| S8PELCOK NAAM Yar] VINIDYIA “10 ALISHSAIN Tr ae ayanne Mien es v vias Wien APE DONC Aa,kr HUD _ re >= EPA SHSM et see ae ee ty aor cat ee NU oe roe ne ag a =. te Ot ed ead aad al Sn ait a ee mg a Kx + a aie ee ei one oie Sere Se a eae Oe a + : eR he A: lah be Fabel ated "eanSeasty sts 1) yt tat eae ied Nett, Bos Bits ae Eso Se lS Ee ee dt nl enn) <= 4 t pa at i's Ht a Hi ii 1 tf Hi ath et Hie P| be » oe aoe ee OT Si Sa =e eae eee ee seats REG ateke tess eee —— A : ——— SS tr te et ESJ Ded ite Se need Vi TT ies ee ce gt ee eg Ce Al ites . a ye it - a i ke ie bi é / . oe 3 4 f a - & >. ‘ ‘ 4 f 4 7 as * io s 5 Nr ee) ah ta Se be Son — rest a tow) ee = Saal nd yh acl Satine islet ee ah hh Salle btm lee bh ie oe ate be a * ie Sate ns ee ee hr ~ tae eda v7 ae as re not ta era 5 es) A iad a: ah " ae Lense y aes ttt a . ShebeeEv r keh ek oe ee Dee ok ed te Rae <— ' wmearak tans 4 = Pw ss to i j a4! i ‘ Co a ae a et tl onetr ee ns Oe eg en en ee Se Se> = “er ehh! a ee yg %->- : Rare ee A ta 2 he aha ty ~ ry Saha aiagd ta Stocklist] + ee hee EA ee cen 4 ' Tr ae® me — es a ih Reali ink waiee e e ata GF < a SS ah SE ie alee E et ae ee peer tt res 2+, Yee Pn wr ee re he el a eo err Pm batace Se oa ete. bn be Sabo bn br Sn! a Sy 5 ——— =i Wit) 1 ath shai INDO-ARYAN THOUGHT AND CULTURE AND THEIR BEARING ON PRESENT DAY PROBLEMS IN INDIA An Argument from the Standpoint of a Native of that Country OR WHY BRITAIN RULES INDIA BY PRABHAKER S. SHILOTRI PTT ET re ee Th TTT hen TV ib pels! Uireasaiitt cami pe iaey | HEB UN ECTS ites Pita VHT iE Pea kad Me i Soon —— Se SS —>-- ~~ et ee eed = eh a ers ~~ ene ree rn SS See eh S ¥ g : = = 3 rd ——— oe SE yrs SS a Se aS! ~ —_ 9 oe Ste a epee ine er pel pte Oreos Ae aa eran rmtnmntintie tan o a Se te ee ae = - 7 om cee a BE PRR o ord tas PEL o a oo Peet tte ee Se eee == ete a — a alee a nth Sm ce ee ee we ae Eg OO ee ee eS) a ee ee RELA 2 —= Per Nn oe = ae ee a a Se ~ ge te eee eenceere mee lere he had. W\ personal COoOnMn- ; eave ldde ~ rites. qualities. traqdl- . Hewitt was so much ct se ~ -- -_? ; - —- — c 4 . + wd od A4 ~ pt © —_ 2 o~+ . poke ms — — ih ~+ pomnpu ~~ {) CT at —" a - I @' q ~ . Ss . q 1 ¥ . 1 7 | 7 , ++ er? “a4 7) “ur I een 4uTe + : o ¢ . VOU Wwe ‘ Ul >¢ ITIILIC OTL? fi, WV U ladG@ 1NVaCGed iflGld Irom Tne t oe tnhliched 1 Sear oes ape ; H - , "eo ‘ 7 . j + - > Icy . Oy] Cal al Ll il LXV coed a } » CU At. ~ « C¢ [Tall Zea WILiY Cit 1S C ; 7 1% 1 it 1 ] +) +4 T ‘ = 1 , rT’) Tha + / ar 1ToTt + Vs lat ult LO LCI Witt alm LLil LS | LLISSS LLVAUCILS VCTC T 1 + ory mere] + Leino 7 YN) vn) Wwidement aiso. an attempt fo \ LiC it L MiLin Os A my Owrll Mb ( L cl » Gl cellu L ~ ~ ’ A 17 47 Ts \ 7) ny b] 1. noe + rv ‘C ( ' | {clit + TH ne : ce { Ss ii ‘ \/ ‘ Li Vall iaACK cl i. — +A C t AANA a \) LW [atc . ‘ + 4° — eo 1 - ; ' ~ . % ow rior 1% T rane ec hi T 7 ry ur vf Py ~~? ‘rT t] )T » LU ES pi 4 Li YC ly blidi KOU quieren . Ul tJil } SiOgSTIOMY \ lat . ‘ - Y » q 7 r,s ° 7° | 1% Tne mempers oT tT : HK 4 larian Ano Tne Jraviey an \ 2 oe j v¥¥ & Cill u i . > Plcil cAil CALAN iit i laVitlia i e > + ~ « rc . 1) { 1] iy ed 1 } 1dge ot th - fil] valu ; I i \ a I] lL VCl hil ¥ iiiciil ae a l nw Wa Lilt RUdil Ya ce Ue a. a . . . + 7 1 7 1 iS 1 T Vir +4 ' : but | el that the marth of he ra Vil VV t researcnes, Dul reel that the worth ot the WVra- ] 1 1 1 e “ 7 ” ; 7 + * 4 + ] \ 7 1. ; rT T + +) . ] aces and Ui irc tney nave piayed in the formation O! } ] t —_ 7 ] ; nO +] ry h- 1h, (,TePnNneg?Tr 11. . — Tr | ~ . ( J] ania Inl\ U y LIA VE \ Clit al UTIGeT - 7 1 ‘ 1 7 T - T 7 " “4 Tro 1 + Taha . + + + aliued no 7 Cmove al 11S C Ns tear tne part - + —s 4 ~ . 7 . 7 + } r , TW) “yy Tt . ¢ 7% tT i Lyra. 1 174 ,* TOs . ] Vi A‘ \ ‘ aS il calil a YY ALA Viti i a I 7 7 5 7 + ° Yr) 7 t ] * 7 } t | , ] w1¢F =F \] * ; } Ta tah ] ,IT?T) I IT) » ¥ Slat i ( 4 i A 4 ~~ 4 ~~ LU) . A Las V¥ Lil Vile ns ) ~ 7 . | 7 . 7 T1177" \r ) C ,?"4 a OT? 7 "7T) ' “¢ 7 , ei i + 1Ta 7) ‘Ji Ai A Lk ¥Y CALdl . Ai i. y cl i hhis CA14iN4 ci. ta La . Ladil Lick VE Lit) oe ? ry | wWwiTAaTr t ' TY?) | 1S1711 ( th : “SV TTITYI OY aah! > 174° litt c ey * WA LJ ‘ A ‘ i S C hLAL/JLAGA cha ~ Lit COTTIITI« RAXNACA Mit Gudil ics Ul 4 4 T | - x + ? i * ‘ ‘ 1 - - ‘ - 1. 1 Wo 7 T hh, ry ] Tt +44 . 4] aT ¥ eCInp LS1S J l { Cc Vi »S J Lil bILACAL ct i Licit i gets lt a ” i 7 ' ° e -— * , t , “4 _ Tse x > * ’ > ° , Al SUC Te TTITi¢ ‘ Lilt Statio | ALISLILULIUIIS ¢ COUTICTS < - 4 . 7 1* , . - 7 “OF +- ] wry | ~ Hh rc} : promiscuous mixing of castes and races or a adical change in ° ‘ ¥ t 5 + + - 1 ) fr i tn CAISLI in . ‘ OTrdel it Wwe ild hot p ‘ auliva iTaveous—— Tf ] 17 mic] T i T1117 lI, ] 1 17 1T . 1 14 T h . 4 ‘ CCU Av 1] iil A 4 lid ’ Cis > | i — Ad Lo result L\/ SLIUCINN tl *h TY | TT 1 1enN | ; ' “ f ] ae ] ming’? | Le CNerTIsnNed SsentimentS ana PDITe qcdices OI tne M10 111d C= Aietpe teen ke ol aot na ; LS a et ee oe are methods which | shall suggest by which the desired re- sald Sun. tA en deawlicc poles sults can be gradually obtained 7 h without arousing unnecessary o . peopie.,er I shall consider these pages to have fulfilled their mission if they go even a little toward removing some of the innate prejudices of my countrymen, and if they produce on the part of the Western nations a somewhat more sympathetic and inquiring attitude towards the problems and people of India. I wish to record here my indebtedness to my teachers in the Department of Economics and Sociology, whose courses it has been my privilege to attend, and from whose association I have derived much benefit. To a fellow student, Mrs. Alice S. Gitterman, M. A., I desire to express my sincere appreciation for her thorough revision of the proofs. My heaviest obligations are due to Professor Seager for his kind encouragement throughout, and to Professor Jackson, who, although I was not a pupil in any of his classes, made many very valuable sugges- tions and criticisms and gave me many evidences of his personal kindness. While acknowledging my indebtedness to each of these gentlemen I must add at the same time that they are to be relieved of responsibility for any particular view advanced, s the opinions and arguments are my own. New York, March, 1913. ee ac Nae sty ta) eee wat Ty ee Dore ee yey ‘< ac ys 4 ee Se oe * ——————————_—_ Se BO a arr ae ene a ba Sa Pe ea ee Sa rae Ss a eed ~ Bat ett te acne ae eee Re he te ae SES Rote na ey treed Sea eReteteainaes a i od i ip ’ vib ' r vt Ve eee eee ee SS ee See se ar om eae yee oe Ss Se a See ee 2 , teh gt 9t. ak be ee oo Nee A Ey breasts id ob ee eat z ee = Wars ot etal ol a a al bt ee Ne RE rk hai ge ania a or ta oe CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In giving my reasons for undertaking to write on so broad a theme, various phases of which have been dealt with by many ex- cellent scholars, I must say at the outset that it is the product of an unpremeditated plan. I had occasion to go through the translations of some of the leading Sanskrit texts, and while I obtained no appreciable results for my original purpose in perusing them, | came across abundant evidence to confirm me in some of the views which I had been forming concerning the ‘if problems and people of India on the basis of my acquaintance with the actual conditions in that country and an immediate 4 knowledge of the Indian psychology. A quest for the root of the socio-economic problems of In- dia is of most vital interest to us to-day, and | thought that an attempt on my part to offer even a slight clue towards their solution might be appreciated by my countrymen as a greater service than even very fruitful results in any other branch of ap ial atl a Rial ata ei hh et aimee ee toe ek kh add Ee research. Something is radically wrong in a country where hundreds of millions of people in a perpetual low standard of life succumb to a condition of chronic poverty, restless political discontent, ] and misery. Superficial analyses have simply resulted in rem- : edial measures—while the fundamental conditions remain prac- tically unchanged. To put the blame on the tropical clime or EEE EAA EOL EEE ET Tb the racial qualities of the population and declare the problem as a ~ insoluble and hopeless, is deliberately to shut our eyes to the history of the country and the native stamina of its people. It is a good working hypothesis for the British Government and for indifferent Westerners, but the people of India cannot be satisfied with such a summary dismissal of the case and must make an independent effort to solve the problem. The gravity of a problem, however, or an interest in its so- RR ee gape ee er Es tigger eg tre ERAS ARAN lution, is no license for anyone to undertake its treatment. I fully realize that many able scholars have worked on it, and after devoting years of research and reflection, confessed their inability to say a final word on the subject. Yet India is today passing through a period of mental transition and prepar- eg ae Serene Shh. a ~ ree i. i! rH i "ali t ‘3 Sv Pp ft Es13 ing for a mental crisis. ‘The mind of the Indian youth now craves a consistent theory that will explain to him his situation and offer him a clue towards its solution. Just at such a period it is necessary that the intellectual leadership of that country shall fall into sane hands. Unfortunately, many Western and Eastern men of note and scholars of excellent repute are pro- mulgating some not only erroneous but positively dangerous doctrines as to the potentialities and fate of India and her peo- ple. Victims to these doctrines, many of our excellent young men have gone to the gallows and others have fallen into a mood of pessimism, believing that things must remain as they are. First: There is a class of men who ascribe famines and all other evils in India to what they call the malignant influence of the British rule. They insist that conditions will remain pretty much as they are so long as that obstacle remains in the way. Second: There are those who maintain that tropical peoples and dark skinned races are incapable of maintaining a constitu- tional self-government and sound economic institutions, that is, in plain words: people of dark skin are destined to a dark fate —one of perpetual slavery to their masters from temperate zones. A certain scholar who has travelled all over the world and is reputed an authority on Eastern questions, in discoursing to his classes upon colonies and dependencies, showed for nearly an hour lantern slides displaying the half-fed and halt- clothed inhabitants of India and the Malay Peninsula, and asked if such filthy-looking creatures could be worthy of the self-gov- ernment, which their leaders seek for them. ‘These are by no means false representations, but we shall later point out the dangers of generalizations about peoples and civilizations based upon such superficial observations. Third: There is the pet doctrine of a defective ethnology which insists that race hybridization produces degenerate prog- eny, and maintains that the barrier between separate races must remain as a perpetual condition. In this connection it should be remembered that the major part of the population of India represents just such a hybrid product. Fourth: We are told that the British government is doing much benevolent work in India, and that the people of that country are ungrateful malcontents and do not know what is ———~ * re (ai we he ah ae ta ey os Se Sets i ty th ity a ee ee eet Sparen Serres eas = SeELEE EEE ERE SSE ar chee es ES re geen nn an ns OO ene ci oy Se pt oe og ee =~ = peg har tetera! Sees os —# - 5 oT ee eg ek en comet ee ieee Se ee en ey ee a ee ee eS SS ee ee ee SS ee ee ee oe Re aa meee ee plied ei anaoneeeeyerinaegtinned eran bes —— se : - = 7 9 mcrae == - S em ee eee ee a a ae oN a ani aoa eee ee te Se aa ae ee ea a pa I et eo ie ox Ne pe ee tae ee Menem 7 t = ne acy acim Ee Se Ces ipos oD Salty ere de a | pe —— —_ Bet gg ht Rh ihe pte | a i a A fee aire oe kD Rh Dk ur a tere ert er were ry -F2 be age he oa Se at R= PR ae Fa v Re aa a ln aad ms ala Sie me A ca En epee en tai MAA DALAT RET rete cart ices nda Seba see - ce tebactsat ste elt 14 good for them, and cannot appreciate it when they get it. The people of India, it is maintained, have no grounds for complaint. The British government is the best government and the most efh- cient ; as though the best ever must inevitably be the best forever. A scholar (and I may say he has his supporters) who has spent a considerable part of his life in studying the problems of India, points out that the people of that country today are much hap- pier and economically more prosperous than they were under their native Rajas, who robbed and looted them under the pre- text of collecting taxes. We shall later point out why this statement, which is partly incorrect, fails to prove the superior merit of the present administration as a desirable perpetual condition. Since such are the attitudes toward the problems of India even of those from whom we should expect more balanced views, we cannot blame the zealous apostles of Christ who offer the gospel as a panacea for all the evils in India. Under the seducing attractiveness of the four mischiet- making doctrines above enumerated, our young men have been led into rash attempts or into the pessimistic belief that the tropic and sub-tropic regions are the graves of human energy and progress. We warn them to guard against such fascina- ting or pessimistic doctrines, and, keeping sober aims in view, to work steadily for the reconstruction of the country, which has the best of prospects in the future. False pride, narrow-minded prejudices, and a spirit of re- venge and ridicule are the results of a superficial study of the isolated chapters of a past period of human civilization. It is little wonder that an Englishman who reads of the Black Hole of Calcutta and the massacre of women and children by friends of Nanasahib, or a Westerner who only knows that the people of India are dark skinned, should come to that country with a contempt for the people, or that others, reading only of the phil- osophical doctrines of the people of India, should expect to find 4 * in all the Indians great philosophers. Neither is it surprising L that an Indian youth, reading isolated chapters of Warren Hastings’ administration, should be imbued with a spirit of re- venge against Englishmen, irrespective of their motives and opinions. Unfortunately, it is a defective system of education in which we are drilled at home. It trains our memory and teaches us15 to perform some intellectual feats, but creates in us no inquiring and unbiased attitude towards our social, political, and economic problems. This neglect of the teaching of social sciences is largely responsible for the unsatisfactory intellectual leadership that we find in India today. And as we leave our shores seeking for a better understand- ing of our problems and a more definite scheme for their solu- tion, our ears are stunned with the noise about the clement spirit and the high standard of honor of the English. Here we are given an opposite swing to the pendulum of our theories. We are taught some perverted ethnological doctrines as to the dan- gers of race mixture and the advantages of race prejudices— doctrines based upon insufficient data for such sweeping gener- alizations as to the destiny of mankind. Yet I know of many victims of such mischief-making doctrines amongst us who ad- vocate an accentuation of caste spirit, and others who have come to despair of the prospects of their country and the fate of their kindred. It is to prevent the minds of our simple and inquiring youths from being polluted by such suicidal views and to remove at least some of the grosser prejudices of Western scholars as re- gards the peoples and problems of India, that I have undertaken such an ambitious task, with some diffidence as to my ability to discharge it successfully. I hope, however, that my presumption may be pardoned if I do not extend my ambition beyond merely presenting a point of view. In the course of this essay I shall try to show to what extent the tropical climate of India brought about the degeneration of the Indo-Aryan stock; point out the worth of the Pre-Aryan races and civilization of India; give my reasons for declaring the present racially mixed composition of the population of India to be an economic advantage to the country; show the value of absence of color prejudice to the future regeneration of that country, and why I consider it would be a pity if from the con- tact with civilized Western nations we should breed in ourselves a contempt for the dark skin and the so-called lower races; that the problem of India hinges on the possibility of the disintegra- tion of the present attitude of the Indian social mind, and of creating in its stead another social mind, possessing political and economic “consciousness of kind,’’—that is to say, that it is a problem of psychogenesis primarily, whatever may have been y oe aeeey ee ts .: ores SH SS eee tt eon Sia Terabe arr = hd ra TS ra Pi ioe SS 2ps2) 305 23 bs yo) eae bhai aaa — —— — Sas 2S ~ — —— aan ee ae See Se Ea eae aaa tee) — - pian sd SSS SSE ESS Seley gee gy Oe ee Se aed See Sees te ee re a a tent ane ee ee ees SSS Pe ee ed ee ty Secs * i : tf —- is i) Ne De ay it usat x % to my P mS a); ; Ted Loe a El ais oe oe eet: ae batty Ent hee 3, oe a fig Bee hy a el eel a a i Sa la a ali EELS EET: Fy es hrs Gere ten Ne shor en be Ses nh sen ean intitle i ace ioe ee oe ere Eee cee a ee FS EY Fe ek ee es Da a Ta MR near aa ia ata i eR a a gt Tate at ad et A PHOT EE Tes 16 the influence of geographical and racial factors in times gone by. I shall point out the special advantages accruing from the Brit- ish government in the direction of this psycho-disintegration which we so much desire, and also explain why in my judgment this government may perhaps stand as a serious obstacle to the further progress of a healthy growth of national economic life in India. My main task, however, will be to trace the srowth of this peculiar attitude of the Indo-Aryan social mind which woe } supports the apparent contrast and contradistinctions, the ex- istence of the sublime and the ridiculous side by side in the lt fe of the people of India. Finally, I shall try to point out to my countrymen that the situation is such that we need be neither pessimistic nor over-op- timistic as to the prospects of our country and the fate of our people, and that every Indian youth, if he cares to, can become an active force in building up his nation and serve his country even without sacrificing his business or domestic interests. Very few people either in or out of India, except those who happen to have devoted special attention to the problem, have a clear idea of the complicated racial composition or the peculiar mental constitution of the population of that country. To the Westerners India has been a land of mystery, curiosity, con- tempt, or admiration, according to the particular phase of its civilization they happen to have studied or heard of. To the orthodox Indian mind she is the only holy spot on the face of the earth, possessing the only religion that gives salvation. Re- sions and peoples outside it are impious barbarians. If we take some of the most commonplace beliefs and facts about India and her people, we find in them a deep meaning for our -for we shall soon realize that in an attempt to furnish purpose a consistent explanation of these we are confronted with a laborious task. What are some of these facts, then, that give us an inkling of her problems? ‘The popular mind readily catches and stores whatever is generally most peculiar and offers vivid contrasts about a country and her people, and yet these very commonplace popular beliefs reveal on genetic analysis some important truths. The popular mind credits or discredits India with many con- trasts, some of which are as follows: it is a country of wisdom and intellect, of whose people much has been heard, and yet we are told that they are heathens and victims of gross superstition,17 practising idolatry and fetish worship. And the people claim the noble Aryans, a white Caucasian race, for their ancestors, yet the majority amongst them appears a half-clad, half-fed population, not at first glance differing much from the colored population of the United States, and in fact containing many racial and cultural elements even inferior to the lowest of negroes. Amidst the glittering glory of wealth and courtly pomp of thousands of native princes, who wear costly jewels and make such lovely scenery at Durbars, millions are held in the jaws of famine and have to be supported by contributions to the missionary funds. There is a fundamental psychological unity that supports the heterogeneous structure of the caste system. There are hundreds of millions of people representing strong and vigorous race elements, yet held in subjugation by a handful of foreigners. These are some of the facts of commonplace knowledge which seem inexplicable to the Western mind. Many times during my stay in America have I been asked by sympathetic friends of India for an explanation of such astonishing anoma- lies. [hese contrasts and contradictions are facts, and an at- tempt on the part of some of our patriots either to deny or to defend them has led them into a ridiculous situation. I shall make no attempt either at refutation or removal of these beliefs, but hope to show that in a genetic study of these phenomena we find an explanation that renders these contrasts less aston- ishing and these apparent incompatabilities less baffling. The people who are credited by some as being the earliest inhabitants of India are the Kols.t. Their racial affinity is not well known. ‘They are believed to belong to a branch of the Australian negroid type. ‘They are jet black in color, have wooly hair and are animistic in belief. "These people are said to have been the first in the world to take to a settled life. They built villages on their hunting grounds and made beginnings in agriculture. Their number must have been very small, perhaps only a few millions. As these people were de- veloping their tribal politics, another race, supposedly of Turanian origin, came from the northeast, conquered and 1). F. Hewitt, Primitive Traditional History, Vol. I. po2 seh seg: For an opposite view see Risley’s People of India, p. 43 ef seq. Mr. Risley places the entire aboriginal population of India into one main group which he calls Dravidian and gives them a negroid description of physique. <= Sash its bt ta) ea ea | Teh Wu ere 5 LO SSeS Se aa See ee ere eee eae Seen en te ner ge aREET! SET Sp Sa net oP ener ok ees i ~ Bs hy i) Mat; ate Hey os x _ ae eg oe sae ee te ey vi nae — eer SS a ey nt | te nee ee 20 teeth nt + -" amar) a ae Re aS ee a nnn ee ad aro are) oe ay a + a ary hae sae ee ee, Ty oo ee a Se cre tad = ry ee eee = J eee Sena a ee ee et i : fs 3 i a2 et Ft ru ah = ern 4 cy pA a a Pad Poe a ~ te at Rata ae eR a a ot he ie hl ai atta erlinretres ’ a Pe ee Oe wep dt atl LEPYEE TEA PEE ETT St eet So bd Na enn by btn Sn > ace is io Sacer taht + agra Deed aes Pane Romer an er Sse de dal saci we i rah Nias ho ah et ch eS saci eee RE BL oT a Till seat Sa a Se el i i i ale ee pereseearee Is enslaved these people and established their supremacy.” These people are called the Dravidians—the true backbone of the population of India. They are of reddish black color, have smooth, straight hair, pointed noses, and in general physiog- = - oreatiy recempble the -called white race ff Kyrope— nomy sreatly resemble the so-called white races Ol surope ° P | a ona at wis s , ' —— except that their color is dark. It 1s believed that these were a brave and war-like people, possessed ot oTeal ovenius LOT political organization, and a native instinct for industrial development. T’hev had established large kingdoms in India and had made con- siderable progress in agriculture, industry and commerce. [heir number must have been very large, as they form the major” part yf the present population of India and their blood has fltered through almost all the racial stocks that later arrived in the coun- _ - : 1, atianntare ; arrniTic 1. A From the standpoint of acclimatization and economic ein- i i ’ ™ . ? } } . 