D "I give theft Boi>ks far/the. foiii,miin^ of a, CoUege' in iKiS:.!QoltHLJfi BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE PERKINS FUND I90ir HISTORIC HIGHWAYS OF AMERICA VOLUME 15 ' "sir* General Roy Stone [Father of the good-roads movement in the United States] HISTORIC HIGHWAYS OF AMERICA VOLUME 15 The Future of Road-making in America A Symposium BY Archer Butler Hulbert and others iViih lUusiraiions THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY CLEVELAND, OHIO 1905 COPYRIGHT, 1905 BY The Arthur H. Clark Company ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENTS PAGE Preface . . . . . . .11 I. The Future of Road-making in America . . . . • 15 II. Government Cooperation in Object- Lesson Road Work . . -67 III. Good Roads for Farmers . . 81 IV. The Selection of Materials for Macadam Roads . . . .170 V. Stone Roads in New Jersey . .190 ILLUSTRATIONS I. Portrait of General Roy Stone (father of the good-roads move ment in the United States) . Frontispiece II. A Good-roads Train . . -59 III. Sample Steel Track for Common Roads (showing portrait of Hon. Martin Dodge) . . . .66 IV. Typical Macadam Road near Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania . 83 V. A Study in Grading . . .89 VI. Sand Clay Road in Richland County, South Carolina . • "S ^VII. Gravel Road near Soldiers' Home, District of Columbia . 127 VIII. Oyster-shell Object-lesson Road 137 IX. Earth and Macadam Roads . 168 PREFACE THE present volume on the Future of Road-making in America presents representative opinions, from lay men and specialists, on the subject of tlie road question as it stands today. After the author's sketch of the question as a whole in its sociological as well as financial aspects, tliere follows the Hon. Martin Dodge's paper on " Government Cooperation in Object-lesson Road Work." The third chapter comprises a reprint of Hon. Maurice O. Eldridge's careful article, ' ' Good Roads for Farmers, ' ' revised by the author for this volume. Professor Logan Waller Page's paper on " The Selection of Materials for Macadam Roads ' ' composes chapter four, and E. G. Harrison's article on ' ' Stone Roads in New Jersey ' ' con cludes the book, being specially valuable because of the advanced position New Jersey has taken in the matter of road- building. 12 PREFACE For illustrations to this volume the author is indebted to the Office of Public Road Inquiries, Hon. Martin Dodge, Director. A. B. H. Marietta, Ohio, May 31, 1904. The Future of Road-making in America CHAPTER I THE FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING IN AMERICA IN introducing the subject of the future of road-making in America, it may first be observed that there is to be a future in road-building on this continent. We have today probably the poorest roads of any civilized nation ; although, consider ing the extent of our roads, which cover perhaps a million and a half miles, we of course have the best roads of any nation of similar age. As we have elsewhere shown, the era of railway building eclipsed the great era of road and canal building in the third and fourth decades of the old century, and it is interesting to note that freight rates on American railways today are cheaper than on any railways in any other country of the world. To move a ton of freight in England one hundred miles today, you pay two dollars and thirty cents; in Germany, two dollars ; in France, 16 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING one dollar and seventy-five cents ; in " poor downtrodden ' ' Russia, one dollar and thirty cents. But in America it costs on the average only seventy-two cents. This is good, but it does not by any means answer all the conditions; the average American farm is located today — even with our vast network of railways — at least ten miles from a railroad station. Now railway building has about reached its limit so far as mileage is concerned in this country; in the words of Stuyvesant Fish, president of the Illinois Central Rail road Company, we have " in the United States generally, a sufficiency of railroads." Thus the average farm is left a dozen miles from a railway, and in all probability will be that far away a century from now„ And note: seventy-five per cent of the com merce of the world starts for its destination on wagon roads, and we pay annually in the United States six hundred million dollars freightage to get our produce over our highways from the farms to the railways. Let me restate these important facts : the average American farm is ten miles from a railway; the railways have about reached FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 17 their limit of growth territorially ; and we pay six hundred million dollars every year to get the seventy-five per cent of our raw material and produce from our farms to our railways. This is the main proposition of the good roads problem, and the reason why the road question is to be one of the great questions of the next half century. The question is, How much can we save of this half a billion dollars, at the least expendi ture of money and in the most beneficial way? In this problem, as in many, the most important phase is the one most difficult to study and most difficult to solve. It is as complex as human life itself. It is the question of good roads as they affect the social and moral life of our rural communi ties. It is easy to talk of bad roads costing a half billion dollars a year — the answer should be that of Hood's — " O God! that bread should be so dear, and flesh and blood so cheap." You cannot count in terms of the stock exchange the cost to this land of poor roads; for poor roads mean the decay of country living, the abandon- 18 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING ment of farms and farm-life, poor schools, poor churches, and homes stricken with a social poverty that drives the young men and girls into the cities. You cannot esti mate the cost to this country, in blood, brain, and muscle, of the hideous system of public roads we have possessed in the decade passed. Look at any of our cities to the men who guide the swift rush of commercial, social, and religious affairs and you will find men whose birthplaces are not preparing another such generation of men for the work of the future. For instance, bad roads and good schools are incompatible. The coming generation of strong men and strong women is crying out now for good roads. ' ' There is a close and permanent relation," said Alabama's superintendent of education, ' ' existing be tween good public roads and good public schools. There can be no good country schools in the absence of good country roads. Let us be encouraged by this movement looking toward an improvement in road-building and road- working. I see in it a better day for the boys and girls who must look to the country schools for citi- FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 19 zenship." " I have been longing for years," said President Jesse of the Univer sity of Missouri, ' ' to stump the capital state, if necessary, in favor of the large consolidated schoolhouse rather than the single schoolhouses sitting at the cross roads. But the wagons could not get two hundred yards in most of our counties. Therefore I have had to smother my zeal, hold my tongue, and wait for the consoli dated schoolhouse until Missouri wakes to the necessity of good roads. Then not only shall we have consolidated school- houses, but also the principal of the school and his wife will live in the school build ing, or in one close by. The library and reading-room of the school will be the li brary and reading-room of the neighbor hood. The main assembly room of the consolidated schoolhouse will be an assembly place for public lectures. I am in favor of free text-books, but I tell you here and now that free text-books are a trifle compared with good roads and the consolidated schoolhouse." It is found that school attendance in states where good roads abound is from twenty-five to fifty 20 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING per cent greater than in states which have not good roads. How long will it take for the consolidated schoolhouse and in creased and regular attendance to be worth half a billion dollars to American men and women of the next generation? This applies with equal pertinency to what I might call the consolidated church ; good roads make it possible for a larger proportion of country residents to enjoy the superior advantages of the splendid city churches; in fact good roads have in cer tain instances been held guilty of destroy ing the little country church. This could be true within only a small radius of the cities, and the advantages to be gained out weigh, I am sure, the loss occasioned by the closing of small churches within a dozen miles of our large towns and cities — churches which, in many cases, have only occasional services and are a constant financial drain on the city churches. Farther out in the country, good roads will make possible one strong, healthy church where perhaps half a dozen weak organizations are made to lead a precarious existence because bad roads make large FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 21 congregations impossible throughout the larger part of the year. This also applies to city schools, libraries, hospitals, muse ums, and lyceums. Good roads will place these advantages within reach of millions of country people who now know little or nothing of them. Once beyond driving distance of the cities, good roads will make it possible for thousands to reach the subur ban railways and trolley lines. Who can estimate in mere dollars these advantages to the quality of American citizenship a century hence? American farms are taxed by the government and pay one-half of the seven hundred million dollars it takes yearly to operate this government. After receiving one-half, what per cent does the government return to them? Only ten per cent. Ninety per cent goes to the direct or indirect benefit of those living in our cities. Where does the government build its fine buildings, where does it spend its millions on rivers and harbors ? How much does it expend to ease this burden of six hundred millions which lies so largely on the farmers of America? A few years ago a law was passed granting $50,000 to inves- 22 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING tigate a plan to deliver mail on rural delivery routes to our farmers and country residents. The law was treated about as respectfully as the long-headed Jesse Haw- ley who wrote a series of articles advocat ing the building of the Erie Canal ; a cer tain paper printed a few of them, but the editor sent the remainder back saying he could not use them — they were making his sheet an object of ridicule. Eighteen years later the canal was built and in the first year brought in a revenue of $492,664. So with the first Rural Free Delivery appro priation — the postmaster general to whose hands that first $50,000 was entrusted for experimental purposes, refused to try it and sent the money back to the treasury. Today the Rural Free Delivery is an estab lished fact, of immeasurable benefit; and if any of the appropriations for it are not expended it is not because they are being sent back to the treasury by scrupulous officials. Rural delivery routes diverge from our towns and cities and give the country people the advantages of a splen did post office system. Good roads to these cities would give them a score of ad van- FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 23 tages where now they have but this one. Like rural delivery it may seem impractica ble, but in a short space of time America will leap forward in the front rank of the nations in point of good highways. An execrable road system, besides bring ing poor schools and poor churches, has rendered impossible any genuine com munity of social interests among country people. At the very season when the farm work is light and social intercourse feasi ble, at that season the highways have been impassable. To this and the poor schools and churches may be attributed the saddest and really most costly social revolution in America in the past quarter of a century. The decline of country living must in the nature of things prove disastrously costly to any nation. " The roar of the cannon and the gleam of swords," wrote that bril liant apostle of outdoor life. Dr. W. H. H. Murray, " is less significant than the de struction of New England homesteads, the bricking up of New England fireplaces and the doing away with the New England well-sweep; for these show a change in the nature of the circulation itself, and 24 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING prove that the action of the popular heart has been interrupted, modified and become altogether different from what it was." In the popular mind the benefits of country living are common only as a fad ; the boy who goes to college and returns to the farm again is one of a thousand. Who wants to be landlocked five months of the year, without social advantages? Good roads, in one generation, would accomplish a social revolution throughout the United States that would greatly tend to better our condition and brighten the prospect of future strength. President Winston of the North Carolina State College of Agricul ture said : " It might be demonstrated be yond a reasonable doubt that bad roads are unfavorable to matrimony and increase of population." Seven of the most stalwart lads and beautiful lasses of Greece were sent each year to Crete to be sacrificed to the Minotaur; bad roads in America send thousands of boys and girls into our cities to the Minotaurs of evil because conditions in the country do not make for the social happiness for which they naturally yearn. Thus we may hint at the greater, more FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 25 serious, phase of the road problem. Beside it, the financial feature of the problem can have no place; the farm has been too much to the American nation, its product of boys and girls has been too eternally precious to the cause of liberty for which our nation stands, to permit a system of highways on this continent which will make it a place where now in the twentieth century foreigners, only, can be happy. The sociological side of the road question is of more moment today in this country, so far as the health of our body politic in the future is concerned, than nine-tenths of the questions most prominent in the two political platforms that come annually before the people. William Jennings Bryan, when address ing the Good Roads Convention at St. Louis in 1903, said: " It is a well-known fact, or a fact easily ascertained, that the people in the country, while paying their full share of county, state, and federal taxes, receive as a rule only the general benefits of government, while the people in the cities have, in addition to the protection afforded by the 26 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING Government, the advantage arising from the expenditure of public moneys in their midst. The county seat of a county, as a rule, enjoys the refreshing influence of an expenditure of county money out of pro portion to its population. The capital of a state and the city where the state institu tions are located, likewise receive the bene fit of an expenditure of public money out of proportion to their population. When we come to consider the distribution of the moneys collected by the Federal Govern ment, we find that the cities, even in a larger measure, monopolize the incidental benefits that arise from the expenditure of public moneys. " The appropriations of the last session of Congress amounted to $753,484,018, divided as follows : Agriculture $ 5,978,160 Army 78,138,752 Diplomatic and consular service . . . 1,968,250 District of Columbia 8,647,497 Fortifications 7,188,416 Indians 8,512,950 Legislative, executive, and judicial depart ments 27,595,958 Military Academy 563,248 Navy 81,877.291 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 27 Pensions . $139,847,600 Post Office Department 153,401,409 Sundry Civil . 82,722,955 Deficiencies . . . . 21,561,572 Permanent annual . 