Ss eat kee Oy Fk Vie xi : eheeren , 5 PERE Pre ; sheens { AOR et 3 ; i , R ‘ } f | b Parekh rie eR ae Pn ae Paap nn 4 ER et VECe 4 te : y tt j Wenieren : ' Ae i ; at i sont Sire te SP = eS Oe ys . SS ye ———— es Japon Seemann Sr t Paper namicste': ere tepralmae SFE we iodine ie Ae a 1 FRSA RL, ay ia : held ee Sau a ‘ p ei Wt Heat a Hi ya rier ee Ht a) vivian DU iw pute 5 vs . arate Tht ; Hit aye aii ; bay i Ay: ' fe i. \ a a . q § k i ¥ ERSITY OF VIRGINIA LIBRARY if : , | OD se wi a ant na aNETRA PLAT EATS t i t { ( | ad ea TE hnNEI PSN SL Se ee es : t | i \ ; }CI Se i emma at rman i , j | ¥ Si en en nl ee ae ee ee eeeENGLISH SPELLING Its RULES AND REASONS ; ; : | H—— ; ! r 4 Se er ey — ee eedENGLISH SPELLING Its RULES AND REASONS BY Wee. CRAIGIBVLI D:; D.Viirt Professor of English in the University of Chicago and Co-Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary NEW YORK FE: Ss: CROETS & CO: 1927 1 | | i eeCOPYRIGHT, 1927, BY F. S. CROFTS & CO., INC. a r cus 4 ‘ o* RB “ . ; { Si, “ey + j t . ( r iY r t i i 4 4 * © ° . e «ee . + | e « ° e oe . . o + © ° ! > a . *s dt ~ Hi} k Ss ee e « , ame ¥ ° ¢ - . i Sue 2 ® « Di + ‘ H . 6 ee . ° a e = ete e « © * « . . ee es ere mee MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY THE VAIL-BALLOU PRESS, INC., BINGHAMTON, N. ¥- oePREFACE The main object of this book is to give a clear and concise account of the several elements which have com- bined to produce the great variety so noticeable in the spelling of English. The results of this combination are frequently so contradictory, and so incapable of be- ing reduced to any one rule, that they have naturally created an impression that English spelling is a hope- less chaos. The first step towards correcting that im- pression is to obtain a clear idea of the reasons for the variety in the forms, and of the sources from which they are usually derived. It will then be seen that most of the peculiarities have a historical basis, and to that extent are legitimate, however much they may be in Opposition to each other and to the pronunciation of the present day. While abundant illustrations of the various types have been given, and lists of the prominent exceptions, the book is not intended to serve as a complete work of reference, or as an authority to decide between two or more possible forms. This purpose is fully served by any good dictionary under the words in question, or by the list of ‘““Disputed Spellings,’’ which some of them contain. The chief variations between American and British practice have, however, been noted, and other ~ \ i ed; t ; ‘ ne a Pa Pom eee pee ee A, a eee vi PREFACE instances in which different spellings of common words are in use. It is impossible to treat properly of spelling without touching upon the subject of pronunciation, but it is not necessary for this purpose to enter in detail into the phonetics of English. Spelling is so little depen- dent upon pronunciation, that the latter requires to be considered only in specifying the sound represented by a particular letter or letters, more especially when there is some clear variation in this respect, as in agam, either, patriot. On this account special phonetic sym- bols are not employed here, the sounds being indicated in the simplest manner which will enable them to be identified. It will be obvious that the plan on which this presen- tation of English spelling has been made will also ren- der the book of value as a guide to the sources of the language itself. W. A. CRAIGIE The University of ChicagoCONTENTS MRRMACING Sk oe ba” ee eee V INTRODUCTION. THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH SPELL- ING - > > . > oe . >. 7 >. > . > 2 I PART I THE NATIVE AND ALLIED NORMAL TYPES Crmar 1. WoRDS OF ONE SYLLABLE « @ ). 4 49 CuHap. II. Worps or Two or More SYLLABLES . 21 Cuap. III. IRREGULAR AND AMBIGUOUS FoRMS 27 rar LV SILENT. WBITERS é. 6 2. oo.) RO PART II THE CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES (GrrmaPel (CONSONANTS . «= %. i9) ae eo) oe era CuHaApP. JI. VoweELs. Pe ee te CHAP. III]. IRREGULAR FoRMsS AND SILENT LET- TERS Se pt ae ee eee el, rar TV. THe UNADAPTED FORMS . 3: <6 44 PART III PRONG LVPES 9.) ca sl eho Noe Ae dee ee PART IV SPELEING LISTS) oi os ck ict ey ee ' ] ; 1 { FJ t t H t i Hi ai , ; i i ta et ee eee ee ee eee ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS Eng. = English F .= French Gr. = Greek L.. = Latin Sc. = Scottish U. S. = United States med. = medical naut. = nautical pron. = pronounced, pronunciation * Indicates that the word has a variant spelling or pro- nunciation, which will usually be found in an adjacent par- agraph or list. I. II. III. These numbers correspond to the Parts of the book, and indicate the class to which a word belongs. ViliSS nee ENGLISH SPELLING ITS RULES AND REASONS INTRODUCTION i , | ' ! ‘ If ' fi oe aT — Se TR eS | Ey AMENGLISH SPELLING Irs RULES AND REASONS INTRODUCTION THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH SPELLING The irregularities of English spelling, and the diff- culty of reducing it to any fixed rules, are in great part due to the variety of the elements of which the language is composed. English is, and has long been, of a mixed character, made up of words derived from different sources; and to a great extent this difference of origin is reflected in the spelling. Several classes of words retain more or less exactly a type of spelling which is distinctive of the language from which they are derived ; and while they are consistent with each other, they are at variance with those which have similar sounds, but come from a different source. Hence such contrasts in spelling between words of identical sound as raim and reign, strait and straight, flocks and phlox, time and thyme, him and hymn, each of which is written in the way to which its origin entitles it, regardless of purely phonetic considerations. : es a ee ae eeP f i ’ i ' , fi as ee Se ae es ieee ee 2 SOURCES OF ENGLISH SPELLING The types which it is most important to distinguish, in order to grasp clearly the results of this difference of origin, are the following. A. The native English, appearing in most of the words which go back to Old English (Anglo-Saxon) ; very common also in words of one or two syllables adopted from the other Germanic languages (Scandi- navian, Dutch, Low German), from Old French, and from various other sources. This type dates in the main from the respelling of Old English which took place after the Norman Conquest, with later modifica- tions which continued to be made down to the middle of the seventeenth century, and to a minor extent down to the modern period. To this type belong such words as sun, moon, heaven, earth, day, night, life, death, king, queen; white, black, great, small, broad, narrow; speak, think, throw, cast, teach, learn, seck, find; apple, butter, carry, digging, eddy, fatten, glossy, hummock, ete. B. The early French, adopted either from the speech of the Normans or from the Continent, and forming a real part of the language from the thirteenth or four- teenth century. To this belong such words as cage, chance, chamber, circle, guard, guile, jelly, juice, language, money, value, vault; certain, feudal, royal, strange, very; attach, con- quer, discover, ensue. C. The adapted Latin, partly introduced through French forms differing only slightly from their LatinINTRODUCTION 3 originals, and partly by direct adoption from the classi- cal tongue. To this belong such words as capital, censure, deci- sion, effect, religion; captive, circular, definite, feminine, general; calculate, certify, emerge, imitate, persecute, sacrifice. D. The unadapted Latin and Romanic, containing words taken over from these languages without altera- tion; the nouns frequently retain the original form of their plurals. To this belong such words as the Latin arena, for- mula, inertia, larva, spatula; apparatus, census, circus, cumulus, fungus, Matus, nucleus, eis aquarium, decorum, fulcrum, maximum, opprobrium; lumbago, ratio, with such plurals as formule, fungi, fulcra, etc.; the Spanish or Italian gondola, guerrilla, influenza, si- esta, sonata, vendetta; canto, cargo, desperado, falsetto, mulatto, negro, oratorio, piano; vermicelli, etc. EK. The Greek, usually not taken over directly, but modified in accordance with Latin habits of tran- scription. This includes both adapted and unadapted forms. To the former class belong such words as aeronaut, aphorism, architect, catarrh, character, genealogy, henusphere ; acoustic, Atohan, eccentric, ecstatic, hetero- dox, hydraulic, phonetic; analyse, catechize, paralyse. The second class is exemplified in asphyxia, hysteria, lita, myopia, neuralgia; acme, anemone, catastrophe, epitome, syncope; hypothesis, neuritis, phlebitis; chorus, : ee1 } | 1 ee ee ee ee ed a ee 4 SOURCES OF ENGLISH SPELLING exodus, narcissus, papyrus, rhombus; asylum, gymna- sium, gypsum, museum, pelargonium ; phenomenon, tch- neumon, gnomon. F. The modern French, in which the French spell- ing is retained, whether the pronunciation remains as in French or has been modified towards an English basis. To this class belong such words as aigrette, beau, belle, bureau, crochet, depot, féte, manége, menu, queue, raconteur; apropos, encore. G. The exotic element, including miscellaneous words from various languages. Such are llama, manna, mazurka, pagoda, pajama, polka, quagga, vodka, zebra, zenana; hookah, rajah; al- kali, houri, khaki, mufti; Kaiser, kangaroo, kraal, kra- ken, quartz, simoom, taboo, wampum, wigwam. Although each of these types has special features, it is not necessary, and would not be practical, to keep them absolutely separate in an analysis of the principles of English spelling as a whole. Very commonly a na- tive word and one of foreign origin will not only contain similar sounds, but will have those sounds repre- sented in exactly the same manner. For example, the Romanic words beast, part, gown, dinner, supper, are spelled on the same basis as the native least, hart, town, inner, upper. To draw any distinction between the dif- ferent classes when they coincide in this manner would be giving undue prominence to etymology. For practi- cal purposes, it is sufficient to recognize three mainINTRODUCTION 5 types of spelling, the first of which includes the native types, and those which are most closely related to them, while the second covers the large contributions from the classical and Romanic tongues in which different prin- ciples can be clearly observed, and the third comprises the medley of exotic forms which either in sound or spelling are most remote from the natural English standard. | i aww] 4 | : ‘PART THE NATIVE AND ALLIED NORMAL TAPES b i ‘| ae t f } \ ‘J ‘ i i | lif 118 ah 5 i 4 i, I} i ee = me ae an ee ee ed we a a eeeCHAPTER 1 WORDS OF ONE SYLLABLE The general principles which can be observed in the spelling of these are the following. LE: P ms tw Short vowels ? are indicated by (a) a final consonant or consonants, as cap, rapt; bed, bend: tin, tint; miss, mist, (b) two consonants followed by e, as dense, serve, bronze. Long vowels * are indicated by (a) the absence of a following consonant, as pa, me, fly, go, do. (b) a single consonant followed by -e, as take, eve, ride, hope, tune. (c) being written with two letters, e. g. ai, ay, aw, ea, ee, ie, Oa, 00, as in train, day, law, heat, free, die, dye, boat, boot. The diphthongs are regularly written with two letters e. 2. Ol, Oy, OU, Ow, as in coin, boy, noun, town. Consonants are normally written single after the long vowels and diphthongs, as 1n fail, read, seem, boat, feud; tale, cede, time, note, tube. After short 1 For the meaning of these terms see pp. 16-19. 9 Dt lee eee tl ela ae ae a ot Se eed i10 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES vowels f, 1, s, z, are usually doubled as in staff, fell, grass, buzz; the doubling of others is rare. 5. The following are the usual values of the single con- sonants :— p as in pad f as in fat Jj as in jest Hoyos bad Wo.) “vat g(—=j)* as in gist Eten gs. send m as in map Gi. den c(=s)*asincent n “ “ nap Bee aee go, get bog league Cc cell fence ace n nut tun tune, soon wh when J h mete, meet th thin pith both, oath ch, tch chin rich, ditch teach Z zest cede, seed th then with clothe j,g, dg jet, gem ridge age sh ship buzz, whiz(z) wish craze ] lip g pill pile, peel ¥: yet Notes on the Consonants leash I rat tar stare, stair h hill Exceptional doubling occurs in a few words, viz. ebb, add, odd, egg, banns, inn, linn (Sc.), err, OT EAL \ i; i t : { , | i f ° Lb it} I s i; 7 ii ! wvI2 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES bitt (naut.), butt (noun), and optionally in repp, burr, whirr, nett (adj.), sett (in special senses), bott; frequently also in proper names, as Webb, Cobb, Dodd, Todd, Begg, Scroggs, Penn, Finn, Lynn. In ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, the double consonant is retained (in contrast to web, sad, rod, etc.) to preserve the word from the insignificant ap- pearance it would have if written eb, ad, od, etc. Absence of the usual doubling of s occurs in gas, yes, this, bus, thus, us; but as, has, was, his, is are normal, since s in these words has the value of z. A single Z is written in coz, quiz, and optionally in whiz. The spelling of (= ov) distinguishes the preposition from the adverb off. The sound of k is represented by that letter before e, i, and y, as in keep, kid, kye (= kine, cows) ; and by c before a, 0, u, as in cap, cod, cup; but one or two Scottish forms have k before a, as in kale or kal, kame or kaim = English ‘cole’, ‘comb’. The same rule commonly holds for sk-, and sc-, as in sketch, skid, sky, beside scale, scoff, scum; but sk is used before a in skate, and before u in skulk, skull (of the head; but scull, an oar), skunk. Before 1 and r, c is constant, as in clean, cream, scream. The doubling of k is represented by ck, as in back, neck, kick, block, buck; c by itself occurs only in the foreign words lac, sac, tic. k is written after l, n, r, s, as in elk, bank, ark,WORDS OF ONE SYLLABLE 13 ask; but ¢ occurs in arc, talc, disc (more commonly disk ). The combined sound of kw is represented (after Old French and Latin practice) by qu, whether the word is of native or foreign origin, as in quack, quart, queen, quick, quit. The same combination is used after s, as in squash, squat, squeal, squrm. 4. Final v is written only in Slav (also Sclav), to avoid confusion with slave. In all other words it is fol- lowed by -e, not only in those with long vowels, as save, leave, drive, grove, groove, move, but also after short vowels in have, give, live, dove, etc. (The retention of the -e is due to the former writing and printing of such words with u, as save, groue, hue; when v replaced u the e was allowed to remain after the short vowels as well as the long.) 5. The two sounds of th, heard in thin and then, are not distinguished in writing; but the latter, when final, is usually denoted by the addition of -e, as in blithe, lathe, lithe, scathe, seethe, swathe, tithe, writhe. A distinction is thus made between the nouns or adjectives bath, breath, cloth, loath, or loth, sheath, sooth, teeth, wreath, and the verbs bathe, breathe, clothe, loathe, sheathe, teethe, wreathe. Compare also lath and lathe, swath and swathe. The e is not written, however, in booth, mouth (vb.), smooth, with, which have the voiced sound, nor in plurals as laths, oaths, paths, youths. 