46 als ; ] _ 5 1, . 1a cilenc this 1s perhaps the Dest Tat al stock in India today. fr +] ty) +) +} . 1] va Ind \ ‘ele hae th » } T NC re T \ tte T ttietti ATT { SO-Cad ICU indo- ALT ValiS, Lilt THOSL DOWCI- - a c 1 [= ELnllarmnes ale tae —— _ _— . . “a a = 7 . TI and intelligent Of all the Taces that went to India rO! perma- iOniZdl rl. i iit were a CatucaSlan White Tacc, elle VEU be descended from the same forefathers as those of the Ger- =) f wr ame ne ile Aoneel c noe de hon re i - - : tribes of Europe and the Gauls of Scotland. It 1s 1mma- ‘rial whether or not we admit the close racial affinity of these » ~* . [ "+ Tt’ r ‘ 5 * +4 ' 4 > 7. neople to the races of Western Europe; it 1s sumecient tor our rT r 7" , ' ry r ° ") TT) “nN - 1jwen le .y were the most vigorous and intelligent ele- is | ; purpose th the tl tethat antoarad tha crauntru and hv their 11 14 oa “ivilizati 1) Tet Lildt or it 14 Lrit LAJLILILS VV. Lil yy LiIC il unique C1V1 IZALIUOII, ‘ 1 1 7 | s a aa al m CY . nro ¢ whi mo nas now ecome KnOoOWN WOTICG-WIdc amongst scholars, DIroO- rOoundiv arected the entire COUTSE¢ or truture even;»nts It nala and Se ee ea es noael tad ie tanta hace nar > y decided het olitical and economic tate. Yet these people were 7 ] 7 “a . . . } »7* ' > * * + . r / ~ also o1 w millions in number. It is they who started the | ao 4 - oe? “ = = 1 Cas system in india, Originally tO preserve and perpetuate tne purity of their blood as wellas the sanctity of their spiritual status from the surrounding black ocean of irreligious people in which they found themselves situate. But their most rigorous caste sys- lbid., DP. 235 | eq. Mr. Hewitt believes these Turanian people a % 2 . ‘ } 4 } ¢ he = a ry * . re of Semitic origin. See also, his Ruling Races of Pre-historic Times, | ty] el ) oo . aes il «oon —— 7 1) eee aa Xaces Pre-historic Times, p. 105. Also Prim. Hewitt’s Ruling | Trad. His., pp. 885 et seg. Also see reference in note above ‘See statistics of castes given in Mr. Risley’s Ethnological Appendix to Vol. 1 of the Census of India for 1901, and compare the numerical strength of the dominantly Aryan and the dominantly Dravidian castes. “Whatever may be the difference of opinion as to the racial afhnity of the Dravidians, Mr. Risley, Mr. Hewitt and Mr. Elphinstone all agree as to their industrial efficiency in a warm climate. See Elphin- stone’s History of India, oth ed., p. 215, and Risley, People of India,19 tem and religious and race prejudices failed to keep their blood from assimilation with their neighbors, and thus today we find a very small element of predominantly Aryan white blood in India. After many centuries of tranquility during which the Indo- Aryans were accomplishing their mental evolution and crystal- izing it into their institutions, came successive waves of the Greeks, the White Huns, the Mongolians, the Semitic Arabs, the Mohammedans, the Negroes from Africa, and the Jews from Palestine and Asia Minor. Some of these like the Scythians and the Greeks, adopted the Indo-Aryan creeds and institutions, while others, like the Mohammedans, imposed their creed on a por- tion of the existing population. All of them, however, became inevitably mixed in race and culture, and all in time submitted to the powerful influence of Indo-Aryan culture and customs. It is interesting to note that among many other things we find this peculiar fact, that under the influence of Indo-Aryan cul- ture even the Mohammedans, the Christians, and the Jews in India have learned to follow indirectly some form of a caste system. Thus we see that the population of India consists of a vast conglomeration of many race elements, which, though racially mixed, have been split up into thousands of small and large communities of interest, some of them racially purer than others. We find that the T'uranian Dravidian people, a reddish-black race of Caucasian appearance and physiognomy, constitutes the major part of the Indian population, and from the point of view of their economic contribution and the numerical majority the country may properly be said to belong to them. In the north- west of India we find the center of the predominantly white Indo-Aryan blood, and as we go farther from that point towards east and south, we come across various degrees of mixed Aryan and Dravidian blood, until towards the farthest east and in al- most the whole of the south below the Vindhya mountains we find a predominantly black Dravidian population, in the northeast somewhat intermingled with the Mongolian blood.’ Of course, there are exceptions to this general rule, as there are later im- migrants who have settled south and east and show the predom- inantly white blood of the Greek or Scythian invaders with whom their affinity is recognized. “Baine’s Ethnology (in Bithler’s Grundriss) p. 15. Also the map showing race distribution in India attached to Mr. Risley’s Appendix referred to above. Serr ats thts eee ptt eet ~ ae ate pape th ett os eh et tats Le peater ) a Saat he ROL EET Pee. —— Se ee eet ee Stee RES SS eS Se oS he ney om se pp ees 3-5-32 Eaten Saree _—~ et inn te rs = ee ee ee ee nee Se a ee ee nk ee ee eS Oe ee ey ptt ene i SS I i a en a eee ree ee nee Er oe SET Ss en ee ee eke attra = f ——- i ie A va tt 4a Ce he Cm ES -' See —s a, Paes art my \ Sait ag oe teehee Ya aaa sh nl PERN ESS ral te ak re a wa ee a OP al ek hf ig Cah Sa Can Sie Sei, Sa Sipbiars in Wie RCM ao Tata i re oe ae eT me ee ee ae © 9 ce eataae Sector bein: 5h jos bu ba bea Se Sere bat aT aaa ai li tanith tall aes ari fr il tie we Peat ee Bh Oh ah alia ed 20 It is these basic facts of pseudo-heterogeneity of racial com- position and the multiplicity of the rigidly close communities of interest called castes, a unique product of Indian psychology, that have accentuated the influence of such secondary factors as the religious and linguistic differences and impaired the po- litico-economic structure of society to such an extent as to pre- sent an insuperable obstacle to rapid political and economic progress—and the most daring reformer in India stands aghast before the power of these factors. I cannot here recount the innumerable secondary prob- lems of India, but let the reader imagine a country two-fifths as large as the United States, containing a population of 300,000,- 000 people divided into over 3,000 castes, speaking more than 150 dialects, professing countless creeds, ruled by super- stitious customs and under the tutelage of thousands of princes or heads of small and large estates. Embracing some race ele rh ments equal to any of the progressive and prosperous peoples o Western Europe, the country failed to build an economically sound civilization, failed to assimilate the fresh supplies of blood that came in, failed to eliminate linguistic and religious differ- ences and consolidate political organization; in short, these heterogeneous elements failed to merge into one “people. Even today there is no “people” in India, in the political sense of that word. Yes, there are priests and princes and rulers Wh and heads of castes and corporations and clerks, but there 1 no “people” in the sense in which that term is understood in Western countries. How did this come about, and how can such a condition be ameliorated? To find a clue to the reply is the aim of this study. If we must fix the blame on someone for creating such con- ditions in India, we can lay it especially on those immigrants who came there about 2500 B. C., and called themselvesAryans, distant kinsmen of the Germanic tribes of Europe. But we can hardly place the responsibility on these people. Their own thinking and actions were conditioned by factors which were beyond their control. At any rate, these are the people whose history, beliefs, and institutions supply the most important gen- etic clue to the problems of India. But for the coming of these people to India the history of that country would have been to- day either a relatively blank page or would have contained a list of kingdoms and dynasties to match those of the Chinese21 and Ottoman Empires. Prior to the coming of the Indo- Aryans, political events in India, it is believed, were shaping themselves along the normal lines. We find the powerful Dra- vidian kingdoms organized and maintained on an efficient politi- cal basis, the population classified into three main divisions on a strict precedence of wealth and political power—the nobility. gentry, and slaves to correspond to the English earl, thane and ceorl, the Roman patrician, plebian and slave.6 The Dravidian freeman of the village community had become subject to the manorial lord and the manorial lord paid homage to the central control. Political organization was gradually consolidating and economic progress was slowly making headway, and one notes with intense interest the parallel between the politico-economic developments in feudal Europe and those in India at this period. It seems that at a given stage of evolution human na- ture unfolds itself in a precisely similar fashion under identical conditions. But all this until the Aryans came on the scene, and now we find that the feudal lordships stayed where they were and failed to disintegrate and make room for the people, for the people did not care and the people as a body politic was no more. The Indo-Aryans themselves sincerely believed and told these distinguished predecessors of theirs that they were en- gaged in a wild goose chase;’ that the ambition to accumulate riches and build empires was unworthy, because it never ends, and because, moreover, riches and empires belong to this world and remain here, from which after a temporary sojourn, the hu- man soul must depart. Therefore, they advised them to go after permanent values that appertain to the soul and bring eternal bliss. Such was the sincerity of their attitude in this matter, the reality of their belief, the attractiveness of their philosophy, the subtlety of their intellect, and the plasticity of their teachings that they readily enlisted to their standard that vast population including the most powerful princes and the poorest beggars; and the king as well as the beggar were now alike zealously devoted to making accumulations for the here- after. A vast population was, so to say, hypnotized. The complex °“Hewitt’s Primitive Traditional History, chap. IV, Sec. K, pp. 410- 448. Sec. on the comparison of the Indian and the European Monarch- ical Institutions and Land Tenure. "This is my inference. For influence of the Aryans as teachers of the Dravidian princes see Ruling Races, etc., p. III et seq. r - eats) ots al ee * ray Seotee a tes oF pean oy sy a Pe > Sots Dace be bach de! avira baba ea ere rv. * = — ee Ss ——— = Ra aamnanaee ee > oo a ee ne See Rae ae ry oe Se . an 6 ee ae ea = a es PR et te Se en te in re ee, | Se th it Oe ne ear a ee fe et eee ee ee oe ne PO Ee) ee ee a eS ea a eee Be eee so a SS a TRE oy 2 -~ ae SE een tae a Pea SSS at an SaaS | i i ki i en i i ts fs : ‘ne i 3 4 i Bf ra] Hy 3 aits qui thet EN Fy% v4 et pe Sari A ae tad at ah 4 eS ae FI Bi machinery for manufacturing these spiritual products was now set in motion, the elaborate sacrifices and ceremonies costing many princes their fortunes, the caste system bringing many mil- lions to their ruin, the various cults and austere practices, the min- ute regulation of everyday life activities by the sacred law—all these were at first intended to facilitate the accumulation of A ete ea eee eres eee ek ee spiritual merits and to open the path upwards to a higher birth, to a better world with less misery, and, finally, to - + — — ~% = r stage of complete absorption into the universal soul Las J which gives freedom from birth, death, sickness, and from a all the misery and trouble that go with. life and living. re et il al ge en th ee! i teh For over twenty centuries this charm worked on the popu- a - wih ; J ies feta aati a ents it lar mind undisturbed DY OUTS1ICC INue;nces, and SO deeply eae ” Ae 41 1 pn a we tla fs wmntie ; sy I a Pan were the people hynotized y thie fascinating ideals that | EL ' : ~ - ae ‘ ‘ c.. 1. 5 ° : : Las ‘ ap ‘ fi é ; Pi when the shock came from the outside world it was too late to ie | + 7 , - f 4 11TAa oD ] }, 7 a a rf g waken them from the power of this sweet slumber. lhe mould ' i ' , s : ° 1 r) 1 ‘ ; was cast and hardened and it was vain that Buddha, Chan- ‘ Lot he | fe A , : 44 * = oe ee 3 dracupta. Asoka, Vikramaditya, even an Akbar, a Shivaji, and 5 a WMadhji sindya tried to give new impressions and stamp to a } . : y .°- . - . ’ D na bs 14 cy irearTrn +r? Annes +] > noian 4 the original setting; and the British government and the Indian Pt + 2 . We ; L, heserlat hor 4 Te Ps TETOTMEeEersS Ol icl\ well cnow tne Durden Ol tnelr problem. It i - ‘ ry : | . ey FO ¢ . ete sus — a — is through the Indo-Aryans then that the political and economic Re D oe : pa: Bi fate of India was sealed. But can they at least tell us why they t , ae 1 1 1 , 1.7 x ‘+ r ay did so or how they achieved these remarkable results? Yes, Be Pat ‘ ee ee vr ; t valuable legacv. per Bit ror this purpose they Nave left us a most valuable evacy, DEeI- a \ - - a A F. hat ‘ t} rh ' . beta, AT) . > + 1, . c sly A 1. »T “oO t] » a [he British conquered not only the land and the people ot iD Bi: ] ] | ; } . . i . 1 ‘ ' > | India, but their versatile genius and all inquiring spirit sent forth their rays into all the dismal corners of the country, which 7 7 - 7 es ies ae io were closed even to her own sons by almost impassable barriers set by the Brahmanical law. Not many years had elapsed since their first tiny territorial acquisition in that land, when scholars like Wilkins and Jones began their labors in the fleld of Sans- krit literature, and sent forth messages to the Western world that they had discovered the existence of another world of thought and spirit, entirely unique in its character and without parallel elsewhere. Colebrooke and Wilson by their further studies confirmed this news. Then came the great French scholar Bournouf, who by his comparative method Tomei Setar tek son Sonor ec ee cb etait aaa Ta la iit i it a ae ee a ares —— S awn,23 and organizing genius disclosed for the first time the true worth of the Vedic discovery and gave tremendous im- petus to Sanskrit research, and it was not wasted as was proved by the labors of his pupils, Max Miller and Roth, who later became famous Vedic scholars and pushed still further the work of their predecessors. It is not my aim here to give a sketch® of the history of the progress of Sanskrit research, but I may emphasize its import- ance by pointing to the rapidity of its exploitation. Such was the fervor with which these studies were prosecuted that within the short space of only half a century the entire field of Sans- krit literature was organized and systematized, and in spite of the fact that there are thousands of manuscripts yet unedited and probably many more yet undiscovered, there is scarcely a known document of importance that has not been translated or edited and made accessible to the student. Even the earliest labors in Sanskrit research did not remain unappreciated. Senti- ments in “Sakuntala” enraptured as enlightened a soul as that of Goethe and the Upanishads solaced as stern and wilful a spirit as that of Schopenhauer. The discovery was not, however, allowed to remain a mere literary curiosity. A closer study of Sanskrit at once disclosed that it was a language® “‘unparalleled among its cognates in antiquity and distinctness of structure, yet re- vealing many points of resemblance with the substratum of the Furopean languages”. Sir William Jones as early as 1786 de- clared it to be a language of wonderful structure; “more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more ex- quisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity both in the roots and verbs and the forms of gerammar than could have been produced by accident, and he hinted at a common source of all these languages”. This sugges- tion was developed into a valid scientific theory by the German scholar, Franz Bopp, who led in the foundation of the study of scientific and comparative philology. By a series of further studies by other scholars the mutual relationship of the indi- vidual members of the entire group of Indo-European lan- guages was made clear. For a time these findings in linguistic SFor a sketch of the progress of Sanskrit research see A. A. Mac- donell, A History of Sanskrit Literature, chap. I. Also Schroeder, Indiens Literatur und Kultur; Erste Vorlesung. °Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. XIV, 11th ed.; article on Indo- European languages. ) a ey SRS tes teh 1st tt) eae eal it a ES 2 FG i<5 ° = iy 4 a est te ca Sirs —~ pS meet ate ets Se eee Sayre —Sa —— Some nate Tt le no ee Se eo ; bee Satis Be ce Rn te NR re en eer a ey MO et ee ae ne a ee i ee DT A IS ET NIT TNT TT TT OSI anes ai te are eae ae a sae SS OSE EE ee ee Oe ee Sie = see ey Te aos a i a nr Spares = aye et eh <= He At Ps Re ry} ta "1 . ‘ A i Sn sf! el a ae tae Oe he mi 7 Senay yee ~e cts a ot ta ie Fo acl al Pak ok Wi ae in hgh ttl Sill St act Ra ad ates run mgr rena ete teneern tite ET TEY ey PP a a 0 alli aera en et le Se la dh be a Se Sat ec cha on a Se da ee ai add ws ro onda Schnee a $i ha 9a F953 dar 3s = Silat soe ea a Ti a er Se en ec ct eee eet et ! 4 24 affnity were, in the enthusiasm of the discovery, misinterpreted, and on the basis of linguistic affinity the dark skinned Bengali and Madrasi and the blue-eyed Teuton were declared to be of the same race. So complete was the illusion for a time that even as scrutinizing a mind as that of Sir Walter Bagehot 4 i) wonders why the Bengalis,*° who belong to the Aryan race, are found to be incapable of maintaining self-government and building up progressive and democratic institutions. These illusions were soon dispelled by light from ethnological re- searches. As early as 1864 the great ethnologist Broca empha- sized the fact that race and language were not necessarily identi- cal and that an affinity of language of the two peoples was not in itself a guarantee of their racial affinity. A close study of Vedic literature revealed the fact that it presented a vivid picture of the working of the primitive human mind at a certain stage of its religious development, and thereupon Kuhn and Max Muller established a science of com- parative mythology.” As research progressed farther in Sanskrit philosophical documents, they proved to be an excel- lent field for the study of the evolution of the Indian mind from its stage of the early simple Vedic beliefs to the period which produced the most acute metaphysical speculations. It was unanimously noted that the later developments in these various branches of Sanskrit culture were entirely original and unique and this fact has been explained as a result of exclusion from the outside world and a consequent one-sided development o1 . 7 e ° 74 -*4 7 ; Nt "> ++ aoe +4 ‘a | eriod Oot over twenty centur4ies. rs pene ad pa ‘ — = ct + + — = Vhile the linguistic, religious and philosophical merits of Sanskrit literature were thus duly appreciated and eagerly ex- ploited, its historical merits for a study of social economic cau- sation remain practically unrecognized. For beyond a few com- monplace observations regarding the influence of the Indian 1 ; climate on the energy of the Arvan stock there seems to have been little effort on the part of the scholars to use these researches for a more thorough genetic analysis of the present-day compli- cations of India. Yet for just such a purpose the Sanskrit litera- *Sir Walter Bagehot’s Physics and Politics, chap. III, p. 182. “Macdonell, A History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 6. “Even the most conservative estimates locate the period of Indo- Aryan invasion as early as about 1200 B. C. and the first Mohammedan conquest of epoch making importance entered India from the north in the 11th century A. D.OC vs) ture affords a wealth of material which, if correctly interpreted, throws a singular light on the mental evolution of the Indo- Aryans and supplies at the same time a valuable clue to the solution of some of India’s most difficult economic and political problems. It tells us why the Aryans when they first went to India wanted wealth, progeny, and prosperity and why they de- spised the same in their later programs for life achievements. It gives us a better understanding of some of those most unique products of the Indian psychology, such as the ceremonial, the caste system, asceticism, eroticism, and the existence of eross superstition that we find in India today. It shows us how the economic life of the people which at first formed a powerful upper current was finally, under the influence of Indo-Aryan thought, reduced to a mere under current, bringing about the economic and political decay of Indian society. For a genetic study of this type the literary documents of Sanskrit culture owing to their completeness and unique character remain un- rivalled. With the help of these we shall now study how the racial conglomeration, social differentiation and fixed psychic constitution, observable among the people of India, were formed. Pi ai ate tne ens = — es eae eee Sine be teenies "3 = eas = hen = ~— <5 I = —— aera eee —— ee am a _ _ = — ws = = See es 7 coenas ss sieht rs ee Sas as eas ae ae Se Na yy ee ee en Tee a - ae = —“ oars — aioe SS eee f i i i — oe! A ee een rare sy tent <> <— See en ee ecb teee et mre ets— es eg SPST ieee Pe sd ee aL tae nd Plot | Pe ie acd a all Ne Teta ey rad Ch ie i TN td ale asl . ie Se ba ee i Sate a i “eS me oe oe a Sn WF a ee hap A ” r. . ely ae a { if Saati ve decth Wee a ree ae rere bak ee otitis Be tek | Sp leciouae: Stes Beet Sok bn | rs ins atari ae eT AL rh Sy ty ! iT fi : 4 / ; } eee = DETERMINANTS OF INDO-ARYAN POLITI- CAL AND ECONQMIC LIFE We shall do well to start with an attempt to familiarize our- the early life history of the Aryans, 1n whose ‘ institutions we expect to find an explanation of the present-day conditions in India and a clue to their solution. But if we are too inquisitive and go too tar back, we are likely to isappointed, for in spite of the most persistent re- searches of many able European scholars, practically nothing is yet definitely known of the original home of the so-called Aryan family, from whom the Germans, the Greeks, the Romans, Slavs, ) ) ; : ress ] nr ; m~P ~sred Persians, and the Sanskrit people are supposed to have origi- ] . . 