132,589,820 Miscellaneous 3,250,000 " It will be seen that the appropriation for the Department of Agfriculture was insignificant when compared with the total appropriations — less than one per cent. The appropriations for the Army and Navy alone amounted to twenty-five times the sum appropriated for the Department of Agriculture. An analysis of the expendi tures of the Federal Government will show that an exceedingly small proportion of the money raised from all the people gets back to the farmers directly ; how much returns indirectly it is impossible to say, but cer tain it is that the people who live in the cities receive by far the major part of the special benefits that come from the shower ing of public money upon the community. The advantage obtained locally from government expenditures is so great that the contests for county seats and state capi tals usually exceed in interest, if not in bitterness, the contests over political prin- 28 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING ciples and policies. So great is the desire to secure an appropriation of money for local purposes that many will excuse a con gressman's vote on either side of any ques tion if he can but secure the expenditure of a large amount of public money in his district. " I emphasize this because it is a fact to which no reference has been made. The point is that the farmer not only pays his share of the taxes, but more than his share, yet very little of what he pays gets back to him. " People in the city pay not only less than their share, as a rule, but get back practically all of the benefits that come from the expenditure of the people's money. Let me show you what I mean when I say that the farmer pays more than his share. The farmer has visible prop erty, and under any form of direct taxation visible property pays more than its share. Why? Because the man with visible prop erty always pays. If he has an acre of land the assessor can find it. He can count the horses and cattle. . . The farmer has nothing that escapes taxation ; and, in FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 29 all direct taxation, he not only pays on all he has, but the farmer who has visible property has to pay a large part of the taxes that ought to be paid by the owners of invisible property, who escape taxation. I repeat, therefore, that the farmer not only pays more than his share of all direct taxation, but that when you come to ex pend public moneys you do not spend them on the farms, as a rule. You spend them in the cities, and give the incidental bene fits to the people who live in the cities. " When indirect taxation is considered, the farmer's share is even more, because when you come to collect taxes through indirection and on consumption, you make people pay not in proportion to what they have but in proportion to what they need, and God has so made us that the farmer needs as much as anybody else, even though he may not have as much with which to supply his needs as other people. In our indirect taxation, therefore, for the support of the Federal Government, the farmers pay even more out of proportion to their wealth and numbers. We should remember also that when we collect taxes 30 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING through consumption we make the farmer pay not only on that which is imported, but upon much of that which is produced at home. Thus the farmer's burden is not measured by what the treasury receives, but is frequently many times what the treasury receives. Thus under indirect taxation the burden upon the farmer is greater than it ought to be ; yet when you trace the expenditure of public moneys distributed by the Federal Government you find that even in a larger measure special benefits go to the great cities and not to the rural communities. " The improvement of the country roads can be justified also on the ground that the farmer, the first and most important of the producers of wealth, ought to be in posi tion to hold his crop and market it at the most favorable opportunity, whereas at present he is virtually under compulsion to sell it as soon as it is matured, because the roads may become impassable at any time during the fall, winter, or spring. Instead of being his own warehouseman, the farmer is compelled to employ middle men, and share with them the profits upon FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 31 his labor. I believe, as a matter of justice to the farmer, he ought to have roads that will enable him to keep his crop and take it to the market at the best time, and not place him in a position where they can run down the price of what he has to sell dur ing the months he must sell, and then, when he has disposed of it, run the price up and give the speculator what the farmer ought to have. The farmer has a right to insist upon roads that will enable him to go to town, to church, to the schoolhouse, and to the homes of his neighbors, as occasion may require ; and, with the exten sion of rural mail delivery, he has addi tional need for good roads in order that he may be kept in communication with the outside world, for the mail routes follow the good roads. " A great deal has been said, and prop erly so, in regard to the influence of good roads upon education. In the convention held at Raleigh, North Carolina, the account of which I had the pleasure of reading, great emphasis was placed upon the fact that you can not have a school system such as you ought to have unless the roads are in 32 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING condition for the children to go to school. While we are building great libraries in the great cities we do not have libraries in the country ; and there ought to be a library in every community. Instead of laying upon the farmer the burden of buying his own books, we ought to make it possible for the farmers to have the same oppor tunity as the people in the city to use books in common, and thus economize on the expense of a library. I agree with Profes sor Jesse in regard to the consolidation of schoolhouses in such a way as to give the child in the country the same advantages which the child in the city has. We have our country schools, but it is impossible in any community to have a well-graded school with only a few pupils, unless you go to great expense. In cities, when a child gets through the graded school he can remain at home, and, without expense to himself or his parents, go on through the high school. But if the country boy or girl desires to go from the graded school to the high school, as a rule it is necessary to go to the county seat and there board with some one; so the expense to the FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 33 country child is much greater than to the child in the city. I was glad, therefore, to hear Professor Jesse speak of such a consolidation of schools as will give to the children in the country advantages equal to those enjoyed by the children of the city. " And as you study this subject, you find it reaches out in every direction; it touches us at every vital point. What can be of more interest to us than the schooling of our children? What can be of more inter est to every parent than bringing the oppor tunity of educational instruction within the reach of every child? It does not matter whether a man has children himself or not. . . Every citizen of a com munity is interested in the intellectual life of that community. Sometimes I have heard people complain that they were over burdened with taxes for the education of other people's children. My friends, the man who has no children can not afford to live in a community where there are chil dren growing up in ignorance; the man with none has the same duty as the man with many, barring the personal pride of 34 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING the parent. I say, therefore, that anything that contributes to the general diffusion of knowledge, anything that makes more educated boys and girls throughout our country, is a matter of intense interest to every citizen, whether he be the father of a family or not; whether he lives in the country or in the town. ' ' And ought not the people have the opportunity to attend church ? I am com ing to believe that what we need in this country, even more than education of the intellect, is the education of the moral side of our nature. I believe, with Jefferson, that the church and the state should be separate. I believe in religious freedom, and I would not have any man's conscience fettered by act of law; but I do believe that the welfare of this nation demands that man's moral nature shall be educated in keeping with his brain and with his body. In fact, I have come to define civili zation as the harmonious development of the body, the mind, and the heart. We make a mistake if we believe that this nation can fulfil its high destiny and mis sion either with mere athletes or mere FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 35 scholars. We need the education of the moral sense; and if these good roads will enable men, women, and children to go more frequently to church, and there hear expounded the gospel and receive inspira tion therefrom, that alone is reason enough for good roads. " There is a broader view of this ques tion, however, that deserves consideration. The farm is, and always has been, con spicuous because of the physical develop ment it produces, the intellectual strength it furnishes, and the morality it encour ages. The young people in the country find health and vigor in the open air and in the exercise which farm life gives; they acquire habits of industry and economy; their work gives them opportunity for thought and reflection ; their contact with nature teaches them reverence, and their environment promotes good habits. The farms supply our colleges with their best students and they also supply our cities with leaders in business and professional life. In the country there is neither great wealth nor great poverty — ' the rich and the poor meet together ' and recognize 36 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING that ' the Lord is the father of them all. ' There is a fellowship, and, to use the word in its broadest sense, a democracy in the country that is much needed today to tem per public opinion and protect the founda tions of free government. A larger per centage of the people in the country than in the city study public questions, and a smaller percentage are either corrupt or are corrupted. It is important, therefore, for the welfare of our government and for the advancement of our civilization that we make life upon the farm as attractive as possible. Statistics have shown the con stant increase in the urban population and the constant decrease in the rural popula tion from decade to decade. Without tread ing upon controversial ground or consider ing whether this trend has been increased by legislation hostile to the farm, it will be admitted that the government is in duty bound to guard jealously the interests of the rural population, and, as far as it can, make farm life inviting. In the employ ment of modern conveniences the city has considerably outstripped the country, and naturally so, for in a densely populated FUTURE OP ROAD-MAKING 37 community the people can by cooperation supply themselves with water, light, and rapid transit at much smaller cost than they can in a sparsely settled country. But it is evident that during the last few years much has been done to increase the com forts of the farm. In the first place, the rural mail delivery has placed millions of farmers in daily communication with the world. It has brought not only the letter but the newspaper to the door. Its prom ised enlargement and extension will make it possible for the wife to order from the village store and have her purchases delivered by the mail-carrier. The tele phone has also been a great boon to the farmer. It lessens by one-half the time required to secure a physician in case of accident or illness — an invention which every mother can appreciate. The exten sion of the electric-car line also deserves notice. It is destined to extend the borders of the city and to increase the number of small farms at the expense of flats and tenement houses. The suburban home will bring light and hope to millions of children. 38 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING " But after all this, there still remains a pressing need for better country roads. As long as mud placed an embargo upon city traffic, the farmer could bear his mud- made isolation with less complaint, but with the improvement of city streets and with the establishment of parks and boule vards, the farmer's just demands for better roads find increasing expression." The late brilliant congressman, Hon. Thomas H. Tongue of Oregon, left on record a few paragraphs on the sociological effect of good roads that ought to be pre served : " Good roads do not concern our pockets only. They may become the instrumen talities for improved health, increased hap piness and pleasure, for refining tastes, strengthening, broadening, and elevating the character. The toiler in the great city must have rest and recreation. Old and young, and especially the young, with char acter unformed, must and will sweeten the daily labor with some pleasure. It is not the hours of industry, but the hours de voted to pleasure, that furnish the devil his opportunity. It is not while we are at FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 39 work but while we are at play that tempta tions steal over the senses, put conscience to sleep, despoil manhood, and destroy character. Healthful and innocent recrea tions and pleasure are national needs and national blessings. They are among the most important instrumentalities of moral reform. They are as essential to purity of mind and soul as to healthfulness of body. Out beyond the confines of the city, with its dust and dirt and filth, mor ally and physically, these are to be found, and good roads help to find them. What peace and inspiration may come from flowers and music, brooks and waterfalls! How the mountains pointing heavenward, yesterday battling with storms, today bathed with sunshine, bid you stand firm, walk erect, look upward, cherish hope, and for light and guidance to call upon the Creator of all light and of all wisdom ! How such scenes as these kindle the imagination of the poet, quicken and enlarge the concep tion of the artist, fire the soul of the orator, purify and elevate us all ! But if love of action rather than contemplation and reflec tion tempts you, how the blood thrills and 40 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING the Spirits rise as one springs lightly into the saddle, caresses the slender neck of an equine beauty, grasps firmly the reins, bids farewell to the impurities of the city, and dashes into the hills and the valleys and the mountains to commune with nature and nature's God. Or what joy more ex quisite than with pleasant companionship to dash along the smooth highway, drawn by a noble American trotter? What poor city scenes can so inspire poetic feeling, can so increase the love of the beautiful, can so elevate and broaden and strengthen the character, and so inspire us with rever ence for the great Father of us all? But for the full enjoyment of such pleasures good roads are indispensable. ' ' Another blessing to come with good roads will be the stimulus and encourage ments to rural life, farm life. The present tendency of population to rush into the great cities makes neither for the health nor the character, the intelligence nor the morals of the nation. It has been said that no living man can trace his ancestry on both sides to four generations of city residents. The brain and the brawn and FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 41 the morals of the city are constantly replen ished from the country. The best home life is upon the farm, and the most sacred thing in America is the American home. It lies at the foundation of our institutions, of our health, of our character, our pros perity, our happiness, here and hereafter. The snares and pitfalls set for our feet are not near the home. The pathways upon which stones are hardest and thorns sharp. est are not those that lead to the sacred spot hallowed by a father's love and a mother's prayers. The bravest and best of men, the purest and holiest women, are those who best love, cherish, and protect the home. God guard well the American home, and this done, come all the powers of darkness and they shall not prevail against us. Fatherhood and motherhood are nowhere more sacred, more holy, or better beloved than upon the farm. The ties of brotherhood and sisterhood are nowhere more sweet or tender. The fair flower of patriotism there reaches its greatest perfection. Every battlefield that marks the world's progress, the victory of liberty over tyranny or right over wrong. 