Ghe Ginmwergitp of Chicage UNIVERSITY EXTENSION DIVISION an LECTURE-STUDY DEPARTMENT b+. No. 43.—PRrice, 20 Crs. ANCIENT TRAGEDY FOR ENGLISH AUDIENCES SYELABUS OF A COURSE OF TWELVE LECTURE-STUDIES y= RY RICHARD G. MOULTON, A.M. (CANTAB.), PH.D. (PENN.) UNIVERSITY EXTENSION PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE FROM THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR THE EXTENSION OF UNIVERSITY TEACHING. THROUGH THE COURTESY OF Che Cribersity Puss Ue Spieawe THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. D. C. HEATH & CO. CHICAGO, BOSTON, NEW YORK AND LONDON:ALDERMAN LIBRARY The return of this book is due on the date indicated below DUE Usually books are lent out for two weeks, but there are exceptions and the borrower should note carefully the date stamped above. Fines are charged for over-due books at the rate of five cents a day; for reserved books there are special rates and regulations. Books must be presented at the desk if renewal is desired. Lel IURSE ent Tragedy. Be 7 of Orestes.’ Lon page 33 of on page 34 of [On Paee.- 35 of iS Gl—-2 - Lxercise ‘nt Greece. ts are advised to ations, using this ‘ter the course isGoiE CREDIT GIVEN FOR LECTURE STUDY COURSES: It is understood that the lecture-studies are intended, not to extend to the general audience the same instruction as that given in the University class rooms, but rather to stimulate and direct reading and study along the various lines of literature, history, and science. University Extension Credit. In the following plan of certificates, the course of twelve lecture-studies is taken as the unit. The University will, however, continue to offer short courses of six lecture- studies whenever local conditions render such courses desirable. Students who have attended a course of six lecture-studies, and passed the examination at its close, receive a printed statement of the award. 1) The Course Certificate, This is given by the University to students who have attended a course of twelve lecture-studies and passed the examination at its close. A combination of two six lecture-study courses will be accepted as an equivalent to one of twelve only in case the second course is delivered within a year of the first, in the same department of study, and on a subject intim- ately connected therewith. 2) Lhe Subject Certificate. Upon the satisfactory completion of two courses of tweive lectures each, both being in the same department of study, a Subject Certificate will be awarded. 3) The Group Certificate. This is given to any student who has earned four subject certificates, three of which must be in one department of study, and the fourth in another. 4) The University Certificate. This is given to any student who has taken three of the Group Certificates. In awarding certificates, account will be taken of the student’s work done in the weekly exercises, as well as of the result of the examination. University Credit. Non-resident work performed in the Lecture-study Depart- ment will be accepted by the University and credit given on the following terms: (1) The applicant shall present to the University Examiner the University Exten- sion Certificate for the work performed. (2) He shall pass a satisfactory examina- tion upon the same at the University, or, in case of the academy work, at a regular examination conducted by the University. (3) He may not offer for the Bachelor’s Degree more than one-half of the work required for that degree. (4) He may not offer for degrees of B.D. or Ph.D. more than one-third of the work required for those degrees. In the case of advanced subjects, the examinations for entrance to the University shall have been passed, and also such examinations in preliminary subjects as may be required for the subject offered. COPYRIGHTED, 1893, BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. msPROGRAMME OF LECTURES AND RECITALS I RECITAL: Shakespeare’s ‘Macbeth’ in the form of an Ancient Tragedy 2 LECTURE: Origin of Tragedy 3 DouBLeE REciITaL: Aschylus’s Trilogy: ‘Story of Orestes’ 4 LECTURE: The Chorus of Ancient Tragedy 5 REcITAL: The ‘Electra’ of Sophocles 6 LECTURE: Ancient Tragedy as the Worship of Destiny 7 ReciraL: The ‘Bacchanals’ of Euripides 8 LrcrurE: Various Motives in Ancient Tragedy 9 ReciTaL: The ‘Alcestis’ of Euripides 10 LECTURE: Plot in