5 : “26 > ey aia. +- oe 2) J v / i ry an < 7 * nated. For some time in the early stages of Indo-European ‘ 7 ; ] - ——“ + ; + 5 iS _ a philological research scholars had located the home of the re- mote ancestors of all these people in central Asia near the river Oxus [his opinion held sway completely until there eens Soe _ ee ee a ee Rurone ; the sez . came otners who Claimed some PidCe 17) urOope aS the sé€at oO} ~ ‘ / ° ° Vlore recently Otto Schrader places it in ihe ctanne f wr oi ink ome he theorv tha he es ine steppes or soutnern Russia,’ on the theory that the more ca { 1 1 ‘ 1 ; definitely located centers ot Aryan stock 1n the east and west tend to point out that region at the meeting point. In short, we have not sumeient data to come TO any definite conclusion in this matter. : ] - — aa “rr - ‘ - q4 Ah J ee os ne a | me Tacla!l type O! this SUDDOSEC original stock we described Quen f a" . ~ <4 < - 4 pant e+ ~~ — ~~ bonsumme > J — + — ad rr (t — rd pend a" - a —" nen “ —" v \ _— pa onde hair, blue eyes and in almost all respects possessing the bodily type of the Germanic tribes of Europe as described by Tacitus in iy O67 as Amin 7” . a : - ; ls Germania. ut there has been a great controversy iiferentiation in the physical type of the Aryan race as we find it later came about after their dis- persal trom their original home or existed even when they lived together. Some maintain that the original group must have occupied a wide region, as it takes many square miles per head tO support ting Stage oO! civilization ; and at this time it may have been that the various physical types, rep- Otto Schrader’s “Sprachvergleichung,” latest edition, 1006. Here we find a thorough discussion of the original home and culture the so-called Aryan races. He presents a critical survey of the and contemporary writings on the subject and gives an exhaustive aren i27 resented by blonde and brunette hair and bracho- and dolicho- cephalic skulls and different colors of eye pigment already dif- ferentiated, may have lived together under the influence of a common culture and uniform institutions. Notwithstanding all these hypotheses we are unable to do more than maintain that they were a people belonging to the Caucasian white race in the present sense of that term, and that perhaps the stock that came towards India resembled in physi- cal appearance the Germanic tribes of Europe. The glowing pictures of their home life and culture that have been drawn by M. Pictet and others have also been rejected, and now our actual knowledge as to their social and economic condition is confined to a few meagre statements. We have overwhelming proof, however, of the remote cultural and racial affinity between the branches of the Indo-Aryans that came to India and those that went westwards to the Graeco-Italian Peninsula and northward to Germany. We grant then to the Aryans who came to India a physical and cultural equipment similar to that of the western races of Europe who are now marching under the banner of progress and enjoying economic prosperity. In the words of Dr. Oldenberg :? Die arischen Einwanderer in Indien nahmen, indem sie sich von ihren Brudervolkern trennten, doch die Spuren, und mehr als blosse Spuren, der einstigen Gemeinsamkeit in die neue Heimat mit hiniiber. Bei ihren Opfern wurden Lieder gesungen, deren Sprache der Sprache Homers und des Ulfilas nah verwandt war. Diese Lieder feierten Gotter wie das reisige himmlische Zwillingspaar, wahrscheinlich die Dioskuren der Griechen, oder den starken Riesen, welcher den Donner- keil schwingt, wohl den Donar-Thor der Germanen. Ueberall waren Keimme vorhanden, aus denen, wenn ahnliche Luft und Sonne sie zur Entwicklung gebracht hatte, Formen von Glauben and Poesie, von Sitte und Recht hatten hervorgehen konnen, die sich den Denk—und Lebens- formen jener Nationen, der Tragerinnen hochster europdaischer Kultur, gleichartig und gleichwertig an die Sette gestellt hatten. In Wahrheit 1s es anders gekommen, musste es anders kommen. Die nach Westen weisenden Krafte und Charakterztiige des indischen Volks mussten in der Abgeschnittenheit vom frischen Leben des Westens rettungslos erschlaffen, in der mtiden Stille, unter dem gluhenden Himmel der neuen Heimat, in der langsamen aber unausbleiblichen Vermischung mit den dunkelfarbigen Urbewohnern. Ein neues Volk, ein neuer Volkscharakter musste sich bilden, der Charakter, welcher daraus hervorging, dass der alten hohen intellektuellen Begabung der reichen Phantasie der indischen Arier das Gegengewicht gesunder “Die Literatur des Alten Indien, p. 2. + at 3 Bi A! i rarey 2 ES at ht ieee ay ree rot 4 er 4S ie aaa 6 eo eee ny ae ae == oe ee eee Pwhistieccswritsimweetsa ea pie a ee Ree ecm Te pe alpen MiG ate 5 eS 6 Soe eee oe OS sae ey Se a je a te ee es a ere ot COPS ts eos ene Re ea Ses — SA IS - me ea Ss Pate oe eee tr rn mre in a = a Ba a ee et . pecan == = se Ee tae ao a —— a Gels = Rae = 2 HE ee —s ena i SasaAt Rif aie ee pues Pine are sae pe h Fed ‘ol ™, > 4 ct sere eo | ts th re nm, AED BN ig ha i hate aba i in Bie ae aS Reh SE PT eR te erry ee eI ee EPL EEE PE heey tty oF REA rN PR EER tr ET ET Setar teh i a oe ete te mn a aR be - Peet , eee 08 Tatkraft entzogen ward. Auf allen Gebieten des geistigen Daseins gewann dieser Charakter die Herrschaft. Im _ Ooffentlichen Leben trat statt der pease Gebilde von Staatsformen, welche die nationalen Kraft zugleich zu entfessecln und zusammenzuhalten vermocht hatten, die unplastische Formlosigkeit des Despotismus und der Kaste mit ihrer dumpfen Atmosphare yon Zwang und Aberglauben in den Vorder- corund. Auf sittlichem und religidsem Gebiet ein Hinundherschwanken swischen Extremen der Sinnlichkeit und der Entsagung, zwischen ekstatisch tiberspannter Selbstvergétterung und Verzweiflung an allem Dasein. In der Wissenschaft ein Aufbauen spitzfindiger Systeme, manch glanzender Gedanke, der doch unter dem Wust willkurlicher, alle Realitat aus den Augen verlierender Spielereien mit tuberkunstlichen l ecriffen und leeren Worten verschiittet wurde. In der Dichtung viel Z7artheit, die Pracht bunter und gliihender Farben, aber auch hier jener selbe Mangel an Mass und plastischer Form, jene selbe Kiinstlichkeit, jenes Spielen mit einem immer tbertriebener zugespitzten Raffinement der Gedanken und Worte. The vigorous seed was there, but failed to develop into a full grown tree of healthy growth. It produced profuse foliage on some of its branches and abundant blossoms on others and allowed still others to decay. Dr. eee along with many Indo-Aryan scholars finds the chief explanation of these facts in some well-known factors such as see race mixture, etc. We shall point out that in order fully to account for all the peculiarities of Indo-Aryan institutions we shall have to give 7 ' i credit to many other important factors not before well recog- nized. A greater part of the achievements of man of which he is so proud or his failures of which he feels so ashamed is often the result of certain “conjunctures— or accidents (as we may call them) in the course of his life history in the widest sense of that at term, including the incident of his heredity. [his 1s even more so when that achnenemetl or failure becomes the lot of a whole society or community. Many such “conjunctures,” as we shall presently see, occurred in the life history of the Indo-Aryans after they arrived in India, and so many of them that we should iy - not blame those people if we find a fatalistic attitude in their philosophy. In this chapter I shall mention some of the more important of these “conjunctures” and indicate their significance in shaping the course of the future life history of the Indo- Aryans and those that have come under the influence of their thought. Some of these significant incidents are as follows: 1. The point at which the Aryans entered India was espe- cially favorable and the consequences of such an incident were tar reachit ‘_? ng.29 2. These vigorous and warlike people, used to a hard struggle for livelihood on their advance towards the Gangetic Valley, came into sudden possession of surplus energy due to the bounty of nature, influence over their rich predecessors and “easy conditions of life.” 3. Atmospheric and climatic conditions. Degeneration and disappearance of the dominant type. Development of abnormal psychological tendencies. 4. Influence of the surrounding Dravidian races and culture. Caste system and race mixture. 5. Isolation: they were excluded from contact with the out- side world for twenty centuries or more and the direction of their thoughts, which was the result of an accident, became accentuated and confirmed. These five factors we may now take up for a more detailed discussion, in the order named above. 1. The favorable point of entry: The geographical condi- tions disclosed by the Rig Vedic hymns tell us that the Aryans after they crossed the Hindukush mountains found themselves first in Panjab. This was a lucky incident, for the people with whom they first came into contact were not the most civilized and powerful of their predecessors in India. Here was a popu- lation represented by the timid, wild Kol tribes, whom the more civilized Dravidians had already ousted* from their stronghold in the northeast and forced to seek resort in the less favorable regions of Panjab. It was no wonder, therefore, that the Aryans made a clean sweep of the Dasyus before them. ‘These are the “speechless niggards,” the “impious cannibals” and the “black-skinned devils” of whom they tell us in the Rig Veda.* Certainly this is not the description of the more civilized* Dra- vidians whom they came across later. Fortunately or unfortunately for the Aryans the center of the Dravidian power lay in the northeast, in the localities of the present provinces of Orissa and Chutia Nagpur.® Had the Aryans happened to be trying to get into India from this direc- ‘Prim, Trad. Hist., chap. 3, Sc. H, pp. 218-40, on Pre-Vedic Migra- tions into India. 2R C. Dutt, History of Civilization in Ancient India, Ist ed., 1889, chap. IV, pp. 75-90. *Ruling Races, p. 310. ‘Prim. Trad. Hist., Vol. I, p. 410 et seq. ~ * es SE Mor Shasty ats hts bol eee SS paeel ar rer praia =, ee PS eunveas a gang ey mre eaten Sf SO = =. Se seo 7 “+t eS Oe eee ee en ee ee ee eee ee OLR a a: SP ~ Soo - a ee - ~ AE = = Ps nine pian OE eas a oe Same oe MA ay tas ee ek ae at mo ap apt rete ete eee a esa eae ee ee ae a tn er ee a Sia ——— eee neato Ge ee i bes tes Seegerhe te Pod oh Ai ie st tat Dt - > =_- - PEE Ee PPT Seeaeent a CD octecipaae Se- bet beer dn Be Silex og. ba Soe ba, oa Sace nase bac ee ~—s ; rere enh aie puede abate ee awe oe ol 2 Sot omar bh Sk ars a DN ae ili lanes ak ig A ei ae ae a et ha ad Pe dill SS ah Saha oon he ~s TS SRS essa Sai Pe etc ene tion. the Vedic hymns would have been written in a difterent vein and the contempt for the “black-skinned devil” would not have been so unqualified. It was the same luck that the British people had in getting an entry into India through the already emasculated Bengal. —< y This triumphant entry into the new country not only gave them a basis for their future operations, but led them to a 1e efficacy of their sacrificial rites, which gen- —" stronger belief in t erally preceded their attacks on their enemies and in which the — ~ assistance of Indra, Agni, and the Maruts, etc., was invoked. This accidental coincidence of the apparent causal relations of sacrifice to success at once brought a high prestige both to the sacrifice and the sacrificer. The influence of such a lucky acci- dent in creating strange casual beliefs and superstitions 1n prim- +; een ate) : ee Dl ene a ae ee a oe ee i eM a ae ae 111Ve WUNGS, has DCeCTI VET! recognized i)\ interpreters OT flLISLOTY. 2. Sudden possession Of surplus energy, a condition Of civili- va abe te : Zation aS well aS OI de + yy 974 “a1 ~ 14 ro Wi] * ‘ L, . ; + at "V7 “> f } ‘ La} La CUITUTE, ‘ lat iS tne SigTunCanNct Ui tnis wen ae sd cereal es anjabD their struggle tor livelihood was not very difterent from what they had been ‘ ] an et . n ; * ' IL, : . , / accustomed to 1n their former home in Iran. [he topography and +} 4 aleeunse $< . . . vlate + ' * ] a 1 ~ - +r 4 - 1. 7 i . rar A ft - > I Te } - t] a 4 - le wie SITUSLIMNES against Mell environment, Undel LLICTT nliew 11T€ ‘Onditio Ww cCyYcrenry at} ™ cr" m1 cy : ’ li ’ lit r | ve 5 atiar a fe —- CO] wOnS systematic gaining OF ilvelinood was a matter Of no . ¢ 1? Tr 7 +4 ' + ° Ty _—— \" - rT’ ¢ v¢# consequence, as 1t required little effort on their part. [hus a vast amount ot surplus energy was liberated from its original use and for this they had to find a new outlet. Leisure creates culture as well as induces degeneracy according to the use to which it is put "Macdonell, p. 213 et seq. Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, p. 38 ‘Zimmer, p. 40. Also, Lassen, Christian—Indische Altertumskunde, I, 247 et seq., 2nd ed ‘Ruling Races, Essay II, pp. 101-121. Also p. 61 et seq.iL and the environmental condition of its possessors. ‘The surplus energy of the early settlers of the United States has given birth to one of the most prosperous of economic civilizations. ‘he Rom- ans once used surplus energy to play the parts described in “Quo Vadis.” Here then we find conditions that made possible the evolution of the Indo-Aryan culture as well as the voluptuous and erotic tendencies of the Sanskrit folk which show them- selves so prominently in the spirit of some of their literary pro- ductions. 3. Does the geographical environment determine the extent of the progress and the character of the culture of a community? There are some who make man a slave of nature and there are others who warn us not to interpret cultures and civilizations in terms of the bounty of nature, majesty of the skies and grandeur of the landscape. They consider the views of men like Montesquieu, Ratzel, Bullock, etc., as exaggerated and suggest predominantly psychological factors as causal determinants of progress. The truth seems to lie somewhere between these two extremes and Professor Giddings has well expressed it in his “Principles of Sociology,’® where he maintains that while the volitional factors play a prominent role in social causation, the ultimate limits of the extent of that process are dependent upon processes of the physical and organized world. But it helps us little to know that man has a range of choice between certain lim- its and that beyond these limits his powers fail. Far more im- portant for our purpose is the fact that in the struggle between volition and the influence of environment man is, in time, not 2 constant but a variable factor, and any generalization as regards the relation of man to his environment, if made to hold true with- out regard to time and a particular period of humanity, is likely to be too rigid to fit the actual facts or too loose to be of any prac- tical value in a study of social economic causation. In applying analogies of the physical world to the laws of social progress a mistake is made in counting upon time as an independent variable in respect to man. ‘This error has led some scholars to absurd conclusions as regards the destiny of some races of mankind. As time goes on, man as a factor in social evolution is constantly changing, and to what extent this change will qualify him in the future to resist the baleful influences of environment that have once compelled his homage we should not be too hasty to predict. *Principles of Sociology, p. 416. rs Set) Pee FE > St : y ,f* sf j - } + “ly ¢ » 5 . ] , . nal iia people—under the influence of the climate—one to physiological a a ; 1 = - degeneracy and eroticism and the other to abnormal psycholog1- sceticism. lhe extent of erotic ; Pos >» pane oo" fr wt < - poumnts 4 — — mend ed —> a ~ pm pant Puna =e — Zs — pa r+ —! pond IR + ~ : ory + 1 AZ — (oO Ss ' lm es i” TT) rit cy a ox? a ' ic } ' ary f " . literature?” in the Sanskrit language gives us a good idea of the ” . cr «+ . +1. 7 fee ~*~ ac . > . - > 7 aT enervating errectsS OT Lne Indian climate on tne Indo-Arvan stock and the accounts in the Itihasa writings of the hundreds of voluptuous men and women of India confirm the actual ex- cud mei f hea < = + - la err a ‘ EN “ mroel str } ee istence OT tnis evil ‘Oo a liarece CALC, nis tendency, nowever, - . ° Y } alrected only tne [ess vital L\ ae GO ul ¥ ALCAA . ¥ e community which suc- cumbed eventually to impotence or consumption and was thus ly ae vol oan tect in, Santen Se ee ond pacar tne other tendency—tnat to overcontempilation and ascetic- ‘ ry , Fn rTP ] y Ix, +} . tT .Ur } T : ‘> T) rurt » lt Tar" tha t “YT ism Livected only tne very Gominant type. was tne most almn- eo oie a al. Sec ae =F Ey me po ieee fic fo DITIONS men OT the community who laid out tor themseives tne difficult programs of concentration, spiritual communion, and ley (+ 4h = . mati rienewy ar ‘ lly life. ‘his ascetic tendency acted it- exclusion trom the worl r = . c ie s~: ‘wae er ae 7 1+ qj o) Fe ~relae self as a process of elimination. To live the lite of Brahmacha- ode eo 3 -. eS a en tey oe eS ive. 3 celibac VY) was an ambition which oniy the most selt-con- , . f 7 te eS \ ~ boo + “7 > trolled tvpe of men could achieve. Manu tells us that thousands . e 1D ange ae : » . me le * » 4 cs os . las are > at . - aha . .* ro of Brahmans wishing to live this exalted lite went to heaven without leaving any progeny** and even in his own time the ] we ». ao c cape inl wiraon =|) = 1-] a ; - oe illustrious Rishis of radiant power who could transgress laws > 4 : radu, _ “oO 4 4 . ’ . ] . . with impunity were no more in existence and the people had to live more ordinary lives keeping themselves within the bound- $$$ “See Richard Schmidt’s Beitrage zur Indischen Erotik, Berlin, rorr. Mr. Schmidt attributes the erotic character of Sanskrit people partly to their reflective tendencies. In my judgment both the eroticism and Loe Tt lective tendencies were resuitS Of a cOmmon cause the climate.35 The disappearance of these two types—the erotic weaklings and the dominant psychopaths—need be no cause of regret to any descendants of that race and inheritors of their culture. The Aryan of the average type was in the meanwhile becoming grad- ually acclimatized and racially mixed with the surrounding Dra- vidian, forming as a result a population superior to both the parent stocks from the point of view of its efficiency for exploit- ing the economic resources of warm regions. Had it not been for the legacy of a perverted social mind from the extinct domi- nant type India today would be a very prosperous coun- try and politically independent. But the social mind of the population of India paid homage to the teachings of these dominant men and followed them and are following them long after they have passed away. It is in this legacy of abnormal psychology and not in the physiological degeneracy that we find a true explanation of the political and economic stagnation of the people of India. What was the nature of these psycholog- ical tendencies we shall presently see. It is sufficient to say here that they diverted the attention of the people from the tangible pursuits of economic and political life to the intangible goals of eternal bliss and salvation. 4. Under the influence of this changed attitude of life the severity of their hatred of the aboriginal races was miti- gated. Moreover, the Dravidians, whom they now confronted in the midland and the Gangetic Valley, were far superior both in physique and culture to the “speechless niggards” whom they had met first on their arrival in Panjab. The shrewd Aryan was well aware of the numerical superiority of the Dravidians as well as of their military efficiency. This was a population they could neither enslave nor extermi- nate. The vastness of the area, furthermore, make it possible that both the races could live together side by side without con- stant warfare. Under the influence of these various circum- stances the Aryans used the strategy of enlisting the Dravidians under their religious standards. By force of their arguments and the show of their ceremonies they easily succeeded in making obedient to their will the vast ocean of the surrounding black population. But granting them their religion they had to grant them at least some of the social privileges that: went with it. Thus there had to be effected a process of readjustment of social relations between the two races, and it is chiefly in this process a Src te ai phrhey ic ety Sb re ES OT EPS Eetares oot ae Oy TSO ce oP Et eS SSS RTO reese ses ——— SS oe ~ == ee 7--E ee ee re | =" m e noe eee Sere = ee ee ee eee ee at tae ee ee ene eee we ees SS es ee SS as SS Se i Ft re v7 nt ee hee sens oe ean te a ————_ SS ~ ~~ = rere PO pee ——a SSE Oe nal ve a3 ots pes e re hres Se nee eg ae Me ee a testy ie [eee pee et eed atgheka dete Lait 4 a ais eer or gt ek ee kB Rod A ok Bede hak iret nice wean Pat eh gt Re age ail Sect ope mentne od Stabe ata aw Cae apy egy eg NER ERAS Ack te ghana esas Sar ata aes : as 4 a oe , rt if} rh it a} ohn StS ie aca or Se a a ata alana at oh eh eee eee eS a a a So ee | SST om a ed 30 ious Dravidian communities in a of spiritual recognition of the va different degrees that we find the true genesis of the caste sys- tem. The many hundreds of castes do not represent race id degrees of race mixture as has been conceived by many, but they are based upon spiritual differentiation, and it is only so far as race quality elevated the spiritual standing or as race mixture lowered it, that race distinction played any part in creating and perpetuating the caste system in India. 5. Isolation: Powerful as the climatic factor has been, its effect would not have been so accentuated and indefinitely per- petuated had it not been for still acti: conjunction which we ’ i - eee ie a . " “ f + come across in the course of the Indo-Arvan history. Whatever ] ‘ ~* + ri “~~ Oe4 O le r 1 2 7s . osvchological tendencies the Indo-Arvyans developed under the i ~ i ars DAO tie eect se A ca ih isis) 4 oe oe noo influence of their environment became cumulative in their eftect : }, ’ ‘> r “mat 1. 