42 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING has ben deluged with the blood of farmers. He evades neither the taxgatherer nor the recruiting officer. He shirks the perform ance of no public duty. In the hour of its greatest needs our country never called for help upon its stalwart yeomen when the cry was unheeded. The sons and daugh ters of American farmers are filling the seminaries and colleges and universities of the land. From the American farm home have gone in the past, as they are going now, leaders in literature, the arts and sciences, presidents of great universities, the heads of great industrial enterprises, governors of states, and members of Con gress. They have filled the benches of the supreme court, the chairs of the cabinet, and the greatest executive office in the civilized world. Our greatest jurist, our greatest soldier, our greatest orators, Web ster and Clay, our three greatest presidents, Washington, Lincoln, and McKinley, were the product of rural homes. The great presidents which Virginia has given to the nation, whose monuments are all around us, whose remains rest in your midst, whose fame is immortal, drew life and FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 43 inspiration from rural homes. The typical American today is the American farmer. The city life, with its bustle and stir, its hurry and rush, its feverish anxiety for wealth, position, and rank in society, its fretting over ceremonies and precedents, is breaking down the health and intellect and the morals of its inhabitants. These must be replenished from the rural home. Whatever shall tend to create a love for country life, to decrease the rush for the city, instil a desire to dwell in the society of nature, will make for the health, the happiness, the refinement, the moral and intellectual improvement of the people. Nothing will contribute more to this than the improvement of our common roads, to facilitate the means of communication between one section of the country and the other, and between all and the city. ' ' Turning now from the high plane of the social and moral effect of good roads, let us look at the financial side of the question. Good roads pay well. In urging good roads in Virginia, an official of the Southern Railway said that if good roads improved 44 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING the value of lands only one dollar per acre, the gain to the state by the improvement of all the roads would be twenty-five mil lion dollars. Yet this is an inconceivably low estimate; lands upon improved roads advance in value from four to twenty dol lars per acre. Virginia could therefore expect a benefit from improved highways of at least one hundred million dollars — more than enough to improve her roads many times over. Indeed this matter of the increase in value of land occasioned by good roads can hardly be overestimated. Near all of our large towns and cities the land will advance until it is worth per foot what it was formerly worth per acre. Take Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. Beginning in 1880 to macadamize three or four miles of road a year with an annual fund of $10,000, the county now has over a hundred miles of splendid roads; the county seat has increased in population from 5,000 to 30,000. " I know of a thirty- acre farm," said President Barringer of the University of Virginia, a native of that county, " that cost ten dollars an acre, and forty-six dollars an acre has been refused FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 45 for it, and yet not a dollar has been put on it, not even to fertilize it. Some of the farms five and six miles from town have quadrupled in value." In Alabama the same thing has been found true. " The result of building these roads," said Mayor Drennen of Birmingham, " is that the property adjoining them has more than doubled in value." That wise financier, D. F. Francis, President of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, when suggesting that Missouri would do well to bond herself for one hundred million to build good roads, said: " The average increase in the value of the lands in Missouri would be at least five dollars per acre." Taking President Francis at his word, the difference between the value of Missouri before and after the era of good roads would buy up the four hundred and eighty-four state banks in Missouri eleven times over. What Presi dent Francis estimates Missouri would be worth with good roads over and above what her farms are now worth would buy all the goods that the city of St. Louis produces in a year. In other words, the estimated gain to Missouri would be more 46 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING than two hundred and twenty million dol lars. Passing the increased value of lands, look at the equally vital question of increased values of crops. Take first the crops that would be raised on lands not cultivated today but which would be cultivated in a day of good roads. Look at Virginia, where only one-third of the land is being cultivated ; the value of crops ^which it is certain would ultimately be raised on land that is now unproductive would amount to at least sixty million dollars. The general passenger agent of the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company said recently that his lines were crying out for wheat to ship to China; "we have about reached the limit of our facilities; twelve or fifteen miles is the only distance farmers can afford to haul their wheat to us. Make it possible for them to haul it double that distance and you will double the business of our railway. ' ' And the business of local nature done by a railroad is a good criterion of the prosperity of the country in which it operates. Crops now raised on lands within reach FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 47 of railways would of course be enhanced in value by good roads ; more loads could be taken at less cost; weather interferences would not enter into the question. But of more moment perhaps than anything else, a vast amount of land thus placed within quick reach of our towns and cities would be given over to gardening for city mar kets, aline of agriculture immensely profita ble, as city people well know. " The citi zens of Birmingham," said the mayor of that city, " enjoy the benefits of fresh products raised on the farms along these [improved] roads. The dairymen, the truck farmers, and others . . are put in touch with our markets daily, thereby receiving the benefits of any advance in farm products." Poor roads are like the interest on a debt, and they are working against one all the time. It is noticeable that when good roads are built, farmers, who are always conservative, adjust themselves more readily to conditions. They are in touch with the world and they feel more keenly its pulse, much to their advantage. Too many farmers, damned by bad roads, are 48 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING guilty of the faults of which Birmingham's mayor accused Alabama planters: "The farmers in this section," he said, " are sell ing cotton today for less than seven cents per pound, while they could have sold Irish potatoes within the past few months at two dollars per bushel." Farmers over the entire country are held to be slow in taking advantage of their whole opportuni ties; bad roads take the life out of them and out of their horses ; they think some what as they ride — desperately slow ; and they will not think faster until they ride faster. It is said that a man riding on a heavy southern road saw a hat in the mud ; stopping to pick it up he was surprised to find a head of hair beneath it : then a voice came out of the ground: " Hold on, boss, don't take my hat; I've got a powerful fine mule down here somewhere if I can ever get him out." You can write and speak to farmers until doomsday about taking quick advantage of the exigencies of the markets that are dependent on them, but if they have to hunt for their horses in a hog- wallow road all your talk will be in vain. When we seriously face the question of FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 49 how a fine system of highways is to be built in this country, it is found to be a complex problem. For about ten years now it has been seriously debated, and these years have seen a large advance ; until now the problem has become almost national. One great fundamental idea has been proposed and is now generally accepted by all who have paid the matter any attention, and that is that those who live along our present roads cannot be expected to bear the entire cost of building good roads. This may be said to be settled and need no debate. Practically all men are agreed that the rural population should not bear the entire expense of an improvement of which they, however, are to be the chief beneficiaries; the state itself, in all its parts, benefits from the improved condi tions which follow improved roads, and should bear a portion of the expense. Do not think that city people escape the tax of bad roads. In St. Louis four hundred thousand people consume five hundred tons of produce every day. The cost of hauling this produce over bad roads averages 50 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING twenty-five cents per mile and over good roads about ten cents per mile, making a difference of fifteen cents per mile per ton. For five hundred tons, hauled from farms averaging ten miles distance, this would be seven hundred and fifty dollars per day, or a quarter of a million dollars a year — enough to build fifty miles of macadamized road a year. The farmers shift as much as they can of their heavy tax on the city people — the consumer pays the freight. Everybody is concerned in the * ' mud-tax ' ' of bad roads. And so what is known as the " state aid" plan has become popular. By this plan the state pays a fixed part of the cost of building roads out of the general fund raised by taxation of all the people and all the property in the state. Under these circumstances corporations, railroads, and the various representatives of the concen trated wealth of the cities all contribute to this fund. The funds are expended in rural districts and are supplemented by money raised by local taxation. The state of New York, which has a good system, pays one-half of the good FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 51 roads fund; each county pays thirty-five per cent, and the township fifteen per cent. Pennsylvania has appropriated at one time six and a half millions as a good roads fund. The new Ohio law apportions the cost of new roads as follows : The state pays twenty-five per cent, the townships twenty- five per cent, and the county fifty per cent. Of the twenty-five per cent paid by the townships fifteen per cent is to be paid by owners of abutting property and ten per cent by the township as a whole. In New Jersey, which has a model system of road-building and many model roads, the state pays a third, the county a third, and the property owners a third. A more recent theory in American road- building which has been advanced is a plan of national aid.^ This is no new thing in America, though it has been many years since the government has paid attention to roadways. In the early days the wisest of our statesmen advocated large plans of in ternal improvement; one great national road, as we have seen, was built by the 'See/(?J/, pp. 68-80. 52 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING War Department from the Potomac almost to the Mississippi, through Wheeling, Columbus, Indianapolis and Vandalia, at a cost of over six million dollars. And this famous national road was built, in part, upon an earlier pathway, cut through Ohio by Ebenezer Zane in 1796, also at the order of Congress, and for which he received grants of land which formed the nucleus of the three thriving Ohio cities, Zanesville, Lancaster, and Chillicothe. The constitu tionality of road-building by the govern ment was questioned by some, but that clause granting it the right to establish postoffices and post roads ' ' must, in every view, be a harmless power," said James Madison, " and may perhaps, by judicious management, become productive of great public conveniency. Nothing which tends to facilitate the intercourse between the states can be deemed unworthy of the public care."^ But the government was interested not only in building roads but in many other phases of public improve ment ; it took stock in the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal; Congress voted $30,000 to ''The Federalist, p. 198. FUTURE OP ROAD-MAKING 53 survey the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal route, and the work was done by govern ment engineers. When railways super seded highways, the government was almost persuaded to complete the old National Road with rails and ties instead of broken stone. When the Erie Canal was proposed, a vast scheme of govern ment aid was favored by leading states men ; ^ the government has greatly assisted the western railways by gigantic grants of land worth one hundred and thirty-eight million dollars. The vast funds of private capital that have been seeking investment in this country, at first in turnpike, plank, and macadamized roads, then in canals, and later in railways, has rendered govern ment aid comparatively unnecessary. In the last few years the only work of internal improvement aided by the government is the improvement of the rivers and harbors, which for 1904 takes over fifty millions of revenue a year. The sum of $130,565,485 has been well spent on river and harbor improvement in the past seven years. Not only are the great rivers, such as the Ohio ^Historic Highways of America, vol. xiv, p. 57. 54 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING and Mississippi, improved, but lesser streams. A short time ago I made a journey of one hundred miles down the Elk River in West Virginia in a boat eleven inches deep and twelve feet long; a chan nel all the way down had been made about two feet wide by picking out the stones; the United States did this at an expense of fifteen hundred dollars. The groceries and dry goods for thousands were poled up that river in dug-outs through that two- foot channel. I doubt if a two- wheel vehicle could traverse the road which runs throughout that valley, but I know a four- wheel vehicle could not. The advocates of national aid urge the right to establish post roads ; " I had an ancestor in the United States Senate," said ex- Senator Butler of South Carolina, " who refused to vote a dollar for the improvement of Charleston Harbor; but almost the first act of my official life was to get an appropriation of two hundred and fifty thousand for that purpose. There is as ample constitutional warrant for the improvement of public roads out of the United States Treasury — as large as there FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 55 is for the improvement of rivers and har bors, or for the support of the agricultural colleges." " But few judicial opinions have been rendered on this subject. In the case of Dickey against the Turnpike Company, the Kentucky court of appeals decided that the power given to Congress by the constitu tion to establish post roads enabled them to make, repair, keep open, and improve post roads when they shall deem the exercise of the power expedient. But in the exercise of the right of eminent domain on this subject the United States has no right to adopt and use roads, bridges, or ferries constructed and owned by states, corporations, and individuals without their consent or without making to the parties concerned just compensation. If the United States elects to use such accommodations, it stands upon the same footing and is subject to the same tolls and regulations as a private individual. It has been asserted that Jefferson was opposed to the appropriation of money for internal improvements, but, in 1808, in writing to Mr. Lieper, he said, ' Give us peace until 56 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING our revenues are liberated from debt, and then during peace we may chequer our whole country with canals, roads, etc' Writing to J. W. Eppes in 1813 he says, ' The fondest wish of my heart ever was that the surplus portion of these taxes destined for the payment of the Revolution ary debt should, when that object is accomplished, be continued by annual or biennial reenactments and applied in times of peace to the improvement of our country by canals, roads, and useful institutions.' Congress has always claimed the power to lay out, construct, and improve post roads with the assent of the states through which they pass; also, to open, construct, and improve military roads on like terms; and the right to cut canals through the several states with their consent for the purpose of promoting and securing internal commerce and for the safe and economical transportation of military stores in times of wa*r. The president has sometimes objected to the exercise of this constitu tional right, but Congress has never denied it. Cooley, the highest authority on con stitutional law, says: FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING 57 " ' Every road within a State, including railroads, canals, turnpikes, and navigable streams, existing or created within a State, becomes a post-road, whenever by law or by the action of the Post-Office Department provision is made for the transportation of the mail upon or over it. Many statesmen and jurists have contended that the power comprehends the laying out and construc tion of any roads which Congress may deem proper and needful for the convey ance of the mails, and keeping them re paired for the purpose.' " * It has been many years since the United States government was interested consid erably in mail routes on the roadways of this country ; in the past half century the government has spent but one hundred thousand dollars for the improvement of mail roads. The new era of rural delivery brings a return, in one sense, of the old stagecoach days. A thousand country roads are now used daily by govern ment mail-carriers, but the government demands that the roads used be kept in * Thomas M. Cooley, Constttutional Law (Boston, 1891), pp. 85-86. 