. Everywhere kings were expelled and republics set up. But such propagandist zeal as animated the Directorate did not prevent the looting of the treasures of the liberated peoples to relieve the financial embarrassment of the French Government. Their wars became less and less the holy wars of freedom, and more and more like the aggressive wars of the ancient regime. The last feature of Grand Monarchy that France was disposed to discard was her tradition of foreign policy. One discovers it still as vigorous under the Directorate as if there had been no revolution. Unhappily for France and the world a man arose who embodied in its intensest form this national egotism of the French. He gave that country ten years of glory and the humiliation of a final defeat. This was that same Napoleon Bonaparte who had led the armies of the Directory to victory in Italy. Throughout the five years of the Directorate he had been schem- ing and working for self-advancement. Gradually he clambered to supreme power. He was a man of severely limited understanding but of ruthless directness and great energy. He had begun life as an extremist of the school of Robespierre; he owed his first promo- tion to that side; but he had no real grasp of the new forces that were working in Europe. His utmost political imagination carried him to a belated and tawdry attempt to restore the Western Empire. He tried to destroy the remains of the old Holy Roman Empire, intending to replace it by a new one centring upon Paris. The Kmperor in Vienna ceased to be the Holy Roman Emperor and became simply Emperor of Austria. Napoleon divorced his French wife in order to marry an Austrian princess. He became practically monarch of France as First Consul in 1799, and he made himself Emperor of France in 1804 in direct imitation of Charlemagne. He was crowned by the Pope in Paris, taking the crown from the Pope and putting it upon his own head himself as Charlemagne had directed. His son was crowned King of Rome. For some years Napoleon’s reign was a career of victory. Heae 348 A Short History of the World conquered most of Italy and Spain, defeated Prussia and Austria, and dominated all Europe west of Russia. But he never won the command of the sea from the British and his fleets sustained a con- clusive defeat inflicted by the British Admiral Nelson at Trafalgar (1805). Spain rose against him in 1808 and a British army under Wellington thrust the French armies slowly northward out of the peninsula. In 1811 Napoleon came into conflict with the Tsar Alexander I, and in 1812 he invaded Russia with a great conglom- erate army of 600,000 men, that was defeated and largely destroyed by the Russians and the Russian winter. Germany rose against him, Sweden turned against him. The French armies were beaten back and at Fontainebleau Napoleon abdicated (1814). He was exiled to Elba, returned to France for one last effort in 1815 and was defeated by the allied British, Belgians and Prussians at Water- loo. - He died a British prisoner at St. Helena in 1821. The forces released by the French revolution were wasted and finished. A great Congress of the victorious allies met at Vienna to restore as far as possible the state of affairs that the great storm had rent to pieces. For nearly forty years a sort of peace, a peace of exhausted effort, was maintained in Europe.LVI THe Uneasy Peace in Evropg THar FOLLOWED THE FALL OF NAPOLEON WO main causes prevented that period from being a com- plete social and international peace, and prepared the way for the cycle of wars between 1854 and 1871. The first of these was the tendency of the royal courts concerned, towards the restoration of unfair privilege and interference with freedom of thought and writing and teaching. The second was the impossible system of boundaries drawn by the diplomatists of Vienna. The inherent disposition of monarchy to march back towards past conditions was first and most particularly manifest in Spain. Here even the Inquisition was restored. Across the Atlantic the Spanish colonies had followed the example of the United States and revolted against the European Great Power System, when Napoleon set his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne in 1810. The George Washington of South America was General Bolivar. Spain was unable to suppress this revolt, it dragged on much as the United States War of Independence had dragged on, and at last the suggestion was made by Austria, in accordance with the spirit of the Holy Alliance, that the European monarch should assist Spain in this struggle. This was opposed by Britain in Europe, but it was the prompt action of President Monroe of the United States in 1823 which conclusively warned off this projected monar- chist restoration. He announced that the United States would regard any extension of the European system in the Western Hemi- sphere as a hostile act. Thus arose the Monroe Doctrine, the doctrine that there must be no extension of extra-American govern- ment in America, which has kept the Great Power system out of America for nearly a hundred years and permitted the new states of Spanish America to work out their destinies along their own lines. 349350 A Short History of the World But if Spanish monarchism lost its colonies, it could at least, under the protection of the Concert of Europe, do what it chose in Europe: A popular insurrection in Spain was crushed by a French army in 1823, with a mandate from a European congress, and simultaneously Austria suppressed a revolution in Naples. In 1824 Louis XVIII died, and was succeeded by Charles X. Charles set himself to destroy the liberty of the press and univer- sities, and to restore absolute government; the sum of a billion francs was voted to compensate the nobles for the chateau burnings and sequestrations of 1789. In 1830 Paris rose against this embodi- ment of the ancient regime, and replaced him by Louis Philippe, the son of that Philip, Duke of Orleans, who was executed during the Terror. The other continental monarchies, in face of the open approval of the revolution by Great Britain and a strong. liberal ferment in Germany and Austria, did not interfere in this affair. After all, France was still a monarchy. This man Louis Philippe (1830-48) remained the constitutional King of France for eighteen years. Such were the uneasy swayings of the peace of the Congress of Vienna, which were provoked by the reactionary proceedings of the monarchists. The stresses that arose from the unscientific boundaries planned by the diplomatists at Vienna gathered force more deliberately, but they were even more dangerous to the peace of mankind. It is extraordinarily inconvenient to administer together the affairs of peoples speaking different languages and so reading different literatures and having different general ideas, especially if those differences are exacerbated by religious disputes. Only some strong mutual interest, such as the common defensive needs of the Swiss mountaineers, can justify a close linking of peoples of dissimilar languages and faiths; and even in Switzerland there is the utmost local autonomy. When, as in Macedonia, populations are mixed in a patchwork of villages and districts, the -antonal system is imperatively needed. But if the reader will look at the map of Europe as the Congress of Vienna drew it, he will see that this gathering seems almost as if it had planned the maximum of local exasperation. It destroyed the Dutch Republic, quite needlessly, it lumpedThe Uneasy Peace in Europe 351 together the Protestant Dutch with the French-speaking Catholics of the old Spanish (Austrian) Netherlands, and set up a kingdom of the Netherlands. It handed over not merely the old republic of Venice, but all of North Italy as far as Milan to the German-speak- ing Austrians. French-speaking Savoy it combined with pieces of Italy to restore the kingdom of Sardinia. Austria and Hungary, already a sufficiently explosive mixture of discordant nationalities, Germans, Hungarians, Czecho-Slovaks, Jugo-Slavs, Roumanians, and now Italians, was made still more impossible by confirming Austria’s Polish acquisitions of 1772 and 1795. The Catholic and republican-spirited Polish people were chiefly given over to the less civilized rule of the Greek-orthodox Tsar, but important districts went to Protestant Prussia. The Tsar was also confirmed in his acquisition of the entirely alien Finns. The very dissimilar Nor- wegian and Swedish peoples were bound together under one king. Germany, the reader will see, was left in a particularly dangerous state of muddle. Prussia and Austria were both partly in and partly out of a German confederation, which included a multitude of minor states. The King of Denmark came into the German confederation by virtue of certain German-speaking possessions in Holstein. Luxembourg was included in the German confederation, though its ruler was also King of the Netherlands, and though many of its peoples talked French. Here was a complete disregard of the fact that the people who talk German and base their ideas on German literature, the people who talk Italian and base their ideas on Italian literature, and the people who talk Polish and base their ideas on Polish literature, will all be far better off and most helpful and least obnoxious to the rest of mankind if they conduct their own affairs in their own idiom within the ring-fence of their own speech. Is it any wonder that one of the most popular songs in Germany during this period declared that wherever the German tongue was spoken, there was the German Fatherland! In 1830 French-speaking Belgium, stirred up by the current revolution in France, revolted against its Dutch association in the kingdom of the Netherlands. The powers, terrified at the possi- bilities of a republic or of annexation to France, hurried in to pacifyPORTRAIT OF NAPOLEON (CORONATION) (From a printin the British Museum) 352The Uneasy Peace in Europe EUROPE after the Congress of” ne "UR ee < gl f Bat || Ps 7 Hole Tx: Tas My all Ve 9 Hanover, iT K if 7 os ie out Uh 4} | Y \ ASOTU ENN WY) RQ SAN WOO ESN TOLD WA RA AN \ WIQQY ‘ \ \ o ib Hesse \ RA SIENA ly, s . . ROX : ~ VO scents ARS Serbia S Sk © rT tT OMAN 2 SS pur ‘tat EMPIRE SS @ Boundary of the German hy, a» A oF Confederation -__— s 42. 6 = oo J.F.H. Roe Sadek aed e2, this situation, and gave the Belgians a monarch, Leopold I of Saxe- Coburg Gotha. There were also ineffectual revolts in Italy and Germany in 1830, and a much more serious one jn Russian Poland. A republican government held out in Warsaw for a year against Nicholas I (who sueceeded Alexander in 1825 ), and was then stamped out of existence with great violence and cruelty. The Polish lan- guage was banned, and the Greek Orthodox church was substituted for the Roman Catholic as the state religion. In 1821 there was an insurrection of the Greeks against the Turks. For six years they fought a desperate war, while the govern- ments of Europe looked on. Liberal opinion protested against this inactivity; volunteers from every European country joined the insurgents, and at last Britain, France and Russia took joint action. The Turkish fleet was destroyed by the French and English at the battle of Navarino (1827), and the Tsar invaded Turkey. By the treaty of Adrianople (1829) Greece was declared free, but354 A Short History of the World she was not permitted to resume her ancient republican traditions. A German king was found for Greece, one Prince Otto of Bavaria, and Christian governors were set up in the Danubian provinces (which are now Roumania) and Serbia (a part of the Jugo-Slav region). Much blood had still to run however before the Turk was altogether expelled from these lands.LVII Tue. DEVELOPMENT oF MATERIAL KNOWLEDGE HROUGHOUT the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the opening years of the nineteenth century, while these con- flicts of the powers and princes were going on in Europe, and the patchwork of the treaty of Westphalia (1648) was changing kaleidoscopically into the patchwork of the treaty of Vienna (1815), and while the sailing ship was spreading European influence through- out the world, a steady growth of knowledge and a general clearing up of men’s ideas about the world in which they lived was in progress in the European and Europeanized world. It went on disconnected from political life, and producing throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries no striking immediate results in political life. Nor was it affecting popular thought very profoundly during this period. These reactions were to come later, and only in their full force in the latter half of the nineteenth century. It was a process that