7 ; ren +445 cr - “- “ = ; ‘ in the total absence otf any disintegrating forces from the outside y +] Th » characte ’ +h . Indian . ntal pira}!) ala. ic lacecril ec] WOTIC, ne Character OFT thie Nawal Mentai CVOIUTION 18 GESCTIDE? as being absolutely unique and original, having no parallel else- ] a ? ' fc r Tr ‘ 7 rT) , > 5 [1 where in the world.** But it is also true that nowhere in the world did SU SUDEeCTIOT a il al C aS the Arvans meet with SU many ° . , e . . mark rahlea conitunctions Che unidque :z nd ‘ riginal “~haracte | inaTlvi . id 1T1C Livil e i Cc RhRSG LAN all Jil ‘ ld ( aiat C co Ot 4 the Indian civilization lies mainly in the development of ex- si Saree cs nll Avceartinne hacsaning f . ’ f | ~] , —— tremes mn ail directions, Deginnings Of Most OT W ich we find in é. Le : 7 We [ tr atval dane menrl «e ¢ . ‘ col = ‘ the simple Rig Vedic civilization and in that of their brethren in Europe. In part, this exaggeration was due to the development psychological tendencies just mentioned. For an explanation of a still larger part we must look to another factor which is to be found in their complete isolation from the out- side world for many centuries. After the Aryans came to India about 2500 B. C., there was no invasion of that coun- try for a period of over twenty centuries. The Aryans in India being bent upon salvation and heavenly bliss did not de- is countries. velop atly commercial intercourse with neighboring [hat we find the aides ey eradually bringing to perfection Lin +1 whatever tendencies they had developed, and during the course of centuries en built the structures of their institutions so solidly that neither the Greeks, the Mohammedans, nor even the powerful bombardment of the British contact could shake them effectively. Granting the vigorous racial stock and the exhilar- = = | luence of the geographical environment, this fact “Macdonell, Literary History, p. 7. “Ibid., p. 10.37 of isolation has played the most prominent rdle in sealing the fate of the Indo-Aryan civilization. Under the combined influence of these various factors—en- vironmental and racial—was born that rigid attitude of the Indian social mind which in course of centuries has become developed into almost a “fixed idea” and which supports un- grudgingly the tyranny of the Brahmanical Law and Institu- tions, so ruinous to the growth of healthy national life. How, in the absence of these unfavorable coincidences, the vigorous and intelligent Aryans would have used their boon of surplus energy is a matter about which we need not much in- dulge conjecture. We cannot help noticing, however, that they had, and they have today, all the equipment for the building of a progressive and prosperous economic and political civilization— daring and intelligent leaders, fertile soil, vast mineral resources’ and, in the Dravidian races, a strong and sturdy population well acclimatized to hot regions and well acquainted with the prac- tical arts of life. On these foundations they could have built a politico-economic structure that would have resisted easily the attacks of the Greeks, the Scythians, the Arabs, the Mongols, and even of the English. To assert that under pressure of proper environment they were fully capable of achieving such results, 1s not a mere haphazard guess. After the conquest or invasion from the north by Alexander the Great (327 B. C.) the eyes of the Indians were opened to the fact that there existed another world besides their own and that the people of this world were not as peaceful and humane as those of the one in which they were living. They were brought to realize therefore the necessity of a more centralized system of government and a more efficient military organization. In the developments that now fol- lowed we find the Indian princes eager to make their people more prosperous, their treasuries stronger and their mil- itia more efficient. This period of readjustment gave birth ta men like Chanakya’’ in whose ideas and policies we find a close ‘Ror even those resources of which the Aryans had taken cogniz- ance see Zimmer, p. 49 et seq. “Chanakya is reputed to have been the Finance Minister of Chandragupta, the head of perhaps the first large empire in India. He lived in the middle of the 3rd century B. C. It is said that it was through his tactics that the Dynasty was founded. His chief maxim seems to have been “Maximum of Revenue with Maximum of Pros- perity.” His principles of revenue are set forth in his treatise, Artha- shastra (Science of Wealth), parts of which are translated by Mr. Shastry and have appeared in Indian Antiquary, Vol. 34, pp. 5, 47, and IIo et seq. See infra p. 44. a ». | a. Seay 325 13130) ol eae Se tea ene SS een ee ny i pt tet at om Se lone a a a Fy ee ee ee ee eS TN am oe ie Peete ee eee pene Sta Ot xe =—— FO rn rn ft ieee Spe ieee Se sc —— ee a == Sate aE Ppt ree eal a ht ae ences a ers ae ri aces 5 SSS: ee ee rs a a qt eeas oe ia eS " a ak R. i f a wt ; : a t ate AD y. be eh ee et AREA ER TE bar han Se Sab Bon Bs brah atte hr PEPE SCL EP eee beh oh aah oe hd OP A ARO ROLES Se VT ITY Pa ee a * ’ igbeboos ext Shan aan tian ah oe i a ae — hsm a a Aa a v eases ook etna ee parallel to the doctrines of the Mercantilists of England and France and the Cameralists of Germany. The incentive, how- ever. came too late. The attitude of the Indian mind had become too fixed to permit of any thorough-going change and we find the Indians again falling into their sweet spiritual slumber until another shock came in the form of the Mohammedan in- vasion of the 11th century A. D. But this was nearly a thousand lec vears after the last Greek and Scythian disturbances, and during ACs that period the mould had become still more hardened.CHAPTER INTERMEDIATE PSYCHOLOGICAL FORCES—CONFLICT BETWEEN SPIRITUAL AND ECONOMIC VALUES—TRIUMPH OF THE FORMER AND FORMATION OF THE INDO-ARYAN SOCIAL MIND The various environmental factors mentioned in the last chapter furnished, so to say, a hotbed for the growth of the Aryan mind. What happened to the Aryan mind in its new environment may be likened to what may happen to a vigorous seed which is induced to a forced and rapid growth. The intel- lect of the dominant type of the Indo-Aryan ripened rapidly and suffered a correspondingly rapid decay. ‘Thoughts which oc- curred to Schopenhauer and Goethe 1800 years after Christ had already blossomed in the souls of their brethren in India as many centuries before Christ.t These were abnormal develop- ments and were not suited for humanity as a whole at the time they took place. Imagine a child realizing the worthlessness of its toys or the limited powers of its mother to whom it looks for protection from all dangers. Or suppose the child learns the virtue of dignity. The greater part of the joys of its life will be lost to it. ‘The Indo-Aryans saw the littleness of life too soon for the age in which they flourished. They developed human- istic tendencies too early in the life history of man to win recog- nition from the outside barbarian world, and they fell victims to their own greatness of mind. ‘The authors of this system of thought, as we have seen before, were self-eliminated, but for- tunately or unfortunately they have been most effectively sur- vived by their ideas which have now become crystalized into a “fixed attitude” of the Indian social mind. We shall now exam- ine more closely the process by which these developments came about. What are the conditions of a persistent mental evolution of man? We can answer such a question at best only in a negative way, i.e., we can say that certain conditions in the past have not been conducive to a healthy mental growth of man and that certain others have positively checked it. The potentiality of growth of a seed resides within the seed itself, nor can we 1Winternitz, Morris: Geschichte der Indischen Literatur, pp. 6, 7. Also Schroeder, pp. 17, 18 a “| a wt e oN ole = f nod de -) fe Maiy! al or het Sra Set a ee ee Cy Ee OTS lott Sra ett aa ~~ ace Te eve t yest bs! — a oa rn a i ene ee NP SEES Ee = ogee ae SN ee Se eS ee a NE Ey wt ere fp ea ne ee ee = re ae ae Ere ae SoS — nto aetd a rare ——=- tars a hy et ee ee an Ream ee ee eee Se mae sarees ee as eS eee See a - Se Syarks sit yt: om ie 2 ih ma My i he ear,ol he rg bet | te et RD hl Bh kn rat cha nate ae Fn ee A , a a LL he Ball a haat a hintaan eee bias he a a ill alee lal Seer Se ane ei ge ne oe ee a th in hn San ee a Bl Dae ga Tae ie el rt Se Da a ae ea D cheaper oa jen fees bes oe be de eae ce are ree Ss SS ae es —* ee 4 5 i. ont é 40 declare by merely looking at it why it grows into a tree or why it develops into a particular kind of a tree. We can say, how- ‘t more definitely that certain conditions of nour- >T newh i . eve As SOTTI v¥ al . 1; : 1) Oo eaeiet a a . ‘shment and climatic environment will be favorable to a healthy srowth of the seed and that others will produce its premature decav. So it is in the case of man. A persistent tendency of mental evolution is his peculiar potentiality but in the past it has not always been able to assert itself despite environ- > . ‘7% q ’ ‘ 444 “1° “~1F ee y ~~ 1a ns Pe ment. What it will do in the tuture we may merely guess trom re + r . r “TO 1 4-34, +s ? ~~ =) f what has happened in the past and we are justified in conclud- ing that the progressive potentiality of man seems to be capable ~ . 17 7 1 m =o _ _— = . ~~ ) - of overcoming all obstacles of environment, perhaps, as Pro- - r Berge 1 Au Ke of leat] ress ergson Says, ever» I deatn. The Aryans came to India with the potentiality of a tremen- dous push which had to find its expression in some form ot 7 1 7 . i. @ * aqal ° » - " r ‘tivity With this impetus they would have built almost any e of civilization according to the nature of their environment. Be all a SS eee were yet a young, vigorous people, with child-like sim- ee ? plicity, an indefinite prospect of life, and diverse potentialities of h a condition could not continue in face of cir- cumstances so favorable for their progress. “These interwoven personalities became incompatible in course of growth, and as each one of us can live but one life, a choice must perforce be made.’ And the Indo-Aryans made their choice. It was not, however, a mere haphazard choice. All the dominant elements of their civilization we find in an ascent state in their unspecial- The . 11 smn! 4 . <1 . : oa ol al ear ars et ee ror ee ee eee cone . St . Simple rites which later bec ime transtormed into compli- — a ‘ : oe Ste »* re i 11e which tney exnipDit in tne Rig Veda. t T 7 ] * F » t } : “ry 1 ] Le * =) ‘14 ‘ 1 s fices lasting for years, the child-like enquiring atti- tude that developed itself into a speculative mood, and in fact the ] ~ on ” | 4.1 - , si y 4 Seer Or ail Loe LencEencies | iat developed could be found in the Rig Veda civilization. Only, it was planted in the soil that. ted 1% 4 1, 1,4 ror) 4 F +h, 7 ry cy "*O¢ r4 ro ] inevenly the different roots of the growing tree, with the result lan 4 “~ bet mnenh 1 7 - Se Son twee ea C “2 that some or its branche S DOTE protuse toliage and tragrant flowers while others were undernourished and decayed. The ental evolution of the Indo-Aryans was indeed unique, but, al as we have said before, the uniqueness and abnormality consists in the accentuation and exaggeration of certain normal phases of human character to the detriment of certain others equally normal and necessary for the healthy growth of man. Whatever ative Evolution, chap. II, pp. 90-91.AI tendencies the Indo-Aryvans undertook to develop they tried to carry to perfection; and whatever others they neglected, they never found any occasion to attend to. Why human beings, when they enjoy the blessings of vigor and leisure, turn to philosophy and knowledge is a metaphysical question which we do not propose to answer. We take it for granted that the pursuit of knowledge and culture is a native potentiality of humanity and that it will unfold and assert itself whenever opportunity arises. The dominant type of the Indo- Aryans who were destined to guide the stream of thought of the masses asked themselves under conditions of leisure and surplus energy a very pertinent question. What is most worth while in life, and what is most permanently valuable? Had necessity called for competition either with unkind nature or a cruel neigh- bor, the answer would have been different, but here was a com- plete freedom from the economic and political burden of life. Therefore they found their reply in the conviction of the use- lessness and transitoriness of worldly surroundings and the permanent worth of heavenly bliss. By their deep meditation on life and cosmos they decided that nothing in this world was of permanent value—worldly goods were perishable, the human body full of filth and a mere link in the great chain of life that connects the individual soul with the universal soul, the home of eternal bliss, the final destination of man and of all matter living and not living. ‘To reach that destination must be the highest goal of the ambition of every man. And one should exert oneself to the uttermost to push forward to that goal. What- ever sectarian differences existed as to the manner of reaching the goal, there was unanimous agreement on the transitoriness of human existence, the worthlessness of worldly goods, and the necessity of freedom from the misery of life and death. This is essentially a pessimistic philosophy so far as this life is concerned. If all the joys in this life are but an illusion and oftentimes stand only as an obstacle in the forward path towards the original home of bliss, what boots it whether or not one has worldly possessions and worldly honors? Was this pessimistic philosophy an outcome of the development of the pathopsycho- logical tendencies of which we spoke a little while ago? If we look to its erotic and pessimistic phase we may be reasonably inclined to such a conclusion. What shall we say of a mind that looks only upon the drawbacks and pitfalls of human life, a Sa ee A 2 ara 7 awl a ahaa at ots > eee aT SENS Large yt ey ee ene a aR —— > —~ 4 + a era cere ee i aia . Ss re aan ee —— een MEGA songs Rete Sat Cee See Sata pee — Py ithe ur ‘ita aoe ieaad i —~ pall el inom - ie m) ee Sy ey > Sib yr ep et eran ryerateresy Ss Sa a ete . ae ee ated - ‘a Peal ad ge 5 Re PE Meith, 4 SD re er i Si a a ea le eee pica be | SEE et ae eye Sa Talk Th hr i Ti don noe a ht, Se eee Acts ey UAE RE SAS ts Fala Serie te i a ti RE Nea csc A mind that broods over nothing but tl ‘ily associated with human life r It is a mind that we Wee eee decadence. ould CO — 1 that are ‘ a hie he decay and filt ] . 7 ] , . s+, | > Vir r } ~ + leveloping a philosophy suitable only to an age ol [f the process of evolution having pursued its full fan} 1, nothing would be more cor- — ~ + at J J ~onet ~— ~~ cr —y —_" ad * - ling than the pessimistic Indian philosophy that + "eT T 7 oe : a aha sla ante ; and dwell on 108 18NOTanlce O11 its inherent elements OI But such a philosophy, whatever may be its ultimate anity, was entirely unsuited to develop a’ VigOTOUsS Pan Tool \ ' Che character of the major interests of the indo-Aryans was the direction of their major activities thus in what con- aa al . ] " + b 7c 7 } | ro } +1] poli ical. social and economic i11Te it resi lted we shall ot time make Ck T * > ; \ ; ] , . : —ike > ] ol ~ An important phase of this development directing the Indo- 1 : , ; 7 TY ’ - 147" Try 1 rnere ,iT TIMOR nd to intangibie goais was that the process hit DTincl I I . + + + 7 sa ‘rT f +1, ‘ . ryiT) ~ eater lf ‘ . 1] kn . 7 { Lipa & Cul C\ ( Ji Lilt COoOminit LALLY « \ lS Well } ale ont rT ‘ji Bei TOS Licii ilinn >} CClulid MJLiS lt} Litiiail pnonuosopny J } . oe 1 ry n this decaying body, madt nes, : eee aware’ I oe Skin, tendons, membranes, muscies, DiOOd, SdllVd, Full of putrescence, and impurity if relish can tnere be ror true¢ enroymentr n this weak body, ever liable ] uf T th J I s+; "> rice 7 sllay 1 rT? a ‘\ cL Lii. alti ii 10m), aVal it ® \ Liilis pil. fone oriet mary «60hatecan — ea rear, griert, envy, Matred, secparalion I> 1 wp eae | t . Krom those we hold most dear. association UXTs4 | : ~ . e711 ‘ 1 With those we hate; continually exposed , , lo hunger, thirst, disease, decrepitud ; i 4} Emaciation, growth, declin ul leatl ‘ * . ~ What relish can thers r true enjoyment aaa fee j he Universe 1s tending to deca “ j LS - 5 5 (;rass. trees and animals spring Up and dl YQ ‘ ‘ a ee aa) a what are they Beings greater still tha ] arr ] _ . oy Gods emicods and demons, all have gone. } ‘ - ‘ ge + ] Bi I what ci 4 he \ r Hi thy » ae | ct I = i i Dass ] iway, Yao cean I i\ M 1am? 11ns hry VW rn down th I ; - cy | The whole earth deluged with a 1 | en the hichest angels driven from their state; I \ i IT) y 7 =a ~ . 1. —<— + 4-1 — [In such a world what relish can there bi For true enjoyment? Deign to rescue us; Thou only art our refuge, holy Lor Living in such a world I seem to be A frog abiding in a dried u Sir Monier-Williams’ m, 3r Translated from the Maitrayani Upanishas Yajur Veda. 1 ed., p / ; Aw of the Black — “4 4 —— . ~ — > - - i43 are ascribed to the members of the military caste‘—the true entrepreneurs of the religious-military stage of social evolution. The men whose main business it was to fight and conquer and persecute in the process of evolution were themselves perse- cuted by the haunting ghost of the mystery of life. They wanted to know the origin of the universe and the destiny of man. Under the influence of this reflective tendency they developed a humane spirit far excelling any to be found in the history of other national cultures. Arjuna,° a brave hero, mourns the fact that he has to kill human beings in battle in order to get posses- sion of worldly goods that were after all not a worthy goal of human endeavor. After the famous battle between the Pan- davas and Kauravas we find Yudhisthira, the victor in battle and heir to the throne, disgusted at the carnage of men in that war and ashamed of the victory obtained at such a sacrifice of human life and sorrow to women and children. He wanted neither the kingdom nor the glory of the battle, but wished to retire to the woods and practice penance for his sins. To him his bloody victory at the cost of human life and sorrow was rather a source of deep humiliation than a cause for joy. How many victors in the battles of the Western world ever think of the miseries of their enemies or the sorrow of their wives and children? Manu and other sacred law givers enjoined the kings not to use poisonous weapons in battles nor practice unnecessary cruelties upon their enemies,’ or take undue advantage of their weak position. Such a course was unworthy of an Aryan. The most detrimental feature, however, of this humane spirit was the development on the part of Indian princes of a suicidal attitude towards territorial aggrandizement and _ polit- ical consolidation.2 You may conquer a king, advised the Sacred Law, but do not deprive the poor fellow of his kingdom unless absolutely obliged to do so, and in that case turn over the king- dom and its management to some near relative® of the conquered prince. Prior to the conquest of Alexander, to build large empires was not, therefore, an ideal goal of the Indian rajah. ‘R. C. Dutt, History of Civilization in Ancient India, Vol. 1, p. 9, 2nd ed., 2 Vols., London; and cf. R. Garbe, Philosophy of Ancient India, p. 57-85, Chicago, 1897. *Bhagavadgita, chap. I. °Cantiparva Mahabharata-Adhaya, I. “Manu, VII, 90-93. ‘Ate, NAUE hat *Tbid., VII, 202. M4. . SSS a ath ial eee re Fares Evy Sh STS ays beer ey ty pS ea ee ee ie a eee ee ae re SSS eee tee: SS SS = Ee Sete —_ SEER ees Sa SS ae hen aes feat oe eres ets =. = Sra at tema * iat ro pO ae ea nn ee = as St cra eae SC a a ye ee ot ee ate) a ae One ne ee wee ee ae OAT _ ll a a cet ct Dna nS ee Aree ee See ete te tasers tet te Su ee or ~ ete ee _- a =a = —= at SSS ne a ects = as hl sagt 3 Seay as ao ——— Mee CaED Re Sa ae ck ee aie ee area at et Doe get hk Seat hdl 5 ate = atte Saad On oP Sa teciorge tht on to hr hc bn ah ba oe Ba oa oe oe bt Sheena — et me SSeS rere Stan i irae Sams in bn ae Sain Se Se — sir i Naas RR a tl a ec Cr he wna ar SF a eae tealiaa eral Neg 44 The Sacred Law moreover advised him to withhold from reck- less fighting if victory was in doubt’® and to secure peace by means of treaty, tribute, or even surrender. Imagine the result -* * “4 , ") ¢ * 7) i. 71 UT Lea ert 7 . > ls. = of such an attitude on the part of rival kingdoms upon the politi- cal framework of India! And as the curtain rises on the politi- _— ~ cal history of India, we find in consequence thousands of king- doms and principalities existing side by side without either great . . ge rag. eas Sra has ~~ ~< friction or co-operation. Their energies were bent on the con- 4 aquest of eternal bliss and their humane spirit torbade them to moiest tnell rellow men. imagine tne innerent weakness ot ees A teas : ae Ge 5 : wee political lite DUI Ol) sucn atl 1 LITUde:! Reser tt eee ee ee ee Be Pgh cet, ‘que and ad [his humanistic tendency is one ot the most unique and ada- e eon Nowhere in = ss - ] : 5 aa * | + } mare me igelat' r venience or ormers as in the India Or toe Indo-Art van period. Th cos a e . + . ¢ load 7. , +1, > . ] “+o | but } acl \ Ov antpa 1 le spirit was not connned to the eaucatead, DUT Mdd perimMeatcc 4] : L. ; . al : Coral . ke rne very neart or the masses and acd become ot tne essence OI their character. \'\ e ind 1tS tull expression 1n tne aw OT Fiecy Oot tvautama buadcna. Lhe acdiministration Of 1usticeé was based | ’ } ' 17 ) ] +] > T\T7 7 ] ‘ ' + 7 «+ ~r7a ‘ — 1pO { >] Tit alia tie pu SI] t tor a crime was to De Severel ~ > =n - a. 1 : i. a } . + - . } Aa“ + rT’ Or muider according to tne a lity of the criminal to bear it he 1 1 - Rng “+ “+ King was to be the tather Ol his subjects and was to treat them ; Waalelean I] = sent bes aa tare a L. nm manne er AS tlIS Clidiicti. e was fo coilect taxes 1n SUCND a Manner as not } to cause them undue hardship. Even Chanakya, the Machiavell: . leariae ; ; | , 4 ’ / “2. ¢ . . + ¢Y of India. in his schemes to amass revenues and strengthen ha Or 177°? + Tye ToT ea 7 ' 1 7 YT) hs yu . 