58 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING good condition by the local authorities. Thus the situation is reversed ; instead of holding it to be the duty of the government to deliver mail in rural districts. Congress holds that the debt is on the other side and that, in return for the boon of rural delivery, the rural population must make good roads. Madison well saw that govern ment improvement of roads as mail routes would be of great general benefit; for in The Federalist he adds that the power "may perhaps by judicious management become productive of great public con veniency. ' ' One great work the government has done and is doing. It has founded an Office of Public Road Inquiries (described else where) at Washington, and under the effi cient management of Hon. Martin Dodge and Maurice O. Eldridge a great work of education has been carried on — samples of good roads have been built, good road trains have been sent out by the Southern Railway and the Illinois Central into the South, a laboratory has been established at Washington, under the efficient charge of Professor L. W. Page, for the testing of A GOOD-ROADS TRAIN [Thr Soulhnu h'ai/ii'av's i^niid-nHuis ham. Odnhri 2Q, kjoi. rnu.sishuff of (701) iiHuhrsfin (iffniah a>id 1 -a ' '^ Oyster-shell object-lesson road [/ii iiiiir'.e oP iiin^ti liiiioii. iieai Mobile, .llaluuiia] GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 139 is the very best stone for road-building. This practice, together with that of placing the material on unimproved foundations and leaving it thus for traffic to consoli date, has done a great deal to destroy the confidence of many people in stone roads. There is no reason in the world why a road should not last for ages if it is built of good material and kept in proper repair. If this is not done, the money spent is more than wasted. It is more economical, as a rule, to bring good materials a long distance by rail or water than to employ inferior ones procured close at hand. The durability of roads depends largely upon the power of the materials of which they are composed to resist those natural and artificial forces which are constantly acting to destroy them. The fragments of which they are constructed are liable to be attacked in cold climates by frost, and in all climates by water and wind. If com posed of stone or gravel, the particles are constantly grinding against each other and being exposed to the impact of the tires of vehicles and the feet of animals. Atmos pheric agencies are also at work decompos- 140 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING ing and disintegrating the material. It is obviously necessary, therefore, that great care be exercised in selecting for the surfacing of roads those stones which are less liable to be destroyed or decomposed by these physical, dynamical, and chemi cal forces. Siliceous materials, those composed of flint or quartz, although hard, are brittle and deficient in toughness. Granite is not desirable because it is composed of three materials of different natures, viz., quartz, feldspar, and mica, the first of which is brittle, the second liable to decompose rapidly, and the third laminable or of a scaly or layerlike nature. Some granites which contain hornblende instead of feld spar are desirable. The darker the variety the better. Gneiss, which is composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica, more or less distinctly slaty, is inferior to granite. Mica-slate stones are altogether useless. The argillaceous slates or clayey slates make a smooth surface, but one which is easily destroyed when wet. The sand stones are utterly useless for road-building. The tougher limestones are very good, but GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 141 the softer ones, though they bind and make a smooth surface very quickly, are too weak for heavy loads; they wear, wash, and blow away very rapidly. The materials employed for surfacing roads should be both hard and tough, and should possess by all means cementing and recementing qualities. For the Southern States, where there are no frosts to con tend with, the best qualities of limestone are considered quite satisfactory so far as the cementing and recementing qualities are concerned ; but in most cases roads of this class of material do not stand the wear and tear of traffic like those built of trap rock, and when exposed to the severe northern winters such material disinte grates very rapidly. In fact, trap rock, "nigger heads," technically known as diabase, and diorites, are considered by most road engineers of long experience to be the very best stones for road-building. Trap rocks as a rule possess all the quali ties most desired for road stones. They are hard and tough, and when properly broken to small sizes and rolled thor oughly, cement and consolidate into a 142 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING smooth, hard crust which is impervious to water, and the broken particles are so heavy that they are not readily broken or washed away. Unfortunately the most useful stones for road-building are the most difficult to pre pare, and as trap rocks are harder to break than any other stones they usually cost more. The foundation or lower courses may be formed of some of the softer stones like gneiss or limestone, but trap rock should be used for the wearing surface, if possible, even if it has to be brought from a distance. As to the construction of macadam roads, Mr. Potter says: " In the construction of a macadam road in any given locality, the question of economy generally compels us to use a material found near at hand, and where a local quarry does not exist field stone and stone gathered from the beds of rivers and small streams may often be made to serve every purpose. Many of the stones and boulders thus obtained are of trap rock, and in general it may be said that all hard field and river stones, if broken to a proper GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 143 size, will make fairly good and sometimes very excellent road metal. No elaborate test is required to determine the hardness of any given specimen. A steel hammer in the hands of an intelligent workman will reveal in a general way the relative degree of toughness of two or more pieces of rock. Field and river stone offer an additional advantage in that they are quickly handled, are generally of convenient size, and are more readily broken either by hand or by machine than most varieties of rock which are quarried in the usual way. " It is a simple task to break stone for macadam roadways, and by the aid of modem inventions it can be done cheaply and quickly. Hand-broken stone is fairly out of date and is rarely used in America where any considerable amount of work is to be undertaken. Stone may be broken by hand at different points along the road side where repairs are needed from time to time, but the extra cost of production by this method forbids its being carried on where extended work is undertaken. Hand-broken stone is generally more uni form in size, more nearly cubical in shape. 144 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING and has sharper angles than that broken by machinery, but the latter, when properly assorted or screened, has been found to meet every requirement. " A good crusher driven by eight horse power will turn out from forty to eighty cubic yards of two-inch stone per day of ten hours, and will cost from four hundred dollars upward, according to quality. " Some crushers are made either station ary, semistationary, or portable, according to the needs of the purchaser, and for country-road work it is sometimes very desirable to have a portable crusher to facilitate its easy transfer from one part of the township to another. The same porta ble engine that is used in thrashing, sawing wood, and other operations requiring the use of steam power may be used in running a stone crusher, but it is best to remember that a crusher will do its best and most economical work when run by a machine having a horsepower somewhat in excess of the power actually required. ' ' As the stone comes from the breaker the pieces will be found to show a consid erable variety in size, and by many practi- GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 145 cal roadmakers it is regarded as best that these sizes should be assorted and sepa rated, since each has its particular use. To do this work by hand would be trouble some and expensive, and screens are generally employed for that purpose. Screens are not absolutely necessary, and many roadmakers do not use them; but they insure uniformity in size of pieces, and uniformity means in many cases superior wear, smoothness, and economy. Most of the screens in common use today are of the rotary kind. In operating they are generally so arranged that the product of the crusher falls directly into the rotary screen, which revolves on an inclined axis and empties the separate pieces into small bins below the crusher. A better form for many purposes includes a larger and more elaborate outfit, in which the stone is carried by an elevator to the screen and by the screen emptied into separate bins according to the respective sizes . From the bins it is easily loaded into wagons or spreading carts and hauled to any desired point along the line of the road. " The size to which stone should be 146 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING broken depends upon the quality of the stone, the amount of traffic to which the road will be subjected, and to some extent upon the manner in which the stone is put in place. If a hard, tough stone is em ployed it may be broken into rough cubes or pieces of about one and a half inches in largest face dimensions, and when broken to such a size the product of the crusher may generally be used to good advantage with out the trouble of screening, since dust ' tailings ' and fine stuff do not accumulate in large quantities in the breaking of the tougher stone. ' ' If only moderate traffic is to be provided for, the harder limestones may be broken so the pieces will pass through a two-inch ring, though sizes running from two and a quarter to two and a half inches will insure a more durable roadway, and if a steam roller is used in compacting the metal it will be brought to a smooth surface without much trouble. As a rule, it may be said that to adhere closely to a size running from two and a quarter to two and a half inches in largest face dimensions, and to use care in excluding too large a propor- GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 147 tion of small stuff as well as all pieces of excessive size, will insure a satisfactory and durable macadam road." Macadam insisted that no large stone should ever be employed in road-making, and, indeed, most modern road builders practice his principle that " small angular fragments are the cardinal requirements." As a general rule it has been stated that no stone larger than a walnut should be used for the surfacing of roads. Stone roads are built in most cases ac cording to the principles laid down by John L. Macadam, while some are built by the methods advocated by Telford. The most important difference between these two principles of construction relates to the propriety or necessity of a paved founda tion beneath the crust of broken stone. Telford advocated this principle, while Macadam strongly denied its advantages. In building roads very few iron-clad rules can be laid down for universal appli cation; skill and judgment must be exer cised in designing and building each road so that it will best meet the requirements of the place it is to occupy. The relative 148 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING value of the telford and macadam systems can most always be determined by the local circumstances, conditions, and necessities under which the road is to be built. The former system seems to have the advantage in swampy, wet places, or where the soil is in strata varying in hardness, or where the foundation is liable to get soft in spots. Under most other circumstances experi enced road builders prefer the macadam construction, not only because it is con sidered best, but also because it is much cheaper. The macadam road consists of a mass of angular fragments of rock deposited usually in layers upon the roadbed or prepared foundation and consolidated to a smooth, hard surface produced by the passage of vehicles or by use of a road roller. The thickness of this crust varies with the soil, the nature of the stone used, and the amount of traffic which the road is expected to have. It should be so thick that the greatest load will not affect the foundation. The weight usually comes upon a very small part of the surface, but is spread over a large area of the foundation, and the GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 149 thicker the crust the more uniformly will the load be distributed over the founda tion. Macadam earnestly advocated the princi ple that all artificial road-building depended wholly for its success upon the making and maintaining of a solid dry foundation and the covering of this foundation with a durable waterproof coating or roof of broken stone. The foundation must be solid and firm ; if it be otherwise the crust is useless. A road builder should always remember that without a durable founda tion there is no durable road. Hundreds of miles of macadam roads are built in the United States each year on unimproved or unstable foundations and almost as many miles go to pieces for this same reason. Says Macadam: " The stone is employed to form a secure, smooth, water-tight flooring, over which vehicles may pass with safety and expedition at all seasons of the year. Its thickness should be regulated only by the quality of the material necessary to form such a flooring and not at all by any con sideration as to its own independent power 150 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING of bearing weight. . . The errone ous idea that the evils of an underdrained, wet, clayey soil can be remedied by a large quantity of materials has caused a large part of the costly and unsuccessful expen ditures in making stone roads. ' ' The evils from improper construction of stone roads are even greater than those resulting from the use of improper material. Macadam never intended that a hetero geneous conglomeration of stones and mud should be called a macadam road. The mistake is often made of depositing broken stone on an old road without first prepar ing a suitable foundation. The result, in most cases, is that the dirt and mud pre vent the stone from packing and by the action of traffic ooze to the surface, while the stones sink deeper and deeper, leaving the road as bad as before. Another great mistake is often made of spreading large and small stones over a well-graded and well-drained foundation and leaving them thus for traffic to con solidate. The surface of a road left in this manner is often kept in constant turmoil by the larger stones, which work them- GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 151 selves to the surface and are knocked hither and thither by the wheels of vehi cles and the feet of animals. These plans of construction cannot be too severely con demned. The roadbed should be first graded, then carefully surface-drained. The earth should then be excavated to the depth to which material is to be spread on and the founda tion properly shaped and sloped each way from the center so as to discharge any water which may percolate through. This curva ture should conform to the curvature of the finished road. A shouldering of firm earth or gravel should be left or made on each side to hold the material in place, and should extend to the gutters at the same curvature as the finished road. The foun dation should then be rolled until hard and smooth. Upon this bed spread a layer of five or six inches of broken stone, which stone should be free from any earthy mixture. This