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BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY.
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ANTELMI or ANTHELMI, NICO
LAS, canon of Frt-jus in the early part of
the seventeenth century. The year and
place of his birth are not given. He was
syndic of the clergy of the diocese of Fre
jus, and appeared in that character in the
assemblies of the French clergy at Paris,
A.D. 160.') and 1606. He exerted himself
with the greatest diligence, at considerable
pecuniary cost, and sometimes at the risk of
his life, in seeking out and recovering the
documents belonging to the archives ofthe
cathedral of Frejus. He recovered a gi-eat
number of valuable records, and arranged
them in two volumes. The antiquarian
knowledge and zeal which he manifested
recommended him to the friendship of the
antiquary Peiresc, with whom he carried on
an active correspondence on different ques
tions connected with their common pursuit.
He furnished the list of the bishops of Frejus
to the authors of the " Gallia Christiana,"
who have passed a high encomiimi on the
talent and skill of Antelmi. Nicolas Antekni
died 2d March, a. n. 1646. Joseph Antelmi
in his treatise " De Initiis Ecclesiai ForojuU-
ensis " refers to the " Adversaria " of Nicolas
Antelmi ; but it does not appear that this
work was ever published. (Joseph Antelmi,
Preface to De Initiis Ecclesice Forojuliensis.') J. C. M.
ANTELMI or ANTHELMI, PIERRE,
canon of the cathedral of Frejus in the seven
teenth century. He was born at Frejus, and
studied theology and law at Paris, and took his
doctor's degree in each of those faculties with
great credit. He returned to his native town,
and was appointed to a canonry vacant by
the voluntary resignation of it by his uncle,
Nicolas Antelmi, the subject of the preceding
article. In what year the resignation of
Nicolas and the appointment of Pierre took
place is not stated, but it was some years be-
voL. ur.

fore the death of the former. At the desire
of Nicolas, Pierre gave himself to the study
and coUection of antiquities, and incurred
considerable labour and expense in this pur
suit ; but from the year 1630, whether from
an abatement of his antiquarian zeal or from
regard to Peiresc, his own and his uncle's
friend, he graduaUy transmitted to him, with
his uncle's consent, the contents of his mu
seum. After the death of Peiresc, a.d. 1637,
Pierre abandoned antiquarian pursuits, and
gave himself to the study of theology and of
ecclesiastical history. He revised the lessons
of the church of Frejus which were read in
the service performed to St. Leontius, the
patron, and the other tutelary saints of the
church, rejecting several fabulous particulars
respecting St. Leontius, and employing iu the
revision of the service more trustworthy do
cuments than those which had been adopted
for its compilation. Pierre Antelmi appears
to have filled some public offices besides his
canonry, but whether ecclesiastical or civil is
not stated. He died senior canon of Frejus,
1st December, 1668. Joseph Antelmi, his
nephew, describes him as a man of great re
putation for piety, knowledge, moderation,
prudence, and integrity. (Joseph Antelmi,
Preface to De Initiis Ecclesia: Forojulieiisis-) J. C. M.
ANTELMUS, SAINT. [Anthelmus,
Saint.] ANTELMY, PIERRE THOMAS D', was
born at Trigance in Provence, on the 14th
of September, 1730. Having gone through
his preliminary studies, he applied himself to
mathematics, and became professor of mathe
matics, and afterwards inspector of studies
at the miUtary school at Paris. The newly
erected observatory at the military school was
also confided to his care ; and many of his ob
servations have been published in the Trans
actions of the Academie des Sciences. He

ANTELMY.

ANTESIGNANUS.

died in the month of January, 1783. His
other works are, 1. " Traite de Dynamique ;"
this has never been printed. 2. " Traites
elementaires du Calcul Differentiel, et du
Calcul Integral, traduits en Partie de I'ltalien
(d'Agnesi), par d'Antelmy sous les Yeux et
avec quelques Notes de Bossut." Paris,
1775, Svo. 3. " Fables de Lessing avec des
Dissertations sur la Nature, la Division, et le
Style de la Fable ; et sur I'Utilite qu'on pent
en retirer dans FEducation des Enfans. Tra-
duites par d'Antelmy." Paris, 1764, 12mo.
4. ** Le Messie, poeme de Klopstock, traduit
de TAUemand par Junker et autres." Paris,
1769, 2 vols. 12ino. This translation only
extends to the first ten cantos. (Querard,
La France Litteraire, art. " Antelmy, Agncsi,
Lessing, and Klopstock ; " Biographic Univer
selle; Dessarts, Les Siecles Litteraires de la
Frayice-') J. W. J.
ANTE'NOR ('AcT^j/wp), a sculptor, pro
bably a native of Athens, who made the
bronze statues that were erected in honour of
Harmodius and Aristogiton, who delivered
Athens from the rule of the Pisistratidte.
These statues were carried away by the
Persians, when Xerxes entered Athens b. u.
480 ; but the Athenians had others made by
Critias. The original statues were found
by Alexander the Great at Susa, and sent
back to Athens by him, or, according to
Pausanias, by Antiochus. They were erected
in the Ceramicus near those which had been
made to replace them, and were seen both by
Arrian and Pausanias. Hippias, the son of
Pisistratus, was expeUed from Athens ji. c.
510, which fixes approximately the period
of Antenor. (Arrian, Anabasis, iii. 16. vii.
19. ; Pausanias, i. 8. 5. ; Pliny, Hist- Nat-
xxxiv. 8.) R. W. jun.
A'NTEROS, by famUy aGreek, succeeded
Pontianus as Bishop of Rome, on November
21. 235, and died (as some assert a martyr)
on the 3d of the following January. Yet the
brevity of his pontificate did not conceal him
from the authors of the False Decretals, who
abscribed to him an Epistle, dated nearly
three months after his death. G. W.
ANTESIGNA'NUS, PETER, a gram
marian of the sixteenth century. He is sup
posed to have been a native of the town of
Rabasteins, in Languedoc, since on the title-
page of his works he added to his name the
epithet " Rapistagnensis." Respecting the
circumstances of his life nothing is known,
except that he devoted himself zealously to
the instruction of the young. From the
dedicatory letter prefixed to his edition of
Terence, which is dated Lyon, it has been
inferred by Bayle that he was engaged for
some time as teacher at Lyon. Antesignanus
was not a man of any extraordinary talent,
but he was well meaning, and earnest in his
endeavours to instruct the young, and to
assist them by his writings. In the dedi
catory letter above referred to, he complains

that many scholars write commentaries on
ancient authors more with a view to display
their own learning, than to give real as
sistance to the young student. How he
endeavoured to avoid this, will best appear
from an examination of his works. 1. An
edition of N. Clenardus' " Institutiones lin
guae GraecsE, cum Seholiis et praxi." This
is one of the first practical grammars of the
Greek language that was written. It soon
acquired great reputation, and was very often
reprinted, as at Venice (1570, 8vo.), Paris
(1572, 8vo., and 1581, 4to.), Lyon (1588,
8vo.), Frankfurt, with corrections by F.
Sylburg (1584, 4to., and 1587, 4to.), and at
Hanau (1602, 4to.). 2. Three editions of
Terence (Lyon, 1556 and 1560, in 4to. and
Svo. ; reprinted at Venice, 1586, folio.). The
first edition contains the text, with short
summaries at the head of each scene, and
accents to mark the prosody. The second
contains a selection of the most useful notes
of his predecessors ; and the third contains
some additional notes of his own in the mar
gin, and a French translation and paraphrase
of the first three comedies of Terence.
3. " Thematis verborum Investigandi Ratio,"
and, 4. " De Praxi PrEeceptorum gram-
maticae Graecac ; " both of which have often
been reprinted in more recent Greek gram
mars, as in A. Scot's " Grammatica Grseca,"
Lyon, 1613, Svo. Antesignanus was also a
good Hebrew scholar : he wrote a letter in
this language to P. Costus, which was after
wards printed. (Bayle, Dictionnaire His
torique et Critique, under " Antesignanus.") L.S.
ANTHELMI. [Antelmi.]
ANTHELMUS, SAINT, or NANTHEL-
MUS, ANTELMUS, ANSELMUS. ANCE-
LINUS, was descended from the ancient fa
mily of the lords of Chignin, in Savoy. After
being president of the cathedral of Geneva,
he was sacristan of the chui-ch of BeUey, and
retired to the Chartreuse des Portes, where
he became a monk. The office of prior of
the Cartusia Major, the larger Carthusian
monastery, became vacant in 1139, and An
thelmus was constrained to accept it. Under
him was held, in 1140, the first general
chapter of the Carthusians, which passed the
statutes which Martene has inserted in his
" ^'eterum Scriptorum et Monimientorum
Amplissima CoUectio," tom. iv. p. 1237, &c.
The next two chapters also were probably
held during the time that he was prior. In
1151 he abdicated this office, ,Tnd returned to
the Chartreuse des Portes, of which he was
also compelled to become prior. He again
abdicated this dignity, and in 1161, or rather
in 1163, he became bishop of Belley. He
received the bishopric from Alexander III.
as a reward for his services, as Anthelmus had
caused the Carthusians to recognise Alexander
as pope, and reject the antipope Octavian ;
but an order fi-om Alexander was reqtiisite

ANTHELMUS.

ANTHEMIUS.

to compel Anthelmus to accept the bishopric.
It was about this time that he wrote a letter
to Louis VII. to inform him of his election to
the see of Belley. This letter is inserted by
Duchesne in the " Historiae Francorum Au-
tores," tom. iv. p. 650.; and it is the only
work of Anthelmus which exists, unless we
consider him to be the author of another and
a longer letter, published by Martene, who
attributes it to St. Anselmo of Lucca, in the
" Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum," tom. i.
p. 210 — 214. The inscription of this letter
is A. Bell, and the manuscript was found in
the abbey of BarseUes, which was founded in
1150. Anthelmus made a journey into Nor
mandy, by order of Alexander III., in 1169.
He returned to Belley in 1171, and died there
26th June, 1178. He was canonized, and
his body was transferred, in 1630, into a
chapel, which was bnUt for the purpose at
BeUey. An epitaph was placed on his tomb,
in which he is called Beatus Anthelmus Thau-
maturgus. Many miracles are related as
having been wrought at his tomb in an anony
mous account of his life, which was written
about 1180 by a monk who had been with
him at the same time in the Chartreuse des
Portes (Contubernalis .... qui ejus contu-
bernio aedificari meruimus). This life is
inserted in BoUand, "Acta Sanctorum om
nium," 26 Jun. p. 226—238. {Histoire Liti-
raire de la France, tom. xiv. p. 612 — 614.
630—631.) C. J. S.
ANTHE'MIUS ("Ai/fleVMs), an ancient ar
chitect, mathematician, and mechanic of the
sixth century. He was a native of Tralles, in
Lydia, whence he is sometimes surnamed
TraUianus. He was the brother of Alex
ander TraUianus the physician, and Agathias
mentions three others of his brothers who
distinguished themselves. Anthemius was
the most distinguished of all the archi
tects of Justinian who were employed at
Constantinople. He rebuiU for this emperor,
with the assistance of Isidorus of Miletus, in
commemoration of his victories over the
Persians, Goths, and Vandals, the celebrated
church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, after
it was burnt down by the populace in 531, in
a style far surpassing the original buUding ;
he died however before it was completed ;
in 634, according to some authorities. The
new church was finished in 537 by Isidorus,
and Justinian is said to have been so well
satisfied with it that he exclaimed "Solomon,
I have surpassed thee! " The dome, however,
feU in through the shock of an earthquake m
557 ; but Justinian ordered it to be imme
diately restored ; and it was again finished
hy Isidorus, in nearly the same style, five
years afterwards ; and, with the exception of
a few alterations which were made when it
was converted into a mosque by the Turks,
it StiU remains in the state in which it was
left at that time. Its ground plan is nearly
square ; it measures 228 French feet wide by
3

250 long, and its dome, which is of stone, and
is the first that was ever built upon arches
and piers, is 108 feet in diameter. Even
in Justinian's time this church was several
times imitated ; and it is generaUy considered
to have been the original type of the Byzan
tine style, and of the numerous mosques of
the Turkish capital, some of which, though
not in extent, surpass it for beauty of pro
portions. There is a poem by Paulus Silen-
tiarins upon this buUding. A small quarto
from some MSS. of Anthemius was published
by M. Dupuy in 1777 at Paris, under the
foUowing title, " Fragment d'un Ouvrage
Grec d' Anthemius sur des Paradoxes de Me
canique," &c., with a French translation,
and notes. It is a fragment of the work of
Anthemius, which was entitled " Ilepl Tlapa--
S(J|c«ji/ '^¦r\xo-v7}ix6.T(av-" Agathias praises the
mechanical ingenuity of Anthemius. The
commentaries of Eutocius upon the Conica
of Apollonius Pergaeus are addressed to
Anthemius, which proves that he must have
had reputation as a mathematician. An
edition in Greek and Latin of the Conic
Sections with the commentaries was pub
lished by Halley, at Oxford, in 1710. (Pro-
copius, De .-Edijiciis Justiniani, lib. i. ; De
Templo SancttE Sophia: ; Agathias, Hist.
lib. V. ; S. D' Agincourt, Histoire de I'Art,
See. ; Kugler, Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte-) R. N. W.
ANTHE'MIUS ('Aveefiios), was prajtorian
praefect of the east in the latter part of
the reign of Arcadius, and during the first
six years of the reign of Theodosius II.
Anthemius was grandson of Philip, praefect
of the east in the reign of Constantius.
His first important public service was his
embassy to Persia, when he concluded with
Yezdegerd the Persian king, an aUiance
that remained unbroken during his admi
nistration. On his return Anthemius was
appointed master of the offices, consul with
Stilicho, the minister and general of the
western empire, in a. d. 405, praefect of
the east, and finally was created patrician
by Arcadius. On the death of Arcadius
in A. D. 408, Anthemius acted as guardian
and prime minister to the infant emperor,
Theodosius II. He retained his prefec
ture until A.D. 414, when Pulcheria, the
sister of Theodosius, assumed the adminis
tration and the guardianship of her brother.
From this time Anthemius retired from pub
lic life, since he could neither approve nor
control the malversation of Pulcheria and
her court. (Fragment of Eunapius in Nie-
buhr's edition of the Byzantine historians,
p. 97.) As the guardian of the emperor he
displayed all the qualities of an able and
upright minister. " I congratulate you not,"
says Joannes Chysostom in his hundred and
forty-seventh epistle, addressing Anthemius,
" on uniting in your own person the consulate
and the pra;fecture ; rather do I congratulate
n 2

ANTHEMIUS.
those offices on being so well bestowed. Your
tribunal is the refuge and asylum of suffering
virtue, and your administration will be for
the whole east a period of rejoicing and
repose." His severe impartiaUty awed, if it
could not reconcile, the factions of the court
and the sects of the church. His firm alli
ance with Persia enabled him to direct the
whole force of the eastern empire against the
Huns, whom he expeUed from Thrace, and
one of whose tribes, the Scyrrl, he destroyed,
or dispersed as slaves in Asia. (Sozomen, ix.
5.) The public establishments and monu
ments of Anthemius improved and adorned
Constantinople : and he strengthened and
enlarged the city with a new and wider
circuit of walls. He repaired also the forti
fications of the lUyrian frontier ; and he had
formed the design of rendering the Danube
impassable to the barbarians by a permanent
fleet of two hundred and fifty ships of war.
{Codex Theodosian- vii. tit. 13., xv. tit. 49. ;
Socrates, Histor- Ecclesiast, vii. 1. ff. ; Co
dex Theodosian- vii. tit. 10. § 1, 2., tit. xi. § 1.;
TlUemont, Histoire des Empereurs, vi. p. 1.
ff. ; Sirmond's note to Sldonlus ApoUinarls,
Anthemii Panegyricus, 94. p, 108.) W. B. D.
ANTHE'MIUS PROCO'PIUS, {'AfSe-
/j,tos UpoKdi-n-ios) was grandson, on the mo
ther's side, of Anthemius, praetorian prae
fect of the east (a. d. 405 — 414), son of Pro-
eoplus, patrician and master-general under
Arcadius and Theodosius II. {Codex Theo
dosian- vii. tit. iv, §. 36. De Erogatione An-
nonce Militaris), and of the same family
with the Procoplus of Cilicia who usurped
the purple, for a short time, in the reign of
Valens (a. d. 365). It is uncertain whe
ther Anthemius was born at Constantinople
or in Galatia. After serving in Illyria and
on the banks of the Danube against the
Huns, he was chosen by the Emperor Mar-
cianus for the husband of his daughter jElla
Marciana Euphemia, by whom, besides a
daughter married to the patrician Ricimer,
he had three sons, Marcianus, RomiUus, and
Procoplus. His alliance with the emperor
raised Anthemius rapidly from the dignity
of count to those of master-general, of consvil
(a.d. 456), and of patrician; and on the death
of Marcianus he probably expected to become
his successor. But, at that time, the patri
cian Aspar was all-powerful at the Byzantine
court, and Aspar placed the steward of his
household, Leo the Thracian, on the vacant
throne. Anthemius, however, stood high in
Leo's favour : he was again employed against
the barbarians on the Danube, and entrusted
with the command of the fleet of the Hel
lespont. In A. D. 462, the Roman senate so
licited Leo to give a ruler to Italy, and to
send an army and a fleet to repel the \'andals
from Rome. (Evagrius, ii. 16.) Leo then
adopted Anthemius as his colleague ; invested
him with the robe and diadem ofthe western
empire ; and sent him to Rome, attended by
4

ANTHEMIUS.
several counts of high rank, and a train of
soldiers and followers scarcely Inferior to au
army. At Rome Anthemius was welcomed
unanimously by all ranks of the citizens : he
entered the city in triumph ; and his own
inauguration was followed by the nuptials of
his daughter with the patrician Ricimer, the
real emperor of the west. On the 1st of
January, A.D. 468, Anthemius commenced
his second consulship, and the event was
celebrated by the poet Sldonlus ApoUinaris,
the delegate and orator of the Arverni (Au
vergne in Aquitaine) in a panegyric of more
than 600 lines, which is stiU extant, and
which gave a flattering sketch of the past Ufe
and the future glories of Anthemius. His
predictions, however, were not verified. The
reign of Anthemius was marked by cala
mities abroad and dissensions at home. In
the expedition undertaken by Leo in a. d.
468, against the Vandals in the Roman Nu-
midia, Anthemius did not sustain his former
reputation. In a.d. 471-2, Spain was finaUy
severed from the western empire by the
Visigoths ; and Anthemius could only protect
his GauUsh provinces from the same enemy,
by inviting from Britain a band of turbtdent
auxiliaries, who were more dreaded by the
provincials than even the Visigoths. His
civil government was distinguished by the
celebration of the Lupercalia, an ancient fes
tival which was not abolished till the end of
the fifth century a. d., and by the trial of
Arvandus, prasfect of Gaul. The Lupercalij
were probably solemnised with unusual pomp
by Anthemius, and may have strengthened
the imputation of paganism, and of a design
to restore the worship of the ancient gods,
to which his intimacy with the philosopher
Severus subjected him. (Damascius, Vita
Isidori, ap. Phot. Bibliotlt- p. 1049. Cod.
242.) From Philotheus, a Macedonian sec
tary, Anthemius had imbibed also the doc
trines of toleration, and was with some
difficulty restrained by Pope Hilary (Baronius,
Annal- A. D. 467. No. 3.) from permitting
heretics to assemble publicly in Rome. Yet
on his departure from Constantinople in a.d.
467, Anthemius had devoted his palace on
the shores of the Propontis to the pious and
useful purposes of a chapel, an almshouse,
and a bath. The trial of Arvandus was
perhaps the last act of jurisdiction of the
Roman senate over its Gaulish provinces.
Arvandus, who had been twice praefect, was
condemned for mah'ersation, and Sldonlus
ApoUinarls, the friend of the accused, re
marks that under an emperor like Anthemius
one might openly assist a state criminal.
His quarrel with Ricimer divided Italy into
two hostile provinces, of whioh Rome and
Milan were the respective capitals. A brief
reconciliation between Anthemius and his
son-in-law was effected by Epiphanius, bishop
of Pavia. But, on learning that Leo had
dispatched Anicius Olybrius [Olyerius] to

ANTHEMIUS.

ANTHERIC.

the assistance of Anthemius, Ricimer, with
an army of Italians, Burgundians, and Suevi,
moved from MUan to the Anio, and finaUy
occupied the Vatican and Janiculum su
burbs of Rome. He disarmed Olybrius by
offering him the throne of Anthemius. But
the senate and the populace of Rome ad
hered generaUy to Anthemius, and a body
of Gothic troops enabled him to hold out
for three months. The last conflict between
Ricimer and Anthemius was on the bridge
of Hadrian. The fall of Gilimer, the cap
tain of his Gothic mercenaries, determined
the fate of Anthemius. He escaped death
in battle ; but was dragged from the church
where he had concealed himself, and mur
dered by the command of Ricimer, July
11th, A. D. 472. (Sldonlus ApoUinarls, An
themii Panegyricus, w. 1 — 548. ; Epistolce,
i. 7, 9. ii. 1. iii. '9. ; TiUemont, Histoire
des Empireurs, vi. ; and the notes of Sirmond
to his editions of Sldonlus and of En-
nodius ; Sirmond, Opera, vol. i. p. 1647. ff.)
W. B. D.
ANTHERIC, called also Antharic or
Antharit, and Autharls and Autari by the
Italian chroniclers, was the son of Clefo,
one of the chiefs of the Longobards, who
was elected king of the Longobard na
tion in a general assembly held at Pavia
after the death of Alboin, a.d. 573. Clefo
was a rude warrior ; he put to death, ac
cording to Paulus Diaconus, many of the
principal men among the Roman or Italian
population, and banished others from Italy,
whose property he seized. After eighteen
months' reign, Clefo was stabbed by a ser
vant of his household. Antheric was then
very yotmg, and the Longobards instead of
choosing another king, preferred leaving the
administration in the hands of their dukes,
who acted as governors of the principal
towns of North Italy. Paulus mentions the
Dukes of Ticlnum or Pavia, Bergomum,
Brixia, Tridentum, and Forum Julil, the
last of whom had been appointed duke by
Alboin at the time of his invasion of Italy.
There were also thirty more dukes, who
ruled over as many towns. The govern
ment of these didies lasted ten years, during
which time each duke acted in an arbitrary
manner, and endeavoured to extend his do
minion over the neighbouring Italian popu
lations, many of whose principal men were
put to death by the Longobards, and their
property was confiscated. The rest were
bound to pay to the respective dukes one
third of their income. It was during this
rule of the dukes that, according to Paulus
Diaconus, the churches were plundered, the
priests were klUed, and towns were de
stroyed. It was then that the Longobards
extended their conquests to the south of the
Apennines, over Tuscany, Umbria, Picenum,
Campania, and other regions, and the founda
tions of the great Longobard duchies of Spo-
5

letum and Beneventum were laid. Faroaldus,
duke of Spoletum, is mentioned by Anas-
tasius Bibliothecarius as having laid siege to
Rome after the death of Benedict I., a. d.
578. He also took Classis, the port of Ra
venna. The Longobards of Beneventum
under their duke, Zoto, plundered the mo
nastery of Monte Casino, about A. D. 582,
and about the same time they were besieging
Naples, which, however, they did not suc
ceed in taking.
In the meantime Maurice, emperor of
Constantinople, who saw his dominions in
Italy invaded by the Longobards, entered
into negotiations with Childebert, the
Prankish king of Austrasla, for the purpose
of forming an offensive alliance against the
Longobards, and sent him fifty thousand
golden " soUdi " as a subsidy. ChUdebert
ruled over northern and eastern France and
the countries on both banks of the Rhine,
including the duchy of Alemannia, which
extended over part of Helvetia and Rhaetia
as far as the frontiers of Italy. He crossed
the Alps with a large force, a. n. 584 ; but
the Longobards, instead of meeting him in
the open field, prevailed upon him by nego
tiations, assisted by a seasonable payment of
money, to return to his own country, on
learning which the Emperor Maurice was
very angry, and demanded of ChUdebert,
though in vain, the reimbursement of his
subsidy. Under these circumstances the
Longobards resolved upon electing a king
who coidd direct their forces, and their
choice fell upon Antheric, son of Clefo, who
is represented as a handsome, pleasing, and
brave youth. This election appears to have
taken place about the year 585, but the pre
cise date is uncertain. Antheric assumed
the surname of Flavins in imitation of the
Roman emperors, and his example was
followed by the subsequent kings of the
Longobards. About the same time a certain
Droctulf, a native of Suabia or Alemannia,
who had, through his personal qualities, at
tained the rank of duke among the Longo
bards, went over to the Byzantines of Ra
venna, and being entrusted with some troops
and boats he took from the Longobards the
town and port of Classis. He afterwards
threw himself into the strongly-fortified town
of Brixellum, on the banks of the Po, which
he defended stubbornly for a time against
Antheric, who, however, ultimately took It.
DrocttUf retired to Ravenna, where he died
some time after, and was buried in the
church of St. Vitale : his epitaph is given by
Rossi and other historians of Ravenna.
After the taking of Brixellum, Antheric
concluded a truce for three years with the
Exarch Smaragdus. About the year 588
Childebert, king of the Franks, having again
invaded the frontiers of Italy, was en
countered by Antheric at the head of his
Longobards, who defeated the Franks, making
E 3

ANTHERIC.
a great slaughter of them. The place of the
battle is not mentioned. Soon after, An
theric sent Ewin, duke of Tridentum, to in
vade Istrla, which was under the sway of
the Byzantines, and the Longobards, after
having devastated that country and collected
a great booty, withdrew. Antheric took also
the island Comacina in the Lake of Como,
which still held out for the eastern emperor.
About the year 589, King Antheric sent
ambassadors to Garibald, duke of Boloaria,
to ask iu marriage his daughter Theudelinda,
to which her father consented. On the re
turn of the ambassadors, Antheric went him
self in disguise, with a new party of Longo
bard envoys, to Boloaria, to see his bride.
Pretending to be one of the envoys who had
been sent to see and do homage to their new
queen, he asked Garibald to be allowed to
receive a cup of wine from her own hand.
Theudelinda, having accordingly handed
him the wine, he, on returning the cup, con
trived to touch her fingers, and to draw her
hand across his face, at which TheudeUnda
blushed. She related the occurrence to her
nurse, who observed that the man must be
her future husband, or he would not have
dared to have taken such a liberty with her.
After this, the messengers, having taken
leave of Garibald, returned home, escorted
by Boioarian horsemen. Shortly after, the
country of Boloaria being invaded by the
Franks, Theudelinda ran off to Italy, accom
panied by her brother Guntwald, and was
married to Antheric near Verona, A. d. 689.
About the year 690, the Franks of Aus
trasla made another irruption into Italy, by
the way of Rhaitia, with a very large force.
This attack had been concerted between
King Childebert and the Emperor Maurice,
who ordered the Exarch Romanus to support
it by a corresponding movement of his troops
from Ravenna. The Franks overran the
territory of Milan and the banks of the Po
and of the Adige, destroying many small
towns, and making the inhabitants slaves.
Antheric withdrew his troops into the forti
fied towns until the summer came, when
disease broke out among the Franks, whose
leaders then concluded a truce with the
Longobards, and retraced their steps across
the Alps. The Exarch Romanus, on his side,
had taken Modena and Mantua, and received
the aUegiance of the Longobard Dukes of
Parma and Piacenza, who gave up to him
their own sons as hostages. If the Fnankish
leaders had waited to form a junction with
the imperial troops, they might have put an
end to the dominion of the Longobards in
Italy ; but the Franks seem to have cared
more for plunder than for regular warfare,
for which their disorderly bands were ill
calculated. There are some Important letters
given in Duchesne's " Historiae Francorum
Scrlptores," which passed between King
Childebert, the Emperor Maurice, and the
6

ANTHERIC.
Exarch Romanus, concerning this ill-contrived
campaign. The exarch, writing to Childebert
after the withdrawal of the Prankish troops,
exi>resses his grief for this untimely and un
called-for retreat, which he beUeves to be con
trary to Childebert's intention, and hopes that
the king will send a new army in the ensuing
year before the harvest, with instructions to
his officers to spare the houses and persons of
the ItaUan population, for the relief of which
their assistance was wanted . and not only
not to make slaves of them, but to restore
liberty to those who had been carried into
slavery by the Franks during the preceding
campaign. Antheric, foreseeing a fresh at
tack, sent ambassadors to Gontran, king of
Burgundy, and uncle of Childebert, to re
quest his mediation for the object of restoring
peace between the Franks and the Longo
bards. Gontran listened favourably, and
forwarded them with his own recommenda
tion to his nephew Childebert. WhUe the
ambassadors were waiting for ChUdebert's
decision, messengers arrived in Austrasia
from Queen Theudelinda with the news of her
husband's death. Antheric died at Pavia in
September 590, and report ascribed his death
to poison. So says Paulus Diaconus, who,
however, does not say upon whom the sus
picion rested. TheudeUnda was acknow
ledged as regent, and married again soon
after. [Agilulfus.] There is a circular
letter of Pope Gregory I. to the bishops of
Italy, in which he tells them that the impious
Antheric having, in the previous Easter so
lemnities, forbidden the chUdren of the
Longobards to be christened in the Catholic
commvmion, God in punishment had visited
him with death. Antheric, like most of the
Longobards of his time, who were no longer
heathens, belonged to the Arian communion.
Antheric, during his short reign of six
years, appears to have done much towards
consolidating the dominion of the Longo
bards, and estabUshing order in the countries
conquered by them. The benefit of this was
felt the more after the preceding amarchy
during the administration of the dukes. It is
to the period of Antheric's reign that the
passage of Paulus Diaconus (b. iii. p. 16.),
in which he extols the security and justice
that prevailed in the kingdom of the Longo
bards, seems to apply. After stating that,
in consequence of the restoration of the
kingly authority in the person of Antheric,
the dukes agreed to give each one half of
his property for the support of the crown,
and of the various officers imdcr the crown,
Paulus goes on to say that a new par
tition was made of the subject-people, or
Italian native population, for the purpose of
equEillsing among them the chai-ge of sup
porting their Longobard guests, that is to say
the body of the conquerors. " But," he adds,
" what Is most wonderful is, that under the
reign of the Longobards there were neither

ANTHERIC.

ANTHEUS.

violence nor frauds of any sort. No one
plimdered or oppressed his neighboiu- ; there
were neither robberies nor thefts, and every
one might go wherever he pleased in perfect
security." This passage has given rise to
much controversy. Tiraboschi, Maffei, and
Manzoni are inclined to doubt the truth of
the statement of Paulus, or at most they con
sider it as applicable chiefly to the relations
of the Longobards, the conquering race,
between themselves, and not to their con
duct towards the subject Italian population.
Others, as Muratori, Giaunone, Denina, and
Bossi, adopt the passage as an unqualified
testimony in favour of the equity of the
Longobard government. The question has
been discussed with great temperance by
Manzoni iu his very well written " Discorso
sopra alcuni Punti deUa Storia Longobardica
in Italia." There is one fact more mentioned
by Paulus as a current tradition concerning
Antheric, which is deserving of notice.
That king is said to have visited the newly
conquered countries of Spoletum and Bene
ventum, and to have advanced as far as Rhe-
glum at the southern extremity of Italy,
where he waded on horseback into the sea
as far as a pillar that stood there near the
shore. This pillar, which is mentioned by
other writers by the name of " Columna
Rhegina," he touched with the point of his
spear, saying, " This shall be the boundary of
the Longobards ; " the pillar, says Paulus,
is reported still to exist, and to be known
by the name of Antheric's piUar. Muratori,
Gibbon, and others have spoken at length on
this passage concerning Antheric.
The principal authorities for the early
period of the Longobard domination in Italy
are Gregory of Tours, the chronicler Frede-
garius, and Paulus Diaconus, who lived long
after. A. V.
ANTHE'RMUS, an ancient sculptor of
the island of Chios ; he was the son of i\lic-
ciades, and the grandson of Malas, likewise
artists. He was also the father of the dis
tinguished artists Bupalus and Anthermus, or
Athenis, as Thiersch reads with Suidas and
the scholiast on Aristophanes {Sirds, 573"), who
were contemporary with the poet Hlpponax,
who lived about Olympiad 60, and later.
[Bupalus.] Anthermus therefore lived
about Olympiads 50 and 55 (b. c. 580—560),
and was contemporary with the sculptors
Dlpoenus and Scyllls. Silllg, from the Scho
liast on Aristophanes, and for other reasons
given lu his " Dictionary of Ancient Artists,"
has converted the name Anthermus into
Archeneus in that work, and in his edition
of Pliny into Archennus. Thiersch has re
tained the common reading of Pliny, Anther
mus. (Pliny, Hist- Nat- xxxvi. 5. ; Thiersch,
Epochen der bildenden Kunst unter den Grie-
chen, ed. 1829 ; Silllg, Catalogus Artificum,
" Anthermus.") R- N. W.
ANTHEUS, a sculptor mentioned by Pliny
7

amongst those artists who assisted in restoring
sculpture about the hundred and fifty-fifth
Olympiad, or B.C. 176. (Pliny, Hist. Nat.
xxxiv. 8.) R. W. jun.
ANTHIA'NUS, FU'RIUS, a Roman
jurist, whose period is unknown. He wrote
on the " Edict " (ad Edicttun), and there are
three extracts from his work in the " Digest,"
all taken from the first book of his work.
The Florentine Index mentions five books of
this work on the " Edict," but it has been in
ferred from the terms in which the five books
are mentioned {fj.4pos eBiKrov $il3\ia Trejre),
coupled with the fact of all the three extracts
being from the first book, that the entire
work was not extant in the time of Justinian.
But the inference hardly amounts to a pro
bability. G. L.
A'NTHIMUS, PATRIARCH. [Aga-
PETUS I.]
ANTHOINE, ANTOINE IGNACE,
was born on the 21st of September, 1749, at
Embrun, of a good family. He early entered
the service of a merchant of Marseille, by
whom he was placed at the head of a branch
of the house at Constantinople. Having,
whUe in this situation, conceived extensive
plans for the enlargement of French com
merce by the navigation of the Black Sea, he
submitted several memoirs on the subject to
the home government, through the Comte de
St. Priest, the ambassador at Constantinople.
They were well received, and Anthoine was
sent to Russia and Poland to make arrange
ments with those countries. He was thus
occupied during the years 1781, 1782, and
1783, and at length succeeded in obtaining
from the Empress Catherine II. permission
to set up an establishment at Cherson, which
proved highly successful. Its progress was
indeed often obstructed by the wars in which
the Porte engaged from time to time, but
Anthoine persevered in the face of all dis
couragements, and lived to see a vast trade
spring up between the ports of the Euxlne
and those of France, especially Marseille.
One of his highest triumphs was the pro
curing of timber fitted for the masts of the
largest vessels from the forests of Lithuania,
with such expedition that it reached France
in less than four months by way of the Black
Sea and the Mediterranean, although it had
always taken three years ou its northward
route by the Baltic, which was the only one
open before his projects had been carried into
effect. Anthoine received letters of nobility from
Louis XVI., as a reward for his services, in
1786. In that year he took up his residence
at Mai-seUle, and married MademoiseUe
Clary, a lady belonging to one of the richest
families of the city, and whose sister became
the wife of Joseph Bonaparte.
In 1793 Anthoine was compeUed by the
progress of the revolution to take refuge in
Genoa for a time, but he soon returned, and
B 4

ANTHOINE.

ANTHOINE.

filled several municipal offices. The revo
lution of the 18th Brumalre seemed to open
to him a career of ambition, on account of
his connexion with Napoleon's famUy, but
the only favours he obtained were the star of
the legion of honour, and the title of Baron
de St. Joseph. In 1806 he became mayor
of Marseille, in which office he distinguished
himself by his special attention to the public
buildings. In 1813 he resigned the office,
and his only further appearance in public
was In 1815, during the hundred days, when
he acted as deputy to the Chamber of Repre
sentatives for the department of the mouths
ofthe Rhone. He died at Marseille In 1826.
Anthoine published in 1805, at Paris, an
" Essai Historique sur le Commerce et la
Navigation de la Mer Noire," 1 vol. Svo.,
in which he entered at fuU length into the
plans he had conceived, and the history of
the measures adopted for carrying them into
execution. An enlarged edition appeared in
1S20, with additions, bringing the information
on these points up to the period of publication.
(Anthoine, Essai Historique sur le Commerce,
Sfc, de la Mer Noire ; Arnault, Biographic
Nouvelle des Contemporains, i.) J. W.
ANTHOINE, NICOLAS, was born of
Roman Catholic parents, at Brieu, in Lorraine,
and educated at the College of Luxemburg,
and by the Jesuits at Cologne. He was con
verted to Protestantism at Metz, by the cele
brated Paid Ferry. He then went to Sedan
to study divinity, and afterwards to Geneva.
The difficulties he met with in reconciling
certain texts of the Old and New Testaments
induced him at length privately to renounce
Christianity, and become a convert to Ju
daism. He went to Metz, and requested
admission to the synagogue, but the Jews
there referred him to their brethren at Venice,
who also evaded receiving him, and persuaded
him he might be a good Jew without the
external rites, if he held the true faith in
wardly. Returning to Geneva, he became tutor
to the children of M. Dlodatl, and unsuccess
fully contended for the professorship of phi
losophy. He afterwards obtained testimonials
from Geneva, which procured his admission
as a minister, by the Synod of Burgundy, and
his appointment to the ministry of Divonne,
in the Pays de Gex. Here some remarkable
omissions in the service raised a suspicion of
his orthodoxy, and on this being intimated to
him he went raving mad, and in that state
uttered numberless blasphemies. He was sent
to the hospital, and after a time recovered,
but, although now quite calm, he continued
in his opinions, and in three petitions pre
sented to the Council, boldly avowed himself
a Jew. He was at length brought to trial,
when he persisted in his avowal, but protested
against the expressions he had uttered during
his fits of madness being used against him ;
which, however, his prosecutors made no
scruple of doing. He was pronounced guilty.

and sentenced to be strangled, and afterwards
burnt. His old instructor, Paul Ferry, had
during his imprisonment written a long and
eloquent letter to the CouncU, in which he
detailed various extravagances he had long
before observed in Antholne's conduct, and
attributed his strange proceedings to what
would in the present day be called a mono
mania. This letter produced such an im
pression that the ministers of Geneva went in
a body as soon as Anthoine was condemned,
to request that his execution might be stayed.
Their application was without eileet, and the
sentence was executed the day on which the
trial concluded, the 20th of AprU, 1623.
(Memoir in the Harleian Miscellany, iii. 205
— 210, which is reprinted from a pamphlet of
the time.) J. W.
ANTHONIE, FRANCIS, or FRAN-
CISCUS ANTO'NIUS, as he caUs himself in
his Latin writings, was the son of a rich gold
smith in London, where he was bom in 1550.
In 1569 he went to Cambridge ; and after
taking his master of arts degree, in 1574, re
mained there for many years studying che
mistry very sedulously. About 1590 he re
turned to London, and, not long after, began
to make himself notorious by seUing a medi
cine which he called aurum potabite, professing
that it contained a solution of gold, and could
cure all diseases. In 1600 he was summoned
before the president and censors of the coUege
of physicians, by whom, after confessing that
he had practised medicine and cured twenty
or more people without a licence, he was in
terdicted from practice, and, a month after,
was committed to the Compter prison and
fined five pounds. In a fortnight, however,
he was liberated by a warrant from the chief
justice, upon whom the authorities of the
coUege forthwith waited to request him to pre
serve their privUeges, and Anthonie, humbly
begging pardon, was again fined five pounds
and set at liberty. Not long after he was
again accused of practising, again confessed,
and was again fined ; but this time he refused
to pay, and the fine was therefore raised to
twenty pounds, and he was committed to pri
son. He remained in confinement for eight
months, and then, at the repeated petitions of
his wife, was released. Two years later a
fresh prosecution was instituted against him ;
but he had now received the patronage of so
many and such great persons that the college
seem to have thought it best to suffer him
to practise with impunity, and he was at
tacked only by pamphlets. To these he re
plied in a defence of himself and his remedy,
with the title " Medicinae Chymicae, et veri
Potabilis Am-i, Assertio," Cambridge, 1610,
4to. ; a treatise in the ordinary style of the
Hermetic phUosophy, in which he maintained
that minerals in general have great medicinal
virtues, and that gold must, from its very
nature, have more than any other of them.
He gave also a general sketch of his plan of

ANTHONIE.