1] (> ro t| at LALA iTeCasuly Ul Liat SLA LA CLlliVilis upo}l 111s Ld A CU iectors tila ‘ . . e ' 1 1 : eS een . crooked means for getting funds should be used only against the a wicked people™ of th kingdom under the emergency of meeting unexpected situations. Whatever rapacities the Indian Rajahs practiced on their subjects in the later stages of Indo-Aryan history, it should be remembered that these occurred aiter the disintegrating forces from the outside world had set in and a process of readjustment to new environment had begun. There are many able scholars who are very fond of comparing the mis- ‘ule and exorbitant tax systems of the native rajahs with the more virtuous administration of the British rule. But they fail to see that they are comparing the policies of one party during a period of readjustment to a policy under a settled system of ‘See Mr. Shamshastry’s translation in Indian Antiquary, vol. 34,45 government of another party. A fair comparison would be between the British rule in India between the years 1757 and 1857 and the administration of Indian princes during this period of condemned misrule. Whatever the merit of the humanistic spirit as an ultimate goal of the evolution of man’s character, it is sufficient for our purpose to point out here that it was developed prematurely in reference to the rest of humanity and as such was destined to bring in disastrous consequences. The aim of life of those who were leaders in thought and action being fixed upon heavenly bliss, ways and means were de- veloped to attain that goal. Among the developments along this line we shall now speak of sacrifices and ceremonies. ‘There were three reasons why sacrifices were raised to such high emi- nence and assumed such complex forms in India. In the first place sacrifice, we must remember, is one of the oldest of human institutions—going back to the very beginnings of human history. The Soma sacrifice can be clearly traced back to the Indo-Iranian period.’? Sacrifice had, therefore, what we may call the momentum of start. Secondly, we should recognize the importance of coincidence in the relation between sacrifice and success in war. The Indo-Aryans made it a practice to offer public sacrifices and to invoke the assistance of their gods before going to the battlefield, and their unqualified success over the first Dasyus they came across led them to believe in the thorough efficacy of the power of sacrifice to secure for them the aid of their gods. Later we find them believing that they could even com- pel gods to their wills by means of faultless sacrifices. The effect of such a coincidence upon the minds of as young a people as the Aryans should be kept in mind when judging of their appar- ently irrational belief in sacrifice and ceremony as a remedy for all evil and as instrument of all achievements. Sir Walter Bagehot has well observed the relation of such chance coinci- dences to the fixed notions of a community.** Third, there is a process which works in the course of the development of all human institutions and ideas and by which an insignificant be- ginning grows into a complex structure under the influence of changed times and environments. What I mean may be well illustrated by what happened to the Greek Dromean rite which “Professor Eggeling’s translation of Catapatha Brahmanna, Vol. 12, of the Sacred Books of the East, Introduction, p. xv. “Physics and Politics, p. 131. 2 ‘J , a See Raa aS IR So ae ee ae ae ae ea SS a ese ee eaieteteer Sta EN Stan Det ea tot ta od a Se Ms i ad ee ee te eae Soeaeel 4 SSSR ee to Tae Soe NS Penn ae es eae een a ee — PSS Se oe eo ee Tt a a Seetaes == a po tn aa th na rene SS Steet tes theo ee oar a Eee pane ets hast a: a = ares a | a Di tsMPa alba g Ca See td PAA PP oe - wet ae EN Fd hail hh gh Pt A aed es rm ab a rah a the Sa ek Ra a Ne at al ae ei A eg weer a ae a a ee etl Fe Se lhe tate Gs 8a. ee rh i ie be = ot Soin be Sn ar al De ene hr tae a le oe sda Soe borhan be Sat bon Sa ~~~ aS ~*. a 40 in the beginning was a simple initiation ceremony. In a later period of Greek history we find that it has assumed the form of Dithyramb and Olympic con- the elaborate spring festivities ~~ tests.14 What was originally meant for a simple realistic rite now gave opportunity to the Greek people to hold a festival and thus became a means for the outlet for their surplus energies. Recreation and amusement are among the principal outlets for 1e surplus energy of primitive peoples, and it was no wonder that an occasion for public gathering, such as t } ceremony, should have been transformed in The Indian public sacrifices, over and above their religious features, had also assumed such a festive character. After the notion was once formed that sacrifice was powerful enough to yield any object of desire 1t was of course used as an . 7 q° . . rr = i sang iene ors Instrument to accumulate religious merit. The sacrifice, more- over, worked double wonders. It Pave Trelgious Merit and it also pave material prosperity and in that material prosperity it gave power to perform more sacrinces.’ We can rect a little idea of the powerful influence of this institution over the mind of the Indian people if we bear in mind the fact that some sacrifices such as Rajasuya and Ashwamedha grew into such complicated ceremonies that they lasted over years, and princes and nobles are known to have spent their fortunes 1n their proper perform- ance. We have anecdotes of Indian princes who became beggars through having lavished their wealth as Dakshina upon Brahmans who performed sacrifices. [hese sacrifices needed the services of hundreds of skilled experts well trained in the art of building the altar fire, pronouncing the syllables of the hymn with the right accent, and attending to the thousand and one details of the ceremony; for even a slight mistake offended the gods very highly and the ceremony in that case had to be repeated all over again. In the demands of the Roman priests for the exact per- formance of sacrificial ceremonies we find a parallel to the sacri- ficial developments in India, with this difference, that in Rome the emperor controlled the sacrificers, whereas in India the sac- rificers compelled the kings to obedience. The Indian sacrifice was not merely a public ceremony. The king had to have a house priest who performed the daily sacrifices for him. Daily sacrifices were prescribed also for all householders. They “Jane Ellen Harrison, Themis, chap. IV. “Catapatha Brahmanna. Kanda I, Adhaya VIII, Br. I, 32-36.47 had to perform numerous domestic rites and ceremonies if they wanted to live a correct life and accumulate religious credit. This, of course, everyone wanted to do. ‘here were from forty to sixty of these rites and ceremonies that had to be performed by a householder from birth to death, some of them being re- peated daily and others only periodically. With the growing importance of sacrificial ceremonies and domestic rites of necessity arose those who could perform these functions satisfactorily in a manner acceptable to the gods, 1. é., without committing mistakes in details. Even in the early days of their expansion towards the east beyond the Panjab the Indo- Aryans fighting on the frontier left some amongst them to per- form the sacrifices in order to insure victory in war with the non-Aryans. These men in the meantime made the ceremony more elaborate, added more recitations, and eventually claimed that none but they could offer these sacrifices in a correct fashion so as to bring the desired fruit. They claimed to be experts on such matters and made a still more presumptuous claim that none but those of their own flesh and blood'* could fill that réle. A great controversy arose over this claim to spiritual supremacy and blood superiority.17 The claim was sustained only after a hard struggle between these experts and the fighting nobility. The vivid realism of the Aryan belief in the efficacy of sacrifice in securing success in war and attaining prosperity in peace paved the way for this epoch-making stage in the mental evolu- tion of the Indo-Aryan people. A struggle between priesthood and nobility was not an incident peculiar to Indo-Aryan history. Similar incidents occurred in Rome, and the secularization of politics forms one of the most brilliant chapters of the history of Western nations.1® The trap which the Western kings escaped by circumstances of favorable environment the Indian princes were caught in by an opposite turn of events. Once the claim established that blood and spiritual qualifications were necessary to fit a person to offer sacrifices it was but a short step to arrange the gradations of such fitness based on heredity and degrees of spiritual purity. The concept of spiritual purity has Ror an excellent treatment of the relation between caste and race, see Baine’s Ethnology, pp. 1-29. Also Ketker’s History of Caste, Stuttgart, 1912. “Zimmer, p. 196-197. %See “Secularization of Western Politics,’ a doctor’s dissertation by C. C. Eckhardt, presented to the Faculty of Political Science, Cornell University, 1908. ’ Paihia eee = ATP. + = Soe ents wit : ESE EEE Salta ad Ee se ae . - = = a _—~ oo e se ere — _— — on -- waa = peep =; -< - - ee r 5 eae eae en peed ee takatet inn oe pa a ec re na ee an a ee ee eS ay eee TE Te. ~ ae aw we een 8 cn SES aa Soe re —— — +t = —— a Be oe ae re Te eee SS [So as Fava dic \e. Vy Wy ie DE ie Ms rh I ‘ oery SAPs rer marta? Lt be . <= te iat * I a i | er ale ar ‘ os aes ain ~ a) Lit in a > hw a ah a at ot he Fah eh te ad ee Bre be eee ene eet . aaah tte St se i ne ao send “ad : — eas ae Sr et - feet te hte ae re _— iO ~~ be | Sa Ne TL ae lel ae ated ene et bh ce ae ee eg eo Me ns tes te! Pa cipb eli ee stasis erloal Soe os a Sinan Th Be Yi Rit tc ie ai a oe eras ees . ee 48 played an important role in the history of caste in India and has VY given rise to an elaborate system of observances and penances in order to insure its preservation. Only a Brahman was fit to - ° = . ~~ - = Ee r > ry ° + . + take part in the sacrificial offering, but not every Brahman; those 10 had not violated any of the rules ot their protession and who had not fallen from their status of purity and spiritual elevation. ‘The manner of living from birth till death from morning until night had been prescribed for them by the Shastras. "[Thev could eat only certain kinds of food and dress onlv in a certain manner. Intermarriage with members of the military class and other castes was not absolutely forbidden, but children from such marriages formed a separate caste + whose spiritual status was determined by the Sacred iaw accorad- 1 em 7 = , 7 ° 1 1 y> - | 11) | le . Mert * “ ny?e tO rie CA's ' Oy] Tne VW L€ lhe OCC uy ALIOT ~ »\ W ril¢ il a LT ] ’ « 7 , ] - = | . j - 1 hi] } man Col | Make NI1S living we're iso prescribed, and wnue omer a 147 t Tt 7 ? TT ] Tr) Ti1T : 14 Toe } ld } = WIU' ‘ L LOT > vy { pt LT) { 4 LA Ll cS { I ‘ istress if _U 1] A WC » ony — 1 ae tS eae Le r haw wriudnan ++ | 7401 lally TOMUOWeAG OTLIY at Line TISK Ol WC v eCexciuded trom nis ¢ Li? | ldil’ 1 ] ‘ Sal Pen hens licen alifi Ta he >| rec 2: exdal status Such Brahmans cisquained themselves as ° j 19 muests at certain Ssacrincial rites , o ~ 5 * | : | f aw: y ~ \" Tf 1 ‘ ~ 7 ‘ ] ~ | + \ ~ 1} ] \ tC ~ ( } | t ) \ as -alios A eer at ed Dravidians under their religious standard. Room had to ] ] : f ~ +14 4 , 7 iT) +1 rn * Tr) sh * f T\1 io ] ! L' { it Liat > ({ Ii v¥ ) roe ~~ i L i{ i il > Lit I] c I 2 ii A Lal ‘ . + * os os, " i . : : hierarchy \ll black men, all Anaryas, were not Cudras as Is “Ve : 4 1 . 4 1 = . P 14] 7 1 » Tit LINCS ‘ ( VE ; COl hy tO LI { I Stat ls O! \ \ Lil al \ ’ ] + } ~? ] ; ] 64” {yr + . cle “oO “7 +1, -} ~ . L] Li . ( Cc Aaeoe I WL A ‘ li ( i ¢ \T ria Ct ~ Ad . 5 » \ eC\rmlc¢ , , = 1 » * + arrr? - ~+ + ; + i} VA 51 Wd ITIOS ly’ Taf 4 LO LG Tmed thi ’ di L OL 4 + 41 4 1 ~ qo | ] 7 > working ss and the captured aborigines were made domesti ] \ h ' = 14 rT. ry T) 5 Ith and 19] T Co T} Til ~ YcCS y VC] CLISCLILTIA ( I ¥Ca A een a lai TECOLTLLIO COT) 7 1 , ry Tr) h \ t +] > . 1% . tT) 7 on 7 } Tea Ol imly in tn WY ESE, LOE Sal Ss contrerred on a caste Se Te A hs es epi auent c Se Ne a ere mee AL: ss Li in . a \ pil ALLU lit ‘ I 1LS Sj}/il LLCs il S Ti IOTILY. Liid piiim ‘ M7 > " T w4 ] - ry t+ . > +1, ] ; f . . soa4 7] —T4 vant petition tor social recognition on the basis of spiritual superi- : \ i ° ‘ ¢ - ° : ° . ority kept the proud groups from mixing promiscuously with ] rT] ] if de f 4.1] + . 1 12 ¢ , oT Me | 7 “ry mr tT) 2 = =" r ‘Ty aT AT fo one anotner. Lhe iater ramiuncation r the CaSte€ SYsterl, repre ntine difterenc ¢ Se te. ‘ace. and -ibal SCTILINNY qaiireré blac Ul OCCUDPdatl Pil, LUJLGLILY, acc, cLilt trlva t , hs red 17 tT) 14 , m1T 7 1 ‘ t . T cr? t 17) t] > Mn ~ i itl! cu ul { i tne ( Lid p YUL OI ICUCUOY I i Lil Lit . ‘ c ‘ ~ 1 + ‘T1 ‘ |) : \ + } T1171 Tt 1 , . 1(1TAT Tr; ‘ * ‘ 7 ‘7 XY Ji SPIT ical and Socia Lilt I I} ° Ch SC L\ lalls, whose claims to be Brahmans and Kshatriyas were granted a4 . ¢ . ’ 7 T ?* " 1; ee fT Tek" TTS ar - : “<> = ; Y" 7 “OT ither as a matter of political expediency or in return tor finan- became men ot higher caste than the members ot he Vaishya caste of the Aryan bloo “Manu, III, 150-156.49 Brahman of Madras or Bengal is higher than a Panjabi or Maratha Kshatriya, though the latter are racially superior, 7. ¢., ii we insist upon ascribing racial superiority to peoples accord- ing to their affinity to the white blood. Then there were the mixed castes whose status hinged on somewhat uncertain and ill-defined caste boundaries and for them to secure a little higher status than another community of mixed type was merely a mat- ter of asserting their superiority and gaining recognition of it from the people. The superiority of caste, then, is not necessarily based upon superiority of race, though such may actually be the fact in many cases ; the spiritual superiority of the Brahmans of Aryan blood had been emphasized from the very first.2° The mixed castes by change of locality must have been constantly ascend- ing to higher levels, but even then how is it that we find in India some traces of the black Dravidian blood in the highest of castes? My hypothesis is as follows: From a mixed marriage between a white Aryan and a black Dravidian by the Mendelian law of heredity some children must have been born with an absolutely white complexion, and as the Dravidians are a race in physiognomy of a Caucasian type, these children may have found easy entrance into the castes of Aryan blood. Manu warns us to beware of the low caste man who resembles an Aryan in appearance and tells us that the status of such a per- son can be easily ascertained from his occupation.** Many Aryan ‘families must have been in this manner confronted with racially differing progeny, for if either the wife or the husband was a pseudo-Aryan, they could produce a black child of Dravidian race by the process of atavism. Biological science had not then made sufficient advancement to tell the Aryans that an apparently white Aryan could bear a child of another race. Again, the spirit of humanitarianism had been constantly growing in India. This spirit had created sympathy in the Indo-Aryan mind for all living beings, and the people had already begun to look upon the entire living creation of God as one family and consequently no distinction on race grounds alone could stand.?* The only differences they could see between living beings were those of spirituality and were based upon *Baine’s Ethnology, p. 15. Mant XX. AO: | 2The culmination of this spirit had found its expression in the Law of Piety of Buddha. 2 Marts tte Tees a Sp nn na a ph aha la Satna ices estat apne ye eae ‘a tet tT et SA pn oe be eee a cs eng ey Stet toa ae <= SS SS nan wenn a ee Oe at ek NSE Ok oT Ee a ee are ed Se ne ee ey te ee nn PS Se Ce ee He! a we ee a eee Se ee ears Sa nn ie a ae _ ew iosnieia — + ee ee eee ees hl al dal! oo a ‘/ a U3 ne alFas 7 BJ 4 " e 4 : ae aH a! re fe! Sit: rH ith i J ph me ol he gerne kA De ha we op Fis =e: ee nog | hela di er eat oo ah ee ee ae - i hee eta ot. i pe " se ta go es nS a i anal aa at ae NE a al soe eile te ate ds he bs oe a SS PARP CT OTE Saber Se taco Sead s Supe Parca pa Sa nc es aaa a ter . as Seas ata ' i i Tf a ‘+ r br » lew vw Deer 50 their good and bad actions in former births. It was for this reason that caste was to keep aloof from caste, a necessary precaution to retain spiritual ‘standing. This brings us to the well-known doctrine of transmigration of souls of which I shall speak presently. I must meanwhile emphasize that the caste prejudice in India is not a color or a race prejudice. A white . complexioned Brahman will more cheerfully marry an absolutely sirl of his own caste than accept a fair and ] A ~ . | ' 7 black and homely beautiful damsel from a lower caste, perhaps racially even a e . . * rryiy. * “| : - a aoa oe altel a . aie nie superior TO himself. [his absence of color prejudice is one Oot 4 the most valuable assets India possesses today rOTr Her TUtUre economic and political regeneration, for if we can break the La : ee et ae a es ee att . 1*7 caste system this absence ot color preyudice Will speedily lead in spite of race differences to the formation of a one-race nation out of the present racially heterogeneous population of India. It will be a pity if by contact with the civilized western nations our young men learn the charm of color prejudice. Unfor- tunately many young men have already begun to taste that ‘ ‘ ; 7m 1 , . . - om poison and I have within my knowledge instances of our young 7 7 = : = a a 2 . eo + } * a ‘co m > men who have studied in the United States and who have gone back to India with intense contempt tor black skin. and with L, 1974 “4+ , F ¢ °°“ OTT « 77 y +] : ~") To anit 7 io + . T\Te he intention or accentuating the caste spirit in order to pre- . - + ’ ; 1 Cs } ~ a serve Tne pDuTITV OT the so-called \ry all b od, OI which there is really verv little to be found in India.** ee Tp 5 ‘4 TIT 1. — “" ? Y) + h- ' f 7 1r1t119 1 +r Ty 1] ,cT \ astc Tri¢ Liit (iis r1TY)) ation ()T) <1 Das 5 (ji SLJLL LLU Siciilt Ill?, which came to be determined bv the mere fact of birth. It seems strange that the spirited and energetic Aryan and Dra- vidian population should have tamely submitted to such a sys- tem of baseless distinction. We must remember, however, that thea AIAT Trean . Indiat } noht re Va kt ti ] m+ + } _ 2 rc] — the mayor stream Of indian tnougnt was now bent to the exciu + . al ] . } AI A la ‘fa Ixy 14 r rld 1. (Ff) ] TET sion of all else on obtaining heavenly bliss—worldly goods were 1 4.4 re 7 = - aie ea ane = - . 1 oie ee > perishable and worldv honors hollow sounds. Moreover. Brah- mans alone held the key to the secret of salvation and they alone . z . : . : 4 y . ne £- aie i ae on ~ , <= iv = ° being in direct touch with the divine spirit could correctly 1n- a terpret the meaning of human existence. In such an attitude of mind it was easy to fall a victim to the fatalistic doctrine ot [ransmigration of Souls. This doctrine declared that every man’s lot in this life was determined by his action in the past life and it was in vain for him to complain of and aspire to the benefits which others enjoyed. The best he could do was to51 live this life correctly according to the duties prescribed for his caste and thus pave the way for a position in a higher caste in the next birth. If he was defective or poor or miserable in this life it was all the fault of his own actions in a bygone life and he could improve his future only by good actions in this life— especially by accumulating religious merit. Many devices were offered him by which he could make such accumulations and get higher up. Such a doctrine at once explained all incompati- bilities in life and tended to reconcile all castes to their respective positions by birth. What could be a more inviting philosophy of life than to feel that one could not help what had happened in the past, and how consoling to feel that one could positively improve one’s future by living a correct present. The easy life conditions and the lack of economic and political competition made the birth of any other doctrine unnecessary. Further, the fatalistic aspect of this doctrine well fitted the pessimistic frame of the Indo-Aryan mind. The doctrine of Karma if correctly interpreted is not very harmful. One of our most modern philo- sophical doctrines holds that in our present our entire past is unmistakably and unerringly stored by nature, and our only hope for improving our future lies in our conduct in the present. In the goal of life, however, the two philosophies differ. We aim at developing and unfolding the human personality, whereas the doctrine of Karma aims at accumulating religious merit and obtaining a better birth. The practical use of the new doc- trine lies in the hope it gives for the life we live at present. The Karma doctrine maintains that the fate of our present life is sealed and that it is of no use trying to change it. All you can do is to make preparations for the next birth. Imagine the effect of such a view of life on the spirit of initiative of the people who came under its influence! The hard and fast philosophy of the doctrine of Karma and the obligatory restrictions and duties of caste were not suited for the more reflective and restless souls. The complete liberty of action that comes through knowledge was their happy lot. They declared that while the caste duties, sacrificial rites, and other slow ways to go higher up towards the Universal Soul were all very well suited for the ordinary folks, there was a path extraordinary, though difficult, by which exceptional individuals could transgress all limitations of caste and ties of Karma and soar direct to the home of eternal bliss. This path was nothing P CJ ~ hh er 5 25) ; Ms J Hi a] : lashtisha a = ete mS Oss Abate + = SSS al ee ed aes 7 Se so Se ee ee = antes ee ee — oe is en ee yee Se — rt ta pee ee pn a aes — tat - ree ~ a ae a va See Pah ee tee re eee Sat ae ho aad oe ee on ee ee an AE re tee =a Tee ee eee HA), a re a oS CU i a 7 3 rie i pee Pn A uFath al Ry. patties Ct « wate we ah te el he ue eh te ~ Fo or 3) me rh py it ae hk he Sh elated us PRT? rs ; ae rs hh a ada el = a tan a ee a ee Rael Fy a Yeoman eS ee Sh ae eee ie ms oS a te a oe a Se “ adiirineDocUb tn ye" in- aaa Te a i rae a a a es ela oa hertacae Stabe torte So ou bebe be, aS bee he Fo ta eo to rag area es aU Sockeye! less than that of knowledge. Knowledge was the one direct way of absorbing oneself into the Universal Soul without making use of the step-ladder of birth by Karma. For Karma simply meant another life and that meant more Karma and still an- other life and so on in an endless chain of life and death. Knowledge alone could relieve one from the wheel of Karma. To know God is to be God, and if your qualifications can fit vou to make the direct daring dash you can do nothing better than to rid vourself of all attachment to things of this life and 2 1 > ~ Tt 44N : = > 4 (£ ? ' contemplate with the concentrated mind the eternal Essence unti vou experience it. And when you succeed the eternal joy 1s rT*1 - ~ r ~ + ~ atic we ti 7 ry 7? a 7, Te Lp > a. ~ “ ~+ vours. ‘Lhis was an attractive ideal and worked like a charm on - } cia . fo . ~ f ria 1e more energetic and ambitious youth of India, and Indo-Aryan literature is full of evidence showing tha jor attention of the best amongst the population was absorbed ma in solving the problems of the destiny of man and the aim of human existence. By introspective analysis these thinkers dis- covered desire as the source of all evil. The chain of causation was as follows. Desire brought action, action determined h. Therefore, oat es ie lil] ma pecece a S ey . See eee ena hean lL RAll GiSSILG. Bil @Guivil l@ SOUTCEG OT ail