Ancient Tragedy II RECITAL: The ‘Electra’ cf Euripides ’ 12 LECTURE: Tragedy, Ancient and Modern READING All attending the lectures, whether students or not, are strongly advised to read a play a week, according to the following scheme. [Por Dooks, etc, see page 43. | first week: Milton’s Samson Agonistes Second week: The Agamemnon of Aéschylus (in full translation or in Book of Illustrations) Third week: The sequel plays to Agamemnon (Sepulchral Rites and Gendle Gualdssses ine thy BodR-of iQustrafions: called Libation Pouyers mtd *Fulyoniges in‘Rlamptre’s' translation) fourth week. The Antigone of Sophocles ° “ ; fifth week: The wlectra o8 Sophodes ot Sixth week: Tie Pdipus the KYieg*ote Sop, Seventh week: The Bacchanals of Euripides = Deore QO pool pees? n Lighth week; Euripides’ /phigenia in Aulis and [phigenia among the Tauri read fast as a continuous story Ninth week. Vhe Alcestis of Euripides Lenth week. Vhe fon of Euripides Lileventh week: The £lectra of Euripides The ‘week’ is supposed to begin with the day of lecture.GIFT | JUL 22 '42 ¥ He RCIShS for each week will be found at the end of the Syllabus. Answers in writing, to not more than TWO QUESTIONS each week, are invited from all persons attending the lectures. They should be sent to Professor Moulton, Hotel Windermere, Cornell av. and 56th st., and should arrive at least two days before the following lecture. Some signature, wth the name of the local centre at which the exercise ts to be returned, should be given at the top of the first page. The Exercise will be returned, with marginal comments, at the Review, the following week, when further explanation of the general subject will be given such as the students’ exercises seem to call for. There will be an EXAMINATION at the end of the course for students desiring to take it; and any credit given to students for this course will he based jointly upon the Exercises and the Examination. c © C@ ¢ ce : Ce c ¢ < ‘ o ; a ; ‘ ai 4 ‘ ©. ¢ BOL eg, e reac « ‘ j g = C—O € He « ber € ex € ee € ‘ c Ss 8 € C @ec e ¢ q c e fee POURS | 7. Rie ; G © ¢ € ‘ «< « €« C « ©. ¢ eo gc (NCE DEE ZF. COPYRIGHTED, 1892, BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO,I GENERAL VIEW OF ANCIENT PRAGEDY Two species of Drama stand out prominently in universal lit- erature: the Shakespearean and the Ancient Classical. But they are so diverse in form that one trained in the Shakespearean will need careful preparation before he can appreciate the Ancient Classical. There are two main distinctions of Ancient Tragedy from the Drama familiar to modern readers. I. Ancient Tragedy is not (like Shakspearean) pure Drama, but a compound of Dramatic and Lyric Poetry in alternate layers. Dramatic Scene on stage Lyric Ode in orchestra Dramatic Scene on stage Lyric Ode in orchestra Dramatic Scene on stage Lyric Ode in orchestra Ete. Ete. Its proper designation is ‘Choral Tragedy’, from the ‘ Chorus’ who performed the Lyric Odes, and yet were present in the Dramatic scenes. II. As a consequence of this connection with Lyric Poetry the dramatic Plot of Ancient Tragedy is considerably limited in its range by certain principles called ‘the Unities’. It is proposed to bring out these two main distinctions of Ancient Tragedy by two exercises : A. To take a Shakespearean tragedy [pure Drama] and turn it into the form of Ancient Tragedy [| Drama and Lyric mixed]. B. To start from Primitive Poetry [pure Lyric] and see how it gradually develops into the mixture of Lyric with Drama. Nore. The question is Often asked: What is exactly the mean- ing of ‘lyre Poetry ?..1f is enowgh fo answer here that it is 56 ANCIENT TRAGEDY FOR ENGLISH AUDIENCES. the poetry that comes nearest to music: Songs, Psalms, Odes, etc. But it must be remembered that Anceent Music was mainly Dancing : the vocal and instrumental elements were slight, but the rhythmic movements of the body were developed into a highly complex art which was the counterpart in Greek (and Hebrew) life of Musical Art at the present day. A. CONSTRUCTIVE EXERGISE To turn ‘Macbeth’ into the form of Ancient Tragedy 1. The full structure of Greek tragedy was as follows: Prologue (on Stage): Dramatic scene preceding entry of Chorus Parode or Chorus- Entry (in Orchestra): Lyric poetry sung as they enter Lpisode (on Stage): Dramatic Scene Choral Ode (in Orchestra): Interlude sung and danced , Episode (on Stage): Dramatic Scene Choral Ode (in Orchestra): Interlude sung and danced and so on, alternately, to any number Exodus (on Stage): Dramatic Scene following last Choral Ode It usually happens that in one or more Episodes the dialogue becomes lyric in style and metre: this is called ‘Stage Lyrics’. There is no need to invent lyrical matter for Macbeth: a play of Shakes- peare contains enough of this, but scattered through the whole play in quantities so small as not to be recognized for lyrical: this must, for the purpose of this exercise, be concentrated in Odes and Stage Lyrics. 