ANTHONIE.

dissolving gold, but no guide to it, and added
a few cases of the success of its administration.
Anthonie's Essay was replied to by Dr. Mat
thew Gwynne, a distinguished fellow of the
coUege of physicians, in a treatise entitled
" In Assertorem Chymicae sed verae Medicinae
Desertorem," London, 1611, 4to. ; a work
satirical and pedantic enough, but with re
spect to science or knowledge of medicine,
not at aU superior to that which it was in
tended to confute.
In 1616, Anthonie published another de
fence of himself, in a book caUed " The
Apologie, or a Defence of a Verity heretofore
published concerning a Medicine called ' Au
rum Potabile'" London, 1-616, 4to. This,
which is little else than his former treatise in
a more popular style, and with many new
cases of seemingly weU-attested success, was
published at the same time in Latin, and
soon after was, together with the first, printed
and widely circtdated abroad, with the title
" Panacea Aurea, sive Tractatus duo de
Auro PotabUl," Hamburg, 1619, 12mo. It
was very angrUy answered by Dr. Cotta,
whose reputation had been a little attacked
in it, in a pamphlet, " Cotta contra Anto
nium, or an Ant-Antony," London, 1620,
8vo., and by Thomas RawUn, in " Admonitio
Pseudo-Chymicis," London, without date,
and by others. However, aU these answers
only made Anthonie the more notorious, and
he died a wealthy man in 1623, not less dis
tinguished for his cures than for his hospi
tality and bounty to the poor. He left two
sons, John and Charles, who were both phy
sicians. Charles practised at Bedford, and
John (who wrote his name Anthony), con
tinued to sell his father's medicine, tiU, about
the year 1655, it feU into disrepute. He then
adopted another course, and wrote a book of
pious meditations, with the title, " The Com
fort of the Soul, laid down by way of medita
tion," London, 4to., 1654, and which was
afterwards published as " Lucas Redivivus, or
the Gospel-Physitian," London, 4to., 1666.
The notion of a potable gold did not ori
ginate with Anthonie. It had long been ex
pected that some solution of that metal would
be a medicine ofthe highest value, and many
before him had supposed that they had de
termined its curative properties. What his me
dicine was cannot now be settled. The author
of his life in the " Biographia Britannica "
professes to give the method of making it
from a manuscript in Anthonie's own hand
writing. If the method he describes be the
true one, there was certainly no gold in the
aurum potabile ; but probably this author is
wrong in this as In some other particulars,
for, from the prescription he gives, no me
dicine resembling the aurum potabile in ap
pearance could be prepared. The proba-
bUity is, that gold was not the most active
ingredient of the medicine ; for there is suf
ficient evidence that it produced greater
9

effects than that metal does, except when
given in much larger doses than it would
have contained. It is equally uncertain
what amount of good or mischief was done
by its use ; but it probably owed its reputa
tion more to the character and conduct of its
proprietor than to its own merits. Anthonie
certainly is not to be classed with quacks of
modern times. The notion that a universal
medicine might be found was then generally
entertained, even by the learned ; and many
looked for it in gold : his knowledge of che
mistry was fuUy equal to that of his oppo
nents, and, in medicine, he seems to be little
inferior to them. {Biographia Britannica ;
GoodaU, The Royal CoUege of Physicians of
London established hy Law, §-c.) J. P.
A' NT I AS, QUINTUS VALE'RIUS.
[Valerius.] ANTI'CHIO, PIE'TRO, a Venetian
painter of the eighteenth century. In the
church of San Salvatore there are two pic
tures by him — Christ driving the Sellers and
Money Changers from the 'Temple, and the
Pool of Bethesda. Antichio visited Germany,
and met with considerable success in various
places in that country. His pictures are
conspicuous for high colouring. He died iu
1763. {Lepubbliche Pitture di Venezia, 1733;
Fiissli, AUgemeines Kiinstler Lexicon.') R. N. W.
ANTICHISSIMO. [Guido da Bologna.]
ANTICLI'DES ('Aj'T-iKAeiSTjs), of Athens,
a Greek historian who seems to have lived
shortly after the time of Alexander the
Great, but concerning whom no particulars
are known. He was the author of several
works, some of which are highly spoken of
by the ancients ; but aU are lost, with the ex
ception of a few fragments. 1. " NfitrTot,"
that is, the " Retum." Whether the main
subject of this work was the return of the
Greek heroes from Troy, as was the case in
the epic poems caUed NiitrToi, or from some
other expedition, cannot be said with cer
tainty. It must have been a very volumin
ous work, since Athenaeus quotes a passage
from the seventy-eighth book. The frag
ments preserved in Athenaeus, Strabo, and
others, show that the author treated his sub
jects in a critical spirit, and that the work
contained accounts belonging to the earliest
period of Grecian history. 2. " ArjAiaKa,"
that is, " A History of the Island of Delos,"
of which the scholiast on ApoUonius Rhodius
quotes the second book. 3. " 'ElTjyijTiKcij."
'The nature of this work is not very clear,
though what Athenaeus quotes from it sug
gests that it treated on mythological subjects.
4. " A History of Alexander the Great,"
which is mentioned by Plutarch, and of
which Diogenes Laertius quotes the second
book. In this work the author seems to have
entered at some length into the early history
of Egypt, and it is not improbable that what
Pliny quotes from him respecting the invcn-

ANTICLIDES.

ANTIGENES.

tion of the alphabet by an Egyptian, as weU
as what Plutarch quotes from him respecting
the Egyptian goddess Isis, belonged to this
history of Alexander. (Vossius, De Histo-
ricis GrtBcis, p. 389, &c. ed. Westermann ;
C. W. Miiller, De Cycle Grwcorum Epico,
p. 126.) L. S.
ANTI'CO, LORENZO, also known under
the Latinized form of his name, Antiquus,
a priest, was born at the city of Lentini in
the island of Sicily about the middle of the
sixteenth century. Quesnel, in his " Cata
logus Bibliothecae Thuanae," 222, has erro
neously classed him with the ancient gram
marians. Having entered into priest's orders,
he went to Padua, and became professor of
grammar in the university of that city. He
wrote : — 1. " De Eloquentla Compendiarii
Libri Tres. Adjecta est brevis Copia Verbo
rum et Rerum Appendix " (" A Compendium
of Eloquence, &c."), Venice, 1594, Svo., and
Padua, 1618, Svo. 2. " De Institutione Gram-
maticae Commentarii Tres " (" Three Com
mentaries on Grammar"), Padua, 1601, Svo.
3. " Summa Rhetoricarum Praeceptionum ex
Arlstotele, Cicerone et QulntUlano excerp-
tarum " (" Substance of Precepts of Rhetoric
taken from Aristotle, Cicero aud Quintilian"),
Padua, 15S5, Svo. (Mongitore, Bibliotheca
Sicula; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia ; Ade-
lung. Supplement to Jocher's AUgemeines Ge-
lehrten-Lexicon, art. " Antiquus.") J. W. J.
ANTICO'NE, GIAMBATTI'STA, a
clever miniature painter of Naples of the end
of the sixteenth century. He was the scholar
of Sofonisba Anguisciola. (Dominici, Vite
de' Pittori, Sfc- Napolitani-) R. N. W.
ANTI'DOTUS, a Greek painter, probably
of Athens. He was the scholar of Euphranor,
and the master of Nicias, which latter cir
cumstance obtained him more celebrity than
any of his own performances. He was more
severe in colouring than his master, and was
more distinguished for the care with which
he finished his works, than for their number.
Pliny mentions three of his paintings : — a
warrior fighting, with a shield ; a wrestler ;
and a flute player. {Hist. Nat. xxxv. 40.)
R. N. W.
ANTI'GENES {'Amiyevvs), the name of
several ancient Greek physicians, who have
been sometimes confounded. One of these
is caUed by CeeUus Aurelianus " Antlgenes
Cleophantlnus," and Is mentioned by him
as having noticed catalepsy under the name
of avavSia. He was one of the followers
of Cleophantus, and as Mnemon, one of his
fellow pupils, is known to have lived in the
reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt,
B.C. 247 — 222, Antlgenes must therefore
have lived about the same time. He wrote a
work " On Fevers and Tumours," which is
quoted by Callus Aurelianus, but is perhaps
not now extant. This is probably the same
physician who is mentioned by Galen in com
pany with Praxagoras, Eraslstratus, and se-
10

veral others who lived about the same time,
whom he caUs " the ancients," and who appear
to have been celebrated for their knowledge of
anatomy. Haller, however, considers them
to have been two different persons.
Another physician of this name was one of
the pupils of Quintus and Marinus, and was
a contemporary of Galen in the second cen
tury after Christ. He lived at Rome, where
he enjoyed some reputation, and had a great
deal of practice among the noble and wealthy
families of that city. Galen gives an account
of his being ridiculed by Antlgenes for pre
dicting the recovery of the philosopher Eu-
demus, and of the wonder of Antlgenes when
Galen's prognosis was verified by the event.
(CaeUus Aurelianus, De-Morb- Acut- Ub. ii.
cap. 10. p. 96. ed. Amman ; Galen, Comment-
in Hippocr- " De Nat Hom- " ii. § 6. tom. xv.
p. 136. ; De Pranot ad Posth- cap. 3. tom.
xiv. p. 613. ed. Kuhn ; Le Clerc, Hist de
la Med- ; Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca, vol. xiii.
p. 63. ed. vet. ; HaUer, Biblioth- Medic- Pract,
tom. 1.) W. A. G.
ANTI'GENES Q AvTiyiv-qs), one of the
generals of Alexander the Great. He had
distinguished himself, as a yoimg man, in the
reign of PhUip of Macedonia, and during the
siege of Perinthus, in b. c. 340, he lost one
eye by a missile. He refused to have the
weapon extracted from his eye untU he had
helped to drive the Perinthlans, who had
made a sally, back into their town. He after
wards served in the army of Alexander du
ring his Asiatic expedition, and distinguished
himself on various occasions by his bravery,
as in the siege of HaUcarnassus, ji. c. 331,
and in the battle against Porus, B.C. 327. In
B. c. 324, when Alexander entertained his
soldiers In the most magnificent manner at
Susa on the Choaspes, amd paid the debts of
his soldiers, Antlgenes, after having made
some arrangement with his creditors, made
out that he owed a much larger sum than
was reaUy the caise, wishing to pocket the
surplus. The king on discovering the de
ception, drove Antlgenes from his eourt and
deprived him of his office in the army. This
disgrace made so deep an unpresslon upon
him, that he meditated his own destruction.
But Alexander, who esteemed bim for his
valour, was unwUllng to let things come to
extremities : and ordered th.it he should have
the sum which he had demanded. After the
death of Alexander, Autigenes, together with
Teutamus, had the command of the Macedo
nian Argyrasplds under Eumenes. In b. c.
31S Teutamus was on the point of aUowing
himself to be bribed by Antigonus to betray
Eumenes, but Autigenes, whom Teutamus
tried to gain for his project, not only resisted
the temptation, but persuaded his colleague
also to remain faithful to Eumenes. In a
similar manner Autigenes was tried the year
after by Seleucus, but all efforts were in vain.
When the war between Eumenes amd Antl-

ANTIGENES.

ANTIGNAC.

gonus broke out, Antlgenes advised Eumenes
to march to western Asia, but his counsel
was neglected, and Eumenes advanced into
eastem Asia. In the unfortimate campaign
which followed, B.C. 316, the treachery of
the Argyrasplds dehvered Eumenes and his
army into the hands of Antigonus, who im
mediately ordered Antlgenes to be burnt
alive. (Plutarch, Alexand- 70. ; Arrian, Anab.
V. 16. ; Curtius, v. 2., vul. 14. ; Diodorus
Siculus, xviii. 59. 62., xix. 13. 15. 21. 44.;
Plutarch, Eumenes, 13.; ArfiaJi, apud Photium,
p. 71. ed. Bekker.) L.S.
ANTI'GENES {'Avri-y4v7is), a Greek his
torian who is mentioned by Plutarch among
those who wrote the history of Alexander
the Great, and described the interview of the
queen of the Amazons with Alexander aifter
he had crossed the river Orexartes. Beyond
this nothing is known about him. (Plutarch,
Alexand. 46. ; Pliny, Elenchus to Book V- of
his Hist Nat.; Herodian, De Monosyllab.
p. 41.) L. S.
ANTIGE'NIDAS, or ANTIGE'NIDES,
QAvTi-^ivi^as or 'Avrvy^vibiis), of Thebes, a
celebrated flute-player and writer of songs
(yue'A?)). According to Suidas, he was a son
of Satyrus, and according to Harpocration, of
Dionysius. He acquired great reputation in
his art as early as the time of Epaminondas
and Iphicrates, and he was stiU living in the
reign of Alexander the Great, in whose
retinue he appears to have been, and whom
he delighted with his music. Suidas calls
him the flute-player of Philoxenus, which
seems to mean that he distinguished himself
chiefly in the mimic representation of the
dithyrambs of that poet. Suidais also states
that he was the first who used Milesian san
dals, and that in the representation of the
comastes {KwfiacrT^iis), a dithyramb of Phi
loxenus, he wore a crocus-coloured cloak.
Antigenidas had two daughters, Melo and
Satyra, who followed the profession of their
father, and whose names have been immor
talised in an elegant epigram of Leonidas,
still extant in the Greek anthology (v. 206.).
(Bode, Geschichte der Lyrischen Dichthunst
der Hellenen, 11. 321, 322, note 1., where aU
the passages of ancient writers concerning
Antigenidas are given.) L. S.
ANTIGNAC, ANTOINE, a celebrated
song writer, was born at Paris in the year
1770. He held a situation in the adminis
tration des postes. As a writer he was agree
able and sprightly in his chansons a boire et a
manger, which were his favourite topics. His
satirical pieces are described as rather heavy
and monotonous in their construction ; but his
writings generally possess some elegance.

although they do not rank among the first of
their class. His politics were of a very ac
commodating nature. The " Dictionnaire des
Girouettes " mentions a song composed by
him in 1814 in favour of the restoration of
the Bourbon dynasty, and also some couplets
written by him on occasion of the retum of
Napoleon, which were sung on the 30th of
March, 1816, at a cUnner given to some of
his generals. Antignac died at Paris in the
month of September, 1825.
His compositions are extremely numerous :
they wiU be found in " Le Caveau moderne ;"
" Le Chansonnier des Graces ; " " Le Journal
des Gourmands et des Belles ; ou, L'Epl-
ctirien Franjois," 1806, and continued from
1808 under the title, " L'Epicurien Fran9ois ;
ou, les Diners du Caveau modeme ; " An
nales Ma9onniques," Paris, 1807-10, 8 vols.
8vo., reprinted in " La Lyre Ma9onnique,
redigee par J. A. Jacquelin," Paris, 1809 —
1814, 6 vols. 12mo. He also published a col
lection under the title " Chansons et Poesies
diverses," Paris, 1809, Svo ; and a little piece
written on occasion of the marriage of Napo
leon with Maria Louisa, entitled " Cadet
Roussel aux Preparatifs de la Fete," Paris,
1810, Svo. (Mahul, Annuaire Necrologique,
1826; Rabbe, Biographic des Contemporains;
Biographic Universelle, Suppl.) J. W. J.
ANTI'GONE {;Avny6vr,), a daughter of
Cassander, the brother of Antipater. She
was the second wife of Lagus, the founder of
the house of the Ptolemies, by whom she
became the mother of Berenice, who was
first married to Philip of Macedonia, the son
of Amyntas, and afterwards to her half-
brother, Ptolemy I., king of Egypt. (Schol.
ad Tlieocrit. xvii. 34. 61.; Plutarch, Pyrrhus,
4. ; Droysen, Geschichte der Nachfolger Alex
anders, p- il7- note 26-) L.S.
ANTI'GONE {'ApTiy6yv), a daughter of
Philip of Macedonia by Berenice, who after
wards married Ptolemy I. It was owing to
the influence of Berenice that Pyrrhus, during
his stay at the court of Ptolemy, received
Antigone as his wife. Antigone was very
much attached to Pyrrhus, and assisted him
in carrying out his plan of returning to
Epirus. She bore him a son of the name of
Ptolemy, but appears to have died soon after.
(Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 4, 5, 6. 9.) L. S.
ANTIGO'NIDiE, The, were a princely
family of Elymiotls, a province of Macedonia,
several members of which were raised to the
throne of Macedonia after the death of Alex
ander the Great. The foUowing stemma of
the family is taken from Droysen, Geschichte
der Nachfolger Alexanders.

n

Derdas.
Name unknown.

ANTIGONIDiE. (his Brothers)

Phila.
"Wife of Philip IL

Philip,
Satrap in India.
Died in B.C. 325.

Hiirpalus.
Died in b.c. 323.

Name
unknown.

Antigonus.
Born B. c. 382. King of Asia
inB.c.30G. Died in B.C. 301.
His wife, Stratonice,
daughter of Corrhjeus.
^  i^ 
Demetrius I. Philip.
Born B. c. 337. died in
King in b. c. 306. B. c. 306.
Died in b. c. 283.
His wives were :
1. Phila.
2. Eurydice, widow of Ophelias
3. Deidamia.
4. An lUyrian ¦woman.
5. Ptolemais.
6. Lamia, daughter of Cleomenes,
&c. &c. II

Marsyas,
Stepson of Philip,
and son of
Periander of Pella.

PtolemeeuB-
Died in B.C. 309.
His wife, a daughter
of Dionysius.

Galas,
Satrap of
Phrygia.

Antigonus(Gonatas).
Born B.C. 318.
Died 239.
"Wives: Phila
and Demo.

Stratonice. "Wife, first
of Seleucus,
and then of
Antiochus.

Corrabus. A son. Demetrius the Thin,

Demetrius the Beautiful.
Born B.c.286(?). King of
Gyrene from B.C. 258 to
B.C. 250. His wife,
Olympias of Larissa.

Demetrius II.
King of Macedonia
from B. c. 239 to 229.
"Wives : Stratonice
and Phthia.

Halcyon eus.

Apama,

Philip "V. Born in B.C. 237.
King of Macedonia 220. Died 179.

ANTrGONUS {'AuTlyouos), an ancient
Greek army surgeon, -who must have lived
some time in or before the second century
after Christ, as the earliest writer TPho men
tions him is Galen, hy whom some of his
medical prescriptions are quoted with appro
bation. He is perhaps the same person who
is mentioned by Marcellus Empiricus, but
is probably not the physician who is intro
duced by Lucian in his *' Philopseudes," and
who seems to have been a sort of impostor.
Fabricius says that one of the medicines
of Antigonus is mentioned by Paulus iEgi-
neta, but this seems to be an oversight, as,
in the passage alluded to, the name is not
Antigonus, but Antiochus, (Fabricius, Bib-
lioth. QrcEca, vol. xiii. p. 63. ed. vet, ; C.
G. Kiihn, De MedicincB Militaris apud Veit.
GrcBcos Homanosque Conditioner fascic. v. p.
5, 6., Leipzig, 1826, 4to. ; Id., Additamcnta ad
Elenchum Medicorum Veterum a Jo. A. Fa-
hricio in ^^Biblioth. Gr(Ec'^ vol. xiii, p. 17 —
456. exhibitum, fascic. ii. p. 8. Leipzig, 1826,
4to. ; Id., Index Medicorum Ocidarionim inter
Grmcos Homanosque, fascic. i. p. 9., Leipzig,
1829, 4to. ; Galen, De Compos. Medicam.. sec.
Locos, lib. ii. cap. i. tom. xii. p. 557. 580. ed.
12

Antigonus Ec
(Doson).
Born B. c. 263.
King of Macedonia
from B.C. 229 to B.C. 221.
His wife, Phthia. Antigonus. L. S.
Kiihn ; Marcellus Empiricus, De Mcdicam-
cap. 8. p. 266, 267. 274. ed H. Steph. ; Pau
lus jEgineta, De Re Med. lib. vu. cap. 8. init)
W. A. G.
ANTI'GONUS (^Avriyovos'), a Greek his
torian, wrote a work on the history of Italy,
beginning as we may infer from Festus (sub.
voc. " Romam ") with the eai-liest times.
(Dionysius Halicai-n., Rom- Antiq- i. 6.) L. S.
ANTI'GONUS, a sculptor. The place of
his birth and his date are unknown. Pliny
mentions him as one of the numerous artists
who represented the battles of Attains and
Eumenes against the Gauls. Attains I., king of
Pergamus, the successor of Eumenes, obtained
his great victory over the Gauls in the hun
dred and thirty-fifth Olympiad, or 239 years
before Christ, and Antigonus probably lived
about that time. Besides having executed
other works in sculpture, noticed by Pliny,
Antigonus is said to have -m-itteu on his art.
(Pliny, Hist- Nut- xxxiv. S.) R. W. iun
ANTI'GONUS {-Aniyovos), a. son of the
Jewish king AnisTonuLus II. and brother
of Alexander. [Alexander, son of Aris-
TonuLus II.] He was the last of the Mac
cabees that sat on the throne of Juda;a (b c

ANTIGONUS.

ANTIGONUS.

40— E. c. 37). This is the chronology of Dion
Cassius (xlix. 22.). According to Josephus
{Jew. Antiq. xiv. 16.), Antigonus reigned
from B. c. 37 — B. c. 34. Respecting this chro
nological difference, see Ideler, Handbuch der
Chronologic, ii. 389, &c., and Wernsdorf, De
Fide Librorum Maccabceorum, p. 24,
After his father had been poisoned by
some of the partisans of Pompey the Great,
and his brother, Alexander, had been put to
death at Antioch (b. c. 49), Antigonus was
expelled from Judaea by Antipater and his
sons, Herodes and Phasael, who were then
all-powerful in Judaea. Antigonus applied
to Julius CfEsar for support, but in vain. In
b. c, 42 he attempted an invasion of Judaja,
but was repeUed by the sons of Antipater,
who were supported by Antony. A great
number of the people were in favour of An
tigonus, but nothing could be done untU the
war of the Romans with the Parthlans, in
which the Parthlans made themselves masters
of Syria. Antigonus gave the Parthlans one
thousand talents of silver and five hundred
women, in return for which he received
auxiliary troops, by means of which he took
possession of Jerusalem, and expeUed Herodes
and Phasael, b. c. 40. Herodes escaped to
Rome, and Phasael, who fell into the hands
of the Parthlans, had his ears cut off by the
command of Antigonus, in order that he might
never be able to obtain the office of high
priest. Herodes was recognised by the Ro
man senate as the legitimate king of Judsea,
and Antigonus was declared an enemy of the
Roman state. Herodes accordingly hastened
to Judaea and laid siege to Jerusalem, but
being ill-supported by his Roman friends, who
aUowed themselves to be bribed by Antigo
nus, he could effect nothing. At last M.
Antony took an active part in the affair, and
sent his legate, C. Sosius, to support Herodes.
C. Sosius besieged Jerusalem for five months,
at the end of which Antigonus surrendered,
and in the most cowardly manner fell pros
trate before Sosius, and implored his mercy.
The Roman general treated him with con
tempt. Antony himself wished to spare his
life, that he might adorn his triumph at Rome,
but Herodes, who felt unsafe as long as
Antigonus was alive, bribed Antony to put
him to death. Antigonus was accordingly
beheaded by the axe of a lictor at Antioch,
or, according to others, nailed to a cross, in
B. c. 37. (Josephus, Jew. Antiq. xiv. 13 — 16.,
XV. 1. ; .Jewish War, i. 13, &c. ; Dion Cas
sius, xlvui. 4., xlix. 22. ; Plutarch, An-
tonins, 36.) L- S.
ANTI'GONUS QAvriyovos), often caUed
king of Asia, (though on his coins and in an
cient authorities he is simply called king, and
surnamed Cyclops, orthe" one-eyed," was the
son of Philip, a prince of Elymiotls in Macedo
nia, and was born about B. c. 382. He accoin-
panied Alexander the Great on his Asiatic
expedition as commander of the aUies ; and at
13

the siege of HaUcarnassus (n. c. 334) he was
among those who had distinguished them
selves by their courage. In b. c. 333 this post
was given to Balacrus, the son of Amyntas,
and Antigonus was appointed satrap of Phry
gia. After the battle of Issus (e. c. 333) some
of the generals of Darius collected their scat
tered forces and attempted to recover Lydia,
but Antigonus, although he had few troops
at his command, gained three successive vic
tories over the barbarians, and dispersed the
enemy. The year following he made a suc-
cessfiil campaign in Lycaonia. This is all we
know about Antigonus during the reign of
Alexander the Great, and the time in which
he displayed his energy and ambition does
not begin till after the death of Alexander.
In the division of the empire which was
then (b. c. 323) made, Antigonus obtained
Lycia, Pamphylia, and the Greater Phrygia.
Eumenes, a friend of Perdiocas, was to have
Cappadocia, and Antigonus was commanded
by Perdiccas to assist him in gaining posses
sion of it : but Antigonus disobeyed the
command of Perdiccas, who assumed the
authority of sovereign, to which Antigonus
was unwiUing to submit. Perdiccas making
preparations to punish him, Antigonus fied
with his son Demetrius, afterwards surnamed
Pollorcetes, to Antipater, the regent of Ma
cedonia, who was at war with the .Sitolians
(B.C. 321). Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy,
who were themselves in danger, espoused the
cause of Antigonus, and war broke out be
tween these confederates and Perdiccas, but
Perdiccas was murdered in the same year.
Antipater, who sueceeded him as regent ofthe
empire, restored to Antigonus his satrapy, and
gave him the command ofthe greater part of
the armies in Asia, for the purpose of making
war against Eumenes and the other friends
of Perdiccas. Antigonus graduaUy gained
over nearly the whole army of Eumenes, who
was at last besieged in the stronghold of Nora
in Cataonia. Leaving a portion of his troops
to maintain the siege, Antigonus marched with
the rest of his forces into Plsidia to attack Al-
cetas and Attalus, who, as friends and rela
tions of Perdiccas, still held out against Anti
pater. Both were defeated in the course of the
winter of b.c. 320 and 319, and Antigonus
came into the possession of a great power.
The death of Antipater in n. c. 319 was a
favourable event for Antigonus, who had for
some time entertained the intention of making
himself independent of the regent. When
Polysperchon became the successor of Anti
pater, and Cassander, the son of Antipater,
laid claims to the regency, Antigonus also
refused to recognise Polysperchon in his
new dignity, and allied himself with Cassan
der, although they seem to have hitherto been
unfriendly. Their alliance was joined by
Ptolemy, and Antigonus, perceiving the ad
vantage which he might derive if Eumenes
also, who was still blockaded in Nora, could

ANTIGONUS.

ANTIGONUS.

be induced to join them, made overtures
towards a reconcUiation and offered favour
able terms. Eumenes, unshaken in his ad
herence to the royal house of Macedonia, and
unwiUing to subm-it to a man who seemed to
wish to usurp the throne, commenced nego
tiations, but availed himself of an opportunity
which occurred during the transactions, and
escaped from Nora into Cappadocia. Poly
sperchon now appointed Eumenes commander
of the troops in Asia, and empowered him to
make use of the royal treasures, which were
kept in a place in Cilicia, and guarded by the
Argyrasplds, the veterans of Alexander's
army, under Antlgenes and Teutamus. Eu
menes was well received on his arrival in
Cilicia by the commanders of the Argyras
plds, raised troops, and soon put himself in
possession of nearly the whole of PhtEuicla.
But when Antigonus, who had gained a vic
tory near Byzantium over Clitus, the admiral
of Polysperchon, in the year b.o. 317, ad
vanced, Eumenes withdrew to Upper Asia.
Here the satraps of Persia, Carmanla, Aria,
and Bactria were in arms against Pithon of
Media and Seleucus of Babylonia. Eumenes
joined the satraps, and Antigonus allied him
self with Pithon and Seleucus. On his arri
val in Susiana Eumenes was joined by his
allies. A considerable force was thus as
sembled, and if union had existed, the parti
sans of Eumenes might have maintained
themselves against their enemy. But while
they were considering who was to have the
command, Antigonus, who had already ar
rived in Mesopotamia, hastened to meet Eu
menes, hoping to overtake him before he
was joined by his allies. The news that this
junction had already taken place delayed his
march a little, and he rested his exhausted
troops. At Babylon he was joined 'by the
troops of Pithon and Seleucus, and then
crossed the Tigris towards Susa. The in
telligence of his approach induced Eumenes
to retire towards the mountains of the Uxil,
along which the Pasltigris fiows, and to leave
the citadel and the treasures of Susa in the
care of Xenophilus. Eumenes took up his
position on the eastern bank of the Pasltigris.
On his arrival at Susa, Antigonus made Se
leucus satrap of the province of Susiana, and
giving him a sufficient army to besiege the
citadel, he marched against the enemy. It
was intheheat of the summer (n. c. 317), and
it was not without great difficulty that he
reached the river Copratas, the modern river
of Dlzful, a western tributary of the Pasltigris
(the river of Shuster). Antigonus sent a part
of his troops across the river, and Eumenes
in the mean time recrossed the Pasltigris,
and defeated that part of the army of Anti
gonus which had crossed the Copratas. Anti
gonus, who was unable to assist his troops
which had crossed the Copratas, withdrew to
wards the town of Badaea, which Diodorus
places on the Eulaius (the modern Sliapur),

where the army rested for several days, and
then marched into Media, through the country
of the Cossaeans, to join Pithon. This march
of nine days was through narrow defiles
between high mountains, in which the troops
were constantly attacked by the natives and
suffered severe losses. The soldiers became
disheartened and discontented, but Antigonus
succeeded in inspiring them with fresh confi
dence, and on their arrival in Media a supply
of provisions and pay restored their courage.
The army of Antigonus received also great
reinforcements here. Eumenes in the mean
time marched to Persepolls, where Peucestas
treated the army with the utmost liberality.
About the autumn (e.g. 317), Antigonus
marched into Persia, and Eumenes and his
allies set out to meet him. The two armies
encamped at a short distance from one an
other. Several days passed without any thing
decisive, and Eumenes broke up in the night
and marched towards Gabiene, to prevent
Antigonus joining Seleucus. On discovering
this diversion, Antigonus hastened in pursuit
ofthe enemy. In Gabiene the two armies met,
and a great battle was fought which, though
indecisive, lasted during a whole day. In the
foUowing night the two armies quietly re
treated. Antigonus, although his losses were
greater than those of Eumenes, appeared
master of the field, and withdrew to the dis
trict of Gadamarta in Media, where he found
ample provisions and a favourable place for
winter quarters. Eumenes took up his winter
quarters in Gabiene, but his army was dis
persed over the whole province, and the
soldiers abandoned themselves to pleasure.
Antigonus, who was informed of this, thought
it a favourable opportunity for crushing his
enemies. With a view to surprise them- he
broke up at the close of the year, and marched
with the greatest precaution through the
great salt desert towards Gabiene. But
Eumenes was informed of his movements,
and hastUy assembled his troops. Antigonus
determined to fight a decisive battle at any
cost. The elephants of Eumenes, while they
were driven to his camp, nearly feU into the
hands of Antigonus. "The armies met in the
neighbourhood of Gadamai-ta, and a fierce
battle ensued. Antigonus had a decided ad
vantage, and in the evening Eumenes re
treated in order to deliberate on his future
operations. No resolution was come to, and,
on the next day (b.c. 316), the discontented
and treacherous Argyrasplds delivered Eu
menes and their own commanders into the
hands of Antigonus, who put to death Eu
menes, Antlgenes, and several other men of
distinction. Antigonus, who had now the whole army
of Eumenes at his command, was by far the
most powerful among the generals of Alex
ander He was, however, unwiUing to share
his booty with allies whom he treated as if he
was their master. Pithon, dissatisfied with

ANTIGONUS.

ANTIGONUS.

such conduct and dreading to fall into a state
of complete dependence, endeavoured to raise
the troops against Antigonus. Antigonus,
receiving inteUigence of this, contrived to
entice Pithon to come to him, and had him
sentenced to death as a traitor by a court
martial. Seleucus, the other ally, with whom
Antigonus purposely sought to quarrel by
calling him to account for his administration,
dreaded a conflict with his powerfid and
crafty rival, and fled to Ptolemy in Egypt.
Antigonus now distributed the satrapies of
Asia according to his own pleasure, and laden
with immense booty returned to "Western
Asia. His power induced all those who
were anxious to maintain themselves in inde
pendence, to demand of him the recognition
of their rights to certain provinces, and an
equal division of the royal treasures ; hut
Antigonus refused aU negotiations, and a
coalition was formed against him consisting
of Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, Asander,
and Cassander. Vigorous preparations were
made to crush him by the united forces of
these generals. The long struggle began in
B.C. 315, and was carried on with one inter
ruption, with great energy and varying suc
cess, partly in Syria and Phoenicia, partly in
Asia Minor, and partly in Greece. Asander
was defeated and capitulated in B. c. 313, and
iuB. c. 311 a general peace was concluded
with Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus,
according to which Alexander iEgus, for
whose rights Antigonus pretended to have
fought, was recognised as king of the whole
empire, and Cassander as his chief-general in
Europe, untU the young king should be of
age. Lysimachus received the command in
Thrace, Ptolemy in Egypt and the adjoining
countries of Libya and Arabia, and Antigonus
had all Asia. The Greek towns were to be
left free, in order that none of the rulers
might possess them, all being anxious to gain
possession of them. Seleucus, who is not
mentioned in this peace, had estabUshed him
self the year before in Eastern Asia, and it
was probably after the conclusion of the
peace, that Antigonus made war upon him,
but he had not time to strike a decisive blow ;
for(B. c. 310) fresh hostilities broke out in
the west and called for his presence there.
HostiUties were commenced by Ptolemy,
who took possession of several Greek towns
in Asia Minor on the gi-ound that they were
StiU occupied by garrisons of Antigonus not
withstanding the peace which secured their
independence. Cassander induced Ptolemy,
the nephew of Antigonus, who commanded
the forces on the Hellespont, to abandon the
cause of his uncle ; Polysperchon also was
persuaded by Cassander to revolt against
Antigonus and to poison Hercules, the son of
Alexander the Great by Barsine, who had
been set up as a pretender, for Alexander
iEgus and his mother Roxana had been mur
dered by Cassander soon after the peace. De-
15

metrius and Philip, the sons of Antigonus,
soon recovered those parts of Asia Minor
which had been taken by Ptolemy. Ptole
my had for some time entertained the plan
of marrying Cleopatra, the sister of Alex
ander the Great, which would have increased
his power and influence ; and in order to pre
vent the marriage, Antigonus, who himself
had at one time wished to marry her, caused
her to be put to death. The last member of
the royal famUy being thus got rid of, the
bond which had hitherto united the dis
tracted empire was broken, and the am
bition of the generals was now undisguised.
Greece seemed to be lost to Antigonus, since
Cassander and Ptolemy had got possession of
it. But Antigonus determined to send a large
force into Greece, and in order to gain the
good will of the people, he declared his in
tention to carry into effect the terms of the
peace of the year E. o. 311, and to restore all
the Greek towns to independence. The com
mand was given to his son Demetrius, who
had scarcely accomplished the liberation of
Athens and Megara when he was called back
by his father (b. c. 306) and ordered to take
possession of the island of Cyprus, which had
been occupied by Ptolemy. The fleets of
Demetrius and Ptolemy met off Salamis, in
Cyprus, and a great battle was fought in which
Ptolemy was completely defeated. After this
victory Antigonus assumed the title of king,
and gave the same title to his only surviving
son Demetrius. Their example was followed
by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus ; but
Cassander did not venture to do the same,
apparently from fear of the Macedonians.
Elated by his success in Cyprus, Antigonus
now resolved to crush Ptolemy. In the year
ofthe victory off Salamis, Antigonus marched
into Egypt as far as the NUe, while De
metrius saUed with his fleet towards the
mouth of the river. But the undertaking
failed. The measures of Ptolemy rendered
it impossible for Antigonus to cross the
river with his troops, and the fleet under De
metrius was scattered by a storm. Antigonus
was obliged to return to Syria, and Ptolemy
celebrated a victory which he had won with
out striking a blow. In B. c. 305 Antigonus
directed his forces against the island of
Rhodes, partly to punish the islanders for
having refused to join him in the Egyptian
war, and partly to destroy their commerce,
and thus indirectly to injure Egypt. The
Rhodians refused to submit to the humiliating
terms proposed by Antigonus, and Deme
trius laid siege to the town of Rhodes. But
his military skUl was ineffectual against the
brave defence of the Islanders, and when at
last the Athenians and .33tolians petitioned
Antigonus to raise the siege and send more
forces to Greece, where Cassander assumed
a threatening position, Antigonus com
manded his son to saU to Greece. After
having concluded a peace honourable and

ANTIGONUS.
favourable to the Rhodians in b. c. 304, De
metrius saUed to Greece, and, without much
difficulty, got possession of the most im
portant towns, such as Athens, Argos,
Sicyon, and Corinth. [Demetrius.] Cas
sander soon found himself pressed so hard,
that he sued for peace. The haughty Anti
gonus demanded unconditional surrender.
This demand roused the last energies of
Cassander : he formed an alliance with Lysi
machus in Thrace, whose own dominions
were exposed to danger If Macedonia fell
into the hands of Antigonus, aud the two
allies sent ambassadors to Seleucus and
Ptolemy. These kings had learned by ex
perience to view Antigonus as their most
dangerous enemy, and the new coalition
against him was soon formed, b. c. 302.
Antigonus, now eighty years of age, deter
mined to fight a decisive battle against Lysi
machus, who had crossed into Asia Minor,
before Seleucus could arrive from Upper
Asia. But his plan was frustrated, and the
whole of the year b. c. 302 was passed in in
activity. In the mean time Seleucus joined
Lysimachus, and Antigonus was obliged to
call his son Demetrius from Greece. The
hostile armies met in b. c. 301, in the plains
of Ipsus in Phrygia. The aged Antigonus,
who had always gone to battle with great
calmness, entered on the decisive contest
with dark forebodings. The great battle of
Ipsus was fought in the summer of the year
E. c. 301, and Antigonus lost his empire and
his life. Demetrius fled with his mother
Stratonice, and the dominions of Antigo
nus were divided : Seleucus received the
countries from the coast of Syria to the
Euphrates, together with portions of Phrygia
and Cappadocia, and Lysimachus the greater
part of Asia Minor.
Antigonus was a bold and successful
soldier, unprincipled and cruel when he had an
object to accomplish. But he was not one of
the worst men of the age in which he lived.
He had a strong intellect and great know
ledge of men. He despised flatterers, and he
was not dazzled by his extraordinary suc
cess, which nearly raised him to the sove
reignty of the empire of Alexander the
Great. When a flattering poet once called
him a god and a son of the sun, he replied,
" My servant knows nothing about it." In
his old age he had learned that gentle means
were necessary to keep together what he had
acquired 'by conquest. (Arrian, Anabasis,
1. 30. ; Curtius, iv. 1, 5., v. 2., x. 10. ; Dio
dorus Siculus, xviii. — xx. ; Plutarch, Eu
menes and Demetrius ; Mannert, Geschichte
der unmittelbaren Nachfolger Alexanders,
Leipzig, 1787, Svo. ; Droysen, Geschichte
der Nachfolger Alexanders, books 1. — Ul. ;
Thirlwall, History of Greece, vol. vii. On
the subject of the campaign of Antigonus
and Eumenes in Susiana, and the identifica
tion of the rivers of Susiana, see Major
16

ANTIGONUS.
Rawiinson, London Geog- Journal, vol. ix.,
and Professor Long, vol. xii.) L. S.
ANTI'GONUS CARY'STIUS (^Avriyovos
i Kapitrrios), an ancient Greek philosopher,
the author of a work stUl extant, entitled
'laropiSiv llapa'S6(,MV l.wayayi), " A CoUec
tion of Marvellous Stories." He was born at
Carystus, in the island of Euboea, but nothing
more is known of the events of his life.
With respect to his date, he is said by Arls-
tocles to have Uved near the times of Pyrrho
and Timon Phliasius, whence several writers
have placed him under the reign of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, second king of Egypt, b.c.
285 — 247. The expression, however, iu
Aristocles must, as CUnton remarks, he
understood with some latitude ; for, as Anti
gonus wrote the Ufe of Lyco, who died B. c.
226, he must have stUl written after that
year, while Pyrrho probably died sixty years
before this date.
The works which Antigonus is known to
have written, are — 1. The " CoUection of
Marvellous Stories," mentioned above. In
this treatise the author quotes largely from
Aristotle's spurious work "De MirabUibus
Auscultationibus," (cap. 32 — 127.), and also
from the lost work on the same subject by
CaUimachus (cap. 144 — 176.). It contains
some curious matter, but the greater part of
the work, as the title might lead one to ex
pect, is occupied with the most absurd fables,
many of which were afterwards repeated aud
embelUshed by Nicander, Oppian, Pliny,
MMsta, and others. It was first pubUshed in
Greek and Latin at Sasle, 8vo. 1568, edited
by Guil. Xylander, together with the works of
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus " De Vita Sua,"
ApoUonius Dyscolus " Hist. Mlrab.," Phle-
gon TraUianus, and Antoninus Llberalis.
It was edited with notes, and a much im
proved text, together with Xylander's Latin
version by Meursius, at Leiden, 4to. 1619,
which edition is sometimes bound up with
ApoUonius Dyscolus and Phlegon, and a new
title-page, " Historiarum JlirabiUum Auctores
Gravel," Leiden, 4to. 1622. It Is also contained
in the seventh volume of the coUection of
Meursius's works, Florence, fol. 1746. The
edition of J. Beckmann, Leipzig, 4to. 1791,
contains the Greek text, Xylander's Latin
version, and the notes of Xylander, Meur
sius, Bentley, Schneider, Nicias, and others,
besides those of the editor, who published
some additional observations in his edition of
Mai-bodus " De Gemmis," Gottingen, Svo.
1799. The last edition of this work is by
Anton Westermann, entitled " Scrlptores
Rerum Mlrabilium Grosci, &c." Brunswick,
Svo. 1841. 2. Another of his works, and
probably the principal work, was entitled
Bioi, " Lives," and apparently consisted chiefly
of memoirs of different philosophers. It Is
not now in existence, but it is frequently
quoted by Athenajus, Eusebius, and Diogenes
Laertius, who have preserved some few

ANTIGONUS.