layer should be thoroughly rolled until compact and firm. Stone may be hauled from the stone-crusher bins or from the stone piles in ordinary wheel- 152 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING barrows or from wagons, and should be distributed broadcast over the surface with shovels, and all inequalities leveled up by the use of rakes. If this method of spread ing is employed, grade stakes should be used so as to insure a uniformity of thick ness. After the stakes are driven the height of the layer is marked on their sides, and if thought necessary a piece of stout cord is stretched from stake to stake, showing the exact height to which the layer should be spread. Spreading carts have been recently invented which not only place the stone where it is needed without the use of shovels, but spread it on in layers of any desired thickness and at the same time several inches wider than the carts themselves. If the stones have been separated into two or three different sizes, the largest size should compose the bottom layer, the next size the second layer, etc. The surface of each course or layer should be thoroughly and repeatedly rolled and sprinkled until it becomes firm, compact, and smooth. The first layer, however, should not be sprinkled, as the water is liable to soften GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 153 the foundation. The rolling ought to be done along the side lines first, gradually working toward the center as the job is being completed. In rolling the last course it is well to begin by rolling first the shoulderings or the side roads if such exist. A coat of three-quarter inch stone and screenings, of sufficient thickness to make a smooth and uniform surface, should com pose the last course, and, like the other layers, should be rolled until perfectly firm and smooth. As a final test of perfec tion, a small stone placed on the surface will be crushed before being driven into the material. If none of the stones used be larger than will pass through a two-inch ring, they can be ST^r- id on in layers as above described without separating them by screens. Wa ter and binding material — stone screen ings or good packing gravel — can be added if found necessary for proper con solidation. Earth or clay should never be used for a binding material. Enough wa ter should be sprinkled on to wash in and fill all voids between the broken stones 154 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING with binding material and to leave such material damp enough to insure a set. If a road is built of tough, hard stone, and if the binding material has the same characteristics, a steam roller is essential for speedy results. A horse roller may be used to good advantage if the softer varie ties of stone are employed. For general purposes a roller weighing from eight to twelve tons is all that is necessary. Heavier weights are difficult to handle upon unimproved surfaces unless they be constructed like the Addison roller, the weight of which can be increased or light ened at will by filling the drum with water or drawing the water out. This roller can be made to weigh as much as eight tons and, like several other very excellent ones now on the market, is provided with anti friction roller bearings, which lighten the draft considerably. Every stone road, unless properly built with small stones and just enough binding material to fill the voids, presents a honey combed appearance. In fact, a measure containing two cubic feet of broken stone will hold in addition one cubic foot of GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 155 water, and a cubic yard of broken macadam will weigh just about one-half as much as a solid cubic yard of the same kind of stone. Isaac Potter says : ' ' To insure a solid roadway and to fill the large proportion of voids or interstices between the different pieces of brbken stone, some finer material must be intro duced into the structure of the roadway, and this material is usually called a binder, or by some roadmakers a ' filler. ' " There used to be much contention re garding the use of binding material in the making of a macadam road, but it is now conceded by nearly all practical and experi enced roadmakers, both in Europe and America, that the use of a binding material is essential to the proper construction of a good macadam road. It adds to its solidity, insures tightness by closing all of the spaces between the loose, irregular stones, and binds together the macadam crust in a way that gives it firmness, elasticity, and dura bility." Binding material to produce the best results should be equal in hardness and toughness with the road stone; the best 156 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING results are therefore obtained by using screenings or spalls from the broken stone used. Coarse sand and gravel can some times be used with impunity as a binder, but the wisdom of using loam or clay is very much questioned. When the latter material is used for a binder the road is apt to become very dusty in dry weather, and sticky, muddy, and rutty in wet weather. The character of the foundation should never take the place of proper drainage. The advisability of underground or sub- drainage should always be carefully con sidered where the road is liable to be attacked from beneath by water. In most cases good subdrains will so dry the foun dation out that the macadam construction can be resorted to. Sometimes, however, thorough drainage is difficult or doubtful, and in such cases it is desirable to adopt some heavy construction like the telford ; and, furthermore, the difficulty of procur ing perfectly solid and reliable roadbeds in many places is often overcome by the use of this system. In making a telford road the surface for GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 157 the foundation is prepared in the same manner as for a macadam road. A layer of broken stone is then placed on the road bed from five to eight inches in depth, de pending upon the thickness to be given the finished road. As a rule this founda tion should form about two-thirds of the total thickness of the material. The stone used for the first layer may vary in thick ness from two to four inches and in length from eight to twelve inches. The thick ness of the upper edges of the stones should not exceed four inches. They are set by hand on their broadest edges length wise across the road, breaking joints as much as possible. All projecting points are then broken off and the interstices or cracks filled with stone chips, and the whole structure wedged and consolidated into a solid and complete pavement. Upon this pavement layers of broken stones are spread and treated in the same way as for a macadam road. Stone roads should be frequently scraped, so as to remove all dust and mud. Noth ing destroys a stone road quicker than dust or mud. The hand method of scraping 158 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING with a hoe is considered best. No matter how carefully adjusted the machinery built for this purpose may be, it is liable to ravel a road by loosening some of the stones. The gutters and surface drains should be kept open, so that all water falling upon the road or on the adjacent ground may promptly flow away. Says Spalding, a road authority : " If the road metal be of soft material which wears easily, it will require constant supervision and small repairs whenever a rut or depression may appear. Material of this kind binds readily with new material that may be added, and may in this man ner frequently be kept in good condition without great difficulty, while if not at tended to at once when wear begins to show it will very rapidly increase, to the great detriment of the road. In making repairs by this method the material is commonly placed a little at a time and compacted by passing vehicles. The material used for this purpose should be the same as that of the road surface and not fine material, which would soon reduce to powder under the loads which come upon it. By careful GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 159 attention to minute repairs in this manner a surface may be kept in good condition until it wears so thin as to require renewal. " In case the road be of harder material, that will not so readily combine when a thin coating is added, repairs may not be frequent, as the surface will not wear so rapidly, and immediate attention is not so important. It is usually more satisfactory in this case to make more extensive repairs at one time, as a larger quantity of material added at once may be more readily com pacted to a uniform surface, the repairs taking the form of an additional layer upon the road. ' ' Where the material of the road surface is very hard and durable, a well-con structed road may wear quite evenly and require hardly any attention, beyond ordinary small repairs, until worn out. It is now usually considered the best practice to leave such a road to itself until it wears very thin, and then renew it by an entirely new layer of broken stone placed on the worn surface and without in any way dis turbing that surface. " If a thin layer only of material is to be 160 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING added at one time, in order that it may unite firmly with the upper layer of the road, it is usually necessary to break the bond of the surface material before placing the new layer, either by picking it up by hand or by a steam roller with short spikes in its surface, if such a machine is at hand. Care should be taken in doing this, however, that only the surface layer be loosened and that the solidity of the body of the road be not disturbed, as might be the case if the spikes are too long. ' ' In repairing roads the time-honored cus tom of waiting until the road has lost its shape or until the surface has become filled with holes or ruts should never be toler ated. Much good material is wasted by spreading a thick coat over such a road and leaving it thus for passing vehicles to con solidate. The material necessary to re place defects in a road should be added when the necessities arise and should be of the best quality and the smallest possi ble quantity. If properly laid in small patches the inconvenience to traffic will be scarcely perceptible. If such repairs are made in damp weather, as they ought GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 161 to be, little or no difficulty is experienced in getting a layer of stone to consolidate properly. If mud fills the rut or hole to be repaired, it should be carefully removed before the material is placed. Wide tires should be used on all heavy vehicles which traverse stone roads. A four or five inch stone or gravel road will last longer without repair when wide tires are used than an eight or ten inch road of the same material on which narrow tires are used. Not only should brush and weeds be removed from the roadside, but grass should be sown, trees planted, and a side path or walk be prepared for the use of pedestrians, especially women and chil dren, going to and coming from church, school, and places of business and amuse ment. Country roads can be made far more useful and attractive than they usually are, and this may be secured by the expen diture of only a small amount of labor and money. Although such improvements are not necessary, they make the surroundings attractive and inviting and add to the value of property and the pleasure of the traveler. 162 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING If trees are planted alongside the road they should be far enough back to admit the wind and sun. Most strong growing trees are apt to extend their roots under the gutters and even beneath the roadway if they are planted too close to the road side. Even if they be planted at a safe distance those varieties should be selected which send their roots downward rather than horizontally. The most useful and beautiful tree corresponding with these requirements is the chestnut, while certain varieties of the pear, cherry, and mulberry answer the same purpose. Where there is no danger of roots damaging the sub- drainage or the substructure of the road, some other favorite varieties would be elms, rock maples, horse-chestnuts.beeches, pines, and cedars. Climate, variety of species selected, and good judgment will determine the distance between such trees. Elms should be thirty feet apart, while the less spreading varieties need not be so far. The trunks should be trimmed to a considerable height, so as to admit the sun and air. Fruit trees are planted along the roadsides in Germany and Switzerland, GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 163 while mulberry trees may be seen along the roads in France, serving the twofold purpose of food for silkworms and shade. If some of our many varieties of useful, fruitful, and beautiful trees were planted along the roads in this country, and if some means could be devised for protecting the product, enough revenue could be derived therefrom to pay for the maintenance of the road along which they throw their grateful shade. The improvement of country roads is chiefly an economical question, relating principally to the waste of effort in hauling over bad roads, the saving in money, time, and energy in hauling over good ones, the initial cost of improving roads, and the difference in the cost of maintaining good and bad ones. It is not necessary to en large on this subject in order to convince the average reader that good roads reduce the resistance to traffic, and consequently the cost of transportation of products and goods to and from farms and markets is reduced to a minimum. The initial cost of a road depends upon the cost of materials, labor, machinery, the 164 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING width and depth to which the material is to be spread on, and the method of con struction. All these things vary so much in the different states that it is impossible to name the exact amount for which a mile of a certain kind of road can be built. The introduction in recent years of im proved road-building machinery has en abled the authorities in some of the states to build improved stone and gravel roads quite cheaply. First-class single-track stone roads, nine feet wide, have been built near Canandaigua, New York, for $900 to $1,000 per mile. Many excellent gravel roads have been built in New Jersey for $1,000 to $1,300 per mile. The material of which they were constructed was placed on in two layers, each being raked and thor oughly rolled, and the whole mass consoli dated to a thickness of eight inches. In the same state macadam roads have been built for $2,000 to $5,000 per mile, varying in width from nine to twenty feet and in thickness of material from four to twelve inches. Telford roads fourteen feet wide and ten to twelve inches thick have been built in New Jersey for $4,000 to $6,000 GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 165 per mile. Macadam roads have been built at Bridgeport and Fairfield, Connecticut, eighteen to twenty feet wide, for $3,000 to §5,000 per mile. A telford road sixteen feet wide and twelve inches thick was built at Fanwood, New Jersey, for §9,500 per mile. Macadam roads have been built iu Rhode Island, sixteen to twenty feet wide, for $4,000 to §5,000 per mile. Massachusetts roads are costing all the way from $6,000 to §25,000 per mile. A mile of broken stone road, fifteen feet wide, costs in the state of Massachusetts about §5,700 per mile, while a mile of the same width and kind of road costs in the state of New Jersey only §4,700. This is due partly to the fact that the topography of Massachusetts is somewhat rougher than that of New Jersey, nece-ssitating the reduc tion of many steep grades and the building of expensive retaining walls and bridges, and partly to the difference in methods of construction and the difference in prices of materials, labor, etc. Doubtless the state of New Jersey is building more roads and better roads for less money per mile than any other state 166 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING in the Union. Its roads are now cost ing from twenty to seventy cents per square yard. Where the telford construc tion is used they sometimes cost as much as seventy-three cents per square yard. The average cost of all classes of the roads of that state during the last season was about fifty cents per square yard. The stone was, as a rule, spread on to a depth of nine inches, which, after rolling, gave a depth of about eight inches. At this rate a single-track road eight feet wide costs about $2,346 per mile, while a double-track road fourteen feet wide costs about $4, 106 per mile, and one eighteen feet wide costs about $5,280 per mile. Where the material is spread on so as to consolidate to a four- inch layer the