2. The limitations of plot called ‘the Unities’ are as follows: a Unity of Action: Confinement to a single story, whereas Shakespeare keeps several going on side by side. Thus in Jacbech the story of Banquo will drop out altogether as a duplica- tion—Lady Macbeth must not be treated so as to appear a separate interest —and the same applies to Macduff. 6 Unities of Time and Place: of the single Story only the end dramatized; as much as can be represented as happening (roughly) in one place at one time: the rest must be made known indirectly by narrative, etc. Shakespeare, on the con- trary, will give as many as sixty changes of scene, and inter- vals of years between the scenes. For Macbeth: The scene must be confined (say) to Dunsinane Castle, and the time to the period of the final battle. [This corresponds in the main toANCIENT TRAGEDY FOR ENGLISH AUDIENCES. i Act V.]—This leaves the meeting with the Witches, the murder of Duncan and of Macduff’s children to be brought out by the Odes, or otherwise. 3. Several minor features of Ancient Tragedy, which will be explained later on, may be illustrated in this CXErCISe ; SUCH’ “as Rhesis and Forensic Contest, Messenger’s Speech, Semichoric Dialogue.— To keep up the religious tone of Ancient Tragedy ideas from the Bible may enter into the Choral Ode. Structural Outline of such a ‘Macbeth’ Prologue: Hecate’s Speech as it stands in 3. 5 reads like a Euripidean Prologue. Parode: CHORUS OF CLANSMEN come to enquire after the Queen in her ill- ness (compare conyersations in 5.1)—dark rumors as to its cause (compare 5.1.79) lead up to Ode J; Meditation on the general idea of a passion - driven woman — phrenzy sent from heaven (spirit of 3.2.7-25)—this suggests Stories of Ajax, Her- cules, etc. Episode I: PHYSICIAN and LADY ATTENDANT discuss with CHoRUs the Queen’s condition (5.1)—to whom enter the QUEEN walking in her sleep; her delirium gives opportunity for Stage Lyrics: The QUEEN’s washing her hands: suggests to the CHorus the story of Duncan’s murder.—The Queen’s taunting her husband with cowardice: suggests to CHORUS the old suspicions of Macbeth (compare 3.6). — The QUEEN mutters about the Thane of Fife: the CHorus wonder if this is some new iniquity. As the QUEEN retires Blank Verse is resumed—the scene ends with Rhesds (oration) from PHYSICIAN on the theme of ministering to a mind diseased —to which kindred passages may be linked (2.2.35-43, etc.). Ode Lf celebrates the night of Duncan’s death (working in kindred passages) —ends with wonder as to the new crime. Lpisode JJ; Enter MACBETH from second conference with Witches [4.1]: mutual greetings are exchanged (compare I.3.150, I.6.10-28, 1.4.22, 2.3.54)—Macbeth then triumphantly details the responses—Chorus recognize that one of them, ‘Beware Macduff,’ has already culminated in deeds, as they have learned from the Queen’s ravings—this is the first MACBETH has heard of her illmess and he hurries into the palace. Ode [/Z; The wonders of Clairvoyance: it visits the sick as delirium (sug- gested by the fulfilment of the Queen’s ravings)—it affects the murderer meditating his crime (work in 2.1.33-60)—and becomes a haunting vengeance when the crime is wrought (spirit of 3.4.50-106)—the ode widens to the unholy knowledge of Beings sold to the Evil One (hints for this in 4.1)—thus bring8 ANCIENT TRAGEDY FOR ENGLISH AUDIENCES. in the first meeting with the Witches on the blasted heath (1.1 and 3, and spirit of 4.1.50-60)—end with 1.3.123. Episode I{Z: A cry that the Queen is dead; Macbeth laments [as in 5.5.17-28]. A HERALD appears from the advancing English Army—and bearing the special defiance of MACDUFF to MACBETH (compare 4.3.231; 5.7.15) by which it is clear that he has escaped from the massacre of his family. Macbeth’s confidence receives a shock, but he replies with spirit, and there follows the Forensic Contest [introducing the spirit of 4. 