went on chiefly in a small world of prosperous and independent-spirited people. Without what the English call the could not have begun in Greece, and could not have been renewed in ‘ ‘private gentleman, ”’ the scientific process Europe. The universities played a part but not a leading part in the philosophical and scientific thought of this period. Endowed learning is apt to be timid and conservative learning, lacking in initiative and resistent to innovation, unless it has the spur of contact with independent minds. We have already noted the formation of the Royal Society in 1662 and its work in realizing the dream of Bacon’s New Atlantis. Throughout the eighteenth century there was much clearing up of general ideas about matter and motion, much mathematical advance, a systematic development of the use of optical glass in microscope and telescope, a renewed energy in classificatory natural a III356 A Short History of the World jas em AF Ts Y rr f Ay tS x Portuguese = Russian ZZ . (TT TT BdgianUti Italian : A Th) British French Ul (Br) »~ ch on] Proje [Mercator's 406The British Empire in 1914 407 province, occupied and administered jointly by the British and by the (British controlled) Egyptian Government; Then a number of partially self-governing communities, some British in origin and some not, with elected legislatures and an appointed executive, such as Malta, Jamaica, the Bahamas and Bermuda; Then the Crown colonies, in which the rule of the British Home Government (through the Colonial Office) verged on autocracy, as in Ceylon, Trinidad and Fiji (where there was an appointed council), and Gibraltar and St. Helena (where there was a governor); Then great areas of (chiefly) tropical lands, raw-product areas, with politically weak and under-civilized native communities which a ge Photo: C. Stnclatr GIBRALTAR were nominally protectorates, and administered either by a High Commissioner set over native chiefs (as in Basutoland) or over a chartered company (as in Rhodesia). In some cases the Foreign Office, in some cases the Colonial Office, and in some eases the India Office, has been concerned in acquiring the possessions that fell into this last and least definite class of all, but for the most part the Colonial Office was now responsible for them. It will be manifest, therefore, that no single office and no single brain had ever comprehended the British Empire as a whole. It was a mixture of growths and accumulations entirely different from anything that has ever been called an empire before. It guaranteed a wide peace and security; that is why it was endured and sustained by many men of the “subject” races — in spite of official tyrannies €h J Ce aa 1 y a ve , f “8 53 ey Pa n oa e a > x ¥ ‘ is ; Pj i iT > th tj B ne AG - : FON : . M j 7 yv Ra * Photo: Underwood & Underwood STREET IN HONG KONG > and insufficiencies, and of much negligence on the part of the “home’ | public. Like the Athenian Empire, it was an overseas empire; | its ways were sea ways, and its common link was the British Navy. | AE Like all empires, its cohesion was dependent physically upon a i method of communication; the development of seamanship, ship- ' building and steamships between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries had made it a possible and convenient Pax — the “Pax Britannica,”’ and fresh developments of air or swift land transport might at any time make it inconvenient.LXV THe AGE oF ARMAMENT IN Europ, AND THE GREAT War oF 1914-18 HE progress in material science that created this vast steam- boat-and-railway republic of America and spread _ this precarious British steamship empire over the world, pro- duced quite other effects upon the congested nations upon the continent of Europe. They found themselves confined within boundaries fixed during the horse-and-high-road period of human life, and their expansion overseas had been very largely anticipated by Great Britain. Only Russia had any freedom to expand eastward: and she drove a great railway across Siberia until she entangled her- self in a conflict with Japan, and pushed south-eastwardly towards the borders of Persia and India to the annoyance of Britain. The rest of the European Powers were in a state of intensifying conges- tion. In order to realize the full possibilities of the new apparatus of human life they had to rearrange their affairs upon a broader basis, either by some sort of voluntary union or by a union imposed upon them by some predominant power. The tendency of modern thought was in the direction of the former alternative, but all the force of political tradition drove Europe towards the latter. The downfall of the ‘empire’? of Napoleon III, the establish- ment of the new German Empire, pointed men’s hopes and fears towards the idea of a Europe consolidated under German auspices. For thirty-six years of uneasy peace the politics of Europe centred upon that possibility. France, the steadfast rival of Germany for European ascendancy since the division of the empire of Charle- magne, sought to correct her own weakness by a close alliance with Russia, and Germany linked herself closely with the Austrian Empire (it had ceased to be the Holy Roman Empire in the days of Napoleon I) and less successfully with the new kingdom of Italy. 409A Short History of the World 410 At first Great Britain stood as usual half in and half out of conti- nental affairs. But she was gradually forced into a close association with the Franco-Russian group by the aggressive development of a r % . . ; > . great German navy. The grandiose imagination of the Emperor ee one , ~~ Photo: British Ofictal BRITISH TANK IN THE BATTLE OF THE MENIN ROAD : i The crew come out for a breath of fresh air during a lull William IT (1888-1918) thrust Germany into premature overseas enterprise that ultimately brought not only Great Britain but Japan and the United States into the circle of her enemies. All these nations armed. Year after year the proportion of national production devoted to the making of guns, equipment, battleships and the like. increased. Year after year the balanceThe Age of Armament in Europe 4II Photo: : Toptcal THE RUINS OF YPRES (ONCE A DELIGHTFUL OLD FLEMISH TOWN) To show the complete destructiveness of modern war of things seemed trembling towards war, and then war would be averted. At last it came. Germany and Austria struck at France and Russia and Serbia; the German armies marching through Belgium, Britain immediately came into the war on the side of Belgium, bringing in Japan as her ally, and very soon Turkey followed on the German side. Italy entered the war against Austria in 1915, and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in the October of that year. In 1916 Rumania, and in 1917 the United States and China were forced into war against Germany. It is not within the scope of this history to define the exact share of blame for this ast catastrophe. The more interesting question is not why the Great War was begun but why the Great War was not anticipated and prevented. It is a far graver thing for mankind that scores of millions of people were too “patriotic,” stupid, or apathetic to prevent this disaster by a movement towards European unity upon frank and generous lines, than that a small number of people may have been active in bringing it about. It is impossible within the space at our command here to trace the intricate details of the war. Within a few months it became apparent that the progress of modern technical science had changed412 A Short History of the World the nature of warfare very profoundly. Physical science gives power, power over steel, over distance, over disease; whether that power is used well or ill depends upon the moral and political intelli- gence of the world. The governments of Europe, inspired by antiquated policies of hate and suspicion, found themselves with unexampled powers both of destruction and resistance in their hands. The war became a consuming fire round and about the world, causing losses both to victors and vanquished out of all proportion to the issues involved. The first phase of the war was a tremendous rush of the Germans upon Paris and an invasion of East Prussia by the Russians. Both attacks were held and turned. Then the power of the defensive developed; there was a rapid elaboration of trench warfare until for a time the opposing armies lay entrenched in long lines right across Europe, unable to make any advance without enormous losses. The armies were millions strong, and behind them entire populations were organized for the supply of food and munitions to the front. There was a cessation of nearly every sort of productive activity except such as con- tributed to military operations. All the able-bodied manhood of Europe was drawn into the armies or navies or into the improvised ET — a) | | t Photo: Phot THE DEVASTATION OF MODERN WAR ee eae “ay: . Wire entanglements in the foregroundThe Age of Armament in Europe 413 factories that served them. There was an enormous replacement of men by women in industry. Probably more than half the people in the belligerent countries of Europe changed their employment altogether during this stupendous struggle. They were socially uprooted and transplanted. Education and normal scientific work were restricted or diverted to immediate military ends, and the distribution of news was crippled and corrupted by military control and “propaganda”’ activities. The phase of military deadlock passed slowly into one of aggres- sion upon the combatant populations behind the fronts by the destruction of food supplies and by attacks through the air. And also there was a steady improvement in the size and range of the guns employed and of such ingenious devices as poison-gas shells and the small mobile forts known as tanks, to break down the resistance of troops in the trenches. The air offensive was the most revolutionary of all the new methods. It carried warfare from two dimensions into three. Hitherto in the history of man- kind war had gone on only where the armies marched and met. Now it went on everywhere. First the Zeppelin and then the bombing aeroplane carried war over and past the front to an ever- increasing area of civilian activities beyond. The old distinction maintained in civilized warfare between the civilian and combatant population disappeared. Everyone who grew food, or who sewed a garment, everyone who felled a tree or repaired a house, every railway station and every warehouse was held to be fair game for destruction. The air offensive increased in range and terror with every month in the war. At last great areas of Europe were in a state of siege and subject to nightly raids. Such exposed cities as London and Paris passed sleepless night after sleepless night while the bombs burst, the anti-aircraft guns maintained an intolerable racket, and the fire engines and ambulances rattled headlong through the darkened and deserted streets. The effects upon the minds and health of old people and of young children were particularly dis- tressing and destructive. Pestilence, that old follower of warfare, did not arrive until the very end of the fighting in 1918. For four years medical science staved off any general epidemic; then came a great outbreak ofAIA A Short History of the World influenza about the world which destroyed many millions of people. Famine also was staved off for some time. By the beginning of 1918 however most of Europe was in a state of mitigated and regu- lated famine. The production of food throughout the world had fallen very greatly through the calling off of peasant mankind to the fronts, and the distribution of such food as was produced was impeded by the havoe wrought by the submarine, by the rupture of customary routes through the closing of frontiers, and by the disorganization of the transport system of the world. ‘The various governments took possession of the dwindling food supplies, and, with more or less success, rationed their populations. By the fourth year the whole world was suffering from shortages of clothing and housing and of most of the normal gear of life as well as of food. Business and economic life were profoundly disorganized. Every- one was worried, and most people were leading lives of unwonted discomfort. The actual warfare ceased in November, 1918. After a supreme effort in the spring of 1918 that almost carried the Germans to Paris, the Central Powers collapsed. They had come to an end of their spirit and resources.LXGvr Tort REVOLUTION AND FAMINE IN Russia UT a good year and more before the collapse of the Central Powers the half oriental monarchy of Russia, which had protessed to be the continuation of the Byzantine Empire, had