eight-foot road will cost about $1,173 per mile, the fourteen-foot road about $2,053 per.mile,whiletheone eighteen feet wide will cost about $2,640 per mile. The total cost of maintaining roads in good order ranges, on account of varying conditions, between as wide limits almost as the initial cost of construction. Suffice it to say that all money spent on repairing earth roads becomes each year a total loss GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS 169 without materially improving their condi tion. They are, as a rule, the most ex pensive roads that can be used, while on the other hand stone roads, if properly constructed of good material and kept in perfect condition, are the most satisfactory, the cheapest, and most economical roads that can be constructed. The road that will best suit the needs of the farmer, in the first place, must not be too costly ; and, in the second place, must be of the very best kind, for farmers should be able to do their heavy hauling over them when their fields are too wet to work and their teams would otherwise be idle. The best road for the farmer, all things being considered, is a solid, well-built stone road, so narrow as to be only a single track, but having a firm earth road on one or both sides. Where the traffic is not very extensive the purposes of good roads are better served by narrow tracks than by wide ones, while many of the objec tionable features of wide tracks are removed, the initial cost of construction is cut down one-half or more, and the charges for repair reduced in proportion. CHAPTER IV THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS "^ NO one rock can be said to be a uni versally excellent road material. The climatic conditions vary so much in different localities, and the volume and character of traffic vary so much on different roads, that the properties neces sary to meet all the requirements can be found in no one rock. If the best macadam road be desired, that material should be selected which best meets the conditions of the particular road for which it is intended. The movement for better country roads which has received such an impetus from the bicycle organizations is still felt, and is gaining force from the rapid introduc tion of horseless vehicles. To this de mand, which comes in a large measure ^ By Logan Waller Page, expert in charge of Road Material Laboratory, Division of Chemistry. MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS 171 from the urban population, is to be added that of the farmer, who is wakening to the fact that good roads greatly increase the profits from his farm produce, and thus ma terially better his condition; and to the farmer, indeed, we must look for any real improvement in our country roads. In considering the comparative values of different rocks for road-building, it must be taken for granted in all cases that the road is properly laid out, constructed, and maintained. For if this is not the case, only inferior results can be expected, no matter how good the material may be. In most cases the selection of a material for road-making is determined more by its cheapness and convenience of location than by any properties it may possess. But when we consider the number of roads all over our country which are bad from neglect and from obsolete methods of maintenance that would be much im proved by the use of any rock, this regard for economy is not to be entirely depre cated. At the same time, as a careless selection leads to costly and inferior re sults, too much care cannot be used in 172 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING selecting the proper material when good roads are desired at the lowest cost. When macadam roads are first introduced into a district they are at worst so far superior to the old earth roads that the question is rarely asked, whether, if another material had been used, better roads would not have been obtained, and this at a smaller cost. When mistakes are made they are not generally discovered until much time and money have been expended on in ferior roads. Such errors can in a great measure be avoided if reasonable care is taken in the selection of a suitable material. To select a material in a haphazard way, without considering the needs of the par ticular road on which it is to be used, is not unlike an ill person taking the nearest medicine at hand, without reference to the nature of the malady or the properties of the drug. If a road is bad, the exact trouble must first be ascertained before the proper remedy can be applied. If the surface of a macadam road continues to be too muddy or dusty after the necessary drainage precautions have been followed, then the rock of which it is constructed MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS 173 lacks sufficient hardness or toughness to meet the traffic to which it is subjected. If, on the contrary, the fine binding ma terial of the surface is carried off by wind and rain and is not replaced by the wear of the coarser fragments, the surface stones will soon loosen and allow water to make its way freely to the foundation and bring about the destruction of the road. Such conditions are brought about by an excess of hardness or toughness of the rock for the traffic. Under all conditions a rock of high cementing value is desirable; for, other things being equal, such a rock bet ter resists the wear of traffic and the action of wind and rain. This subject, however, will be referred to again. Until comparatively recent years but little was known of the relative values of the different varieties of rock as road mate rial, and good results were obtained more by chance and general observation than through any special knowledge of the subject. These conditions, however, do not obtain at present, for the subject has received a great deal of careful study, and a fairly accurate estimate can be made of 174 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING the fitness of a rock for any conditions of climate and traffic. In road-building the attempt should be made to get a perfectly smooth surface, not too hard, too slippery, or too noisy, and as free as possible from mud and dust, and these results are to be attained and maintained as cheaply as possible. Such results, however, can only be had by select ing the material and methods of construc tion best suited to the conditions. In selecting a road material it is well to consider the agencies of destruction to roads that have to be met. Among the most important are the wearing action of wheels and horses* feet, frost, rain, and wind. To find materials that can best withstand these agencies under all conditions is the great problem that confronts the road- builder. Before going further, it will be well to consider some of the physical properties of rock which are important in road-building, for the value of a road material is depend ent in a large measure on the degree to which it possesses these properties. There are many such properties that affect road- MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS 175 building, but only three need be mentioned here. They are hardness, toughness, and cementing or binding power. By hardness is meant the power possessed by a rock to resist the wearing action caused by the abrasion of wheels and horses' feet. Toughness, as understood by road-builders, is the adhesion between the crystal and fine particles of a rock, which gfives it power to resist fracture when subjected to the blows of traffic. This important property, while distinct from hardness, is yet intimately associated with it, and can in a measure make up for a deficiency in hardness. Hardness, for instance, would be the resistance offered by a rock to the grinding of an emery wheel ; toughness, the resistance to fracture when struck with a hammer. Cementing or binding power is the property pos sessed by the dust of a rock to act, after wetting, as a cement to the coarser frag ments composing the road, binding them together and forming a smooth, impervious shell over the surface. Such a shell, formed by a rock of high cementing value, protects the underlying material from wear 176 FUTURE OP ROAD-MAKING and acts as a cushion to the blows from horses' feet, and at the same time resists the waste of material caused by wind and rain, and preserves the foundation by shed ding the surface water. Binding power is thus, probably, the most important property to be sought for in a road-building rock, as its presence is always necessary for the best results. The hardness and toughness of the binder surface more than of the rock itself represents the hardness and toughness of the road, for if the weight of traffic is sufficient to destroy the bond of cementa tion of the surface, the stones below are soon loosened and forced out of place. When there is an absence of binding material, which often occurs when the rock is too hard for the traffic to which it is subjected, the road soon loosens or ravels. Experience shows that a rock possessing all three of the properties mentioned in a high degree does not under all conditions make a good road material; on the con trary, under certain conditions it may be altogether unsuitable. As an illustration of this, if a country road or city park way, where only a light traffic prevails, were ]\!ATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS 177 built of a very hard and tough rock with a high cementing value, neither the best, nor, if a softer rock were available, would the cheapest results be obtained. Such a rock would so effectively resist the wear of a light traffic that the amount of fine dust worn off would be carried away by wind and rain faster than it would be supplied by wear. Consequently the binder sup plied by wear would be insufficient, and if not supplied from some other source the road would soon go to pieces. The first cost of such a rock would in most instances be greater than that of a softer one and the necessary repairs resulting from its use would also be very expensive. A very good illustration of this point is the first road built by the Massachusetts Highway Commission. This road is on the island of Nantucket and was subjected to a very light traffic. The commission desired to build the best possible road, and conse quently ordered a very hard and tough trap rock from Salem, considered then to be the best macadam rock in the state. Delivered on the road this rock cost $3.50 per ton, the excessive price being due to the cost of 178 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING transportation. The road was in every way properly constructed, and thoroughly rolled with a steam roller ; but in spite of every pre caution it soon began to ravel, and repeated rolling was only of temporary benefit, for the rock was too hard and tough for the traffic. Subsequently, when the road was resurfaced with limestone, which was much softer than the trap, it became excellent. Since then all roads built on the island have been constructed of native granite bowlders with good results, and at a much lower cost. If, however, this hard and tough rock, which gave such poor results at Nantucket, were used on a road where the traffic was sufficient to wear off an ample supply of binder, very much better results would be obtained than if a rock lacking both hardness and toughness were used ; for, in the latter case, the wear would be so great that ruts would be formed which would prevent rain water draining from the surface. The water thus collecting on the surface would soon make its way to the foundation and destroy the road. The dust in dry weather would also be excessive. MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS 179 Only two examples of the misuse of a road material have been given, but, as they represent extreme conditions, it is easy to see the large number of intermediate mis takes that can be made, for there are few rocks even of the same variety that possess the same physical properties in a like de gree. The climatic and physical condi tions to which roads are subjected are equally varied. The excellence of a road material may, therefore, be said to depend entirely on the conditions which it is intended to meet. It may be well to mention a few other properties of rock that bear on road-build ing, though they will not be discussed here. There are some rocks, such as limestones, that are hygroscopic, or possess the power of absorbing moisture from the air, and in dry climates such rocks are distinctly valua ble, as the cementation of rock dust is in a large measure dependent for its full de velopment on the presence of water. The degree to which a rock absorbs water may also be important, for in cold climates this to some extent determines the liability of a rock to fracture by freezing. It is not so 180 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING important, however, as the absorptive power of the road itself, for if a road holds much water the destruction wrought by frost is very great. This trouble is gener ally due to faulty construction rather than to the material. The density or weight of a rock is also considered of importance, as the heavier the rock the better it stays in place and the better it resists the action of wind and rain. Only a few of the properties of rock important to road builders have been con sidered, but if these are borne in mind when a material is to be selected better results are sure to be obtained. In select ing a road material the conditions to which it is to be subjected should first be con sidered. These are principally the annual rainfall, the average winter temperature, the character of prevailing winds, the grades, and the volume and character of the traffic that is to pass over the road. The climatic conditions are readily obtained from the Weather Bureau, and a satisfac tory record of the volume and character of the traffic can be made by any competent person living in view of the road. MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS 181 In France the measuring of traffic has received a great deal of attention, and a census is kept for all the national high ways. The traffic there is rated and re duced to units in the following manner : A horse hauling a public vehicle or cart loaded with produce or merchandise is con sidered as the unit of traffic. Each horse hauling an empty cart or private carriage counts as one-half unit; each horse, cow, or ox, unharnessed, and each saddle horse, one-fifth unit; each small animal (sheep, goat, or hog), one-thirtieth unit. A record is made of the traffic every thirteenth day throughout the year, and an average taken to determine its mean amount. Some such general method of classifying traffic in units is desirable, as it permits the traffic of a road to be expressed in one number. Before this French method can be applied to the traffic of our country it will be necessary to modify considerably the mode of rating. This, however, is a matter which can be studied and properly adjusted by the Office of Public Road Inquiries. It is most important to obtain a record of the 182 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING average number of horses and vehicles and kind of vehicles that pass over an earth road in a day before the macadam road is built. The small cost of such a record is trifling when compared with the cost of a macadam road (from $4,000 to $10,000 per mile for a fifteen-foot road), in view of the fact that an error in the selection of ma terial may cost a much larger sum of money. After a record of the traffic is obtained, if the road is to be built of crushed rock for the first time, an allow ance for an immediate increase in traffic amounting at least to ten or fifteen per cent had best be made, for the improved road generally brings traffic from adjoining roads. To simplify the matter somewhat, the different classes of traffic to which roads are subjected may be divided into five groups, which may be called city, urban, suburban, highway, and country road traf fic, respectively. City traffic is a traffic so great that no macadam road can withstand it, and is such as exists on the business streets of large cities. For such a traffic stone and wood blocks, asphalt, brick, or MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS 183 some such materials are necessary. Urban traffic is such as exists on city streets which are not subjected to continuous heavy team ing, but which have to withstand very heavy wear, and need the hardest and toughest macadam rock. Suburban traffic is such as is common in the suburbs of a city and the main streets of country towns. Highway traffic is a traffic equal to that of the main country roads. Country road traffic is a traffic equal to that of the less frequented country roads. The city traffic will not be considered here. For an urban traffic, the hardest and toughest rock, or