2 and 3]. Ode IV indicates the shadow of turning in the action. [Work in 1.7. 1-12.] Episode IV is occupied with a Messenger’s Speech: the Scout describes Birnam Wood coming to Dunsinane (expansion of 5.4 and 5.5. 29-52). Macbeth goes to the fight with a burst of defiance, giving opportunity for Accelerated Rhythm. [Spirit of passages like 5.3. 1-10; 5.3.32-5; 5.5, I, etc. ] Ode V: How oracles have misled (compare 3.4.21)—Story of Croesus—no safety except in righteousness. Episode V: [Here the addition is made to Shakespeare’s version, necessary to introduce the catastrophe indirectly.] An English prisoner brought in—conven- tional consolation by Chorus: the uncertainty of fate in war—confidence of the Chorus, who rely on the oracle, “ None of woman born,” etc.—the prisoner laughs their confidence to scorn, and tells the story of MACDUFF’s birth—the Chorus in consternation proceed to Ode VI: The Oracles have paltered with them (compare 5.8.17-22)—deceit of heaven—anticipations of ruin. £xodus.: Corpse of Macbeth brought in—lamentations at the defeat (compare 2.3 g6-101)—later MACDUFF enters in triumph and consoles the CHoRuUs: he has warred only against the tyrant (compare 3.6.34-6, 5.8.66.).—The CuHorus conclude with a strain of pity for their late Chief, but the will of heaven has triumphed and delivered their country from wrong: thus a concluding couplet could be found in 2.4.40-I. B. ORIGIN OF TRAGEDY This section is an exercise in literary evolution: to show how the primitive form of Poetry, which is Lyric, gradually develops into the compound of Lyric and Dramatic, which constitutes Ancient Tragedy. The Ballad-Dance The ultimate poetic form from which all other literary forms have gradually differentiated themselves (what may be called ‘ liter- ary protoplasm’) is the Ballad-Dance, which is a combination ofANCIENT TRAGEDY FOR ENGLISH AUDIENCES. 9 Speech, Music and ¢mztative Dancing. [Compare heathen War- Dances, and such passages as Exodus xv. 20; ZZ. Samuel vi. 14. | As a Dance, such a form must be reckoned as Lyric: though it con- tains Epic and Dramatic poetry in embryo. Primitive worship, military evolutions, sport, all took the form of various Ballad-Dances. The Dithyramb The particular Ballad-Dance from which Tragedy sprang was the Dithyramb, that is, the dance used in the festivals of Dionysus or Bacchus. It must therefore have been the spirit of these festivals which developed the Dithyramb into Drama. The Wine-God above all deities would have festivals full of excitement and ‘enthusiasm.’ When the Wine-God became the su- preme Nature deity his festivals would celebrate the supreme phenomenon of nature, the loss of the sun in Winter and its recovery in Spring. [See In- dex: Festivals of Dionysus]. A feature of Bacchic festivals was the disguising of the Worshippers to imi- tate Fawns, Nymphs, but especially Satyrs, the mythical companions of Bacchus. Thus all the three elements of Here we get the germ of Dramatic Passion. Such changes from gloom to brightness constituted the germ of Dramatic Plot which is founded on change of fortune. Here we find a germ of Dramatic Characterization. Drama—Passion, Plot and Char- acter—were present in embryo in a Bacchic festival. Revolution of Arion and Spirit of Limitation The processes of gradual development were interrupted by a distinct revolution, the work of an historical personage, Arion (BiG. 600). rvamb was made Choral. The ‘Chorus’ and the ‘Comus’ It is technically expressed by saying that the Dzthy- were two offshoots of the primitive Bal- lad-Dance: both were full Lyric Dances, but in other respects the two present a strong contrast. The Chorus was (a) confined to an Orchestra (z.e., dancing-ground) — (4) divided into Strophes and Antistrophes [See Index: Strophic]—(c) accom- panied with a stringed instrument (the lyre.)Id ANCIENT TRAGEDY FOR ENGLISH AUDIENCES. The Comus was (2) a Wandering Dance, taking the dancers through a whole village—(d) in all respects free and irregular—(c) accompanied with wind instruments (flutes). The Dithyramb naturally belonged to the class of Comus Dances. Arion had influence enough to turn it into a Chorus: keeping the wild en- thusiasm of Bacchic subject-matter, but confining the outer form to the strictly regular evolutions of a Chorus in an Orchestra. The musical ac- companiment was strings for Tragedy and flutes for Comedy. Arion may thus be considered the ultimate parent of that strict limitation of form which distinguished Greek Tragedy, and through it influenced universal literature for so long a period. Lyrical Tragedy We now reach the name ‘ Tragedy,’ which is made up of —edy another form of ode, and fragz, an old word for Satyrs : thus Tragedy is only the ‘Song of Satyrs.’ It has at this point no resemblance to modern drama, but is: Lyric in form: a story conveyed in descriptive meditation, and with elaboration of metre, musical accompaniment and dancing evolutions —the performers are a lyric Chorus. Dramatic in spirit: distinguished from other Lyric poetry by wildness of emotion, and self-abandonment to sympathy with the incidents touched, which would tend to break out in actual imitation. The Dramatic Spirit breaking through the Lyric Form The next evolutionary stage is made by various modifications of form produced by the struggle between Dramatic spirit and limitations of Lyric form. I, Semichoric Excitement.— At crit- Thus Dialogue has come into Trag- ical points of an ode the Chorus break edy—but at present it is Lyric Dia- up into Semichoruses, expressing their logue. agitation by rapid dialogue: then the Chorus resumes.— Such Semichoric Dia- logue retained as a device for expressing excitement in fully developed Greek tragedy.ANCIENT TRAGEDY FOR ENGLISH AUDIENCES. II 2. Pauses of the dance utilized for Dia- logue between the Leader [Zxarchus | and the rest of the Chorus, bringing out fresh matter for the Dance to cele- brate when it resumes.— A trace of this stage is seen in the way the Chorus of Greek Tragedy regularly speak of themselves in the singular. 3. Revolution of Thespis (B. C. 535). He introduces the Reciters of Epic Poetry [called rhabduci or hypocrite] to carry on the dialogues with the Chorus Leader, or with one another. Thus Actors (hypocrite) separate from Chorus, and Stage from Orchestra.— This leaves a trace in fully developed tragedy in the (Epic) Messenger’s Speech. 4. The number of Actors increases — costume and scenery adapted to parts —and the Dialogue obtains [from Sa- tyric Poetry] the Blank Verse which is midway between Lyric metre and Prose. 5. Bya silent revolution [of which there is no trace in the histories] the Chorus exchanged Bacchic costume for cos- tume suitable to the plot. Ancient Tragedy Tragedy now bifurcates with Lyric Odes and Dramatic Dialogue alternat- ing—but the Dramatic Dialogue is a subordinate function of the Lyric Chorus. There are now separate places and sep- arate performers for the Lyric and Dra- matic elements of tragedy. This stage is a strengthening of the Dramatic Element at the expense of the Lyric. By this revolution the Lyric Element, the Chorus, was itself dramatized —so that the evolution of Tragedy is com- plete. Fully Developed 1. The evolution thus traced explains how Greek Tragedy when fully developed was a union of lyric. ‘Choral .Odes’—- performed by ai*Chorus? im ‘the ‘Orchestra’ round the Altar of Bacchus—in ‘Strophic’ form; and Dramatic ‘ Episodes’—by ‘Actors’ on the ‘Stage’ in what may be called ‘Blank verse’ ; with the Chorus as the bond between the two: having organic connection with the Dramatic Story [as the hero’s confi- dants, or a body of bystanders, etc.], and taking part in the Dramatic Episodes [by their Coryphzeus or Foreman ]— while the Lyric portions they had wholly to themselves. 2. Tragedy in Greece was thus not an amusement, but a National Festival, and regarded as part of the worship of Bacchus.12 ANCIENT TRAGEDY FOR ENGLISH AUDIENCES. Genealogical Table Ballad- Dance Lyric Satire Chorus Comus Epic Verse tending to- Full Lyric Sta- Full Lyric Wand- Verse wards Blank tionary Dance ering Dance Verse Epic with Double Recit- ers [Hypo- Agows crite | Lyrical Tragedy Lyrical Tragedy with Semichoric Dialogue | Lyrical Tragedy with Dramatic Episodes Tragedy with separate Chorus and... Actors, Orchestra and Stage | Tragedy with separate Actors and Stage; and Blank Verse for Dra- matic parts Atrric TRAGEDY =com- pleted by dramatiza- tion of Chorus.NT TRAGEDY 7 ad CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF ANCIE ANCIENT TRAGEDIES FOR ENGLISH AUDIENCES. le = + a : nN SS BS) : ES S S To SK iS 8 oS NY S = to 3 4 ae A SS Ss S oA +2 SS XQ a n nn ® \ : ° 4 ou — ~ Pe ie eS YSZ SS = S as . Ss LS SS Wn Ww tn x SYS = X o o So. S SS Se - = ES SS se Sao RIS Re 6 oS e a aa Ma, os NS srSieys OS 8 Sy 8 oat oi a Towne? 