6. The sound of s at the beginning of a word is mosté AY if ; ’ if 7 | me A oP et ES eh ee ee a ae 14 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES frequently denoted by that letter, as in sack, seed, sell, sent, site, sock, soap, sum; but before e, 1, and y a number of words have c, as cede, cell, cent, cite. This difference depends on the origin and etymology of the word; those with c are mainly from French, Latin, or Greek. Native words have regularly s. (See List 1.) When final the sound of s is variously expressed : NI (a) with one s, as in gas, this, thus; see p. 12 above. (b) with ss, regularly in other words after short vowels, as in grass, less, kiss, toss, fuss, puss. (c) with se in-certain words after long vowels and consonant-groups, as in case, lease, loose; pulse, tense, horse. (d) with ce in other words of similar form, as face, nice, choice, truce; since, farce. The variation between -se and -ce depends mainly on the origin of the word, but -se is regular after O, 00, Ou, and usual after r, while -ce is regular after 1, and usual afteraandn. (See List 2.) The sound of z at the beginning of words (none of which are of native origin) is always denoted by that letter, as in zeal, zest, zone; but at the end of a word it may be represented by z or zz, s, se, and ze. The forms with z or zz are by far the least usual. Examples are: (a) with z or zz; buzz, fizz, frizz, fuzz, muze, whizz or whiz; coz, quiz. (b) with s; as, has, his, is, was; lens, Mars. AlsoWORDS OF ONE SYLLABLE 15 all such plurals as cabs, beds, legs, bells, hams, pens, cars; babes, odes, frames, panes, cares; and all third person singulars of verbs having similar endings, as robs, leads, begs, tells, fades, tames, shines, etc. (c) with se, as cheese, choose, ease, lose, noise, etc. (d) with ze, as blaze, freeze, furze, prize, etc. Some are written with either -se or -ze. (See List 3.) I iS) Compound Consonants The sound of ks is represented by x, but also by ks, cks (cs) and kes as in tax, tanks, tacks, and takes. (a) x is used in words in which the combination is permanent; as lax, tax, war, Sex, Vex, fix, mix, ox, box, coax, Manx, minx; next, text. Note axe (with final e but short vowel) in English use (U. S. av). (b) ks is used when -s is added to form the plural, or the third person singular, of a word ending in k, as beaks, creaks, seeks, oaks, rooks; barks, clerks, forks; banks. (c) cks occurs when -s is added to a word ending in ck, as lacks, tacks, whacks, recks, bricks, flocks, ducks. The plural of sac is naturally sacs. (d) kes occurs when -s is added to a word ending in ke, as bakes, takes, likes, chokes, pokes, dukes. The sound of tsh is represented at the beginning of words by ch, as in chat, cheek, chin; at the end by ch or tch, as in reach, catch. ch is used after long vowels, as in beach, reach, eee eer aee H f | ; a nid16 NATIVE AND.ALLIED TYPES teach, beech, speech, coach, pouch; after 1 and r, as in belch, filch; arch, march, perch, birch, church; and after n as in branch, haunch, French, trench, finch, bunch. After 1 and n, however, the sound is fre- quently reduced to sh. tch is used after short vowels, as in catch, match, fetch, witch, botch, Scotch, crutch, Dutch. But ch alone is written in much, such, rich, which. 3. The sound of dzh is represented at the beginning of words by j or g; at the end by ge, or dge. J is used before all vowels, as jack, jest, jib, job, just; g with this value only before e and i, as in gem, gent, germ, gest, gibe, gill (measure), Gill, gin, gist. No native word begins with this sound; the majority are of French or Latin origin. (Cf. Part LL) ge is used after long vowels, and after 1, n, and r, as cage, rage, liege, siege, huge; bilge, bulge; flange, cringe ; charge, merge, urge. dge is used after short vowels, as badge, hedge, bridge, lodge, judge. 4. The sound of ng (as in long) + k, occurring only at the end of a syllable, is represented by nk, as in blank, link, trunk. An exceptional form is zinc. The Vowels By the ‘short vowels’ of English are commonly meant those heard in the words cap, pet, pit, top, cut. But u also frequently denotes the vowel heard in put,WORDS OF ONE SYLLABLE 17 push. The number of short vowels occurring in mono- syllables is therefore six. Short a is not normally represented by any other let- ter. Short e is frequently represented by ea, and short o by a. Short 1 may be represented by y, but not in native monosyllables, except a few proper names, as Lynn, Pym. The u of cut is frequently represented by o, and that of put by oo. For examples of these vari- ants see chap. 111. A word containing a short vowel normally ends in one or more consonants, as ten, tend, tends; shell, shelf ; long, length; but after two consonants many words havea finale. This -e is necessary after c and g, when these express the sound of s and j, as in fence, dunce, bridge, hinge; it distinguishes the sound of s from that of z in such words as else, grilse, pulse, dense, tense, as compared with ells, grills, pulls, dens, tens; it is regu- larly written after v, as in delve, helve, shelve, twelve; and in a few other words, as lapse, ave (Eng.), adze (Eng.), bronze. The ‘long vowels’ of English are those which are heard in the words take, eve, wide, home, tune; ma, law, room. ‘The first five correspond to the names of the letters a, e, i, 0, u; of these 1 and wu are actually diphthongs, as are also a and o in standard English pro- nunciation. In some interjections the length of the vowel is in- dicated by the addition of h, as in ah, bah, pah, eh, oh (also 0), boh (also bo), foh, poh, pooh. ee es | , f | | es ae ed18 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES In addition to these ways of representing the long vowels, a number of others are commonly employed. I. The long a of take can be represented by ai as in ail, bait, gain, main, paint, strait ay “ “ bay, clay, day, lay, stay, way el, ey, as in feint, veil, vein; prey, they, whey 2. The long e of eve is more commonly represented by ee as in bee, fice, tree; creep, leek, weep ea “ “ bean, clean, deal, leap, read, steal ie “ “ field, fiend, grief, mien, priest, yield 3. The long 1 of wide is also represented by ie as in die, lie, pie, tie, vie y ~ “ by, cry, fly, try, why ye“ “ dye, rye. Also y-e in dialect or archaic forms, as byke, byre, dyke (and dike), lyke (wake); and in (Eng.) tyre (of a wheel) = (U. S.) tive. For y and y-e in words of Greek origin, see Part II, chap. ii. 4. The long 0 of home is also represented by O as in go, no, so oe “ “ doe, foe, hoe, roe, toe oa “ “ boat, coal, float, moan, toast 5. The long u of tune is also represented by ue as in cue, due, hue, sue ew “ “ dew, few, hew, mew, news 6. The vowel of ma, pa, is usually expressed by a, as in these words, or by ah (see above). | Mi ; i i ) { j a eeWORDS OF ONE SYLLABLE 19 7. The vowel of law is also expressed by au as in caul, fault, fraud, haul, laud For further variations in the notation of the short and long vowels see chap. iii. The Diphthongs The diphthong heard in boil is written with oi before consonants, as coil, coin, point, noise, and with oy when final, as boy, joy, toy. It is not a native sound and oc- curs chiefly in words from older French. The diphthong heard in loud is written with ou be- fore consonants, as in cloud, pound, stout; with ow when final, as in cow, how, now, and in some words before 1 and n, as fowl, howl, clown, down (but not in foul adj., noun), also before d in crowd. The Vowels before -r The five short vowels are normally lengthened be- fore r; ar is pronounced with the a of ma, and the combinations -er, -ir become nearly or altogether the same in sound as -ur. This change is not denoted in any way in writing; the spelling is the same as if the vowels remained short and distinct (as they do in Scottish, except a which is lengthened in certain words), e.g. far, hard, fern, serve, stir, girl, form, sort, fur, turn. | | I iee 4 4 | i H a eae Ce ee a a 20 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES The long vowels acquire a more open sound before -r, but this is not denoted by the spelling ; fare is written on the same model as fame; so near and neat; mire and mine; store and stone; moor and mood. The Southern English lengthening of a and o in such words as staff, shaft, chance, plant, ask, mast, bath, path; off, soft, cross, post, cloth, is also left unrepre- sented in the spelling, which is based upon the original short sound of the vowels in these words.CHAPTER II WORDS OF TWO OR MORE SYLLABLES By the adding of suffixes a large number of words of two syllables are formed from monosyllables, e. g. rob, robber, robbing; silk, silken, silky; short, shorten, shortly, shortness; stout, stouter, stoutest, stowtish, stoutness. Many other words also occur in English, which, though not formed in exactly the same manner, belong to the same types and are spelled on the same principles. With regard to all these the following points have to be observed: I. When the ending begins with or consists of a vowel (as -ed, -en, -er, -ing, -ish, -y), a short vowel in the stem is normally indicated by two or more con- sonants following it, as in handed, handing, handy; milker, milking, milky; lodger, lodging; catching, catchy; lengthen, lengthy. On this account, if a short-vowelled monosyllable ends in one consonant, this is doubled before an ending beginning with a vowel, as in hopping from hop, other- wise the distinction between long and short vowels would be obscured, and hoping might be formed from either hop or hope. Hence the frequency of such forms 21 \ , t ; { ; | i 1y om ee RE A al ee 22 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES as happy, rubber, setter, sadder, bigger, swimming, sunny, etc. There is, however, no doubling of v, so that giver, giving, have the vowel short as in give, with- out distinction in spelling from the long i in diver, div- ing. A consonant already doubled remains, as in stiff, stiffer, stiffish (also stiffly, stiffness), pass, passer, passing; tell, teller, telling; crack, cracker, cracking. But Il is reduced to 1 before the ending -ly, as in dully, fully, and optionally before -ness, as dul(l)ness, ful(l)ness. Also in skilful, wilful, fulfil, thraldom. Examples of words with short vowels which are not directly formed from monosyllables are :-— apple, dapper, ripple, supper; rabble, pebble, dibble, rubbish; mattock, letter, mitten, butter; adder, meddle, riddle, sudden; cackle, sickle, buckle; haggard, higgle, nugget; raffle, differ, scuffie; gather, tether, hither; hassock, whistle, jostle; amber, nvmble, number, dimple, bundle, under, banter, etc. 2. If a monosyllable containing a long vowel ends in -€, this is suppressed before endings which begin with a vowel as wade, waded, wader, wading ; but not in other cases, as wide, widely, wideness. In all such cases a vowel before a single consonant is normally long: con- trast latter, later; better, Peter; hidden, hiding; hopping, hoping; stunning, tuning. 3. Such forms as fail, speak, roar, boil, shout, bark, perch, form, etc., naturally undergo no change beforeWORDS OF TWO OR MORE SYLLABLES = 23 any ending, as the nature of the vowel is already indi- cated in the spelling. ENDINGS The chief endings (not always of uniform origin) to be found in words of this class are the following: Beginning with a Vowel -ar beggar, cellar, collar; liar -ard haggard, niggard, blizzard, buzzard; coward -ed hatted, petted, podded, studded ; booted -el barrel, vessel, morsel, cudgel -en garden, happen, fatten, mitten; heathen -er adder, banker, ledger, temper; paper, piper -est largest, reddest, strongest ; leanest, whitest -et bracket, basket, limpet, socket, bucket -ic attic, classic, traffic, public; tunic -id pallid, limpid, horrid; stupid -ing matting, bedding, stocking, running; reading -ish brackish, reddish, thinnish, longish; whitish -ist artist, faddist, druggist; typist -it rabbit, sennit, summit, worrit -ock haddock, mattock, hillock, hummock, tussock -om fathom, bottom, blossom, buxom -On wagon, ribbon, button; bacon, beacon -or actor, doctor; sailor, tailor -ot ballot, carrot, maggot; pilot -y happy, eddy, ruddy; baby, easy, lazy NE TI eat 8 | |Seen meat tee eed , | i HI as eerie ee eet ee ee ee ae ee 24 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES Beginning with a Consonant -dom kingdom, serfdom, wisdom; freedom -le ankle, settle, middle, bottle; needle -ler rattler, settler, cobbler, cutler -less artless, endless, sinless, witless; tuneless -ly badly, shortly ; lately, newly, wisely -ness freshness, hardness, softness; rawness, slowness -ship hardship, lordship, worship; township Before -le, a double consonant is written after a short vowel, and a single consonant after a long; com- pare saddle, cradle; pebble, feeble; riddle, bridle; cobble, noble; rubble, ruble. See chap. iii. The e of -le is lost before endings beginning with a vowel, as settle, settled, settler, settling; rattle, rattly; but remains before consonants, as settlement, brittleness. In all the words given above the stress falls on the first syllable. There are also many words of which the spelling is regular, in which the stress falls on the sec- ond syllable. The difference between the two classes may be clearly observed by comparing the following pairs of words: ha’ggard, rega’rd; le’tter, dete’r; a’rtist, vesi’st; stu’pid, forbid; su’mnut, permit ; bu’tton, upo’n. When the stress falls on the second syllable, the rules for the spelling of monosyllables apply. Words with this stressing may belong either to the native or theWORDS OF TWO OR MORE SYLLABLES 25 ae foreign element of the language. Many of the latter, however, have special features which are illustrated in Parts II and III. Others are included here. Miscellaneous Examples of Common Types I. With Short Vowels aback, dispatch, mischance, perhaps, remand afresh, bedeck, defend, forget, regret adrift, befit, enrich, forbid, permit across, aloft, belong, beyond, despond abut, bestud, consult, disgust, rebut 2. With Vowels Before r apart, disarm, enlarge, regard, remark concern, converse, deter, prefer, subvert athirst, confirm, infirm, unfit, ungird adorn, consort, inform, remorse, retort absurd, concur, imburse, return, unfurl 3. With Long Vowels or Diphthongs (There is naturally the same variety in the repre- sentation of these as in the simple words. ) I. awake; abate, escape, evade, regale afraid, await; astray, defray; unveil . asleep, between; agree, esteem, proceed beneath, bequeath ; demean, repeat, reveal . alike, beside; despise, divine, provide belie, untie; decry, defy, espy to Gn Pe nae ae : | | f I rs‘ ,) i b ‘ f ae a ett a nn ee ee aS ene 26 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES 4. abode, alone; devote, explode, remote bemoan, approach, encroach; ago, hallo 5. endue, ensue; denude, dispute, obtuse askew, bedew, renew . because, default, defraud; guffaw, withdraw . befool, behoof ; baboon, dragoon, saloon . adroit, despoil, uncoil; convoy, employ . abound, aloud, devout; avow, renown oO’ NS: GOS From the above types, words of three syllables are frequently formed by the addition of endings, espe- cially -er, -ing, -ish, and -y as gather, gatherer, gather- ing ; kitten, kittenish; hillock, hillocky; and -less, -ness, as fathomless, meaningless, suddenness. Note the in- sertion of k in traffic, trafficker, trafficking. When the stress is on the second syllable, the doubling of the con- sonant after the short vowels has to be noticed, as befit, befitting; begin, beginner; forbid, forbidden. In this, as in other respects, the spelling of these words follows the general rules already laid down.CHAPTER IM IRREGULAR AND AMBIGUOUS FORMS In the words illustrated in the preceding chapters the spelling is based on definite principles, and uncertainty can arise only in a limited number of instances, such as the use of s or c, of S or Z, of g and j to express the same sounds. There are, however, many words in which, for one reason or another, these principles are disturbed, and the spelling fails to denote the sound with perfect cer- tainty, or suggests a pronunciation which is not the true or usual one. The chief varieties of these irregularities are the following. Consonants 1. The rule that a short vowel is followed by two or more consonants, and a long vowel by a single con- sonant, does not apply in a number of instances. The absence of doubling is specially to be noted in the case of v, which is written single after both long and short vowels, as in having, saving; séven, even; liver, diver; hover, rover; the number of words with short a, e, 1, and o before v is very large. It is doubled only in a mt j ; ‘ } t i | i " i TUG AE een L b f H h 4 i ' , Y t= ~~ Se ae eel a ae ee eee 28 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES navvy to distinguish that word from navy. Other in- stances of lack of doubling in native or naturalized types are linen, widow, British; risen; lizard, wizard, wizen; body; dozen; bosom, woman. But the great majority of words of this type are of classical or Ro- manic origin: see Part II, chap. ii. Single consonants are also written after double vowels, even when these denote a short sound, e. g. in ready, steady, deafen, weapon; bloody, flooded, double, trouble, couple, in contrast to such words as reddish, ruddy, budded, bubble, supple, which have the same vowels. Before the ending -ler some words have t, as butler, cutler, others tt as settler, tattler (from settle, tattle). Note also medlar, meddler; pedlar, -ler, and peddler. 