ANTIGONUS.

fragments of the work. 3. Tlepl Ae'^cius,
" On Style," quoted by Athenaeus. 4. Ilcpi
Ztiaiv, " On Animals," quoted by Hesychlus.
5. 'AWoidoeis, " Metamorphoses," quoted by
Antoninus Llberalis as the work of " Anti
gonus," is considered by Fabricius to belong
to Antigonus Carystius. To these works is
added by Fabricius and others an heroic
poem, entitled " Antipater," 'Avri-jTaTpas, of
whicli two Unes are quoted by Athenaeus
(in. 82. ed. Casaub.). However, Schweig-
haeuser and Clinton consider that Athenaeus
is here quoting the " Life of Antipater," by
Antigonus, which formed part of his collec
tion of " Lives," and that the two verses be
long not to Antigonus himself, but to some
unknown poet.* (Fabricius, Biblioth- Graca,
vol. iv. p. 303. ed. Harles ; Schweighaeuser's
Index to Athenaeus, tom. xiv. p. 32. ; Clin
ton, Fasti Hellen. vol. ili. ; Hofmann, Lexi
con Bibliograph.) W. A. G.
ANTI'GONUS {'Ayriyovos) of CuM.ai in
Asia Minor, -wrote a work on agriculture,
whioh is now lost, but is referred to by other
ancient authors who wrote on the same sub
ject. The time in -rfhich he Uved is unknown.
(Varro. De Re Rustica, 1. 1. ; ColumeUa, i.
1. : Pliny, Elenchus, Ub. 8. 14, 15, and 17.) L.S.
ANTI'GONUS ('Ai/TiTo^/os), surnamed
DOSON {Aaxroi'), that is, he who is about to
give. This nickname is said to have been
given to him by the Greeks, because he was
always ready to promise, but not to keep his
promises. He was sometimes also called
Antigonus Euergetes, or Antigonus Soter ;
and as he was the guardian of Philip of
Macedonia, he is sometimes caUed Antigonus
the Guardian {iirlTpoiros).
According to the chronicle of Eusebius,
Antigonus ]5oson was a son of Demetrius of
Cyrene, the son of Demetrius PoUorcetes,
by Olympias, the daughter of Polycletus of
Larissa. After the death of Demetrius II.,
king of Macedonia, in b. c. 230, Antigonus
undertook the government of Macedonia iu
the name of his ward PhlUp, the son of De
metrius II., who was then only five years
old. At the commencement of his regency
the Dardanians in the north and the Thes-
salians in the south rose in arms against
Macedonia to gain their independence, but
Antigonus defeated their attempts. He mar
ried Chryseis, the widow of Demetrius II.,
with the view of seating himself on the
throne of Macedonia, and he actually as
sumed the diadem. The Macedonians per
ceiving his ambitious design revoUed and
besieged him in his palace. Antigonus, with
heroic courage, came forward from his
palace without arms or attendants, flung the
diadem and his purple among the crowd,
and told them to give the ensigns of royalty
» A Greek opigram attributed to Antigonus Carys
tius is preserved in the Greek Anthology, (lib.ix.
^ 406. ed. Taucha)

to some one whom they knew how to obey.
He reminded them of the benefits he had
conferred upon his country, and the enumer
ation of his services together with his in
trepidity had such an effect upon the people,
that they expressed their regret for what they
had done, and entreated him to resume the
government. But Antigonus refused untU
the leaders of the insurrection were given
up to him for punishment. The influence of
Macedonia in Greece had been gradually
lost, and Aratus, by his prudent and generous
conduct, induced Diogenes, the Jlacedonian
commander at Athens, to withdraw his gar
rison, and to restore Athens to Independence.
About b. c. 22S the iEtoUans endeavoured to
induce Antigonus to make war upon the
Achaean league, but he was prudent enough
not to enter into the scheme ; he foresaw a
change in the affairs of Greece, and deter
mined to wait his time. Aratus in the mean
time kept up an understanding with Antigo
nus, and negotiated with him for assistance
against Cleomenes III. of Sparta. When the
war between the Achaeans and Cleomenes
broke out, Antigonus was invited into southern
Greece by Aratus, and Acrocorinthus, the
citadel of Corinth and the key of Pelopon
nesus, was surrendered to him. Antigonus
had been prepared for this event, and had
been waiting in Thessaly. Towards the au
tumn of the year B. c. 223, he arrived at the
isthmus of Corinth. The war against Cleo
menes III. and the jEtoUans, which now
began, lasted nearly three years. Cleomenes
had a fortified position near Corinth, but an
insurrection at Argos compelled him to
withdraw into Peloponnesus, especially as
a part of the hostile fleet sailed to the
coast of Argolis, and thus the road into
the Peninsula was open to Antigonus,
who quickly foUowed Cleomenes to Argos.
Several important towns opened their gates
to the Macedonians, but as the winter was
approaching Antigonus stopped further ope
rations and went to the diet of the Achicans
at iEgium, where he himself dictated the
terms of peace between himself and the
Achasans, and he was overwhelmed with
honours aud flattery. In the following
spring he moved towards Tegea in Arcadia,
which surrendered to him. Orchomenus
was taken and plundered by his soldiers.
Mantinea after a short siege fell Into his
hands : the most distinguished citizens were
put to death or sent in chains to Mace
donia, and the remaining population, women
and children included, were sold as slaves.
The empty town was given as a present to
the Argives, and the name was changed into
Antigonea, which was still in use in the time
of Plutarch. Antigonus having concluded his
campaign before the end of the summer, sent
a part of his troops to Macedonia, and went
himself again to iEgium. In the summer of
the next year, B. c. 221, Antigonus marched
c

ANTIGONUS.

ANTIGONUS.

with a large army to Sellasia, where Cleome
nes was encamped. In the battle which
ensued, Cleomenes and his army were com
pletely defeated, and Antigonus took Sellasia,
which was plundered and destroyed. Sparta
now surrendered at discretion, and was
treated with moderation, as Antigonus wished
to appear the deliverer of the Peloponnesus.
But he changed the constitution of Sparta,
and appointed Brachylles, a Boeotian, go
vernor of the city. The king only remained
a few days at Sparta, as he received intelli
gence that the lUyrians had invaded Mace
donia. Antigonus accordingly hastened
back, and drove the lUyrlans from his do
minions. Immediately after this victory he
was attacked by an Illness which terminated
his life in the autumn of the year B. c. 221.
He was succeeded by his ward Philip, who
was only fourteen years old. The nine years
during which Antigonus Doson governed
Macedonia were comparatively a happy period
for the country. His courage and prudence
secured the kingdom against internal and
external enemies, and re-established the Ma
cedonian influence in Greece. Antigonus is
praised by Polybius for his prudence and
moderation, but his cruel treatment of the
Mantlneans is inexcusable. (Justinus, xxvllL
3, 4.; Athenaeus, vi. 251.; Livy, xl. 54.;
Polybius, 11. 45 — 70. ; Plutarch, Cleomenes and
Aratus; Suidas, under 'Avriyovos; Niebuhr,
Kleine Schriften, p. 232. &c.; Schorn, Ge
schichte Griechenlands, von der Entstehung des
diolischen und achdischen Bundes bis auf die
Zerstorung Corinths, p. 92, &c., and p. 114 —
135.) L. S.
ANTI'GONUS {'Aurlyovos), son of Eche-
CRATES, the brother of Antigonus Doson.
He was a faithful friend of PhUip V. of Ma
cedonia, and hated by Philip's son, Perseus,
who had induced his father by calumny to
put to death his son Demetrius. Philip from
the moment that the act was committed sank
into deep grief, as he was haunted by the
idea that he might have wronged Demetrius.
Antigonus often hinted that he knew who
was the guilty person ; and when Philip at
last insisted upon knowing the secret, Anti
gonus, unwiUing to make the revelation him
self, produced Xychus as a witness. When
the crime thus became known to the king,
Perseus withdrew to Thrace. Philip, to pre
vent Perseus reaping the frtut of his false
hood, declared Antigonus his successor on
the throne of Macedonia, aud soon after died,
B.C. 179. His physician, who had kept up a
secret correspondence with Perseus, imme
diately Informed him of the event. Perseus
succeeded in gaining possession of the throne,
and immediately put Antigonus to death.
(Livy, xl. 54—58.) L. S.
ANTI'GONUS EUE'RGETES. [Anti
gonus DosoN.]
ANTI'GONUS {'Avriyoms), surnamed
GONA'TAS or GONNA'TAS {rovaris), a
18

grandson of Antigonus, king of Asia, and
son of Demetrius PoUorcetes, by PMla, the
daughter of Antipater. During the lifetime
of his father, Antigonus stood by him in his
varied fortunes. In e. c. 287, when De
metrius was expelled from Macedonia and
fled into Asia, Antigonus kept possession of
his post in the Peloponnesus, and when at
last Demetrius fell into the hands of Seleucus,
Antigonus offered himself and aU he pos
sessed as a ransom for his father : but De
metrius died a prisoner, [Demetrius Po-
LioRCETES.] Antigonus had been declared
king of Macedonia by his father, but he
does not appear to have adopted that title till
after his father's death, in b. c. 283. Anti
gonus at this time possessed only a few towns
in Greece, which were occupied by his gar
risons, and gave bim some influence in the
affairs of Greece, After the murder of Se
leucus, in B. c. 280, by Ptolemy Ceraunus,
Antigonus began the contest for the throne
of Macedonia with Ptolemy Ceraunus, but
being defeated in a sea-fight, he withdrew to
the coast of Boeotia. During the period which
followed, hi was prevented from making any
further attempts upon Macedonia, partly by
the insurrections in the Greek towns, where
the spirit of freedom was reviving, and partly
by the invasion of Greece by the Gauls under
Brennus. After the death of Sosthenes, one of
the claimants ofthe throne of Macedonia, who
had maintained himself for two years and then
was killed in battle against the Gauls, Mace
donia feU into anarchy, and several pretenders
disputed the throne, Antipater, a nephew
of Cassander, maintained his position longest,
but he was defeated in E, c. 276 by Anti
gonus Gonatas, who now occupied the throne
of Macedonia. Antigonus owed his victoi-y
in a great measure to his GaUic mercenaries.
His active energy was required in several
quarters at once to secure his tottering throne
against attacks from within and without, as
weU as to recover several districts which had
been severed from his kingdom. A new
pretender now rose in the person of Antio
chus I., king of Syria, who claimed the king
dom of Macedonia as the heir of his father
Seleucus ; but the matter was settled ami
cably between the two kings. Scarcely was
this danger averted when the Gauls again
invaded Macedonia, but they were com
pletely defeated, and Antigonus now be
sieged the tyrant Apollodorus in his fortress
of Cassandrea. The siege lasted ten months
without any prospect of a successful result,
until at last the tyrant was betrayed into
the hands of his enemy and put to death.
The throne of Jlacedonla was now appa
rently secure, and the king thought that
the time was come for crushing the spirit
of liberty in the towns of Greece. But
while he was preparing his campaign, Pyrrhus
returned from Italy, in b. c. 274, and having
no means to support his troops, and bearing

ANTIGONUS.

ANTIGONUS.

also a personal grudge against Antigonus,
who had refused to send him relief to Italy,
Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia. The people
flocked to his standard, and a great battle
showed that the power of Antigonus rested
merely on his mercenaries. Antigonus lost
his throne in b. c. 273, but maintained himself
in the maritime towns of Macedonia, where
he waited for an opportunity of recovering
what was lost. Before Pyrrhus undertook
any thing further, he marched into Pelopon
nesus, and Antigonus availed himself of the
absence of Pyrrhus to recover Macedonia,
which he found the more easy as the cruel
and savage conduct of the soldiers whom
Pyrrhus had left behind had disgusted the
Macedonians. After the death of Pyrrhus at Argos,
in B. c. 272, Antigonus again appeared safe
in his dominions, and he now resumed his
project of uniting all Greece with Mace
donia. He succeeded in extending his sway
over Peloponnesus, and to accomplish his
plans the more successfidly he supported the
numerous tyrants who sprang up in various
parts of Greece, and some of whom owed
their power to him. Some of the tyrants, as
Aristotlmus of Elis, committed, under his pro
tection, the most revolting outrages. But the
means which Antigonus had recourse to for
establishing his supremacy in Greece did not
answer their end, and only revived an ancient
union among a great portion of the Greeks,
which is known by the name of the Achaean
lea^e. After the subjugation of several Greek
towns, Antigonus began, in E.c. 268, the siege
of Athens ; and when, after a long protracted
blockade, Athens was on the point of sur
rendering, an event occurred which saved
Athens, and agam threatened to deprive An
tigonus of his throne : Alexander of Epirus,
the son of Pyrrhus, marched with an army
into Macedonia. Antigonus raised the siege
of Athens, and hastened to Macedonia. His
army treacherously went over to Alexander.
Macedonia was lost : Thessaly alone and
his Greek subjects remained faithful to him.
But fortune quickly turned in his favour.
Demetrius, whom Justin calls a son, and
others a brother of Antigonus Gonatas, col
lected fresh troops, defeated Alexander in a
battle near Derdium, and not only expelled
him from Macedonia, but compelled him to
surrender his own kingdom of Epirus, and
flee to Acarnanla. Epirus however re
mained only a short time in the possession
of Antigonus, as the Epirots, with the assist
ance of the .aStolians, expeUed the Macedo
nians and restored Alexander to the throne.
In the meantime Areus of Sparta had con
quered several possessions in Peloponnesus
which belonged to Antigonus, and as soon as
Antigonus had settled the affair with Alex
ander of Epirus, he hastened to the isthmus
of Corinth. In B. c. 265 he fought a battle
near Corinth, in which Areus feU, and his
19

Spartans were compelled to return home.
After this victory Antigonus again turned
his thoughts towards Athens, the conquest of
which was his favourite scheme, notwithstand
ing his oaths and treaties. He besieged the
city in vain until the autumn of b.c 263,
and then concluded a truce. The Athenians
confiding in the king's honesty provided
themselves only with sufficient supplies till
the autumn of the next year, and just before
the harvest of the year e.g. 262 was about
to commence, Antigonus unexpectedly ap
peared with his army before the city. The
Athenians were compelled to admit Mace
donian troops. The upper part of the city
and the Museum however were evacuated
again after the fortifications were destroyed.
Antigonus was now at peace for several
years, during which however he did every
thing to prevent the extension of the Achaean
league. In b.c. 243 Aratus succeeded in
taking possession of Acrocorinthus and ex
pelling the Macedonian garrison, and after
this event the Macedonian infiuence in Pelo
ponnesus died away. Corinth and Megara
joined the league, which also concluded an
aUiance with Egypt, to protect itself against
Macedonia. Antigonus, bent upon recover
ing what he had lost, formed still closer con
nections with the tyi-ants who still existed in
several parts of Greece, and concluded an
alliance with the iEtoUans. Emissaries were
even sent by Antigonus and Arlstippus, tyrant
of Argos, to assassinate Aratus. A war broke
out between the Achaeans and .^tolians, in
which Antigonus took no part. After the
defeat of the iEtollans near Pallene in Pelo
ponnesus by Aratus, a peace was concluded
with Macedonia, as Antigonus now saw that
it was impossible to effect any thing against
the Achaean league, and he thought it ad
visable to secure by a treaty what he still
possessed in Greece. He died shortly after,
at the age of eighty, in B. c. 240, and left his
kingdom in a prosperous condition to his son
Demetrius II. The surname Gonatas is
usually derived from Gonni or Gona, a town
of Perrhaebia in Thessaly, which is said to
have been the place where he was born and
educated. But Niebuhr thinks that Gonatas
is a Macedonian word and the same as the
Romaic yovaras, an iron plate to protect the
knee, and that Antigonus derived his sur
name from wearing this unusual piece of
armour. His reason for thinking so is the
circumstance that Demetrius Pollorcetes did
not come into the possession of Thessaly tUl
after Antigonus had grown up to manhood.
If his name is derived from the town, the
penultima wiU be long (Gonatas) according
to the best analogy. (Plutarch, Demetrius,
Pyrrhus, Aratus, Apophthegm. Reg. ; Justinus,
xvii. 2., xxiv. 1., xxv. 1, 2, 3., xxvi. 1, 2. ;
Pausanias, 1. 13. ; Polybius, u. 43 — 45., ix.
29. 34. ; Niebuhr, Kleine Schriften, p. 227. ;
Schorn, Geschichte Griechenlands, von der
c 2

ANTIGONUS.

ANTILLON.

Entstehung des dtolisclten und achdischen
Bundes, SfC-, p. 39 — 83.) L. S.
ANTI'GONUS THE GUARDIAN.
[Antigonus Doson.]
ANTI'GONUS {'Avriyoms), son of HvRCA-
Nus I., and brother of Arlstobulus I. During
the lifetime of his father, Antigonus and his
elder brother conducted the siege of Samaria,
and defeated Antiochus of Cyzicus, who came
to the assistance of the Samarians. After
the death of Hyrcanus, e. c. 107, Arlstobulus
changed the dignity of high priest, which he
inherited. Into that of king of Judaea, and the
kingly dignity remained in his family until
the death of Antigonus, the son of Arlsto
bulus II. Arlstobulus on ascending the
throne made his brother Antigonus, of whom
he was very fond, his colleague, and threw
all the other members of his famUy into
prison. Antigonus, however, did not long
enjoy his dignity. He had many secret
enemies, and among them his brother's wife.
They did all that they could to render him
suspected by his brother, who was even
told that Antigonus entertained the design of
killing him and setting himself up as sole
king. Arlstobulus disbelieved these reports ;
but on one occasion while he was ill he was
more Intimidated than usual, and gave orders
that every one who entered his palace in
arms should immediately be put to death.
The queen and her associates persuaded the
unsuspecting Antigonus to go and see his
brother in fuU armour, and as he entered
the palace, he was cut down by the guards,
B. c. 106. [Hyrcanus ; Aristoeulus I.]
(Josephus, Jewish Antiq. xiii. 10. § 2., 11.
§ 1. and 2. ; Jewish War, i. 3.) L. S.
ANTI'GONUS, surnamed SocHiEus,
from the town of Socho in Judaea, was a
Jewish teacher and the successor of the high
priest Simeon, surnamed the Just, who is
caUed a contemporary of Alexander the
Great. An opinion of his set forth by his
disciple Zadok, that virtue must be practised
without any view to rewards was, according
to the Jewish tradition, supposed to have
given rise to the sect of the Sadduoees. (Winer,
Biblisches Realworterbuch, under " Saddii-
caeer.") L. S.
ANTI'GONUS SOTER. [Antigonus
DosoN.] ANTILES, ANTILIS, ANTILLUS.
[Anttllus.] ANTILLON, ISIDO'RO DE, was born in
a village of Aragon, in what year is uncertain.
He studied at Saragossa, where he distin
guished himself Soon after the termination
of his academic career he was appointed pro
fessor of astronomy, geography, and history
to the royal college of nobles at Madrid.
AntiUon was one of the most enthusiastic
opponents of the French invasion in 1808.
He was one of the junta which conducted
the defence of Saragossa. After the reduction
of that city he took refuge in SevUle, where
20

he took part in several periodicals published
with a view to stimulate the Spaniards to re
sistance. Thence he was obliged to fly to
Cadiz, and subsequently to Majorca, where
he contributed to the " Aurora," a patriotic
journal. AntiUon was quite as much an anti-
royalist as an anti-galllcan. His sentiments
were little calculated to promote his Interests
when Ferdinand VII. re-ascended the throne.
He was arrested by order of the king in 1820,
and sent for trial to Saragossa, but died at a
village on the way, and was hurriedly in
terred. During Riego's brief triumph his
body was removed to a more honourable
place of sepulture. AntiUon published a
number of maps and memoirs, scientific and
political. His most esteemed work is : —
" Elementos de la Geografia, astronomica,
natural y sclentifica de Espaiia y Portugal."
We have not been able to ascertain the date
of the first edition of this work ; the second
was published in 1815 ; the third at Madrid
in 1824. A French translation of the second
edition appeared at Paris in 1823. The
translator omits AntUlon's critical examination
of the methods employed to determine the
positions and altitudes of a number of places
in the Peninsula important in a geodetic point
of view. {Supplement to fke Biographic Uni
verselle, voce " AntiUon ; " Geographie phy
sique et politique d'Espagne et du Portugal,
par Don Isidore AntiUon ; Manuel du Li-
braire, par Brunet.) VV W
ANTIMA'CHIDES. [Antistates.]
ANTI'MACHUS, a Grecian statuary who
is mentioned by PUny as the author of some
statues of noble women. His date and coun
try are unknown. (Pliny, Hist Nat xxxiv.
8.) R. W.jun.
ANTI'MACHUS Q AvTi^iaxos). There are
three Greek poets of this name.
Antimachus of Claros, a smaU town
in the territory of Colophon, whence he is
usually called a Colophonian. He was a son
of Hyparchus, and Uved towards the end of
the Peloponnesian war (b.c. 404). He dis
tinguished himself as an epic and elegiac
poet. The statement of Suidas, that he was
a disciple of Panyasis, is scarcely reconcUe-
able with chronology. Plutarch, in his life
of Lysander, relates that at the ffestival of the
Lysandrla, which the Samlans celebrated
in honour of Lysander, Antimachus had a
poetical contest with one Niceratus of Hera-
clea, and Lysander himself awai-ded the prize
to Niceratus. This defeat disheartened An
timachus so much that he destroyed his own
poem, but Plato the philosopher, then a
young man, who happened to be present,
comforted the disconsolate poet. Cicero re
lates another anecdote In which Antimachus
IS likewise brought iu contact with Plato.
On one occasion, he says, Antimachus read
his great poem (probably " The Thebais") to
a numerous audience; but all his hearers
finding the poem too tedious graduaUy with-

ANTIMACHUS.
¦di-ew, with the exception of Plato, and the
poet observing this, said, "I shall continue to
read, for one Plato is to me worth thousands
of others." It is almost certain that the state
ments of Plutarch and Cicero do not refer to
the same occurrence, for it is not Ukely that
the flattering Greeks, on an occasion like the
Lysandrla, should have withdrawn from the
public solemnity. In Cicero's account there
fore Plato must be conceived to have heard
Antimachus either at Athens or in Asia Mi
nor. A similar anecdote to that related by
Cicero is also told of the poet Antagoras of
Rhodes, who Ukewise wrote a Thebais, and
Welcker has adduced good reasons for be
lieving that Plato did not hear Antimachus,
and was not present at the Lysandrla iu
Samos. He is therefore of opinion that both
anecdotes are either pure inventions or that
the story about Antagoras was applied to
Antimachus by some friend of his, to show
that although the multitude did not appreciate
his productions, they were duly valued by
the learned. If then these anecdotes must be
rejected, we know nothing of the life of An
timachus except that he was attached to Lyde,
whom some call his mistress and others his
wife, and that she died at an early age. The
poet sought consolation for his sorrow in
writing an elegy, which he caUed " Lyde,"
and iu which he enumerated all the in
stances in the heroic age of Greece in which
heroes had been deprived of their favourites
by death. This elegy, which consisted of
several books, was very celebrated in anti
quity, though it does not appear to have been
much relished by the grammarians of Alex
andria. Its value consisted chiefly in the
mythical and antiquarian lore incorporated in
it, and it was on account of the quantity of
mythical information scattered through the
poem that Agatharchldes of Cnldus made an
abridgement of it. The fragments of this
elegy are collected in the works cited below.
'The principal poem of Antimachus was
his " Thebais." It was a work of immense
length, though it is not very credible, as
Porphyrion says in his " Commentary on
Horace," that the first twenty-three books
contained only the events previous to the
arrival of the seven heroes at Thebes. If, as
it is stated by the Scholiast on Aristophanes,
the poem also contained the wair of the Epi-
gonl, that is, the sons of the seven heroes,
against Thebes, it must have been of enor
mous extent. From the extant fragments
we may infer that the poem began with the
story of Agenor and his daughter Europa,
and ended with the restoration of Diomedes
in jEtolia by Alcmaeon. The " Thebais "
was, like the "Lyde," a mass of mythical
learning, and every thing in ancient story that
was in any way connected with the subject
was introduced into the poem. These ma
terials were not worked up skilfully ; the
poem was deficient in poetic feeling, and also
21

ANTIMACHUS.
in artistic construction. This is the opinion
of QuinctUian, with whom the other ancient
critics agree. Antimachus borrowed expres
sions from the tragic writers, and frequently
introduced Doric forms. The composition
was merely the result of labour. Antimachus
is the first of that numerous class of poets of
the Alexandrine period with whom learning
was a substitute for genius, and who wrote
for the learned instead of for the world. In
the Alexandrine canon Antimachus was
ranked, next to Homer, as the first epic poet
of Greece, and the emperor Hadrian is said
to have preferred his poetry to the "Iliad "
and "Odyssey." Besldesthesetwogreatpoems
the ancients mention several other works of
Antimachus, but it is doubtful if these works
belong to Antimachus of Claros or to either of
the other two poets of the same name. These
works are : — 1. " Artemis " {" Apni^is), of
which the second book is quoted by Stepha-
nus of Byzantium. 2. "Delta" (AeAtk), and
3. " lachine " {'laxi"^)- Suidas caUs Anti
machus a grammarian, which F. A. Wolf
considers to be a mistake arising from a con
fusion of the poet of Claros with a gram
marian of the same name. Wolf also thinks
that the edition of the Homeric poems as
cribed to Antimachus refers only to the copy
which Antimachus used, and in which he
made some marginal notes. The fragments
of Antimachus have been collected by C. A.
G. ScheUenberg, HaUe, 1786, Svo. with a
critical " Epistola " by F. A. Wolf to the
editor. Those belonging to the " Thebais "
are also contained in Diintzer, " Die Frag-
mente der Eplschen Poesie," p. 99., &c., and
" Nachtrag," p. 38., &c. Compare Blomfield
in the " Classical Joumal," iv. 231. ; N. Bach,
" Philetaj, Hei-meslanactis, &c. Reliquia;. Ac
cedit Epimetrum de Antlmachi Lyda,' p.
240. ; Welcker, " Der Eplsche Cyclus," p.
102—110. Antimachus of Heliopolis m Egypt,
an epic poet who seems to have lived before
the time of Augustus. According to Suidas
he was the author of a poem called Kotr/xoiroua
("The Creation of the World"), which con
sisted of three thousand seven hundi-ed and
eighty hexameter lines. Tzetzes, on Lycophron
(245), quotes three hexameter Unes from some
Antimachus, In which the landing of AchUIes
on the coast of Troy Is described ; but as no
distinguishing epithet is given to the poet it
is uncertain to which of the three poets the
lines belong.
Antimachus of Teos, an epic poet, who
must have Uved at a very early period if,
as Clemens of Alexandria states, Agias
imitated one of his verses. From a state
ment in Plutarch it would seem that Anti
machus had spoken in one of his works of
the eclipse which was supposed to have oc
curred on the day on which Rome was
founded. But we know neither the time at
which he lived, nor on what subjects he
c 3

ANTIMACHUS.

ANTIMACO.

wrote. Only one line of his is preserved in
Clemens Alexandrinus. {Stromata, vi. 622. ;
Plutarch, Romulus, 12.) L. S.
ANTI'MACO, MARCANTO'NIO, was
one of those Italian scholars who distin
guished themselves as teachers and critics in
philology, after the great restoration of Grecian
learning in the fifteenth century. The name
by which he is known has the air of being,
not his genuine family name, but one of the
favourite translations of a modern word into
a classical form. However, none of the notices
of his life that have been consulted mention
any such change. Antimaco, or Antimachus,
was born in Mantua about the year 1473.
In his youth he travelled into Greece, and
there spent five years, under the instruction
of a celebrated teacher of the language ; after
which he returned to Italy. For some
time he taught classical Uterature, especially
Greek, in his native town ; but at length,
probably about 1527, he was invited to a
professorship in the university of Ferrara,
which he held during the remainder of his
life. He is supposed to have died in 1552.
Antimaco wrote verses, both in Latin and in
Greek ; but the only published works of his
that deserve any notice were translations
from the Greek iuto Latin. A volume con
taining all these was published at Basle, for
the first and last time, in 1540, smaU 4to.
The pieces of which it gives translations are
the following : — 1. The two Books on the
History of Greece after the Battle of Man-
tinea, written by the modem Platonist,
Gemlstus Pletho ; 2. the first four chapters
from the " Ars Rhetorlca " of Dionysius of
HaUcarnassus ; 3. a considerable part (which
the translator seems to have had some inten
tion of completing) of the treatise " De In
terpretatione," ascribed to Demetrius Phale-
reus ; 4. the preface of Polyasnus. To these
translations is added an original composition,
" Marci Antonii Antlmachi de Laudibus
Graccarum Literarum Oratio.'' The trans
lations by Antimachus from Demetrius soon
dropped out of notice. His translations from
Dionysius were more fortunate. Indeed, they
appear, in an amended form, in the current
editions of our own time. They were
adopted by Sylburglus in his edition of
Dionysius, Frankfort, 1586, fol. ; and after
several subsequent republications, they were
received in Hudson's edition, Oxford, 1704,
fol., and thence transferred to Relske's, Leip
zig, 1774-75, Svo. They are also iu the curious
coUection of critical treatises entitled " Degli
Autori del ben parlare, per secolari e reli-
glosl, Opere diverse;" Venice, 1743, 4to.,
part iv. vol.lv. p. 609 — 617. Antimaco was
held in much esteem by his contemporaries.
Gyraldi wrote an epitaph on him, which
wiU be found in Gruter {Dcliciir Ilulunim
Poetarum, 1608, 1. 1233.), and made him
one of the interlocutors in his " Two Dia
logues on the Poets of his own Times."
22

(Tiraboschi, Storia Della Letteratura Italiana,
1787 — 1794, 4to. vu. 1110. ; MazzucheUi,
Scrittori d' Italia; Gyraldus, Opera, ii. 521.
1696. fol.) W. S.
ANTIN, D'. [Gondrin.]
ANTINE, MAUR FRANCOIS D', a
Benedictine monk of the congregation of St.
Maur, was bom on the 1st of April, 1688, at
Gonrieux, in the diocese of Liege, and edu
cated at I)ouai. In 1712 he took the' vows,
and, after teaching philosophy for one year
in the abbey of St. Nicaise at Reims, was
sent to Paris, where it was intended he should
be employed on an edition of the " Decretals."
That plan being abandoned, his attention
was turned to the completion of a new im
pression of Du Gauge's Glossary, which had
been already partly prepared by the Bene
dictine brethren Guenle, Toustain, and Le
Pelletier. He succeeded in producing five
volumes of the collection by the year 1734,
when he was disabled from proceeding in
consequence of his banishment to Pontoise,
on suspicion of a leaning to Jansenism. He
left the sixth and last volume, however,
nearly ready for the press, and it was issued
shortly after.
In his exUe he devoted himself to the study
of the Psalms of David in the original, from
which he executed a translation, which was
published at Paris, with notes, in 1738, and
so weU received that it soon ran through
three editions. Being recaUed to Paris, he
was appointed to assist Bouquet in the pub
lication of the " Historians of France," but he
proceeded no further than to make some
researches into the history of the crusades.
Out of this employment, nevertheless, grew
the idea of the work by which D'Antlne is
now chiefly remembered, the " Art de ^'e-
rifier les Dates." The difficulties he met
with in his studies induced him to prepare
for his own use a chi-onological table of
events from the birth of our Saviour, and a
perpetual calendar, to which he intended to
add tables of the councils, the succession of
the popes, and other matters. An attack of
apoplexy which he suffered in 1743, about
the time when he was commencing the exe
cution of his plan, prevented him from pro
ceeding with his labours so vigorously as he
proposed ; but he had already completed the
perpetual calendar and chi-onological table,
when a second attack of apoplexy suddenly
carried him off, on the 3d of November, 1740,
in his fifty-ninth yrar. The plan he had
sketched out was taken up by the Benedictine
brethren Clemencet and Durand, by whom
the " Art de ^^6rifier les Dates " was com
pleted and published in one volume folio. Its
great utility, which was immediately per
ceived, has caused it to pass through nu
merous editions. Each new editor has aug
mented the work so considerably, and the
supplements and continuations have become
in com-se of time so voluminous, that D'Antlne

ANTINE.