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Posthumous: phocles a G@dipus at Colonus. 406 Death of both So Posthumous Lphigenia in Aulis, The Bacchanals. (75 or 92 plays in all), (130 plays in all). (70 plays in all).14 IMAGINARY 1LEUSTRATION Or TRAGEDY IN DIFFERENT STAGES OF ITS DEVELOPMENT ANCIENT TRAGEDY FOR ENGLISH AUDIENCES. the Relief, and picture of the god received by the Sea-Deities. A seer calls for Lycurgus and tells a A soldier of the guard tells how the king ordered the arrest of this stranger, and how, when Tragedy Fully Developed in agitated march, hoping to be in time to Chorus-Entry. Subjects of Lycurgus enter remonstrate with their rash king. The Chorus now personate Suljects of Lycurgus: Prologue. 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So wQ 08 Qe Gs SS woe Rea say ee Tes beee es no S ~ ° pd ert et ad () cone S — ‘ Ses 8 We 4 o ~~ oF BeEo~ » SB Sup ae4awhi ga Ges Sd tos Po qe Ao ead WSLS Sigma Se See Oe 8 oe SN ofeo 5 a> A pe BAL PHe GAR SCAWDE Oe So Sy Ss rm Sa am to On oe One Boa aS Oo ~Ggao 28 SESE S| ONS EEC ARE yu dea x : S Die Bare SoS Ze eee es Sse kwoes 4 | bid. ev VS. O i 0 OG wieiet a: Olea 6 me. We a ES SS SVs W™>y's a ase noe S = Cas te. eH TRE Ds SOG eee es aag mS HW SOF 2u oS OVveAEY Sa: S 5 S OOS On. OO SSS as ae RI © OS Woes of a land smitten withANCIENT TRAGEDY FOR Countrymen come to tell of the famine that has already begun, vegetation mysteriously withering—Lycurgus treats this as a part of a Story of Pentheus, and similar Lycurgus enters humbled, the fit having Infatuation of those whom the (asa general conspiracy to rebel—his own son inter- final scene— poses—the father turns his passion in this direc- stories of mortals who have resisted the gods and been smitten with madness. Episode. Choral Ode: tion—when he is smitten with madness, and Choral Ode. chases his son from the stage to slay him. passed from him-—and he now sends for the Seer to hear the rest of his vision—the Seer says the other woe was the sight of Lycurgus himself torn by wild horses—this brings back the king’s rage, and he declares the prophet shall die by the same doom which he has himself denounced. Lipisode:: Foreman ge upon it. his senses Messenger) describes the s people’s the Chorus enlar wrath—inflamed by Bacchus they break in upon him and tear him to (chan (changeof Another suspension q.8 | 9,9 aS oe - S wn ns 3 @.L o Os a 2S 2 oq % \ St) s — sist him—even his son— dialogue) he sees his son as a barren vine and cuts him down — rhythm) the king returns to too late—his woe and hi ge of rhythm) the Ode ends with urging general reverence for the gods. becoming madness gods are about to destroy. Exodus: ENGLISH Messenger relates how when Lycurgus chus appears as a god, takes off the curse of bar- renness from the land, and establishes his wor- to pieces.—While the Chorus are lamenting, Bac- ship as a perpetual institution. attempted to carry out his sentence on the Seer, the wild horses turned on the king and tore him v - vuvuyv AUDIENCES. 15I] THE LYRIC ELEMENT IN ANCEENT TRAGEDY The Lyric (or Operatic) Element in Ancient Tragedy needs special study as that which distinguishes this species from the Drama familiar to modern readers. THE CHORUS The Chorus is the common point between the dramatic and lyric elements, being the performers of the latter, and having a subordinate part in the former. Its function has been described as that of ‘Ideal Spectators.’ Spectators in the Drama : Compare the modern use of crowds, and confidants—the Chorus go to the verge of action but stop short (Agamemnon from 1629). Spectators of the Drama: The Chorus stands for the audience in the theatre—is made to go through the feelings the dramatist wishes to inspire—is made to recall and des- cribe ey ee iS Ure story that cannot be acted. [Compare chot; ales in Oratorip. ee ihe ei Sat icee ere re ‘hora Odds ee € ® © ¢€ € The Choral. Odes: igitrbduce us‘toAncient Lyric Poetry. The modern