collapsed. The Tsardom had been showing signs of profound rottenness for some years before the war; the court was under the sway of a fantastic religious impostor, Rasputin, and the public administration, civil and military, was in a state of extreme in- efficiency and corruption. At the outset of the war there was a great flare of patriotic enthusiasm in Russia. A vast conscript army was called up, for which there was neither adequate military equip- ment nor a proper supply of competent officers, and this great host, ill supplied and badly handled, was hurled against the German and Austrian frontiers. There can be no doubt that the early appearance of Russian armies in East Prussia in September, 1914, diverted the energies and attention of the Germans from their first victorious drive upon Paris. The sufferings and deaths of scores of thousands of ill-led Russian peasants saved France from complete overthrow in that momentous opening campaign, and made all western Europe the debtors of that great and tragic people. But the strain of the war upon this sprawling, ill-organized empire was too heavy for its strength. The Russian common soldiers were sent into battle without guns to support them, without even rifle ammunition; they were wasted by their officers and generals in a delirium of militarist enthusiasm. For a time they seemed to be suffering mutely as the beasts suffer; but there is a limit to the endurance even of the most ignorant. A profound disgust for Tsardom was creeping through these armies of betrayed and wasted men. From the close of 1915 onward Russia was a source of deepening anxiety to her Western Allies. Throughout 1916 she remained largely on 415416 A Short History of the World the defensive, and there were rumours of a separate peace with Germany. On December 29th, 1916, the monk Rasputin was murdered at a dinner party in Petrograd, and a belated attempt was made to put the Tsardom in order. By March things were moving rapidly; food riots in Petrograd developed into a revolutionary insurrection; there was an attempted suppression of the Duma, the representative body, there were attempted arrests of liberal leaders, the formation of a provisional government under Prince Lvoff, and an abdication (March 15th) by the Tsar. For a time it seemed that a moderate and controlled revolution might be possible — perhaps under anew T'sar. Then it became evident that the destruction of popular confidence in Russia had gone too far for any such adjustments. ‘The Russian people were sick to death of the old order of things in Europe, of Tsars and wars and of Great Powers; it wanted relief, and that speedily, from unendurable miseries. The Allies had no understanding of Russian realities; their diplomatists were ignorant of Russian, genteel persons with their attention directed to the Russian Court rather than to Russia, they blundered steadily with the new situation. There was little goodwill among these diplomatists for republicanism, and a manifest disposition to embarrass the new government as much as possible. At the head of the Russian republican government was an eloquent and picturesque leader, Kerensky, who found himself assailed by the forces of a profounder revolutionary movement, the “social revolution,’ at home and cold-shouldered by the Allied governments abroad. His Allies would neither let him give the Russian peasants the land for which they craved nor peace beyond their frontiers. The French and the British press pestered their exhausted ally for a fresh offensive, but when presently the Germans made a strong attack by sea and land upon Riga, the British Admiralty quailed before the prospect of a Baltic expedition in relief. The new Rus- sian Republic had to fight unsupported. In spite of their naval predominance and the bitter protests of the great English admiral, Lord Fisher (1841-1920), it is to be noted that the British and their Allies, except for some submarine attacks, left the Germans the complete mastery of the Baltic throughout the war.The Russian masses, however The Revolution and Famine in Russia 407 » were resolute to end the war. At any cost. There had come into existence in Petrograd a body representing the workers and common soldie rs, the Soviet, and this body clamoured for an international conference of socialists at Stockholm. Food riots were occurring in Berlin at this time, war weariness in Austria and Germany was profound, and there can be little doubt, in the light of subsequent events, that such a conference would have precipitated a reasonable peace on democratic lines in 1917 and a German revolution. Kerensky implored his Western allies to allow this conference to take place, but, fearful of a world- wide outbreak o Party. the unhappy ‘ “moderate’”’ { socialism and republicanism, they refused, in spite of the favourable response of a small majority of the British Labour Without either moral or physical help from the Allies, Russian Republic still fought on and made a last desperate offensive effort in July. It failed after some preliminary successes, and there came another great slaughtering of Russians. The limit of Russian endurance was reached. Mutinies broke out in the Russian armies, and_ particularly upon the northern front, and on November 7th, 1917, Kerensky’s government was overthrown and power was seized by the Soviets, dominated by the Bolshevik socialists under Lenin, and pledged to make peace regardless of the peace between Russia It speedily b men of a very different Western powers. On March 2nd, 1918, a separate and Germany was signed at Brest-Litovsk. ecame evident that these Bolshevik socialists were and revolutionaries of the Kerensky phase. Marxist communists. quality from the rhetorical constitutionalists They were fanatical They believed that their accession to power in Russia was only the opening of a world-wide social revolution, and they set about changing the social and economic order with the thoroughness of perfect faith and absolute inexperience. The western European and the American governments were themselves much too ill-informed and incapable to guide or help this extraor- dinary experiment, and the press set itself to discredit and the ruling classes to wreck these usurpers upon any terms and at any cost to themselves or to Russia. and disgusting inventions went on unchecked in the press of the A propaganda of abominableBy courtesy 7 Me SSTS. Hodder & Sto ughton A VIEW IN PETERSBURG UNDER BOLSHEVIK RULE A wooden house has been demolished for firewoodThe Revolution and Famine in Russia 419 world; the Bolshevik leaders were repre sented as incredible monsters glutted with blood an | plunder and living lives of sensuality before which the realities of the Tsarist court during the R asputin regime paled to a white purity. Expeditions were launched at the ex- hausted country, insurgents and raiders were encouraged, armed attack was too mean or too mon- strous for the frightened enemies of the Bolshevik regime. In 1919, the Russian Bolsheviks. ruling a country already exhausted and disorganized by five years of intensive warfare, were fighting a British Expedition at Archangel, Japanese invaders in J Siberia, Roumanians with French and Greek and subsidized, and no method of fasten contingents in the south, the Russian Admiral Koltchak in Siberia and General Deni- ken, supported by the French fleet. in the Crimea. In July of that year an Esthonian army, under Genera] Yudenitch, almost got to Petersburg. In 1920 the Poles, incited by the French, made new attack on Russia; and a new Wrangel, took over the task of a reactionary raider, General General Deniken in invading and devastating his own country. In March, 1921, the sailors at Cron- stadt revolted. The Russian Government under its president, Lenin, survived all these various attacks. It showed an amazing tenacity, and the common people of Russia sustained it unswerv- ingly under conditions of extreme hardship. By the end of 1921 both Britain and Italy had made a sort of recognition of the com- munist rule. But if the Bolshevik Government was successful in its struggle against foreign intervention and internal revolt, it was far less happy in its attempts to set up a new social order based upon com- munist ideas in Russia. The Russian peasant is a small land- hungry proprietor, as far from communism in his thoughts and methods as a whale is from flying; the revolution gave him the land of the great landowners but could not make him grow food for anything but negotiable money, and the revolution, among other things, had practically destroyed the value of money. Agricultural production, already greatly disordered by the collapse of the rail- ways through war-strain, shrank to a mere cultivation of food by the peasants for their own consumption. The towns _ starved. Hasty and ill-planned attempts to make over industrial production420 A Short History of the World ‘1 accordance with communist ideas were equally unsuccessful. By 1920 Russia presented the unprecedented spectacle of a modern civilization in complete collapse. Railways were rusting and pass- ing out of use, towns were falling into ruin, everywhere there was an ‘mmense mortality. Yet the country still fought with its enemies at its gates. In 1921 came a drought and a great famine among the peasant cultivators in the war-devastated south-east provinces. Millions of people starved. But the question of the distresses and the possible recuperation of Russia brings us too close to current controversies to be discussed here.setters ern LX VII THe PourticAL AND SocrtaL RECONSTRUCTION OF THE Worup HE scheme and scale upon which this History is planned do not permit us to enter into the complicated and acrimonious disputes that centre about the treaties, and particularly of the treaty of Versailles, which concluded the Great War. We are beginning to realize that that conflict, terrible and enormous as it was, ended nothing, began nothing and settled nothing. It killed millions of people; it wasted and impoverished the world. It smashed Russia altogether. It was at best an acute and frightful reminder that we were living foolishly and confusedly without much plan or foresight in a dangerous and unsympathetic universe. The crudely organized egotisms and passions of national and imperial greed that carried mankind into that tragedy, emerged from it sufficiently unimpaired to make some other similar disaster highly probable so soon as the world has a little recovered from its war exhaustion and fatigue. Wars and revolutions make nothing; their utmost service to mankind is that, in a very rough and painful way, they destroy superannuated and obstructive things. The great war lifted the threat of German imperialism from Europe, and shattered the imperialism of Russia. It cleared away a number of monarchies. But a multitude of flags still waves in Europe, the frontiers still exasperate, great armies accumulate fresh stores of equipment. The Peace Conference at Versailles was a gathering very ill adapted to do more than carry out the conflicts and defeats of the war to their logical conclusions. The Germans, Austrians, Turks and Bulgarians were permitted no share in its deliberations; they were only to accept the decisions it dictated to them. - From the point of view of human welfare the choice of the place of meeting was particularly unfortunate. It was at Versailles in 1871 that, with every circumstance of triumphant vulgarity, the new German 421422 A Short History of the World {mpire had been proclaimed. The suggestion of a melodramatic reversal of that scene, in the same Hall of Mirrors, was overpowering. Whatever generosities had appeared in the opening phases of the Great War had long been exhausted. The populations of the victorious countries were acutely aware of their own losses and sufferings, and entirely regardless of the fact that the defeated had paid in the like manner. The war had arisen as a natural and inevitable consequence of the competitive nationalisms of Europe and the absence of any Federal adjustment of these competitive forces; war is the necessary logical consummation of independent sovereign nationalities living in too small an area with too powerful an armament; and if the great war had not come in the form it did it would have come in some similar form — just as it will cer- tainly return upon a still more disastrous scale in twenty or thirty years’ time if no political unification anticipates and prevents it. States organized for war will make wars as surely as hens will lay eggs, but the feeling of these distressed and war-worn countries dis- regarded this fact, and the whole of the defeated peoples were treated as morally