ANTINORL

would now have some difficulty in recog
nising his own project under the bulky form
into which it has grown.
In private life D'Antlne was exceedingly
amiable, and his disposition was cheerful. He
possessed a pecuUar faculty of imparting
comfort and consolation to the afiiicted,
which he was fond of exercising, and his
charity wais a conspicuous feature of his cha
racter. (Preface to L'Art de Verifier les
Dates depuis la Naissance de Notre Seigneur,
3d edit. Paris, 1783, xli. xvii. ; Le Long,
Bibliotheque Historique de la France, edit.
Fevret de Fontette, U. 22.) J. W.
ANTINO'RI, ANTO'NIO LODOVI'CO,
was born at Aquila, in the kingdom of Naples,
on the 24th August, 1704, and educated for
the church. He became warmly attached to
the study of antiquities, especially those of
his native district, the Abruzzi, and, while
yet very young, contributed a number of
articles on the Greek and Latin inscriptions
and remains of the Abruzzi to Muratori's
" Novus Antiquarum Inscriptionum Thesau
rus." He is mentioned with high praise in
the sixth volume of Muratori's " Antiquitates
Italicae Medii iEvi," which contains a chro
nicle and other coUections relating to the
history of Aquila, arranged by him. Anti-
nori, on his visits to Rome, became so high
in favour with Pope Benedict XIV. that he
was offered the post of librarian at Bologna,
which however he declined on the plea of iU
health. In 1745 the King of Naples nomi
nated him to the archbishopric of Lanciano,
which he held for nine years, and then be
came metropolitan of Acerenza and Matera.
Four years after, he resigned his appoint
ments and retired to private Ufe, on a pen
sion of five hundred ducats and some small
benefices. He died on the 1st March, 1778,
of apoplexy, in his seventy-fourth year.
During his retirement Antlnori employed
himself in his old pursuit, and he left behind
him a vast mass of antiquarian collections,
which he intended to publish ; but the numer
ous applications from the court of Naples, for his
advice and information on matters relating to
the Abruzzi, took up so much of his time that
he was never able to execute the task. After
his death, his brother Gennaro announced
them for publication, and in the year 1781
they began to appear, under the title of " Rac-
colta di Memorie Istorlche deUe Tre Provincie
degli Abbruzzi," Naples, 4to. Four volumes
were published, the last m 1783, when the
work stopped, although the MS. coUections
are said to have been sufficient for fifteen
volumes. The publication is not considered
to have added to Antinori's reputation, though
it contains valuable materials for the future
historian of the Abruzzi. (Memoir prefixed
to the Raccolta di Memorie degli Abbru:zi, vol.
i., which is ierived from the Antologia Ro-
mana for 1788, iv. 324—352. ; Life, by D.
Vaccollni, in Tipaldo's Biografia degli Italiani
23

Ittustri del Secolo XVIII- iii. 304, 305. ; Maz-
zuchelU, Scrittori d' Italia, i. part U. p. 844. ;
Lombardi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana
nei Secolo XVIII., iv. 165.) J. W.
ANTI'NOUS {'Avrivovs), a chief of the
Epirots. In the year B.C. 172, when the
Romans had declared war against King Per
seus of Macedonia, Antiuous and Cephalus
were at the head of the Molosslan state, and
both were connected by friendship with the
royal house of Macedonia. There was at
that time in Epirus a young man of the naime
of CharopS! who had been educated at Rome,
and was anxious to gain the favour of the
Romans. With this view he calumniated
the chiefs of the Molosslans, and represented
their friendship for Perseus as treacherous
hostility towards Rome. Both the chiefs,
however, wished for the continuance of peace
between Rome and Macedonia, as they fore
saw that war would bring ruin upon Mace
donia ; but they were nevertheless deter
mined to abide by the treaty which bound
them to- assist the Romans. With these up
right intentions, they at first despised the
intrigues of Charops ; but when they saw
that several iEtoUans who had been calum
niated in a similar manner by Lyclscus were
led to Rome as prisoners, they thought it
prudent to be on their guard. At last they
saw no safety for themselves except in openly
joining the Macedonians and inducing the
Molosslans to do the same. After the battle
of Pydna in e.c. 168, when L. Anicius in
vaded Epirus to punish the revolted Molos
slans, Antiuous and a chief named Theodotus
fought bravely and died in battle. Their
country fell into the hands of the Romans.
Although Polybius clearly shows how An
tiuous and his friends were compelled against
their own inclination to side with Mace
donia, yet Livy represents them as traitors,
without adding a word to explain or excuse
tneir conduct. (Polybius, xxvU. 13., xxx.
7.; Livy, xlv. 26.) L. S.
ANTI'NOUS QAvrivovs), a beautiful youth
and a favourite of the emperor Hadrian.
He was a native of the town of Blthynum,
also called Claudiopolis, in Bithynia. His
beauty led the emperor to take him as his
page and companion in aU his journeys. In
a. d. 132, while Hadrian was staying in
Egypt, Antiuous was drowned in the Nile.
Hadrian himself said that Antiuous feU into
the Nile by accident, but Dion Cassius thinks
it more probable, that he threw himself Into
the river with the view of averting some
danger which threatened his master. Ha
drian's grief knew no bounds. On the spot
where his favourite had perished (the site of
the ancient town of Besa) he built a city
which was called Antinoopolls or Antinoea.
Temples were raised to Antiuous in Egypt
and several parts of Greece, and the num
ber of his statues was immense. The con
stellation which bears the name of Antiuous
c 4

ANTINOUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

to the present day was declared by the
soothsayers to be the soul of Antiuous, and
to have come into existence on the day on
which Antiuous died. In some places, as at
Blthynum and at Mantinea in Peloponnesus,
Antiuous was worshipped as a god ; and in
the latter place mysteries were celebrated in
honour of him every year, and games every
fifth year. The numerous statues, busts,
reliefs, and paintings, in which Antiuous was
represented, and in some of which his figure
was idealised into that of a beautiful Bacchus,
gave a fresh impulse to the fine arts. Many
representations of Antiuous, especially heads,
are still extant : they are of exquisite beauty,
and wiU bear comparison with the works of
the best periods of Grecian art. There are
also coins which were struck in honour of
Antiuous, but it is remarkable that all of
them were struck In Greek towns, and none at
Rome or in the Roman colonies. (Pausanias,
vlil. 9. 4. ; Dion Cassius, Ixix. 11. ; Spartianus,
Hadrian, 14.; Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum,
vi. 528, &c. ; K. Levezow, Ueber den Anti-
nous, dargestellt in den Kunsfdenkmdlern des
Alterthums, Berlin, 1808, 4to.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHIS {'Amoxis), aGreek woman,
who paid some attention to medicine. With
respect to her date, she must have lived in or
before the first century after Christ, as one
of her medical preparations was inserted by
Asclepiades Pharmacion in the fourth book
of his pharmaceutical work called " Mar-
cellas." She may perhaps be the same per
son to whom Heraclldes of Tarentum ad
dressed his work on " Hajmorrhage from the
Nose," and in this case must have lived in
the third century before Christ. (Galen, De
Compos- Medicam. sec. Locos, lib. iil. cap. 3.
tom. xli. p. 691., ed. Kiihn, Ub. ix. cap. 2.,
Ub. X. cap. 2. tom. xiii. p. 250. 341.)
W. A. G.
ANTI'OCHUS, an Athenian sculptor,
part of whose name remained on a colossal
statue of Minerva which was preserved in
the Villa Ludovisi, at Rome. Winckelmann
describes this work, and says it was vulgar,
and coarse in its execution. He cannot de
termine at what period the artist lived, but,
judging from the Inscription, he thinks it
must have been long anterior to the time of
Trajan. (Winckelmann, Storia delle Arti,
Sj-c- 11. 294-5.) R. W. jun.
ANTI'OCHUS {'AMoxos), an ancient
physician, who was probably a contemporary
of Galen at Rome, in the second century after
Christ. He lived to a very great age with
hardly any sickness, and when more than
eighty years of age he was able to walk to
the forum every day, and used to visit his
patients on foot. Galen gives a minute ac
count of his way of living, which is interest
ing. He may perhaps be the physician, one
of whose medical prescriptions is preserved
by Aetius and Paulus iEgineta, but he is pro
bably not the same person who is quoted by
24

Galen under the name of " Antiochus Philo-
metor." [Antiochus Philometor.] (Ga
len, De Sanit Tucnda, lib. v. cap. 4. tom. vi.
p. 332. ed. Kiihn ; Aiitius, tetrab. i. serm.
ul. cap. 114. p. 137. ed. H. Steph.; Paulus
^gineta, lib. vii. cap. 8. p. 652. ed. H. Steph. ;
Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca, vol. xiu. p. 64.
ed. vet.) W. A. G.
ANTI'OCHUS ('AcTi'oxos), an ancient
physician, saint, and martyr, whose memory
is celebrated by the Romish church on the
13th of December, was a native of Mauri
tania, and belonged to an equestrian family.
He was a Christian, but whether he was
brought up in this faith, or whether he was
converted from Paganism, does not appear.
After receiving a good education he was in
duced to study medicine, purely from a desire
of benefitting his fellow-creatures ; and ac
cordingly he went about heaUng their sick
nesses gratuitously, and seizing the oppor
tunity of striving to convert them to Chris
tianity. After passing some time in Galatia
and Cappadocia, he went to the island of
Sardinia, whUe the persecution under the em
peror Hadrian was raging against the Chris
tian church, about A. d. 120. Here he was
seized, and exposed to various tortures, from
which, according to the legend, he is said to
have been miraculously delivered, and to
have been at last taken up into heaven.
{Martyrologium Romanum; Bzovius, Nomen
clator Sanctorum Professione Medicorum ;
Fabricius, Biblioth. Grceca, tom. xui. p. 64.
ed. vet.) W. A. G.
ANTI'OCHUS {'Avrlox's), another phy
sician, saint, and martyr, whose memory is
celebrated by both the Romish and Greek
churches on the 15th of July. Nothing is
known of the events of his life, except that
he was born at Sebaste, which is generaUy
supposed to have been the city of that name
in Armenia ; his death took place during the
persecution of the Christian church under the
emperor Dloclesian, a.d. 303—311. It is
said that he was miraculously delivered from
the wild beasts to which he was exposed, and
that, when he was at last beheaded, n-iilk in
stead of blood flowed from the wound ; upon
which Cyriacus, the executioner, cried out
that he too was a Christian, and accordingly
was put to death with him. {Martyrologium
Romanum ; Bzovius, Nomenclator Sanctorum
Professione Medicorum ; Acta Sanctorum, Jul.
15. vol. iv. p. 25. ; Menologium Graicorum,
tom. iil p. 168., ed. Allwnl.) W. A. G.
ANTI'OCHUS CA-tIoxos), a Greek as
tronomer, of whom nothing is known beyond
the fact, that there exists in several libraries
a MS. of a work called 'AiroTeAeo-fjaTiica,
which bears the name of Antiochus. The
most complete SIS. seems to be that in the
Vatican library, which contains one hundred
and seven chapters, and also another treatise
called Via\a.i/ioKir/iov, " On the Ceremonies to
be observed on the Calends of every Month."

ANTIOCHUS.
Neither of these works has been printed.
Thomas Gale ascribed to this Antiochus the
introduction to the " Tetrabiblus " of Ptolemy,
which was edited by H. Wolf, with a Latin
translation, as the work of an anonymous
writer (Baisel, 1559, fol.). But Gale's opin
ion appears to have Uttle foundation, as an
astronomer Antiochus is referred to as an
authority in the body of that introduction it
self. (Fabricius, Biblioth. Grcec. iv. 151.;
Gale, Ad lamblichum de Mysteriis, p. 364.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHUS {'Avrioxos), a Greek his
torian, a son of Xenophanes, and a native of
Syracuse. Dionysius of HaUcarnassus calls
him a very ancient historian, though it is an
established fact that he was very Uttle older
than Thucydides, and was living during the
early part of the Peloponnesian war, at least
down to B. c. 424. He was, however, the
most ancient writer of any note on the his
tory of Sicily. Strabo commits the sin-
gtdar mistake of placing Antiochus nearly
two centuries before the time of Aristotle.
The two historical works of Antiochus,
which were very highly valued in anti
quity, are lost, with the exception of some
fragments which are contained in C. and
Th. Miiller's " Fragmenta Historicorum
Graecorum," p. 181, &c. The first work of
Antiochus was a history of Sicily, which
contained in nine books the history of the
island from the earliest times (the reign of
the fabulous king Cocalus) to B. u. 424.
The second work was a history of Italy, which
is frequently referred to by ancient writers,
especiaUy by Strabo. It is sometimes called
'IraXias OiKurnhs, and sometimes Uepl ttjs
'IraXlas 'Sv-y-ypafip.a. Among the surprising
statements made in this work, we may men
tion that he placed the foundation of Rome
before the time of the Trojan war, and that
he considered Romus, a son of Zeus, as the
builder of the city. (Vossius, De Historicis
Gracis, p. 45. ed. Westermann ; C. and Th.
Muller, Fragment Hist Graic-, p. xlv. ; Nie
buhr, History of Rome, 1. 14, &c.) L. S.
ANTrOCHUS('A>'T(oxos),aGreek Sophist
of iEGiE in Cilicia, who was living in the reign
of the emperors Septimius Severus and Cara-
calla, about a.d. 200. He belonged to a
wealthy and distinguished family, which some
time after is described as of consular rank.
In his youth he was a pupU of Dardanus the
Assyrian, and afterwards of Dionysius the
MUesian. He never took any part in the
political affairs of his native place, nor did he
ever appear in the popular assembly; and
when he was charged on this ground with
cowardice, he replied, " It is not you that I
fear, but myself," for he was of a very irasci
ble temper, which he was unable to control.
He was, however, a kind and beneficent friend
to his countrymen ; and whenever they were
in want, he assisted them with his ample
means; and when their public buildings
25

ANTIOCHUS.
wanted repairs, he advanced the money. He
generaUy spent his nights in the temple of
jEsculapius, partly to hold communion with
the god in his dreams, aud partly to converse
with other persons who spent their nights there,
for the same purpose, but were unable to sleep.
He was at first a Cynic philosopher, or rather
pretended to be one, and during the war of the
emperor Severus against the Parthlans, his
affected Cynicism was of some service to the
emperor: when the soldiers complained of
cold, Antiochus rolled himself in the snow,
and his example encouraged the soldiers.
Severus and his son Caracalla rewarded
him richly for this service, but the Sophist
afterwards deserted to the Parthlans, whence
he is sometimes caUed Antiochus the De
serter (aiiT(J^oAos). His declamations or
orations on fictitious legal cases are said to
have been skilful, though his pretensions to
phUosophy were very poor. As to his forensic
declamations, Philostratus says that his style
was more sophistical than was usuaUy the
case iu such orations, but that, at the same
time, they were more forensic {SMaviKdrepoi)
than the orations of other Sophists. He was
particularly great in the descriptions of pas
sion, in which none of his contemporaries
excelled him. His style was brief and con
cise, and what he said was full of thought.
He usuaUy spoke extempore, and some of the
subjects on which he discoursed, as well as a
good specimen of his oratory, are preserved
by Philostratus. He also wrote several
works, but Philostratus specifies only one,
which he calls a history, without stating
what the subject was. A work of his, en
titled 'Ayopd, " The Market," is mentioned by
Phrynichus. (Philostratus, Vitie Sophista-
rum, ii, 4, 5. 7.; Dion Cassius, Ixxvii. 19.;
Suidas, under 'AvtIoxos ; Eudocia, p. 58.;
Phrynichus, Ecloga Nominum et Verborum
Atticorum, p. 32.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHUS ('Avrioxos) of Alexan
dria is quoted by Athenasus as the author
of a work on persons who had been ridi
culed by the Greek poets of the middle
Attic comedy {¦jrepl riav 4u tt, pteari KwfxoiSia
KufupSovixevciji/ iTOL-nTuv). Hls agc is unknown,
but we may fairly presume that he was a
grammarian of the time of the Ptolemies.
Photius and Ptolemaeus, the son of HephcEs-
tion, mention an Antiochus as the author of
a coUection of local mythi or legends {fiv-
^iKa Kara trSxiii), of which they quote the
second book ; but whether he is identical
with Antiochus of Alexandria, with Anti
ochus of iEgae, or with the historian of the
same name of Syi-acuse, cannot be decided.
(Athenaeus, xi. 482. ; Photius, Biblioth. p.
150. b. ed. Bekker, Cod. 190. ; Ptolemajus
Hephasst. v. 324. ed. Gale.) L. S.
ANTI'OCIIUS {'AyTioxos) of Ascalon
in Palestine, a friend and contemporary of
L. Liclnlus Lucullus. He was an Academic
phUosopher and a pupU of Philo, whom he

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

succeeded as the head of the New Academy.
He also received instruction from Mnesar-
chus, the Stoic, whose influence upon Anti
ochus appears to have been very great, for
Cicero says, that if Antiochus had changed a
few of his opinions he would have been a
genuine Stole. He taught philosophy at
Athens, and here M. Terentius Varro, Cicero,
and several other distinguished Romans were
among his pupils. Cicero spent six months
with him at Athens in b.c. 79. He also
taught at Alexandria and in Syria. He died
in Syria when he was with his friend Lucul
lus, in whose company he seems to have
spent the last years of his life. Antiochus
was a man of a mild temper, though in his
polemical work against Philo, his master, he
was very bitter. Cicero always speaks of
him with great affection and esteem. He was
one of the most eminent phUosophers of his
time, a very acute thinker, and a man of
great refinement. His great philosophical
object was to get rid of the scepticism into
which the Academy had fallen under his pre
decessors, to lead It back to the principles of
the Old Academy, and to effect a combination
of the principles of the Academy with those
of the Stoics, whom he considered to have
sprung from the Academy. From this tend
ency of his philosophy arose his hostility to
wards his predecessors, PhUo and Carneades,
and it was in this spirit that he wrote against
Philo the work entitled " Sosus." In order
to confute the scepticism of the Academy he
endeavoured to point out the foundations on
which our knowledge is based aad to examine
our capacity for discovering truth. He main
tained that our intellect possesses in itself the
means of distinguishing between truth and
falsehood, and that our senses did not lead us
always into error, as the Academics asserted.
In the ethical part of his philosophy he was
neither led away by the Stoics nor by the
Academics, but he arrived at nearly the same
conclusions as Aristotle and the Peripatetics.
He disapproved of the opinion of the Stoics,
that all crimes were essentiaUy equal, and in
his definition of the highest good he agreed
with the Peripatetics. He maintained that
happiness did not depend upon virtue ex
clusively, but that outward circumstances
also ought to be taken into consideration.
The chief source from which we derive our
knowledge of the doctrines of Antiochus
is Cicero's " Academics," in which Cicero
assigns the defence of the phUosophy of
Antiochus to Varro, while he himself acts
the part of Philo. Sextus Empiricus ascribes
to Antiochus a work called " Canonica "
(" KavctivLKd "), which was probably a treatise
on logic. Cicero mentions a third work of
his which was dedicated to C. Lucilius Bal-
bus ; the title is unknown ; but in this work
Antiochus asserted that the Stoics and Peri
patetics taught essentially the same things,
and that they only differed in their termino-
26

logy. Antiochus of Ascalon must be dis
tinguished from a later philosopher of the
same name, who was a sceptic and a native
of Laodicea. (Orelli, Onomasticon Tulli-
anum, under " Antiochus," p. 42, &c., where all
the passages of Cicero respecting Antiochus
are collected. Compare Strabo, xlv. 759. ;
Plutarch, Cicero, 4., Lucullus, 42.; Sextus
Empiricus, Adversus Mathem- i. 235., vil. 201. ;
Diogenes Laertius, ix. 106. 116.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHUS ASIATICUS. [Anti
ochus XIII., KING or Stria.]
ANTI'OCHUS QAvriaxos), an Athenian,
a contemporary and friend of Alcibiades.
The manner in which they became acquainted
is related by Plutarch. On the day when
Alcibiades made his first appearance in the
assembly of the people at Athens, he had a
quad under his cloak, and the tumtdt and
noise of the people made him forget his bird,
which, findmg itself free, made its escape.
The uproar in the assembly became still
greater at this singular occurrence, and many
Athenians ran about in pursuit of the quail.
Antiochus, the helmsman {icvSepv-fiTTis), suc
ceeded in catching it, and brought it back to
Alcibiades, who, from that moment, became
greatly attached to him. In u. c. 407, after
his unsuccessful attempt upon Andros, Alci
biades left Antiochus in the command of the
fleet at Notlum near Ephesus, where Lysan
der commanded the fleet of the Lacedaemo
nians. Alcibiades enjoined Antiochus, who
was a good saUor, but a thoughtless and over
bearing man, not to fight the enemy. But
the order was disregarded, and Antiochus
sailed with two triremes up to the hostUe
fleet, and provoked the enemy. Lysander at
first only chased him with a few ships, but
when the Athenians came to the assistance
of Antiochus, he attacked him with his whole
fleet. Antiochus was defeated and kiUed.
Lysander captured several vessels, made
many prisoners, and raised a trophy. Alci
biades, hearing of this occurrence, hastened
to the spot to wipe off the disgrace, but Ly
sander refused to engage in a fresh battle.
The fact that Alcibiades had left Antiochus
in the command of the ships, and had thus
caused the loss of the Athenians, was one of
the chief grounds on which he -was exiled
from Athens a second time. (Plutarch,
Alcibiad., 10, 35. ; Xenophon, Hellenica,
i. 5. § 11, &c. ; Diodorus, xiu. 71.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHUS 1. {'AvtIox,os), king of
CoMMAGENE, a Small country between Mount
Taurus and the Euphrates, which originally
formed a part of the kingdom of Syria.
Commageue does not occur in history as an
independent kingdom tlU about the time of
the destruction of the Syrian kingdom by
Pompey the Great, who changed Syria into
a Roman province, b. c. 65. This circum
stance has led some writers to regard Anti
ochus I. of Commagene as the same person
with Antiochus XIII. of Syria, whom they

ANTIOCHUS.
suppose to have been left by Pompey in the
possession of a part of his dominions. But
this opinion is opposed to the fact that Dion
Cassius mentions Antiochus as king of Com
magene several years before the dissolution
of the Syrian kingdom, about b. c. 69, in the
war of Lucullus against Tigranes. Whether,
however, Commagene, with its capital Samo
sata, had originally been a vassal state of
Syria, and had become independent after the
reduction of Syria to a Roman province, or
whether it had existed as an independent
kingdom long before that event, cannot be
ascertained, although the latter opinion is far
the more probable. After the deposition of
Antiochus XIII. of Syria, Pompey marched
across Mount Taurus against Antiochus of
Commagene ; but in b. c. 64 he concluded a
peace with Antiochus, and added to his king
dom Seleucia and the conquests whioh Pom
pey had made in Mesopotamia. We hear no
more of the king of Commagene until b. c.
51, when Cicero was proconsid of Cilicia,
and was informed by Antiochus that the
Parthlans were crossing the Euphrates. Du
ring the civil war between Pompey and
Caesar in E. c. 49, Antiochus assisted Pompey
with two hundred horsemen, for which Pom
pey rewarded him liberaUy. After P. Ven-
tidius, the legate of Antony, had defeated the
Parthlans under Pacorus in Syria, B. c. 38,
he turned his arms against Antiochus, chiefly
for the rich booty he hoped to make iu
the kingdom of Commagene, the rulers of
which were reckoned among the wealthiest
princes, as long as the kingdom of Com
magene existed. The legate was joined
by Antony himself, who laid siege to Sa
mosata, but had so little success that he
was at last obliged to conclude a treaty,
and departed. It is exceedingly difficult
to determine the length of this king's reign,
for, independent of the confusion already
mentioned, some writers assert that Antio
chus I. of Commagene was the same as
the Antiochus who was put to death at Rome
in E. c. 29 by the sentence of the senate.
This opinion is contradicted by the fact re
corded in Plutarch, that in b. c. 31 Com
magene was governed by a king of the
name of Mithridates. Other writers again
suppose that Antiochus I. had died previous
to Cicero's administration of Cilicia, and
they call the Antiochus who informed Cicero
of the movements of the Parthlans An
tiochus II. If the Mithridates mentioned
above was the successor of Antiochus I., the
reign of the latter must have lasted at least
from B. c. 69 to b. c. 32, and that of Mith
ridates must have been extremely short.
It is however certain that the Antiochus of
Commagene who was put to death iu the
reign of Augustus was either the second or
the third king of Commagene of this name.
(Dion Cassius, xxxv. 2., xUx. 20, &c. ; Ap-
plan, De Bello MUhridat 106. 114., De
27

ANTIOCHUS.
Bello Civil. U. 49. ; Cicero, Ad Familiares,
XV. 1, a, 4, ; Caesar, De Bello Civil- Ui, 5, ;
Plutarch, ^nton. 34. 61.; FriihUch, Annales
Syriac. 69. ; Viscontl, Iconographie Grecque,
11. 348. ed. MUan ; Clmton, Fasti Hellen.
iii. 343.) L.S.
ANTI'OCHUS IL {'Avrioxas), king of
Commagene, seems to have succeeded the
above-mentioned Mithridates. At aU events,
he reigned only a short time. Antiochus
caused some ambassador whom his brother,
whose name is unknown, had sent to Rome,
to be assassinated. For this crime Antiochus
was summoned to Rome by Augustus ; he
was tried by the senate, sentenced to death,
and executed, B. c. 29. The kingdom of
Commagene was given to one Mithridates
(II.), who was yet a boy, and whose father
had been put to death by Antiochus. (Dion
Cassius, 111. 43., liv. 9.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHUS III. {'AuTioxos), king of
Commagene. Whether he succeeded Mithri
dates II., or whether there was more than
one king between him and Antiochus II., is
uncertain, and we know in fact nothing
about Antiochus III., except that he died in
A. D. 17, and that after his 'death the king
dom of Commagene became a Roman pro
vince. (Tacitus, Annales, ii. 42. 56.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHUS IV. {'AutIoxos), king of
Commagene, surnamed Epiphanes. He was a
son of Antiochus III., who, after Commagene
had been a Roman province for upwards of
twenty years, was restored to his kingdom by
Caligula in A. d. 38. At the same time
Commagene was increased by the addition
of the maritime district of Cilicia, and Cali
gula also ordered the sums which Rome had
derived from the country during the time
that it had been a province to be repaid to
Antiochus. He appears to have lived for
some time at Rome in the court of Caligula
and to have enjoyed his intimate friendship,
for the Romans regarded him and Agrippa,
the son of Herodes, as the persons who
made Caligula a cruel tyrant. But this
friendship was not of long duration. Ca
ligula, for some reason not now known,
deprived Antiochus of his kingdom, which
was not restored to him till after the ac
cession of Claudius, InA. d. 41. How long
he reigned after this event is uncertain.
According to the common account he was
king of Commagene till a. d. 72, but others
suppose, that soon after his restoration by
Claudius he was succeeded by his son, An
tiochus Epiphanes, who in a. d. 43 married
DruslUa, the daughter of Agi-ippa. But as
the ancient writers say nothing from which
we can infer that the kingdom of Antiochus
IV. passed into the hands of his son, it is
safest to suppose that Antiochus IV. con
tinued in the possession of it until his final
deposition in A. D. 72. In a. d. 52, towards
the end of the reign of Claudius, some
savage tribes of Cilicia, called Clita;, made

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

predatory incursions into the more civilised
parts of the country, and particularly annoyed
the merchants. The efforts of the Roman
governor of Cilicia, Curtius Severus, against
them were unsuccessful, but Antiochus con
trived to create discord among the barbarians,
and afterTroxobores and some of their leaders
had been kiUed, he persuaded the rest to keep
quiet. In a.d. 55, when Nero was making
war against the Parthlans, he commanded
Antiochus to raise troops and invade the ter
ritory of the enemy, and four years later we
find him engaged under Corbulo against Ti-
rldates, a brother of the Parthian king Vo-
logesus. At the close of this war Antiochus
was rewarded for his services by the adjoin
ing part of Armenia being added to his king
dom. In A.D, 69, when Vespasian was pro
claimed emperor, Antiochus was among the
first who recognised him, and the year after
he was present with auxiliary troops at the
siege of Jerusalem under Titus, the son of
Vespasian. In a.d. 72 he was accused at
Rome by Paetus, the praefect of Syria, of
having formed a secret treaty with the Par
thlans against Rome. The charge does not
seem to have been without foundation, and
he was deprived of his kingdom. He quitted
Asia, went first to Lacedasmon, and thence to
Rome, where he and his sons, Antiochus and
Callinicus, were treated with great respect,
and where he passed the remainder of his
life. There are several coins of this king,
from which it appears that his wife's name
was lotape. (Dion Cassius, lix. 8. 24., Ix.
8. ; Suetonius, Caligula, 16. ; Tacitus, An-
naks, xii. 55., xiii. 7. 37., xiv. 26., His-
torioe, 11. 81., v. 1.; Sose-^'hMS, Jewish Antiq-,
xix. 9. § 1-, Jewish War, v. 11. § 3., vii. 7. ;
Clinton, Fast Hellen., iii. 343, &o. ; Eckhel,
Doctrina Num. Vet, 111. 255, &c.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHUS CYZICE'NUS. [Anti
ochus IX., king of Stria.]
ANTI'OCHUS DIONY'SUS. [Anti
ochus XIL, king of Syria.]
ANTI'OCHUS EPI'PHANES. [Anti
ochus IV., KING OF Commagene ; Anti
ochus IV., king of Stria.]
ANTI'OCHUS EU'PATOR. [Anti
ochus v., king of Stria.]
ANTI'OCHUS EUE'RGETES. [Anti
ochus VIL, KING OF Stria.]
ANTI'OCHUS EU'SEBES. [Antiochus
VIL, kino OF Stria ; Antiochus X., king
OF Syria.]
ANTI'OCHUS THE GREAT. [Anti
ochus III., KING OF Stria.]
ANTI'OCHUS GRYPUS. [Antiochus
VIIL, KING OF Stria.]
ANTI'OCHUS ('A>'t(ox''5) of Lepreum,
a town which is commonly considered to be
long to Elis, but which Xenophon must have
regarded as a part of Arcadiai, since he calls
Antiochus an Arcadian. In e. c. 367, when
thcThebans sent Pelopldas to Artaxerxes II.,
king of Persia, with the view of gaining the
28

supremacy in Greece by the aid of the Per
sians, he was joined by ambassadors from
other parts of Greece which were in alliance
with Thebes. Antiochus represented the
Arcadians. At the interview with the king,
the Arcadians were slighted, and Antiochus
In consequence refused to accept the presents
usually given to foreign ambassadors ; and
after his return home he declared before the
people that the King of Persia had indeed
plenty of slaves to provide for his own wants,
but no men to fight against Greeks. Xeno
phon calls this Antiochus simply a pancra-
tiast ; but from Pausanias we learn that he
gained one victory in the pancratium at the
Olympic games, two at the Isthmian, and as
many at the Nemean games. His statue at
Olympia, the work of Nicodamus, was seen
by Pausanias. (Xenophon, Hellenica, vil. 1.
§ 33. 38.; Pausanias, vi. 3. § 4.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHUS, PA'CCIUS. [Paccius
Antiochus.] ANTI'OCHUS PHILOME'TOR, {'Av-
Tioxos ^iKofjLTiTaip), is sometimes reckoned in
the Ust of ancient physicians, as being the
inventor of an antidote aigainst venomous
animals, which is embodied in a short Greek
elegiac poem of eight distichs, and is quoted
by Galen in two places from a work by Eu-
demus. It is, however, most probable that
this is a mistake, and that this antidote is the
same as that which Pliny says was used by
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, e. c. 223
— 187, and ordered by him to be inscribed
in verse on the threshold of the temple of
iEsculaplus. The ingredients of the two
compositions very nearly correspond; so that
the only difficulty appears to be in the epithet
" Philometor," in which word there is no
variation In the readmg of either the Greek
text or the Latin translations of Galen's
works. We must therefore conclude either
that the author of the verses made a mistake
in the name (which it is difficult to beUeve,
if we suppose these to be the very Unes in
scribed iu the temple), or that the word is
corrupt, or that this epithet was reaUy appUed
to Antiochus the Great, though it is not
noticed by any ancient author, or, lastly, that
the antidote was invented by a physician
named Antiochus Philometor, and used by
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. (Galen,
De Antid- lib. 11. cap. 14, 17. torn. xiv. p. 183.
185. 201, ed. Kuhn ; Pliny, Hist Nat lib.
XX. cap. 100. ed. Tauchn.; Caguatus, Varia;
Observ. Ub. U. cap. 25. p. 174., ed. Rom. 1587.)
W-. A. G.
ANTI'OCHUS, (¦ArT.'o;;(;os), a Syrian, bi
shop of Ptolemais in Palestine, about A. d.
400, was celebrated for his eloquence. He
travelled to Constantinople, where his ser
mons met with such general admiration that
some called him by the name of Chrysostom,
that is, the "golden mouth." He retumed
to Ptolemais laden with money and rich pre
sents. He was one of the bitterest enemies

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

of Joannes Chrysostom, and in A. d. 403 he
was present at a synod which was directed
against Chrysostom. Antiochus died in the
reign of Arcadius, and consequently before
A. D. 408. He was the author of several
sermons, of a great work against avarice,
and of a homUy on the miraculous cure
performed by our Saviour on the blind man.
But his works are lost with the exception of
a few fragments. (Cave, Scriptorum Eccles.
Histor. Literar., i. p. 285., ed. London ; Fa
bricius, Biblioth. Grac, x. 499.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHUS (^Avrioxo^), a Greek monk
of St. Saba, in the neighbourhood of Jeru
salem. He was a native of the village of
Medosaga in Galatia, and was living about
A. D. 6 14, the year in which Jerusalem was
taken by the Persians, in the war of Chos-
roes and the emperor HeracUus. Antio
chus must have lived till after a. d. 629, for
in one of his homiUes he complains of the
heretic Athanasius having got possession of
the see of Antioch. Antiochus was the
author of several works. 1. TlavSiKrris rrjs
ayi'as Tpaipfis, that is, " A condensed Abstract
of the Christian Doctrines." It is principally
taken from the Scriptures, but contains also
some opinions of the early Christian writers.
It consists of one hundred and thirty chap
ters, each of which treats on some moral sub
ject, and the whole thus forms a sort of
system of Christian ethics. It is preceded
by a dedicatory letter to Eustathitis, abbot
of the monastery of Atalina at Ancyra in
Galatia. This work was once highly valued.
It was first published in a Latin translation
by G. Tilmann, Paris, 1543, 8vo., and was
reprinted in the " Bibliotheca Patrum " of
Paris (1579), vol. u. ; in that of Cologne
(161S), vol. vii.; and in that of Lyon (1677),
vol. xU. The Greek text was first pubUshed

by Fronto Ducaeus, together with the Latin
translation of Tilmann, iu vol. 1. of the "Auc-
tarium Bibliothecae Patrum," Paris, 1624.
It was afterwards reprinted in Morell's
" Bibliotheca Patrum," vol. xll. p. 9, &c. 2.
Homilies, which are printed in Latin and
Greek in some of the works above referred
to. 3. A work on vicious thoughts, of
which there is a Latin translation by P. Pan-
tlnus in the Cologne " Bibliotheca Patrum."
The last two works are now usually con
sidered to be the productions of a later
Christian writer of the name of Antiochus.
(Cave, Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Histor.
Literar. i. 448. ed. London ; Fabricius, Bib
lioth- Grac- X. 499, &c., where a part of the
130th chapter of the Tlavdkin-i]s is printed,
which contains a catalogue of the heresies
that Antiochus abhors.) L. S.
ANTI'OCHUS SIDE'TES. [Anti
ochus VII., KING OF Syria.]
ANTI'OCHUS SOTER. [Antiochus
I., king of Stria ; Antiochus VIL, king
OF Stria.]
ANTI'OCHUS {'AvTioxos), the father of
Seleucus Nicator, who named after him the
city of Antiocheia (Antioch) in Syria, was a
distinguished general in the service of Philip
II., king of Macedonia, and through his son
Seleucus the ancestor of the dynasty of
Strian kings, called the Seleucldae. (Jus
tin, XV. 4.) The kingdom of Syria, as
founded by Seleucus, was of much greater ex
tent than the country so called. It embraced
aU the countries of Asia between India and
the Mediterranean Sea. The foUowing ge
nealogical table of his descendants is taken,
with some corrections, from Clinton's " Fasti
Hellenicl," vol. iii. p. 308. The numbers
indicate the successive kings of the dy
nasty : —

Apama

married II
(2.) Antiochus Soter.

Antioclius married Laodice.
II
(1.) Seleucus Nicator married

Apama.

(3.) Antiociius Tlieos.
II

A daugliter.

(4.) Seleucus Callinicus.

Antiochus Hierax.

(5.) Seleucus Ceraunus.

(6.) Antiochus the Great.

Antiochus. Ardys. Mithridates. (7.) Seleucus (8.) Antiochus Laodice. Cleopatra. Antiochis. A daughter.
Philopator. Epiphanes.

(10.) Demetrius Soter.

(9.) Antiochus Eupator.

Laodice,

(12.)* Demetrius Nicator. (13.) Antiochus Sidetes.

(14.) Seleucus, A daughter. (1.5.) Antiochus Laodice. Laodice. Antiochus. Seleucus. (16.) Antiochus
Grypus. Cyzicenus.
II II

(17 ) Seleucus. (19.) Antiochus (20.) Philippus. (21.) Demetrius (22.) Antiochus (18.) Antiochus
Epiphanes. Eucierus. Dionysus. Eusebes.
(24.) t Antiochus
Asiaticus.

29

» The eleventh king was the usurper, Alexander Balas.
t The twenty-third king was Tigranes.