2. No distinction is made in spelling between the th of frothy and that of brother, which differ as in breath and breathe. ‘The latter is the more frequent sound, as in brother, clothing, father, fathom, feather, gather, etc. The commonest words with the th of breath are filthy, frothy, healthy, lengthen, monthly, pithy, slothful, strengthen, wealthy; either sound is used in smithy. In such words as athirst, athwart, enthrall, the th is naturally that of thin. 3. No distinction is made in spelling between the single and double sounds of ng which are heard in singer and finger. The latter (= ng + g) is the more usual, as in anger, angler, bangle, bungle, conger,IRREGULAR FORMS 29 dangle, etc., and in longer, longest; stronger, strongest; younger, youngest. The former occurs mainly in de- rivatives from verbs, as hanger, hanging; singer, sing- ing. 4. Unusual ways of representing the consonants are: fby gh, in draught, laugh (laughing, laughter), chough, cough (coughing), enough, rough (rougher, etc.), slough (= skin), tough, trough. p by gh in hiccough (also, and properly, hiccup). k “ ghin hough (= hock) “ch in ache (= ake) g “ gh in aghast, ghastly, ghost (ghostly) “ guin guess, guest, guild (also gild), guilt. See Part II, chap. ii, pp. 72-3. t by d in the ending -ed (see chap. iv). In eighth the th denotes the double sound ¢ (as in eight) fol- lowed by th (as in ninth). s by sc in scythe (properly sythe or sithe). “cin cinder (properly sinder). “e zZ “ ss in hussy. Vowels Irregularities in these arise by (a) using one vowel to represent a sound usually expressed by another, (b) using short-vowel types when the vowel is long, and long-vowel types when it is short. In some cases both features are present. : : ! i U } b f 1 i ;; ee See ae aes hem ee eee 30 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES A Exceptional representations of the short vowels oc- cur in any, many (with a= é); England, English, pretty (with e =1); women (with o =i), once, one (with o = wil); bury (with u=é6), busy, business (with'u =i). Other instances of variation in the use of short and long vowels fall under the following headings. 1. The 0 of pot is represented by a after w (sw, tw), wh and qu (squ), as in want, watch (swamp, twaddle), what, quarrel (squabble). The number of these is considerable, and only a few are written with O as quod (prison), swob (and swab), swop (and swap) wobble (and wabble). See List 4. a is also written for o in scallop. 2. The u of cut is represented by 0, in a considerable number of words, chiefly before m, n, ng, th, v, and after w, as in some, son, among, other, dove, word. see List 5. 3. Ihe vowel of put is not distinguished from that of cut in a number of words beginning with b, p, and f, as bull, bush, butcher, pudding, pull, push, puss, put; full (adj. and verb), fuller; also in the ending -ful, as awful, dreadful. See List 8. This vowel is also denoted by 0 in to, bosom, wolf, woman, worsted. 4. The long a of fate, fare is denoted by e-e in ere (before), there, where, e’er (ever), ne'erIRREGULAR FORMS 31 (= never) ; and by ea in yea; bear, pear, swear, tear, wear; break, steak, great. 5. The long e of feat, fear, is denoted by eiin a few words, viz., either, neither (also pronounced with a long 1), sheiling, weir, weird, and by ey in key. Other words having ei with this value are of Romanic origin: see Part II, chap. 11. Also ie in a number of words, as belief, believe, bier, field, fiend, priest, thief. See List 24. 6. The long i of fry is denoted in a small number of words by ai, ay, ei, ey, viz., in ay or aye (= yes); heigh-ho, height, sleight, either, neither (see above) ; eye, eyot. 7. The long 0 of mote, moresis denoted by ou, as in boulder, dough, soul (see List 9), and by ow, as in blow, crow, bowl, own (see List 10). Ow also occurs freely in terminal unstressed syllables, as in arrow, bellow, billow, borrow, elbow, fellow, gallows, etc., and ough in borough, furlough, thorough. But felloe (of a wheel) has oe. 8. The a of ah is represented by au in aunt and (varying with the aw of law) in daunt, gaunt, haunf, haunch, launch, paunch; in draught (also draft), laugh, the vowel is variously pronounced as long or short. This vowel in combination with r, regularly written ar as in far, farm, is exceptionally represented by er in clerk, Derby (Eng., not U. S.); sergeant. Compare the similar use of ear in heart, etc. (p. 33). These exceptions are due to the retention of an old spelling f , | } { | rs 4 H 4 i Hi | 1}a i U a I eR ee es ee 32 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES when the sound had normally changed from er to ar, as in dark, start, from older derk, stert. 9. The aw of Jaw, or a sound approximating to this, is denoted by oa, 00, and ou, in broad, broaden, abroad; door, floor; bought, brought, fought, nought, ought, sought, thought, wrought; bourn, course, con- course, court, four, fourth, mourn, pour, source. 10. The 00 of room is represented in a variety of ways which normally denote other sounds, as o in do, ado, two, who, whose, whom, womb; oe, o-e in shoe, combe, lose; also in move, prove, etc. (see Part. II, pp. 62-3). ou in brougham, ousel, stoup, through, wound, you, your, youth, and in many Romanic words. (See Part IT, chap. ii.) uin ruth (ruthful), truly, truth (truthful) ue, u-e, in clue, gruesome, rue, rueful, slue (also slew), true; fluke, rune, Yule, and in a number of Ro- manic words. See List 32. ew in brew, chew, shrew, strew, etc., and past tenses like blew, drew. See List 11. eu in sleuth (hound). B Short vowels are expressed by long-vowel types of spelling in the following instances. I. In the monosyllables bade, have, give, live, gone, shone; in many words of two syllables with media 7) UsTRREGULAR FORMS 33 as gravel, clever, liver (see List 12); and in a few words with other consonants as British, body, etc. (see p. 28 above). 2. In many words with o = short u, occurring espe- cially before m, n, and v, as in come, none, dove (see Joist 5). 3. In words with ou = short u, as couple, double, trouble, flourish, enough (see List 6). Also with oo denoting the same sound in blood, flood. 4. In a few words with ou or ow = short 0, viz., cough, trough, hough; knowledge, acknowledge. 5. In words with short 00 (— u in put), as book, foot, good (see List 7). Also with ou denoting the same sound in could, should, would. 6. In many words with ea = short e, as head, deaf, breath, breast; deafen, heaven, etc. (See List 13.) The contrast between this use of ea and its normal value (= long e) may be seen in héather, heathen; wéather, breather; héavy, heaving; léaven, leaving. 7. In a few words with ea = short a, as hearken (but hark), heart (in contrast to hart deer), hearth. 8. In the exceptional words again (pron. with a or €), said, says (with é), heifer (ei =€é), friend (1e = e), vineyard (vin-), livelong (liv-), rowlock (ow =u), twopence, -penny (tupp-), threepence, -penny (thripp-). Long vowels are denoted by single letters before two or more consonants in a certain number of combina- tions. } if i \ i hi 4 yf ee eS ee ee, eee ee eee 34 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES 1. Long a by ain the words cradle, ladle, maple, acre, hatred. ‘This type of spelling is much more frequent in words of Romanic origin: see Part II, chap. ii. 2. The a of pa by a, chiefly before lf, lve, lm (with silent 1), as in half, halve, palm (see List 14), and be- fore th in father, wrath (also with aw), and (Eng.) rather. 3. The aw of law by a before ll, or 1 followed by another consonant, as in call, bald, halt, caldron, wal- nut; also with 1 silent, as in talk (see List 15). 4. The long i of time by i before gh, as in high, bright, alight (see List 16), before 1d and nd, as in child, blind, and some other groups, as bridle, idle, sidle, stifle, climb, Christ (see List 17). Other examples oc- cur in Romanic words: see Part II, chap. ii. 5. The long 0 of home by 0, especially before -ld, -Il, -It, -st, -th as in bold, droll, colt, post, troth (see List 18). Interchange of i(e) and y Nouns ending in y change this into ie in the plural, as cry, cries; fly, flies; filly, fillies; story, stories. Verbs ending in y similarly have ie before s and d, as try, tries, tried; carry, carries, carried. This change does not take place if the noun or verb end in ay (except in laid, said from lay, say), ey, Oy, or ye, e. g., prey, preys, preyed. Final y is changed to i in some derivative forms, asIRREGULAR FORMS wt 3 daily from day, gaily, gaiety from gay. This is regu- lar before e in unstressed syllables, as carrier from carry; merrier from merry; skinniest from skinny. There is considerable variation in the use of ey and ie in the endings of nouns and adjectives, in place of the more usual y. For examples see List 19. | if | eeon 2m —— . | i y et ee — 7 oe Cis ae eS ead CHAPTER IV SILENT LETTERS In the spelling of English a certain number of letters are written which are not sounded in the spoken words. Usually these represent sounds which were formerly ut- tered but have now been dropped, or they have been in- serted at some time to make the origin of the word clearer. Ina small number of instances they have been inserted in error. Most of these silent letters are consonants. The silent letters which occur in native words, and some others which agree in form with these, are the following. Consonants b_ when final after m, as in jamb, lamb, limb, climb, bomb, comb, womb, tomb, coomb, crumb, dumb, numb (benumb), plumb, succumb, thumb; and in the derivatives of these, as lambing, lambkin, climber, bomber, combing, etc. d in handkerchief, handsel, handsome g when initial before n, as in guar, gnarl(ed), gnash, gnat, gnaw, gnome. (For -gn as in sign, see Part IT, chap. iii.) 36SILENT LETTERS 37 gh after vowels in all words except the few in which it is pronounced as f (see chap. iii.), or exceptionally as in hough (see List 20). h in forehead, shepherd; Barham, Chatham, etc. (For initial silent h see Part II, chap. iii.) k when initial before n as knack, knacker, knag, knap, knapsack, knar, knave, knead, knee, kneel, knell, knickerbocker, knick-knack, knife, knight, knit, knob, knock, knoll, knop, knot, know, knowledge, knub, knuckle, knur, knurl 1 inthe combinations -alf, -alk, -alm, -alve (see Lists 14,15). Also in folk, yolk, holm n in kiln (but also pronounced) p may be silent, or very slightly pronounced, in the groups mps, mpt, as in glimpse, Simpson, Hamp- ton (Cf. p. 69.) r inthe noun worsted (o = short 00) S (inserted by error) in island (see Part II, chap. iii.) t after s, especially in the combinations -sten, and -Stle, as in chasten, christen, fasten, glisten, hasten, listen; chestnut, Christmas; bristle (bristly), bustle, castle, gristle (gristly), hostler, jostle, mistletoe, nestle, pestle, rustle, thistle, throstle, trestle, whistle. Also after f in often, soften. w when initial before r, as in wrack, wraith, wrangle, : i Af | + U 1 j f t Y i iE HH: | ; wrap, wrasse, wrath, wreak, wreath, wreck, wren, wrench, wrest, wrestle, wretch, wrick, wriggle, wright, wring, wrinkle, wrist, writ, write, writhe, wrong, wroth, wry; a-wry, be-wray/ 4 a = a a a ee eS ne 38 NATIVE AND ALLIED TYPES before h in who (whose, whom), whole (whole- some, etc.), whoop, whore after s in answer, boatswain, coxswain, sword; and in gunwale (also written gunnel) after t in two Vowels The letter e is written but not pronounced in the fol- lowing cases: I. At the end of words, partly to indicate a long vowel (as in mate, mete, mite, mote, mute), partly after certain consonants as ¢, g, S, Vv, e. g., fence, hinge, dense, same. | (ACT, 1p) 17.) 2. In the ending -es when the preceding sound is not a sibilant (i.e., is not s, Zz, sh, ch, j, or their equiva- lents), as makes, metes, mites; tunes, serves, etc. 3. In the ending -ed when t or d does not precede, as robbed, dragged, judged, turned, served, etc. (But ex- ceptionally some words may have this e sounded, as blessed, beloved, and frequently in poetry.) After this silent e the d is written when t is actually pronounced, as in capped, backed, asked, stuffed, matched, kissed, taxed, etc. In consequence of this there are many words pronounced alike but differently written, with -ed or with -t, according to their origin. Those with -t are usually Romanic. Examples are packed, pact; tacked, tact; tracked, tract; picked, Pict; ducked, duct; rapped, rapt; massed, mast; missed, mist; trussed, trust. In passed and pastSILENT LETTERS 39 both spellings occur. Some past tenses have only the t form, as crept, slept, kept, wept, felt. Others have double forms as dreamed (with d), dreamt; leaped, leapt. Exceptional instances of silent vowels in native types are ¢ in yeoman; 7 in business; u in build, buy. The retention of an older spelling, while the sounds have been reduced, accounts for the exceptional forms boatswain (= boas’n), corswain (= cocks’n), cup- board (=cubbard), forecastle (= focsle), watstcoat (optionally = wescut), halfpenny (= haypéni), Wed- nesday (== Wenzday). Gloucester ( =Gloster), Worcester (== Wooster), and many other names of places and persons, exhibit similar irregularities. ) i i} | ; i i | k i]ee j U a ne te i aPART II THE CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES 1 | i oa ogre emt ; f i } i f, SLE em Ot eed Pw ed eeCHAPTER I CONSONANTS 1. Double consonants after short stressed vowels are common in this, as in the previous types, although the absence of any rule in this respect is a feature which has to be specially noticed (see chap. ii). Instances of words exhibiting double consonants are: cc peccant, siccative, flocculent, occupy ff differ, offer, proffer, suffer ll ballad, gallop, propeller, repellent mm ammonite, comment, commerce, common mn annals, annular, banner, bonnet pp appetite, applicant, opportune, opposite tr arrogant, barricade, error, mirror, horrid ss cassock, incessant, fissile, fossil, gusset 2. When occurring finally after short stressed vow- els, land r are written single, but s is doubled, e. g. 1 as in canal; compel, expel, dispel, impel (etc.) ; distil, instil, nil; annul. Also in appal, control, enrol, extol. 