and materially responsible for all the damage, as they would no doubt have treated the victor peoples had the issue of war been different. The French and English thought the Germans were to blame, the Germans thought the Russians, French and English were to blame, and only an intelligent minority thought that there was anything to blame in the fragmentary political constitution of Europe. The treaty of Versailles was intended to be exemplary and vindictive; it provided tremendous penalties for the vanquished; it sought to provide compensations for the wounded and suffering victors by imposing enormous debts upon nations already bankrupt, and its attempts to reconstitute international relations by the establishment of a League of Nations against war were manitestly insincere and inadequate. So far as Europe was concerned it is doubtful if there would have been any attempt whatever to organize international relations for a permanent peace. The proposal of the League of Nations was brought into practical polities by the President of the United States of America, President Wilson. Its chief support was in America. So far the United States, this new modern state, hadThe Political and Social Reconstruction 423 ,7 be % * : Ps io sheet” = ie age ome 2 a ie Seg ; ; = . fae § * a. © ey ee jer gk : “tq so I ie gs ini REE 2 atic ERE PTR Le z i . ‘nt ee fee RR ? “s pi ba ert es 3 rag _ ahextaae ; 4 3 “a -, - - ae ae gto AS Sse et La een re tes ge Pee Ya ly tee? 2 a peace eet Pe PASSENGER AEROPLANE FLYING OVER NORTHOLT developed no distinctive ideas of international relationship beyond the Monroe Doctrine, which protected the new world from European interference. Now suddenly it was called upon for its mental con- tribution to the vast problem of the time. It had none. The natural disposition of the American people was towards a permanent world peace. With this however was linked a strong traditional distrust of old-world politics and a habit of isolation from old-world entanglements. The Americans had hardly begun to think out an American solution of world problems when the submarine cam- paign of the Germans dragged them into the war on the side of the anti-German allies. President Wilson’s scheme of a League of Nations was an attempt at short notice to create a distinctively American world project. It was a sketchy, inadequate and danger- ous scheme. In Europe however it was taken as a matured Ameri- can point of view. The generality of mankind in 1918-19 was intensely weary of war and anxious at almost any sacrifice to erect424 A Short History of the World barriers against its recurrence, but there was not a single govern- ment in the old world willing to waive one iota of its sovereign independence to attain any such end. The public utterances of President Wilson leading up to the project of a World League of Nations seemed for a time to appeal right over the heads of the governments to the peoples of the world; they were taken as ex- pressing the ripe intentions of America, and the response was enormous. Unhappily President Wilson had to deal with govern- ments and not with peoples; he was a man capable of tremendous flashes of vision and yet when put to the test egotistical and limited, and the great wave of enthusiasm he evoked passed and was wasted. Says Dr. Dillon in his book, The Peace Conference: ‘Europe, when the President touched its shores, was as clay ready for the creative potter. Never before were the nations so eager to follow a Moses who would take them to the long-promised land where wars are prohibited and blockades unknown. And to their thinking he was Just that great leader. In France men bowed down before him with awe and affection. Labour leaders in Paris told me that they shed tears of joy in his presence, and that their comrades would go through fire and water to help him to realize his noble schemes. To the working classes in Italy his name was a heavenly clarion at the sound of which the earth would be renewed. The Germans regarded him and his doctrine as their sheet-anchor of safety. The fearless Herr Muehlon said: ‘If President Wilson were to address the Germans, and pronounce a severe sentence upon them, they would accept it with resignation and without a murmur and set to work at once.’ In German-Austria his fame was that of a saviour, and the mere mention of his name brought balm to the suffering and surcease of sorrow to the) afflicteds 4 a Such were the overpowering expectations that President Wilson raised. How completely he disappointed them and how weak and futile was the League of Nations he made is too long and too dis- treesful a story to tell here. He exaggerated in his person our common human tragedy, he was so very great in his dreams and so incapable in his performance. America dissented from the acts of its President and would not join the League I : “urope accepted from him. There was a slow realization on the p art of the AmericanThe Political and Social] Reconstruction 42> people that it had been rushed into something for which it was totally unprepared. There was a corresponding realization on the part of Europe that America had nothing ready to give to the old world in its extremity. Born prematurely and crippled at its birth. that League has become indeed, with its elaborate and unpractical constitution and its manifest limitations of power , 2 serious obstacle in the way of any effective reorganization of international relation- ships. The problem would be a clearer one if the League did not yet exist. Yet that world-wide blaze of enthusiasm that first welcomed the project, that readiness of men everywhere round and about the earth, of men. that j s, as distinguished from govern- ments, for a world control of war, is a thing to be recorded with emphasis in any history. Behind the short-sighted governments that divide and mismanage human affairs. a real force for world unity and world order exists and grows. From 1918 onward the world entered upon an age of conferences. Of these the Conference at Washington called by President Harding (1921) has been the most successful and suggestive. Notable, too, is the Genoa Conference (1922) for the appearance of German and Russian delegates at its deliberations. We will not discuss this long procession of conferences and tentatives in any detail. It becomes more and more clearly manifest that a huge work of re- construction has to be done by mankind if a crescendo of such con- vulsions and world massacres as that of the great war is to be averted. No such hasty improvisation as the League of Nations, no patched-up system of Conferences between this group of states and that, which change nothing with an air of settling everything, will meet the complex political needs of the new age that lies before us. 529. Justinian the schools at had flourished closed Athens, which Chronological Table A.D. 543: 553. 610. 619. 629. 632. 634. 635. 637. 638. 642. 643. 655. 668. 431 nearly a thousand years. Bel- isarilus (Justinian’s general) took Naples. Chosroes I began to reign. Great plague in Constantinople. Goths expelled from Italy by Justinian. Justinian died. The Lombards conquered most of North Italy (leaving Ravenna and Rome Byzantine). Muhammad born. Chosroes I died. (The Lombards dominant in Italy.) Plague raged in Rome. Chos- roes IT began to reign. Heraclius began to reign. Chosroes II held Egypt, Jeru- salem, Damascus, and _ had armies on Hellespont. Tang dynasty began in China. The Hegira. Great Persian defeat at Nineveh by Heraclius. Tai-tsung be- came Emperor of China. Kavadh II murdered and _ suc- ceeded his father, Chosroes IT. Muhammad wrote letters to all the rulers of the earth. Muhammad returned to Mecca. Muhammad died. Abu _ Bekr Caliph. Battle of the Yarmuk. took Syria. Omar Caliph. Tai-tsung received Nestorian mis- slonaries. Battle of Kadessia. Jerusalem surrendered Caliph Omar. Heraclius died. Othman third Caliph. Moslems second to the Defeat of the Byzantine fleet by the Moslems. The Caliph Moawija attacked Constantinople by sea. Pepin of Hersthal, mayor of the palace, reunited Austrasia and Neustria. Moslem army from Africa. invaded Spain432 A.D. ti i ( 810. 814. . 828. ~843. 936. Chronological Table . "15. The domains of the Caliph Walid I extended from the Pyrenees to China. "17-18. Suleiman, son and successor of Walid, failed to take Con- stantinople. Charles Martel defeated the Moslems near Poitiers. Pepin crowned King of the French. Pepin died. Charlemagne sole king. Charlemagne conquered Lom- bardy. Haroun-al-Raschid Abbasid Ca- liph in Bagdad (to 809). Leo III became Pope (to 816). Leo crowned Charlemagne Em- peror of the West. Egbert, formerly an English refugee at the court of Charle- magne, established himself as King of Wessex. Krum of Bulgaria defeated and killed the Emperor Nicephorus. Charlemagne died. Egbert became first King of England. Louis the Pious died, and the Carlovingian Empire went to pieces. Until 962 there was no regular succession of Holy Roman Emperors, though the title appeared intermittently. About this time Rurik (a North- man) became ruler of Novgo- rod and Kieff. Boris first Christian Bulgaria (to 884). The fleet of the Russians (North- King of men) threatened Constanti- nople. Russian (Northmen) fleet off Constantinople. Rolf the Ganger established him- self in Normandy. Henry the Fowler elected King~ of Germany. Otto I became King of Germany in succession to his father, Henry the Fowler. A.D. 941. 962. 987. 1016. 1043. 1066. 1071. 1073. 1084. Russian fleet again threatened Constantinople. Otto I, King of Germany, crowned Emperor (first Saxon Emperor) by John XII. Hugh Capet became King of France. End of the Car- lovingian line of French kings. Canute became King of Eng- land, Denmark and Norway. Russian fleet threatened Con- stantinople. Conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy. Revival of Islam under the Seljuk Turks. Battle of Melasgird. Hildebrand became Pope (Greg- ory VII) to 1085. Robert Guiscard, the Norman, sacked Rome. 1087-99. Urban II Pope. 1095. —1096. 1099. “1147. 1169. 1176. 1187. “1189. 1198. “1202. 1204. 1214. 1226. 1227. Aw Aw 1240. ~1228. Urban II at Clermont moned the First Crusade. Massacre of the People’s Cru- sade. Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem. The Second Crusade. Saladin Sultan of Egypt. Frederick Barbarossa acknowl- edged supremacy of the Pope (Alexander IIT) at Venice. Saladin captured Jerusalem. The Third Crusade. Innocent III Pope (to 1216). Frederick II (aged four), King of Sicily, became his ward. The Fourth Crusade attacked the Eastern Empire. Capture of Constantinople by the Latins. Jengis Khan took Pekin. St. Francis of Assisi died. Franciscans.) Jengis Khan died, Khan from the Caspian to the Pacific, and was succeeded by Ogdai Khan. Frederick II embarked upon the Sixth Crusade, and acquired Jerusalem. Mongols destroyed Kieff. Russia tributary to the Mongols. sum- (TheA.D. 1241. 1250. 1251. 1258. 1260. 1261. 1273. ~ 1280. 1992. 1293. 1348. ~™~1360. 1398. 1414-18. The 1417. 1453. 1480. 1481. ~ 1486. 1492. 1493. Mongol victory at Liegnitz in Silesia. Frederick II, the last Hohen- staufen Emperor, died. Ger- man interregnum until 1273. Mangu Khan became Great Khan. Kublai Khan governor of China. Hulagu Khan took and destroyed Bagdad. Kublai Khan became Great Khan. The Greeks recaptured Con- stantinople from the Latins. Rudolf of Habsburg elected Em- peror. The Swiss formed their Everlasting League. Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty in China. Death of Kublai Khan. Roger Bacon, the prophet of experimental science, died. The Great Plague, the Black Death. In China the Mongol (Yuan) dynasty fell, and was suc- ceeded by the Ming dynasty (to 1644). Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome. The Great Schism. Urban VI in Rome, Clement VII at Avignon. Huss preached Wycliffism at Prague. Council of Constance. Huss burnt (1415). The Great Schism ended. Ottoman Turks under Muham- mad II took Constantinople. Ivan II, Grand Duke of Moscow, threw off the Mongol alle- glance. Death of the Sultan Muham- mad II while preparing for the conquest of Italy. Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope. Columbus crossed the Atlantic to America. Maximilian I became Emperor. Chronological A.D. 1498. 1499. 1500. 1509. 1513. 1515, 1520. 1558. 1566. 1603. “1620. 1625. 1626. 1643. 1644. 