in other words, a rock of the highest wearing quality that can be found, is best. For a suburban traffic the best rock would be one of high toughness but of less hardness than one for urban traffic. For highway traffic a rock of medium hardness and toughness is best. For cotmtry road traffic it is best to use a comparatively soft rock of medium toughness. In all cases high cementing value should be sought, and especially if the locality is very wet or windy. Rocks belonging to the same species and 184 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING having the same name, such as traps, granites, quartzites, etc., vary almost as much in different localities in their physi cal road-building properties as they do from rocks of distinct species. This varia tion is also true of the mineral composition of rocks of the same species, as well as in the size and arrangement of their crystals. It is impossible, therefore, to classify rocks for road-building by simply giving their specific names. It can be said, however, that certain species of rock possess in com mon some road-building properties. For instance, the trap^ rocks as a class are hard and tough and usually have binding power, and consequently stand heavy traffic well ; and for this reason they are frequently spoken of as the best rocks for road-building. This, however, is not al ways true, for numerous examples can be 'This term is derived from the Swedish word trappa, meaning steps, and was originally applied to the crys tallized basalts of the coast of Sweden, which much resemble steps in appearance. As now used by road builders, it embraces a large variety of igneous rocks, chiefly those of fine crystalline structure and of dark. blue, gray, and green colors. They are generally diabases, diorites, trachytes, and basalts. — Page. MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS 185 shown where trap rock having the above properties in the highest degree has failed to give good results on light traffic roads. The reason trap rock has gained so much favor with road-builders is because a large majority of macadam roads in our country are built to stand an urban traffic, and the traps stand such a traffic better than any other single class of rocks. There are, however, other rocks that will stand an urban traffic perfectly well, and there are traps that are not sufficiently hard and tough for a suburban or highway traffic. The granites are generally brittle, and many of them do not bind well, but there are a great many which when used under proper conditions make excellent roads. The felsites are usually very hard and brittle, and many have excellent binding power, some varieties being suitable for the heaviest macadam traffic. Limestones generally bind well, are soft, and fre quently hygroscopic. Quartzites are almost always very hard, brittle, and have very low binding power. The slates are usually soft, brittle, and lack binding power. The above generalizations are of neces- 186 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING sity vague, and for practical purposes are of little value, since rocks of the same variety occurring in different localities have very wide ranges of character. It consequently happens in many cases, par ticularly where there are a number of rocks to choose from, that the difficulty of mak ing the best selection is great, and this difficulty is constantly increasing with the rapidly growing facilities of transportation and the increased range of choice which this permits. On account of their desira ble road properties some rocks are now shipped several hundred miles for use. There are but two ways in which the value of a rock as a road material can be accurately determined. One way, and be yond all doubt the surest, is to build sample roads of all the rocks available in a locality, to measure the traffic and wear to which they are subjected, and keep an accurate account of the cost both of construction and annual repairs for each. By this method actual results are obtained, but it has grave and obvious disadvantages. It is very costly (especially so when the re sults are negative), and it requires so great MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS 187 a lapse of time before results are obtained that it cannot be considered a practical method when macadam roads are first being built in a locality. Further than this, results thus obtained are not applicable to other roads and materials. Such a method, while excellent in its results, can only be adopted by communities which can afford the necessary time and money, and is en tirely inadequate for general use. The other method is to make laboratory tests of the physical properties of available rocks in a locality, study the conditions obtaining on the particular road that is to be built, and then select the material that best suits the conditions. This method has the advantages of giving speedy re sults and of being inexpensive, and as far as the results of laboratory tests have been compared with the results of actual prac tice they have been found to agree. Laboratory tests on road materials were first adopted in France about thirty years ago, and their usefulness has been thor oughly established. The tests for rock there are to determine its degree of hard ness, resistance to abrasion, and resistance 188 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING to compression. In 1893 the Massachusetts Highway Commission established a labora tory at Harvard University for testing road materials. The French abrasion test was adopted, and tests for determining the cementing power and toughness of rock were added. Since then similar labora tories have been established at Johns Hop kins University, Columbia University, Wis consin Geological Survey, Cornell Univer sity, and the University of California. The Department of Agriculture has now established a road-material laboratory in the Division of Chemistry, where any per son residing in the United States may have road materials tested free by applying for instructions to the Office of Public Road Inquiries. The laboratory is equipped with the apparatus necessary for carrying on such work, and the Department intends to carry on general investigations on roads. Part of the general plan will be to make tests on actual roads for the purpose of comparing the results with those obtained in the laboratory. Besides testing road materials for the public, blank forms for recording traffic MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS 189 will be supplied by the department to any one intending to build a road. When these forms are filled and returned to the labora tory, together with the samples of materials available for building the road, the traffic of the road will be rated in its proper group, as described above; each property of the materials will be tested and similarly rated according to its degree, the climatic conditions will be considered, and expert advice given as to the proper choice to be made. CHAPTER V STONE ROADS IN NEW JERSEY^ AS New Jersey contains a great variety of soils, there are many conditions to be met with in road construction. The northern part of the state is hilly, where we have clay, soft stone, hard stones, loose stones, quicksand, and marshes. In the eastern part of the state, particularly in the seashore sections, the roads are at their worst in summer in con sequence of loose, dry sand, which some times drifts like snow. In west New Jer sey, which comprises the southern end of the state, there is much loose, soft sand, considerable clay, marshes, and low lands not easily drained. In addition to the condition of the soil, there is the economic condition to be con sidered. In the vicinity of large towns or •By E. G. Harrison, C. E., Secretary New Jersey Road Improvement Association. ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 191 cities, where there is heavy carting by reason of manufactories and produce mar keting, it is necessary to have heavy, thick, substantial roads, while in more rural dis tricts and along the seashore, where the travel is principally by light carriages, a lighter roadbed construction is preferred. In rural districts, where the roads are used for immediate neighborhood purposes, an inexpensive road is desirable. The main thoroughfares have to be constructed with a view to considerable increase of travel, as farmers in the outlying districts who formerly devoted their time to grazing of stock, raising of grain, etc., find it more profitable to change the mode of farming to that of truck raising, fruit growing, etc. The road engineers of New Jersey find that they cannot follow old paths and make their roads after one style or pattern. Technical engineering in road construction must yield to the practical, common-sense plan of action. An engineer with plenty of money and material at hand can con struct a good road almost anywhere and meet any condition, but with limited re sources and a variety of physical conditions 192 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING he has to " cut the garment to suit the cloth." We start out with this dilemma. We must have better roads, and our means for getting them being very limited, if we cannot get them as good as we would like, let us get them as good as we can. Let me give a practical illustration. Stone-road construction outside of turnpike corporations in West Jersey was begun in the spring of 189 1. I was called on by the township committee of Chester Township, Burlington County, to construct some roads. Moorestown is a thriving town of about three thousand inhabitants in the center of the township. The roads to be constructed, with one exception, ran out of the town to the township limits, being from one-half to three miles in length. The roads were generally for local purposes. There were ten roads, aggregating about eleven miles. The bonding of the township was voted upon, and it was necessary, in order to carry the bonding project of $40,000, to have all these roads constructed of stone macadam. The roads to be improved were determined on at a town meeting without consulting an engineer as to the cost, etc., ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 193 SO that the plain question submitted to me was. Can you construct eleven miles of stone road nine feet wide for $40,000 ? The conditions to be met were these: There was no stone suitable for road-building nearer than from sixty to eighty miles; cost of freight, about seventy-five cents per ton; the hauls from the railroad siding averaged about one and three-quarter miles; price of teams in summer, when farmers were busy, about $3.50 per day. In preparation for road construction there were several hills to be cut from one to three feet ; causeways and embankments to be made over wet and swampy ground. For this latter work the property holders and others interested along the road agreed to furnish teams, the township paying for laborers. The next difficulty was the kind of a road to build. As the width was fixed at nine feet as a part of the conditions for bonding, there seemed only one way left to apply the economics — that was, in the depth of the roads. On the dry, sandy soils I put the mac adam six inches deep ; this depth was ap plied to about six miles of road. On roads 194 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING where the heaviest travel would come the roadbed was made eight inches deep. On soils having springs and on embankments over causeways the depth was ten inches with stone foundation, known as telford. Where springs existed, they were cut off by underdrains. It had been the practice of engineers in their specifications to call for the best trap rock for all the stone construction. As this rock is hard to crush and difficult to be transported some seventy or eighty miles to this part of New Jersey, I found that in order to construct all of the road from this best material it would take more money than the bonds would provide; so I had half of the depth which forms the founda tion made of good dry sedimentary rock. Of course, in this there is considerable slate, but the breaking is not nearly so costly as the breaking of syenite or Jersey trap rock, and there was a saving of thirty per cent. As the surface of the road had to take all the wear, I required the best trap rock for this purpose. Since the construction of these roads in Chester Township, roads are now built ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 195 under the state-aid act by county officials and paid for as follows : One-third by the state, ten per cent by the adjoining prop erty holders, and the balance (56^ per cent) by the county. The roads constructed under this act are generally leading roads and those mostly traversed by heavy teams. They are constructed similarly to those in Chester Township, excepting that they are generally twelve feet wide and from ten to twelve inches deep. Many of them have a telford foundation, which is now put down at about the same price as macadam, and meets most of the conditions better than macadam. The less expensive stone is used for foundations, and the best and more costly for surface only. In this way the cost of construction has been greatly reduced. In regard to the width, a road nine or ten feet wide has been found to be quite as ser viceable as one of greater width, unless it is made fourteen feet and over. It is not claimed that a narrow road is just as good as a wide road, but it has been found bet ter to have the cost in length than in width in rural districts. In and near towns. 196 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING where there is almost constant passing, the road should not be less than from fourteen to twenty feet in width. The difficulty in getting on and off the stone road where teams are passing is not so great as is sup posed. To meet this difficulty in the past, on each side of the road the specifications require the contractor to make a shoulder of clay, gravel, or other hard earth; this is never less than three feet and sometimes six to eight feet in width, according to the kinds of soil the road is composed of and the liability of frequent meeting and pass ing. In rural districts the top-dressing of these shoulders is taken from the side ditches; grass sods are mixed in when found, and in some cases grass seed is sown. As the stone roadbed takes the travel the grass soon begins to grow, receiving con siderable fertilizing material from the washing of the road; and when the sod is once formed the waste material from the wear of the road is lodged in the grass sod and the shoulder becomes hard and firm, except when the frost is coming out. Another mode of building a rural road cheaply and still have room for passing ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 197 without getting off the stone construction is to make the roadbed proper about ten feet wide, ten or twelve inches deep ; then have wings of macadam on each side three feet wide and five or six inches deep. In case ten feet is used the two wings would make the stone construction six feet wide. If the road is made considerably higher in the center than the sides, as it should be, the travel, particularly the loaded teams, will keep in the center, and the wings will only be used in passing and should last as long as the thicker part of the road. The preparation of the road and making it suitable for the stone bed is one of the most important parts of road construction. This, once done properly, is permanent. Wherever it is possible the hills should be cut and low places filled, so that the maxi mum grade will not exceed five or six feet rise in one hundred feet ; where hills can not be reduced to this grade without incur ring too much expense, the hill, if possible, should be avoided by relajring the road in another place. Wherever stone roads have been con structed it has been found that those using 198 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING them for drawing heavy loads will increase the capacity of their wagons so as to carry three or four times the load formerly car ried. This can easily be done where the road has a maximum grade of not greater than five or six per cent, as before stated; but when the grade is greater than this the power to be expended on such loads upon such grades will exhaust and wear out the horses; thus a supposed saving in heavy loading may prove to be a loss. In the preparation of the road it is neces sary to have the ditches wide and deep enough to carry all the water to the nearest natural water way. These ditches should at all times be kept clear of weeds and trash, so that the water will not be retained in pools. Bad roads often occur because this important matter is overlooked. On hills the slope or side grade in con struction from center of road to side ditches should be increased so as to exceed that of the longitudinal grade; that is, if the latter is, say, five per cent, the slope to side should be at least six per cent and over. Where the road in rural districts is on ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 199 rolling ground and hills do not exceed three or four per cent, it is an unnecessary expense to cut the small ones, but all short rises should be cut and small depressions filled. A rolling road is not objectionable, and besides there is no better roadbed for laying on metal than the hard crust formed by ordinary travel. In putting on the metal, particularly on narrow roads, the roadbed should be ' ' set high ; " it will soon get ' ' flat enough. " It is better to put the shouldering up to the stone than to dig a trench to put the stone in. If the road after preparation is about level from side to side and the stone or metal construction is to be, say, ten inches deep, the sides of the roadbed to receive the metal should be cut about three inches and placed on the side to help form the shoulder; the rest of the shoulder, when suitable, being taken from the ditches and sides in forming the proper slope. The foundation to receive the metal, if the natural roadbed is not used and the bed is of soft earth, should be rolled until it is hard and compact. It should also conform to the same slope as the road when finished from center to sides. 