43 1 \ ! : | : A, | Fi t= EER Rt Si re Ete ne 44 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES r as in confer, defer, refer, deter; concur, occur, demur. SS as in amass, confess, depress, express (etc.), di- gress, distress; dismiss, discuss. The land r are naturally doubled in derivative forms, as: appalling, compelling; deterrent, concurrence, de- murrer. But not in conference, deference, reference, in which the er is unstressed. 3. When occurring finally after short unstressed vowels, 1 is written single, but f and s are doubled. I as in cancel, gravel, marvel, revel, travel; argil, council, idol; but idyll and id yl, ff as in bailiff, caitiff, mastiff, plaintiff, pontiff (but pontifical). SS as in carcass (also carcase), compass, embarrass, trespass ; access, congress, harness, mattress, proc- ess, progress. But premise (and _ premiss), promuse, purpose. Note canvas and canvass in different senses. In derivatives of words ending in -1, American usage requires one 1, while British has ll, e. g., marvelous, marvellous; traveler, traveller. 4. In native words of the type aback, along, amid, the unstressed short vowel is followed by a single conso- nant. This is also the case in many words of RomanicCONSONANTS 45 or classical origin, as abash, alert, amass, the spelling of which thus agrees completely with the native types. In a large number of words, however, the unstressed vowel is followed by a double consonant, as in accord, adduce, affix, allot, etc. In such forms the first consonant be- longs to the Latin or Greek prefix, and the second to the stem. The following examples illustrate the combina- tions of the various consonants which thus occur. bb as in abbreviate (but abridge) pe acclaim, Occur, succumb, ecclesiastic. Also cqu in acquaint, acquest, acquiesce, acquire, acquit dd as in addict, address, adduce ff “ « affect. diffuse, efface, offend, suffuse fos a -apprieve (but agree) ; suggest il «“ « allow, collapse, collide, ellipse, illude mm “ “ command, commend, comment, commit, immune nn as in annex, annul, connect, innate pp oes apply,zoppose, suppress se “ec rr arrest, corrupt, irruption, surround ss “ “ assail, assault; (= Z) dissolve, possess tt “ “ attack, attempt. More rarely the double consonant after an unstressed vowel has a different origin, as in desiccate, paraffine, parallax, parallel, embassy, emissary, gazetteer. ee aad | a ! | :46 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES One of the most prominent features of the Romanic and Classical types, is the variety of symbols employed to denote the sibilant sounds. This is the result of the extensive palatalizing of the sounds of s, k, t, and g, which took place in the early periods of the Romanic tongues, and finally gave rise to new pronunciations while the old spelling was largely retained. The vari- ous modes of representing the sounds of s, z, sh, etc., are the following: I. The sound of s is denoted by S as in asperse, basis, counsel, disuse (n.), morsel, prophesy (v.) SS as in assess, dissipate, essay, fissile, fossil c “ “acid, advice, center, civil, dulcet, proph- ecy (n.) Sc as in abscess, ascend, crescent, proboscis, scene, scent; acquiesce, coalesce, convalesce, effer- vesce, precognosce. 2. The sound of ks is denoted by xX aS in annex, context, flexible, maxim cs “ “ ecstasy, ecstatic (also ext-) cc accede, eccentric, flaccid, occident xc “ “ exceed, excise, excite xs “ “ exsect, exsiccate =xsc “ “ exscnd 3. The sound of z is denoted by Z as in amaze, assize, baptize, citizen, lizardCONSONANTS 47 s as in accuse, advise, closet, desert; baptism, chasm, spasm Also after an unstressed vowel, as in deserve, disaster, disease, preside, resemble, resent, resolve, presume. In the same position the letter x may represent the sound of gz instead of the normal ks, as in exalt, examine, ex- ample, exempt, etc. Compare exist (= egzist), with exit (= eksit). ss as in scissors; and after an unstressed vowel in dessert, dissolve, possess sc as in discern (also pronounced with s) There is frequent identity of spelling between words pronounced with s and with zZ, e.g., use ( noun) and use (verb) ; abuse (noun) and abuse (verb) ; close (adj.) and close (verb); diffuse (adj.) and diffuse (verb) ; note also pu’rpose with s, but propo’se with z. In other pairs the difference is shown by the spelling, as advice, advise; device, devise. 4. The sound of sh is denoted by sh, when final, as in anguish, brandish, cherish, famish, finish, furnish; admomsh, astonish, de- molish, diminish, embellish, etc. (and deriva- tives from these as astonishment) ; also in cush- ion, fashion, marshal. sch, in schist, schistose, seneschal; (Eng.) schedule. s, initially only in sure (ensure, insure), sugar; medially in censure, sensual, tonsure. si, after 1, n, r, in -sion, as in compulsion, convul- sion; declension, expansion, extension, recen- es ee el , i ; i Hi | t ‘i t , f A{ ed et ees eed 48 SS, SSI, ce, chi, SCi, CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES SION, SCansion; aspersion, excursion, immersion; also in Asta, Persia. in assure, assurance, fissure, pressure; * issue, * tissue. as in admission, aggression, cession, compas- sion, depression, etc.; cassia, Prussia, Russia. as in cetacean, cretaceous, fabaceous, setaceous, etc. ; ocean; sericeous, siliceous. as in ancient, commercial, deficient, facial, fi- nancial, gracious, precious, special, vicious, ete. This use of ce and ci occurs particularly in the endings -aceous, -iceous; -acious, -ocious: -iCial, -ician. in stanchion. Also varying with the fuller sound tsh in falchion, and similarly che in luncheon, puncheon, truncheon. in conscience, conscious, luscious, nescience, nes- cient, ommiscience, omniscient. in many words in the endings -tion, -tious, -tial, etc., as action, addition, attention, caution, de- ception, devotion, etc. ; ambitious, cautious, con- tentious, facetious, fictitious, etc.; deferential, essential, influential, initial, martial; Egyptian, gentian, Helvetian, Lilliputian, tertian, Vene- tian; consentient, (im) patience, -ient, quotient, sentient. in otiose, expatiate, ingratiate, licentiate, negoti- ate, table, novitiate, propitiate, satiate, vitiate.CONSONANTS 49 5. The sound of ksh is represented by cti, in the endings -ction, -ctious, as in action, affec- tion, affliction, auction, correction, direction, dis- section, inspection, etc.; fractious, infectious. xi, in the endings -xion, -xlous, as in complexion, crucifixion, defluxion, flexion (also flection), reflexion (also reflection) ; noxious, mnoxious, obnoxious. 6. The sound of zh is denoted by Z, in azure. zi, in brazier, crozier (crosier), grazier. (But these are also pronounced with 21. ) s, as in casual, usual, visual; composure, embrasure, evasure, exposure ; leisure, measure, pleasure, treasure ; usurer, USUrY. Si, as in hosier, osier, and especially in the ending -sion after vowels, as abrasion, adhesion, allusion, collision, conclusion, confusion, etc. 7. The sound of ch (= tsh) in chase is usually so writ- ten, as in achieve, approach, attach, archer, bachelor, de- bauch, merchant, niche, ostrich, purchase, urchin. Final e appears in niche. It is rarely expressed by tch as in dispatch, es- cutcheon. 8. The sound of j (in jug) is represented by j, initially as in Jacobite, jactation, jaculate, Janu- ate ae ae ee | i | | | 4 Sn tee ae50 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES ary, jasmune, jasper, jaundice, etc.: after pre- fixes as in abject, abjure, conjecture, conjugal, conjunct, dejected, disjoin, ejaculate, eject, enjoy: and medially as in cajole, majestic, maj- esty, majolica, major, majority, marjoram, so- journ, Trojan. dj, when the Latin prefix ad- is followed by a stem beginning with j, as in adjacent, adjective, ad- join, adjourn, etc. g, before e, i and y, ina large number of words, both initially as in gelatine, geminate, gemmule, gender, general, giant, gibbet, gigantic, ginger, gipsy, and internally or finally after both vowels and consonants, as in allege, allegiance, cogent, cogitate, college, contagion, digest, digit, dili- gent, etc., angel, avenge, burgess, converge, dan- ger, disgorge, divulge, energy. dge, finally as in abridge, cartridge, partridge, por- ridge; internally as in budget, gudgeon. (The origin of some similar forms as bludgeon, cur- mudgeon, dudgeon, widgeon, is doubtful.) Both dge and dg are written in abridg(e)- ment, judg(e)ment, lodg(e)ment (and the native acknowledg(e) ment). ————— - , i 4 H Hl ro t " a I ee ee ne ee a eh The representation of some other sounds may be noted. ey ae I. The sound of k is usually represented by c, ch, orCONSONANTS 51 qu, but in a few words -ke, or -ck are employed, e. g. -ke in convoke, evoke (etc.), rebuke, duke (but con- vocation, ducal). -ck in attack, re’beck (also rebec). ch in cachinnation, pulchritude, and many Greek words (see below). 2. The sound of ng-k (as in banker) is regularly represented by nec, as detruncate, peduncle, quidnunc, rancor, rancorous, uncle, and frequently before t, as adjunct, cincture, distinct, punctual, sanctify, tincture, etc. In words of Greek origin however, nch also oc- curs: see p. 53. For ng-kw (as in banquet) see 4 below. 3. The sound of ng-g (as in finger) is regularly represented by ng as in native words, e. g., Anglican, Anglo-, angular, clangor, conger, congregate, congress (etc.), elongate, fungous, ganglion, gangrene, singular, strangulate, ungulate, etc. For ng-gw (as in anguish) see 5 below. 4. The sound of kw is regularly denoted by qu, both initially, as in quadrangle, quadrant, qualify, quality, quantity, question, quiescent, etc., and internally, as in antiquarian, aquatic, aquiline, colloquial, consequence, eloquence, equity, etc. The comb. nqu expresses the sounds ng-kw, in ban- quet, conquest, delinquent, jonquil, propinquty, relin- quish, tranquil, vanquish, etc. 5. The sound of w is represented by u, after s, as in assuage, consuetude, dissuade, dissuasion, mansuetude, | | | F 3 H t ¢ 1h H c | kas Seat A me J RD 6T TP Ee ie ed a ae 52 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES persuade, persuasion, pursuivant, sudsion, suave, suav- ity, suite. The comb. ngu expresses the sounds ng-gw in an- guish, bilingual, consanguinity, distinguish, extinguish, inguinal, language, languid, languish, linguist, sangui- nary, unguent, etc. 6. The sound of y is frequently represented by i after land n, as in battalion, billiard, billion, brilliant, bullion, collier, medallion, million; bunion, companion, domin- ton, onion, opinion, postilion, trunnion, union. After t as in combustion, congestion, question, suggestion, the sound of ty tends to pass into tsh. In some words as guardian, radiant, salient, tedious, the pronunciation varies between the vowel i and the consonant y (rad-i- ant, or rad-yant). 7. The sound of h may occur internally (as in native words like behave, behold), e. g., in annihilate, appre- hend, cohabit (etc.), cohort, nihilism, nihilist, prehen- sile, prohibit, vehemence, vehicle, vehicular. In words which are ultimately of Greek origin cer- tain features of spelling are prominent, viz. I. ph with the sound of f, both initially, as in phan- tasm, pharmacy, phase, pial, philology, philosopher, phlegm, phonetic, etc., and in other positions as alphabet, amplubtous, aphorism, asphalt, asphyxiate, blaspheme, elephant, emphatic, euphemism, graphic, metaphor, etc.CONSONANTS 53 The number of such words in English is very great. In Sapphic, sapphire, the pph is also = f. A few words which came into English at an early date have f in place of ph, viz., fancy, fantastic, fantasy (but phantasm, phantom), frantic, frenetic (also phre- netic), frenzy; vial is also a variant of pial. Others which were formerly written with f have now ph, as pheasant, phlegm, for earlier fesaunt, fleme. 2. ch representing the sound of k, occurring in many words initially as chaos, character, chiromancy, chloric, choleric, choral, chrism, chromatic, and in other posi- tions as anachronism, anarchy, archaic, architect, batra- chian, brachial, catechism, conchology, distich, epoch, eucharist, hierarch, melancholy, etc. It may be noted that ch has this value in archangel, archidiaconal, archi- episcopal, but that of tsh in archbishop, archdeacon, etc. ech occurs in Bacchanal(ian). Initial sch- denotes the sound of sk, as in schedule (U. S.), schematic, scheme, schizo-, scholar, scholastic, scholiast, school. mnch has the value of ng-k, as in anchor, anchorite, bronchual, bronchitis, conch, conchoidal, conchology, splanchmce. 3. th with the breath: soviad, as in: thin? this algo oc- curs in many words jnitially as ‘in ‘thalassic; thalloid, thaumaturge, thearchy,:¢U. S:) theater, ( Exig. ;theatre ), theme, theology, etc., and in othet pdsiiions as wsthetic, amethyst, anathema, anthropoid, antipathy, catholic, Corinthian, enthusiasm, hyacinth, mathematics, etc. 4. For initial r, Greek words have rh-, as in rhap- sody, rhetoric, rheumatism, rhinoceros, rhizome, rhomb, | ' H i 7.) Hi i }54 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES rhyme, rhythm. On the analogy of these rh is also written in Rhetian, rhatany, Rhemish, Rhenish, Rhine, rhubarb. On the other hand rachis, rachitic, rachitis, etc., have r only. Similarly rrh for medial or final rr, as in catarrh, diarrhea, hemorrhage, hemorrhoid, myrrh, Pyrrhic, pyrrhonism, scirrhoid, scirrhous. 