1648. Table iS Ww I] Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape to India. Switzerland became pendent republic. Charles V born. Henry VIII King of England. Leo X Pope. Francis I King of France. Suleiman the Magnificent, Sul- tan (to 1566), who ruled from Bagdad to Hungary. Charles V Emperor. Baber won the battle of Panipat, captured Delhi, and founded the Mogul Empire. The German troops in Italy, under the Constable of Bour- bon, took and pillaged Rome. Suleiman besieged Vienna. Charles V crowned by the Pope. Henry VIII began his quarrel with the Papacy. The Society of Jesus founded. Martin Luther died. Ivan IV (the Terrible) took the title of Tsar of Russia. Charles V abdicated. Akbar, Great Mogul (to 1605). Ipg- natius of Loyola died. Death of Charles V. Suleiman the Magnificent died. James I King of England and Scotland. Mayflower expedition New Plymouth. slaves landed (Va.). Charles I of England. Sir Francis Bacon (Lord Veru- lam) died. Louis XIV began his reign of seventy-two years. The Manchus ended the Ming dynasty. Treaty of Westphalia. There- by Holland and Switzerland were recognized as free re- publics and Prussia became important. The treaty geve a complete victory neither to the Imperial Crown nor to the Princes. an inde- founded First negro at Jamestown434 A.D. 1648. 1649. 1658. 1660. ~ 1674. 1683. 1689. 1701. 1707. 1713. 1715. Chronological Table War of the Fronde; it ended in the complete victory of the French crown. Execution of Charles I of Eng- land. Aurungzeb Great Mogul. Crom- well died. Charles II of England. Nieuw Amsterdam finally be- came British by treaty and was renamed New York. The last Turkish attack on Vienna defeated by John III of Poland. Peter the Great of Russia. (To 1725.) Frederick I first King of Prussia. Death of Aurungzeb. The em- pire of the Great Mogul dis- integrated. Frederick the Great of Prussia born. Louis XV of France. ~1755-63. Britain and France struggled 1788. 41789. for America and India. France in alliance with Austria and Russia against Prussia and Britain (1756-63); the Seven Years’ War. The British general, Wolfe, took Quebec. George III of Britain. Peace of Paris: Canada ceded to Britain. British dominant in India. Napoleon Bonaparte born. Louis XVI began his reign. Declaration of Independence by the United States of America. Treaty of Peace between Britain and the new United States of America. . The Constitutional Convention of Philadelphia set up the Federal Government of the United States. France dis- covered to be bankrupt. First Federal Congress of the United States at New York. The French States-General as- sembled. Storming of the Bastille. A.D. 1791. 1792. 1793. 1794. 1799. 1804. 1806. 1808. 1810, 1812, 1814. 1824. 1825. 1827. 1829. 1830. Flight to Varennes. France declared war on Austria: Prussia declared war _ on France. Battle of Valmy. ~France became a republic. Louis XVI beheaded. Execution of Robespierre and end of the Jacobin republic. The Directory. Bonaparte sup- pressed a revolt and went to Italy as commander-in-chief. Bonaparte went to Egypt. Battle of the Nile. Bonaparte returned to France. He became First Consul with enormous powers. Bonaparte became Emperor. Francis II took the title of Emperor of Austria in 1805, and in 1806 he dropped the title of Holy Roman Emperor. So the ‘‘Holy Roman Empire” came to an end. Prussia overthrown at Jena. Napoleon made _ his _ brother Joseph King of Spain. Spanish America became re- publican. Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow. Abdication of Napoleon. Louis XVIII. Charles X of France. Nicholas I of Russia. First railway, Stockton to Dar- lington. Battle of Navarino. Greece independent. A year of disturbance. Louis Philippe ousted Charles X. Belgium broke away from Holland. Leopold of Saxe- Coburg-Gotha became king of this new country, Belgium, Russian Poland revolted in- effectually. . The word “‘socialism”’ first used. -. Queen Victoria. . Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. . Napoleon III Emperor of the French. 1854-56. Crimean War.A.D. 1856. 1861. 1865. 1870. 1871. 1878. 1888. Alexander II of Russia. Victor Emmanuel First King of Italy. (Abraham Lincoln became President, U. S. A. The American Civil War began. Surrender of Appomattox Court House. Japan opened to the world. Napoleon III declared war against Prussia. Paris surrendered (January). The King of Prussia became ““German Emperor.” The Peace of Frankfort. The Treaty of Berlin. The Armed Peace of forty-six year: began in western Europe. Frederick II (March), William If (June), German Emperors. Chronological 2 Table 4 A.D. 1912. China became a republic. 1914. The Great War in Europe be- gan. The two Russian revolutions. Establishment of the Bolshevik regime in Russia. The Armistice. First meeting of the League of Nations, from which Germany, Austria, Russia and Turkey were excluded and at which the United States was not repre- sented. The Greeks, incomplete disregard of the League of Nations, make war upon the Turks. Great defeat of the Greeks in Asia Minor by the Turks. L917. 1918. 1920. 1921. 1922.INDEXA ABOLITIONIST movement, 384 Abraham the Patriarch, 116 Abu Bekr, 249, 252, 431 Abyssinia, 398 Actium, battle of, 195 Adam and Eve, 116 Adams, William, 400 Aden, 405 Adowa, battle of, 398 Adrianople, 229 Adrianople, Treaty of, 353 Adriatic Sea, 178, 228 gatian Isles, 182 gean peoples, 92, Kolic Greeks, 108, Aeroplanes, 4, 363 Eschylus, 139 Afghanistan, 163 Africa, 72, 92, 122, Africa, Central, 397 Africa, North, 65, 94, 180, 192, 232, 397, 431 Africa, South, 72, 335, 398, 405 Africa, West, 393 **Age of Confusion,”’ the, 168, 173 Agriculturalists, primitive, 66, 68 Agriculture, 203; slaves in, 203 Ahab, 119 Air-breathing vertebrata, 23, 24 Air-raids, 413 Aix-la-Chapelle, 265 Akbar, 29%, 332, 433 Akkadian and Akkadians, 90, 122, 429 Alabama, 385 Alabama, the, 388 Alani, 227, 430 Alaric, 230, 232, 431 Albania, 179 Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Prince Con- sort), 434 Alchemists, 257, 294 Aldebaran, 257 Alemanni, 200, 431 Alexander I, Tsar, 348 Alexander II of Russia, 435 Alexander III, Pope, 274, 432 Alexander the Great, 142, 146 et seq., 163, 186, 240, 299, 430 94, 100, 108, 117, 174 130 , 413 123, 182, 253, 258, 302 292, 394, INDEX Alexandretta, 147 Alexandria, 147, 151, 209, 222, 239 Alexandria, library at, 151 Alexandria, museum of, 150, 180 Alexius Comnenus, 268 Alfred the Great, 263 Alge, 13 Algebra, 257 Algiers, 185 Algol, 257 Allah, 252 Alligators, 28 Alphabets, 79, 127 Alps, the, 37, 197 Alsace, 200, 309, 391 Aluminium, 360 Amenophis III, 96, 429 Amenophis IV, 96 America, 263, 302, 309, 314, 324, 335, 336, 4.22-+23, 434 America, North, 12, 330, 336, 382 American Civil War, 386, 435 American civilizations, primitive, 73 et seq. American warships in Japanese waters, 402 Ammonites, 30, 36 Amorites, 90 Amos, the prophet, 124 Amphibia, 24 Amphitheatres, 208 Amur, 334 Anagni, 284 Anatomy, 24, 355 Anaxagoras, 138 Anaximander of Miletus, 132 Andes, 37 Angles, 230 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 405 Animals. (See Mammalia) Annam, 402 Anti-aircraft guns, 413 Antigonus, 149 Antioch, 243, 271, 43 Antiochus III, 183 Anti-Slavery Society, 384 Antoninus Pius, 195, 430 Antony, Mark, 194 Antwerp, 294 Anubis, 210 Apes, 43, 44; anthropoid, 45 439 , 282440 Index Apis, 209, 211 Apollonius, 151 Appian Way, 191 Appomattox Court House, 388, 435 Aquileia, 235 Arabia, 77, 88, 91, 122, 123, 248 Arabic figures, 257 Arabic language, 243 Arabs, 253 et seq., 294; culture of, 267 Arbela, battle of, 147, 431 Arcadius, 230, 431 Archangel, 419 Archimedes, 151 Ardashir I, 241, 430 Argentine Republic, 396 Arians, 224 Aristocracy, 130 Aristotle, 142, 144, 146, 256, 282, 294, 295, 356, 370 Armadillo, 74 Armenia, 192, 268, 287, 299 Armenians, 100, 108 Armistice, the, 435 Arno, the, 178 Arsacid dynasty, 199, 431 Artizans, 152 Aryan language, 95, 100, 106 Aryans, 95, 104 ef seq., 122, 128, 151, 174, 176, 185, 197, 198, 233, 303, 429 Ascalon, 117 Asceticism, 158-60, 213 Ashdod, 117 Asia, 72, 197, 227, 287, 298, 329 ef seq., 338, 399 et seq., 403 et seq., 430 Asia, Central, 108, 122, 134, 148, 185, 245- 247, 255, 334. Asia Minor, 92, 94, 108, 127, 134, 148, 180, 192-93, 238, 243, 258, 271, 292, 429, 430, 431 Asia, Western, 65 Asoka, King, 163 et seq., 180, 430 Assam, 394 Asses, 77, 83, 102, 112 Assurbanipal (Sardanapalus), 97, 98, 109, 110 Assyria, 109, 115, 119, 121, 122, 429 Assyrians, 84, 96, 97, 98, 108, 429 Astronomy, early, 70, 74 Athanasian Creed, 224 Athenians, 135 Athens, 129, 135-36, 139, 150, 185, 204, 431 Athens, schools of philosophy in, 238 Atkinson, C. F., 345 Atkinson, J. J., 61, 373 Atlantic, 122, 302 Attalus, 430 Attila, 234, 235, 238, 431 Augsburg, Interim of, 313 Augustus Cesar, Roman Emperor, 195, 214 Aurelian, Emperor, 200 | Aurochs, 197 | Aurungzeb, 434 | Ausculum, battle of, 178, 430 Australia, 72, 322, 336, 395, 405 Austrasia, 431 | Austria, 309, 327, 347-48, 349-52, 390, 411, 434 | Austrian Empire, 409 | Austrians, 344, 35 | Automobiles, 362 Avars, 289 | Avebury, 106 Averroes, 282 Avignon, 285, 433 Axis of earth, 1, 2 Azilian age, 57, 65 Azilian rock pictures, 57, 78 Azoic rocks, 11 Azores, 302 B BasEr, 290, 310, 332, 433 Baboons, 43 Babylon, 90, 94, 96, 97, 101, 102, 111, 112; 114, 115-16, 119, 121, 122, 134, 147, 148, 373, 429 Babylonian calendar, 68 Babylonian Empire, 90, 91, 109, 110 Babylonians, 108 Bacon, Roger, 295-97, 43: Bacon, Sir Francis, 321, 355. 433 Bagdad, 256, 267, 290, 292, 432, 433 Bahamas, 407 Baldwin of Flanders, 272 | Balkan peninsula, 108, 200, 230, 392, 429 Balkh, 299 | Balloons, altitude attained by, 4 Baltic, 415 Baltic Fleet, Russian, 404 Baluchistan, 405 Barbarians, 227 et seq., 230, 320 Barbarossa, Frederick. (See Frederick I) Bards, 106, 234 Barrows, 104 Barter, 83, 102 Basketwork, 65 Basle, Council of, 305 Basque race, 92, 107 Bastille, 342, 434 Basutoland, 407 Beaconsfield, Lord, 394 Bedouins, 122, 248 Beetles, 26 Behar, 180, 430 Behring Straits, 52, 71, 73 Bel Marduk, 109, 111, 112, 114 Belgium, 185, 344, 347, 352, 411, 434 Belisarius, 43 Belshazzar, 112Beluchistan, 149 Benares, 156, 160 Beneventum, 179 Berbers, 71, 92 Bergen, 294 Berlin, Treaty of, 435 Bermuda, 407 Bessemer process, 359 Beth-shan, 118 Bible, 1, 68, 100, 112, 115, 116, 119, 121, 122, 184, 286, 298, 306-07. (Cf. Hebrew Bible) Birds, flight of, 4; the earliest, 31; develop ment of, 32 Bison, 56 Black Death, the, 433 Black Sea, 71, 94-95, 108, 129, 200 Blood sacrifice, 167, 186, 212. Sacrifice) Boats, 91, 136 Boer republic, 187 Boers, 398 Bohemia, 236, 306 Bohemians, 304-05, 326 Bokhara, 256 Boleyn, Anne, 313 Bolivar, General, 349 Bologna, 295, 312 Bolsheviks (and Bolshevism), 417-19, 435 Bone carvings, 53 Bone implements, 45, 46 Boniface VIII, Pope, 283-84 “Book religions,” 226 Books, 153, 298, 302 Boétes, 257 Boris, King of Bulgaria, 432 Bosnia, 228 Bosphorus, 135 Boston, 337-38 Bostra, 243 Botany Bay, 393 Bourbon, Constable of, 312, 433 Bowmen, 145, 155, 300 Brahmins and Brahminism, 165, 166 Brain, 42 Brazil, 329, 336, 340 Breathing, 24 Brest-Litovsk, 417 Britain, 106, 122, 174, 185, 203, 236, 349, 353, 402, 431, 434. (See also England, Great Britain) British, 329, 331 British Civil Air Transport Commission, 363 British East Indian Company. (See East India Company) British Empire, 407; 1914) 405 British Guiana, 393 British Navy, 408 ‘British schools,” the, 369 (See also (in 1815) 393; (in Index Brittany, 309 Broken Hill, South Africa, 52 Bronze, 80, 87, 102, 104 Bruges, 294 Brussels, 344 Brythonic Celts, 107 Buda-Pesth, 312 Buddha, 133, 156, 172, 213, 429: 158; his teaching, 161-62 Buddhism (and Buddhists), 166, 172, 22¢ 2504 200) o19s Sony BO! é Buddha) Bulgaria, 135, 229, 245, 292, 411, 432 Bull fights, Cretan, 93 Burgoyne, General, 338 Burgundy, 309, 342 Burial, early, 102, 104 Burleigh, Lord, 324 Burma, 166, 300, 405 Burning the dead, 104 Bury, J. B., 288 Bushmen, 54 Byzantine Army, 253 Byzantine Empire, 238, 271-72 Byzantine fleet, 431 Byzantium, 228, 243, 267, 268. Constantinople) life of, (See also C CaBuL, 148 Cesar, Augustus, 430 Cesar, Julius, 187, 192, 193, 194, 195, 430 Cesar, title, etc., 212, 223, 240, 327 Cainozoic period, 37 et seq. Cairo, 256 Calendar, 68 Calicut, 329 California, 336, 383 Caligula, 195, 430 Caliphs, 252 ““Cambulac,”’ 300 Cambyses, 112, 134 Camels, 42, 102, 112, 196, 319 Campanella, 371 Canaan, 116 Canada, 332, 396, 405, 434 Canary Islands, 302 Cannze, 182 Canossa, 274 Canton, 247 Canute, 263, 432 Cape Colony, 398 Cape of Good Hope, 336, 393, 433 Capet, Hugh, 266, 432 Carboniferous age. (See Coal swamps) Cardinals, 277 et seq. Caria, 98 Carians, 94 Caribou, 73 Carlovingian Empire, 432442 Index Carnac, 106 Carolinas, 388 Carrhe, 194 Chronicles, book of, 116, 119 | Chronology, primitive, 68 Ch’u, 173 Carthage, 92, 122, 123, 134, 176, 179, 182, | Church, the, 68 183, 185, 232, 429-30, 431 Carthaginians, 179, 182 | Cicero, 193 Cilicia, 299 Caspian Sea, 71, 88, 108, 148, 193, 197, 430 | Cimmerians, 100 Caste, 157, 165 Catalonians, 302 “‘Cathay,”’ 300 Catholicism, 237, 337, 351. (See also Papacy, Roman Catholic) Cato, 187 Cattle, 77, 83 Caudine Forks, 430 Cavalry, 145, 148, 178 Cave drawings, 53, 56 Caxton, William, 306 Celibacy, 275 Celts, 106, 107, 193 Centipedes, 23 Ceylon, 165, 407 Cheeronia, battle of, 145, 146, 430 Chalcedon, 243 Chaldean Empire, 109 Chaldeans, 109, 110-11, 115, 429 Chandragupta, 163, 430 Chariots, 96, 100, 101-02, 112, 119, 145, 148 Charlemagne, 259, 261, 264-65, 272, 309, 432 Charles I, King of England, 308, 324, 433 Charles II, King of England, 324, 434 Charles V, Emperor, 309, 310, 314, 316, 433 Charles X, King of France, 350, 434 Charles the Great. (See Charlemagne) Charlotte Dundas, steamboat, 357 Chelonia, 27 Chemists, Arab, 257. (Cf. Alchemists) Cheops, 83 Chephren, 83 | China, 76, 84, 103, 166, 167 et seq., 1738, 174, | 233, 245 et seg., 248, 287, 290, 297, 333, | 399-400, 402-03, 411, 429-31, 432. 