MIS@€ryvy, and YOU DVDICdkK the otherwise endless chain of life and death and all the misery and sorrow that go with 1! How was this to be accomplished ? Of course through knowledge of Go But this was not pos- sible for all human beings Therefore, those who were not fit for the Path of Knowledge could perform actions in this life that would give them a better birth in the next life and qualify them to undertake such adventures. Such was the dominant trend of thought of the moulders of the Indian social mind. In tune with this strain political and economic life was neglected or rather maintained merely up to a necessary minimum so as to enable them to prosecute this aim. Under the influence of this attitude towards life arose the famous systems of Indian philosophy, a very brief epitome**® of the subject matter of which I must present here in order to acquaint the reader with the inner working of the Indian mind. The Uparishads had concluded that the individual soul was part and parcel of the Universal Soul. Kapila, the founder of the Samkhya philosophy, objected to this doctrine “This Summary of the Systems of Indian Thought is based upon chap. IV of Macdonell’s Literary History.9 and propounded a dualistic philosophy which maintained that two things only existed without a beginning and without an end. ‘They were matter on the one hand and an infinite plu- rality of souls on the other hand. The object of his writings was to explain the relation of these two primary categories. The existence of a supreme God is denied and of course evi- dently inadmissible in such a philosophy. The unconscious matter of nature contains within itself power of evolution, and Karma of souls determined the course of this evolution. Samkhya philosophy was propounded by Patanjali admits of a personal God who was introduced into it in order to invite popularity. This new interpretation particularly aimed to ex- plain a new manner of experiencing God. This was the famous but much misunderstood theory of Yoga. It included bodily purification by means of bathing, breathing, fasting and other devices, control over the physical body by the practice of difficult gymnastic feats, and development of mental concentration by resort to retired places. This spirit of asceticism played quite an important role in India in times of Buddhism and Jainism and was in fact the mainstay of these two religions. Even today we find in India people who believe that Yoga practice confers supernatural power on man. Nyaya philosophy, an- other system of Indian thought, sought to attain an understand- ing of God by methods of logic and inference, and declared atoms to be the origin of the world. The non-dualistic Vedanta doctrine postulated that the multiplicity of phenomena in this world was mere illusion and due to innate ignorance. To know that the universal appearances are nothing but mirages to this ignorance and to experience the unity of soul and God is the true Salvation. This experience comes of course through knowledge that is revealed in Upanishads. The materialistic school of Charvaka was strictly pragmatic and refused to be- lieve any authority save that of actual experience through per- ception. And as senses could perceive matter only, matter was the one reality in the universe. Soul was merely an attribute which perished with the body. Nothing existed for them that transcended the senses. Hell was earthly pain and salvation consisted in the dissolution of the body. “While life remains, let a man live happily, let him feed on glee (clarified butter) even though he run into debt; when once the body becomes ashes how can it ever return again?” = ar : ats nts ba eae ae Poo art tabstasst ptr Reaves et tac th ES ~ a a i Fane ht se SS ee SaaS eee Ee Po Penrose URE be pee ees ee += — Sa a pe Fat ==" rae on pases a ena hemes a ented On a eect etry tes ted co S Ce = = SSS Tr i i We ot h 3 MS (3 vy ' ci 1)Lf t ie . ey ie ea j rf) ie a ik: |+ hh ay ti! ra ee: B ee pee ah) ast ri Rt Ne all aT al ee SE she Vivre AE Te ad ell ha ata ae be ae Ao eh ru PES PE tare, red ills —" cS ST a at liana iat bhai ee a ge ae te he is re se ee or i oad rt ert, chee och etan Soe Pabeie e olarak a ee See rig at = j i} a Le H A | ae ane AG Hi ef Pi ~ 94 The philosophy that has the greatest hold on the Indian mind today is represented by the more eclectic teachings of Krishna in Bhagavadgita. This discourse of Krishna, am- biguous as it appears, now emphasizing the necessity of active life, now renouncing all action and extolling knowledge, and again praising Yoga, is really an attempt to reconcile the various systems of Indian thought and various methods of obtaining * salvation. The essence of this philosophy is to follow that course in life for which you are best fitted. If you must lead this worldly life for the sake of duty, perform all your commit- ments zealously without being too engrossed in the results of your actions. Such performance of the ordinary duties of life without an attachment to their fruit is as effective in gaining the higher stage as though you were following the higher path f knowledge in Yoga. All these philosophical systems flourished for that one pur- pose—the discovery of the meaning of life and the aim of existence. The leading thought that has left a final impression on the Indian mind is represented as we just said by the teach- ings of Krishna. In Bhagavadgita we are urged to follow any od , ’ ] r : f " art ’ — las . ic ' 5 > “1 7 “ f path from the worship of idols and deities to the means ot knowledge according to our ability and position by birth, but to have only one goal betore our eyes and that 1s to approach Such were the forces under which the Indian social mind was gradually formed. The development of humanistic tend- encies had made the Indian attitude very sympathetic towards all living beings, yet in these ideas of unequal spiritual purity irthplace of the apparently cruel caste system. ‘The goal of their major interest in life and the direction of their major activity were now determined. It is only those who have a thorough knowledge of the psychology of the Indian mind who can appreciate the powerful force with which this charm worked upon it. The king and the beggar alike were zealous for the attainment of that one goal. The entire surplus energy of the masses as well as that of the leaders was now being used in the piling up of religious merit. This was the one basis of the unity of the heterogeneous population of India. This was the one sentiment by which the entire population could be aroused to action. It was on the strength of this sentiment that Shivaji and Nanasahib wielded their influence and retained their fol-lowing—a flimsy basis for a political framework. Just as two thinking American citizens coming together will discuss a live political issue or talk of business conditions, or two American young ladies will comment on styles, even so we find the men and women in India of this period seriously discussing the re- ligious merit or demerit of a particular act or ceremony. We now find a devout Indian woman offering to a deity one million flowers or leaves of a particular kind of plant, to execute which performance required the patient industry of many of her friends and relatives, as the counting had to be very exact, and in case of mistakes the merit of the offering was lost. We find a prince squandering his fortune on a sacrifice; a Yogi practicing severest austerities and mental concentration; private worship and public festivals of various deities and observances of various rules laid down by the Brahman experts, or anything else that could give the devout a little advantage in their path upward or place a little more credit to their account with Chaitanya or a little better recommendation for a birth with more powerful personality in the next life; so that they could follow the path of knowledge and at least experience that Es- sence of Essence, the Universal Soul, and be finally relieved from the pangs of life and birth and death and all the attendant sorrow and misery. Such was the main stream of thought of the Indian mind, and just as the Western mind constantly worries over ways and means to meet its bills and financial responsibilities, the one overwhelming anxiety of the Indian mind was this necessity of settling its score with its deities and gods. Just as volumes could be written in merely describing the various occupations economic men engage in to secure small and large incomes, in a similar fashion innumerable methods may be mentioned that were devised by the Indian mind, from the worship of stone idols to the practice of the highest Jnana Yoga, to secure small and large spiritual gains. However absurd and irrational the spiritual merits of the idol worship, the daily bath, the abstinence from eating meat and drinking liquor, the innumerable fasts and festivities and modes of mental concentration may appear to the Western mind. to the Indian mind it was an absolutely sound logic. “As the many rivers finally enter one ocean, even so the the Knowledge of many paths finally converge to that one goal Koos c } ee ale ' Sats yi al ieee Bae ceorea meee op tnd SS ety were rs ae alate a sae Speata rant arerst Pe Spee tee ee — —- S ee ea — eee Se eat mafia ort ee ee ee ee Ca ee ee ete ke een es ge Se a ee cae ae oo aa — Sf era ae apa ier eee eee a Fi Ne erent Oy g oe Se mene Be od — NE cr ee en ty et Ree ina = = SS STATE Sas Sei ER i n ri iee i pears os ek ee ag ee et ah od ae als alot were satin = Sa ok he ho oe hth Mallee ad F Fal il an -- — a a ER MNO San glia ial a a ge it ie a! La eal eee bs es _= “4 jj Peart rot ecbesiinge Start Sn bn Sao a So, belo Sac aera Lert ve terih ea bk os he alltel i ai Se i ee i eee EO ~ + God.”2* Such was the trend of thought of the leadership type— authors of the creative activities of a nation. The more ambi- € ; ] “cratic o ANAT) r*) h > nNare zealot | o | IeCqame “) t10us anda energetic a Mdall Wads, the more zealous ne became To pursue heavenly bliss by a difficult path, with the result that the 7 : eae ae est amongst them left home and worldly life and in their zeal - 2 i Ma ig oe. a ] ie Seat PAY « ~~ *““ryoOt ° Tc * le > for pursuing this wild goose chase leit no progeny. he lesser - a 5 ae ga Lh thev did not become phvsicallv tvpe oO! entrepreneurs, tous tiey aia Nol pecome pnysically ‘ 7 be : - ware ‘ ¥ ” 1 ] 7 lh inf > - lost, became ineffective economic agents under the influence c 1 : ‘ awl « 1 ~ ; a Lanriarc of the thought of their dead leaders i o 7 1 s r } ' Was it a wonder that under the influence of such an atti- Cou rcaks Sf) Tee Leper Pe EIN ota eeecya tude towards life the political and economic activities were en- ce ee ; i ee aa aantained oanty wh tm © 2CeS tirely neglected? ~[hey were maintained only up to a neces- . * rr i | okie aaa tl 7 - we ~~ ‘ ~f sary minimum. ‘The Chakravartin ruled the princes, but left jam oem : ony eee, REE SD ae anaes ts mL. ene en ie kingdoms to their own absolute management. [he princes 4 ] ] ] ' ‘ , ] } 747 ] 4 1, 7 +] »* Ixy ' “7 +1, s MII9OMmM9 ORT 7 nT ruled tne peopie, DU lett them to thnemseéives in the managemen of their villages and provincial affairs. It was not that the Soe) - ot Gates pels, | Dine Indian princes a owed the village communities their Sseir-Trule 1 ] ] ‘ ¢ Ines ‘ sate ae 7 ; cause they were democratic in spirit, but it was because they + . 1 ‘ e q eo 1 qiaq not care tor centralization nor dl rnev reel a TEecessicy ‘ ~ I i | { i = Thus rolled the main stream of Indian thought in the direc- tion we have now outlined and it rolled in that direction with- out disturbance tor so many nturies that finally it has be- come something like a “‘fixed idea” in the mind of a psychopath. The Indian mind was hvpnotized by the charm of a spiritual i i ii i | A i : ,y¥ x ; ; Ad . + A 7 . i 4 | 4 AL. LOCA goal, and all the ways and means devised for the attainment of that goal also became ‘“‘fixed ideas,” in so rigorous a fashion tL my) eles ect ayreqdn Fay sl .aerivea at the enceart dic Nat even a Skiled physi lan Talis tO arrive at the correct dlag- (cs CONCELVGCHAP RE RSI IN THE FETTERS OF SACRED LAW AND CUSTOM OF DISINTEGRATING FORCES POWERLESSNESS If we keep in mind the main direction of the stream of Indian thought we will not be surprised to find why all other activities and forces in Indian life had to bend before this mighty monster and make way for him or at least to adjust themselves to a subordinate and useful place. We have seen that the root of all activities was declared to be desire—that produces action, which brings in Karma, the source of an ever- lasting chain of life and death and misery. The best course to follow would have been to renounce all desires, all actions, and to resolve oneself into Universal Soul by a rapid passage over the Path of Knowledge. But such a course was not open to all, for only a few powerful minds could follow it. Most human beings must adopt the slower path, that is, must perform actions and lead a worldly life. Now actions were of two kinds, good and bad. Good actions helped the path onward, the bad ones compelled a retreat. The Sacred Law and Custom as pro- pounded by the Brahmans—who alone were in direct touch with the gods—professed to declare which actions were good and helped a man forward and which were sinful and obstructed his path. The life of the world was a reality to the masses which these doctors of soul culture could not ignore. The order of the householder was the only economic prop of the other orders, on which they depended for their support. Hence action was a necessity. But if action was a necessity at all the best thing would have been to perform it without an attach- ment to its fruit. Performance of action in this manner created no Karma and left no stain, but, says Manu, nowhere in this world do we find a desire to engage in activities without an attachment to their fruit? and therefore it is best that such actions should be prescribed as will bear good fruit and give religious merit. ‘To the Indian mind the fact of the good and bad fruit of an action was a vivid reality. ‘This is why we find the Indian mind so enslaved to Sacred Law and Custom. An Indian will undertake no activity, will form no decision that is contrary to the sanction of Shastra. Shastra determined for Mian is sehr : Nee — SS ee S54 ee pa aes: 5 OE EN a rte py —— See eran A ae Re re eS es Caer = as + ee SS es ae neat area rater — gee eae a epee ee ett a ——— - _———-- — ———-= Cee Sen ‘ — the Indian mind and the cake of custom was slowly being baked and hardened. ‘loday we find it very hard to break this cake. Dare an Indian social reformer suggest to an orthodox Indian even so insignificant a departure trom his “settled rule’ as the eating of a meal in company with a person of another caste, no natter how superior his race affiliations may be? Much less : 7 mide 1c ee ri very A- hte , can he propose a remarriage of his widowed daughter, even though she happens to be but a child of 12 years of age. Our w~ris¢ oh mg on sea ee aon eo a : ss ns ee a Indian college men may now charge me with ignorance of the hange that has come about in the Indian spirit during recent ears. At the same time I am aware that a Brahman who will ' : + + - ) - ry | ae - HN : - a0 ry -" > hesitate y eat in a irsi or a Mohammedan restaurant ll] refice ¢ dine at he hoice fF 4 Kavz tha Prabhu wT 5 ep > { to ' s at Tne LIOUSC i a Na Vadaotild LaWliti Ol a Shenavi. members of castes not racially difterent trom his own. r ” T ‘ 7 a 7 = ae i . = India ege boy goes through a mental drill in his un1- Cle Care (nat Changes littie nis attituace towards some OI those “settled rules” of the Dharmashastra. How many Indian 1 ; eatce WA ee acceees ja euatiet bat Gain re ee tec oe , ries 5 OVS WI1ll Gare ma ya £1T1 be yond their own caste in spite ol eir college education of which they seem to be so proud: I] 79 7) 79% Arr? i In lon avail think - oCluIineg AVUTA YW } 7 it) V¥ tiiicl \ parents iil Litile W Lil Lilbliily ‘ I a ee — awdy tnell A ated eata taxes ee : ae 3) eee 1. matter h — mnerior qaugnter [0 a DOY OT a iowel caste no matte! lOW SUDETIOI + 4 4 ’ 1 S ] - - VS] y and intellect | at la\ be to a bo Or ner Owrl : 2 1 eae ‘ i) — ste selected for her? Should a radical retormer dare trans- r | ? - ™ ] = 7 Y , f uutcast. The Shastra says that the mixture of castes is the ° + ls Siu . ‘ * . \ * + ] HO ,\T , »T +] \T \ 2 4 i LTC \ i ( nappen to tl! . WO! { INOTCOVE!I tila 4 , s 1 , ryv*4 4 7 ts 4 ‘* @ * 2 zs 17 tis a settled rule Che “settled rule’ of Shastra, crystallized 7 7 T +h ¢ ha + } An bey +4 ‘T) 7. f “AawnwrT oo . Hote (Cr eT i ) stom that nas ted and fattened tor centuries, transcends 17 7 : } ‘ om - > ") 1 , jhere £ re F f | logic and reason. Such is the tremendous adherence of the - loan 47) «+4 } 4 ‘ tists , ha ry * (> 1 LT present Indian social mind to institutions that have checked e = > T “. 1 i 1 = ola . Sia = : BAN = oe rOPTeSS mager aS tneir ieaders are ror tne political and eco- } 7 ic "oAcen) seater c t} + ~sy44 Tur ] our in “cs “at liaty rl Hh . nomic regeneration Of the country tney dare not adisturD tne existing social order. ‘They will attack the British government Pn RE cat ee ie a aS srisoned for 1i A Oc Me Ce ee : tine TiSK Of getting imprisoned for i1fe or show neroism in looting perhaps a well meaning British officer at the risk of going to the gallows, but the monster “Settled Rule” they dare not even think of attacking. Manifold as the economic and political problems of India the surface—like the many branches and millions ofa ‘ ; ! ri b i 61 leaves of a great tree—their existence seems to be supported by a solid trunk grown out of strong and well-fed roots, which have by centuries of unchecked growth become deeply imbedded in the favorable soil in which they found themselves. So vigor- ous and well-rooted has this growth become that its uprooting appears to be an almost hopeless task to those who dare con- ceive of accomplishing such a feat. Fortunately with the pas- sage of time the nature of the soil itself on which this banyan- like growth feeds is changing and the mighty monster is find- ing it increasingly difficult to obtain its nourishment from its wonted sources. The chances are that in the course of time it will become so weakened that it may be either uprooted by one tremendous pull of a huge appliance (representing a mental crisis) or else be allowed to starve and die a slow death. How deeply imbedded this banyan-like growth had become even before any foreigners visited India* is well illustrated by the failure of so powerful a personality as that of Buddha to uproot some of these suicidal notions. We are not interested in Buddha from the standpoint of his philosophy. Its essential elements are to be found in Brahmanical philosophy. Buddha tried to eradicate among many other things the differences of castes, but his teachings were in this respect an entire failure. This is even more significant in view of the fact that he did not attempt to change the main stream of the Indian thought that was deeply bent on salvation. In fact he confirmed it in that direction. He only tried to replace the old methods of achieving those results by new ones. But alas, by this time the logic of the Indian mind had already been subordinated to the “way of doing things they had fallen into.” Brahmanism suc- ceeded against Buddhism in India not because the logic of Brah- manism was any sounder than that of Buddhism, but because it fitted better into the temper and habits of the people. Buddhism was the earliest and perhaps the most powerful disintegrating force to which the Indian institutions were subjected and they stood the test and proved their inviolability most effectively. Similar was the fate of the materialistic philosophy of Char- vaka; it arrived on the scene too late. Then came the Greek invasion of Alexander the Great (327 ‘The earliest foreign invasion of India after the Indo-Aryan migra- tion is recorded as having taken place in 516 B. C. The expedition was sent by the Persian King Darius under the command of Skylax of Karyanda in Karia. Herodotus, 4:44. Ty a a Pama S55 i TS SS SS ‘ ae ey es — aa ane emcee Se emg SS nee ee soy lawet _ : — Se) ee a tea a Ata endear t ie a nm e we eo SS a ee ee ee ee re) BP at a wns ee ae eee 7 ys en 5 ” a Seen a2 as * Se — SN ee ~ ee ever eerte a DA Tne en a ee ee NS le ee aa Sore eee eee Sg ene pea eRe Sl 2. S a SSF He us peel- Bee airman Sala bd aetatineetered a sar eae PP mar - | | q H ‘, am * 2 — rs mh. ai! x od 7 } ty a ate | wn : a4 re as pa ek ad SEPP EE ELE Na oe PP ee Te eh eee eg ae I SO et eS omc rere pena ir eng erg tty yng EA heh ge see Be eee i a a co A oS a 62 B. C.) and from now on the forces of political disintegration began to come into India. Under the influence of its stimulus the powerful dynasty of Chandragupta was formed, which per- haps was the first large centralized government in India, having inder its control all the territory between Himalaya and Vindhya. ‘The finance minister of this prince was Chanakya, the author of the treatise called the Arthashastra (Science of Wealth). His system of administration aimed at the same efficiency in protecting state interests as the Cameralistic regime in Germany and the Mercantilists of France and Eng- land. This is very significant, as it shows the direction in which Indian institutions would have developed under pressure of v proper environment. But the stimulus came too late. The pI Indian mind had been formed once for all. No system of gov- ernment, institutions, and laws can stand long or perpetuate themselves which are not backed by the sentiments of the people. After the reign of Asoka the kingdom fell. Such was the apathy of the people towards their political and eco- nomic life that none of the future political reconstructors of India was successful. Akbar, Shivaji, and Madhyji Scindya, all failed in their turn when they tried to intuse a national life into the people of India. Their only hope lay in accomplish- ing this through the unity of religious sentiment in the Indian mind. In trying to preserve and make use of this sentiment they were fostering those very forces which are so detrimental to the formation of a national life in India. In making use of lis spirit for their purpose they were building a political struc- ture on a flimsy foundation. ‘This is our explanation of why these political leaders of India failed—not because they were incapable, or because they were products of a warm climate, or because they were members of a lower race, as many scholars would have us believe. It was simply a case of a hypnotized population that could not be awakened from its trance, and least with regard to even today it still remains so hypnotized, at its customs, if not to is attitude towards heavenly bliss. The only words of suggestion to which the people quickly responded were those that aroused their cherished religious sentiments. The watchword of the Moghul was Allah, of Shivaji, Harihar ; and the basis of even the much heralded attempt of the re- bellion of 1857 was a religious prejudice against the foreigner and not a sentiment of national pride. The thrill that goes to63 the heart of an American boy at the sight of his flag or the resentment which an Englishman feels on learning of injury to the life or property of his countryman at the hands of a foreigner never disturbed the peace of the Indian mind. And as to religious sentiment serving as a basis for political unity, the enmity that exists between caste and caste in India is too well known to need any further comment. A scholar of international reputation once asked me a question, the sense of which was: If the present fixed atti- tude of the Indian social mind is a result of the teachings of some of your great teachers, can you not use the same methods for its disintegration and for reconstruction along new lines, 1. €., will not the teachings of some great personality remove these prejudices and create in their place a new attitude? In the fate of teachings of as powerful a personality as that of Buddha, we find an effective reply to this question and a speedy dismissal of such a proposal. It must be remembered that a powerful personality scores its triumphs on the popular mind only when it is in a state of indecision. But when popular notions are fixed, such a personality simply creates antagonism and suffers a defeat as was the fate of Buddha. And much work has to be done in India before such a state of indecision can be brought about and a mental crisis effected under the leadership of a master mind. a a met at teal aed TSE Seeks tea | a ay Fe ee Arr e anem Sea BETA abs pat a ee a tt ae eee ora rts 2 <= “ nO a I SSS oe as TS SS ea eT ee Se REN ws TON ee ES SS Se er Ee ee So he ee ee et ee teen die ie eee ae eee ead i ek ee 0 ego eae = ‘ mas ms = A in A ae earn ee See eg Spe aa a aa ee EEE ERIE EF ap aoncaenenio pon eect eet eae ere] aE RM een Sent a i ey tie Hi ) Salaenael og Se eee ies Shean eee ta eer Senshi: i a ee et ae a Sa henPad tT EN a a ie hak ah re a Be fee BT at ee eae DSi ae, Th cle Oe eae erin a REE EE EP ies tee EY re at ae S Peaks et Se eee shi be tans - ora ERECT EET Ft Sadcciacte or tarts tn oS Jaen babe a Wine ote bel eines = Cee ee et Na CHAPTER V SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES—BEGINN ING OF EFFECTIVE DISINTEGRATION—EXPLOITATION—PROGRAM OF RECONSTRUCTION—METHODS AND MEANS Some amongst us, who thoroughly believe in the virtues of the Brahmanical social order, or see the whole mischief in the unfavorable influence of the British rule, or expect to find a panacea for all evils in India in the economic regeneration of the country, will accuse me of having overemphasized the de- structive force of Indo-Aryan institutions. We must dismiss the objections of such radicals as being unimportant for our purpose. Until now I have followed in a very general way the course of the Indo-Aryan mental evolution and indicated its uences. Now J shall disastrous as well as its beneficial conseq Seq carry my analysis a little further and make the resulting prob- lems more specific with a view to suggesting directions along 1 oe | which our work of reconstruction should begin, the methods that we should follow in organizing our work, and the forces we ~ should use in carrying out our program. > 6 ,?