5. Lhe letter x with the sound of ks, is frequent in words of Greek origin, both medially and finally, as in apoplexy, asphyxiate, axiom, doxology, galaxy, lexicon, oxide, paroxysm; calyx, climax, lynx, onyx, phalanx, py, etc. It also occurs frequently in Latin words of similar form, as axial, dexterous, flexible, laxity, lux- ury, maxim, proximate; apex, appendix, complex, con- vex, index, prolix, etc. A large proportion of the x’s in English spelling are of this origin. Initial x with the sound of z occurs almost entirely in Greek words (mainly scientific or technical terms) as xanthate, Xanthan, xanthic, xenial, xenogamy, xiphoid, axylophone. e e@eeer 2 oee ef . .CHAPTER II VOWELS The feature in which the Classical and Romanic type of spelling differs most notably from the native or normal is in the failure of the rule that a short vowel is followed by a double consonant and a long vowel by a single, in such forms as hatter, hater; bitten, biter; bonny, bony; stunning, tuning. For words of Classical and Romanic origin no such rule can be laid down; the use of the single or double consonant depends almost entirely on etymology, and the length of a vowel before a single consonant is a matter of usage, not always ex- plicable from its original value. The contrast between the two principles may be seen in the two following sets of forms. In the first of these the same short vowels are followed by either double or single consonants, the former being the normal type. In the second, the spell- ing gives no clue to the distinction between short and long vowels, as each is alike followed by a single con- sonant. (1) added, adit; cannon, canon; meddle, medal ; met- tle, metal; fillip, Philip; Finnish, fimsh; copper, proper; horrid, florid. | Se‘ . i i A ) | RR mens ny eae a ee eee 56 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES (2) aloe, halo; arid, area; lemon, demon; present, recent; limit, climate; moral, oral; study, student; pun- ish, puny. No rule, therefore, except that of origin, can be given for the use of a single consonant after a short vowel in such words as acolyte, aliquot, Amazon, analyst, dac- tylic, compared with the double consonant in accolade, allocate, ammonite, annelid, idyllic. The proper spell- ing of each word must be learned separately. This lack of distinction between short and long vowel types in words of classical origin is frequently promi- nent in related or derivative forms. In these, the long vowel of the one, and the short vowel of the other, are represented in precisely the same way, and no general rule for distinguishing them can be given. Examples of this may be seen in compare, comparison; austere, austerity; atrocious, atrocity; revise, revision. Similar variations may be observed when the stress shifts from one syllable to another, as Ara’bian, A’rabic; aro’ma, aroma’tic; gra’mmar, gramma’rian; a’thlete, athle’tic; co’medy, come’dian; sa’tire, sati’rical; ’mpious, impr’- ety; me’lody, melo’dious, etc. Some examples of the short vowel before the single consonant are: a. adage, adamant, adequate, agate, agile, agitate; balance, banish, baronet, botanical; cabinet, calam-VOWELS 57 ity, calender, camel, canopy, capital, dramatist, family, etc. e. accelerate, amenity, angelic, ascetic, asperity, bene- fit, beverage, blemish, brevity, celebrate, celibate, cenotaph, decorate, dedicate, elegant, general, etc. i. ability, affinity, anticipate, bigamy, bilious, capitu- late, captivity, diligent, dividend, figure, liniment, livery, livid, etc. 0. abolish, admonish, anomalous, apologize, barom- eter, botanist, callosity, carbolic, dominant, florid, forest, globular, jocular, moderate, etc. u (rare). y (=i). nasty, hypocrite, lyric, myriad, physic, pyramid, ducat, pumice, punish, study chrysalis, cylinder, cynic, dactylic, dy- synonym, etc. The use of y with the value of short i is characteristic of a large number of words of Greek origin, and a few which are assimilated to these. Examples of common words are: crypt, cyst, hymn, lymph, lynx, myrrh, myth, nymph, pyx, rhythm; abyss, clyster, cryptic, crystal, cymbal, glyptic, gypsum, hymnal, hyssop, myrtle, mystic, mythic, pygmy, pyrrhic, rhyth- mic, symbol, tympan; amethyst, apocalypse, as- phyxiate, Assyrian, cataclysm, cryptogram, Egyptian, Elysian, homonym, etc, | HI i | a | 4 i} i ff i 4 i H i) a 5 me a oe a wes ee | 58 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES Also in unstressed syllables, as in: anonymous, apocryphal, Babylonian, barytone, cotyledon, dithyramb, dynastic, dyspeptic, em- bryo, etymology, gymnastic, hypnotic, etc. The sound of u in pull, occurring in unstressed sylla- bles in a limited number of words, is regularly denoted by u, as in affluent, altruistic, congruent, conjugal, in- fluence. In some others a long 00 is more usual, as fluidity, frugiferous, fruition, frutescent, judicial, judi- cious, rufescent, rugose. In all of these the sound re- sults from the absorption of the first element of the diphthong iu after 1, r, or j. An exceptional instance is ambush. In stressed syllables this value of u occurs in more than a dozen words of Romanic origin, as bul- let, bushel (see List 8). The Long Vowels These normally occur before single consonants, and in spelling are not distinguished from the short, e. g., amiable as compared with amicable; credence beside credit; miserly beside miserable; floral, florid; ducal, ducat. (Seeabove.) Miscellaneous examples of these long vowels are: a. agent, alien, blatant, capable, capacious, cranial, dative, extraneous, famous, labial, labour, latent, librarian, maniac, etc. e. aperient, Athenian, cedar, cereal, Cimmerian,VOWELS 59 comedian, convenient, decent, deletion, deteriorate, deviate, edict, egregious, expedient, etc. i. crisis, final, finite, idol, irony, libel, licence, minor, miser, pirate, pliable, primate, private, recital, ri- val, silent, etc. 0. bovine, cogent, colonial, copious, demoniac, docile, focal, glory, jovial, laborious, locust, memorial, melodious, molar, moment, motive, notable, etc. u. centurion, connubial, contusion, cubic, dubious, fumigate, funeral, human, humid, immunity, ma- turity, mural, mutable, numeral, peculiar, etc. An unstressed long u (= it) is also represented by that letter in a large number of words, as: angular, argument, bibulous, calculate, circular, dep- uty, document, educate, fabulous, muscular, ocular, opulent, popular, etc. In addition to such forms there are a large number of words of two syllables with a long vowel in the second. The spelling of these has already been partly treated in Part I, chap. ii, in so far as they follow the same rules as native words, e. g., decide, depose, devout, redound compared with beside, arose, about, around. For some types, however, the number of native words is small, while the foreign element is large, and other types are only found in the latter. The more notice- able of these are: a-e apace, disgrace; degrade, evade; assuage, pres- age; impale, regale; humane, inane; escape ; com- pare, prepare; erase; cremate, dictate ; deprave ; | | ' \ i ) HIP ri FY + i i i i ‘ t < e — SVN COS aR ot oe ee ee eat 60 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES e-e accede, recede, impede; extreme ; convene, serene; austere, severe ; obese; compete, complete, replete ; i-e describe, imbibe; confide, decide; deride; oblige; defile, revile; sublime; confine, recline; desire, expire; demise, despise ; connive, contrive ; o-e conglobe, disrobe; corrode, explode; convoke, invoke; console, parole; depone, postpone; de- plore, explore; depose, disclose ; connote, devote; u-e endue, imbue; induce, reduce; allude, denude; rebuke; consume, perfume (v.); attune; allure, demure; abuse, confuse; astute, dispute. The same endings also occur in words of three sylla- bles in which the accent is on the first or last, as: ag- gravate, excavate; contravene, persevere; homicide, ex- tradite; incommode, otiose; avenue, attribute, oppor- tune. ‘They are also retained when the stress falls on the syllable immediately preceding, although the vowel may be shortened, as in: pirate, senate, savage, female; gangrene, terrene; docile, senile, fertile, feline, finite, motive; fortune, feature, picture, suture. (For the shortening in such endings see chap. iii.) Other methods of indicating the long vowels agree with the usage in native forms, e. g. 1. Long a is represented by ai Chiefly before n, as in contain, disdain, ex- plain (cf. plane), maintain, ordain, pertain, re- frain, sustain. Also in prevail, proclaim. ay _as in affray, array, betray, dismay, repay.VOWELS OI ey, ei in convey, obey, obeisance; invetgh is peculiar in adding gh. Long e is represented by ea as in appeal, conceal, reveal; appear, arrear; de- ee ce cease, increase; appease, disease; repeat. as in agree, decree, exceed, proceed, succeed (cf. pre-, recede), esteem, baleen, discreet. ‘The ma- jority of these forms, however, are late, and run on the common endings -ee, -een, -eer. See List 22. as in ceiling, conceive, deceive, plebeian. See List 2 as in achieve, besiege, chief, fief, fierce, grief, WwW kege, etc. See List 24. as in antique, caprice,-fatigue, machine, police, ete. ee List 25. in Latin and Greek words, as edile, anemia, ana- pest, medieval, pean, pretor, etc. See List'26. in Latin and Greek words, as Cresus, phan. See List 27. Long i is represented by y- Regularly in words of the type ally, apply, defy, deny, descry, espy, rely, reply, etc. (contrasted with the native belie, untie, bedye, but similar to awry). In many words of Greek origin, as bryony, chyle, chyme, cyanide, cycle, dryad, hyacinth, lycopod, papyrus, pyre, python, style, thyme, type, typhoid, ! : i \ } o 1 i a + i i } i i62 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES etc. Also in unstressed syllables as bryology, cyanogen, cycloidal, hydraulic, hyperbola, lyceum, mycology, phytology, zymotic. Note analyse, paralyse, acolyte, proselyte, in con- trast to forms in -ise, -ize (as crystallize), and ~ite, or -lite (as Carmelite, aerolite). €l, as in eikon, eirenicon, epideictic, kaleidoscope, oneiromancy, pleiad, pleiocene, seismic, seismo-, semeiology. 4. Long u is represented by eu in Greek words, as aneurism, deuterogamy, eu- charist, euphemism, etc. (see List 28). Also in French words as deuce, euchre, feu, feudal, queue; amateur, grandeur; the Latin neuter, neutral; and feud (of obscure origin). -ieu, -iew in words from French as lieu, purlieu, view (inter-, pur-, review), (U. S.) lieutenant (Eng. pron. lef-). ui in nuisance, pursuit, suit, suitable, suitor. 5. The sound of aw in law, which is rarely expressed by au in native words (except before gh as in caught, taught) occurs frequently in that form in words from Greek, Latin and French, as (Gr.) caustic, centaur, glaucous; (L.) auction, causal, caution, fauna; (F.) assault, faucet, gauntlet. (See List 29.) 6. The sound of 00 in too is represented by 00 as in proof, reproof and in the ending -oon. See List 30. O or 0-e in approval, approve, improve, move, move- —— = ; f Pe 4 ' i H i ‘ ‘ . if en es aes ad Nene ee aes Se et ee eeVOWELS 63 ment, remove, prove, reproval, reprove, and tomb. Gi. Part I. pt 32. ou in a number of words chiefly of French origin, as accoutre, amours, contour, coupon, etc. See PASE 31; ) The Greek acoustic(s) is variously pronounced with this sound, or with ow. u_ ina large number of words after r, as brute, crude, frugal, and commonly, but varying with the pron. iw, after j and 1 as in June, jury, blue, flute, etc.; also in a few other words as sure, la- gune (lagoon). See List 32. ui in bruise, bruit, cruise, fruit, Juice, juicy, recruit, sluice. 7. The diphthongs oi (oy) and ou (ow), are expressed as in native words. Oy remains in derivatives both before vowels as in annoyance, employer, and consonants, as in coyly, coyness, employment, and is exceptionally used in other words before consonants in gargoyle, groyne (in contrast to groin), hoyden, oyster. ow similarly remains before vowels, as in allowance, avowal, and occurs before consonants in avowry, dowry, endowment, powder. The spelling of Classical and Romanic words fre- quently fails to distinguish clearly between a long and a short vowel before two consonants. Thus change, angel, stable, table, sabre, chaste, chasten, scarce, in | | i } ; i }a 7 ! | | ; Ne ee ee OR ele eta ST a ee ce 64 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES which the a is long, are spelled on the same model as flange, evangel, establish, tablet, fabric, caste, chastise, farce, in which it is short. Long e is pronounced in equal, metre, secret, but short e in equity, metric, secre- tary; and there is a similar contrast between nitrous, sign, postal, impugn and vitreous, signet, costal, re- pugnant. Such variations mainly occur before definite combinations of two consonants, as in the examples given above. When the second of two consonants is 1 or r the vowel is usually long, as in cable, staple, apron, matron, febrile, fibre, mitre, title, noble, bugle, nutri- ment. (These contrast with native types in which a short vowel is indicated by a double consonant, as babble, nibble, nobble, grapple, skittle, smuggle.) Long a also occurs before nge and st; long e before qu; long i and u before gn (with silent g) ; and long o be- fore 1, lt, st. For fuller illustration of such forms see Lists 17, 18, and 33. Hiatus. In a large number of words of Latin or Greek origin two vowels come together and are sepa- rately pronounced. Ina number of instances the spell- ing of these coincides with a combination of two vowels which in ordinary English words form a single sound, e. g., al, ea, ei, ie, Oe, Oi, while others regularly denote a double sound, as ia, io, ua, uo. These double vowels may be stressed either on the first or the second ele-VOWELS 65 ment according to the form of the word in which they occur, e.g., pri’or, prio’rity; fluid, fluw’dity, and the second element when stressed (whether fully or not) is sometimes long, e. g., create, deviate. The various types of these double vowels are: ae al ao ca el e€0 ia ie io oe Oi aerate, faerie, phaeton ;—aerial Aramaic, archaic, Chaldaic, dais ;—archaism, naive aorist, chaos ;—aorta, chaotic, extraordinary Chaldean, European, fealty, idea, real ;—area, cereal, corporeal ;—beatify, reality ;—create corporeity, deify, deity ;—caffeine Creole, creosote, Eocene, geode ;—aureole, cameo, deodorize, geology, neologism. Also eou in the ending -eous, as in: arboreous, beauteous, cal- careous appliance, bias, denial, fiat, friable, giant —ami- able, apiary, fluvial ;—deviate, foliage, gladiator ; —diameter client, diet, dubiety, quiet, variety ;—ambient, audience, barrier ;—biennial, Oriental bioscope, diocese, espionage, lion, violet -—axiom, champion, chariot, curio, Ethiop ;—grandiose Also iou in the ending -ious, as in: copious, curi- ous, envious, furious, glorious, etc. triumph ;—diurnal, demiurge, triumphant ;— aquarium, herbarium, opprobrium, stadium poem, poet, poetry, proem ;—noetic, poetic ozoic, coincide, stoic ;—egoism, egoist i i i t | i 466 ua ue ul uo ya yo CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES dual, nuance, truant ;—continual, gradual, vir- tual ;—fluctuate, graduate cruel, cruet, duel, fluent, fuel;—affluent, congru- ent, influence :—duet bluish, druid, fatuity, fluid, ruin ;—druidic, fluid- ity, genuine fluor. Also uou in the ending -uous, as in: arduous, assiduous, conspicuous, fatuous, sinu- ous, strenuous cyanide, dryad, hyacinth, hyaline ;—cyanic bryony ;—embryo, embryonic, halcyonCHAPTER III IRREGULAR FORMS AND SILENT LETTERS In addition to the features described in the previous chapters, Classical and Romanic words present certain irregularities which require to be specially noted. These appear in the representation both of consonants and vowels. Consonants Some variation between spelling and pronunciation appears in certain words written with ph and th, sc and sch. ph is written in nephew, although the usual English pro- nunciation is névew. It is silent in apophthegm (also written apothegm). th represents the sound of t in imposthume, posthumous and thyme; also in the name Thomas (hence in Thomson), and by classical influence in the English river-names Thame, Thames (=Temz). Option- ally in asthma, isthmus. In phthisic, phthisis the group phth is variously pronounced as (f)th or as t. sc, normally representing the sound of s (p. 46), has that of sk in sceptic, sceptical, etc. sch, normally standing for sk (p. 53), has the value 67 en ea a ena ee : { |ee | | ee aes ee ee Le ee eer eee 68 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES of sh in schist, etc. (p. 47), and of s in schism, schismatic. The peculiar form gaol is due to the retention of an old variant of jail, originally differing in pronunciation. The sound of j is also denoted by ch in spinach (also, but now rarely, spinage). Other irregularities arise from the writing of letters which are not pronounced. The various instances of this are as follows: b is silent initially in (Gr.) bdellium; before t in debt, debtor, doubt (doubtful, etc.), redoubt, redoubtable, subtle, subtlety; and finally in bomb, catacomb, rhomb, tomb; plumb (plumber, etc.), succumb. c initially before t in (Gr.) ctenoid, ctenophora, and in- ternally in indict, indictment, victual (pron, as mttle). ch before m in (Gr.) drachm (but pron. as K in drachma). g initially before nin (Gr.) gnomon, gnomonic, gnosis, gnostic, and internally as in coign, deign, sign, impugn (see List 34), also before m in (Gr.) apophthegm, diaphragm, paradigm, phlegm. h initially in heir, heiress, honest, honor (Eng. honour), honourable, honorary (etc.), hour; and after x (= gz) in exhaust, exhibit, exhilarate, exhort and their derivatives. 