433, 435. (See also Chow, Han, Kin, Ming, | Shang, Sung, Suy, Ts’in, and Yuan dynasties) China, culture and civilization in, 247 China, Empire of, 196 et seq. China, Great Wall of, 173, 430 China, North, 173 Chinese picture writing, 79, 167 Chosroes I, 243, 431 Chosroes IT, 243, 431 Chow dynasty, 168, 173, 429 Christ. (See Jesus) Christian conception of Jesus, 214 Christianity (and Christians), 224, 255, 272. 295, 319, 400, 431 Christianity, doctrinal, development of, 222 et seq. Christianity, spirit of, 224 or ~“ > « | Circumcision, 70 Circumnavigation, 302 Cities, Sumerian, 78 Citizenship, 187 et seq., 236, 237 City states, Greek, 129 et seq.; Chinese, 168 Civilization, 100 Civilization, Hellenic, 189, 150 et seq. Civilization, Japanese, 400 ‘ivilization, pre-historic, 71 ‘ivilization, primitive, 76, 167 ‘ivilization, Roman, 185 ‘laudius, Emperor, 195, 430 Clay documents, 77, 80, 111 Clement V, Pope, 285 Clement VII, Pope, 285, 433 Cleopatra, 194 Clermont, 432 Clermont, steamboat, 358 Climate, changes of, 21, 37 Clive, 333 Clothing, 77 | Clothing of Cretan women, 93 Clouds, 8 Clovis, 259 | Clyde, Firth of, 357 Cnossos (Crete), 92, 94, 95, 101, 108, 1927, 429 Coal, 26 Coal swamps, the age of, 21 ef seq. Coinage, 114, 176, 201, 319 Coke, 322 Collectivists, 375 Colonies, 394 et seq., 407 Columbus, Christopher, 300-01 et seq., 335, 433 Communism (and Communists), 374-75, 417 Comnenus, Alexius. (See Alexius) Comparative anatomy, science of, 25. (Cf. Anatomy) Concord, Mass., 338 Confederated States of America. 385 Confucius, 133, 168 et seq., 173, 429 Congo, 397 Conifers, 26, 36 Constance, Council of, 286, 304, 433 Constantine the Great, 187, 226, 228, 229, 241, 429, 43] Constantinople 229, 238, 239, 243, 253, 258, 263-64, 270 et seq., 272, 283, 292. 301, 321, 327, 431, 432, 433. (See also By- zantium) Consuls, Roman, 193 SNCopper, 74, 80, 102, 360, 395 Cordoba, 256 Corinth, 129 Cornwallis, General, 338 Corsets, 93 Corsica, 182, 185, 232 Cortez, 314 Cossacks, 334 Cotton fabrics, 102 Couvade, the, 70 Crabs, 23 Crassus, 192, 194, 199 Creation of the world, story of, 1, 116 Creed religions, 240 Cretan script, 94 Crete, 92, 108 Crimea, 419 Crimean War, 390, 434 Crocodiles, 28 Croesus, 111, 429 Cro-Magnon race, 51, 54, 65 Cromwell, Oliver, 434 Cronstadt, 419 Crucifixion, 204 Crusades, 267 et seg., 281, 304-05, 432 Crustacea, 13 Ctesiphon, 244 Cuba, 393 Cultivation, the beginnings of, 65 et seq. Culture, Heliolithic, 69 Culture, Japanese, 402 Cuneiform, 78 Currents, 18 Cyaxares, 109-10, 429 'yeads, 26, 36 Cyrus the Persian, 111, 116, 121, 123, 134, 429 ‘zech language, 236 ‘zecho-Slovaks, 351 Czechs, 304 D Dacta, 195, 200, 203, 227, 236 Deedalus, 94 Dalmatia, 431 Damascus, 243, 253, 431 Danes, 329, 330 Danube, 135, 200, 227, 430 Dardanelles, 136, 147, 292 Darius I, 112, 134, 135, 136, 429 Darius III, 147, 148, 430 Darlington, 356, 434 David, King, 118-19, 429 Da Vinci, Leonardo, 356 Davis, Jefferson, 385, 388 Dawn Man. (See Eoanthropus) Dead, burning the, 104; burial of (see Burial) Debtors’ prisons, 336 Deciduous trees, 36 Index Decius, Emperor, 200, 432 Declaration of Independence, 334, 434 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Gib- bon’s), 288-89 Deer, 42, 56 Defender of the Faith, title of, 313 Defoe, Daniel, 365 Delhi, 292, 433 Democracy, 131, 132, 270 Deniken, General, 419 Denmark, 306, 313, 394, 432 Deshima, 401 Devonian system, 19 Diaz, 433 Dictator, Roman, 194 Dillon, Dr., 424 Dinosaurs, 28, 31, 36 Diocletian, Emperor, 224, 226, 227 Dionysius, 170 Diplodocus Carnegii, measurement of, 28 Diseases, infectious, 379 Ditchwater, animal and plant life in, 13 Dogs, 42 Domazlice, battle of, 305 Dominic, St., 276 Dominican Order, 276, 285, 400 Dorian Greeks, 108, 130 Douglas, Senator, 386 Dover, Straits of, 193 Dragon flies, 23 Drama, Greek, 139 Dravidian civilization, 108 Dravidians, 71 Duck-billed platypus, 34 Duma, the, 416 Durazzo, 268 Dutch, 329, 331, 332, 399 Dutch Guiana, 394 Dutch Republic, 350 Dyeing, 75 E Eartn, the, shape of, 1; rotation of, 1; dis- tance from sun, 2; age and origin of, 5; surface of, 21 Earthquakes, 95 East India Company, 332, 337, 393, 394 East Indies, 394, 399 Ebro, 182 Ecbatana, 109, 114 Echidna, the, 34 Eclipses, 8 Ecnomus, battle of, 181, 430 Economists, French, 371 Edessa, 271 Education, 294, 361, 368, 369 Egbert, King of Wessex, 263, 432 Egg-laying mammals, 34 Eggs, 24, 26, 31, 102444 Index Egypt (and Egyptians), 71, 78, 90, 91, 92, 96, 98, 100-101, 115, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 134, 138, 147, 174, 208, 209, 210, 238, 253, 267, 290, 292, 396, 398, 405, 429, 431, 434 Egyptian script, 78, 79 Elamites, 88, 90, 174 Elba, 348 Electric light, 360 Electric traction, 360 Electricity, 322, 358, 360 Elephants, 42, 127, 149, 178, 181, 253, 300 Elixir of life, 257 Elizabeth, Queen, 324, 332 Emigration, 336 Emperor, title of, 327 Employer and employed, 375 ““Encyclopzdists,”’ the, 371 England (and English), 306, 390, 431 England, Norman Conquest of, 266 England, overseas possessions, 330 English Channel, 331 English language, 95 Entelodonts, 42 Eoanthropus, 47 Eoliths, 45 Ephesus, 149 Ephthalites, 199 Epics, 106, 127, 129, 131 Epirus, 131, 178, 179 Epistles, the, 222 Eratosthenes, 151 Erech, Sumerian city of, 78 Esarhaddon, 429 Essenes, 213 Esthonia, 245 Esthonians, 419 Ethiopian dynasty, 429 Ethiopians, 96, 233 Etruscans, 94, 100, 176, 430 Euclid, 151 {uphrates, 77, 110, 127, 129, 174, 196, 429, 430 {uripides, 139 Europe, 200 Europe, Central, 329 {urope, Concert of, 350 Europe, Western, 53, 298 {uropean overseas populations, 336 Europeans, intellectual revival of, 294 et seq. Europeans, North Atlantic, 329 “uropeans, Western, 329 iverlasting League, 433 Evolution, 16, 42 {¢xcommunication, 275, 281, 285 Execution, Greek method of, 140 Ezekiel, 124 F Factory system, 365 Family groups, 61 Famine, 420 Faraday, 358 Fashoda, 398 Fatherhood of God, the, 215, 224, 251 Fear, 61 Feathers, 32 Ferdinand of Aragon, King, 293, 302, 309 Ferns, 23, 26 Fertilizers, 363 Fetishism, 63, 64 Feudal system, 258, 400, 401, 402 Fielding, Henry, 365 Fiji, 407 Finance, 134 Finland, 245 Finns, 351 Fish, the age of, 16 et seq.; the first known vertebrata, 19; evolution of, 30 Fisher, Lord, 416 Fishing, 57 Fleming, Bishop, 286 Flint implements, 44, 47 Flood, story of the, 91, 116 Florence, 294 Florentine Society, 322 Florida, 336, 385 Flying machines, 94, 363 Fontainebleau, 348 Food, rationing of, 414 Food riots, 417 Forests, 56, 197 Fossils, 13, 43. (Cf. Rocks) Fowl, the domestic, 88, 102 France, 106, 185, 230, 259, 263, 312, 336. 342, 353, 390, 391, 394, 396, 402, 409, 411, 434 Francis I, King of France, 310, 312, 313, 433 Francis II, Emperor of Austria, 434 Francis of Assisi, St., 276, 432 Franciscan Order, 276, 285, 432 Frankfort, Peace of, 391, 435 Franks, 200, 227, 235, 259, 265, 431 Frazer, Sir J. G., 66 Frederick I (Barbarossa), 274, 432 Frederick I, King of Prussia, 434 Frederick IT, German Emperor, 279, 280 et seq., 288, 289, 294, 304, 435 Frederick II, King of Sicily, 432 Frederick the Great of Prussia, 327, 434 Freeman’s Farm, 338 French, 329, 331, 332, 419 French Guiana, 394 French language, 203, 327, 328, 419 French Revolution, 342 et seq., 374 Frogs, 24 Fronde, war of the, 434 Fulton, Robert, 358 Furnace, blast, 359; electric, 359 Furs, 335GaALatTtA, 430 Galatians, 193 Galba, 430 Galerius, Emperor, 226, 431 Galleys, 91, 92, 181, 263 Galvani, 358 Gama, Vasco da, 329, 335, 433 Ganges, 156 Gath, 117 Gaul, 203, 235, 236, 357, 431 Gauls, 154, 178, 179, 180, 182, 193, 430 Gautama. (See Buddha) Gaza, 117, 147 Gaztelu, 314 Genoa (and Genoese), 294, 300, 301, 302 Genoa Conference, 425 Genseric, 232 Geology, 11 et seq., 356 George III, King of England, 324, 337, 434 Georgia, 336, 339, 385, 387 German Empire, 409 German language, 95, 236, 260 Germans, 268, 288, 310, 351, 360-61, 362 Germany, 197, 326, 347, 348, 362, 390, 396, 402, 409, 410, 411 Germany, North, 306 Gibbon, E., 234, 288 Gibraltar, 71, 92, 94, 253, 393, 407 Gigantosaurus, measurement of, 28 Gilbert, Dr., 322 Gilboa, Mount, 118 Gills, 24 Giraffes, 42 Gizeh, pyramids at, 83 Glacial Ages, 22, 37, 44 Gladiators, 205 Glass, 102 Glyptodon, 74 Goa, 329 Goats, 77 God, idea of one true, 249 God of Judaism, 123, 209, 213, 214, 215 Godfrey of Bouillon, 432 Gods, 111, 123, 129, 165, 184, 186, 201 ef seq., 208 et seq., 240 Goidelic Celts, 106 Gold, 74, 80, 83, 102, 300, 395 Golden Bough, Frazer's, 66 Good Hope, Cape of. (See Cape) Gospels, the, 214 et seq., 222 Gothic kingdom, 259 Gothland, 197, 200 Goths, 181, 200, 227, 228, 430, 431 Granada, 293, 301 Granicus, battle of the, 146, 430 Grant, General, 387, 388 Graphite, 15 Grass, 37, 51 Great Britain, 396, 410 Index Great Mogul, Empire of, 394, 434 Great Powers, 399 et seq. Great Schism. (See Papal schism) Great War, the, 411 et seq., 421, 435 Greece, 92, 94, 108, 127, 139 et seq., 145 et seq., 434 Greece, war with Persia, 134 et seq. Greek language, 95, 202, 203 Greeks, 92, 100, 101, 108, 122 ef seq., 135, 150; 174, 186; 271, 272, SOL. 353: 419 429, 430, 433 Greenland, 263 Gregory I, Pope, 272 Gregory VII, Pope (Hildebrand), 268, 272, Q74, 275, 278, 432 Gregory IX, Pope, 281 Gregory XI, Pope, 285, 433 Gregory the Great, 272 Grimaldi race, 51, 54, 65 Guillotine, the, 346 Guiscard, Robert, 432 Gunpowder, 287, 321 Guns, 321, 413 Gustavus Adolphus, 331 Gymnastic displays, Cretan, 93 H Hasssures, 283, 309, 310 Hadrian, 174, 430 Halicarnassus, 138 Hamburg, 294 Hamitic people, 71 Hammurabi, 90, 92, 104, 429 Han dynasty, 196, 200, 245, 430 Hannibal, 182 Hanover, Elector of, 327 Harding, President, 425 Harold Hardrada, 266 Harold, King of England, 266 Haroun-al-Raschid, 267, 432 Hastings, battle of, 266 Hastings, Warren, 333 Hatasu, Queen of Egypt, 96 Hathor, 209 Heaven, Kingdom of, 216, 217 Hebrew Bible, 1, 115, 116. (Cf. Bible) Hebrew literature, 100 Hebrews, 100, 115. (See also Jews) Hegira, 431 Heidelberg man, 45 Heliolithie culture, 69, 71, 167, 174 Heliolithic peoples, 107 Hellenic tribes, 100. (See also Greeks) Hellespont, 430, 431 Helots, 130, 203 Hen. (See Fowl) Henry IV, King, 274 Henry VI, Emperor, 279 Henry VIII, King of England, 310, 312, 313, 324, 433446 Index Henry the Fowler, 265, 432 Heraclea, battle of, 178, 430 Heraclitus of Ephesus, 132, 156, 161 Heraclius, Emperor, 243, 247, 253, 431 Herat, 148 Herbivorous reptiles, 28 Hercules, Pillars of. (See Gibraltar) Hero, 151, 152 Herodotus, 138, 139 Herophilus, 151 Hiero, 182 Hieroglyphics, 79, 124 Hildebrand. (See Gregory VII ) Himalayas, the, 37 Hipparchus, 151 Hippopotamus, 43 Hiram, King of Sidon, 118, 119, 122 History of Charles V, 316 Hittites, 96, 97, 98, 108 Hohenstaufens, 283 Holland, 306, 344, 347, 394, 396, 402, 433, 134 Holstein, 351 Holy Alliance, 349 Holy Roman Empire, 264, 347, 377, 409, 432, 434 Homer, 129 Honorius, 230, 43 Honorius III, Pope, 281 Horse, 51, 56, 94, 96, 97, 112, 167, 319, 336; evolution of the, 42 Horsetails, 23 Horus, 209, 210, 211 Hottentots, 54 Hsia, 287 Hudson Bay Company, 393 Hudson River, 358 Hulagu Khan, 290, 433 Human sacrifice, 182, 186. (Cf. Blood Sac- rifice, Sacrifice) Hungarians, 263, 289, Hungary, 185, 203, 2 290, 292, 310, 31 Hungary, plain of, 234 Huns, 88, 167, 168, 174, 197, 198, 227, 232, 233, 245, 203, 289, 431 Hunting, 56 Huss, John, 304, 433 Hussites, 305 Hwang-ho river, 173 Hwang-ho valley, 300 Hyksos, 90, 96 Hyracodons, 42 Hystaspes, 430 309% Sie 323: a7 "245, 258, 263, 289, 2, 351 IBERIANS, 71, 92 Ice age, 43. (Cf. Glacial ages) Iceland, 263 Ichthyosaurs, 29, 36 Ignatius of Le yyola, St., 308, 434 Iliad, 127 Illinois, 386 Illyria, 179, 182 Immolation of human beings, 102 Immortality, idea of, 210, 211, 224 Imperialism, 399 Implements, 46, 48, 56, 57, 65, 87 Implements, use of, by animals, 44, 45 India, 71, 84, 104, 108, 122, 149. 