* oi + ~a' wl « ’ *- . . + 44 a . . mise AC In the three | Principal qisasStrous conseque;»nces which these ] ] tT 1% a +7 , . (i 12 . +} . * lo . ' pe 7 developments wrought in the life of the people of India we find the three-fold directions along which our work of reconstruc- Rin ’ iy ~~” oath an . io. | +4 . > se : : ~~ A err tion. which has already begun, must continue with increased vigor. These three consequences are as follows: First: Effects on Race Composition and Social Constitution. Second: Effects on Political Organization. — Third: Effects on Economic Prosperity and Progress. In its effect on the race composition and social constitution we find its most suicidal character. The social stratification of the Dravidians was not based upon race or spiritual superiority, but on a strict precedence of wealth and political power.t The Aryans themselves came to India with no caste system, and un- der pressure of normal economic and political competition the inevitable result of the various races coming together would have been their complete fusion into a people with a sense of close consanguineal affinity throughout the entire population— something similar to what happened to the racial stocks that went to England or what is happening to the various European “Supra, pp. 18 and 21.65 races that are coming into the United States. For the Dra- vidians were by no means a contemptible race and the Aryans might well have been proud to make blood alliances with them. In fact, some such process had already begun. But with the Brahmanical regime came the caste system, which checked the free working of that process and prevented a complete fusion of the various race elements. ‘Though the caste system has failed to preserve the absolute blood purity of the Aryan stock, since it was an institution not based upon race differences pri- marily, but on spiritual superiority, it has succeeded in retaining enough physical differences between members of castes belong- ing to the various races to prevent the birth of a consanguineal consciousness of kind—a necessary preliminary to the birth of a vigorous national life. The worst consequence of the caste system is, however, the social differences it has created. We have already seen that in spite of the caste system the majority of the population of India today represents a mixture of the various races that have come into the country. It is true that the Aryan highest caste and the Dravidian lowest caste taken as a whole do represent race differences. But even in the high- est of Aryan castes we find the Dravidian and Mongolian blood infiltrated in all degrees of mixture. The various high- caste Marathas do not differ racially and in many individual in- stances in Bengal, Madras, and the Maratha country, the proud Brahman and the lowest street scavenger hardly present much difference of race. Moreover, the Indian geographical environ- ment has put its common stamp upon all the racial stocks that inhabit it. ‘The writer when in European dress has been fre- quently taken variously for a Bengali Babu, a Maratha Brah- man, a Parsi, a Mohammedan, and a Spaniard, even by his own countrymen, and strange enough, he, though a native of India, belongs to no one of these castes or sects. It is not at all uncommon to find our boys in England and the United States asking each other their caste and provincial affiliation. What I aim to point out is that whereas considerable differences in physical appearance between different castes and people of dif- ferent provinces can be recognized, if they are observed en bloc, the race mixture in spite of the caste system and the geographic environment has run its course to the extent of making judg- ment difficult on the racial affiliation of any particular indi- vidual. It is not uncommon in India to find, in the same high pine bose Eesha ate Saas re St -—-« ate ee Se -—-< ot . a SaaS EE : == SS Se et a) el Bt eT ES Sa Se Ree ee ey beeen ere og hy elgg ss a ee ene tw Re ree SS te ee eras nN 9 Rae arent —— tee ee ee = == ee et o S ieee a) Nh: ie He Rs * a 3 + A eePe RPist A LPP OE FE ir dr eres eee qegestyeyty & Pt + ie wide ie bas hs ea sie? on on one ees bP oetinenn eae: dc te ene eeek ee he? he ee ee Gk a thal od ek be oe a ee es wre, s . ; Ae 5 Se A Sait ind Sa a Do talecinge Se cheats Stn rece egal storie ee eine eh et meena cated beee ateieat le S eats = ri i i) i Ty | emer Kj Ae on 66 caste family, representatives of these various races, exhibiting a gradation of color from very dark to very white and fea- tures, from pure Aryan to dominantly Mongolian or Dravidian. Most unfortunately, the caste system prevented a smooth work- ing out of this process which had begun so well. But the check- ing of this process of race mixture was not the worst result of the caste system. Its effects on the social constitution were still more disastrous. The racial and cultural differences of the peo- ple of various provinces and castes of India may well be likened to the differences between the various nationalities of the Caucasian races of Europe, with perhaps this difference that in India the feeling of consanguinity 1s more distant, and enmitv between caste and caste and province and province more acute, than is to be found amongst the various races and nation- alities of Europe. To an Indian a man of another province is practically a foreigner and a member of another caste often- times an enemy belonging to a rival corporation. The positive forces of the caste system and of the other religious institutions and the negative force of the neglect of political and economic life have thus accentuated consanguineal, cultural and linguistic differences among members of different castes and different provinces. It led to the formation in India livided into over 3,000 + = . ; ‘ OI a heterog reneous mass OT population- —{ * . . j castes or communities of interests, with multifarious differences in speech, dress, customs and traditions. A certain feeling of consanguineal afhnity, a consciousness ol common culture, common tradition and common folk-lore, a similarity of manners and customs, and in fact the whole back- ground of life which creates, should occasion require, an intt- macy between the various members of a community—all these are necessary for a vivid realization of a national consciousness of kind. Is this to be found in Indian life? What is there that forms a common background of the life of a Bengali, a Maratha, a Madrasi, a Panjabi, and a Sikh, except a vague feeling of religious unity which has proved its failure to sus- tain a sound political and economic structure? By history, tra- dition, language, customs, manners and all those little and great elements that form a major content of human life, a Maratha, a Bengali, and a Madrasi are even more widely separated than they may seem to be by differences of physical appear- ance. A Maratha girl if married to a Bengali Babu under67 the existing social order will feel about as much at home with her husband as she would were she married to an Englishman or an Arab, with whom she might feel even more at home should she have gone through a common school training with them. Her language, her manners, her mode of dress, in fact all the past contents of her life under present circumstances will make her a misfit in her new Bengali home. ‘These are facts full of deep meaning and demand serious consideration at the hands of those of our men who are eager to serve their country. They bid us go a little slowly in our program of reform and reconstruction.. The writer confesses that in spite of his education he feeels more at home with a man from his Own province, and even more so with a man of his own caste than with a member of any other province or caste in India. The effects of a perverted social heredity accumulated in periods of centuries has created differences between people of various provinces which must first be removed and has created gaps be- tween caste and caste that must be filled in before we can hope to realize our ideal of consanguineal and cultural unity. What pride can a Bengali or a Madrasi feel in the history of a Maratha who has tormented him in the past? What affinity can a Mohammedan feel with a Maratha who has been instrumental in bringing about his overthrow from power? We must there- fore first create a common culture and common tradition of which all of us—the Bengali, the Maratha, the Madrais, the Panjabi, the Sikh, the Parsi, and the Mohammendan—can be equally proud. We must first eliminate all unnecessary points of dissimilarity between caste and caste and province and province that create in us a feeling of distantness. We must develop a common system of education that will create in us a common background of life—a common culture, a common language, a certain similarity of dress and manners, and above all on the part of each one of us an intelligent appreciation of our common position in the eyes of the world and a realization of our com- mon political and economic interests. These are the accom- plishments at which we must first aim before we can aspire to realize our higher political and economic goals. A defective social order is as poor a soil to nurture vigorous political and economic institutions as an unsatisfactory government is to foster a happy and prosperous social order. These various phases of human life are mutually dependent on each other for Nh) Ah Ms er Met Se = SS SESS ae easy ity 210) uke Wee Beets ta hoe Sy Ee US Th 5 a eal A LS eS Eee pk a aapne eae 4 = =o SS — ee ae ee ter te tad BP pnt at ted oe eS " mam Sse re pee eee we oy ee iat OS gay aS is att Spang ete pee retry te ae re ee SSS Cee ueet se) earn a — 5 eee Sar Sr erasrLs -" Daa td vay ke prt Af vo s SET Ee Ye bo a hn ier oregon yee ee Sey set Ee be, tg athe Baile Rae Re ia ll Daa hl rind ree cane eb he had “ae ihe Se oe or eke oe me EP en aeTe, yet Sab ttt sess Soe donates tes WT Bess ed nal ii al Sm ol a a a ae Ni Ni ne de er cree a aaa iA ‘ Pte 68 their harmonious development. The first plank of our platform of reconstruction in India is therefore to create a national life on a basis of consanguineal and cultural unity. If I may be pardoned for indulging in speculation, I can see a future India represent- ing a complete race mixture of the three principal racial stocks in the country, speaking a common language, perhaps English ; adopting a common dress, perhaps a modified European wear for the men and a modified Parsi wear for women; and sub- ordinating the religious life to the extent of making it a matter of private judgment and not a matter of public concern as it has been thus far. ‘This is a tremendous task, and only an : } he psychology Indian who has an immmediate knowledge of t that supports the present malformation can appreciate the burden of our problem. In recommending the abolition of the caste system and the creation of a consanguineal consciousness of kind—an almost necessary preliminary for the birth of a national self-conscious- ness—I realize that I shall meet opposition from those who doubt the wisdom of mixture of the various castes and races in India, lest the so-called superior Aryan blood, which has thus far been preserved by the caste system, may disappear; and we may have eventually a dominantly Dravidian population in India, representing an average lower racial type, since the Dra- vidian already constitutes by far the major part of the present population of India. I, therefore, offer grounds on which we may not only dismiss such unwarranted fears of the lowering of race standard, but may hope for a still better race standard out of the mixture of the various race elements now within the country. In the first place, the Dravidians though of dark skin are in physiognomy very similar to the Caucasian races, and the dif- ference between the so-called Aryan castes and the Dravidian castes does not represent a wide? race separation. What is still *Even where two so very widely separated races as the Anglo- Saxon whites and the negroes are being miscegnated, as in the Southern States of the United States, conclusive evidence is wanting to prove that the resulting progeny is either degenerate or sterile. We are even told that “the recognized leaders of the (negro) race are almost invariably persons of mixed blood” (even though it may be that) “the qualities which have made them leaders are derived cer- tainly in part and perhaps mainly from their white ancestors.” See, “Negroes in United States,” an article by Walter F. Willcox in Ency. Britan., 11th ed., Vol. XIX, p. 345 et seg. Since writing the above, | am indebted to Professor Jackson for calling my attention to an article69 more important, the Dravidians of India represent a very su- perior race element. Their history speaks for them. Prior to the coming of the Aryans into India they had developed politi- cal systems not dissimilar to the feudal institutions of the West- ern European races. We find the Dravidian freeman subordi- nate to raja, a sort of manorial lord, and the latter paying homage to the central chief, the whole scheme representing a strongly centralized government based upon an efficient mili- tary organization. They had a culture independent of Aryan influence. It was the Aryans who stopped their further political progress by their forceful religious teachings. The fabulous wealth of India before she was robbed was a product of the persistent industry of these people. Then we must remember that such energetic leaders as Chandragupta, Shivaji and Madhji Scindya were not men of the so-called pure Aryan blood. The Indian Rayat by whom the Dravidians are repre- sented today have stood the test of centuries of adverse climatic environment and have survived a condition of anarchy and misrule for a period of over ten centuries since the first Moham- medan invasion and have proved their economic efficiency dur- ing the severe conditions of this trying period. In the second place the mixture of the various racial stocks in India so far as it has already gone has proved a success and warrants us in further stimulating that process. It has created no degenerate hybrid products, as many scholars of ethnology would have us believe. In Bengal we have (in some families) about the best illustrations of what is likely to happen if the yel- low Mongolian, the white Aryan and the dark Dravidian are mixed and the result is not one to be despised. A Bengali of this type is not only an intelligent, but a very handsome person. In the third place, in the agile and active Maratha and Parsi, the sturdy Sikh and Mohammedan, the intelligent Bengali and the persevering and patient Madrasi we have all the ele- by Professor H. E. Jordan of the University of Virginia, “The Mulatto to save the Negro,” in the Literary Digest, vol. 46, p. 1373; and also ibid., “Awakening of the Brahmin,” p. 1383, f. Professor Jordan thinks that the half-breed is usually a better and more useful citizen than the man of pure race. “The mulatto,” says Professor Johnson, “is the leaven with which to lift the negro race.” “I base this statement on the fact that both Shivaji and Madhji Scinda belonged to the Maratha Kunbi Caste, a dominantly Dravidian tribe in their present physical appearance. For low origin of Chandragupta on the mother’s side, although on his father’s side of the raja class, see Vincent Smith’s Early History of India, p. IIo. ath hhc Nee are Se ee ee ee el i ae es To thoes a = am SSS eee ee a = aaa od hoes See a crine sense = moe ir ae eae —->- eee eo a — Teo ee ee Sas amas erat nels hap eee te oeelin nn ie en benaey 1 dete denen terete et a ae ee ne ae ae ee me ES ee ee a aa ae gS EE Se Sar eye ranean Se SP a in nt i cnn ee Se ee << ES ROE ete ee ree tet nn Oe apne a oo ——=- re teRe a SS oe ee ad i he heJ ti {e. LAE! : i I; +4 * r Pt st EE Pb Tyee prep ko oe ae = es on -- dt Pal bt Fd rn plat rap 4 Be Cum pees — St ee a ae nS Ni Nac eh a ial alli al tal ered bh eee ee ae Ae ll al aa al A who a gh RA ea Ce ha heel aie eich al Age ba baat os a teu oe ee sci Sector te Se Se Ee aa i ats " a ee ae Det Ss i Se se Sr ee Se 70 ments in India for the formation of a population that will result in an unrivaled race composition for the purpose of exploiting the economic resources of our warm country. In spite of this, if there are some who still doubt the worth of the native Indian stocks thes could freely import foreign blood by intermarriage with fhe Europeans and the Mongolian Asiatics In its effect on the political life of the people of India, the Indo-Aryan culture represents its second evil influence. Prior to the coming of Aryans into India the Dravidian political evo- lution was proceeding along normal lines. They had developed manorial and feudal institutions not greatly dissimilar to those e. We also find that the ay developed by Western races in Eur Aryans themselves came to India with quasi-republican institu- Veda speaks of the nomination and election of kines and chiefs and we find that matters of public interest were KINYS alidd ¢ LICcis allt W C nnd { Ack matters Ol PuDIIC LIILECICSt W ae discussed in assemblies® somewhat similar to the tolk-moots of the early settlers in Massachusetts. [hese splendid po eo - A comm an dened ceeennmen lee ; : ? athe C wa lade wen lis peeae nder Aryan influence lapsed into a state of political disassocia- mn that left in India thousands of principalities existing side by ide without either much triction or co-operation and exerci ising 1? g* t] ‘ = +747 : . r ~+ “ "5 # ] oy +4 Fr h = o © . Over (Their Su ects a Sort of paternal qaespo.usmMm. rom tne quasi- d A . rT enlae / ~~ ‘ ° je centralized polity of the Dravidians to the decentralized condition of innumerable petty states was a change for which Brahmanism and the Brahmanical philosophy -of life were alone responsible Thi condition created in India a fertile field for political ex este Every student of the history of India knows well that this tact was not lost sight of by their foreign neighbors and we know how for lack of co-operation these petty kingdoms were ulti- mately swallowed one by one by the British conquerors eventually bringing the entire country under their control. ‘The conquest of Alexander brought into India the very first forces { political and social disintegration.