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

The chief authorities for the lives of the
Seleucida3, in addition to those quoted below
for each life are Appian, De Rebus Syriacis ;
Justin ; Polybius ; Livy ; Diodorus ; Josephus ;
The Books of Maccabees ; the Greek and Ar
menian copies of the Chronicon of Eusebius ;
Niebuhr, Kleine Schriften, Historischer Ge-
winn aus der Armenischen Uebersetzung der
Chronik des Eusebius; Prideaux, The Old
and Nev} Testament connected in the History
of the Jews and neighbouring Nations ; Vail
lant, Seleucidarum Imperium ; Eckhel, Doc
trina Nummorum Veterum; Frohlich, Annales
Syria ; CUnton, Fasti Hellenici, vol. iii. ap
pend, c. 3, and the tables. P. S.
ANTI'OCHUS L, surnamed SOTER, or
the SAVIOUR (^Avrioxos d Swr^p), king of
Stria, was the son of Seleucus Nicator by a
Persian lady named Apama, the daughter of
Artabazus. Eusebius says that at his death
(b.c. 261) he had lived " annis Ixiv." which
must be understood of the 64th year current.
He was therefore bom in 324 b.c, which
agrees with the very probable supposition
that his father's marriage to Apama was one
of those which Alexander celebrated at Susa,
B.C. 325. (Plutarch, Alex- 70.) At the
battle of Ipsus (e.c. 301) Antiochus com
manded his father's cavalry, which was
routed by Demetrius at the commencement
of the battle.
Antiochus became deeply enamoured of
his stepmother, Stratonice, the daughter of
Demetrius Pollorcetes, but he resisted his
passion, and thus feU into a dangerous ill
ness. His physician, Eraslstratus, perceived
that love was the cause of his iUness, and
discovered that Stratonice was the object of
his attachment by the emotion which Anti
ochus always showed in her presence. He
then informed Seleucus that his son's Ulness
was incurable. "Why? "said the king. "He
is in love with my wife," replied the physi
cian. Seleucus having upon this urged Era
slstratus to give up his wife to save Anti
ochus, and having declared that if it were
his own wife he would not hesitate to make
the sacrifice, was then informed that such
was in fact the case. He kept his word, and
not only gave up his wife to Antiochus, but
granted him also the sovereignty of Upper
Asia, which included the greater part of his
empire, reserving to himself only the western
part, between the Euphrates and the Medi
terranean. It appears from the account of
Plutarch that this wais in b.c. 294.
When Seleucus made his expedition into
Europe (e.c. 2S1 — 280), his intention was to
end his days as king of Macedonia, giving
up his Asiatic dominions to Antiochus. He
was murdered, however, by Ptolemy Cerau
nus iu January, 280, and Antiochus succeeded
to the whole of the kingdom of Syria. He
at first attempted to carry out his father's
designs upon Macedonia, but the irruption of
the Gauls into Asia Minor, at the invitation
30

of Nicomedes, king of Bithynia (b.c. 279),
compeUed him to make peace with Antigonus
Gonatas, who accepted in marriage PhUa,
the daughter of Seleucus and Stratonice, and
was acknowledged as king of Macedonia by
Antiochus (e.c. 278)..
During the remainder of his reign Anti
ochus was engaged in continual wars against
Eumenes I., king of Pergamus, Nicomedes L,
king of Bithynia, and the Gauls. A victory
which he obtained over the Gauls by the
help of his elephants gained him his surname
of Soter. It is said that when he was crowned
by his soldiers after this battle he exclaimed,
with tears, " Shame on us soldiers, who owe
our safety to these sixteen beasts," and that
the only trophy he would allow to be erected
was the statue of an elephant. He was de
feated by Eumenes in a battle near Sardis.
In these wars the power of Antiochus in
Asia Minor was greatly reduced. Galatia
was occupied by the Gauls, the kingdoms of
Pergamus and Bithynia were enlarged, and
several of the sea ports of Caria, Lycia, and
CUicia were seized by Ptolemy PhUadelphus,
against whom Antiochus had been induced
by Magas to declare war. In the year b. c.
261 Antiochus was kUled in a battle with the
Gauls by a Gaul named Centaretus {Kevro-
apiirris), after a reign of nineteen years. He
left a son named Antiochus, who succeeded
him, and two daughters, Apama, the wife of
Magas, and Stratonice, who was married to
Demetrius II. of Macedonia. (Strabo, x.
486., xli. 578., xui. 623. ; Plutarch, De
metrius, 29. 38. ; Lucian, De Dea Syria,
17, 18., Icaromen- 15., Pro Lapsu, Sfc-, 9.,
Zeuxis, 8 — 12. ; Jidlan, Misopogon-, p. 348.
a. b. ; Memnon, ap. Phot., Cod. 224., p. 226
— 228, ed. Bekker ; Pausanias, i. 7. ; Jsiian,
Hist. Anim.,Y'i. 44-; Pliny, Hist Nat xiii.
64.) There is great difficulty in distinguish
ing the coins of the first three Antiochi, most
of which bear only the legend ANTIOXOT
BASIAEnS. On the reverse most of them
have Jupiter, ApoUo, Hercules, and Mace
donian emblems : on the obverse, nearly aU
the coins of the Seleucldae bear the king's
head bound with a diadem. Only two are
known with the name of Soter. One of these
has, on the reverse, a naked Apollo sitting
on the sacred cortina, holding a javelin in
the right hand, and a bow in the left. The
frequent appearance of ApoUo on the coins
of the Seleucldae is accounted for by the fact
of their claiming descent from ApoUo. The
other has an anchor, and the caps of the
Dioscuri. For other coins which probably
belong to this king, see Frohlich and Eckhel. P.S.
ANTI'OCHUS IL {AptIoxos), surnamed
THEOS or GOD (SetJs), king of Syria,
succeeded his father, Antiochus Soter, E.c.
261. He received his surname from the
Milesians, whom he had delivered from their
tyrant Timarchus. His successors, as we

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

see from their coins, frequently assumed
divine titles and honours. He continued the
war, which his father had begun, with Pto
lemy Philadelphus. Taking advantage of
the weakness produced in the Syrian king
dom by this long war, and excited by the
tyranny of their satrap, Pherecles or Aga-
thocles, the Parthlans revolted from Antio
chus, and established an independent king
dom under Arsaces (b.c 250). The different
accounts respecting the date of this event are
easily reconcUed by assuming, what in fact
is clearly impUed by Justin, that the establish
ment of the Parthian kingdom was very
gradual. This was not the only loss which
the Syrian empire suffered under Antiochus.
Theodotus, the Greek governor of Bactria,
revolted about the same time with the Par
thlans, and turned his province into the In
dependent kingdom of Bactriana. Alarmed
at these rebellions, by which in fact his
power east of the Tigris was almost destroyed,
Antiochus sued to Ptolemy for peace, which
was granted on the condition that he should
put away his former wife, Laodice, the
daughter of Achaeus, and marry Berenice,
the daughter of Ptolemy. He did so, and
had a son by Berenice, but two years later,
on the death of Ptolemy (b.c 248), he took
back Laodice, and put away Berenice. Whe
ther from unappeased revenge, or from a
doubt of her husband's constancy, or from
impatience to secure the throne to her son
Seleucus, Laodice poisoned Antiochus at
Ephesus, B.C. 246, and shortly afterwards
she caused Berenice and her infant son
to be put to death. It is related that after
Laodice had killed her husband she placed
in his bed one of the royal famUy, named
Artemon, who so closely resembled the mur
dered king that when the people were ad
mitted to' the room, and Artemon, imitating
the voice of Antiochus, commended to them
Laodice and her children, none doubted that
they heard the last commands of their king.
This crime was avenged by Ptolemy Euer
getes, who invaded Syria, and having got
Laodice into his power, put her to death.
Antiochtis Theos lived forty years, and
reigned fifteen. His children by Laodice
were Seleucus Callinicus, who succeeded him,
Antiochus Hierax, Stratonice, the wife of
Mithridates, and another daughter, whose
name is unknown, married to Arlarathes III.,
king of Cappadocia. It is said by Phylar-
chus that Antiochus was much given to
wine. There is a passage in Daniel (xi. 6.) which
clearly refers to the peace between Antiochus,
" the king of the north," and Ptolemy, " the
king of the south," and to the marriage of
the former with Berenice, and her subsequent
divorce and death. (Athenaeus, 11. 45., x.
438. ; Polyaiuus, vlli. 50. ; Arrian, ap. Phot.
Cod. 58. ; Suidas, sub voc. 'Apcra(C7)j; Strabo,
xi. 515.; Valerius Maximus, ix. 14. ext. 1. ;
31

Pliny, Hist- Nat vil. 10. ; Hleronymus, ad
Daniel, c. xi.) There are no coins which
bear the name of Antiochus Theos. Of those
which bear simply the name of Antiochus,
one is ascribed to this king on account of a
star over the king's head, which is rightly
taken to be a sign of divinity, but which
might quite as well belong to Antiochus IV. :
the reverse is Apollo on the cortina, with the
javelin and bow, as in the coin of Antiochus I.
described above, the whole enclosed in a
laurel wreath. Another which Frohlich as
cribes to this king has on the reverse Her
cules sitting on a rock, holding in his right
hand his club, the end of which rests on the
ground. P. S.
ANTI'OCHUS IIL (; Avt'loxos), surnamed
THE GREAT {b miyas), king of Stria, the
younger son of Seleucus Callinicus, succeeded
his brother, Seleucus Ceraunus, in the mid
dle of B. c 223, being then only in the
fifteenth year of his age. On his brother's
accession, he had gone into Upper Asia, where
he remained till his death, when he was sent
for from Babylonia by the army and pro
claimed king. His first care was to provide
for the government of his vast dominions, by
entrusting the parts west of Taurus to his
first cousin Achaeus, and the provinces of
Upper Asia to two brothers, Molo and
Alexander, of whom Molo was made satrap
of Media and Alexander of Persis. Syria
Proper he retained under his own imme
diate government. These arrangements had
not long been made, when Molo and Alex
ander raised the standard of rebellion. The
causes which led them to this course were
the contempt excited by the king's youth,
the hope that Achaeus would follow their
example in Asia Minor, but, most of all, their
fear of Hermeas, a worthless favourite, who
had then supreme infiuence at the court of
Antiochus. This Hermeas was a Carian,
and had been entrusted with the government
by Seleucus Ceraunus when he undertook
his expedition beyond the Taurus. His chief
rival was Eplgenes, the general who had led
back the army of Seleucus.
When the news of the rebellion of Molo
and Alexander arrived at Seleucia, on the
Tigris, where the court was staying, An
tiochus called a council, at which Eplgenes
advised him to march in person against the
revolted satraps, who would then not dare to
keep the field, or else would be deserted by
their followers ; but Hermeas, accusing Epi-
genes of a traitorous desire to endanger the
person of the king, recommended that an
army should be sent against the rebels, and
that at the same time an attempt should be
made to wrest Ccele-Syria from Egypt, for
which enterprise the recent accession of
Ptolemy PhUopator presented a favourable
opportunity. 'This plan, which was pro
posed by Hermeas with the view of involving
Antiochus in war, and thus leaving him no

ANTIOCHUS.
leisure to inquire into his minister's conduct,
feU in with the ambition which the king
showed throughout all his life to restore to
the empire of the Seleucldae its ancient ex
tent and power. If he felt any hesitation to
engage in two wars at once, it was overcome
by a forged letter, which Hermeas showed
him, as if from Achaeus, which stated that
Ptolemy was instigating that satrap to rebel,
and promising him assistance. He accord
ingly sent Zenon and Theodotus against
Molo and Alexander, while he himself pre
pared to invade Ccele-Syria (b. o. 221). In
the meantime his admiral, Diognetus, arrived
at Seleucia from Cappadocia, conducting the
betrothed bride of Antiochus, Laodice, the
daughter of Mithridates IV., king of Pontus.
After celebrating his nuptials with great
pomp, the king proceeded to Antioch, where
he caused Laodice to receive homage as
queen. WhUe Antiochus was continuing his pre
parations for war at Antioch, Molo had driven
the royal generals into fortified cities, and was
complete master of Media. This loss was the
more serious to Antiochus, as he depended
entirely on Media for his supply of horses.
Molo even attempted to cross the Tigris and
besiege Seleucia on that river ; but this at
tempt having been frustrated by the royal
general Zeuxis, who had seized all the vessels
on the river, Molo took up his winter quarters
at Cteslphon. On hearing this news, An
tiochus wished to postpone his attack on
Ptolemy, and to march in person against
Molo ; but he again yielded to the influence
of Hermeas, who told him that a war against
rebels ought to be left to generals, but that it
was for a king to form plans and fight battles
against kmgs. Xenoetas, an Achaean, was
sent with a fresh army against Molo, while
Antiochus, having coUected his forces at
Apamea, marched to Laodice and thence
into the plain of Marsyas, the narrowest part
of the vaUey between Libanus and Antlli-
banus. Proceeding through this valley, he
found Theodotus, Ptolemy's general, strongly
posted at the forts of Gerrha and Brochi,
which he attempted to force, but was re
pulsed with considerable loss. At this crisis
he received the news that Xencetas, having
imprudently crossed the Tigris, had fallen
into a snare laid for him by Molo, and had
perished with all his army, and that Molo
was master of all Upper Asia east of the
Euphrates. He therefore gave up the attack
on Ccele-Syria, and turning all his attention
to the war with Molo, assembled his forces at
Apamea. Here Hermeas at last succeeded in
effecting the ruin of Eplgenes. As soon as
his preparations were completed, Antiochus
marched to the Euphrates, and crossing that
river arrived at Antioch in Mygdonia, about
the winter solstice, and there took up his
winter quarters for forty days. He then
marched to Liba, and, fortunately casting oflf
32

ANTIOCHUS.
the influence of Hermeas, who advised him
to proceed down the western bank of the
Tigris, he foUowed the counsel of Zeuxis, and
crossed the river. Marching down its eastern
bank, he relieved Dura, which was besieged
by one of Molo's generals, and on the eighth
day he reached ApoUonia. In the mean
time Molo, who was in Babylonia when the
kmg crossed the Tigris, fearing that his
retreat into -Media would be cut off, also
crossed the river, intending, if possible, to
occupy the mountain districts of ApoUoniatis
before Antiochus. WhUe he marched for
ward towards ApoUonia, the king had already
left that place, and the vanguards of the two
armies met on a certain ridge. After a slight
skirmish, both parties pitched their camps at a
distance of five miles from each other. During
the ensuing night Molo set out with a chosen
force to surprise the king, but finding his
men beginning to desert, he retumed to his
camp. At the dawn of day Antiochus drew
out his army, and committing the left to
Hermeas and Zeuxis, posted himself on the
right. The forces of Molo, already alarmed
by the failure of his nocturnal expedition,
formed a disordered line, and at the very
outset, the left wing, as soon as they saw the
king opposed to them, went over to him in a
body. Molo, after a short and brave resist
ance to Zeuxis on the right, finding himself
surrounded, and fearing the tortures he
should suffer if he feU aUve into the hands
of Antiochus, kUled himself on the field of
battle. The other leaders of the rebeUion
fled to their homes, and there put an end to
their lives. Neolaus, the brother of Molo
and Alexander, carried the news to Alex
ander in Persis, and having kUled their
mother and Molo's chUdren, he slew himself,
after persuading Alexander to do the same.
Antiochus, having exposed Molo's body on
the cross, and having received the submission
of his army, returned to Seleucia on the
Tigris, where he occupied himself with re
ducing the affairs of the neighbouring satra
pies into order. Here Hermeas began to
oppress the people of the city. Inflicting on
them a fine of a thousand talents, and other
severe penalties for their conduct during the
late troubles ; but he was restrained by An
tiochus, who was content with a fine of a
hundred and fifty talents.
After putting down this rebellion, the king
turned his attention to the states which
seemed to threaten his power in Upper Asia,
He first attacked Artabazanes, the king of
Media Atropatene, a country lying on the
south-west of the Caspian Sea, and on the north
of Media, from which it was separated by
mountains. This king accepted peace on the
conditions dictated by Antiochus. During
this expedition Antiochus, at the instigation
of his physician ApoUophanes, rid himself of
Hermeas, who had formed a plot to put the
king to death, hoping that he should then

ANTIOCHUS.
obtain the government, as regent for the
infant son of Antiochus, who was just born.
These events took place in b. c 220.
While the eastern provinces were thus
brought into order, Achaeus had adminis
tered his government in the west with the
greatest ability and success, and had reco
vered for Antiochus all those cities of Asia
Minor which Attalus had conquered in the
preceding reigns. Alarmed, however, at the
false accusation which Hermeas had brought
against him of a treacherous correspondence
with Ptolemy PhUopator, and thinking that
the absence of Antiochus in Media gave him
a favourable opportunity for securing his
own safety by rebellion, he assumed the dia
dem, caused himself to be saluted as king,
and marched from his head-quarters in Lydia
towards Syria. Upon arriving in Lycaonia,
his army refused to advance further, or to
fight against their king. Pretending, there
fore, that he had never intended to invade
Syria, Achaeus turned back and ravaged
Plsidia. All this was known to Antiochus,
but he contented himself with sending a
threatening message to Achajus, and turned
his whole attention once more to the conquest
of Ccele-Syria. The campaign was com
menced, at the advice of ApoUophanes, by
the reduction of Seleucia, on the sea, near the
mouth of the Orontes, which had been taken
by Ptolemy Euergetes when he avenged
the death of his sister Berenice by over
running Syria (b. c. 246), and which had
ever since been held by the Egyptians, though
it stood only about twelve miles from An
tioch. This place Antiochus invested by sea
and land, and having taken it by a vigor
ous assault, aided by traitors within the city,
he restored the inhabitants to their liberty.
While thus engaiged, he received a letter
from Theodotus the iEtoUan, governor of
Ccele-Syria, promising to betray the province
into his hands. This was the same Theo
dotus who had so vigorously defended Ccele-
Syria against the first Invasion of Antio
chus ; but he had been treated with marked
neglect by the government of Egypt, and
had even been accused of treason. Having
gone to Alexandria to plead his cause, he
conceived such a contempt for the character
of Ptolemy, that he was prepared to desert
his service. On the approach of Antiochus,
he yielded up to him Coele-Syria, with Tyre
and Ptolemais, where the king found consi
derable magazines and forty ships. Anti
ochus now meditated an invasion of Egypt,
hut hearing that the canals had been opened,
the wells destroyed, and the whole forces of
the land posted at Pelusium, while Ptolemy
himself had taken refuge at Memphis, he
gave up the project, and went through Ccele-
Syria and Phcenicia, receiving the submission
of the towns. Among the rest he took Da
mascus by a stratagem. Meanwhile the in
dolent and luxurious king of Egypt remained
VOL. III.

ANTIOCHUS.
totally inactive, leaving every thing to his
ministers Agathocles and Sosibius, who ob
tained a trace of four months from Antiochus,
who then retired to Seleucia near the mouth
of the Orontes, chiefly in order to watch
Achaeus. During this interval the Egyptians
made the most vigorous preparations for war.
At the same time they sent ambassadors to
Antiochus, who were to accompany the de
mand that he should evacuate Ccele-Syria
with such representations as might confirm
him in the belief that Ptolemy would not dare
to meet him in the field. The negotiations
came to nothing, since both parties persisted
in claiming a right, arising out ofthe partition
after the battle of Ipsus, to Ccele-Syria, Phoe
nicia, and Palestine ; and another difficulty
arose from the desire of Ptolemy to include
Achaeus in the treaty, which Antiochus would
not hear of. The truce having expired, in
the spring of the year b.c 218, both parties
took the field, the Syrians under Antiochus
himself, and the Egyptians under Nicolaus, an
iEtolian, who had distinguished himself the
year before in Ccsle-Syria by refusing to join
in the treachery of Theodotus. The armies
were supported by fleets, which were com ¦
manded by Diognetus, the admiral of An
tlochus, and Perlgenes, the admiral of
Ptolemy. Nicolaus hastened to secure the
narrow passes between Lebanon and the sea,
while Antiochus marched down along the coast
accompanied by his fleet, and received in his
way the submission of Aradus and Berytus.
The battle was joined at the same moment
by sea and land. The sea-fight was equal,
but on land the generalship of Antiochus
gave him the advantage over the greater
numbers of Nicolaus, who was completely
defeated, and fled to Sldon, where he was
joined by the fleet under Perlgenes, who
retreated as soon as he saw that the army
was defeated. Perceiving that Sldon was
too strongly defended to be easily taken,
Antiochus dismissed his fleet to Tyre, and
marched into Galilee. Having taken Philo-
teria and ScythopoUs, cities at the two ends
of the lake of "Tiberias, and Atabyrium, a
fort on Mount Tabor, and the towns of Pella,
Camus, and Gephrus, he crossed the Jordan
into the land of Gllead (roAoTii', Polyb.) ; he
became master of Abila and of the forces in
that district, and took Gadara and Rabbath-
Ammon {"Pa^fiaTdixcwa, Polyb.). In con
sequence of these successes, the neighbouring
Arabs submitted to him. The year being
now far advanced, he intrusted Samaria to
Kerseas (or perhaps, Chaereas) and Hippo-
lochus, two of Ptolemy's generals who had
come over to him, and led his army into
winter quarters at Ptolemais. These events
at length roused Ptolemy to action, and in
the following spring (b.c 217) he took the
field in person, at the head of an army con
sisting of seventy thousand foot, five thou
sand horse, and seventy-three elephants. An-
D

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

tiochus had sixty-two thousand foot, six thou
sand horse, and one hundred and two ele
phants. The two kings pitched their camps
at Raphia, near Gaza, not more than five stadia
from each other, and repeated skirmishes took
place in the space between them. While the
armies were thus posted, Theodotus the
.^tolian ventured into the Egyptian camp
with the intention of killing Ptolemy, but
not finding him in his tent, he kiUed his
physician Andreas, wounded two other per
sons, and returned saife to the Syrian camp.
At the end of five days the kings drew out
their forces, and, after haranguing their sol
diers, took their stations opposite to each
other, Antiochus on his right, and Ptolemy
with his sister and wife Arslnoe on his left.
The African elephants in Ptolemy's left wing,
unable to endure the odour and the noise of
the Indian elephants, turned upon the royal
body guard, and Antiochus, following up the
advantage, routed that wing ; but the Egyp
tians were victorious on their rightj 'Phe
phalanxes, which were opposed to each other
in the centre, stood for some time iu sus
pense, till Ptolemy, retiring from his defeated
left, joined his phalanx, and charged and
broke that of the Syrians. Antiochus had
already pursued the Egyptian left too far,
when one of his veteran generals showed
him the dust which indicated the defeat of
his other forces. He at once returned, but
finding that all his troops had fled, he him
self retreated to Raphia, whither Ptolemy
pursued him on the next day, and forced him
back to Gaza. In this battle Antiochus lost
ten thousand infantry and three hundred
cavalry, besides more than four thousand
prisoners. Ptolemy lost one thousand five
hundred foot, one thousand seven hundred
horse, and nearly all his elephants. The
battle was fought almost exactly at the same
time that Hannibal defeated the Romans at
the Trasimene Lake. While Ptolemy was
receiving the submission of the recovered
cities, which were glad to return to his do
minion, Antiochus had retired to Antioch,
whence he sent ambassadors to treat of
peace. Distrust of his troops, whose alle
giance was shaken by his late defeat, and
above all, the desire to dispose finally of
Achaeus, made him willing to yield to Ptolemy
all Ccele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, and
first a truce, and then a peace, was concluded
on these terms.
The winter was devoted by Antiochus to
preparations for a campaign against Achaeus,
who was now absolute master of Asia Minor,
and might soon be expected to attack Syria.
At the beginning of the summer (b.c. 216)
Antiochus crossed the Taurus, and having
formed an alliance with Attalus, he drove
Acha;us into Sardes, where he sustained
a two years' siege, and was at length be
trayed to Antioclius, who put him to death,
[AcuiEUS.] 31-

Antiochus now turned his thoughts once
more to the East, where the Bactrian and
Parthian kings had been steadily consoli
dating their power ; and the latter had taken
advantage of the wars in Ccele-Syria and
Asia Minor to seize on Media. After de
voting a year to the settlement of the affairs
of Asia Minor, he marched into Media (b. c.
212), whence he drove out Arsaces IL, the
Parthian king. In the next year he pursued
him into Parthia, and in the following spring
into Hyrcania, where a long struggle ensued ;
and though Antiochus was generaUy victori
ous, he found it hopeless to attempt to keep
possession of the country. He therefore
confirmed Arsaces in the sovereignty of Par
thia and Hyrcania, on the condition that he
should become his ally (b, c. 208). His cam
paign with Euthydemus, king of Bactriana
(b. c. 207 — 206), led to exactly the same re
sult. By the assistance of this prince he
was enabled to enter India, where he renewed
the friendly relations which had anciently
subsisted between the Seleucldae and the
princes of that counti-y, and received from
the chief Sophagasenus a large number of
elephants. He then retumed through Ara-
chosia and Drangiana into Carmanla, where
he wintered; and in the following spring he
marched back to Antioch, after an absence of
seven years. His exploits during this period
obtained for him the title of " the Great,"
but his ambition was inflamed to such a de
gree that he began to meditate conquests in
Europe ; and it is from this period that his
downfaU must be dated. The foUowing was
the occasion which tUtimately led to it. In
the same year in which Antiochus returned
from India (b.c 205), Ptolemy Philopator
died, leaving the kingdom to his son, Ptolemy
Epiphanes, a child of five years old. Taking
advantage of the opportunity, Antiochus
entered into a league with Philip V., king
of Macedonia, for the partition of the do
minions of the Ptolemies ; of which PhiUp
was to have Egypt, Cyrene, and Libya, and
the cities held by the Egyptians in Caria,
and Antiochus the other territories in
Asia, with Cyprus. Antiochus immediately
marched into Ccele-Syria, and, as his invasion
was quite unexpected, he easily overran both
that country and Palestine, while Philip
seized several ofthe cities of Asia Jlinor. The
guardians of the young Ptolemy now placed
the kingdom under the protection of the
Romans, who were no sooner free from the
second Punic war than they directed all then-
force to crush the growing power of Philip,
and contented themselves with sending an
embassy to Antiochus, commanding him to
let Egypt alone (e.c 201 — 200). In the year
B.C. 199, whUe Antiochus was occupied in
Asia Minor, by a war with Attalus, Scopas,
the general of Ptolemy, recovered Palestine
and Coele-Syria; but in the next spring (e.g.
198), Antiochus marched against him in

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

person, and defeated him at Paneas, near the
sources of the Jordan. Scopas retreated to
Sidon, which Antiochus took by capitulation.
The whole country again submitted to him,
with much better wUl than at his first con
quest of it, a change which is to be attributed
to the oppressions which the Jews suffered
from Ptolemy Philopator in the latter years
of his reign. [Ptolemt IV.] The peo
ple of Jerusalem even assisted in expeUing
the Egyptian garrison ; and, as the reward
of their conduct, they received from An
tiochus several favours and immunities, of
which one of the most important was an edict
that no stranger should enter the temple.
Throughout his whole reign Antiochus ob
served a conciliatory policy towards the Jews,
and seems to have put great confidence in
their fidelity. Of this he gave a striking
proof by garrisoning some frontier towns in
the disturbed districts of Asia Minor with
Jews from Babylon. We learn these facts
from two decrees of Antiochus, which Jose
phus has preserved, and from notices in the
" Chronicon " of Eusebius.
The way was now open for his long-
desired conquests in the West. He spent the
winter at Antioch, engaged in extensive pre
parations for a campaign both by sea and by
land ; and at the beginning of the spring
(B.C. 197) he sent forward his army under
the command of his sons Ardys and Mithri
dates, whom he ordered to wait for him at
Sardes, while he proceeded along the coasts
of Asia Minor, with a fleet of a himdred
decked ships, besides smaller vessels, to re
duce the cities which were still held by Ptole
my. He was thus engaged when he heard
of PhUip's defeat by the Romans at Cynosce-
phalae, in the autumn of b. u. 197. Per
ceiving that he should now have to maintain
a confiict with the whole power of Rome, he
first provided for the safety of Syria by a treaty
with Egypt, in which it was agreed that
Ptolemy, when old enough, should marry
Cleopatra the daughter of Antiochus, who
promised to give her for her dower the pro
vinces of Coele-Syria and Palestine. 'This
treaty effectually secured him from open
hostilities on the part of Egypt during the
ensuing contest. After wintering at Ephesus,
he opened the campaign of b. c. 196, by cross
ing the Hellespont and seizing the Thracian
Chersonese, where he began to rebuild Lysi-
machia. He thus secured the passage be
tween Europe and Asia, and began to make
incursions into the neighbouring parts of
Thrace. Meanwhile the inhabitants ofLamp-
sacus and Smyrna, alarmed at his successes,
and seeing that his intention was to add all
the cities of Asia Minor to his empire, had
already, before the end ofthe preceding year,
sent ambassadors to Rome to beg for aid, and
the senate appointed an embassy to Antiochus.
These ambassadors, and L. Cornelius Scipio,
who had been commissioned by the senate to
35

compose the differences between Antiochus
and Ptolemy, met the king at Lyslmachla,
where he entertained them hospitably ; but
a different temper was shown at the public
audience. The Romans demanded that An
tiochus should restore to Ptolemy aU the
cities of Asia Minor which he had lately
taken from him, and that those which had
belonged to PhUip should be given up to
Rome ; " for it would be absurd," they said,
" that after the Romans had carried on war
with Philip, Antiochus should reap the fruit
of their labours and dangers." They warned
him to let alone the cities which were stiU
free, and charged him with having virtually
commenced hostiUtles with the republic ; for,
by whatever pretext he might explain his
occupation of Asia Minor, his passage into
Europe clearly amounted to nothing else
than a declaration of war with Rome. The
king replied, " that he wondered what the
Roman people had to do with Asia, or why
they should seek to know what Antiochus
was doing in Asia more than Antiochus what
they were about in Italy ; or why they should
prescribe limits to his excursions by sea or
land. As for Ptolemy, he would himself
arrange his affairs with that king, who was
now his friend, and would soon be his rela
tion. He had crossed," he said, " into Europe
to recover those possessions in the Cherso
nese and Thrace, which his ancestor Seleucus
had taken from Lysimachus by conquest,
and to which he had thus an hereditary claim ;
and he intended to erect them into a separate
kingdom for his younger son Seleucus. By
the same right, he claimed the cities of Asia
Minor, which had fallen under the power of
Egypt and Macedonia, whUe his predecessors
were engaged in other matters. WhUe thus
resolved to recover his own, he had neither
made aggressions upon Philip in his troubles,
nor had he availed himself of Philip's aUiance
to attack the Romans. Lastly, it was right
that the free Grecian states in Asia should
have their liberty, not from the mandate of
the Romans, but through his own favour."
The Roman ambassadors then proposed that
the complaints of the people of Lampsacus
and Smyrna should be heard. Those cities,
to which Antiochus had laid siege at the be
ginning of the campaign, had sent ambas
sadors to Lyslmachla, who now came forward,
and stated their grievances so freely, that
Antiochus lost his temper, and commanded
them to be silent, for he did not acknowledge
the Romans for his judges. The conference
was broken up ; and the negotiations were
terminated in a few days by Antiochus, who,
having heard that Ptolemy was dead, at once
conceived the project of seizing Egypt. Leav
ing his army at Lyslmachla under his son
Seleucus, he set sail for Egypt ; but on his
arrival at Patara in Lycia, he learned that
the report of Ptolemy's death was false.
[Ptolemy V,] He then attempted to seize
D 2

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

Cyprus ; but his fleet was so shattered by a
storm, that he was compelled to put back
into Seleucia, near the mouth of the Orontes,
whence he returned to Antioch, and there
wintered. Before quitting the Hellespont, he
had sent ambassadors into Greece to the pro
consul Flamininus, and thence to Rome ; and
he still continued to make attempts at nego
tiation. On the other hand, the Romans,
heing occupied in settling the affairs of Greece,
and in wars with the Gallic tribes of the In-
subrians and Bolans, protracted the nego
tiations with Antiochus for some years, so
that it was not till the year b. c. 192 that the
war actually commenced.
The resolution of Antiochus had been at
last determined, chiefiy by the advice of
Hannibal, who had taken refuge at his court.
[Hannibal.] But before entering on this
distant war, he confirmed his power in Asia
by marrying his daughter Cleopatra to Ptole
my, according to the contract mentioned
above, and with her he gave up Ccele-Sy
ria and Palestine, retaining half their re
venues. He married another of his daughters,
Antiochis, to Arlarathes, king of Cappadocia,
and offered a third to Eumenes, king of Per
gamus, who declined the alliance, believing
that it was safer to be on the side of the Bo-
mans. Antiochus then proceeded to his head
quarters at Ephesus, where he spent the win
ter (b. <j. 193 — 192). In the spring he made
an expedition against the Pisidlans, and had
retumed to Apamea to meet a Roman embas
sy, when he received news of the death of his
eldest son, Antiochus, whom he had sent into
Syria to protect the eastern frontier. There
was a report that Antiochus had himself
caused the young prince to be put to death,
through envy at the general popularity which
his virtues had obtained for him ; but there
is no evidence of such a fact. After remain
ing shut up in his palace at Ephesus, in the
deepest grief, for some days, he finally dis
missed the Roman ambassadors, and held a
council to decide on the best plan for carry
ing on the war. To this council Hannibal
was not admitted. The Roman ambassador,
Publius Villius, while staying at Ephesus,
had made frequent visits to Hannibal, in
order to excite the king's suspicion ; and this
artifice, seconded by the jealousy of the
courtiers towards the Carthaginian, wais so
successful that, although the king was recon
ciled to Hannibal before the expedition left
Asia, yet in the mean time he rejected his
counsel, that the war should be carried at
once into Italy, and followed the advice of
Thoas, the leader of the iEtolian embassy,
who assured him that if he crossed over into
Greece he would at once become master of
the country. He accordingly left Ephesus,
with an army of only ten thousand foot and
five hundred horse, and landed at Demetrias
in Northern Greece in the autumn of B.C.
192, He was immediately appointed gene-
36

ral of aU the JEtoUan forces, and sent en
voys to obtain the support of the Achaeans,
the Boeotians, and Amynander, chief of the
Athamanes, The latter was easily gained
over ; but the BoBotians gave no certain
answer, and the Achaeans refused the alli
ance of Antiochus, who effected nothing in
this campaign beyond the reduction of
Chalcis in Euboea, where he fixed his win
ter quarters, and opened negotiations with
various Grecian states, some of whom sent
ambassadors to him of their own accord, the
Eleans to beg for aid against the Achaeans,
and the Epirots to entreat him not to involve
them hastily in the war, exposed as they
were to the first attack of the Romans, He
also undertook an expedition into Boeotia,
He was well received at Thebes, and the
BcEOtians, who were at the time incensed
against the Romans, resolved to join the king.
About the middle of the winter Antiochus
called a council at Demetriais, to which he
invited the chiefs of the .SltoUans, the Atha-
manlan prince Amynander, and Hannibal,
who had not for a long time before been ad
mitted to the royal councils. The question
discussed was concerning the best means of
gaining over the Thessalians, but Hannibal,
when called on for his opinion, entered afresh
into the subject of the whole war. He
pointed to Philip as the ally whom it was
most important to secure, and advised that
the forces which were coming from Asia
should be waited for, and that on their ar
rival the king's whole army should be con
centrated on the north-eastern coast of the
Adriatic, whole the fleet should be sent to
threaten the coasts of Italy, into which coun
try he still persisted that the war ought to
be carried on the very first opportunity. His
counsel was applauded, but it was only fol
lowed in the point of waiting for reinforce
ments from Asia. Envoys were sent to the
Thessaliau coimcil at Larissa, and having
appointed a day for the .Sltolians and Amy
nander to assemble their forces at Pherae,
Antiochus proceeded to that place. WhUe
waiting there for his allies, he caused the
bones of the Macedonians who had fallen at
Cynoscephalae to be interred. The tacit re
proach implied in this act so offended PhiUp
that, though he had remained neutral up to
this time, watching the course of events, he
now sent to the Roman propraetor, Marcus
Baebius, telUng him that Antiochus had
entered Thessaly, and offering to co-operate
with Baebius against him. 'the attempt to
gain over the Thessalians having faUed, the
king ravaged their country and took some
cities. He advanced as far as the pass of
Tempe, which he found occupied by a small
Roman force under Appius Claudius, Avho by
an artifice led him to believe that the whole
Roman army and the forces of PhUip were
posted there, and under this error the king
retreated to Demetrias, and thence to Chalcis.