156, 163, 164, 196, 199, 287, 302, 335, 394-95, 399, 409, 433, 434 Indian Empire, 405 Indian Ocean, 329 Indiana, 383, 386 Individualists, 375 ef seq. Individuality in reproduction, 16 et seq. Indo-Scythians, 199, 430 Indus, 149, 429 Industrial revolution, 365 ef se q. Infantry, 178 Influenza, 414 Innocent III, Pope, 276, 279, 280, 432 Innocent IV, Pope, 281 Innsbruck, 313 Inquisition, the, 276, 349 Insects, 26, 31 Interdicts, papal, Q75 Interglacial period, 44, Internationalism, 380 Invertebrata, 13 Investitures, 275 Ionic Greeks, 108, 130 Iowa, 385 Ireland, 106, 405 Iron, 80, 87, 94, 9 358, 359 Irrigation, 290 Isabella of Castile, Queen, 293, 302, 309 Isaiah, 125, 133, 156 Isis, 209, 210, 21 Islam, 251, 252, Islamism, 267, 319. he amr: anism) Isocr: at 145 Israel are es of, 118 Israeli kings of, 118, 119, 121 Issus, battle of, 147, 430 Italian language, 203 Italians, 107, 351 Italica, 202 Italy, 94, 108, 129, 134, 176, 180, 230, 236, 312, 327, 347, 390, 396, 409, 411, 429, 131, 43 Italy, C entr al, 429 Italy, North, 263, 312, 351, 390, 429, 431 Italy, South, 429 Ivan ILI (the Great) Ivan LV (the Terrible), 7, 102, 104, 168, 319, 321, (See also Moslem, Mu- ry © eas A832 8 8| JACOBIN republic, 434 Jamaica, 393, 407 James I, King of England and Scotland, 324, 433 Jamestown (Va.), 433 Japan, 166, 300, 399, 400-01 et seg., 409, 410, 435 Japanese, 419 Jarandilla, 315 Java, 302, 329 Jaw-bone, Heidelberg, 45-46; Piltdown, 46 Jehovah, 125 Jena, 434 Jengis Khan, 287, 298, 334, 432 Jerusalem, 115, 116, 119, 121, 123, 12 4, 184, 215, 243, 267, 271, 272, 299, 431, 432 Jerusalem, temple of, 119, 184 Jesuits, 308, 400, 433 Jesus, life and teaching of, 214 et seq., 294, 270, 306, 374, 430 Jews, 123, 124, 147, 184, 213, 21 270, 294 Jews, early history of, 115 et seq. Jews, literature of, 115 Jewish religion and sacred books, 116 John III of Poland, 434 John le Pope, 2 John XII, Pope, Joppa, 117 Joseph, King of Spain, 349, 434 Josiah, King of Judah, 110, 115, 116, Judah, 115, 119 Judah, kings of, 119 Judea, 115, 183, 214 Judea, priests and prophets in, 122 et seq. Judges, book of, 117 Judges of Israel, 118 Jugo-Slavia, 354 Jugo-Slavs, 351 Jugurtha, 192 Julian the Apostate, 431 Julius ILI, 316 Junks, Chinese, 400 5, 255, 256, 72 272, 432 , Jupiter (god), 211, 212 Jupiter (planet), 2, 3 Jupiter Capitolinus, 184 Jupiter Serapis, 226 Justinian I, 232, 238, 243, 431 Jutes, 230 K KaaBa, the, 249 Kadessia, battle of, 253, 431 Kalinga, 163 Kansas, 383 Karakorum, 287, 298 Karnak, 101 Kashgar, 300 Kashmir, Buddhists in, 165 Index Kavadh, 243, 244, 431 Kentucky, 383, 386 Kerensky, 416, 417 Khans, 287 et seq. Khyber Pass, 148, 199 Kiau Chau, 400 Kieff, 287, 432 Kin dynasty, 287 Kings, book of, 119 Kioto, 402 Ki-wi, the, 32 Koltchak, Admiral, 419 Koran, the, 251, 255 Korea, 400, 402 Kotan, 300 Krum of Bulgaria, 432 Kublai Khan, 290, 298, 300, 433 Kushan dynasty, 199 L LABYRINTH, Cretan, 127 Lahore, 287 Lake Ontario, 336 Land scorpions, 23 Langley, Professor, 363 Languages of mankind, 94, 95, 100, 106, 107, 108, 134, 145, 156, 176, 201, 202, 203, 230, 236, 243, 245, 259, 325, 328 Lao Tse, 133, 170 et 8eq., 222, 429 Lapland, 233 Latin Emperor, 259 Latin language, 201, 202, 203, 236, 259. (Cf. also Languages) Latins, the, 271, 272, 432 Law, 238 Laws, Plato’s, 142 League of Nations, 422, 423, 424, 425, 435 Learning, 255 Lee, General, 387, 389 Legionaries, 229 Lemurs, 43 Lenin, 417, 419 Leo III, Pope, 265, 272, 432 Leo X, Pope, 310, 312, 433 Leonidas, 136 Leopold [S55 Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 434 Lepanto, battle of, 293 Lepidus, 194 Lexington, 338 Liberia, 398 Libraries, 151, 154, 170 Liegnitz, battle of, 288, 289, 433 Life, beginnings of, the Record of the Rocks, 11 et seq.; progressive nature of, 16; of what it consists, 16; theory of Natu‘a Selection, 18; a teachable type: advent of, 39 Lineoln, Abraham, 385, 386, < assassination of, 389 333, 339, 435;448 Index Linen, 102 Lions, 42, 127 Lisbon, 294, 315, 329 Literary criticism, evolution of, 205 Literature, European, 298 Literature, pre-historic, 115 Lizards, 27, 28 Llamas, 42 Lob Nor, 300 Lochau, battle of, 313 Locke, John, 371 Logic, science of, 144 Lombard kingdom, 259 Lombards, 431 Lombardy, 432 London, 294, 413 Lopez de Recalde, Inigo, 308. (See also Ignatius of Loyola) Lorraine, 391 Louis XIV, 324, 433 Louis XV, 434 Louis XVI, 342, 343, 434 Louis XVIII, 350, 434 Louis Philippe, 350, 434 Louis the Pious, 265, 432 Louisiana, 336, 385 Lu, state of, 170 Lucretius, 294 Lucullus, 192 Lunar month, 68 Lung, the, 24 Luther, Martin, 306, 310, 433 Luxembourg, 351 Luxor, 101 Lvoff, Prince, 416 Lyceum, Athens, 142, 44 Lydia, 98, 134 Lydians, 94 Lyons, 345 M Macao, 329 Macaulay, Lord, 187 Maccabeans, 184 Macedonia and Macedonians, 131, 135, 139, 145, 179, 292, 350 Machinery, 322, 356 Madeira, 122, 302 Madras, 163 Magellan, Ferdinand, 302 Magic, 172 Magna Grecia, 129, 178 Magnesia, battle of, 183 Magyars, 263, 264, 270, 289 Mahaffy, Professor, 151 Maine, 336, 339 Majuba Hill, battle of, 398 Malta, 393, 407 Mammals, the earliest, 33; viviparous, 33; egg-laying, 34; the Age of, 37 et seq. Mammoth, 43, 49 Man, brotherhood of, 216, 224, 380 Man, 43; Heidelberg, 45; Eoanthropus, 47; Neanderthal, 47, 48 et seqg.; earliest known, 53 et seq. Manchu, 333, 433 Manchuria, 197, 400, 402, 403, 404 Mangu Khan, 290, 433 Mani, 241, 270, 430, 431 Manichans, 243, 255 Mankind, racial divisions of, 54, 71 Mantua, 345 Maoris, 71 Marathon, 136 Marathon. battle of, 430 Marchand, Colonel, 398 Marcus, Aurelius, 174, 430 Marie Antoinette, 343, 346 Mariner’s compass, 302, 320 Marius, 191, 192, 237, 430 “Marriage of East and West,” 149 Mars (planet), 2, 3 Marseillaise, the, 343, 345 Marseilles, 129, 182, 312, 345 Martel, Charles, 259, 432 Martin V, Pope, 286, 304 Marx, 376 Maryland, 337 Mas d’Azil cave, 57 Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, 390, 391 Maximilian I, Emperor, 309, 433 Maya writing, 74, 75 Mayence, 265, 344 Mayflower expedition, 433 Mazarin, Cardinal, 324 Mecca, 248, 249, 251, 431 Mechanical revolution, 356 et seg., 366, 369 Medes, 100, 108, 109, 115, 122, 134, 155, 174, 429 Media, rebellion in, 136 Median Empire, 109, 110, 112 Medicine man, the, 64 Medina, 249 Mediterranean, 71, 91, 176, 292, 293; val- ley, 71 ““Mediterranean”’ people, pre-Greek, 130 Megatherium, 74 Megiddo, battle of, 110, 115, 429 Melasgird, battle of, 268, 432 Mentality, primitive, 60 et seq. Mercury (planet), 2, 3 Mesopotamia, 77, 80, 96, 100, 109, 127, 174, 267, 290, 299 Mesozoic period, 27; land life of, 28: sea life of, 30; scarcity of bird and mam- mal life in, 32, 34; its difference from Cainozoic period, 38 Messina, 179, 180 Messina, Straits of, 179 Metallurgy, 356, 359, 360Metals, transmutation of, 257 Meteoric iron, 80, 94 Metz, 391 Mexico, 74, 76, 314, 321, 384, 385, 389, 390 Michael VII, Emperor, 268 Michael VIII. (See Paleologus) Microscope, 355 Midianites, 117 Milan, 227, 235, 309, 312, 351 Miletus, 129 Millipedes, 23 Milton, 129 Ming dynasty, 290, 333, 433 Mining, 335 Minnesota, 385 Minos, 92, 95, 127, 131 Missionaries, 236, 247, 380, 400, 431 Mississippi (state), 385 Mississippi River, 386 Missouri, 382 Mithraism, 211, 212, 213, 222, 431 Mithras, 211, 213 Mnemonics, Chinese and Peruvian method of, 76 Moabites, 117 Moawija, Caliph, 431 Mogul dynasty, 292, 433 Moluccas, 329 Monarchy, 323, 341, 347 Monasticism, 213, 236 Money, 114, 176, 201, 319 Mongol conquests, influence of, 298 Mongol Court, the, 299 Mongol Empire, 332 Index Mongolia, 197 Mongolian language, 108 Mongolian peoples, 72, 73, 88, 16 232, 233 et Seq., 945, 258, § 298. 320, 333, 334, 400, 433 Mongoloid tribes, 69 Monkeys, 43, 45 Monotheism, 251. (Sce also Muhammad) Monroe doctrine, 349, 389, 396, 423 Monroe, President, 349 Montesquieu, 371 Montgomery, 385 Month, the lunar, 68 Moon, the, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 68 Moorish paper-mills, 297 More, Sir Thomas, 365, 371 Morelly, 371 Morocco, 185, 398 Mortillet, 57 Moscow, 293, 434 Moscow, Grand Duke of, 290 Moses, 116 Moslem Empire, 253 Moslems, 297, 431, 432 Moslim, the, 253, 259, 271, 290 Mososaurs, 29 Mosses, 23 Mounds, Neolithic, 70 Mountains, 197 Mozambique, 329 Muehlon, Herr, 424 Muhammad, prophet, 243, 247, 248 et seq., 270, 431 Muhammad II, Sultan, 292, 433 Mules, 102 Mummies, 70 Munitions, 412 Musk ox, 43 Mycale, battle of, 136, 430 Mycene, 92, 108 Mycerinus, 83 Myle, battle of, 181, 430 N Nasonipvs, 111, 112 Nankin, 173 Naples, 178, 350, 431 Napoleon Bonaparte, 345, 347, 348, 356, 434 Napoleon III, 390, 434, 435 Nasmyth, 359 Natal, 398 ““National schools,’’ 369 Natural history, father of, 144 Natural Selection, theory of, 17 Nautilus, the pearly, 30 Navarino, battle of, 353, 434 Neanderthaler Man, 47, 48 et seq. Nebraska, 383 Nebuchadnezzar II (the Great), 109, 110, 115, 429 Nebule, 4, 5 Necho II, 109, 110, 115, 122, 147, 429 Needles, bone, 57 Negroid tribes, 72, 88 Nelson, Horatio, 348 Neolithic age, 59, 65 Neolithic civilizations, primitive, 71 et seq. Neptune (planet), 2, 3 Nero, 195, 430 Nestorian missionaries, 431. aries) Netherlands, 259, 309, 351 Neustria, 431 Neva, 327 New Assyrian Empire, 97 New Atlantis, The, 322, 355 New England, 335, 337 New Mexico, 386 New Plymouth, 433 Newts, 24 New York, 358, 434 New Zealand, 322, 396, 405 Newfoundland, 405 Nicea, 268, 270 Niczea, Council of, 431 Nicephorus, Emperor, 432 (Cf. Mission-on 450 Index Nicholas I, Tsar, 351, 390,.434 Nicholas II, Tsar, 416 Nickel, 360 Nicomedia, 227 Nieuw Amsterdam. 434. (Cf. New York) Nile, 83, 100, 129, 398; valley, 90, 429 Nile, battle of the, 43 Nineveh, 94, 97, 101, 109, 114, 243, 429, 431 Nippur, 78 Nirvana, 161 Nish, 227 Noah’s Ark, 91 Nogaret, Guillaume de, 284 Nomadic peoples, primitive, 84 et seq. (Cf. Nomads) Nomads, 122, 155, 167, 168, 174, 198-200, 233-34, 245, 287, 334 Nonconformity, 307, 308 Nordic race, 72, 88, 104, 108, 134, 154, 155, 174, 178, 185, 197, 200, 233, 258, 261 Normandy, 263, 342, 432 Normandy, Duke of, 266 Normans, 263, 266, 279, 302 Northmen, 263, 264, 266, 268, 432 Norway, 306, 313, 432 Norwegians, 351 Novgorod, 294, 432 Nubians, 238 Numerals, Arabic, 282 Numidia, 191 Numidians, 182 Nuremberg, 294 Nuremberg, Peace of, 313 O OcrEAN dredgings, deepest, 4 Ocean liners, 322, 336 Octavian. (See Augustus) Odenathus of Palmyra, 431 Odoacer, 236, 431 Odyssey, 127 Ogdai Khan, 287, 289, 432 Oglethorpe, 336 Okapi, 397 “Old Man,” 372, 373 Old Testament, 115, 116 Olympiad, first, 176, 429 Olympian games, 131 Olympias, Queen, 146 Omar, Caliph, 431 Open-hearth process, 359 Orange River, 398 *“Ordinance of secession,” 385 Oregon, 385 Organic Evolution, 16 Ormuz, 299 Orsini family, 284 Orthodoxy, 240 Osiris, 209, 210, 211 Ostrogoths, 227, 431 Othman, 432 Otho, 430 Otto I, King of Germany, 265, 43 Otto of Bavaria, Prince, 354 Ottoman Empire, 292. (See also Turkey, Turks) Oudh, 394 Ownership, 373, 374, 375 Oxen, 49, 104, 112 Oxford, 295 P Papua, 235 Pestum, 176 Paleologus, Michael (Michael VIII), 283 Paleolithic age, 13, 59, 66 (note) Palermo, 181 Palestine, 290, 299 Pamirs, 196, 300 Panama, 385 Panama, Isthmus of, 314 Pan Chau, 197, 430 Panipat, battle of, 433 Pannonia, 203, 229, 232, 234, 431 Papacy (including Popes), 237, 261, 265, 277 et seq., 329 et seq., 343 Papal schism (the Great Schism), 285, 304, 433 Paper, 153, 236, 255, 297, 320, 322 Papyrus, 78, 153 Parables, 216 Paradise Lost, 129 Parchment, 153 Paris, 294, 295, 3 413, 415, 435 Paris, Peace of, 338, 434 Parthian dynasty, 202 Parthians, 155, 192, 194, 198, 199, 245 Passau, Treaty of, 314 Patricians, Roman, 176, 188 Paul, St., 202, 223 Pavia, siege of, 312 Peace Conference, Dr. Dillon’s, 424 Peasant revolts, 305, 310 Peculium, 206 Pedro I, 340 Pegu, 300 Pekin, 173, 287, 300, 383, 400, 43 Peloponnesian War, 139, 145, 430 Pentateuch, the, 116 “People’s crusade,” the, 270, 432. (Cf. Crusades) Pepi II, 83 Pepin I, 259 Pepin of Hersthal, 431 Pergamum, 154, 180, 183, 430 Pericles, 139, 140 Perry, Commodore, 402 Persepolis, 114, 148, 155 42, 350, 356, 390, 391, 412,Persia, 77, 134 et seq., 165, 185, 192, 227, 243, 253, 255, 287, 399, 409, 430, 431 Persian Empire, 112, 134, 238, 429 Persian Gulf, 77, 78, 91, 299 Persian language, 95 Persians, 100, 108, 109, 115, 155, 174, 431 Peru, 74, 75, 314, 321 Pestilence, 305, 320, 334, 413, 430, 431, 433 ire ao 82, 134 270 Peter the (¢ Peter the He er 269, Peterhof, 327 Pete rsburg, 327, 419. (See also Petrograd) Petrograd, 416, 417. (See also Petersburg) Petschenegs, 268 Phalanx, 145, 178 Pharaohs, the, 90, 96, 119, 131, 150, 180 Pharsalos, 430 Philadelphia, 358, 434 Philip, Duke of Orleans, Philip, King of France, Philip II, King of Spain, Philip of Hesse, 313 Philip of Macedon, 145, 146, 430 Philippine Islands, 392, 393, 400 Philistines, 100, 117 Philosopher's stone, 257 850 285 314, 324 Philosophers and Philosophy, 133, 139, 152, 168, 239, 294, 295 Pheenicians. 