® Under the influence of this stimulus and that of the succeeding Greek and Scythian invasions some progress was made in developing political organ- ization. The famous dynasties of Chandragupta and others were formed, but the pressure being removed India again fell into her spiritual slumber. ‘Zimmer: Alt-indisches Leben, pp. 172-174. Foy: Konigliche Gewalt, chap. II. “Smith, Vincent A.: Early History of India—is at present the most reliable work on the earlier period of Indian Histc ry, p. 102 ef seq.71 Once more we find in the Indian political history a period of quiescence from the third century to the eleventh century A. D. when the first epoch making Mohammedan invasion took place. Now began to enter into India powerful forces of disintegration and they kept continually coming until finally the British people established their powerful and stable government for the entire territory and brought in a peaceful regime. From the first Mohammedan invasion to the final achievements of the British people in India was a period of over one thousand years —a period of anarchy and misrule (with only temporary inter- vals of stability under Mohammedan rule) during which the peo- ple were harassed and misgoverned by their successive temporary masters who, conscious of their precarious position, robbed them as much as they could. During this period of exploitation the foreign invaders were not the only tools of molestation of the people. After these outside forces began to shake the founda- tions of the Indo-Aryan social order, the Indian raja as well as the Brahman became nervous as to the stability of his in- terests. It was during this period of demoralization, more than before, that we find the Indian raja employing extraordinary means to strengthen his treasury in order to protect his kingdom. We now find him harassing his subjects by heavy taxes and capricious rule. Political stability and peace, the basic foundations of their religious, industrial and social order, were now jeopardized and they fully realized this. The foreign in- vasions came as a complete surprise to them, and their belief in the efficacy of sacrifices as a means of protecting their king- doms and furnishing a panacea for all evils was suddenly shaken. It was in short a period of readjustment. It is not fair to compare their administration of this period with that of Englishmen in a period of settled rule. Even some of our own scholars in their effusive praise of British rule are very fond of contrasting’ its blessings of peace and moderate taxes with this state of maladminis- tration. ‘They vehemently condemn those who mourn the loss of that native misrule. Such errors are an inevitable re- sult of a study of isolated chapters of the history of any people. These enthusiasts for the British rule fail to see that there were deeper forces than those of mere native maladministration that 7Of this type are studies like those of Mr. C. Hayavadan Rao, pub- lished in Indian Antiquary, Vol. 40, pp. 265 and 281. Also Mr. Hop- kins’ India Old and New, see chapter on Famines. ess ; wie Paes Sues tt tater SS pao ast pee a ey SS Sater: oes nas 8 =e: Soo BSS ee Se ae ee pee pan Sis eee ee ~ See =< yy Se ots CT ate ¥ ear oe Ss ee Reise ne Eee een en ei ee ss ae earl tre rece — Fr a = SRC ey Sere ee a nae ss <= — Se = en ma — vere LT 48g STE De. a —— aRAEACEE A seseg arena Ft pe = PPA os Sie dad re oe ae ow — are a ~ ta eat Soon ae ' Yh nee s z ty PO I EE PS es heen enere rere ety ETE Py PS r pt hs wr a 2 Pol yh ne os et : Seated hg Fa a ah he ~ Fos ei Mer Par tne a ess TB Gok bs Pliage a a ek ae Sirs Oe ae Se ee ‘ i it i i iD tr he 25 SS LS Sn A Rte ee eer ESS tt epee Bee ce brought about the establishment of British rule in India. Thus we reconcile the two opposite descriptions of the native rule in India—the one painting it as a happy and prosperous regime and the other condemning it on account of its anarchy. These two aspects represent two different periods in the history of Indo- Aryan people and we should be cautious before we indulge in vehement condemnation of our own ancestors and in enthusias- tic praise of our present rulers, or vice versa. The mean lies somewhere between these two extremes. It was during this period of demoralization that the Brah- man began to exploit his recognized superiority for financial gains. A system of spiritual hierarchy, which began in all earnestness for the betterment and salvation of humanity, de- generated into a cunning and dishonest scheme of exploitation. The king and other castes were now commanded to support the Brahman and to serve his interest in every respect. The ] Sanskrit literature of the later period gives us plentiful r] evidence for the many devices which the Brahmans under the garb of religious necessities had invented to exploit the other castes. The prince must now protect him even from the consequences of his crimes. The Vaishya must sup- port him and the Cudra must meekly serve him. Caste now => meant privilege and discrimination—privilege for the higher castes and discrimination against the lower castes. This applied in all walks of life, religious, social and political, and the Brah- man as the author of this scheme reserved for himself the cream of everything. Therefore we should not condemn the Brah- manical tyranny without correctly understanding the underlying forces. A period of political readjustment is necessarily a period of anarchy, misrule, and misery and we should be thank- a i { ful that it is at least temporarily ended, even though with the result that we find ourselves under a foreign rule. We badly needed the peace which England has granted us and should not much grumble at the cost at which we got it or are getting it now. We need this peaceful regime to effect thoroughgoing changes in our existing social and economic order and to make preparation for a stage of higher political reconstruction. Just at present, considering the momentous work of social re- organization before us, we need no violent political changes nor another period of political disorganization. Our main task along political lines now lies, it seems to me, in gradually getting more73 political privileges that will give our ambitious young men a freer scope for the development of their higher capacities along these lines, watching the present administration and seeing to it that it does not take any steps unfavorable to the develop- ment of our social and economic platforms and bringing proper pressure upon it to enact legislation that will facilitate our work of reconstruction. Against the British administration as such, if it shows a disposition to sympathize with our programs of recon- struction and helps us in that work, we have no reason to grum- ble simply because it happens to be a foreign administration. But if it shows a disposition inimical towards our hopes of political independence and economic prosperity, it will not only bring a regime of discontent, but endanger its very existence, if not at the hands of its emasculated subjects, then at the hands of some foreign enemy. Fortunately, thus far England has shown no hostile disposition towards our aspirations for greater political privileges, and let us hope that with a greater knowledge of our needs and capacities she will take a more genuine interest in our affairs and grant more privileges that will enable us to exercise our higher political instincts. In its unfavorable effects on the economic prosperity of the people of India we find the third evil consequence of the Indo- Aryan culture. In this case its influence worked both directly and indirectly. The Brahmanical law looked down on economic pursuits and extolled the virtues of the study of the Vedas and the profession of a priest. ‘They prescribed the proper occupa- tions for each of the four castes and for many of the mixed castes. This was only following the general direc- tion of their mental stream. However, the will to live and enjoy life was stronger with the masses than a de- sire to renounce the worldly life, and under circumstances of pressure the rules as to the gaining of livelihood were freely violated. A Brahman for instance was al- lowed almost free scope in his economic activities when necessity called for such a departure from settled custom. The people kept up their usual toil in productive activities, though not under the leadership of capable entrepreneurs, for we know that their creative activities were so to speak atrophied, their at- tention being turned away from the gains of this life to the bliss of heaven. Even in the absence of powerful entrepreneurs in the field of economic activity, the Indo-Aryan regime of peace MPT rere at | Bosh att ty a cee ee hs na >! i a to. ere vi patina teea teh eae 5 ast a ~ eo = = Pe ta cS et ie Bptaiota nes eee a ho teat ct tt ee tan set S S a. - a en a i 2 Se ee <—* ; ari ct Arma tip mms man eae is eee ean eee eet ten i = seen ee 5 ee a a Si ES Be a cs ee a nn gee ta eS ee eed ita Merle ike tana — _—~ + oe a ame ant art eee if ee ~~ wee ee om aes een ete tthe tens Sante - Sa See Be eT a ee ome = oa Pa ee ee en Th i a 3 anh qj het \ra ey Tsk ae at rh F \y Font Ce tae ae eh rg eee ha Pee Ss Po ae aetiae ai? \ = PP OEE I ee VE es ill ea aed Sat alia! Pea rae, rs ie a ne ta ot Tis Fl aera SS eas es Pert at et eh Fain eel Sage ea hn Se eS bn core aa . bah jar on bala ba eu . pect 74 and the easy conditions of life gave opportunities for accumulating a greater part of whatever wealth had been created by the persistent efforts of these lesser entrepreneurs and economic agents. “The fabulous wealth of India was a product of the gradual savings of this period of centuries of Too. 1 ee a ae et ss ye peace. Unfortunately these riches were protected by a flimsy political fabric and it suffered the fate of a ship w the very weight of gold in it. It was the fa ich sank with ulous wealth of e . . 7 x cs - “ — - “2 * . ~ ar India that invited to her door the ruinous foreign invasions and | easant and merchant of today are as patiently industrious and efficient as they have been at any time. Our chief work now along the line of economic reconstruction lies in the creation of an entre- preneur class that will start enterprises to exploit the natural and commercial resources of our country and, with renewed vigor, once again set the industrial wheel in motion, and of F eLatl eve at |. a leting wnat 1 SNall Say nOW WI De merely fi ine Sake OLt completing 1 , 4 po - 7 4 - , 7 f this Study fAtter a Careiui analysis Or the past and present ol vt. 134 ne cannot help feelinoe the overwhelmins nec iNadla@S lle ONC Canmore MNeip Celine the OVerTwheimnge Neces- dey f — - } rot f ] mantariy -<- ] ine Hise SITY OT a WICGeCSDTCad SYStCI OFT CIlerrit ary alid’ SeCCol iTV pu lic 4 7 7 — 1 “74 : ‘ * . 1 ¥ 7 = . . +7 a * cy ‘ 7 ¢ Lia cl i ild Will {J Le] cL ul] LOTT] training tO & y ¢ child 17) india, giving 12 a cOMmmon DackKgToUuNnd OT lite with every oO het } ] 7 } 117 Tur ‘ ’ + ner .% ] ~\+ ] + t ty f ul L' Lo LU 1T1CT Y« Mid oe | IC1leT) L 1 Widct S ictatl SVSTtTéemM ‘ ° i © ] 1; . ] 5 ] oe * ] 1; , ] * 7 \ L] i1¢ 5 hor > whe .. it) (J) i\ ce l t A Se a | WIIit I 7 ale tauch . ] 117 t] i imi -“s "Ts TT) CF ] 77 ~ 17 7% r + 1, ed is LULL l | Sy ks Skee Cli ill dil UliilyY al tude towards €C allG are 21VET) afl 17) elligent understan Ing O© their economic Arr stunmt « tarsun «en la s ] ae len ~ ~l-] nrnard eee . and political position in the eyes of the worid, would constitute eet neltine pot of the Indian prejudices and a birth-place i] EST Lit ‘ ons it q J i I ic Lit lal p JL IuUIdGdICces and cL DITUM-piadCe of the Indian national life. Unfortunaiely our present educa- ties are very inadequate, especially in the most 1m- portant matter of rudimentary education. The present sys- tem is very defective in that it does not reach the masses effectively. Moreover, in a country where masses are buried in lgnorance a policy ot /aisser faire as regards the school at-75 tendance of children is likely to be very ruinous. And we must compel each child to accept at least the benefits of reading and writing through which we can train them for a change in their present attitude and admit them into the atmosphere of our “new spirit.” We see the need of normal schools for the proper training of intellectual leaders, a system of public lectures, and press campaigns under vigorous and sound leadership, and many other social and club activities that have played such important roles in the reconstruction of other nations—all these can be counted upon to contribute to the common end. As to the means, the most powerful single agency that stands in a position to play the title role in this epoch-making drama of our program is the Government of India. At the stage of evolution where India now stands a paternal despotism is essen- tial. If the Government of India means well and has honest intentions, then in co-operation with the present administration we can bring about epoch-making changes in the existing social order in our country and speedily carry out our program of reconstruction. A favorable attitude of the government will of course make us sooner qualified to assume our own political responsibilities. But what boots it even if Great Britain is eventually totally separated from India? Is it not better for the progress of humanity as a whole that such a change should occur? Even from a more selfish point of view will not Eng- land profit more in the end by her commercial relations with a prosperous and politically independent India than from a half-starved and discontented politically subjected population? A free unfolding of the national life and an active foreign rule become mutually incompatible. But even with England’s most liberal policy in matters of education and the granting of political privileges, the day for a complete separation seems so far off that let us hope than when the time comes for momentous changes in the political affairs of India the high sense of honor of the British people will again assert itself as it has done in the past and we shall be able to accomplish a silent revolution in keeping with the humanitarian stamina of our civilization. Whether the government is sympathetic or unsympathetic, ‘interested or uninterested, and active or inactive along the lines we must do our proper share. of our work of reconstruction, ‘It is gratifying to note in this connection that the native state of Baroda has taken a lead in this direction and has introduced a system of free and compulsory elementary education. ees i v1 Prat att) Nae Str SiEis! ~ Stee a ae ya eet aeeceris ons B 4 as a ee SVSe SS eee > ee ae - ond = ne a ee ae RR te ee ne eS = ee a a oar Paes a 5 oa = a <= sete ee ere oe a ates nae a F ee Pe ean eee none a Se ine Tter te tot aed a eth = St aoe SS tog Se Bee ee A eA ree Se oy ga tes bees | ae - “oT on + Tats atl UDO ATR, as PRES TURES Eset ad Ss be a ee te RO dR Be ah a cine ae aD a 5 il t = a ahs aE Ea pain nA ON i a RE I GREAT TT BIT gL PGE EGE nig a oe ees eee aisles - GAR et ng Ng NG NE A NRA EET EN eT oon x air Bh ie | oe Lx ce rie ey Pa ae LU 76 Private enterprise can accomplish a great deal. The Indian National Congress should be recognized and created into a bodv critical as well as constructive with a provisional government and with powers to collect voluntary assessments from the people for educational purposes and a permanent central treasury to disburse funds to the agents according to the needs of various provinces and localities. The press should undertake to edu- cate public opinion within the country and abroad as regards the course of Indian affairs and to create an interest in the public mind in current problems. Young men from the various uni- versities should hold annual conferences where they can become acquainted and where they can discuss questions of social re- form. We should duly appreciate and heartily co-operate with the various foreign missions that are doing so much good in our country and helping us in our work. We should have a kindly appreciation of the efforts of a foreign missionary who leaves untry and his home and consecrates his life to the better- ment oO humanity. In view ot the work he jis GOmMP, we can tol- erate the little narrowness that missionaries sometimes exhibit Ae 4 l h oneness ‘ ATIN ex? wArictanis ‘ + | When the foreign missionary christianizes the so-called un- , tT Ts 19 © \ . a . T lee > — nart, 114 r - rei e \ “Tee touchable classes in India he is performing a valuable service + ley 4 1? ~yiiwrrew 17 17 : . Py = ly ' f , , not only to our country, but to humanity. He is lightenine our ig g work of creating a national life by eliminating unnecessary dis- similarities and differences. We must frankly admit that we L ourselves have shown no Gisposition until now to Cngage in this kind of work. As to his changing the religion of these lower classes he is certainly replacing a custom-ridden and ignorant attitude of mind by a more liberal faith. Moreover. in the future life of our country it is best that religion should be left — -" to the individual as a matter of private judgment and should not be allowed to interfere in co-operative public activities. Not only in India, but outside of our country, there are forces which we can utilize to advantage. The world as a whole stands today on a higher ethical level than ever before. 3 educating European and American public opinion as to the prob- lems and needs of our country we can get much in the way of that moral support which, now that the world has become one by means of transportation and communication, is bound to play a more and more important part in guiding the conduct of political and social activities everywhere. The government of any civil-77 ized country today will hesitate to pass or defeat a bill in the face of adverse comment of the international press and notes from foreign governments recording their disapproval. Even from the selfish point of view of economic gain, the interests of India, we may convince the world, are the interests of humanity at large. The limits of economic society today have no horizon, and without boundaries they embrace the entire world. Wall Street feels the pulse of economic progress in the remotest parts of the world. The wheat crop of Russia and the cotton crop of India are registered on the tickers of the Wall Street and Lombard Street exchanges and the bourses of Paris, Berlin and other important cities. The economic efficiency of the Indian Rayat and the Russian peasant is eventually to be reflected in the values of the world’s markets. Is it not then a concern to humanity as a whole that the people of India should be prosperous and politically independent? Can the world as a whole make progress with misery or misconduct in its train? The work of reconstruction once completed in India, she will represent a powerful, progressive, and humanizing force and render special services in the interest of humanity. India is the only country where the dark Dravidian, the white Aryan, and the yellow Mongolian, the principal stocks of humanity, are mixed to advantage and are bound to mix still further as time goes on. Here only we find a trained and an efficient army well qualified for the exploitation of the economic resources of either warm or cold regions. It is here that we shall first see humanity en bloc, including all the world races in one family, and, above all, it is here that we find humanitarianism, sym- pathy, and peaceful disposition forming the dominant note of the character of the people. Unfortunately in their eagerness for a speedy political and economic reconstruction some of our leaders have shown a disposition to bring about the changes rapidly at the sacrifice of our past and most precious heritage. Tet us hope that in our enthusiasm for reconstruction we do not lose this splendid possession of the human element in civilization which is unique with us and of which every one of us may well be proud. Finis = ‘ nd ~ , eotat, A Maes | 1 arene — nt ee eee Soe oat ata) & se be este ae Ap et ain es as Dy, anes oe SS emer oo a ay > =~ cris: er — a at SSeS ae — Se + SS Sa Bt tata thee — — —s aN Pn St : a] 7a <= ee SEIS wa a Oy ar ee ee ta EN OEE a A EI aT ~_- NO Oe ee ye a a ee ee ee ee ae Se ae a ne eee wee St ee aa od Ee eae ison nba e a tes SS et ee ar Sra Seem ae = — om ne 2 Meare ee eet 4 5 ae!. le A ee a ee aa ey kk ee a en te ale pt a gh I et UE a in a a Bo ee OS Eee at ls ob Rt EEE ERT Cee te ee — iy * ote ie] ek i ay tn t Be - safe ik Se te telat oe i Sa Ps cds acetate incor bebe con sabes tects es aa een a ea aa ae Boar aia Sara SOME ORIGINAL AND SECONDARY SOURCES FOR A STUDY OF THE INDO-ARYAN MENTAL EVOLU- TION AND ITS POLITICAL AND ECO- NOMIC CONSEQUENCES. pleted by Cowel 3 upon nmenta Sanyana Max Muller's < il translation 5 e Si hymns Sacred Books of tl Kast, \ —22—QOxtor 18] Hermann ‘' nbere’s trans n 5 I Sut Agni in fandala, 1-5, S. B. E. \ 46—Ox 1, 1807 Yarn \ i Atharva Veda W. D. Whitney’s translation with itical vised and rought nearer to completion C. R. Lanman, Vols. I-2— ( Mass., 1905 M. ] ield’s translation S. B. E. \ (2—O 1807 R. T. H. Grifhth’s translat Vols. 1-2—Ber s, 1895-6 Val tha Brahmana eling’s translation in S. B. E. Vols. 12, 2 I 2 AA Gril } Nat 46 () n s translations S S Sutras in S. B. E. Vols 20 ind 40 Upanishads Max Muller's inslation | SO! 5 Upanishads in S. B. I \ a al 1S Vedanta Philosopl Rordea o’s trans n Bhagavad nS, 5B. be Vous DI Sac! 1g Apasthamba, Gautama, Vishnu, Vasistha I la fanu, Narada and B ispa sla vari- is Orien Sc] fan oo. ef Osi 4° 37. 25 33 Mahabharata Po s translation, Vols. 1-18—( tta, 1883-18905. See espe- la Rajadharmanug naparva in Canti Par Buddl Ma M ns n Ri hacl nd Dh la 5 Bn. \ 10 nd QO Rhys Da 5 n Buddhist Suttas and other Buddhistic fests in & Bi E Vole xr. 3a.. 17, 20, 45 ana 3 Chana! 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SPEER EET Seg tee ier, = ~' ga a $gh SA te RG ee ee Oe a eee eee Dillane Pach eng ea ae oa eure be ea Se ea cach near od ie hd oa a eet i : ae eee yas ae oe a B | er a etVITA The author of this study, a Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu Maratha, was born at Khutal, a small country place near Bom- bay, India, on December 7th, 1883. His early training both in the vernacular and in English was entrusted to the care of pri- vate tutors under his parental roof. Prepared at Thana High School, a district public school, and matriculated at Bombay University in 1902. Studied at Wilson College, Bombay, during the years 1903 and 1904. Completed undergraduate work at Cornell University for A. B. in June of 1908, which institution he had entered in October of 1905. Entered Columbia Uni- versity in the Fall of 1908 and received the Degree of Master of Arts in June, 1909, under the Faculty of Political Science. Completed residence requirements for Ph. D. in June, 1910, re- turning to complete the work for that degree in September, 1912. At Cornell University he studied under Professors Will- cox, Jenks, Fetter and Titchner. At Columbia University he attended the lectures of Professors Seligman, Clark, Seager and Giddings, and the seminars of Professors Seligman, Clark and Seager. During 1912-13 he held a Fellowship in Political Economy at Columbia University. ae fa Se re) fi a ie Far) a ’ i i yet te > Le eas i) ne ; es Seto sets toe Goats trees ed ee! ad a er coeeces teks oe aS Se a SSE Se Cnr at ace OTE ETRE tne pe ea Se ase ee eS —~ wee > " ror ——— = SSS TS -- a oe Fe nn ae ee ee ee — = =i na ee ae a - - ee ae a rsa eee ed ras i Q ee pes ae peti terte een, pe Tsim P r SS Mo cee Ceeco ort ead _ fe mers EAS eg ‘ % orate C45 eee eke at ral Bee a ee et ee ee oe aoe Ok ghee Rt ht a Of Polit Oe ge re es i ah ao 5 eae ; is ; : ¥ A ba) ca % , $ t ! Bike dose elie tee =e Selon aa) aa obit ta wy Se nee ee oe ee one be ares Rae ee ee Re et hd cs = Sdece ter teehee = Seo Reece see rare a aL——— ——— >=: pes ea ae ha aT. peer ts ae ae = pee tet ts eres Se ee pe ee es ee eT en pee a i i : 2 Sn ee eee ee _- 3 SF args es a eer rea = * ea — eo a wees se se a et ARNPIII: — a. a ee hy " A : earner os rm Sere ant Nan See eg Sear eee sae Se Sr sar Seer a Sa eee) The Evening Pos 154 Fulton St., Ne ob Printing Offic York, N. ¥,FS aS aoa eg ents aE SSE" PP Sr ak ot rae? ——— rer = on ees Hk ih id Te > wai i