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS

Here he fell into' a snare which proved his
ruin. He married the daughter of a Chalci-
dian named Cleoptolemus, a girl not more
than twenty years old, being himself nearly
fifty ; and dismissing from his mind all care
about the war, he spent the remainder of the
winter in feasting and voluptuous pleasures.
His example was followed by his army,
whioh was found to be in a state of complete
disorganisation when it took the field in the
spring (B.C. 191).
The Romans had in the mean time re
ceived from Eumenes the news that Anti
ochus had invaded Greece. The war with
Antiochus had been voted in the comitia,
and the new consul, M' AciUus Glabrio, having
obtained Greece for his province, had set out
from Rome at the beginning of May. At
the same time ambatssadors came offering as
sistance, not only from Philip, but even from
Ptolemy. When Antiochus married his
daughter to this king, he expected that her
influence over her husband would put Egypt
in his own power. But Cleopatra had been
faithful to her husband, even against her
father ; and knowing what would befall
Egypt if Antiochus were victorious over
Rome, she had persuaded Ptolemy to offer
secret aid to the Romans. Maslnissa and the
Carthaginians also came forward to aid them
with corn and elephants.
After some movements in Northern Greece,
which are not worth tracing, Antiochus was
surprised in his quarters at Chalcis by the
news that the consul was in fuU march
through Thessaly. With his disordered army,
which was not yet strengthened by the ex
pected reinforcements, he posted himself at
Thermopyte. But the Romans turned the
pass by the same path over the ridge of Cal-
lidromus which Xerxes and Brennus had
formerly used, and surrounded the army of
Antiochus, which was cut to pieces. The
king himself escaped to Chalcis -with only
five hundred men. Thence he sailed with
all speed to Ephesus, carrying his young wife
with him ; and upon his arrival there he
gave himself up to the same course of life
which had already proved his ruin, without
making the least provision for defence. From
this state of security he was roused by Han
nibal, who told him that instead of doubting
whether the Romans would enter Asia, he
only wondered that they were not there al
ready. Committing his fieet to Polyxenidas,
Antiochus used every effort to strengthen
the '.rhracian Chersonese and to raise a new
army. While he was thus employed the Ro
man fleet, under C. Livius, who had been
joined by Eumenes with twenty-four ships,
gained a complete victory over Polyxenidas
off Corycus. Antiochus wintered in Phrygia,
where he used every exertion to collect
forces. At the consular elections at Rcime (b.c
190) Lucius Cornelius Scipio obtained Asia
37

as his province, and his brother Publius Cor
nelius Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of
Hannibal, accompanied him as legatus. The
command of the fieet was given to Lucius
.ffimUius Regillus. At the opening of the
campaign the Rhodian fieet, under Pausis-
tratus, was defeated by Polyxenidas ; but being
reinforced from Rhodes, Pausistratus first
assisted iEmillus to relieve Elaea, the sea-port
of Pergamus, and then sailed to meet Hanni
bal, who was bringing a fleet from Syria and
Phoenicia to join Antiochus. Hannibal was
defeated off the coast of Pamphylia, and was
driven Into a port, where he was blockaded
during the remaiinder of the war. Antiochus
now resolved, if possible, to become master
of the sea, and thus to prevent the Romans
from crossing the Hellespont. Coming to
Ephesus, he commanded Polyxenidas to risk
another battle. He did so, and was totally
defeated by iEmiUus off Myonnesus. An
tiochus now despaired of defending the pas
sage of the Hellespont, and withdrew his
forces from the Chersonese with such preci
pitation that he left behind aU his military
stores. The ground thus left free was im
mediately occupied by Eumenes, who made
every provision for the passage ofthe Romans,
and towards the end of the summer Scipio
led his forces into Asia. Antiochus now
attempted to negotiate ; and to gain the good
offices of Publius Scipio, he restored to him
his son, who had been taken prisoner in some
skirmish, and he even attempted to bribe
the incorruptible Roman, The only terms
offered him were that he should give up all
Asia to the west of Taurus, and pay all the
expenses of the war. Thinking that he
should not obtain worse terms than these,
even after a defeat, he resolved to risk a
battle. With an army of seventy thousand
foot, twelve thousand horse, and fifty-four
elephants, he encountered the Roman force
of only thirty thousand men, near Magnesia,
under Mount Sipylus, and sustained a total
defeat, leaving fifty thousand foot and four
thousand horse dead on the field of battle.
The king himself fled to Sardes, and having
been joined by his son Seleucus, who had
also escaped from the battle, he hastened to
cross the Taurus. On his arrival at Antioch
he again sued for peace, which was granted
him on the terms he had before refused. The
expenses of the war were calculated at fifteen
thousand talents, which it was stipulated that
Antiochus should pay by instalments in silver
of the Attic standard and according to the
Euboic weight, that is, according to the
purest standard and the heaviest weight then
used iu Greece. Of the other articles the
most important were those by which Anti
ochus was to give up to the Romans all his
elephants and ships of war. The treaty Is
given at length by Polybius and Livy. This
peace was made in the winter of B.C. 190,
and its ratification by the senate was received
P 3

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

in the following spring (b.c 189) ; but it was
not finally completed tlU the following year,
B. c 188. Antiochus Immediately paid five
hundred talents, and gave hostages for the
payment of the remainder, among whom was
his son Antiochus, who afterwards reigned
by the title of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes. He
agreed to give up Hannibal and Thoas the
.SitoUan, as being the chief instigators of the
war, but they had already made their escape.
[Hannibal.] Antiochus did not long sur
vive his defeat. In b. c 187, finding it
difficult to raise the money due to the Ro
mans, he attempted to plunder the temple
of Jupiter Belus in Elymais, but the people
broke out into insurrection and put him
to death. The prophecy in Daniel (xi. 10
— 19.) Is supposed to relate to this king.
(Hleronymus in loc-) He had five sons,
Antiochus, Ardys, and Mithridates, who died
before him, Seleucus PhUopator, who suc
ceeded him, and Antiochus Epiphanes, the
successor of Seleucus ; and four daughters,
Laodice, married to her brother Antiochus,
Cleopatra, married to Ptolemy Epiphanes,
Antiochis, married to Arlarathes, and one
whose name is not mentioned. His death
took place in the fifty-second year of his age,
after he had reigned a little more than thirty-
six years, October, b.c 187. Some numis
matists assign to this king the coins in which
the nose is long, straight, and pointed, but
the length of time during which he reigned
makes it probable that his features would
vary. Some of his coins are known with
certainty by the date ; the coins of this king
being the first on which the years of the aera
of the Seleucldae are marked. This aera
began in October, E.c. 312. [Seleucus I.]
The devices on the coins of Antiochus the
Great are for the most part sunUar to those
on the coins of his predecessors. Among
them are also a palm branch, a sphinx, and a
ship. P. S.
ANTI'OCHUS IV. {'Aurioxos), surnamed
EPIPHANES {'EirKpaviis), or ILLUSTRI
OUS, king of Syria, was the youngest son
of Antiochus the Great, who gave him up as
a hostage to the Romans (b.c. 188). After a
captivity of more than twelve years, during
which he had no doubt the advantage of an
education at Rome, he was restored to liberty
by his brother Seleucus PhUopator, who gave
his only son, Demetrius, in exchange for
him (B.C. 175). While this exchange was
being effected, the heir to the throne having
left Syria, and Antiochus having not yet
arrived there, Hellodorus, the treasurer of
the kingdom, murdered Seleucus, and at
tempted to seize the crown. Antiochus was
at Athens, on his way homo, when he heard
of his brother's death. Finding that Hellodo
rus had a powerful party, and that Ptolemy
Philometor was being set up as a claimant to
the crown iu right of his mother, Cleopatra,
the daughter of Antiochus the Great, he re-
33

solved to seize it for himself, to the exclusion
of his nephew, Demetrius. He applied tor
aid to Eumenes, king of Pergamus, and his
brother Attalus, who were the more disposed
to help him, as their relations with Rome
were not in a satisfactory state, and by their
assistance Antiochus was seated on the throne
about August, 175 e.c. He received upon
his accession the title of Epiphanes, " Il
lustrious," for what reason Is not certain,
but it was probably assumed by him as a
divine title. He is styled on his coins &e6s,
^eos i-jrt(payl]s, and riH-ijcpopos ¦- the last was a
title of Jupiter. The statement of Appian,
that it was given him on account of the
mode in which he obtained the throne, is
not very intelligible. On accotmt of his
mode of life, his subjects, by a parody on
this title, caUed him Epimanes {'Eirifuiyris),
" the Madman." He was distinguished by
that peculiar kind of mental activity which
leads an absolute prince at one time to
behave to his subjects with undue famUi
arity, and then to turn upon them as a cruel
tyrant. He woidd ramble about the city
conversing with the artificers, drinking and
froUcking with the lowest rabble ; at other
times he would put on the toga of a Roman
candidate and imitate the Roman mode of
soUcitlng the suffrages of the people for a
magistracy, after obtaining which he would
seat himself in a curule chair and decide
petty disputes about bargains in the markets.
Like Nero, whom he resembled in many
points of his character, he even exhibited his
follies at the public games. In his more
serious moods he was guUty of the most cruel
tyranny, but it is thought that many of the
crimes laid to his charge were committed by
his ministers without his knowledge. jLike
Nero, also, he had a taste for the fine arts,
and erected many sumptuous buUdings, the
chief of which was the temple of Jupiter Ca-
pitolinus at Antioch. He enlarged Antioch,
and either rebuUt or greatly improved the
town of Hamath, ou the northern borders of
Palestine, which he called Epiphanela, after
himself. He made magnificent gifts to several
Grecian towns and temples, particularly to
the temple of Jupiter Olymplus at Athens.
In the splendour of his public spectacles he
surpassed all preceding kings, and he was
the first to introduce into the east the Roman
gladmtorial shows.
The poUtical events of his reign related
chiefly to Egypt and Palestine. Ptolemy
Epiphanes, the king of the former country,
had died in b. c 181, leaving his infant sons
Philometor and Euergetes In charge of then-
mother Cleopatra and of other guardians.
On the death of Cleopatra (e. c 173), An
tiochus Epiphanes laid claim to CcEle-Syria
and Palestine, which had been given to
Ptolemy Epiphanes as her dowry by Antio
chus the Great. There is some perplexity
about this matter, from the circumstance that

ANTIOCHUS.
in the reign of Seleucus Philopator these
provinces are mentioned as under the Syrian
government. It is most probable that Antio
chus the Great never formally gave them
over to Egypt, and, as we know that he con
tinued to receive half their revenues, it is
very likely that, on the death of Ptolemy
Epiphanes, they were left entirely to the go-
vei-nment of Syria, without the right to the
possession being given up by Egypt, and that
now Antiochus Epiphanes claimed the sur
render of that right. At aU events, his claim
was met on the part of Ptolemy's guardians
by a fresh assertion of the young king's right
to the provinces, and a demand that they
should be given up to him. Upon this An
tiochus proclaimed war against Egypt, He
made four campaigns in Egypt in the years
171, 170, 169, 168 B,c., in the first of which
he overthrew the forces of Ptolemy some
where between Pelusium and Mount Casius.
Having strengthened himself on the frontier,
he returned to Tyre for the winter, again
invaded Egypt by sea and land, gained a
battle on the frontier, took Pelusium, and
proceeded to overrun Egypt (e, c. 170),
He accomplished this the more easUy on
account of the reputation which he had
gained among the Egyptians by his sparing
the lives of their defeated soldiers after the
battle near Pelusium in the preceding cam
paign. He obtained possession of Memphis
and of the young king's person. It is pro
bable that Philometor, who during this war
made very little attempt at resistance, gave
himself up voluntarily to Antiochus ; to
whom, according to one account, the au
thority of which, however, is not great, he
actuaUy resigned his crown, Antiochus
treated Ptolemy with great honour, and pro
fessed to act as his guardian and regent.
It was on his return from this second expe
dition into Egypt that Antiochus took Jeru
salem, and commenced his celebrated per
secution of the Jews, the account of which
will be most conveniently given under the
lives of the Maccabees.
After the departure of Antiochus, the
Egyptians, finding that Philometor was en
tirely subject to that king, set his younger
brother on the throne by the title of Ptolemy
Euergetes II, He is better known by the
nickname of Physcon, which was afterwards
given to him. This gave Antiochus a pre
text for his third expedition into Egypt (b, c
169), which he entered with a great army,
and laid siege to Alexandria, after having
gained a victory over the forces of Ptolemy
in a sea-fight off Pelusium. Having in vain
tried the mediation of certain ambassadors
from the Grecian states who were then at
Alexandria, the Egyptians sent ambassadors
to Rome to ask for help. The Rhodians also
sent an embassy to Antiochus to persuade
him to make peace, to whom he only replied
that he was in the field on behalf of his
39

ANTIOCHUS,
nephew Philometor, who was the rightful
king. Finding, however, that Alexandria
was too strong to be quickly taken, he again
overran the rest of Egypt, aud coming to
Memphis, nominally confirmed Philometor
in the possession of the whole kingdom, ex
cept Pelusium, whioh he kept in his own
hands. He had no sooner returned to An
tioch than Philometor, discovering the real
designs of Antiochus by his retention of
Pelusium, the key to Egypt, eff'ected a re
conciliation with his younger brother, through
the mediation of their sister Cleopatra, and
the two brothers having met at Alexandria
reigned together. Ambassadors were sent
to Antiochus to announce to him the agree
ment between his nephews, and to tell him
that Philometor thanked him for his great
exertions in his behalf, but had now no
further need of his assistance. But Antio
chus, enraged at seeing his influence in
Egypt destroyed, had already prepared an
other expedition, and had advanced to Rhi-
nocolura, on the eastern border of Eygpt,
where he met the ambassadors of the Pto
lemies, iu the spring of E.c. 168. Rejecting
their compliments, he demanded the cession
to him of Cyprus and Pelusium, and all
the country around the Pelusiac or eastern
branch of the Nile, and appointed a day to
receive an answer from the Ptolemies. The
day having passed over without the arrival of
an answer, he again overran Egypt as far as
Memphis, and then marched down the west
ern branch of the Nile with the intention of
laying siege to Alexandria. Meanwhile the
Egyptian ambassadors, who had been sent to
Rome during the former siege of Alexandria,
had been admitted to an audience of the se
nate (April, B. c. 168), who forthwith appomted
an embassy to Egypt, with the commission to
require first of Antiochus, and then of the
Ptolemies, that they should refrain from
making any further war upon each other,
and to inform them that, whichever of them
refused, he would not longer be esteemed the
friend or the a'Jy of the Roman people. This
embassy met Antiochus on his march to
Alexandria, four miles from that city. Per
ceiving among them PoplUlus, an old ac
quaintance of his, Antiochus offered him his
hand, but the Roman gave him the tablets on
which the decree of the senate was written,
asking him to read that first. Having done
so, Antiochus replied that he would consult
with his friends what ought to be done. On
this Popillius drew a circle with his wand
round the spot on which the king was stand
ing, and sadd, " Before you pass out of that
circle, give me the amswer I am to carry to
the senate." Amazed at this peremptory
order, the king replied, after a short hesita
tion, that he would do what the senate
wished. PoplUlus then resumed the beha
viour of a friend, and accepted the offered
hand of the king. The Roman ambassadors,
D 4

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

after appointing a day by which Antiochus
must leave Egypt, sailed to Cyprus, and dis
missed thence the Syrian fleet, which had
already conquered the Egyptians in battle.
They then returned to Rome, having mani
festly saved Egypt from being added to the
dominions of Antiochus. The date of this
interview must, as Clinton has shown, be
placed in July or August, and not, as Pri
deaux places It, in May. Prideaux has
not aUowed sufficient time for the march of
Antiochus to Memphis and thence nearly
to Alexandria. On his return from Egypt,
Antiochus sent an army of twenty-two thou
sand men under Apollonius to destroy Je
rusalem, and he himself had no sooner
reached Antioch than he Issued a decree
for uniformity of religion among his sub
jects, which was especially directed against
the Jews, who alone of the nations in his
empire disobeyed it. [Maccabees.] In the
course of the following year (b. c. 167) he
went in person to Jerusalem to enforce his
decree. On his return from Jerusalem he
exhibited splendid games at Daphne in
imitation of those celebrated by iEmillus
Paullus at AmphipoUs for his victory over
Perseus. At these games Antiochus ex
posed himself to the scorn and ridicule of
the spectators. (Polybius, ap. Athen. v.
194., X. 439.) In the midst of these foUies
he received news of the successes of the
Maccabees in Judaea, and immediately as
sembled an immense army for the extermina
tion of the Jews. But finding his treasury
exhausted, and hearing that Artaxias, the
tributary king of Armenia, had revolted
from him, he marched into Upper Asia for
the double purpose of putting down this re
volt, and recruiting his finances, leaving Ly-
sias as the regent of the western provinces
(b.c. 166). Having conquered Artaxias
and taken him prisoner, he marched into
Persia to collect the tribute of that country.
Having been repulsed by the people of Ely
mais in an attempt to plunder a temple of
Artemis, and having at the same time re
ceived news of the defeat of his armies In
Judaea, he began a hasty journey home, but
was seized with an incurable and loathsome
disease, and died at Tabae in Persis, in a
state of raving madness, which was regarded
both by the Jews and Greeks as a divine
punishment for his sacrilege. He died about
December, E, c, 164, after he had reigned
a little more than eleven years. He was
succeeded by his son Antiochus Eupator,
besides whom he left a daughter, Laodice.
The prophecy in Daniel (xl. 20 — 45.) is
supposed by most commentators to refer to
Antiochus Epiphanes. (Hleronymus, Com
ment in loc.) The coins of Antiochus Epi
phanes are the first on which the head of
the king is surrounded by rays, as a sign
of divinity. Besides devices similar to
those of his predecessors, some of his coins
40

bear, on their reverses, figures of Victory and
Isis. P- S-
ANTI'OCHUS V. {-AyTioxos), surnamed
EU'PATOR {Kmdro-'p), king of Stria, suc
ceeded his father, Antiochus Epiphanes, about
December, b. c 164, being then only nine
years old. His father, just before his death,
had appointed PhUip as his guardian, but
Lysias, the regent of the western provinces,
in whose hands the young king's person was,
exercised the government in his name and
carried him into Judffia, where the war was
StUl going on. They were besieging Jeru
salem when news arrived that Philip was on
his march from Persis to Antioch, to assert
his claims to the regency. Having gi-anted
a peace to the Jews, Lysias and Antiochus
marched against Philip, who was conquered,
taken, and put to death (b. c 162).
The youth of Antiochus gave an oppor
tunity for strengthening the Roman power
in the East which the senate did not neglect.
Refusing the request of Demetrius, that he
might be set free now that Antiochus Epi
phanes, for whom he had been substituted as
a hostage, was dead, they sent three ambas
sadors, Cn. Octavius, Sp. Lucretius, and L.
Aurelius, to Antioch, to watch the dispo
sitions of Syria and the neighbouring states,
and more particularly to enforce the terms of
the treaty made with Antiochus the Great
after the battle of Magnesia. Finding that
the Syrian king had ships of war and ele
phants, contrary to the provisions of that
treaty, the ambassadors ordered the ships
to be burned and the elephants to be put
to death. The execution of this order
exasperated the Syrian Greeks, and a cer
tain Leptines killed Octavius as he was
anointing himself in the gymnasium at Lao
dicea. (Cicero, Philipp. ix. 2.). Soon after
this, Demetrius escaped from Rome and
landed at TripoUs in Syria. By giving out
that he had been sent by the senate to take
possession of the kingdom, he easily gained
over the people, and an accident' having
thrown Lysias and the young king into his
hands, he put them both to death about No
vember, B. c. 1 62, when Antiochus Eupator
had reigned just upon two years, and was re
cognised as king by the title of Demetrius
Soter. The coins of this king are very
rare. One bears on the reverse a haff-
naked Jupiter, sitting with a small image of
Victory in his right hand, and a spear in his
left. Another has a thunderbolt. There is
a third in the BrUlsh Museum, with the
common device of Apollo on the cortina. P.S.
ANTI'OCHUS VI. C; AvtIoxos), surnamed
THEOS (e€ds) or G OD, and on his coins EPI'
PHANES DIONY'SUS CE7r.,|>c<v},s Ai6n^os),
king of Syria, was the son of Alexander
Balas. After his father's death in 146 B. c,
he remained in Arabia, under the care of a
king, probably the emir Zabel or Zabdiel

ANTIOCHUS.
or Diocles, who had killed his father, tiU
144 E. c, when he was brought forward by
Tryphon or Dlodotus, as a pretender to the
crown, in opposition to the reigning king,
Demetrius Nicator. His claim was sup
ported by the Jewish princes, Jonathan and
Simon, and was admitted by the greater part
of Syria ; but after two years Antiochus was
put to death by Trypho, who gave out that
the king had died under a surgical operation,
and then seized the kingdom for himself.
Demetrius, however, still reigned over a part
of Syria. [Demetrius Nicator ; Trtpho.]
The death of Antiochus took place in Feb
ruary, B. c 142. In all of his coins the head
is surrounded with rays. The reverses are,
for the most part, similar to those on the
coins of the preceding kings. Among them
are also figures of the Dioscuri, au elephant
carrying a torch in his proboscis, and other
emblems. P. S.
ANTI'OCHUS VIL {'Avriaxos), sur
named SIDE'TES (SiStjttjs), king of Stria,
was the younger son of Demetrius Soter, and
was born during his father's residence at
Rome as a hostage, as is clear from his age
when he died. Clinton has shown that the
chronology of his reign, as given by most of
the ancient authors, cannot be correct. The
foUowing view seems to reconcUe their state
ments with the chronology established by
Clinton. Demetrius Nicator having marched
into Upper Asia, on an expedition against
the Parthlans, Trypho renewed his attempts
to secure the crown for himself, and Cleo
patra, the wife of Demetrius Nicator, called
in the aid of his brother Antiochus Sidetes,
who defeated Trypho in battle, pursued him
to Apamea, and there took him prisoner
and put him to death, towards the end of
the year b. c. 139. His proceedings during
the next year cannot be traced. It is not
Ukely that his marriage with his brother's
wife Cleopatra could have taken place be
fore Demetrius Nicator was made prisoner
by the Parthians, which was towards the
end of B.C. 138. We may therefore con
clude that this marriage took place at the
time when, as Clinton has shown, Antiochus
mounted the throne, namely, the beginning
of B.C. 137. For his relations with the Jews
see Maccabees. In order to strengthen
his title by the support of the Romans, he
sent presents to Scipio at Numantia (b. c
133). Scipio received the presents in public
at his tribunal, and commanded his quaestor
to put the whole amount to the credit of the
republic. In the spring of the year e. c. 129
(about May), Antiochus marched against
Phraates, king of Parthia, with the avowed
object of delivering his brother Demetrius
from captivity ; but in all probability his real
motive was the apprehension that the Par
thian king, in order to weaken Syria, might
release Demetrius, and send him to regain
the crown. He was at first completely suc-
41

ANTIOCHUS.
cessftil. The Parthians were vanquished
in three pitched battles, and Antiochus at
the close of the campaign was in possession
of Babylonia. Phraates now released Deme
trius and sent him back to Syria with a Par
thian force, expecting that Antiochus would
return to protect his throne (about October,
129). Though Antiochus stlU kept his post
in Babylonia through the winter, his forces,
already weakened by being too much scat
tered, were thinned by desertion, as soon as
the liberation of Demetrius was known ; and
in a battle which was fought at the beginning
of B. c. 128, Antiochus was defeated and
slain, in the thirty-fifth year of his age, after
a reign of nine years, and Demetrius Nicator
again took possession of the kingdom. An
tiochus had two daughters, who were both
named Laodice, and three sons, Antiochus,
Seleucus, and Antiochus (Cyzicenus), who
was afterwards king. Of these the last only
survived him.
The surname of Antiochus, Sidetes, was
derived from the town of Sida, in Pam
phylia, where he was brought up. Another
etymology is given from a Syrian word, sig
nifying " a hunter," but we find no example
of the Greek kings of Syria taking sur
names derived from the Syriac ; all their
titles are Greek. He is also called on coins
Euergetes {Eiiepyirris), and by Josephus,
Eusebes (Eu(re/3^s) and Soter (Storifp). He
was, if we may believe Diodorus, noble-
minded and generous, but he was greatly
addicted tothe pleasures ofthe table. Among
the devices on his coins, are an anchor, a
figure of Pallas, a, lion's head, a lotus, and
another flower. (Athenaeus, x. 439., xii.
540.) P. S
ANTI'OCHUS VIII. {'AvtIoxos), sur
named GRYPUS (TpuTrdy, from rpiii^, a vul
ture), or HOOK-NOSED, king of Syria,
was the younger son of Demetrius Nicator
and Cleopatra. On the death of Demetrius
in B.C. 125, his elder son, Seleucus, suc
ceeded him ; but Cleopatra being resolved
to keep the government in her own hands,
and not finding Seleucus perfectly tract
able, murdered him, and fetched Antiochus
from Athens, whither he had been sent by
his father to receive his education. An
tiochus received the royal title before the
end of B.C. 125. The greater part of Syria
was at this time under the power of Alex
ander Zeblnas, upon whom Antiochus made
war ; and by the aid of Ptolemy Physcon,
king of Egypt, he defeated Alexander, who
wais soon after killed In a tumult at Antioch,
in the winter of b. c. 123^122. [Alex
ander Zebinas.] Antiochus now married
Ptolemy's daughter, and was the undisputed
king of Syria. His mother Cleopatra, finding
that he was resolved to have the power as
well as the name of king, made au attempt
to poison him, but he discovered her design,
and compelled her to drink the poison her-

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

self (between October 122 and October 120,
E. c). After he had reigned in peace for several
years, the crown was claimed by his half-
brother Antiochus Cyzicenus, the son of An
tiochus Sidetes and <5leopatra, whom he had
attempted to poison. Cyzicenus, after some
successes, was defeated iu a battle near An
tioch, but he soon coUected another army,
and Grypus was driven out of Syria, and
compelled to take refuge at Aspendus in E. c
113. Antiochus Cyzicenus now reigned
over Syria for one year, at the end of which
Antiochus Grypus renewed the war, and
recovered a considerable part of the kingdom.
At last the two brothers agreed to reign
together (b, c. 111), Coele-Syria and Phoe
nicia being assigned to Cyzicenus, who had
Damascus for his capital, and the rest of the
kingdom to Grypus, After a joint reign of
five years, during which the two brothers
were often at war, Grypus was assassinated
by a certain Heracleon, and Cyzicenus
reigned alone (b. c, 96), Eusebius assigns
twenty-six years to the reign of Antiochus
Grypus, for eleven of which he reigned
alone, and fifteen with his kingdom divided.
The eleven years must be reckoned from
B, c 123, when Zeblnas was defeated, to
B, c. 113, when Grypus fled to Aspendus,
and the fifteen years from b, c. 110, the
first year after the agreement with Cyzi
cenus, to the death of Grypus In e, c.96,
reckoning in each case both extremes,
Josephus gives him twenty-nine years, which
must be counted from b. c 125, when his
claim was first set up, to b. c. 96, He was
forty-five years old at his death. He left five
sons, Seleucus, Philippus, Antiochus Epi
phanes, Demetrius Eucaerus, and Antiochus
Dionysus. His wife was Tryphaena, daughter
of Ptolemy Physcon. Ou his coins he is
styled Epiphanes {'ETntpav-l)!). He was also
caUed Philometor {^i\ofi.i)Ta!p, fond of his
mother, perhaps because he poisoned his
mother, for many of the titles of the Syrian
kings seem to be given in irony), and As-
pendius from his flight to Aspendus. The
magnificence of his court at Daphne is de
scribed by Athensus (xii. 540.). There are
several coins on which the effigies of this
king and of his mother Cleopatra are joined,
and several others which belong to Antiochus
alone. Among the reverses, which are for
the most part similar to those on the coins of
the preceding kings, there is a very elegant
device, which is frequently repeated, of a
man, sometimes naked, sometimes half-naked,
standing, holding a star in his right hand,
which is stretched out, and in his left hand a
spear, on which he leans, a crescent moon
hanging over his head, and the whole enclosed
in a laurel wreath. P. S.
ANTI'OCHUS IX., surnamed CYZICE'
NUS (KufiKTji'fis), king of Stria, was the
youngest son of Antiochus Sidetes and Cleo-
42

patra. On the release of Demetrius Ni
cator from his captivity in Parthia, Cleopatra
sent the young Antiochus to be brought up at
Cyzicus, whence he received his surname.
He was married to Cleopatra, the daughter
of Ptolemy Physcon, by whose aid he col
lected the army with which he invaded Syria.
[Antiochus VIII.] After the death of Gry
pus, his son Seleucus VI. disputed the king
dom with Cyzicenus, and tool} many Syrian
cities, and at last defeated Antiochus Cyzi
cenus in a battle near Antioch. Antiochus
was carried by his horse into the midst of
the enemy, and finding himself about to be
taken, he klUed himself with his own sword
(b. c 95). His reign lasted more than seven
teen years ; he reigned more than a year
alone after the expiUsion of Grypus, fifteen
years with Grypus, and one year after him.
He left a son, Antiochus Eusebes, who suc
ceeded him. His title on his coins is Philo
pator (SiAoiraTojp). A few of his coins are
known, most of which have simUar devices
to those of the preceding kings. P. S.
ANTI'OCHUS X. CAvt'loxo!), surnamed
EU'SEBES (EJo-e'gTjs) or THE PIOUS, kmg
of Stria, was the son of Antiochus Cyzicenus,
after whose death he disputed the kingdom
with Seleucus VL, whom he drove out of Syria
into Cilicia, and there gained a victory over
him near Mopsuestia, soon after which Seleu
cus put himself to death. But two other
sons of Antiochus Grypus started up to op
pose him, namely, PhUlp and Antiochus, who
were twin brothers, and the latter of whom
assumed the royal title, under the name of
Antiochus XI. Epiphanes PhUadelphus {'AvtI
oxos 'E7rt(^a;/7;s <J»iAa56A</)os). Antiochus XI.
having been drowned in the Orontes while
fighting against Antiochus X., PhUlp assumed
the crown, and ruled over some part of the
country. Another claimant was then put
forward by Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of iEgypt,
in the person of Demetrius Euea;rus, the
fourth son of Antiochus Grypus, who joined
his brother Philip in carrying on the war
against Antiochus Eusebes. At length the
people of Syria, wearied out with these civU
wars, called in the aid of Tigi-anes, king of
Armenia, who took possession of the crown
in B. c 83. It is not cleai- what became of
Antiochus Eusebes. One account is that,
before Tigranes was called iu, he assisted
Laodice, queen of the Galadenl, in a war
against the Parthians, and fell in a battle.
According to Appian, he remained in Syria
tUl he was driven out by Tigranes. Another
account is, that he was vanquished in the
war with Philip and Demetrius, fled into
Parthia, where he remained till after the
conquest of Tigranes by the Romans, and
that, after a vain attempt to secure the me
diation of Pompey that he might be restored
to his kingdom, he died a natural death.
This last account arises no doubt from con
founding him with his son, Antiochus XIIL

ANTIOCHUS.

ANTIOCHUS.

Antiochus Eusebes was probably already
dead in b. u. 75. (Cicero, in Verrem, iv. 27.)
He was married to Selene, an Egyptian prin
cess, who had formerly been the wife of his
father, Antiochus Cyzicentis, and of his uncle,
Antiochus Grypus. He left a son, Antiochus
Asiaticus. On his coins he is styled Philo
pator, as well as Eusebes, both of which titles
he probably received or assumed because he
had avenged his father's death. The title of
Eusebes would not have been on his coins if,
as Appian asserts, it had been given to him
in irony. On the reverses of his coins are
the usual emblems of Jupiter, Victory, For
tune, and the caps of the Dioscuri. P. S.
ANTI'OCHUS XL, king of Stria. [An
tiochus X.] His coins are very rare, as
might be expected from the shortness of his
reign. The reverse of one described by
Eckhel bears Pallas holding a figure of Vic
tory in the right hand, and a spear in the
left. P. S.
ANTFOCHUS XII. (^AvtIoxos), surnamed
DIONY'SUS {6.i6pvaos), king of Stria, was
the youngest son of Antiochus Grypus. After
his brother Demetrius Eucaerus was taken
prisoner by the Parthians, he went to Da
mascus, and assumed the government of
Coele-Syria, but was soon after killed in an
expedition against Aretas, king of the Ara
bians, who is said to have then taken posses
sion of Coele-Syrlai. The exact date of these
events is not known, but it must have been
before the accession of Tigranes in b. c 83.
Antiochus Dionysus is also called on coins
Theos Epiphanes Nioephorus (Qebs ETti^avijS
J^iKifipopos), and Philopator Callinicus (*iAo-
wdrap Ka^AiyiKos). The only device on his
coins mentioned by Eckhel is Jupiter stand
ing with a figure of Victory in his right hand,
and a spear in his left. P. S.
ANTI'OCHUS XIIL {'Avrioxos), surnamed
ASIA'TICUS {'AaiaTiK6s), the last king of
Stria, of the dynasty of the Seleucldae, was
the son of Antiochus Eusebes and Selene.
It appears that he, with a brother of whom
nothing more is known, went to Rome about
B.C. 75 or 74, to urge a claim to the kingdom
of Egypt, in right of their mother Selene,
and after living there almost two years, An
tiochus returned to Syria. On his way thither
he passed through SlcUy, during the pra^torship
of Verres, who at first entertained him mag
nificently, but aftei-wards plundered him of
his treasures, and especially of a candelabrum
which the king had intended for the temple
of Jupiter in the Capitol, and then drove
him away from Syracuse, on the pretext of
injuries done to SicUy by Syrian pirates
(about B.C. 83). (Cicero, in Verrem, iv. 27 —
32). After the forces of Tigranes were with
drawn from Syria, in B.C. 69, Antiochus as
sumed the government of that kingdom, his
title to which had been fully recognised
by Rome even during the usurpation of 'Ti
granes. (Cicero, /. c.) Lucullus left him
43

in quiet possession of the kingdom, but Pom
pey deprived him of it, and reduced it to a
Roman province, as having been obtained
by conquest from Tigranes (b.c. 65). Ap
pian reckons only one year to his reign,
by which he probably means that, in addition
to the time he reigned by the tacit consent of
Lucullus, he was aUowed by Pompey to keep
the kingdom one year longer. He probably
died about 49 B. c. Clinton has satisfactorUy
cUsproved the supposition that he was the
same person as Antiochus L, king of Com
magene. Like most of the later Seleucldae
Antiochus Asiaticus was a weak prince. As
a youth, he is described by Cicero as simple
and generous. His name of Asiaticus was
derived from his education in the Roman
province of Asia. He is also caUed on coins
Dionysus Epiphanes PhUopator Callinicus
{Ai6yucros ''EwKpavris ^iXOTva-TCup KaWlytKOs),
The usual devices on his coins are Jupiter
and Victory. P. S.
ANTI'OCHUS THEOS. [Antiochus
IL, king of Stria ; Antiochus VI.,
KING of Stria.]
ANTI'PATER, a celebrated ancient en
graver in silver. Pliny places him in the
third rank of the artists of this class among
the ancients, but he does not mention any of
his works. {Hist. Nat. xxxiii. 12. 55.)R. N. W.
ANTFPATER CAvri^Karpos), the name of
at least two ancient physicians, who are
sometimes confounded, but who may be dis
tinguished with tolerable certainty. The
earlier of the two must have lived in or
before the first century after Christ, as he Is
quoted by Andromachus, Soribonius Largus,
and CaeUus Aurelianus, if (as seems most
probable) these three authors refer to the
same person. He may also perhaps be the
physician who is said by Galen to have be
longed to the sect of the Jlethodici. He
appears to have had a considerable know
ledge of pharmacy and materia medica, as
his medical formulae are frequently quoted
by Galen, who says that he was himself in
the habit of using Antipater's theriaca, and
gives the ingredients of it, which agree
very nearly with those mentioned by Scri-
bonius Largus. The second book of his
" Epistles " Is quoted by Callus Aurelianus,
one of which is addressed to a person named
Gallus, who may perhaps be the iElius Gal
lus several times mentioned by Galen. He
may perhaps also be the same physician who
is quoted by the scholiast on Homer as having
said that the soul is so united to the body as
to grow and diminish together with it ; that
when the body is tender, the soul is tender
too ; when the body is arrived at perfection,
so is the soul ; amd that -nhen the body
perishes, the soul perishes with It. This is
quoted from the second book of a treatise
Tlepl Vuxvs, " On the Soul ; " and this there
fore is very probably the work mentioned by

ANTIPATER.

ANTIPATER.

Diogenes Laertius, which Fabricius and others
attribute to Antipater of Tarsus, the pupU of
Diogenes of Babylon.
The other physician of this name was a
contemporary and acquaintance of Galen in
the second century after Christ, and appears
to have practised at Rome with some repu
tation. He died at the age of between fifty
and sixty, and a very Interesting account of
his death and the symptoms of his disease is
given by Galen, which is well worth con
sulting. The iUness aud death of Antipater
are alluded to also by Stephanus of Alex
andria, and by Leo, though in the latter pas
sage, by some error in the text or by the
forgetfulness of the author, the anecdote is
told of a physician named " TheophUus."
{Scholia in Hom-, " II." lib. xl. v. 115. p. 306.
ed. Bekker ; Cramer's Anecd. Graca Paris.
vol. ill. p. 14. ; Fabricius, Biblioth. Grffica, vol.
iii. p. 538. and vol. x. p. 520. ed. Harles, and
vol. xlii. p. 64. ed. vet. ; C. G. Kiihn, Ad-
ditam- ad Elenchum Medicorum Veterum a
Jo- A- Fabricio, etc- Exhibitum, Leipzig, 4to.
1826, fascic. u. p. 8. ; Haller, Biblioth- Me
dic- Pract tom. 1. p. 160, 213. ; Stephanus
Alexandrinus, Comment- in Hippocr- " Aphor-,"
in Dietz, Scholia in Hippocr- et Gal. tom. ii.
p. 332. ; Leo, Conspect- Medic- iv. 14., in
Ermerins, Anecd- Med- Graca, p. 161.) W. A. G.
ANTI'PATER {'AuTlirarpos), grandson of
Antipater the Idumaean, and eldest son of
Herod the Great by his first wife, Doris.
After Herod had divorced Doris, and mar
ried Mariamne, in B. c. 38, Antipater was
banished from the court. But Mariamne
herself had two sons by her former husband,
Alexander and Arlstobulus, and after Ma
riamne was put to death, Herod, who had
reasons to fear their vengeance, recalled
Antipater, who now commenced a series of
the basest intrigues, of which, however, he
himself became the victim. Herod had in
tended to make one of the sons of Mariamne
his heir, but Antipater succeeded in drawing
his father's suspicion upon them, in conse
quence of which Herod recalled Doris to his
court, and altered his will in regard to the
succession. Antipater was sent to Rome
with letters of recommendation to Augustus,
to solicit the emperor's sanction to the altered
will of Herod. At Rome Antipater continued
his intrigues against his half-brothers, and
although Herod became reconciled to them
several times, Antipater, who was assisted by
able hands, at length induced his father to
have them put to death, b. c 6. Having thus
got rid of those who seemed to stand in his
way to the throne, he was active in carrj-ing
into effect a plot against the life of his own
father, whose natural death he was too im
patient to wait for. His accomplice in this
criminal design, which he had formed even
before he went to Rome, ¦v\as his uncle Phe-
roras. During Antipater's absence at Rome
44

Pheroras suddenly died, and his wife was
charged with having poisoned him. The in
vestigation of this matter also brought to
light the design of Antipater against his
father, and as the conspiracy was attested by
satisfactory evidence, Antipater was recalled
from Rome, but kept in profound ignorance
of the discovery that had been made. On his
arrival in Jerusalem he was accused by Ni
colaus of Damascus before the Roman go
vernor of Syria, Quintilius Varus. He was
found guilty and condemned to death, and
after the sentence had received the sanction
of Augustus, he was put to death iu his prison
a few days before Herod himself died. It
was probably in reference to this execution
of Herod's son that Augustus said, " It is
better to be Herod's pig than his son," Anti
pater was one of those crafty monsters whom
we meet with occasionaUy in the history of
the East, and Josephus characterises him
truly as " a mystery of wickedness " {Kojcias
fivariipiov)- (Josephus, Jew- Antiq. xiv, 12,
xvi, 3 — 11. xvii. 1 — 7., Jewish War, 1. 22 —
33.; Eusebius, Historia Eccles- L 8.; Ma-
crobius. Saturnalia, U. 4.) L. S,
ANTI'PATER ('AvtIttost/jos), bishop of
BosTRA in Arabia, was the successor of
Constantinus. He lived, according to Cave,
about A. D. 460, but respecting his life nothing
is known. He appears to have written many
religious and theological works, if aU that
bear his name reaUy belong to him. Several
fragments of them are stiU extant. His
principal theological work, entitled 'Aj'ti'/J-
pTtais, was a reply to the Apology of Pamphi-
lus for Origen. Of another work, which was
directed against certain aUeged blasphemies
of Origen, two entire chapters are still extant.
Fabricius enumerates several homiUes of
Antipater, some of which stiU exist in MS.
(Cave, Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia
Litteraria, i. 359. ed. London ; Fabricius,
Biblioth- Graca, x. 518, &c.) L. S.
ANTI'PATER {' AvT'iiraTpos) of Cyrene,
one of the direct disciples of the elder Arl
stippus, the founder of the Cyrenaic school
of philosophy. According to Cicero he was
blind, and when some women expressed their
pity for his privation, he repUed that dark
ness too had its pleasures. It is not known
if he wrote anything, and it is doubtful if the
fragments on marriage by one Antipater,
which are preserved in Stobaeus, belong to
him or some other person of the name.
(Diogenes Laertius, 11. 86. ; Cicero, Tuscul
Quast V. 38. ; Stobaeus, Seniwnes, 65. 68.) L. S.
ANTI'PATER {'Avrl-naTpos) of Hiera-
poLis in Phrygia, a Greek rhetorician, was a
son of Zeuxidemus, who was a man of dis
tinction in his native place. Antipater was
instructed in rhetoric by Adrianus, Pollux,
and Zeno of Athens. He was a contem
porary of the Emperor Septimius Severus
(a.d. 193—211) and his successor Caracalla,

ANTIPATER.