1 before m, in almond, balm, calm, palm, psalm, salmon; and optionally in falcon, -er, -ry. m initially before n in (Gr.) mnemonic, Mnemosyne. n finally after m in autumn, column, condemn, contemn,IRREGULAR FORMS 69 damn, hymn, limn, solemn, and derivatives of these in -ed, -er, or -ing, but not in such forms as autwmnal, columnar, condemnation, damnable, hymnal, solem- nity, solemnize. p (1) initially in Greek words beginning with pn, ps, and pt, as pneumatic, pneumonia, pneumonic; psalm, psalmodic, psalmodist, psalmody, psalter, psaltery; ptisan, Ptolemaic, Ptolemy, ptomaine. In the less familiar words however, it is pronounced by some be- fore s and t, as in pseudonym, psychic, pterodactyl. (2) internally before t in recetpt. (3) in the group mpt (or faintly pronounced in this) as in contempt, exempt, redemption, prompt, assumption, sumptuous, symptom. Also in pumpkin. S in atsle, isle, islet, viscount. t in apostle, castle, epistle, (h)ostler. (Cf. p. 37.) th in asthma, isthmus (but also pronounced as t or th) Vowels The chief irregularity, viz. the lack of clear distinc- tion between short and long vowels, has already been treated in the preceding chapter. Other points to be noted are the following: I. Short e is represented by €a in measure, peasant, pleasance, pleasant, pleasure, etc. (see List 13). | ! f i } i | ' I 3 ei in leisure (also pron. with long e, and regularly soin U.S.) eo in feoff (enfeoff), feoffment, (cf. Scottish* i { ‘| ee eed et ees 70 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES infeft, infeftment), jeopard, jeopardize, jeop- ardy, leopard. Short 0 by au in sausage (Eng.) Long a (as in base) is represented by a in bass (in music) ; by ao in gaol; and by au in gauge. 3. Long i (as in ice), by ai in aisle; by ey in eyas, eyrie (the latter also with long a) Long 0 by 00 in brooch. The a of pa occurs in (Eng.) vase (in U. S. with the a of base). The anomalous choir is a variant of quire, which is now a rare form. N Cri =bh Endings Various endings are written in such a way as to sug- gest a long vowel but are actually pronounced with a short one, viz., -ace (= is), as furnace, menace, palace, solace, terrace. -age (= idge), as bandage, beverage, cabbage, coinage, cottage, damage, forage, herbage, image, etc. -ain (= in, ’n), as in bargain, captain, certain, curtain, fountain, mountain, plantain. -ate (= it), as in climate, curate, palate, private, sen- ate ; accurate, delicate, desperate, intimate (ad)J.), separate (adj.). -ee (-i) in committee, (Eng.) levee (U. S. levee’). -ey (=y), as in abbey, alley, chimney, covey, galley, hackney, journey, lamprey, money, etc. (See List 19.)IRREGULAR FORMS 71 -ie (=i), as in eyrie, faeric, genie, menagerie, prairie, reverie, sortie. -ice (= is), as in apprentice, artifice, avarice, bodice, chalice, coppice, cornice, etc. See List 35. -ile (= il), but also with long i (and usually so in Eng.), as in agile, contractile, fertile, futile, Wwm- becile, infantile, mercantile, projectile, etc. -ine (= in), as in determine, discipline, doctrine, en- gine, examine, famine, genuine, imagine, med- icine, nectarine, etc. -ise (= is), in anise, mortise, practise, etc. (See List 35-) -ite (= it) as in composite, definite, exqusite, favour- ite, opposite, perquisite, preterite. In other words -ite has long i, as aconite, ammonite, appetite, erudite, parasite, etc. -ive (= iv), as in active, captive, dative. massive, sportive; ablative, adjective, aggressive, con- vulsive, corrective, deceptive, negative, positive, repulsive, etc. -our (= tir), in English use in many words in place of -or, as arbour, ardour, armour, clamour, colour, favour, fervour, flavour, harbour, odour, rigour, rumour, succour, tumour, valour, vapour, vig- our. But -or in fetor, furor, horror, motor, nidor, pallor, rigor (med.), sapor, stupor, ter- ror, torpor, tremor. -ur occurs in murmur, sulphur. -ous (= iis), in adjectives, as callous, jealous, Joyous, Hi f P " f i f f D a e + i f i} }) 4 | j ——— 7 ae ee etait. i ee a at 72 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES monstrous, raucous; adventurous, barbarous, covetous, dangerous, etc. -y (=1), in nouns such as colony, energy, family, his- tory, memory, misery, mystery, phantasy, prop- erty, tenancy, etc. More unusual instances are -eil (= él) in nonpareil, vermeil. -eit (= it) in forfeit, surfeit. -ief, -iev (= if, iv) in kerchief, mischief, mischievous. -Oise (= tis) in porpoise, tortoise. -uce (= Is) lettuce. -ute (= it) in minute (of time). “uit (= it) in biscuit, circuit, conduit. Silent Vowels € is silent and merely indicates the sound of a preceding c (=sor Sh) or g (= j) ina large number of de- rivative words, especially in the endings -aceous, -ageous, as cetaceous, fabaceous, herbaceous; advan- tageous, courageous, outrageous; also burgeon, dam- ageable, flageolet, George, gorgeous, pageant, pigeon, sergeant, sturgeon, surgeon, vengeance; bludgeon, curmudgeon, dudgeon, gudgeon, widgeon. It is also used without the same necessity after ch in (e)scutcheon, luncheon, puncheon, truncheon. i is silent in carriage, marriage; parliament; Asian, Georgian, Russian, Prussian; contagion, contagious, falchion, fashion, marchioness, region, stanchion;IRREGULAR FORMS 73 and in the endings -cious, -tion, -tious, as audacious, ambition, ambitious. Also commonly (especially Eng.) in medicine, venison. u is silent (1) after g in such words as beguile, dis- guise, guarantee, guard, guardian, guelder (rose), Guelph, guerdon, guide, guile, guillotine, guinea, guise, guitar, Huguenot, languor, Portuguese. (Hence also in the non-Romanic words, guess, guest, guild, guilt) (2) after g as in chequer, conquer, coquette, coquetry, croquet, etiquette, exchequer, lacquer, liquor, mar- quee, marquetry, masquerade, mosquito, palanqun, parquet, picquet, piquancy, piquant, quoin, quott, tourniquet, turquoise (the last also pron. with kw) ue is silent (1) in all words ending in -gue (except ague, argue), as apologue, catalogue, colleague, decalogue, demagogue, dialogue, disembogue, ec- logue, epilogue, fugue, harangue, intrigue, league, monologue, pedagogue, plague, prologue, prorogue, vague, vogue. (2) in all words ending in -que, as antique, arabesque, barque, brusque, burlesque, cheque, clique, critique, masque, mosque, oblique, opaque, peruque, physique, picturesque, piaue, plaque, Romanesque, sacque, torque, unique. f ‘ X t i ; ' | { i i i 4 a 7 iE J iCHAPTER IV THE UNADAPTED FORMS A large proportion of the words of Greek, Latin, or Romanic origin have been so far adapted to the native types that they have lost the distinctive endings which they had in the original language. Thus the Greek stylos (Latin stylus) has become ‘style,’ peirates (Latin pirata) ‘pirate,’ Latin gradualis ‘gradual,’ etc. The models for these adaptations were supplied by the forms which Latin words had assumed in Old French when this was brought into England after the Norman Conquest. In contrast to such forms many words have also been adopted without change of ending, or with a Latin end- ing in place of a Greek, and many of those again have their plurals in the original form, sometimes accom- panied by an ordinary English plural in -s or -es. The spelling of such words therefore agrees exactly with the forms which they have in the language from which they are immediately derived. Classified by the endings they fall into the following groups. -a 1. Latin (also medieval and modern Latin) or Greek feminine nouns as (L.) alga, antenna, arena, copula, cornea, corolla, formula, lamina, larva, 74-€ UNADAPTED FORMS 76 macula, medulla; (Gr.) myopia, nausea, neuralgia, ophthalmia, podagra, sciatica, spirea; these have, or may have, plurals in -z, as alge, antenne, for- mule, and some occur only in the plural, as exuvie, facetie, minutiae, therme. 2. Romanic feminines, as armada, basilica, bella- donna, biretta, bonanza, cedilla, chinchilla, concer- tina, cupola, gondola, guerrilla, influenza, junta, opera, regatta, semolina, sienna, siesta, sonata, stanza, sultana, vendetta; the plural of these is formed by adding the usual -s. 3. Greek neuters, as anathema, coma, comma, drama, leucoma, miasma, panorama, scleroma, sperma, stigma, stoma. ‘The original plurals of these end in -ata, as miasmata, stigmata, but the English s is also employed, as in commas, stigmas. 4. Greek and Latin neuter plurals, as amphibia, ba- trachia, carnivora; mammalia, vertebrata; insignia, prolegomena. 1. Greek feminines in -e, as acme, anemone, apos- trophe, catastrophe, epitome, nepenthe, strophe, syncope. The plurals of these have -es. (In aloe the e is silent. ) 2. Latin neuters, as simile, facsimile, rationale; 3. Words from Italian, as campanile, conversag- 10Ne. 4. Miscellaneous, as recipe (imperative), extem- pore (ablative). -es 1. Latin singulars of the third or fifth declen- { } t 4 M ¢ ii ) ; ‘ f Ss a a —— ae a Ne es ee 76 -O CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES sion, as Aries, caries, ingluvies, rabies, scabies, series, species, superficies, tabes. 2. Greek nouns in -és, as diabetes, Ecclesiastes, Hades, isosceles, pyrites. 3. Latin plurals of the third declension, or Greek plurals of similar form, as ambages, aborigines, calces, cursores, feces, fauces, insessores, manes, natatores, penates, Pisces; antipodes, cantharides. In some instances both singular and plural are in use, as apex, apices; appendix, -ices; apsis, -1des; axis, axes; calix, calices; codex, codices; larynx, larynges; matrix, matrices; pharynx, pharynges. in Latin plurals of nouns in -us, as bacilli, cactt, foci, fungi, etc.; Anthropophagi, Gemini, Magi; and Italian plurals of words in -o, as banditti, broc- coli, confetti, vermicelli. Also in spermacett (Latin genitive sing. ). in Latin nouns of the third declension and corre- sponding Greek forms, as axis, basis, crisis; gnosis, hypothesis, osmosis, paralysis. The original plural of these has -es, as ares, hypotheses. Also in Greek nouns with plural in -ides, as aphis, apsts, and with the ending -itis, as arthritis, neuritis, phlebitis. 1. Latin nominatives, as farrago, ferrugo, 1mago, Leo, lumbago, prurigo, ratio, teredo, torpedo, vertigo, virago. 2. Latin ablatives, as duodecimo, folio, innuendo, octavo, proviso, proximo, recto, ultimo, verso.UNADAPTED FORMS 77 3. Italian or Spanish forms, as albino, alto, archi- pelago, banco, bastinado, bravado, bravo, cameo, canto, cargo, casino, cento, commando, contralto, crescendo, curio, dado, desperado, ditto, domino, embargo, esparto, falsetto, fiasco, flamingo, fresco, grotto, gusto, incognito, indigo, lasso, manifesto, merino, morocco, motto, mulatto, negro, nuncio, oratorio, piano, portfolio, portico, punctilio, si- rocco, solo, soprano, stiletto, stucco, tempo, tor- nado, torso, violoncello. I. Latin masculines of the second declension as animus, bacillus, bonus, calculus, circus, convolv- ulus, cumulus, focus, fungus, genius, gladiolus, hu- mus, mcubus, modulus, mucus, nevus, nimbus, nucleus, quietus, radius, ranunculus, stimulus, ter- minus, tumulus, uterus. Also Latin adoptions of Greek forms in -os, as asparagus, cactus, chorus, colossus, cothurnus, crocus, discus, exodus, hip- popotamus, lotus, narcissus, nautilus, esophagus, papyrus, phosphorus, polyanthus, rhombus, sar- cophagus, strabismus, stylus, syllabus, thalamus, thallus, thyrsus. The original plural of these ends in -1; see above. 2. Latin nouns of the fourth declension, as appara- tus, Census, Consensus, conspectus, detritus, ex- cursus, hiatus, wmpetus, inflatus, nexus, plexus, senatus, sinus. The original plural of these ends in -us, but commonly -uses is used, as censuses, hiatuses, sinuses. : i i | r I ; i yz ,78 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES 3. Latin neuters of the third declension, as corpus (pl. corpora), genus (pl. genera). 4. Miscellaneous, as octopus, polypus (Gr. pous foot); ignoramus, mandamus, mittimus (plurals of verbs) ; omnibus, rebus (dative plurals). -um 1. Latin neuters of the second declension, or neu- ter adjectives, as aquariwm, candelabrum, compen- dium, contagium, curriculum, decorum, delirium, desideratum, dictum, equilibrium, erratum, exor- dium, forum, frustum, fulcrum, herbarium, honor- arium, mterregnum, laburnum, lustrum, magnum, maximum, modicum, momentum, nasturtium, nos- trum, opprobrium, ovum, pendulum, premium, quantum, rectum, referendum, etc.; or Latin adop- tions of Greek neuters in -on, as asylum, colchi- cum, chrysanthemum, emporium, encomium, gera- mum, gymnasium, lyceum, mausoleum, museum, pandemonium, pelargomum, peritoneum, petro- leum, etc. The original plural of these is in -a, as dicta, errata, memoranda. 2. Misc. as quorum, variorum (genitive plurals) ; br PI ne vademecum (the preposition cum). The following are of rarer occurrence. -en ina few Latin neuters, as abdomen, acumen, grava- men, omen, rumen, stamen. The original plural of these ends in -ina. Also in the masculine flamen. -on in Greek neuters in -On (with plurals in -a), as colon, phenomenon, protozoon, xoanon, goon, or FED AT Se PE OO MOE a ee a eeUNADAPTED FORMS 79 masculines in -6n, as colophon, gnomon, ichneu- mon, python. -Os in Greek masculines not Latinized, as cosmos. Words from Modern French A large number of French words which have been adopted in English within the past two or three cen- turies have the same spelling as in that language, and retain either their original pronunciation or something approximating to it. Consequently the rules that gov- ern the spelling of these words are French and not English, and there is frequently a marked difference be- tween the actual sound of the word and that which the letters would denote if used with their English values. So far as the main differences can readily be reduced to rules, they may be summed up under the following heads, but a full account of the spelling and pronuncia- tion of such words does not properly fall within the scope of a treatise on the spelling of English. Special Uses of Consonants ¢ is used with the value of s before a, 0 or u, as in facade, Provencal; garcgon; apercu. ch has the value of sh, as in avalanche, barouche, car- touche, chagrin, chaise, douche, fichu, machine, etc. (See List 37.) g (before e and 1) and j have the sound of zh, as in gendarme, genre; congé, ménage, prestige, rouge; jeu, jongleur, julienne, | } i fl Hl ee Erte 80 CLASSICAL AND ROMANIC TYPES gn represents the sound of ny, as in champignon, chig- non, cognac, mignonette, but at the end of words only n is pronounced, as in champagne. n and m frequently indicate only a nasal vowel, as in abandon, bon-bon, (café) chantant, embonpoint, gendarme, gourmand. Special Uses of Vowels a is similar to the a of pa in the endings -ade, -age, -ane, etc., as charade, ménage, tisane. au, eau denote the sound of long 0, as in chauffeur, causerie, hauteur, mauve; beau, bureau, eau (de vie), plateau. eu, u(e) denote modified u- sounds not employed in English, as in amateur, cotffeur, raconteur ; cotffure, curé, menu, purée. ou regularly denotes the sound of long 00, as in coup, douceur, gourmet, soupcon. (Cf. List 31.) oi, oy denote the sound of wa, as in abattoir, boudoir, chamois, moire, patois, voussoir; doyen, voyageur. u__ has the value of w after c and g, etc., in such forms as culrass, cuisine, cuisse, aiguille; suite, etut. Silent