92, 94, 107, 123, Phenix, steamship, 358 Phrygians, 100, 108 Physiocrats, 371 Picture writing, 56, 57, 78, Piedmont, 345 Pirates and Piracy, 92, 179, Pithecanthropus erectus, 45 79, 167 180, 200, 263 Pizarro, 314 Plague. (See Pestilence) Planetoids, 2 Planets, 2 Plant lice, 13 Plants, 22, 23, 36 Platea, battle of, 136, 430 Plato, 140, 142, 144, 170, Platypus, duck-billed, 34 370-71 Plebeians, Roman, 176, 177, 187-88 Plesiosaurs, 29, 30, 36 Poison-gas, 413 Poitiers, 432 Poitiers, battle of, 253, 259 Poland, 288, 327, 353, 434 Poles, 288, 419 Political experiment, age of, Political ideas, development of, 8318 et seq. 370 et seq. Political science, founder of, 144 Political worship, 412 Polo, Marco, 299-300 Polynesian races, 71 Pompey the Great, 192, 193, 196, 198, 430 Pontifex maximus, 237, 261 Index Popes. (See Papacy) Population, 379, 383 Port Arthur, 400, 403 Portugal, 340, 394, 396, 431 Portuguese, 302, 329, 332, 400 Porus, King, 149 Potato, 76 Potsdam, 327 Pottery, 75, 87 Prague, 43: Prescott, . Priestcraft (including Priests), 64, 68, 69, 74, 75, 77, 83, 111, 114 et seq, 122, 131 132, 167, 174, eet Primal Ta 61 Primates, 43. A — = = 1) "298 SUSE Printing, 80, ae : 305 306, 320, 322, 329 Priscus, 234 Property N D] 4, 37 ) rf 4, 375 Prophet, Muhammad as, 249 Pri pee Jewish, 118, 122 et seq. Bros torship, 373 eB note Tee 316, 324, 327, 351, 400 Proverbs, book of, 116 Prussia, 327, 348, 351, 390, 391, 392, 434, 39 Prussia, East, 412, 415 Psalms, 116 Psammetichus I, 109, 429 Psycho-analysis, 60 Pterodactyls, 28, 29, 31, 36 Ptolemy E 149, 150, 151, 186, 911 Ptolemy II, 151, 186 Punic language, 203 Punic en 180 et sea 187, 188, 430 Punjab, Pee! Pygmies, 397 3, 199 dt 6: QQ” III Py ramids, 69, 100 Pyrenees, 253, 4: 32 Pyrrhus, 178, 179, 450 QUEBEC, 434 Quinqueremes, 180 Quixada, 314 R Races of mankind, 71 et seq. Railways, 399 350, 356, 357, 382, 383, 384, 889, 395, 396, 409, 454 Rain, 9, 10 Rameses II, 96, 147, 429 Rasputin, 415, 416 Ratisbon, Diet of, 313 Ravenna, 431 Reading, 176 Rebus, 79 Red deer, 56452 Empire, 208 et seq. Religious wars, 270, 304, 313. (Cf. Cru- ens sades) ia Reptiles, the age of, 26 et seq.; mental life of, 38 Reproduction, 17 et seq. Republic, Plato’s, 142 a; Republic, the Assimilative, 187 Republics, 187 et seq., 236, 308, 324, 328, 340, 343, 344, 416, 433, 434, 435 Republicans, the first, 131 Retreat of the Ten Thousand, 150 Revolution, 342 et seq., 349 et seq., 390, 404, 416, 435 Rhine, 200, 227 Rhine languages, 236 Rhineland, 270, 306 Rhinoceros, 43, 49 Rhodes, 108 Rhodesia, 407 Rhodesian man. 52 Richelieu, Cardinal, 324 Richmond, U.S.A., 386, 388, 389 Roads, 114, 187 Robertson, 316 Robespierre, 345, 346, 434 Robinson, J. H., 284 ‘Rocket,’ Stephenson’s, 356 Rock pictures, 57, 78 Rocks as record of beginnings seq. of life, 11 et S SABELLIANS, 224 Sabre-toothed tiger, 43 Sacrifice, 102, 103, 167, 174, 182, 186, 211, 212. (Cf. also Blood sacrifice, Human sacrifice) Sagas, 106 Saghalien, 404 Sailing ships, 91, 336 St. Angelo, castle of, 312 St. Helena, 407 St. Sophia, church of, 238 Saladin, 272, 432 Salamis, battle of, 180, 430 Salamis, bay of, 136 Salerno, 282 Samarkand, 256, 297 Samnites, 430 Samos, 129 Index Te Red Sea, 91, 118, 122, 196 i Reformation, the, 308 iti Reindeer, 43, 49, 51, 56, 73 ips Religion, and the creation of the world, 1; i} and organic evolution, 16; primitive, iy 61, 64 at | Religions, 172, 222 et seq., 240 et seq., 319. (Cf. Buddhism, Christianity, etc.) a Religious developments under the Roman na} Samson, 116 Samurai, 401 San Francisco, 383 Sandstones, 26 Sanskrit, 95, 107, 156 Sapor I, 430 Saracens, 264 Saratoga, 338 Sardanapalus (Assurbanipal), 98, 109, 111 Sardinia, 182, 185, 232, 309, 351, 390 Sardis, 98 Sargon I, 90, 92, 109, 122, 429 Sargon II, 97, 109, 429 Sarmatians, 100 Sassanid dynasty, Saturn (planet), 2, Saul, King of Israel, 118, 429 Saul of Tarsus. (See Paul, St.) Savannah, steamship, 358 Savoy, 334, 351, 390 Saxons, 230, 265 Saxony, Elector of, 310 Scandinavians, 329 Scarabeus beetle, 209 Scheldt, 344 Schmalkaldic League, 312 Science, 144 Science and religion, 243 Science, exploitation of, 362 Science, physical, 412 Scientific societies, 322 Scipio Africanus, 182, 187 Scorpion, sea, 13, 18, 23 Scotland, 306, 307 Scott, Michael, 282 Scythia, 429 Scythians, 100, 108, 134, 135 Sea trade, 91 | Sea worms, 13 Seasons, the, 68 Seaweed, 13 Sedan, 391 Seed-bearing trees, 26 Seleucid dynasty, 183, 186, 196, 199 Seleucus I, 149, 163 Seljuks, 267, 268, 272, 43 Semites and Semitic peoples, 94° 1075, Libs, 192. 7 258 Semitic language, 202, 243 Sennacherib, 97 Serapeum, 211, 213 Serapis, 211, 212 Serbia, 179, 200, 22 Serfdom, 207 Seven Years’ War, 434 Severus, Septimius, 202 Seville, 202, 213, 302 Shang dynasty, 103, 168 Sheep, 77 265 227, 241, 430 3 9 88, 89, 91, 92, , 174, 233, 256, 2 J 7, 228, 292, 354, 411Shell necklaces, 56 Shellfish, 13 Shells, as protection against drying, 18 Sherman, General, 387, 388 Shi-Hwang-ti, 173, 180, 430 Shimonoseki, Straits of, 402 Shipbuilding, 359, 360, 400 Ships, 91, 119, 122, 149, 180, 196, 320, 322, 336 Shishak, 119 Shrubs, 36 Shumanism, 298 Siam, 166 Siberia, 334 Siberia, Eastern, 419 Siberian railway, 403, 409 Sicilies, Two, 287 Sicily, 108, 122, 129, 134, 178, 179, 182, 185, 188, 232, 263, 279, 280 Sidon, 92, 122, 123, 134, 147 Silurian system, 19 Silver, 80, 102, 335 Sind, 394 Sirmium, 227 Skins, use of: for clothing, 56; for writing, 75; inflated, as boats, 91 Skull, Rhodesian, 52 Slavery (and slaves), 94, 102, 188, 191, 194, 203 et seq., 236, 320, 337, 373, 374, 384— 386, 388, 430, 433 Slavonic language, 236 Slavs, 263, 265 Smelting, 87, 104, 322 Smith, Adam, 377 Smith, Eliot, 69 Snakes, 27, 28 Social reform, 125 Socialism, 371, 416, 417, 434 Socialists, 375 et seq. Socialists, primitive. ‘ Society, primitive, 60 Socrates, 140 Solomon, King, 119, 122, 127, 429 Solomon’s temple, 119 Sophists, 140 Sophocles, 139 South Carolina, 385 Soviets, 417 Space, the world in, x74 1 et seq. Spain, 93, 106, 122, 123, 180, 185, 230, 232, 256, 253, 255, 256, 258, 309, 348, 349, 350, 393, 429, 431; relics of first true man in, 53 Spain, North, 431 Spanish, 329, 331 Spanish language, 203 Sparta, 129, 130, 136, 203 Spartacus, 191, 192, 203, 430 Spartans, 136 Species, generation of, 17; new, 36 Index Speech, primitive human, 63 Spiders, 23 Spiral nebule, 5 Spores, 24 Stagira, 142 Stamford Bridge, battle of, 266 Stars, 68, 257 State, modern idea of a, 375 State ownership, 374 States General, the, 341, 434 Steamboat, 340, 357 et seq., 374, 382, 395 396 Steam engine, 151, 152, 359 Steam hammer, 359 Steam power, 322 Steel, 322, 359-60 Stephenson, George, 356 Stilicho, 230, 234, 431 Stockholm, 417 Stockton, 356, 434 Stone age, 53, 59 Stone implements, 45, 65 Stonehenge, 106, 429 Story-telling, primitive, 62 Styria, 309 Submarine campaign, 423 Subutai, 289 Sudan, the, 405 Suevi, 431 Suleiman the Magnificent, 310, 312, 432, 433 Sulla, 192, 237 Sumeria and Sumerians, 77, 88, 90, 91, 122 Sumerian Empire, 429 Sumerian language and writing, 77, 78, 79 Sun, the, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 Sun worship, 211 Sung dynasty, 290 Susa, 114, 135, 148, 149, 155 Suy dynasty, 245 Swastika, 70 Sweden, 306, , 78 et seq., 87, $13, 348 Swedes, 326, 329, 330, 351 Swimming bladder, 24 Switzerland, 327, 347, 350, 43: Syracuse, 151, 154, 170, 178 Syria, 88, 91, 115, 119, 122, 249, 290, 431 Syrians, 96, 98 138, 238, 243, Tabus, the, 61 Tadpoles, 26 Tagus valley, 314 Tai-Tsung, 247, 431 Tang dynasty, 200, 245, 247, 287, 431 “Tanks,” 413 Taoism, 174, 222. Taranto, 178 Tarentum, 178 (See also Lao Tse)454 Tarim valley, 430 Tartars, 167, 197, 232, 243, 288, 290, 334 Tasmania, 59, 322, 393 Tattooing, 70 Taxation, 274, 337 Tea, 247, 337 Teeth, 19, 20 Telamon, battle of, 182 Telegraph, electric, 340, 358, 382, 384, 396 Telescope, 355 Temples, 77, 83, 101, 129, 131, 167, 184, 186, 208, 211, 212, 213, 240 Tennessee, 386 Testament, Old, 115, 116 Teutons, 431 Texas, 384, 385 Texel, 344 Thales, 131, 161 Thebes, 101, 102, 129, 136 Theocrasia, 209 Theodora, Empress, 238 Theodoric the Goth, 236, 431 Theodosius II, 234, 238 Theodosius the Great, 226, 229, 431 Thermopyle, battle of, 136, 430 Thessaly, 145, 178 Thirty Years’ War, 326 Thothmes III, 96, 127, 147, 429 Thought and research, 140 Thought, primitive, 60 et seq Thrace, 135 Three Estates, council of the, 285 Three Teachings, the, 170 Tiberius Cesar, 195, 214, 430 Tibet, 196, 400 Tides, 18 Tigers, 42, 43 Tiglath Pileser I, 97, 429 Tiglath Pileser III, 97, 108, 109, 429 Tigris, 77, 84 Time, 5, 6 Timor, 329 Timurlane, 290, 334 Tin, 360 Tiryns, 108 Titanotherium, the, 39, 42 Tonkin, 402 Tortoises, 27, 28 Toulon, 345 Trade, early, 83, 88 Trade, Grecian, 129 Trade routes, 119 Traders, 122, 335 Traders, sea, 92 Trafalgar, battle of, 348 Trajan, 195, 430 Transport, 319, 358, 382 Transvaal, 398 Transylvania, 195 Trasimere, Lake, 182 174, Index Trench warfare, 412 Trevithick, 356 Tribal life, 61 Trilobites, 13 Trinidad, 407 Trinil, Java, 45 Trinitarians, 224 Trinity, doctrine of the, 224, 261 Triremes, 180 Triumvirates, 194 Trojans, 94 Troy, 92, 127 Troyes, battle of, 235, 431 Tsar, title of, 327 Tshushima, Straits of, 404 Ts’i, 173 Ts in, 173, 43 Tuileries, 342, 343 Tunis, 185 Turkestan, 77, 108, 148, 196, 197, 198, 199, 945, 253, 287, 290, 292, 334 Turkey, 390, 411 Turkoman dynasty, 405 Turkomans, 334 Turks, 167, 197, 2 $10, 312, 334, Turtles, 27, 28 Tushratta, king of Mitanni, 97 Twelve tribes, the, 116 Tyrannosaurus, 28 Tyre, 92, 118, 119, 122, 123, 134, 147 13, 4 < ‘ U UINTATHERES, 42 Uncleanness, 68 United States, 357, 410, 411, 422, 434; Dec- laration of Independence, 338; treaty with Britain, 339; expansion of, 382 et seq. Universities, 295, 304, 355, 361 Uranus, 2, 3 Urban II, Pope, 268, 272, 432 Urban VI, Pope, 285, 43¢ Utopias, 140, 142, 144 V VaLens, Emperor, 229 Valerian, 430 Valladolid, 314, 315, 316 Valmy, battle of, 434 Vandals, 227, 229, 230, 232, 431 Varennes, 343, 434 Vassalage, 259 Vatican, 265, 266, 272, 285 Vedas, 106 Vegetation of Mesozoic period, 28 Veui, 177, 178 Vendée, 345 or Venetia, 235Venetians, 301 Venice, 235, 272, 274, 294, 327, 351, 432 Venus (goddess), 213 Venus (planet), 2, 3 Verona, 345 Versailles, 325, 327, 341, 342 Versailles, Peace Conference of, 421 Versailles, Treaty of, 421, 422 Vertebrata, 19; ancestors of, 20 Verulam, Lord. (See Bacon, Sir Francis) Vespasian, 430 Vesuvius, 191 Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, 435 Victoria, Queen, 394, 434 Vienna, 292, 312, 433, 434 Vienna, Congress of, 348, 349, 350 Vienna, Treaty of, 355 Vilna, 356 Vindhya Mountains, 159 Virginia, 337, 383, 386 Visigoths, 227, 229, 232, 235, 259, 431. (Cf. Goths) Vitellus, 430 Vittoria, ship, 302 Viviparous mammals, 33 Vivisection, Hergphilus and, 151 Voleanoes, 37 Volga, 200, 227 Volta, 358 Voltaire, 328 Votes, 382 W WALDENSES, 276, 280, 305 Waldo, 276 Walid I, 432 War and Warfare, 96, 344, 390, 422 War of American Independence, 338 et seq. Warsaw, 353 Washington, 340, 357, 383, 386, Washington, Conference of, 425 Washington, George, 338 Waterloo, battle of, 348 Watt engine, 356 Weapons, 100, 106 Weaving, 65, 75 Wei-hai-wei, 400 Wellington, Duke of, 348 West Indies, 330, 385, 393, 394 Western Empire, 431 Westminster, 306 389 Index Westphalia, Peace of, 326, 355, 433 Wheat, 66, 104 White Huns. (See Ephthalites) William Duke of Normandy (William I), 432 William II, German Emperor, 410, 435 Wilson, President, 422, 423, 424 Wings, birds’, 32 Wisby, 294 Wisconsin, 385 ““Wisdom lovers,” the first, 183 Witchcraft, 68 Wittenberg, 306 Wolfe, General, 434 Wolsey, Cardinal, 324 Wood blocks for printing, 247 Wool, 102, 395 Workers’ Internationals, 377 World. The, creation of, 1; in time, 5 et seq. Wrangel, General, 419 Writing, 74, 77, 78, dawn of, 57 Wycliffe, John, and his followers, 286, 304, 433 79, 80, 94, 124, 176; x XAVIER, FrRANcIs, 400 Xenophon, 150 Xerxes, 136, 138, 147, 150 Y Yanoc-cuow, 300 Yang-tse-Kiang, 173 Yangtse valley, 173 Yarmuk, battle of, the, 253, 431 Yedo Bay, 401 Yorktown, 338 Yuan dynasty, 290, 433 Yucatan, 74 Yudenitch, General, 419 Yuste, 314, 317 7 7aMA, battle of, 182, 43 Zanzibar, 329 Zarathushtra, 241 Zeppelins, 413 Zero sign, 257 Zeus, 211 Zimbabwe, 397 Zoophytes, fossilized, 13 Zoroaster (and Zoroastrianism), 241, 243, 255} f | {1 }ALDERMAN LIBRARY The return of this book is due on the date indicated below DUE “ere MAY—iti—-lyoU nt out for two weeks, but there are exceptions and the borrower should note carefully the date stamped above. Fines are charged for over-due books at the rate of five cents a day; for reserved books there are special rates and regulations. Books must be presented at the desk if renewal is desired. 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