ANTIPATER.

and distinguished himself as a rhetorician,
both by his written and extempore orations.
But his declamations, among which Olym-
piacs and Panathenaics are mentioned, cUd not
surpass those of his contemporaries ; and the
art in which he was unrivalled was that of
letter-writing. Owing to his merit in this
respect, as well as to the fact of his having
written a history of the exploits of Severus,
Antipater was made private secretary to the
emperor ; and the character of the emperor,
says Philostratus, could not have been exhi
bited on the stage with more truth than it is
displayed in the letters whioh Antipater wrote
for Severus. He gradually became so great a
favourite with the emperor, that he was raised
to the consular dignity, and appointed go
vernor of Bithynia. But his administration was
too severe, and he was soon removed from his
government. After this event he seems to
have retired to private life, and he is said to
have died at the age of sixty-eight, rather of
voluntary starvation than of Ulness. He is
said to have educated the sons of his pa
tron Severus. No fragments of his works
are extant. (Philostratus, Vita Sophistarum,
n. c. 24, 25. § 4. c. 26. § 3.; Galenus, De
Tlieriac- ad Pison- ii. 458.; Eudocia, p. 57.) L. S.
ANTI'PATER {'AM-waT pos) of Idu-
MiEA. His father, who Ukewise bore the
name of Antipater, was, according to Jo
sephus, a noble Idumaean, and had received
the government of Idumaja from Alexander
Jannaeus. Julius Africanus, as quoted by
Eusebius, describes Antipater as a native of
Ascalon, who was carried to Idumaea by rob
bers ; but the account of Josephus appears to
be more entitled to credit. Antipater acted
a prominent part in the history of the Jews
during the reign and disputes of Hyrcanus II.
and his brother Arlstobulus II. In B. c 65
he prevaUed upon Hyrcanus to seek the
assistance of Aretas, an Arab chief with
whom Antipater's father had formed a con
nection, but the attempt of Aretas to place
Hyrcanus on the throne was unsuccessful.
On the arrival of Pompey in Syria, in b. u.
64, Antipater endeavoured to obtain the sup
port of the Romans for Hyrcanus, and it was
mainly owing to his influence that Pompey,
after the taking of Jerusalem in E. c 63, de
posed Arlstobulus, and raised Hyrcanus to
the throne, though he only received the title
of high-priest and not that of king, which
Arlstobulus had enjoyed. As Hyrcanus was
very indolent and unconcerned about affairs
of state, Antipater had nearly all the power
in his own hands, whence he is caUed
"the guardian" {MTpoiros) ; and while on
the one hand .he acted as a faithful friend
of Hyrcanus, on the other he did everything
to win the favour of the Romans. He sup
ported Aulus Gabinius against Alexander,
the son of Arlstobulus [Alexander, son
OF Aristoeulus], and against Archelaus,
45

king of Egypt. During the Egyptian war
of Julius Caesar (b. c. 48), he displayed
such zeal in the cause of Caesar that he was
rewarded by him with the Roman franchise,
and was made procurator of all Judaea, which
he governed with unlimited power, though
he allowed Hyrcanus to maintain his title.
Antipater appears to have had the good of
his country at heart. He endeavoured to
prevent the internal disturbances which were
on the point of breaking out when his son
Herod (the Great) designed to attack Hyr
canus in Jerusalem, b. c 46. [Herod the
Great.] The same spirit was manifested in
the regulations which he made in b. c. 43, for
the collection of the tax imposed upon Judaea
by Cassius for the maintenance of his troops.
But with aU this he did not escape the envy
and hatred of some of his countrymen. He
died in B. c 43, of poison, administered to him
by the cup-bearer of Hyrcanus on the insti
gation of Mallchus, a man whose life had
been twice saved by Antipater. (Josephus,
Jewish Antiq. xiv. 1 — 11. ; Jewish War,
i. 6 — 11.; Julius Africanus in Eusebius'
Histor. Ecclesiast 1. 6, &c.;. compare Aris
toeulus II. and Htrcanus II.) L. S.
ANTI'PATER, LU'CIUS C^'LIUS,the
historian, was contemporary with Tiberius
and Caius Gracchus, and with the annalists
Calpurnlus Piso, C. Fannius, and Junius
Gracchanus, so that his birth nearly coincided
with the beginning of the seventh century of
Rome, and' may be placed about b. c. 153.
Notwithstanding his Greek surname Anti
pater, CaeUus (for so, and not Cuelius, the name
should be written in Mons Calius, in the
Etruscan chief Cales Vibenna, and in the
Roman family of the Ccelii) was a Roman
by birth, although he may have been the son
or grandson of a Greek freedman of the
Caelii. He was an eminent lawj'cr, and In
some repute for his eloquence, since, besides
other pupils, he gave instruction to L. Liclnlus
Crassus, the orator. Pomponius, however,
says {De Origine Juris, Dig. 1. tit. 2. ^ 40.)
that Caellus was rather au eloquent speaker
than a sound jurisconsult. With the friend
ship of Crassus, Caellus enjoyed the con
fidence of Caius Gracchus, who imparted to
him many circumstances of his life, which he
afterwards inserted in his history. Of the
personal history of Caellus nothing Is known.
The Lucius Cajlius, who was prefect of II-
lyricum in B.C. 169 (Livy, xliu. 21.), was a
different person. Of his history seven hooks
are cited by the grammarians ; but there were
probably more ; for although Cicero merely
says " Caellus described the Punic war," the
fragments seem to include the events of the
three Punic wars, and of the tribunates ofthe
Gracchi. Livy, indeed, quotes Ca;lius only
in his third decade ; but his history of the
first and third Punic wars, as well as of the
seventh century of the city, is lost. Caellus
was an eye-witness of the tribunates of the

ANTIPATER.

ANTIPATER.

Gracchi : and according to an old distinction
between annals and history (Gellius, Nodes
Attica, V. 18.), the latter part of his work
may have been denominated history, the for
mer annals. And this may account for some
grammarians, as Nonius and Priscianus, citing
the annals, while others, as Gellius, Servius,
and Charlsius, mention only the history of
Caellus. Caellus is sometimes confounded
with Caecilius, a rhetorician of the age of
Augustus, who, according to Athenaeus (vi.
104. p. 272. Suidas, KaiiciAios), wrote a his
tory of the servile wars, and sometimes with
M. Caellus Rufus the orator, a pupil of Ci
cero. It is doubtful whether his history
included the earUest times of Rome. He is
known to have employed the " Origines " of
M. Porcius Cato the elder, which ascended
to the remotest aira of the city (Gellius,
Noctes Attica, x. 24. ; Macrobius, Satur
nalia, i. 4.); and Servius says that CaeUus
treated of antiquarian subjects in his fifth
book. {Ad .3^neid,, x. 145. Solinus, Poly-
histor, ii. 28.) But neither Dionysius iu his
" Antiquities," nor Plutarch in his " Lives
of Romulus, Numa, &c.," makes mention of
Caellus ; and the passages cited by Servius
and Solinus may have been merely incidental
references to the early history of Italy in
serted by CaeUus in his narrative of the Punic
wars. In his account of the second Punic
war, Cajlius was indebted to Silenus, a Sici
lian Greek, who had been an eye-witness of
Hannibal's principal campaigns in Italy, and
who, as the fragments of CaeUus imply, pos
sessed a more accurate knowledge of the
Carthaginian's movements and route than
the authors whom Livy generally followed.
Caellus adopted the Fasti of M. Fulvius No-
blllor ; and by his accuracy and dUigence
seems to have merited the deference paid him
by Livy (xxU. 5, 6, 11, 12.; xxiii. 6.; xxvii.
27.); and the character for trustworthiness
given him by Valerius Maximus (1. 7.). Thus
he had examined minutely the various sto
ries current of the death of Marcellus : he
had conversed with one who had sailed, or
pretended to have saUed, from Gades to
iEthiopia, that is, doubled the Cape of
Good Hope. His statement of the distance
from New Carthage (Cartagena) to Italy,
by Hannibars route, agrees with that of Po
lybius : he had remarked a singular property
in the waters of the lake Avernus, and he
seems to have honestly recorded the losses of
Rome in her wars with Carthage. Some
times, indeed, Caellus resembles Valerius of
Antium in his fondness for exorbitant num
bers, and he had a predilection for stories of
dreams and omens, some of which, however,
he found in Silenus. (Cicero, De Divinat
1.24. 26.; Valerius Maximus, i. 7.) When
completed, Caellus sent his history to the
grammarian L. iEllus Stllo Prajconninus
(Suetonius, Illustr- Grammatic- 3.), to whom
also Lucilius dedicated one of his poems {Ad
46

Herennium, iv. 12.) M. Brutus abridged the
History of CaeUus as well as those of Fannius
and Polybius. (Cicero, Ad Atticum, xiii. 8.)
The language of Caellus is described by Ci
cero as clear and vigorous, but deficient in
smoothness in collocation and in cadence.
Yet even in these respects, he admits that
Caellus excelled his predecessors, aud he was
probably one of the first who applied to nar
rative the laws of rhetoric. Like Sallust,
Caslins delighted in archaisms ; and from no
one have the grammarians — QuintUian, Fes
tus, Nonius, &c. — more frequently derived
antique words and phrases. He had appa
rently some provincialisms also in his style,
since, like the Lucanians, he wrote dn for die
or diei. His fondness for archaisms probably
recommended him to the Emperor Hadrian,
who preferred him to Sallust. (Spartian,
Histor- August. Scrlptores, Hadrianus, c. 16.)
(Besides the preceding references, see Lach-
mann, De Fontibus Livii, p. 19 — 21. ; Krause
Veteres Historici Latini, p. 182 — 202., who has
collected the fragments of Caellus ; and two
memoirs on CaeUus Antipater in the " Annals
of the University of Leyden," 1821, by Ba
vins Antonius Nauta, and WUlem Groen van
Prinsterer.) W. B. D.
ANTIPATER QAvTl-naTpos), King of Ma
cedonia. He was a grandson of Antipater,
the regent of Macedonia, and second son of
Cassander by Thessalonica, a half-sister of
Alexander the Great. After the death of
his eldest brother, PhUlp IV., in E. c. 296,
who had succeeded Cassander, Antipater as
cended the throne of Macedonia, which was
disputed by his younger brother Alexander.
[Alexander V. of Macedonia.] After
the reconciliation with his brother, the king
dom of Macedonia appears to have been di
vided between them. Alexander was put to
death by Demetrius the son of Antigonus
Cyclops in B. u. 294, and Antipater also
lost his kingdom. According to Justin he
fled to Lysimachus lu Thrace, whose daugh
ter Eurydice was his wife, and who gave
Antipater's portion of Macedonia to Deme
trius, and afterwards put him to death be
cause he complained of being treated faith
lessly by his own father-in-law. His wife
was, for the same reason, thrown Into prison.
Diodorus states that Demetrius put Antipater
to death, by which he meant probably that
Lysimachus did what Demetrius instigated
or compeUed him to do, which reconcUes the
apparently contradictory statements of Justin
and Diodorus. (Plutarch, Pyrrhus, 6, 7., De
metrius, 36, 37.; Justin, xvi. 1, 2.; Diodorus,
xxi, Eclog- 7. p. 490.) L. S,
ANTI'PATER ("ArTkoTpos), Regent of
Macedonia. He was a son of lolaus, and a
man of great talent. In his early years he
had the advantage of the instruction of Aris
totle, The prudence which he displayed in
all his conduct, and his attachment to the
royal house of Macedonia, gained him the

ANTIPATER.

ANTIPATER.

favour of PhiUp II, , who made Antipater his
friend, general, and minister. The king's
confidence in him appears from an anecdote,
according to which Philip one day after get
ting up rather late, said, " I have slept sotmdly,
but Antipater was awake." After the battle
of Chseronea, In n- c, 338, Antipater and
Alexander, the son of PhUip, were sent to con
vey to Athens the bones of those Athenians
who had fallen in the battle, and to conclude
a treaty of friendship and alliance with the
Athenians, Alexander had the same esteem
for Antipater as his father, and when the
young king was preparing for his Asiatic
expedition, Antipater, with other men of in
fluence, entreated him to marry, and give a
successor to the throne of Macedonia, before
embarking in his great undertaking. The
advice was disregarded, but on setting out
Alexander appointed Antipater regent of
Macedonia, and placed at his disposal an
army of twelve thousand foot, and one thou-
sandfive hundred horse for the protection of
the kingdom. In e. c 331, Antipater was
engaged in a war with some rebeUious tribes
of Thrace under Memnon, which the Spartans
considered a favourable opportunity for re
covering their supremacy in Greece, and
accordingly Sparta, under her king, Agis III,,
and her Peloponnesian alUes, rose against
Macedonia, Antipater settled the affairs in
Thrace as speedily as possible by a peace,
and hastened to the Peloponnesus. In the
neighbourhood of Megalopolis in Arcadia
he gained a complete victory over the Greeks.
Agis feU in battle, and the Greeks were com
pelled to keep quiet. [Agis IIL] The posi
tion of Antipater as regent of Macedonia was
difficult, on account of the arrogance, the
perpetual interference, and the petty jealou
sies of queen Olympias, the mother of Alex
ander. Each often complained of the other
hy letters and messengers to Alexander.
Whether it was that the accusations of Olym
pias or Antipater's own conduct raised sus
picions in the king's mind, or that Alexander
merely intended to put an end to these quar
rels by removing the regent, in the year
B. c. 323, when Alexander was at Babylon,
he sent orders to Antipater to bring recruits
to Asia, and appointed Craterus to lead back
the Macedonian veterans, and succeed Anti
pater as regent of Macedonia. It is not im
probable that Antipater's own conduct may
have afforded grounds for suspicion, as it
cannot be supposed that he was indifferent
to the execution of his son-in-law, Alexan
der, son of Aeropus. But before Alexander's
orders were carried into effect, he died at
Babylon in E. c 323. There is a tradition
that Antipater was impUcated in the death of
Alexander the Great, and it is said that Ari
stotle, who was hurt by the king's conduct
towards him, induced Antipater to administer
poison to Alexander at Babylon, through his
son lollas, who was the king's cup-bearer.
47

But this report is contradicted by the best
authorities, and it is not improbable that it
arose several years aifter the death of Alex
ander through the slander of Olympias, the
implacable enemy of Antipater and his
family. In the division of the empire after the
death of Alexander, it was agreed that Anti
pater, in conjunction with Craterus, should
have the government of the European parts,
with the exception of Thrace, which was
given to Lysimachus as a separate satrapy.
'The arrival of the news of Alexander's
death had encouraged the Greeks once more
to take up arms to recover their independ
ence, and Antipater had now to carry on a
war against a powerful confederacy of the
Greeks, which was headed by the Athenians
and iEtoUans. The war which broke out is
called the Lamian war, from the town of
Lamia in Thessaly. The command of the
army of the confederates was given to Leo-
sthenes of Athens. Near Thermopylae he
defeated the Macedonians, and Antipater was
obliged to throw himself into the town of
Lamia. The town was besieged, and its sur
render was daily expected. But the death of
Leosthenes, and the withdrawal of the iEto
Uans, gave a favourable turn to the war for
Antipater, who maintained himself in Lamia
until Leonnatus came with an army to his
relief The Greeks now raised the siege,
turned against Leonnatus, and an engagement
with him ensued, in which he was defeated
and killed. But discord among the Greeks
prevented their following up this victory, and
Antipater was enabled to join the remainder
of the defeated army. He now withdrew
beyond the river Peneus, where he was joined
by Craterus. His forces became thus supe
rior to those of the Greeks, whose disunion,
though the battle of Cranon, which was now
fought, was scarcely decisive on either side,
destroyed aU their hopes. The moderation with
which Antipater used his victory induced the
Greeks, with the exception of the iEtoUans,
to submit again to Macedonia. The con
federacy was dissolved e. c. 322, as Antipater
refused to treat with It, and each separate
state had to implore his mercy. The Athe
nians obtained the alliance of the Macedo
nians only on the hard conditions of sur
rendering the leaders of the insurrection,
and among them Demosthenes, who how
ever made his escape, recalling the exiles of
the Macedonian party, and paying a heavy
contribution to defray the expenses of the
war. In addition to all this, the democratical
constitution of Athens was abolished, an
oligarchy, headed by the faithful partisans of
the Macedonians, was estabUshed, and a Ma
cedonian garrison took possession of IMuny-
chla. The iEtoUans had retreated to their
mountains to wait for a favourable opportu
nity for renewing the contest.
After the close of the Lamian war, Anti-

ANTIPATER.

ANTIPATER.

pater gave his daughter Phila in marriage to
Craterus, in order to unite the interests of
his coUeague with his own. The two regents
invaded iEtolia, E. c 322, but they had
scarcely entered the enemy's country, when
Antigonus informed them that Perdiocas, the
supreme regent of the Macedonian empire,
entertained the plan of making himself master
of the empire by marrying Cleopatra, the
sister of Alexander, crushing all the other
satraps, and divorcing Nicaea, the daughter
of Antipater, whom he had married only a
short time before. This intelligence induced
Antipater to conclude peace with the iEto
Uans ou terms favourable to them, and to
direct all his efforts against Perdiccas. An
tipater and Craterus immediately prepared to
march into Asia, and entered into an alliance
with Ptolemy of Egypt, whom Perdiccas in
tended to attack first. In the spring of e. c
321 the two regents of Macedonia crossed
the Hellespont. Eumenes, the friend of Per
diccas, had received orders to oppose them,
for Perdiccas was already on his march to
Egypt. Neoptolemus, an officer who had
deserted from Eumenes, assured the invaders
that it would be an easy matter to defeat
Eumenes ; and trusting to this Antipater
divided the Macedonian forces, and giving
the command against Eumenes to Craterus,
he himself marched through ClUcia towards
Egypt. While Antipater was in Syria he
received intelligence of Perdiccas being mur
dered by his own troops, and that Pithon and
Arrhidaeus had been appointed to the su
preme regency in his stead. Near the town
of Triparadisus, Antipater joined the army of
Perdiccas, which was returning from Egypt,
and as the two supreme regents were un
able to contend against the perpetual in
terference of queen Eurydice, who, together
with her husband, Philip Arrhidaeus, and the
young king Alexander .35gus, was still with
the army in Asia, they resigned their office,
which was conferred upon Antipater. Im
mediately after, Antipater had to put down
a mutiny of the army, which Eurydice en
deavoured to turn to her own advantage and
against Antipater. While at Triparadisus
the regent made several new regulations re
specting the satrapies which had become
vacant by the recent occurrences ; he left
Antigonus to prosecute the war against Eu
menes and the other partisans of Perdiccas,
and returned to Macedonia in b.c 321, to
gether with Philip ArrhidfEus and Alexander
iEgus. He arrived in Macedonia about the
spring of B. c. 320, and the peace which had
been disturbed during his absence by the
iEtoUans had already been re-established
by his generals. Soon after his arrival, he
was seized by an illness which terminated
his life, early in the year B. c 319. During
his illness the Athenian orator Demades
came to him as ambaissador from Athens,
to petition for the withdrawal of the Mace-
48

donian garrison from Mtmychia, and Anti
pater had him put to death on the ground
of having kept up a treacherous correspond
ence with Perdiccas. [Demades.] In his
last days Antipater appointed Polysperchon
his successor in the regency of the Mace
donian empire : to his son Cassander he
gave only the office of chlUarch. This slight
to his own son may be accounted for in va
rious ways. It may be that Antipater acted
in this manner out of consideration for the
interests of the royal family of Macedonia,
which Cassander hated, or that he foresaw
the troubles that would arise between Cas
sander and the Macedonians. The haughty
and intractable character of Cassander was
well known to the Macedonians, and he was
much dlsUked by them. (Flathe, Geschichte
Macedoniens, i. ; Droysen, Geschichte Alex
anders des Grossen, and Geschichte der Nach
folger Alexanders ; Thirlwall, Hist of Greece,
vil, : which works contain the references to
aU the ancient authorities.) L. S.
ANTFPATER ("A^TiTraTpos) of Sidon, a
Greek writer of epigrams, many of which are
StiU extant in the Greek Anthology. He ap
pears to have lived shortly before or at the
time of Meleager (that is about E. c. 100),
who is said to have incorporated in his col
lection of minor poems many of those of
Antipater, which were distinguished for
elegance, and their purity of style and versi
fication ; and this is, in fact, the character
of most of those which are stUl extant un
der his name, whereas some are oiUy para
phrases of earlier poems. From the Antho
logy of Meleager these epigrams were subse
quently incorporated in that of Constamtinus
Cephaias, and have thus been preserved.
Antipater is mentioned by Cicero as a con
temporary of Q. Lutatius Catulus, who was
consul In e. c. 102, which agrees with the
date assigned to him above. Cicero also
speaks of the great facility with which Anti
pater made extempore verse of various kinds.
He died at an advanced age. (Cicero, De
Fato, 3., De Oratore, in. 50.; PUny, Hist.
Nat vii. 52.; Valerius Maximus, 1. 8. E. 16.;
Jacobs, Ad Anthologiam Grac. xiii. 846, &c.)
L. S.
ANTFPATER {^AvTiirarpos) of Tarsus,
a Stoic philosopher. He was a disciple of
Diogenes the Babylonian, and teacher of
Panaetius, and consequentlj^ must have lived
about E. c. 140. Respecting his life nothing
is known, but he appears to have been a phi
losopher of great merit, and to have had a
beneficial Influence upon the school to which
he belonged. He not only combated the
scepticism of Carneades, but he conducted
the controversies which were then going on
between the Academics and the Stoics.
Cicero praises him for his acuteness, but
seems to blame him for the stubbornness
with which he maintained his own opinions.
Antipater had not much readiness in arguing

ANTIPATER.

ANTIPATER.

on a subject, whence he confined himself
to writing, which drew upon him the nick
name of the " pen-crier " {xaKaiiogdas). His
controversies with Carneades filled several
treatises (volumina), and those with the
Academics appear likewise to have been
very voluminous. Besides these controversial
writings, there are mentioned — 1. A work
on divination, in two books. He maintained
the possibility of knowing future events,
which he endeavoured to prove from the be
nevolence of the deity, and from the know
ledge of the future which the deity himself
possessed. In this work he had coUected
many instances of divination, especially those
by which Socrates was believed to have di
vined the futm-e. 2. A work on dreams, in
one book. He believed that the future was
revealed to man in dreams, and he proved
his position partly by a large collection of
dreams, which had been apparent revelations
of this kind. 3. On superstition {¦"(pi A^ari-
oaifiovlas). 4. Some ethical works, of which,
however, the titles are not known. To judge
from what Cicero says, they must have been
of an entirely practical nature, and have
treated on the application of ethical princi
ples rather than on the principles themselves.
5. A work on the deity. His notions about
God were much above those of the popular
religion of the Greeks. According to him
God was not subject to any of the variations
incident to human existence : he was incor
ruptible and pure, and full of good-will to
man. (The passages in which Cicero speaks
of him are coUected in OrelU's Onomasticon
Tullianum, 11. 44. Compare Plutarch, De
Stoicorum Repugnantiis, 1033, 1051,, De
Garrulitate, 514, ; Eusebius, Praparatio
Evangelica, ¦xhi. 8,; Stobaeus, De Fato, 16,;
Athenaeus, viU, 346, ; Diogenes Laertius,
vii, 121,) L, S,
ANTFPATER (;AvrlTTa.Tpos), of Thessa
lonica, a Greek writer of epigrams, some of
which are extant in the Greek Anthology,
He appears to be the Antipater who is some
times called a Macedonian, His epigrams con
tain sufficient evidence that he lived during the
latter period of the reign of Augustus, and
down to that of Caligula, that is from e. c, 10
to A, D, 38. His epigrams are, for the most
part, of a descriptive or epic character, and
are elegant both in style and versifiqation.
(Jacobs, Ad Anthologiam Grac. xiii. 848, &c. ;
Brunck, Analecta, ii'. 109—127.) L. S.
ANTFPATER (^Avri-^aTpos), of Ttre, a
Stoic phUosopher who died at Athens a short
time before Cicero wrote his work "De
Officiis," that is, shortly before B. c. 45. He
seems to have written a work " On Duties,"
in which he censured Panaetius for having
omitted in his book, on the same subject, two
important points, the care for one's physical
health, and for one's money. Diogenes
Laertius several times mentions a work of
Antipater of Tyre, " On the Universe " (irfpl
VOL. III.

k6<tiwv), of which he quotes the eighth book ;
but whether it was by this Antipater, or by
another, who was a native of the same place,
and lived somewhat earlier, and was a friend
of Cato the younger during the early part of
his life, is uncertain. (Cicero, De Officiis,
11. 24.; Diogenes Laertius, vU. 139, 140. 142.
148.; Plutarch, Cato Min. 4.-, Strabo, xvi.
757.; Vossius, De Historicis Gracis, 392.
ed. Westermann, who, however, confounds
the two Antipaters.) L. S.
ANTI'PHANES {^Avrt^dv-ns), a writer
of Greek epigrams, several of which are still
extant. ^ He lived about the time of the em
peror Augustus. (Jacobs, ad Anthologiam
Gracam, xiu. 850.) R. W — n.
ANTI'PHANES {'AvTopdvns), a sculptor
of Argos. He was a scholar of Periclytus
(so the name is read in Bekker's Pausanias),
and the master of Cleon, and therefore is sup
posed to have lived about the ninety -fourth
Olympiad, or four hundred years before our
aera. Periclytus was a scholar of Polycleittis
of Argos. Among the works attributed to
him were statues of the Dioscuri ; and others
of heroes. Antiphanes is also said to have
executed a bronze horse which was dedicated
at Delphi by the Argives, in commemoration
of the victory whieh they claimed over the
Laoedasmonians at Thyrea. This horse is
called by Pausanias Dureius {Soupeios), a
name whioh seems to have a reference to the
Trojan horse and is explained by another
passage of Pausanias (i. 23.). It is supposed
that these works were executed some time
after the event referred to, which may be
that recorded in Thucydides (vi. 95. B. c
414.). (Pausanias, V. 17., x. 9.) R. W.jun.
ANTFPHANES q AvTapiv-qs), the son of
Demophanes, or as some said of Stephanus,
was an Athenian poet of the school called
the Middle Comedy. According to the
statement of Suidas he was born about b. c
404, and died b. c. 330, at the age of seventy-
four years. It is true, indeed, that a play
is assigned to him by Athenaeus (iv. 1.56.),
from internal evidence in which it would
appear that Antiphanes lived till b. c. 306 ;
it has, however, been shown by Clinton in the
" PhUological Museum " (vol. 1. 608.), that the
play in question (the ITapeKStSo/tei'i?) was
mostprobably written by Alexis, another comic
poet of the same school. The birth-place of
Antiphanes is not known with any degree of
certainty ; some accounts making it Cius,
others Smyrna, and others Rhodes. Another
statement represents him as an Athenian,
but of Thessallan descent. Antiphanes was
a most prolific writer ; according to the
lowest estimate he wrote no less than two
hundi-ed and sixty plays, and accordmg to
Suidas as many as two hundred and eighty.
From the comparatively smaiU number of
victories gained by him in the dramatic con
tests, only thirteen, it would appear either
that his plays were very seldom exhibited.

ANTIPHANES.

ANTIPHANES.

or that he was very unsuccessful with them.
There are stUl extant fragments and titles
(chiefly from Athenaeus) of no less than two
hundred and thirty comedies ascribed to
him ; but the correctness of many of the
titles cannot be depended upon. Many of
these titles are connected with mythical sub
jects, as the Alcestls, the Medea, and the
Orpheus. Others are historical, as the
Timon, the Sappho, and the Leonidas ; others
again refer to the characters and incidents of
dally life. From the expressions of Athe
naeus (1. 27. d., iv. 156. c, 168. d.) we may
infer that Antiphanes was an elegant and
gracefid writer ; and the fragments of his
plays lead to the same conclusion. He is
said to have died at Cius " from a blow by a
pear tree," a tradition which may have given
rise to the statement of his having been born
there. Demetrius Phalereus wrote an ac
count of his life, which is not now extant.
The known titles of his plays are given and
classified, and the fragments coUected by A.
Meineke, Fragmenta Comicorum Gracorum,
1. 304., in. 1,
The principal passages of the extant frag
ments are also brought together by Clinton in
the " Philological Museum," 1, 560., and "by
Bailey in his " Comicorum Graecorum Frag
menta." The passages given by Mr. Bailey
are accompanied by Richard Cumberland's
Translations in English verse. (Suidas, 'Av-
TKpdvns; Diogenes Laertius, v. 81.; Bode,
Geschichte der Dramatischen Dichthunst der
Hellenen, I. 11. 401.)
Besides the Antiphanes above mentioned,
Suidas (sub voc.) speaks of two other poets of
the same name. One of these was a tragic
poet, contemporary with Thespis, and a na
tive of Carystus in Euboea ; the other is said
by Suidas to have written comedies, but no
mention is made of him by any other writer,
(Meineke, Historia Critica Comicorum Gra
corum, p. 340.) R. W — n.
ANTFPHANES {'AuTt<pduris), of Beroa
in Thrace, was a Greek writer on the mar
vellous and incredible in distant countries
(STTio-Ta, Scymnus Chins, 657). From the
notices given of him by Strabo (1. 47., ii,
102, 104,), it appears that he endeavoured to
pass off his strange stories as true histories,
whence the word bergaizein {^epya'i^eiv)
came to be used in the sense of writing
fictions or romances (Stephanus Byzant,
sub voc, hipyn)- He is generally believed
to be the same person as Antiphanes the
younger, who wrote a Greek work on cour
tesans, (Athenaeus, xiii. 586, ; Harpocration,
sub voc, 'AvriKvpa-) R. W — n.
ANTI'PHANES {'Avrupavris), an ancient
Greek physician, a native of the island of
Delos, whose exact date is unknown, but
who (as he is quoted by Caellus Aurelianus)
must have lived some time in or before the
first half of the second century after Christ.
He wrote a work entitled TiavdirTris, " Pa-
50

noptes," One of his prescriptions is pre
served by Galen, and he is quoted by St, Cle
ment of Alexandria ais having asserted that
the sole cause of disease in man was the too
great variety of his food, (Caelius Aure
lianus, De Morb- Chron. lib, iv. cap. 8. p. 537.
ed. Amman ; Galen, De Compos. Medicam.
sec. Locos, lib, v. cap. 5, tom, xU, p, 877, ed,
Kiihn ; Clemens Alexandrinus, Padag. lib.
ii. cap. 1. p, 163, ed. Potter; Fabricius, Bib
lioth. Graca, tom, xiii, p, 64, ed, vet. ; Haller,
Biblioth. Medic. Pract tom. i,) W, A, G,
ANTI'PHANES (^ Avn^dvns), the son of
Telemnastus of Gorttna in Crete, is men
tioned by Polybius (p. 1341, ed. Casaub,) as
having been very superior to his country
men, and " by no means like a Cretan." He
was sent by the Cretans as ambassador to
Corinth, about b. c, 200, to solicit the aid of
the Achaeans against the Rhodians ; and he
showed considerable ability on his mission,
which, however, was not successful, R, W — n.
ANTI'PHILUS {'AvriiptXos) of Btzan-
TiuM, a Greek writer of epigrams, of which
upwards of forty are extant in the Greek
Anthology. Although most of them are
among the best of the coUection, some are of
very inferior merit, and this difference in
style and character induced Reiske to con
sider the epigrams which bear the name of
Antiphilus, as the productions of two, or even
three, poets of that name, who belonged to
different times. But this hypothesis is per
fectly arbitrary, and the difference in style
and character of two poems alone is not a
sufficient ground for assigning them to two
different authors. The time at which Anti
philus lived may be inferred from one of his
epigrams (ix. 178.), in which he makes al
lusion to some privileges which the emperor
Nero conferred upon the Rhodians. This poet
must therefore have lived in, or shortly after,
the reign of Nero. (Reiske, Ad Antholog.
Constant Cephalm, 191.; Jacobs, Ad Anthol.
Grac- xUl. 851, &c.) L. S.
ANTFPHILUS {' AvTi^nXos), a celebrated
painter, was a native of Egtpt, and is com
monly said to have lived about the time of
Alexander the Great, and to have been the
contemporary of ApeUes. But the story in
Lucian in his treatise against Calumny places
him a century later; for the ApeUes and An
tiphilus there spoken of were contemporary
with Ptolemy Philopator, the fourth of the
Ptolemies, who lived about a century after
Alexander. This is distinctly affirmed by
Lucian, who says that Antiphilus accused
ApeUes of being implicated in the conspiracy
of Theodotus, the Egyptian governor of Ccele-
Syria, which happened under Ptolemy Phi
lopator according to Polybius, B. c. 218. The
ApeUes of Ephesus therefore there men
tioned must not be confounded with the
celebrated ApeUes of Cos or of Colophon, who
was also a citizen of Ephesus. That Lucian
has made an error in the substance of the

ANTIPHILUS

ANTIPHILUS,

accusation is not very probable ; the nature of
the picture also, wliich ApeUes is saiid to have
painted in consequence, is in quite a distinct
style of art from any of the works ofthe great
ApeUes, [Apelles of Ephesus,]
The time of Antiphilus cannot be inferred
from his paintings of PhUip and Alexander,
which may have been painted at any period,
for they are not specified as having been por
traits, nor do they appear to have been such.
But from the manner in which he is spoken
of by Pliny, from the painters with whom he
is classed, and from the nature of many of his
productions, we have adequate grounds for
assigning him a much later period than that
of Alexander. Ctesidemus also, the master
of Antiphilus, is noticed by Pliny after the
scholars of ApeUes, which may in some de
gree serve to fix the time of these painters.
That Quintilian notices Antiphilus as one of
those painters who distinguished themselves
under the successors of Alexander does not
interfere with this conclusion.
According to Quintilian, Antiphilus ex
celled in faciUty of execution, and he dis
tinguished himself apparently in various
styles. Pliny mentions several of his works :
— Hesione ; Alexander, Philip, and Minerva ;
Bacchus ; Alexander as a boy ; Cadmus and
Europa ; and Hippolytus and his horses startled
at the sight of the sea-monster sent against
him by Neptune ; which were all preserved
in Rome. He also mentions Ptolemy hunt
ing ; a boy blowing a fire, with the reflected
light upon his face, and the objects around
him ; a work-room, in which women were
employed in spinning and weaving ; and a
very celebrated picture of a satyr with a pan
ther's skin hanging on his shoulder, holding
his hand over his eyes, and looking into the
distance, which was called the aTroaicoTreiaii',
or looker-out. He painted also caricatures,
and was, according to Pliny, the inventor of
the unnatural and grotesque figures, called by
the Greeks grylli.
Antiphilus appears to have been a worth
less person from the story told by Lucian,
alluded to above, of his invidious calumny
against his rival Apelles of Ephesus. Lucian
says that he was condemned to be that painter's
slave in consequence ; it is however not very
probable that this part of the reparation
towards Apelles was carried into effect.
(Pliny, Hist Nat xxxv. 37. 40. ; Quintilian,
Inst Orator, xii. 10. 3. ; Lucian, irep! rov /x);
Ita^tus iTKTTeveiv AiaSoKi].) R, N. W.
' ANTI'PHILUS {'AyTi<t>i\os), an ancient
Greek architect, who, together with Potha;us
and Megacles, built at Olympia what Pau
sanias terms " the treasury of the Carthagi
nians," in which there were an immense
statue of Jupiter and three linen cuirasses,
dedicated by Gelon and the Syracusans after
a victory over the Phoenicians. This victory
is probably that mentioned by Herodotus
(vu, 166,) as gained by Gelon and Theron
51

over Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, on the saime
day that Xerxes was defeated at Salamis,
b. c, 480. This date may fix approximately
the period of Antiphilus. (Pausanias, vi, 19,)
R. N, W.
A'NTIPHON ("Ai/Ticfmc). There were
several persons of this name, who have been
confounded by the author of the uncritical
Life of Antiphon attributed to Plutarch, and
by other Greek writers.
Antiphon, the son of Sophilus, is called the
oldest of the ten Attic orators. He was bom
at Athens about u. u. 479, and belonged to
the demus of Rhamnus in Attica, whence he
is called Rhamnuslus. He was a contempo
rary of Gorgias of Leontinl, but somewhat
younger. According to some authorities,
Antiphon received his first instruction from
his father ; but however this may be, he ap
pUed himself to oratory, and with such suc
cess that if he is not to be considered the
father of the rhetorical art at Athens, he at
least greatly improved it. He had a school
of rhetoric at Athens, and among his pupils
was the historian Thucydides, whom some
careless Greek compilers have made the
master of Antiphon. When Quintilian {Instit
Orator- Ui. 1.) says that Antiphon was the
first who wrote orations, he must be under
stood to mean the first who wrote speeches to
be delivered in the courts of justice, for
Gorgias had preceded him in the composition
and publication of other kinds of orations.
Antiphon did not confine himself to the style
of Gorgias, but employed himself in writing
speeches to be delivered in the Athenian
courts by plaintiffs and defendants {SmuviKoi
\6yoi), and he was well paid for his labour ;
an occupation which, so far as we can see,
was not at all discreditable, though it brought
upon him the satire of the contemporary
comic writer Plato. He also composed
harangues on political affairs {Srt/J-riyopucoi
hiyoi), the titles of several of which are pre
served; and he obtained a high reputation
for his rhetorical skill in general, as is testi
fied by his pupil Thucydides.
The events of his public life are vaguely re
corded by the Pseudo-Plutarch : he is said
to have done good service in the Pelopon
nesian war, to have gained many victories,
which, however, are not mentioned by
Thucydides, and to have brought over many
states to the alliance of Athens. Diodorus
mentions Antiphon as archon eponymus in
the year B.C. 418; but this may either be
Antiphon of Rhamnus or another of the
name. The statement of Thucydides rather
leads to the conclusion that Antiphon took
no active part in public aiffairs, though he
was a busy manager behind the scenes. The
chief event of his life w as the overthrow of
the Athenian democratical constitution and
the establishment of the Council of the Four
Hundred (e.g. 411), the planning and exe
cution of which revolution Thucydides attri-
E 2

ANTIPHON.