200 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING If the bed or foundation is of soft sand roll ing will be of little use. In this case care must be taken to keep the bed as uniform as possible while the stone is being placed on the foundation. When the road passes through villages and towns the grading should reduce the roadbed to a grade as nearly level as possi ble. It must be borne in mind that the side ditches need not necessarily always conform to the center grade of the road. When the center grade is level the side ditches should be graded to carry off the water. In some cases I have found it neces sary to run the grade for the side ditches in an opposite direction from the grade of the road. This, however, does not often occur. The main thing is to get the water off the road as soon as possible after it falls, and then not allow it to remain in the ditches. And just here the engineer will meet with many difficulties. The land owners in rural districts are opposed to having the water from the roads let onto their lands, and disputes often arise as to where the natural water way is located. This should be determined by the people ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 201 in the neighborhood, or by the local authori ties. I have found in several cases, where the water from side ditches was allowed to run on the land, that the land was gener ally benefited by having the soil enriched by the fertilizing matter from the road. After the roadbed has been thoroughly prepared, if made of loam or clay, it should be rolled and made as hard and compact as possible. Wherever a depression appears it should be filled up and made uniformly hard. Place upon it a light coat of loam or fine clay, which will act as a binder. If the roller used is not too heavy it may be rolled to advantage, but the rolling of this course depends upon the character of the stones. If the stones are cubical in form rolling is beneficial, but if they are of shale and many of them thin and flat, rolling has a tendency to bring the flat sides to the surface. When this is the case the next course of fine stone for the surface will not firmly compact and unite with them. When the foundation is of telford it is important that stones not too large should be used. They should not exceed ten inches in length, six inches on one side. 202 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING which is laid next to the earth, and four inches on top, the depth depending on the thickness of the road. If the thickness of the finished road is eight inches, the telford pavement should not exceed five inches; if it is ten or more inches deep, then the telford could be six inches. It need in no case be greater than this, as this is suffi cient to form the base or foundation of the metal construction. The surface of the telford pavement should be as uniform as possible, all projecting points broken off, and interstices filled in with small stone. Care should be taken to keep the stone set up perpendicular with the roadbed and set lengthwise across the road with joints broken. This foundation should be well hammered down with sledge hammers and made hard and compact. Upon this fea ture greatly depends the smoothness of the surface of the road and uniform wear. If put down compactly rolling is not neces sary, and if not put down solid rolling might do it damage in causing the large stones to lean and set on their edges instead of 'on the flat sides. I refer to instances where the road is to be ten inches and over. ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 203 Then put on a light coat or course of one and one-half inch stone, with a light coat of binding, and then put on the roller, thus setting the finer stone well with the foun dation and compacting the whole mass to gether. After the macadam or telford foundation is well laid and compacted, the surface or wearing stone is put on. If the thickness of the road is great enough, say twelve or fourteen inches, this surface stone should be put on in courses, say of three and four inches, as may be required for the deter mined thickness of the road. On each course there should be applied a binding, but only sufficient to bind the metal together or fill up the small interstices. It must be remembered that broken stone is used in order to form a compact mass. The sides of the stone should come together and not be kept apart by what we call binding ma terial ; therefore only such quantity should be used as will fill up the small interstices made by reason of the irregularity of the stone. Each course should be thoroughly rolled to get the metal as compact as possi ble. When the stone construction is made 204 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING to the required depth or thickness, the whole surface should be subjected to a coat of screenings about one inch thick. This must be kept damp by sprinkling, and thoroughly rolled until the whole mass becomes consolidated and the surface smooth and uniform. Before the rolling is finished the shoulders should be made up and covered with gravel or other hard earth and dressed off to the side ditches. When practicable these should have the same grade or slope as the stone construction. This finish should also be rolled and made uniform, so that, in order that the water may pass off freely, there will be no obstruction between the stone roadbed and side ditches. To prevent washes and insure as much hardness as possible on roads in rural districts, grass should be encouraged to grow so as to make a stiff sod. For shouldering, when the natural soil is of soft sand, a stiff clay is desirable. When the natural soil is of clay, then gravel or coarse sand can be used, covering the whole with the ditch scrapings or other fertilizing material, where grass sod is ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 205 desirable. Of course this is not desirable in villages and towns. For binding, what is called garden loam is the best. When this cannot be found Use any soft clay or earth free from clods or round stones. It must be spread on very lightly and uniformly. Any good dry stone not liable to disinte grate can be used as metal for foundation for either telford or macadam construction. For the surface it is necessary to have the best stone obtainable. Like the edge of a tool, it does the service and must take the wear. As in the tool it pays to have the best of steel, so on the road, which is sub ject to the wear and tear of steel horseshoes and heavy iron tires, it is found the cheap est to have the best of stone. It is difficult to describe the kind of stone that is best. The best is generally syenite trap rock, but this term does not give any definite idea. The kind used in New Jersey is called the general name of Jersey trap rock. It is a gray syenite, and is found in great quantities in a range run ning from Jersey City, on the Hudson River, to a point on the Delaware between 206 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING Trenton and Lambertville. There are quantities of good stone lying north of this ledge, but none south of it. The best is at or near Jersey City. The same kind of stone is found in the same ranges of hills in Pennsylvania, but in the general run it is not so good. The lia bility to softness and disintegration in creases after leaving the eastern part of New Jersey, and while good stone may be found, the veins of poorer stone increase as we go south and west. It is generally believed that the hardest stones are best for road purposes, but this is not the case. The hard quartz will crush under the wheels of a heavy load. It is toughness in the stone that is neces sary ; therefore a mixed stone, like syenite, is the best. This wears smooth, as the rough edges of the stone come in contact with the wheels. It requires good judg ment based on experience to determine the right kind of stone to take the constant wear of horseshoes and wagon tires. If good roads are desired, the work is not done when the road is completed and ready for travel. There are many causes ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 207 which make repairing necessary. I will refer to only a few of them. Stone roads are liable to get out of order because of too much water or want of water; also, when the natural roadbed is soft and springy and has not been sufficiently drained; when water is allowed to stand in ditches and form pools along the road, and when the ' ' open winters ' ' give us a superabundance of wet. Before the road becomes thor oughly consolidated by travel it is liable to become soft and stones get loose and move under the wheels of the heavily loaded wagons. In the earth foundation on which the stone bed rests the water finds the soft spots. The wheels of the loaded teams form ruts, and particularly where narrow tires are used. The work of repair should begin as soon as defects appear, for, if neglected, after every rain the depressions make little pools of water and hold it like a basin. In every case this water softens the material, and the wagon tires and horseshoes churn up the bottoms of the basins. This is the beginning of the work of destruction. If allowed to go on, the road becomes rough. 208 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING and the wear and tear of the horses and wagons are increased. Stone roads out of repair, like any common road in similar condition, will be found expensive to those who use and maintain them. The way to do is to look over a road after a rain, when the depressions and basins will show them selves. Whenever one is large enough to receive a shovelful of broken stone, scrape out the soft dirt and let it form a ring around the depression. Fill with broken stone to about an inch or two above the surface of the road. The ring of dirt around will keep the stone above the sur face in place, and the passing wheels will work it on the broken stone and also act as a binder. The whole will work down and become compact and even with the road surface. The ruts are treated in the same way. Use one and one-half inch stone for this ; smaller stones will soon grind up and the hole appear again. The second cause of the necessity for road repairs is want of water. This occurs in summer during hot, dry spells. The sur face stone ' ' unravels ; ' that is, becomes loose where the horses travel. This con- ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 209 dition is more liable to be found on dry, sandy soils, and where the roadbed is sub ject to the direct rays of the sun, and where the winds sweep off all the binding material from the surface. In clay soil there is little or no trouble from ' ' un raveling." The cause being found, the remedy is applied in this way: Put on water with the sprinkler before all the binding material is blown off. If the hot, dry weather continues, sprinkling should continue. Do this in the evening or late in the afternoon. The next mode is to repair the road by placing the material back as it was origi nally. The loose stones are placed in the depressions and good binding material — garden loam or fine clay — is put on, then roll the whole repeatedly and dampen by sprinkling as needed until the whole surface becomes smooth and hard. Care must be taken that too much binding material is not used. If too much is used it will injure the road in winter when there is an excess of water. When a road has been neglected and allowed to become uneven and rough, or is 210 FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING by constant use worn down to the founda tion stones, there should be a general re pairing. In the first place, if it is the roughness and unevenness that is the only defect, this may be remedied by the use of a large, heavy roller with steel spikes in its rolling wheels. This will puncture the surface so that an ordinary harrow will tear up the surface stones. Then take the spikes out of the roller wheels, and, with sprinkling and rolling, the roadbed can be repaired and made like a new road. But if the cause of the roughness is from wearing away of the stone, so that the surface of the road is brought down to or near the foundation, then the road needs resurfac ing. The mode of treatment is the same as in the other case. In districts where there is stone suitable for road construction the county, town, township, or other municipality, proposing to construct stone roads, should own a stone quarry and a stone crusher. For grading and preparing the road for construction, dressing up sides, clearing out side ditches, etc., a good road machine is necessary. For constructing roads and repairing them ROADS IN NEW JERSEY 211 a roller is necessary, the weight depending upon the kind of road constructed. If the road is not wide a roller of from four to six tons is all the weight necessary. The roll ing should be continued until compactness is obtained. For wide, heavy roads a steam roller of fifteen tons can be used to advantage. A sprinkling wagon completes the list that is necessary for the county or town or other municipality constructing its own roads. Important Historical Publications OF The Arthur H. Clark Company FuU descriptive circulars will be maUed on application ••The most Important project ever undertaken in the line of Philippine hi»- tory in any language, above all the English. ' ' — Ne^v Tork Evening Pott. The Philippine Islands 1493-^898 Being the history of the Philippines from their discovery to the present time EXPLORATIONS by early Navigators, descrip tions of the Islands and their Peoples, their His tory, and records of the Catholic Missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial, and religious condi tions of those Islands from their earliest relations with European Nations to the end of the nineteenth century. Translated, and edited and annotated by E. H. Blair, and J. A. Robertson, with introduction and additional notes by E. G. Bourne. With Analytical Index and Illustrations. Limited edi tion, fifty-five volumes, large Svo, cloth, uncut, gilt top. Price, $4.00 net per volume. "The almoflt lota' lack of acceptable material on Philippine history in EngliBb gives this undertaking an immediate value." — James A. 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Edited, with Historical, Geographical, Ethnological, and Bibliographical Notes, and Introduftions and Index, by Reuben Gold Thwaites Editor of " The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents," "Wisconsin His torical Colleftions,*' ** Chronicles of Border Warfare,** **Hennepin's New Discovery,'* etc. With facsimiles of the original title-pages, maps, portraits, views, etc. 3 1 volumes, large Svo, cloth, uncut, gilt tops. Price ^4.00 net per volume (except the Maximilien Atlas, which is ^15.00 net). Limited edition ; each set numbered and signed. An 'Elaborate Analytical Index to the Whole Almost all of the rare originals are without indexes. In the present reprint series, this immense mass of historical data will be made accessible through one exhaustive analytical index, to occupy the concluding volume. In many cases the records reproduced are so rare that this collection will be practically the only resource of the student of the original sources of our early history. The printing and binding of the edition are handsome and at the same time so substantial that the documents reproduced may be said to have been res cued once for all time, — Public Opimon. YALE UNIVERSITY a39002 002883875b