Letters These are very frequent in French, and more especially : § as in apropos, chablis, chamois, chassis, debris, em- barras, etc.UNADAPTED FORMS 81 t as in baccarat, ballet, bouquet, crochet, croquet, de- but, depot, gourmet, haricot, etc. Pp as in atde-de-camp, contretemps, corps, coup. -e as in belle, bizarre, cigarette, cretonne, etiquette, finesse, etc. (When final e is pronounced, it 1s written €, as in congé, curé, naiveté, protégé, re- cherché or -€e as in corvée, negligée, purée.) The ending re, retained in English in such words as calibre, centre, metre, philtre, sombre, spectre, the- atre is in American use replaced by -er. These, how- ever, are frequently from older French and have a genuinely English pronunciation. u after g and q, as in blague, Morgue, vogue; ban- quette, barque, bezique, bouquet, brusque, claque, clique, coquette, etc. ; " : ' , | ' f oD : a a edi 4 { H ' ‘ a eT tated eee ne ee ee vePAR iil EXOTIC TYPES ‘t } ; i i i ' ; is t i 7 i | ;| | : | p a a ee ad ea eeEXOTIC TYPES English has adopted a large number of words from languages spoken in various parts of the world with which it has no linguistic affinity, and many of these have come to be as much a part of the language as others which are of native, classical, or Romanic origin. In the spelling of such words there is much irregularity. Sometimes the sounds are represented as they would be in native words (e. g., gong, moose, sash, shawl, soy, tea, thug; caddy, carboy, dervish, ketchup, paddy, sher- bet), although the combination of sounds may indicate the foreign origin of the word. Frequently, however, the written form which the word has in the language from which it is derived is taken over with more or less exactness, thus producing spellings which are defi- nitely non-English. In some instances this feature ap- pears in words from Germanic or Romanic tongues, when these have developed methods of denoting sounds which are not employed in English. Others again have had their spelling determined by passing into English through some intermediate language, as French or Spanish. A small number of apparently native inven- tions are also more appropriately classed here than in Part I. i | eee Se er ewe86 EXOTIC TYPES The exotic types, therefore, include a very miscel- laneous collection of words, oi which only a certain number of peculiarities can be summed up under general headings. The following instances show the chief methods of representing the various sounds, in so far as they differ from normal English usage. Consonants t is represented by th in thaler, by dt in veldt. d by dhorddhin Buddhism, Buddhist, dhow, dhurra, Gadhelic. k (1) is used initially before a, 0, u, as in kaffir (caf- fre), kaftan (caftan), kaiser, kavass, kayak, Koran, koumiss, Kurd; internally, as in Afrikander, alkali, hookah, mazurka, Mikado, polka, Sanskrit (-scrit), shako, tokay, ukase, vodka; and finally, as in amok (amuck), gemsbok, * sheik, sjambok, yak. It also occurs before e, i, or y, as in droshky, gherkum, hakim, kermes, kiosk, kismet, and helps to accentu- ate the foreign appearance of such words. (2) is represented by kh in Astrakhan, khaki, khalif (caliph), khamsin, khan, khedive, lakh, * sheikh. (3) by ¢ in inca, * racoon, shellac, tombac. <— (4) by ce in buccaneer, felucca, moccasin, * rac- | 7 ; } 1 ee ee ted a Ls coon, stucco. (5) by chin baldachin, sumach. In the Gaelic and Welsh words clachan, coronach, cromlech, loch, ee eeS sh zh h CONSONANTS 87 pibroch, Sassenach, and in Czech, this combination properly denotes the voiceless guttural spirant. (6) by qu in palanquin (also palankeen). is represented by gh in dinghy, ghat (ghaut), ghee, gherkin, ghillie, ghoul, narghile (nargileh), nyl- ghau, ogham, sorghum, yataghan; and by gue in brogue, pirogue, rogue. is represented by ph in a number of words, as caliph (calif, khalif), ephah, ephod, gopher, nuphar, ne- nuphar, philabeg (fillibeg), seraph, teraphim. is represented by ¢ in curacao. (1) by ch in cheroot, fetich (fetish), pacha (pasha ). (2) by sch in schetk (sheik), schiller, schipperke, schnapper, schnapps, schorl; eschscholtzta. (3) by chs in fuchsia. (4) by sj in sjambok; by sk in skt. is usually represented by that letter, as in bonze, fez, janizary (janisary), zany, sebec, zebra, zebu, sero; but also by s as in hosanna, Moslem. (after French usage) by j in acajou, carcajou. by ll in llama, llano, Lloyd’s, atoll. by u after g, in guaiacum, guana, guanaco, guano, guarana, iguana, jaguar, penguin. is used in banyan (banian), canyon, and is properly pronounced for the z in capercailzie (-cailyie). The sound of ly is expressed by gli and ny by gni in the Italian seraglio, bagnio. occurs medially in alcohol, Jehovah, maharajah, | , iH | i H ;a a ra = ee at od 88 EXOTIC TYPES mahogany, Mahommedan, mahout, menhaden, men- hir, mohair, Mohammedan. Certain combinations of consonantal sounds are denoted as follows: sk (1) by schin schiedam, schooner. (2) by sk in skald (scald), skua, skunk. ts (1) by ts in tsar (tzar, czar), tsarevitch, tsarina, tsetse. (2) by tz in chintz, deutzia, eschscholtzia, howit- zer, quartz, sitz-bath, Suntzer, waltz. (3) by cz in czar (tsar). (4) by Z, zz, in conversazione, lazzarone, piazza (the last also pron. with 2). tsh by (1) ch as in cheetah, chintz; catechu, sachem; and tch, as in ketchup, nautch. (2) by c before e and i in words from Italian, as cello, cicerone, vermicelli, violoncello (these two are also pronounced with s). (3) by cz in Czech. dz by zz in intermeszo, mezzotint. dzh (1) by dj as in djereed, djinn (jinn). (2) by g in giaour, hegira. Instances of silent letters are: g in gneiss, gnu. gh_ in shillelagh (-lah), usquebaugh. hin gingham. p in ptarmigan (a false spelling after pt in Greek words).VOWELS 89 Vowels The short vowels are usually represented as in native types ; u has the value of short 00 in Buddhism, bulbul, and mongoose is sometimes pronounced (and written) as mungoose. The representation of the long vowels presents sev- eral peculiarities. Long a is represented by a in baobab, nabob, nadir, potato, tomato (U. S.); aa in graal (grail); ae in tael; ah in dahlia; ai or ay in cat-, cayman, nainsook. Long e commonly by ee, as in afreet, ameer, chim- panzee, manatee, mangosteen, nankeen (nankin), parrakeet, poteen, rupee, shagreen, shebeen, suttee, veneer. Also by él, ey, as in sheik, * geyser; by ias in Bengali, Hindi, khalifa, khedive, pibroch; and ie in schiedam, vizier. Long 1 by ai, ay, ei, ey, in assegat, kaiser, ayah (also pron. as d-yah); eider (down), Fahrenheit, gneiss; * geyser. Long u by u in fuchsia; by eu in deutzia. The a of pa is variously represented by (1) ain banana, cassava, guano, guava, hakim, igu- ana, khaki, khan, llama, llano, Mikado, palaver, pa-, pyjama, saga, spa, tomato (Eng.), zenana. (2) aa in aardvark, bazaar, kraal, laager, salaam, taal. (3) ahin Brahman, Brahmin, Fahrenheit, mahlstick, shah. Fe es ane eel a j } | | H f H i t | h i & | i——————— } ee ee ee ee eT ee ee 90 EXOTIC TYPES The aw of law is expressed by (1) aw in bashaw, macaw, mulligatawny, papaw, squaw. (2) au in caucus, Juggernaut, landau, meerschaum, nautch, nylghau, pilau. (3) ain Bengal, Bengali. Long 00 is represented by (I) oo in the majority of words, as baboo, bamboo, boomerang, cheroot, cockatoo, coolie, Hindoo, hoopoe, kangaroo, loofah, monsoon, nainsook, rac(c)oon, shadoof, shampoo, simoom, taboo, tarboosh, tattoo, typhoon, voodoo, yahoo. (2) ou (after French usage) as in acajou, agouti, burnous, caribou, caoutchouc, cougar, chibouque, ghoul, houri (also pronounced with ow), kou- miss, marabout, rouble, toucan. (3) uin dblucher, Hindu, jute, Zulu; and uh in buhl. (4) oe in Boer, canoe. The diphthong oi occurs in dacoit, moidore, and the variant spelling oy in sloyd. The diphthong ow is represented by au in words from German, as ablaut, hausfrau, Mauser, sauerkraut, umlaut, and occasionally in other forms, as gaur, Hausa; aou occurs in caoutchouc, giaour. Endings Some of these coincide with forms of Romanic origin, e. g.ENDINGS QI in * anatta, anna, banana, bandanna, cassava, gu- va, lama, llama, manna, pagoda, polka, pa-, py- jama, saga, vodka, zenana, zareba. * arnotto, banjo, dodo, guano, mango, otto ==attar), potato, shako, stingo, tobacco, tomato. (The plural of some is written with -os, as dodos, in shakos, tobaccos, of others with -oes as mangoes, potatoes, tomatoes. ) “um in opossum, sorghum, Targum, wampum (also in some words of obscure origin, as conundrum, harum-scarum, tantrum, and in bunkum for earlier buncombe ). -us in the invented terms bogus, caucus, hocus-pocus, rumpus. Others to be noticed are: -ah, used chiefly in Oriental words as cheetah, fellah, hookah, howdah, jarrah, loofah, mullah, pariah, punkah, rajah, wallah, and in proper names, as Allah, Hannah, Jehovah, Judah, Messiah, Sarah; more rarely in other instances, as savannah, shille- lah, verandah (-da). -ea (—1) in guinea. -ee (—1) in coffee, toffee (toffy), Yankee. -1 (short) in alkali, hourt, mpi, khaki, mufti, peri; (long) Rabbi. if , H ' | i f { } eee ee al eee a ae/ iA } f es oe cineca ee aPART TV SPELLING LISTS HT j } a | | ; f 1 } V t f L i} | ( i]eae / NE EP ASL Sm aSPELLING LISTS For the signification of the asterisk and the Roman numerals see “Abbreviations and Signs,” p. iv. 1. Words with initial c and s. cede, cee (the letter), seed, sea (see), seal ceil, cell, cellar, cense, (seel), sell, seller, sense, cent, cere, cinque, cist sent (scent), sere (sear, (cyst), cite seer), sink, > Sist, ‘site (sight) 2. Words with final -ce and -se, pronounced as s. ace, brace, dace, face, base, case, chase; vase grace, lace, mace, pace, CU) place, race, space, trace; disgrace, efface, embrace, enlace, etc. peace; fleece, Greece; cease, crease, grease, niece, piece lease, decrease, increase, caprice, police release, surcease * valise close, dose 95 | t } H 1 ft . i ! U [eat ———s oo i a ee ee 96 SPELLING LISTS dice, ice, lice, mice, nice, price, slice, spice, splice, trice, vice choice, rejoice, voice deuce ; juice, sluice ; puce, truce; adduce, reduce (etc. ) chance, dance, glance, lance, prance, trance ; ad- vance, askance, enhance; fence, pence; mince, prince, since, wince; once, dunce; bounce, ounce, pounce, trounce (Eng.) defence, offence, pretence farce; fierce, tierce; force, enforce goose, loose, moose, noose grouse, house, louse, mouse, souse use (n.), abuse (n.), diffuse (adj.), re’fuse (n.) false; else; grilse; pulse, impulse, repulse manse; dense, _ sense, tense; rinse; immense, incense, intense; (U. S.) defense, offense, pretense parse, sparse; Erse, hearse, terse, verse; coarse, gorse, hoarse, horse, morse; curse, nurse, purse, worse; ad- verse, converse, perverse, reverse 3. Words with final -se and -ze, pronounced as z. *braise, praise, raise, * rase, vase baize, *braize, maize, blaze, braze, craze, daze,SPELLING LISTS 97 cause, clause; hawse appease, ease, grease (v.), please, tease chemise, * valise guise, rise, wise; advise, arise, revise, surmise, surprise close (v.), hose, nose, rose, those ; compose, de- pose (etc. ) * boose, choose, lose bruise, cruise, cruse, * fuse, muse, ruse, use (v.) ; abuse (v.), accuse, diffuse (v.), refuse, suf- fuse noise, poise blouse, chouse, house (v.), mouse (v.), rouse, spouse, touse; browse, drowse a glaze, graze, haze, laze, maze, * raze; amaze gauze breeze, freeze, sneeze, squeeze, tweeze, wheeze; frieze prize, size doze, froze (p. t.), gloze * booze, snooze * fuze bonze, bronze, furze Some words vary between internal s and 2, as ousel or ouzel, partisan or partizan. See also list 36. | | | Hy | I | \98 SPELLING LISTS 4. Words with a = short o. I. swab, swaddle, swallow, swamp, swan, swash; squab, squabble, twaddle; wabble, wadding, waddle, wallet, wallow, wan, wand, want, wash, wasp, watch, wattle; what. II. quad, quadrant, quarrel, quarry, quash; squad, squadron, squalid, squander, squash, squashy, squat; wallop, warrant. LUT. ‘yacht. 5. Words with o = short u (as in sun). a. Before 1, m, n, ng, r, th I. among, amongst, another, become, borough, brother, come (comer, coming), comely, done, honey, income, Monday, money, monger, mon- grel, monk, monkey, month, mother, none, nothing, one, other, smother, some, son, tongue. II. affront, colour, combat, comfit, comfrey, com- pany, comrade, conduit, conjure, conjurer, con- stable, cozen, discomfit, dozen, front (frontage, etc.), onion, pommel, somersault, sponge, stom- ach, ton; (lengthened in) attorney. III. mongoose (mungoose). b. Before v I. above, beloved, dove, glove (glover), lovable, love (lover, loving), oven, shove, shovel, sloven.re L SPELLING LISTS 99 II. covenant, cover, covert, coverture, covet, covet- ous, covey, discover, govern (government, etc.), plover, recover, uncover. c. After w I. won (p. t.), wonder, worrit, worry; (length- ened in) word, work, world, worm, worse, wor- ship, worst, wort, worth (worthless), worthy. 6. Words with ou = short u. I. chough, rough, slough, sough, southerly, southern, tough (toughen, toughish), young, younger. II. country, couple, couplet, courage, courageous, cousin, double, doublet, doubloon, flourish, moustache, nourish, sojourn, touch, touchy, trouble, troublous; (lengthened in) adjourn, courteous, courtesan, courtesy (cf. curtsy), journal, journey, scourge. 7. Words with short oo. I. good, hood, stood (p. t.), wood, wooden; book, brook, cook, crook, crooked, hook, look, nook, rook, shook (p. t.), took (p. t.) ; wool, woollen ; foot, soot. 8. Words with u = short oo. | } | | I h I. bull, bullock, bully, bulrush, bush, bushy, full, fuller, pull, push, puss, pussy, put; awful, law- ful, etc,100 SPELLING LISTS II. bullace, bullet, bulletin, bullion, bulwark, bushel, butcher, cushion, pudding, pullet, pulley, pulpit, sugar, tulle. III. bulbul. 9. Words with ou = long o. I. boulder, coulter, dough, mould, moult, shoul- der, smoulder, soul, though, although. II. poult, poulterer, poultice, poultry. 10. Words with ow = long o. I. aglow, below, bestow, blow, bow, bowl, bow- line, bowsprit, crow, flow, glow, grow, growth, jowl, know, low, lower, mow, Owe, own, Tow, show, slow, snow, sow, stow, throw, tow, trow. III. bungalow. 11. Words with ew = long oo. I. blew (p. t.), brew, brewer, chew, clew, drew (p.t.), flew (p.t.), grew (p.t.), shrew (be- shrew ), shrewd, slew (p.t.), strew (bestrew), threw (p.t.). II. crew, crewel, eschew, Jew, jewel, jeweler, Jewess, Jewish, Jewry, trews; (unstressed in) Hebrew. 12. Words of two syllables with a short vowel before v. g, slaver; clever, devil, eleven, ever, every, never, seven; drivel, driven (p.p.), given I. havingSPELLING LISTS IOI (p. p.), liver, shiver, shrivel, sliver, swivel: grovel, hovel, hover ; oven, shovel. II. gravel, havock, spavin, travel; bevel, bevy, brevet, sever; river; cover. 13. Words with ea = short e. I. bread, breadth, breast, breath, cleanse, dead. deaf, dealt (p. t.), death, dread, dreamt (p. t.), head, health, lead (n.), leant (p.t.), leapt (p.t.), meant (p.t.), read, (p.t.), spread, stead, stealth, sweat, thread, threat, tread, wealth; abreast, ahead, already, bespread, be- stead, instead; breakfast, deaden, deadly, deafen, dreadful, feather, healthy, heather, heaven, heavy, leaden, leather, meadow, ready, steady, stealthy, sweaty, threaten, treadle, wealthy, weapon, weather. | | IJ. jealous, jealousy, measure, peasant, pheasant, pleasance, pleasant, pleasure, realm, treacher- ous, treachery, treasure, treasurer, treasury, zealot, zealous. Lengthened and obscured before r in I. dearth, earl, early, earn, earnest, earth (earthen, etc.), heard (p.t.), learn, yearn. IJ. hearse, pearl, rehearse, search. SS en eee aed 14. Words with a= ah. I. alms, behalf, calf, calve, half, halve, * qualm.———— = ee f, j " | H \ L i i a eT ee ee ee eee 102 IT. IIT. SPELLING LISTS almond, balm, balmy, embalm, Malmsey, palm, palmy, psalm, psalmist, psalmody, salve. aha, ma, mamma, pa, papa, spa, vase (Eng.). ballade, barrage, chamade, charade, garage, menage, pomade. bravo, cantata, diorama, drama, lava, palaver, panorama, sonata, soprano, sultana. banana, casava, guava, lager, lama, llama. pyjama, rajah, saga, Slav (also with @), to- mato (Eng.), zenana. 15. Words with a = aw. i MT. all, ball, call, fall, gall, hall, pall, scall, small, squall, stall, tall, thrall (enthrall), wall. bald, scald; halt, malt, salt. balk, chalk, stalk, talk. walk; * qualm. albeit, alder, alderman. almost, also, almighty, altogether, although, always, balderdash, halter. smallage, thraldom, walnut, withal. dwarf, sward, swarm, swart, swarthy, thwart (athwart), warm, warp, wart, wharf. calk, false, smalt. almanac, altar, alter, altercate, alternate, appal, appalling, baldrick, balsam, Baltic, caldron, chaldron, exalt, falchion, falcon, falter, hal- berd, install, instalment, Maltese, palfrey, palsy, palter, psalter, psaltry. quart, quartan, quarter, quartern, quartette,SPELLING LISTS 103 uarto; war, warble, ward, warden, warder, wardrobe, warn; award, reward. III. quartz, waltz. 16. Words with igh = longi. I. high, nigh, sigh, thigh. bight, blight, bright, dight, fight, flight, fright (frighten), hight (p. t.), knight, light, light- ning, act night, plight, right, sight, slight, tight, wight, wright; affright, alight, almighty, aright, bedight, benight. II. delight, spright (cf. sprite), sprightly. 17. Words with long i before ld and nd, dl, etc. I. child, mild, wild. behind, bind, blind, find, kind, mind (remind), rind, wind (v.) ; ninth. bridle, idle, sidle, stifle, island, climb, ninth, whilst. II. bible, disciple, rifle, title (entitle), trifle. fibre (fibrous, etc.), mitre, nitrate, nitre, nitro- gen, nitrous, tigress, tigrish, vibrate. assign, benign, condign, consign, design, en- sign, malign, resign, sign. Christ, indict, isle, paradigm, pint. 18. Words with long o before ld, ll, It, st, etc. I. behold, bold, cold, fold, gold, golden, hold, marigold, scold, wold. & f Z | i t { H rs 1 } ns 1, jh \ i 4 i ' i =e ee ee ws ae ee 104 II. III. SPELLING LISTS boll, knoll, poll, stroll, swollen, toll, troll, wholly. bolt, colt, dolt, holt, jolt, molten, smolt. bolster, holster, upholster ; betroth, clothe, clothing, coble, comb, don't, folk, ghost, holm, only, most, quoth, sloth, troth, wont (also with short u), won't, wroth, yolk. control, droll, patrol, roll (enroll), scroll; solder, soldier, revolt; volt (also with 0). engross, gross, host, hostess, impost, post, post-(date, etc.), postage, postal. gopher (animal), ignoble, noble, ogle, ogre, ogress, opprobrious, opprobrium, parochial. gopher (wood) ; polka (also with 0). 19. Words ending in -ey and -ie. cy abbey, alley, attorney, barley, blarney, chimney, clayey, cockney, comfrey, donkey, flunkey, gal- ley, hackney, hockey, honey, jersey, jockey, journey, kersey, kidney, lackey, lamprey, linsey- woolsey, malmsey, medley, money, monkey, motley, palfrey, parley, parsley, pulley, skyey, spinney (spinny), storey (story), tourney, trol- ley (trolly), turkey, valley, volley, wincey. Also sometimes: bogey, coney, fogey, gamey, gipsey (gypsey) , horsey, stagey, tricksey = bogy, cony, fogy, etc.TSUy EN ee SPELLING LISTS 105 ie caddie (in golf), collie, corrie, dominie, eerie, ¢(h )illie, laddie, lassie. Also: billie, bogie, bothie, cannie, lorrie, pixie, porgie = billy, bogy, etc. French words retaining -ie are: aerie, eyrie, faerie, genie, menagerie, prairie, reverie, sortie. 20. Words written with gh. Silent: I. aught, caught, fraught, naught, naughty, taught; eight, freight, heigh, height, sleight, weight; bight, blight (etc., see List 16) ; bough, dough, plough, slough (= bog), though, through; bought, drought, fought, nought, ought, sought, thought, wrought. IT. delight, haughty, inveigh, sprightly. =f. I. draught, laugh (laughing), laughter; chough, cough, enough, rough, slough (= skin), tough, trough. I. aghast, ghastly, ghost (ghostly), ghyll (gill). III. gharry, ghaut, ghazal, gheber (guebre), ghee, gherkin, Ghibelline, ghoul, Ghurka. 09 =i. hough; hiccough (hiccup). | f | 4 21. Words with ei and ey = long a. ei (1) eight, freight, heigh, heigh-ho, neigh, neigh- bour, sleigh, weight.5 / i i ) : : U ee De ee eS od Tie ee ee a 106 cy > SPELLING LISTS II. deign (cf. disdain), feign, feint, heinous, heir, heiress, inveigh, obeisance, reign, rein, * seine, skein, veil, ‘vein. I. fey, grey (gray), hey, hey-day, hey-ho, ley (lea), wey (weigh), whey. II. abeyance, convey, conveyance, eyre, obey, prey, purvey (-ance, -or), trey. III. bey, dey, heyduck. Romanic and classical words or forms written with ee. aa, agree, apogee, Chaldee, congee, decree, degree, epopee, filigree, fricassee, jubilee, levee, marquee, ogee, pedigree, perigee, Pharisee, rappee, repartee, Sadducee, settee, spondee, trochee. absentee, bargee, consignee, devotee, donee, em- ployee, grandee, legatee, lessee, licensee, mortgagee, nominee, patentee, payee, presentee, referee, refu- gee, trustee. genteel; canteen, careen, lateen, sateen, tureen, vel- veteen ; bandoleer (-lier), career, chanticleer, domi- neer, electioneer. auctioneer, cannoneer, carabineer, charioteer, en- gineer, garreteer, gazetteer, mountaineer, muske- teer, pamphleteer, scrutineer, sonneteer, volunteer. Romanic words with ei = long e. ceil, ceiling, conceit, conceive, deceit, deceive, in-SPELLING LISTS 107 veigle, * leisure, madeira, perceive, plebeian, re- ceipt, receive, seignior, seigniory, * seine, seize, seizin, seizure. (Also Gr. hygeian.) 24. Words with ie = long e. I. afield, belief, believe, bier, field, fiend, frieze, lief, liever, priest, shield, shiel, shieling, shriek, shrievalty, thief, thieve, thievish, wield, yield. II. achieve, aggrieve, apiece, besiege, brevier, cap- a-pie, chief, fief, fierce, frontispiece, grief, grievance, grieve, grievous, liege, mien, niece, piece, pier, pierce, relief, relieve, reprieve, re- trieve, siege, tier, tierce, tiercel, tiercelet. bandolier (-leer), bombardier, brigadier, cash- ier, cavalier, chandelier, chevalier, chiffonier, cuirassier, financier, fusilier (-leer), gasalier, gondolier, grenadier, halberdier. III. vizier. 25. Romanic words with 1 = long e. ambergris, caprice, chemise, invalid, naive, police, prestige, suite, valise. chagrin, fascine, gabardine, galantine, machine, machinery, magazine, mandoline, marine, nectarine, ravine, routine, sardine, sourdine. antique, bezique, clique, critique, fatigue, intrigue, ) j i h } f 7 , t oblique, physique, pique, unique. concertina, merino, ratafia.108 SPELLING LISTS 26. Greek and Latin words with 2 = long e. edile, gis, A®sculapian, xtiology, anzmia, ana- pest, apheresis, athenzum, coryphzus, cyclo- pedia (encyclo-), dizresis, fecal, faeces, gyneco-, hemal, hematoid (etc.), hemo-, medieval, ne- vus, pean, pedo-, pretor, peritoneum, (-eum), pyzmia, spirzea, synzresis, tenia, tropeolum. (Unstressed) olian, esthetic, archeologist, -ology, cesura, hematic, pedeutic, paleography (etc.), pretorian. (z is = € regularly in hemorrhage, hemorrhoid, and optionally in hematite and other forms in hema-, hemo-). nN NI Greek (and Latin) words with ce = long e amoeba, amoeboid, apnoea, Croesus, diarrhoea, dys- pnoea, epopcoeia, foetus, mythopeeic, cestrum, cestrus, onomatopceia, -poeic, pharmacopeeia, phoenix, pros- F ; : 2 }, \ ) 5 b { i H Opopeeia, subpoena. (Unstressed) amcebean, homceopath (-pathic, -pathy ), cesophagus. 28. Greek words with eu = long u. aneurism, deutero-, eucalyptus, eucharist, eugenic, eulogist, eulogy, eunuch, eupepsia, eupeptic, eu- phemism, euphonic, euphony, Europe, euthanasia (and other words in eu-), heptateuch, hermeneutic, semen etn aSPELLING LISTS 109 ichneumon, leucoma, neural, neuralgia, neuritis (etc.), neuro-, paideutics, pentateuch, pharma- ceutic, pleural, pleurisy, pleuro-, pneumatic, pneu- monia, pseudo-, rheum, rheumatic, rheumatism, Teutonic, therapeutic, toreutic. 29. Words with aw and au. (1) With aw; mainly native, Scandinavian, or of obscure origin. I. awe, awful, awkward, awl, awn, awning, bawbee, bawd, bawl, brawl, daw, dawdle, dawn, drawn, fawn (v.), flaw, gawk, gawky, haw, hawk, hawthorn, law, maw, mawkish, paw, pawky, pawl, prawn, raw, saw, squawk, straw, taw, thaw. II. (F.) brawn, fawn (n.), lawn, pawn, spawn. III. bashaw, etc. (see p. 90). (2) With au; mainly French, Latin, or Greek. Nie IT. auger, aught (etc.; see List 20) auk, gault, gaunt, haul, haulm, (Sc.) maud, maunder, taut. (F.) assault, auburn, aunt, avaunt, bau- ble, caudle, caul, cauldron (cald-), caulk, causeway, daub, daunt, dauphin, debauch, default, defraud, epaulet(te), faucet, fault, gaud, gaudy, gauntlet, gauze, hau- berk, haughty, haunch, haunt, jaundice, jaunt, jaunty, launch, laundress, maraud, maudlin, maugre, maul, maundy, paunch, > ees - ee | } 3: | 4 i A } ' f, H ls td El amiee et 110 SPELLING LISTS Sauce, saucer, saunter, sausage, staunch (stanch), taunt, vault, vaunt. (L.) applaud, applause, auction, auda- cious, audacity, audible, audience, audit, auditor, augment, augur, august, aural, aureate, aureole, auricle, auriferous, au- rora, auscultation, auspice(s), auspicious, austere, austral, author, authority, author- ize, autumn, auxiliary, caudal, caulicles, cauliflower, causal, cause, causation, caus- ative, caution, cautious, clause, claustral, exhaust, fauces, faun, fauna, fraud, Gaul, Gaulish, laud, laudanum, laureate, laurel, paucity, Pauline, pauper, pause, plaudit, plausible, raucous, taurine, Taurus. (G.) aeronaut, argonaut, Augean, augite, aulic, authentic, auto-, banausic, caustic, cauterize, cautery, centaur, glaucoma, glaucous, holocaust, mausoleum, nausea, nauseate, nauseous, nautical, nautilus, sau- rian, staurolite, tauto-, thaumaturge, the- Saurus, traumatic. 30. Romanic words ending in -oon. baboon, balloon, bassoon, buffoon, cartoon, cocoon, doubloon, dragoon, festoon, galloon, harpoon, la- goon, lampoon, macaroon, maroon, octoroon, pan- taloon, picaroon, platoon, poltroon, pontoon,SPELLING LISTS III quadroon, rigadoon, saloon, shalloon, Walloon. (Hence spitfoon from sfit.) 31. Romanic (chiefly French) words with ou = long Oo. accoutre, accoutrement, amour, boudoir, bouquet, bourse, contour, coupon, croup, croupier, debouch, douche, embouchure, gouge (also pron. with ow), gourd, gourmand, gourmet, group, joust, para- mour, recoup, rouge, route, routine, soup, souvenir, tambour, tambourine, tour, tourist, tourmaline, tournament, tourney, tourniquet, troubadour, troupe, voussoir. 32. Romanic words with u=long oo. (For native words see p. 32.) (1) After r: accrue, bruin, brumal, brutal, brute (brutish), construe, crucial, crucible, crucifix, -form, crucify, crude, cruel, cruet, crural, cruse, drupe, excruciate, extrude, frugal, fru- ticose, gruel, imbrue, imprudence, imprudent, inscrutable, intrude, intrusion, intrusive, ob- trude, obtrusion, obtrusive, peruque (per- uke), protrude, protrusion, protrusive, prude, prudence, prudent, prudery, prudish, prune, prurience, prurient, rhubarb, rubicund, rubric, ruby, rude, rudiment, rue (n.), rufous, ru- gous, ruin, ruinate, ruinous, rule, ruminant, rumo(u)r, rural, ruse, scruple, scrupulous : | ! i i ;112 SPELLING LISTS (etc.), scrutinize, scrutiny, spruce, sprucely, strumous, truant, truce, truculence, truculent. (2) After 1 (varying in pron. with 2) ; ablution, agglutinate, blue, bluish, flue, fluency, fluent, fluid, flume, fluor, flute, fluvial, glucose, glue, glume, gluten, include, lubricate, lucid, lucifer, lucrative, lucre (etc.), plumage, plume, plumy, pluperfect, plural, plutocrat, pluvial, pluvious, preclude, recluse, reclusion, seclude, seclusion. (3) After j: abjure, conjure, jubilant, jubilate, jubilee, Judaism, judaize, judicature, jujube, julep, June, junior, juniper, Jupiter, jurisdic- tion, jurisprudence, jurist, jury, ju'venile. (4) After s or. ch (=—sh): assurance, assure, ensure, insurance, insure, sure: fichu, para- chute. ‘ j i, 4 33. Romanic and classical words with long vowels be- —_ fore consonant-groups. et a. able, ably, cable, fable, gable, sable, stable, table; staple. apricot, April, apron, cambric, candelabrum, chamber, chamberlain, cicatrix, flagrant, fra- grance, fragrant, matrix, matron, nacre, na- tron, patriarch, * patriot (also with a), * pa- tron, sabre, * satrap, tabret, veratrin. ancient, angel, arrange, change, danger, de- range, exchange, mange, manger, mangy, Strange, stranger. i ee eT as eae ee eeSPELLING LISTS 113 baste, chaste, chasten, haste, hasten, paste, pastry, taste, waste. scarce, scarcely, scarcity. e. equable, equal, equalize, equi-, equine, frequent, obsequious, sequel, sequence, sequent. febrile, Hebrew, inebriate, metre, negress, ne- ero, regress, retro- (also 2), saltpetre, secrecy, secret, zebra; centimetre, decahedron; presci- ent, ether. i, (See Lists 16 and 17.) oO, (See List 18.) u. bugle, cupreous, fugleman, involucre, (lubri- cant, etc.: see List 32), nucleus, nutrient, nu- triment, nutritive. impugn, oppugn. 34. Silent g in the group gn. arraign, assign, benign, campaign, champagne, champaign, coign, condign, consign, deign, design, ensign, feign, foreign, impugn, malign, oppugn, poignant, poignancy, reign, resign, sign, sovereign. (But pronounced in: assignation, benignant, con- signation, designate, -ation, malignant, oppugnant, pugnacious, repugnant, resignation, signal, signa- ture, etc. ) 35. Romanic words ending in -ice, -ise, -iss, -1s. } | } ] H } i ul ‘ 7 ; i if (1) accomplice, amice, apprentice, armistice, arti- fice, auspice, avarice, bodice, brattice, chalice,a ki } i | } ene ieee ee a ee ee 114 (2) (3) (4) 36. Romanic verbs in -ise. SPELLING LISTS cicatrice, coppice, cornice, cowardice, crevice, dentifrice, edifice, fortalice, gentrice, hospice, interstice, jaundice, lattice, liquorice, malice, notice, novice, Office, orifice, poultice, practice (n.), precipice, prejudice, prentice, pumice, service. anise, mortise, * pavise, practise (v.), * pre- mise, promise, treatise. * premiss. arris, brewis, morris, * pavis. (1) As suffix: advertise, chastise, compromise, ( ) disfranchise, enfranchise. (Others are properly written with -ize, as baptize, civilize, fratermze, humanize ; but also frequently with -ise. ) As part of a stem: advise, apprise, chastise, circumcise, comprise, demise, despise, devise, disguise, enterprise, excise, exercise, impro- vise, incise, premi’se, revise, surmise, surprise. ( Note -yse in analyse, paralyse from Greek. ) 37. French words with ch = sh. apache, avalanche, brochure, cartouche, chablis, chagrin, chaise, chalet, chamade, chambertin, cham- ois, champagne, champignon, chancre, chandelier, chanson, chantage, chaperon, char-a-banc, charade, charivari, charlatan, charpie, chartreuse, chassis,SPELLING LISTS 115 chateau, chatelaine, chauffeur, chauvinism, chef, chemise, chevalier, chevelure, cheville, chevron, chic, chicane, chiffon, chiffonier, chignon, chival- rous, chivalry (also pron. with ch), chute, de- bouch, douche, echelon, fichu, galoche (galosh), guilloche, (papier) maché, machine, moustache, nonchalance, nonchalant, parachute, péche, reé- chauffé, récherché, ricochet, Rochelle, niche, sachet, souchong, torchon. : | ee oes SeSm eteiieeenntieneesinsieinensieiee iat escheat eeTH eed | t | ; i 1 } 'en ST Siena cit eet cen adnate ore a ere os i i ' i | ‘Se eee | :Soo t / } ’ } eae ie a ee ee eeeXX OGL 247 Tb3 DATE DUE ) | | | : x