ANTIPHON.

butes solely to Antiphon, who employed
Pisander and others as his agents. Antiphon,
Phrynichus and Theramenes were among
the Four Hundred. But dissension soon arose
in the new council. Theramenes and his
party wished to recal Alcibiades from exUe,
a measure whieh Antiphon and his friends
opposed, foreseeing that the consequence of
the return of Alcibiades in the present state
of affairs would be the restoration of the old
constitution. To strengthen themselves at
home, Antiphon, Phrynichus and ten others,
went on an embassy to Sparta, for the pur
pose of making peace with the Lacedaemo
nians on any terms that they could, and at
the same time they provided for the fortifi
cation of Eetioneia, a projecting point of
land which commanded the entrance to the
Piraeus, with the view of securing a landing
place for the Lacedaemonian forces, as
Theramenes and his partisans said. The
embassy failed, Phrynichus was assassinated
soon after his return, in open day-light, the
government of the Four Hundred over
thrown after a short duration of four months,
and Alcibiades was recalled to Athens, (b. c
411). In the same year Antiphon and
Archeptolemus were brought to trial on the
charge of high treason. Antiphon, says
Thucydides, made an admirable defence.
Thucydides does not mention the result of
the trial, but we learn from the authority of
the rhetorian Caeoilins, who is quoted by the
Pseudo-Plutarch, that he was condemned and
executed, his property was confiscated, his
house levelled to the ground, and the site was
marked out by boundary stones, on which was
inscribed Antiphon the Traitor. All his
descendants, both legitimate and iUegitimate,
were declared incapable of civil rights. This
sentence, which was engraved on a bronze
tablet, is preserved in an extract from Caici-
lius in the Pseudo-Plutarch. Caecilius was a
contemporary of Cicero. Thucydides (vni. 60,)
says that Antiphon was inferior in virtue
to none of his contemporaries ; that he was
equally distinguished by wisdom in counsel
and by eloquence. Sixty of his orations were
known to CaEcilius and others, but twenty-four
of them Caecilius considered to be spurious.
Only fifteen orations are now extant, three of
which relate to real cases. The other twelve
are divided into tetralogies or sets of four,
and as they contain no proper names, we may
assign them to the class of sophistical exer
cises, such as we learn from Cicero that
Antiphon wrote. But all the speeches, real
and imaginary, relate to cases of murder ;
and thus, according to a system of classifica
tion common among the Greek grammarians,
they have all been put together, and are the
only works of Antiphon that have been pre
served. Each tetralogy consists of four
orations, an accusation ofthe plaintiff, a reply
of the defendant, a replication of the plain
tiff, and the defendant's rejoinder. The argu-
52

ments on each side tum mainly on the pro
babilities for and against, which may be
derived from evidence insufficient in itself to
establish the guUtor innocence ofthe accused
party. These exercises are characterised by
great acuteness in invention ; they are in
fact practical specimens of the method of
discovering topics (the loci communes of
Cicero) in argumentation. The titles of
many of Antlphon's other speeches have been
preserved. Considering the position which
he occupies among the Attic orators, the loss
of his orations is much to be regretted, espe
cially that which .he delivered on his trial,
which was entitled on the Revolution {ireplT^rjs
MeTaardaeais) ¦- it is several times cited by
Harpocration. Antiphon was also the author
of a treatise on Rhetoric, in three books at
least, which is often cited by the ancient
writers. Antiphon was hardly an orator
in our sense of the term, nor was he a public
speaker, like Pericles. His profession was
the composition of speeches, which were de
livered by others. There was no body of
men at Athens who resembled the modern
lawyer or even the Roman orator, and those
who had business in the courts, either as
plaintiffs or defendants, had in the main to
manage their own causes. The necessity of
getting assistance to draw up a statement
in the best form, and to enforce it by the
strongest arguments and a reference to the
law, called up a claiss of persons who were
professional speech- writers ; and of these
Antiphon is said to have been the first at
Athens. The study of the laws was thus in
some measure made a special busmess, and
the speech-writer may be considered as in
some measure corresponding to the modem
lawyer ; yet there never was a scientific
study of law at Athens, as there was at Rome,
nor was there ever a body of men like the
great Roman jurisconstUts, The method and
style of Antiphon should be studied in con
nection with the speeches in his pupU Thucy
dides, and these two writers furnish the chief
materials for the eai-ly history of Attic oratory.
Clearness, energy, and the absence of rheto
rical ornament, or figures of speech, are the
characteristics of the old Attic oratory. But
though the periods of Antiphon and Thucy
dides are unlike the fuU rounded sentences
of the later orators, they are not constructed
without reference to some principles of art
The argument is fully elaborated by the ac
cumulation of every thing that is material to
it, and though the nicer connection of the
parts of sentences is wanting, which marks
the style of the late orators, there is no want
of due order in the arrangement of the
thoughts. There is also a symmetrical
balancing of the parts of sentences, with the
view of giving on the one hand completeness
to the form of expression, and on the other
h.and, precision by opposition or contrast.
Thus there is a general parallelism or anti-

ANTIPHON,

ANTIPHON,

thesis observable in all the writings of the
old Attic orators, which indeed was never
abandoned by their successors, though it was
rendered less prominent by the introduction
of more rhetorical ornament.
The orations of Antiphon were first printed
inthe coUection of Aldus, Venice, 1513, folio:
they are also in H, Stephens' collection of the
Greek orators, 1575 ; in that of Reiske, 1773,
of Dobson, and in that of Imm, Bekker,
1822, One of the most recent editions of
Antiphon is by J, G, Baiter and H, Sauppe,
Zurich, 1838, Svo. They were translated
into French by Auger, with the orations of
Isocrates, 1781, 12mo.
Antiphon, called by Suidas an interpreter
of signs, an epic poet, and a Sophist, was a
contemporary of Socrates, and we must pre
sume younger than Antiphon the Orator, with
whom he has often been confounded. This is
probably the Antiphon who is introduced in
the MemorabiUa of Xenophon (i. 6.) as find
ing fault with the habits of Socrates, and ad
mitting that Socrates may be a good man, but
denying that he is a wise man : and he gets
his answer. This Antiphon was probably
the author of the work on Truth, of which
there were at least two books, and which is
cited several times by ancient writers. Ac
cording to Origenes against Celsus, Antiphon
in this work denied that there was a Provi
dence. Suidas attributes to one Antiphon
(whom he probably intends to distinguish
from the Sophist), a work on the interpreta
tion of dreams, which is referred to by Se
neca, Artemidorus, a writer on dreams, and
hy Cicero {De Divin- 1. 20. &c,),
Antiphon, the Tragic writer, is mentioned
by Aristotle under the title of the Poet, a
name which at least sufficiently distinguishes
him from the orator, with whom he has been
confounded. This Antiphon also visited the
court of Dionysius the Elder, tyrant of Syra
cuse, whose government commenced B, c 406,
Antiphon is said to have been put to death
by Dionysius because he found fault with the
tyrant's tragedies ; or because he was suspected
of a design against the power of Dionysius,
for on one occasion, being asked by the tyrant
what was the best kind of copper or bronze
{xaXK6s), he answered that of which the sta
tues of Harmodius and Aristogiton were
made. The titles of several of the plays of
Antiphon are preserved, as the Andromache,
Meleager, and others,
Antiphon. The Pseudo-Plutarch, who
makes great confusion among the Antiphons,
quotes a lost oration of Lysias, the orator,
and Theopompus, as authority for Antiphon
the Orator having been put to death during
the usurpation of the Thirty at Athens,
B. c. 404. But Lysias in an extant oration
{Against Eratosthenes, c. 11,) merely says
that Antiphon the Orator, and Archeptole
mus, were put to death by the people, after
the restoration of liberty, at the instigation
53

of Theramenes, which Is consistent with the
evidence already stated as to the time and
manner of Antiphon's death. In the Hel
lenica of Xenophon, (11, 3,) Theramenes
attributes to the Thirty the death of one
Antiphon, who in the (Peleponnesian) war
supplied two good gaUeys for the use of the
state. But the Pseudo-Plutarch himself has
acuteness enough to suggest that this Anti
phon was not the orator, but another of the
name, a son of Lysldonides, and the object of
the ridicule of Cratinus, the comic writer.
Antiphon, a philosopher, who was older
than Aristotle, by whom he is quoted, as well
as by Plutarch, {De Placitis Philosophorum,
lib. 11,) and by others, Plutarch attributes to
Antiphon the opinion that the moon shines by
her own light, and that when she does not
shine, this is caused by the nearer approach
to her of the superior light of the sun. He
wrote on the quadrature of the circle and the
nature of things,
Antiphon, a physician. See the disser
tation of Van Spaan, cited below,
Antiphon. [Plato.]
Antiphon. [iEscHiNES.]
(All the ancient authorities respecting the
Antiphons are collected in Fabricius, Bib
liotheca Graca, ii. 750, and in Van Spaian's
Dissertatio Historica de Antiphonte Oratore
Attico ; and there is a good account of the
writings of Antiphon the Orator, and of the
characteristics of the old Attic orators, in
MiiUer's History ofthe Literature of Greece.) G. L,
ANTIQUA'RIO, JA'COPO, Apostolo
Zeno and others have considered that Anti-
quario was not a family name, but an appel
lation acquired by Jacopo from his skill in
the study of antiquities. This opinion, how
ever, appears to be erroneous, Jacopo was de
scended from the noble family of the Antiquarj
of Perugia, and was born about the year 1444
or 1445, Of his early education nothing is
recorded, excepting that Giovanni Antonio
Campano, the public professor of the human
ities at Perugiai, was his instructor. About
the year 1467 he became secretary to Gio
vanni Battista SaveUo on his appointment to
the office of governor of Bologna, and between
the years 1471 and 1473 was summoned to
Milan, in order to serve the Duke Galeazzo
Maria in a simUar capacity. He was con
tinued in his office by the two succeeding
dukes, and was by all employed in negoti
ations and other affairs of state of much im
portance. On the occupation of Milan by the
French in 1499, Antiquario did not retire
with his master, Lodovico Sforza, who was
then driven out, but continued to reside in
the city. According to some, Louis XIL, the
French king, confirmed him in his post of
secretary : it has also been asserted that he
had been made lieutenant-general of the
MUanese, but there is no clear proof in sup
port of either of these statements.
E 3

ANTIQUARIO.
After his removal to Milan he joined the
clerical order, and obtained some important
benefices, amongst others the monastery of
San Pietro iu Glassiate, of the Benedictine
order in Milan, He died in the year 1512,
Antiquario was a man of great learning,
and also a great encourager and protector of
learning. He was the friend of Poliziano,
Lorenzo de' Medici, Merula, Girolamo Do-
nato, and Ermolao Barbaro the younger,
Francesco Puteolano, in the dedication to
him of his " Dodici Panegirlci degli Antichi,"
published iu 1482, says of him, that among
all the learned men he was the most virtuous,
and among all the virtuous men the most
learned. There was hardly a man in Italy,
possessing any claim to literary distinction,
who was not indebted to him for favour and
protection, as appears from the various eloges
and dedications addressed to him. Among
others may be mentioned those of F. Puteo
lano, Giorgio Valla, Francesco Filelfo, Michel
Ferno, Flllppo Beroaldo, Franchlno Gaffuri,
aud Aldus Manutius, He was the judge,
arbiter, and adviser of the literary men of his
time. His works are — 1 . " Oratio Jacobi Anti-
quarii pro Populo Mediolanensi in Die tri-
umphali Ludovici Galliarum Regis et Medlo-
lanl Duels de fractis Venetis " (" Oration for
the People of Mikin, &c."), Milan, 1509, 8vo.
2. "Epistolae," Perugia, 1509, 4to. Several
of his epistles are likewise inserted in other
works : fifteen will be found among those of
A, Poliziano, and several in the appendix to
Vermiglloli's " Memorie." 3. " Carmina."
4. " Modus habendi Dlsplicentlam Pecea-
torum." This work was never published.
(VermlgUoll, Memorie di Jacopo Antiquarj,
1813.; Id., Biografia degli Scrittori Perugini ;
Sassi, Historia literario-typographica Medio-
lanensis, 242, &c. ; Argellatl, Bibliotheca
Scriptorum Mediolanensium ; Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d' Italia.) J. AV. J,
ANTFQUUS, [Anticc]
ANTFQUUS, JOHANNES, a distin
guished historical and portrait painter of the
eighteenth century, was born at Groningen
in Holland in 1702. He first studied with a
glass painter of the name of Vander Veen,
then with Benheimein and Wassenberg in
the same place, and at the age of twenty-
three went to Amsterdam, and from thence
to Rouen and to Paris, where he remained a
few weeks, and then returned to Amsterdam,
His love of travelling, however, would not
allow him to rest long in one place, and he
set out, together with his brother Lambert
Antiquus, who was a good landscape painter,
for Genoa. He went by sea, and he painted
the portrait of the captain, who was so much
pleased with the picture that he gave the two
brothers their passage gratis. From Genoa,
where he remained a few months, he went to
Leghorn, and, after some adventures, to Flo
rence, where he was taken into the service
54

ANTIQUUS.
of the grand duke, and was elected member
of the Florentine academy. He remained
six years at Florence, and executed several
exceUent works in that time for the grand
duke, among them a FaU of the Giants,
which gained him great credit. During his
six years' stay at Florence he paid four visits
to Rome, and was much noticed by Pope
Benedict XIII, He visited also Naples, and
became acquainted with SoUmena. After
the death bf the grand duke he retumed with
his brother to Holland by Bologna, Venice,
Padua, Mantua, Milan, Turin, and through
France to Amsterdam and Groningen, where
he was much employed in portrait and his
tory. He afterwards settled at Breda, in the
Brabant, whither he was invited by the prince,
who appointed him his court painter, amd
allowed him an annual pension. He remained
at Breda nine years, until his death in 1750.
His best works at Breda were — a Mars un
armed by the Graces, a Coriolanus, and a
Scipio Africanus, His portraits are very
numerous. He wais an easy painter, coloured
well, excelled in drawing, and painted in the
style of the best of the Roman painters,
(Van Gool, Nieuwe Schouburg der Neder-
lantsche Kunstschilders, ^c.) R. N, W.
ANTFSTATES, an ancient Greek archi
tect, probably of Athens, contemporary with
Pisistratus in the sixth century before Christ.
Antistates, Callaeschrus, Antimachides, and
Porintis, made for Pisistratus the foundations
of the celebrated temple of Jupiter Olymplus
at Athens ; but after his death, on account of
the disturbed state of the repubUc, the work
wais abandoned. It was left in the same state,
nntU in the second century b. c. Antiochus
Epiphanes, king of Syriai, offered to supply
the funds for its completion, which were
entrusted to Cossutius, a Roman citizen, who
continued it in the Corinthian order. It was
originally designed to be Doric. Cossutius,
however, also left it incomplete, and it was
not quite finished until the time of Hadrian,
in the second century of our aerau The
temple itself was buUt by Cossutius, amd it
was considered, even in the time of A'ltruvius,
before it was completed, one of the most
magnificent in the world. It is what is caUed
decaistyle peripteral hypaethral. There were
one hundred and twenty-eight columns 60
feet high ; only sixteen, however, now re
main : they iu-e of Pentelic marble. The
ground dimensions of the temple itself ai-e
96 by 259 feet ; or, including the foundations
of the columns, 171 by 354 feet. [Cossu
tius.] (Vitruvius, vii. praef.; Stuart, Anti
quities of Athens ; Leake, Topography of
Athen.').) R. N, W.
ANTFSTHENES ('AvT«r9€'v7,s), the
founcler of the Cynic sect, was an Athenian
by birth. His father, Antisthenes, was an
Athenian citizen, but his mother is said to
have been a Thracian. He distinguished
himself in the battle of Tanagra (Diogenes

ANTISTHENES.

ANTISTHENES.

Laertius, Antistlienes) ; and if the great bat
tle of B. L', 457 is meant, he must at least
have been near twenty years of age at that
time. But it is said (Plutarch, Lycurgus, c.
30,) that he survived the battle of Leuctra,
B, c, 371 ; and he is vaguely mentioned in
another passage by Diogenes as being alive
about B, c, 365. If these last two dates are
right, the battle of Tanagra mentioned by
Laertius must be the battle that was fought
B. c 426, and is mentioned by Thucydides
(in. 91.); and this is confirmed by the man
ner in which Socrates is represented by Laer
tius as speaking of the services of Antisthenes
at Tanagra. Antisthenes was at first a hearer
of Gorgias, from whom he learned the rhe
torical style whioh he adopted in his dialogues
and other writings. He afterwards attached
himself to Socrates, and recommended his
own disciples, for he had already a number
of followers, to do the same. His dwelUng
was in the Piraeus, and he used to walk daUy
the forty stadia (above four miles) to Athens
to hear his new master, to whom he faith
fully adhered to the end of his Ufe. Diogenes
says that he was the catise of the banishment
of Anytus and the death of Melitus, the two
chief accusers of his master Socrates ; but
the statement is vaguely made and not sup
ported by other evidence. The time of his
death is not mentioned : he is said to have
reached his seventieth year.
Antisthenes is reckoned among the ge
nuine scholars of Socrates, or those who pre
served at least a portion of their master's
doctrines and manner of teaching. He was
a man of stubborn character, and he carried
his opinions to extremes ; yet he was am
agreeable companion, according to Xenophon,
and distinguished by temperance in all things,
Socrates, perhaps, gives us an intimation of
one of his failings in a story recorded by
Diogenes Laertius, On one occasion, when
he had turned his cloak so as to show the
holes in it, Socrates said to him, " Anti
sthenes, I see your vanity through your cloak."
Antisthenes is introduced in the " Sympo
sium " and the " Memorabilia" of Xenophon
as conversing with Socrates and others ; and
these, which are the best sources for the
little that is really known of his character
and principles, represent him in a favourable
light. He is also mentioned in the " Phaedon"
of Plato as present at the death of Socrates,
After the death of Socrates (e, c 399) he
established a school in the gymnasium of Cy-
nosarges, adjoining the temple of Hercules,
which he selected apparently for two reasons :
the Cynosarges was the gymnasium for those
Athenians who were not of genuine Attic
stock, and Hercules was the ideal model of
manly excellence to Antisthenes, and formed
the subject of at least one of his treatises.
The followers of Antisthenes were first
caUed Antistheneii, and afterwards Cynics
{kwucoI), a term that cither had reference to
55

the name Cynosarges, or to the Greek word
Kua}y (dog), which may have been given to
the disciples of Antisthenes on account of the
coarseness of their manners, Antisthenes
was poor, but he boasted that he was really
rich, for man's wealth and poverty, he said,
were not in his house but in his mind ; antl
it was his practical philosophy to limit his
wants as much as possible. He is said to
have worn a single garment, and to have
adopted the waUet and staff, though some
writers attribute to others the adoption of
these external characteristics of the Cynics.
It is not quite clear what is meant by the
story of Antisthenes being the first who
doubled his cloak {rpl^wv), but it seems that
it was done to render it a more complete
dress, for it was his only garment.
Many sayings of Antisthenes are recorded
by Diogenes, They are marked by a sen
tentious brevity, a play on words, and a
caustic humour, which may have contributed
to affix on him and his followers the appel
lation of Cynic or snarling. He advised the
Athenians to pass a decree that should de
clare asses to be horses ; and when his pro
posal was treated as absurd, he replied, " Why,
you have generals who know nothing, and
are only elected to be such," In reply to one
who told him that many persons spoke well
of him, he said, " What vicious act have I
done ? " On being reproached for keeping
bad company, he replied, " Physicians are
with their patients, and yet they don't take
the fever."
The doctrines of Antisthenes had chiefly
a moral and a practical end. It is not pos
sible to state them in anything like a sys
tematic form from such evidence as we have.
He had probably no great originality as a
thinker ; and the best part of his moral phi
losophy harmonises with that of Socrates.
But, as in other like cases, many things may
have been attributed to Antisthenes as the
founder of a sect which belong to the later
Cynics, If the list of his writings ais given
by Diogenes Laertius is genuine, it will enable
us to correct some erroneous opinions that
have been entertained about Antisthenes,
According to Laertius his works were com
prised iu ten parts {t6/j.oi), which contained
among other things the foUowing subjects ;
1, On style or characters, apparently a rhe
torical work ; Aja.x ; Ulysses, &c, 2. On
the nature of animals ; on the procreation of
children ; on marriage ; on justice and forti
tude, &c. 3, On good ; on law or polity ; on
freedom and slavery, &c. 4, Cyrus ; Her
cules the greater, or on strength, &c, 5, As-
pasia, &c. 6, On truth ; on dialectic (Trepl
TOU StaXeyeadai avTi\oytK6s), &c, 7. On edu
cation or names ; on death ; on the use of
names or Eristlcus ; on questioning ; on
glory and knowledge and answering, &c. 8.
On music ; on Homer ; c^n pleasure, &c. 9.
On the Odyssey ; on Helen and Penelope ;
E 4

ANTISTHENES.
on the use of wine, or on drunkenness or the
Cyclops ; on the dog, which may refer to the
name Cynic, &c. 10, Hercules or Midas ; Her
cules, or on wisdom or strength ; Alcibiades,
&o. The list of Laertius, of which the above
contains a few samples, is not apparently
drawn up with care, for some things are re
peated, but it shows that Antisthenes was a
voluminous writer and handled various sub
jects. Timon (quoted by Laertius) called
him a fertile trifler, a censure that probably
applied to such essays as Ajax, Ulysses, and
other rhetorical pieces of that class, wliich
are pretty weU indicated by their titles.
There are still extant two exercises of this
kind which are attributed to Antisthenes,
and are entitled respectively Ajax and Ulys
ses. These supposed speeches of Ajax and
Ulysses for the armour of AchiUes belong to
the class of common-place speeches. [An
tiphon.] It appears from the foregoing list, that the
writings of Antisthenes embraced many sub
jects, and he could not therefore be so great
a despiser of knowledge as he has sometimes
been represented, though it is true that his
philosophy was mainly directed to the prac
tice of life, and that he valued philosophy
only as a means to happiness. It was, he
said, the result of his philosophy to be able
to converse with himself: virtue was a thing
that could be taught ; the virtuous were the
truly noble, for virtue was aU-sufficient for
happiness, and wanted nothing except So-
cratic strength ; virtue consisted in acts, and
required neither many words, nor much
teaching. From this we may conclude that
he set little value on abstruse speculations, or
on rules for conduct, but thought that a vir
tuous character must be formed by habit, or
in other words, by the practice of virtuous
acts. His notion of virtue and happiness
may be collected from what he is said to
have inculcated : he taught, says Laertius,
Diogenes freedom from passion. Crates con
tinence, and Zeno endurance. His philo
sophy was directed to enforce a simpler
mode of life in opposi*'on to the increasing
luxury of his age. It can hardly be said
that his doctrines were diametrically opposed
to those of Arlstippus on the subject of plea
sure and pain, for it is manifest from Xeno
phon's picture of him {Symposium, iv, 35, &o,)
that he was not opposed to such pleasures as
arise from the reasonable gratification of our
desires ; and by his example he even recom
mended the indulgence of the sexual paission
without marriage. He condemned pleasure
which was sought pm-ely for its own sake,
and which enfeebled the mind and body ;
but he approved of those , healthy pleasures
which followed or wei-C consequent upon
labour. The doctrines of the Cynics then
did not reject pleasure ; they sought pleasure
in their own way. If the philosophy of An
tisthenes was deficient in defining wherein
56

ANTISTHENES.
consisted virtue, it may share this blame with
other systems of moral teaching. He said
that we must avoid the bad, and we must
learn what is bad from those who know what
is bad ; a precept which comprises as much
practical wisdom as any system of practical
philosophy has yet taught.
When he says that the wise man should
live as a citizen (TroAireueo-eai), not according
to the existing laws {vop-oi), but according to
the law {vdij,os) of virtue, this cannot be fairly
interpreted to mean, as Ritter understands it,
that he despised the laws ofthe state to which
he belonged. A wise man obeys the law
whether it is good or bad, and so Socrates
taught, and there is no evidence that Anti
sthenes was of a different opinion. It is suffi
cient to advert to the various senses in which
the word law {vop-os) may be used, in order to
see that no saife conclusion can be drawn from
the expression recorded by Laertius. Nor
can Antisthenes be charged, as Ritter says,
with teaching that the wise man should be
all to himself, and detach himseff from aU
commimion with others ; for in the Memora
bilia of Xenophon (11. c. 5.) he is introduced
as valuing a true friend above every thing.
The assertion of Ritter, that he viewed the
object of marriage only as the procreation
of children, and affection to kinsfolk as no
moraU element, is entirely unsupported by
any evidence. The passage of Laertius is
obscure enough in which his opinion of mar
riage is expressed, but its general tenor is
this ; that the wise mam in marrying wiU
contemplate the procreation of children, and
will choose the best woman for the purpose,
for he alone knows whom he ought to love ;
which clearly implies that he admitted the
passion of love, and would select a proper ob
ject for it. It might be said that when An
tisthenes declares the end of marriage to be
the procreation of children, he expressed an
importamt truth, for he viewed the procrea
tion of children as the necessary condition
for the continuance of a state, and marriage
as the only means of fulfiUing this condition.
The absurdity of attempting to re-construct
the system of an ancient phUosopher from
such scanty materials as exist with respect to
Antisthenes, is well exemplified in the re
marks of Ritter. The little that is recorded
of Antisthenes is obscm-ely expressed, and
the interpretation of it is often doubtful.
The doctrine of Antisthenes, that things
are Incapable of definition, is briefly noticed
by Aristotle {Metaphysica, v. 29., vin. 3.). An
tisthenes maintained that we cannot explain
by words what is the essence of a thing ; we
may say it has such and such qualities, and
so is like something else, but nothing more:
for Instance, we cannot say what silver is,
but we may say it is white like tin. This
shows that Antisthenes did not confine him
self to ethical precepts ; and though Aristotle,
and probably Plato, set little value on his

ANTISTHENES.

ANTISTHENES.

philosophical speculations, we cannot form
any opinion of them from a few unconnected
and scattered passages. The enmity between
Antisthenes and Plato is said to have arisen
from the dialogue of Antisthenes called Sa-
thon, which was directed against Plato.
Antisthenes, it is said, proposed to read to
Plato au essay to prove that there was no
contradiction, on which Plato said, " Why
then do you write about it ? " This was the
origin of the Sathon, in which we may
presume that Plato's doctrine of ideas was
opposed. In his work entitled " Physicus,"
Antisthenes said that there were many popu
lar gods (populares), but only one nattiral
God, by which he probably meant to teach
the unity of the Deity, as recognised imder
a variety of names and forms. He also
said that the Deity resembled nothing, and
therefore coiUd not be understood from any
representation. The two orations of Antisthenes are printed
in the collection of Greek orations of Aldus,
H. Stephens, Reiske, and Dobson : they were
translated into French by Auger. A letter
to Arlstippus, attributed to Antisthenes, is
printed in the edition of the Letters of Socratic
Philosophers by Leo Allatius ; and in the
collection of Greek letters of OreUi, 1815,
8vo. The fragments of Antisthenes have
been coUected by A. G. Winckelmann,
Zurich, 1842.
Antisthenes. There were, says Laertius,
several other persons of the name of Anti
sthenes ; three of them were caUed Heracll-
teii, or followers of Heraclltus ; a fourth was
an Epheslan ; and a fifth was a RhocUan.
One Antisthenes wrote a treatise on the
Succession of the Philosophers (™y ^lAoaoipav
AiaSoxai), which is often referred to by Laer
tius. He was one of the Heracliteii.
Antisthenes of Rhodes, who was Uving
about u. c. 198, took a part in the public
affairs of Rhodes, and wrote an account of
contemporary events. (Polybius, xvi. 14.)
An Antisthenes mentioned by Pliny {Hist.
Nat. xxxvi. 12.) wrote a work on the Pyra
mids of Egypt. (Fabricius, Biblioth. Grcec.
ii. 697. ; Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophic, u.
is useful for the references.)
Antisthenes ('Ai'Ti'ireej/Tis), a Spartan
commander, is mentioned by Thucydides
(viii. 39.). He was sent to the coast of Ionia
with twenty-seven ships, B. c 412. The
Spartans sent with him eleven commissioners,
with instructions to deprive Astyochus of
the command, whioh he held in Asia, if they
should think proper, and to put Antisthenes
in his place. He is also mentioned by Xeno
phon {Hellen. iu.), as one of three commis
sioners who were sent to examine into the
state of affairs in Asia, B. c. 399.
The Antisthenes, an Athenian, men

tioned by Xenophon {Memorab- 111. 4.) is
otherwise unknown. G. L.
ANTI'STIA. [Anti'stia Gens ; Pom
peius Magnus.]
ANTFSTIA GENS. The AntlstU were
a plebeian family. On coins and in inscrip
tions the name is generally written Antestll.
In the earlier centuries of Rome the gentile
appellation Antistius occurs alone without a
surname. Afterwards it is found in combin
ation with Burrhtis, Labeo, Turplo, and es
pecially with surnames indicating a provincial
origin or residence, as Pyrgensis, from Pyrgi
in Etruria, Reglnus, &c. And one branch
of the family, as if to distinguish itself from
the municipal and colonial offsets, adopted
the surname Vetus, which, however, was
sometimes prefixed as weU as appended to
Antistius, as Vetus Antistius, b.c 56. (Ci
cero, ad Quint. Fratr. 11. 1. 3. ; Vellelus,
U. 43.)
The Antistii Veteres are the historical
branch of the Antlstia Gens. Yet of its
members none attained to eminence, and the
few who are remembered owe their escape
from obscurity to political or domestic con
nexion with other famiUes. Thus Antistius
Vetus (No. 1. Antistii Veteres), propraetor
in the Further Spain, b.c 69-8, is probably
indebted for his place in history to Julius
Caesar's having been his quaestor in that pro
vince. (VeUeius, ii. 43. ; Suetonius, Julius
Casar, 7.) The branch of the Labeones,
a surname transmitted by some thick-lipped
ancestor (Pliny, Hist Nat, xi. 60.), pro
duced the celebrated jurisconsult Antistius
Labeo. [Laeeo.] Of the Antistii Veteres
the foUowing are the most remarkable ; but
their relationship to one another is too un
certain to admit of their being arranged in
an unbroken stemma. The affiliation of them
from E.c. 30 to a.d. 150 is conjectural only,
although the intervals of the years render it
not improbable. Q. Antistius Vetus, men
tioned by Valerius Maximus (vi. 3. 11.)
among the examples of the ancient strictness
of manners, has no place in the following
table, since Quintus was not a praenomen of
the Antistii Veteres.
P. Antistius, who was tribune of the Plebs
B. c. 88, during the year of his ofiice opposed
C. Julius Caesar Strabo, who had become a
candidate for the consulship without having
served as praetor, which was illegal. He dis
tinguished himself by his speech against
Cffisar, and even surpassed his colleague, P.
Sulpicius Rufus, who also spoke on this occa
sion. After his tribuneship he was often en
gaged in the most important causes. Cicero
{Brutus, 63) speaks weU of his oratorical
powers. His daughter Antlstia married Pom
peius Magnus. Antistius was murdered b. c.
82, by the order of C. Marius the younger.

67

(1.)

ANTISTIA.

ANTI'STII.
Sextus Antistius,
Trib. of the PlebB,
B.C. 422.

(2.) Lucius Antistius,
Trib. Mil. Cons. Potest.^
B.C. 378.
II
(3.) Marcus Antistius,
Trib. of the Plebs,
B, c.320(?)

(5.) Sextus Antistius,
Legatus,

(4.) M. Antistius,
Legatus,B. c. 218. Probably brothets.
at****-********
(6.) Antistia married Appius Claudius Pulcher,
II Cos. B.C. 143.

Claudia married

* * * * jif * * i

(7.) P. Antistius,
Prsetor, B.C. 86.
(8.) Antistia

Tiberius Gracchus,
Trib. of the Plebs,
B. c. 133.
* * * * Calpurnia,
daughter of
L. Calpurnius Bestia,
Cos. B.C. 1)1.
Cn. Pompeius Magnus.

*************

ANTI'STII VE'TERES.
(1). Antistius Vetus,
Proprsetor in Spain,
B. c. 69-8.
II
(2.) C. Antistius Vetus,
Cos. B.C. 30.
II
(3.) C. Antistius Vetus,
Cos. B. 0. 6,
Pontifex.

(4.) C. Antistius Vetus,
Cos. Suff. A.D. 23,
Pontifex.

(5.) L. Antistius Vetus,
Cos. A. D. 28,
Pontifex.

(6.) C. Antistius Vetus,
Cos. A. D. 50.

(7.) L. Antistius Vetus,
Cos. A. D. 55.

(8.) C. Antistius Vetus,
Cos. A. D. 96,
11
(9.) L. Antistius Vetus,
Cos. A, D. 116.

ANTI'STII LABEO'NES.
(1.) C. Antistius Labeo,
Legate to Macedonia,
B. c. 167.
* * *
(2.) .Q. Antistius Labeo,
Lieut, to M. Brutus,
B.C. 42.

(3.) — Antistius Labeo.
(?)

(4.) M. Antistius Labeo,
Jurisconsult.

^V. B. D.

ANTI'STIUS, an ancient physician at
Rome, who examined the body of Julius
Caesar after his assassination (e. c. 44, March
15.), and pronounced (according to Suetonius)
that out of his three-and-twenty wounds there
was not any that was mortal except one that
he had received in the breast. As in some
copies of Suetonius the name is written An-
tius instead of Antistius, Fabricius conjec
tures that he may perhaps be the same physi
cian who is called Antaeus or Anthajus. Some
persons suppose Antistius to be the physician
who was taken prisoner with Julius Cassar
by the pirates at the island of Pharmacusa,
but this is quite uncertain, as that physician's
name is not mentioned. (Suetonius, .Julius
Casar, cap. 4. 82 .; Fabricius, Biblioth.
Graca, xlll. 65. ed. vet. ; Plutarch, Casar,
cap. 2.) W. A. G
58

ANTOINE DE BOURBON, duke of
Vendome, and, by marriage, king of Navarre,
was the eldest son of Charles de Bourbon,
first Duke of Vendome. He was born 22d
AprU, 1518, at the castle of La Fere, in
Picardy, and, during his father's lifetime,
bore the title of Count of Merle. He suc
ceeded his father in the duchy of Vendome
in 1537 ; and also in the government of
Picardy. He was head of the family of
Bourbon, and first prince of the blood next
to the king's chUdren. He was one of the
princes who proposed to seize the emperor
Charles V. at Chantilly, on occasion of his
visU to Pai-is, in 1540. He took part, with
some distinction, in the war which recom
menced between Franjols I. and the emperor
Charles V. in 1542, and in that which broke
out in 1552 between Henri IL, son and sue-

ANTOINE.
cesser of Frangois, and the emperor. In
these wars the rivalry between him and
Fran5ois, the great duke of Guise, appears to
have commenced, which lasted through their
lives. In the interval between these two wars,
20th Oct., 1548, Antoine married at Moulins
Jeanne d'Albret, daughter and heiress of
Henri d'Albret, king of Navarre, by his wife
Marguerite, sister of Franfois I. of France.
This marriage had been planned by Fran5ois
I., but was not solemnised until after his
death, through the reluctance of Henri d'Al
bret and his queen, who had hopes that Jeanne
would be married to Philip, son of Charles V.
(afterwards PhUip II. of Spain), in which
case they expected to recover the Spanish
portion of their hereditary kingdom of Na
varre, which had been seized several years be
fore by Ferdinand of Spain. It was only by the
authority of Henri II. of France, that the
match between Antoine and Jeanne was at
last brought about. The queen of Navarre
signed the marriage-contract with tears.
Henri d'Albret did not fail to rebuke his son-
in-law for maintaining so large and costly a
retinue ; and going to his apartments the
morning after the marriage, dismissed the
greater part of the officers of his household,
whom, however, Antoine took an early op
portunity of recalUng after his return to the
north of France. In a. d. 1551 he was sponsor
to one of the children of the king of France,
prince Henri, afterwards Henri III. ; and in
A. D. 1553, his own son, afterwards Henri IV.
of France, wais born at the castle of Pau, in
Beam. On the death of Henri d'Albret, Antoine
succeeded him in his hereditary dominions,
comprehending the French part of the king
dom of Navarre, the principaUty of Beam,
the duchy of Albret, the counties of Foix,
Bigorre, Armagnac, Rodez, and Perigord,
and the viscounty of Limoges. He received
also of the king the government of Guienne,
extending at that time from the Pyrenees to
the Loire, which Henri d'Albret had held, and
for which he gave up that of Picardy, which
was bestowed on Admiral Coligni. In be
stowing the government of Guienne, Henri
had it in view to induce Antoine to exchange
his extensive domains on the Spanish fron
tier for other lands in the interior of the
kingdom ; but Antoine adroitly replied, that
as he held his dominions in right of his wife,
he could not aUenate them without her con
sent. Jeanne being sent for to the court, and
applied to, dissembled her reluctance to the
proposal until she had obtained leave to quit
the court with her husband, that they might
confer with their subjects, and arrange for
releasing them from their oath of fidelity. No
sooner had they returned to their own terri
tories, than they convoked the states of
Beam, and submitted the proposal to them ;
and availing themselves of the zeal with
59

ANTOINE.
which it was opposed, informed the king of
France that they would not consent to the
proposed exchange. Apprehending that the
king's anger woidd lead to hostUities, they
began immediately to fortify their strong
holds, Pau, Oleron, Navarreins, and other
places. Henri II. was too much occupied with the
Spanish war to take any violent measures ;
but in the peace of Le Cateau Cambresis,
A. D. 1559, the interests of Antoine were over
looked, and during the remainder of Henri's
reign, he was without influence at court.
Besides this Languedoc, which had been
previously included in the government of
Guienne, was dismembered from it, and
given to the constable Montmorenci.
It was probably at this time that Antoine
showed his inclination to the Reformed reli
gion, without, however, altogether abandon
ing the Roman Catholic observances. During
his visit to Paris in 1558, on occasion of the
marriage of the Dauphin (afterwards Fran-
9ois II.) with Mary of Scotland, he and his
wife, with the Prince of Conde his brother
[Conde, Louis, Prince of] , and the Princess
of Conde, attended the secret meetings of the
Reformed for worship, and encouraged their
ministers to renewed exertions. It was pro
bably on this occasion that Antoine brought
with him to court, David, a Calvinist minister
of some note ; a step which increased the
displeasure entertained towards him by the
king of France. Jeanne d'Albret did not
enter so zealously into the cause of the Re
formers as her husband. She was young,
handsome, and, according to Brantome, " liked
a dance as well as a sermon :" and she told
her husband plainly, that if he chose to ruin
himself and incur the confiscation of his
dominions by these novelties, she had no in
tention of doing so. This is more remark
able, as Jeanne in the sequel showed herself
a zealous partisan of the Reformation, whUe
Antoine returned to the communion of the
Roman CathoUc church.
During the negotiations which preceded
the peace of Le Cateau, Antoine, apprehensive
that his interests would be disregarded, deter
mined to make an effort to recover possession
of Spanish Navarre by arms, and raised troops
for the purpose ; but the copious rains of the
spring of 1559 mined aU his plans. It was
probably at this time that he formed an alli
ance with the king of Fez, whom he engaged
to aid in the recovery of Granada, on receiv
ing similar assistance in the recovery of
Navarre. When Henri II. received his death-
wound in a tournament (1559), the constable
Montmorenci sent unmediate inteUigence to
Antoine, requesting him to hasten to court,
that, in the event of the king's death, he might
take the administration of pubUc affairs.
Antoine, however, being angry with Mont
morenci, who had directed the negotiations
of Le Cateau, instead of proceeding imme-

ANTOINE.

ANTOINE.

diately to Paris, delayed his departure,
travelled slowly to Vendome, and staying
there for some time, lost the opportunity ; for
even before his setting out, the death of Henri
II., and the accession of Franyois II. had
thrown all power into the hands of the Guises,
whose niece, Mary of Scotland, the young
king had married. His delay was partly
owing to his apprehensions of the Spaniards,
who meditated, as he supposed, an attack on
his dominions in revenge for his own attempt
on Spanish Navarre. He negotiated, before
his departure, with the chiefs of the Re
formed party ; and while he assured the
Guises, on the one hand, that he had no in
tention to disturb their supremacy, that he
had declined the overtures of the constable,
and that his sole object was to pay his duty
to the king, and to obtain through the Duke
of Alba and the other Spaniards who were
at the French court the restitution of Spa
nish Navarre or the assignment of a com
pensation ; he assured the Reformed party,
on the other hand, of his intention to protect
them from persecution, and excused himself
for practising some of the rites of Roman
Catholicism In his house by pleading the ne
cessity of dissembling his real opinions.
At Vendome he had a conference with
D'Ardres or Dardois, confidant of the con
stable Montmorenci, Admiral Coligni and his
brother D'Andelot, nephews of the constable,
the Prince of Conde, Antoiue's younger bro
ther, and others of the princes of the blood and
nobles opposed to the Guises, as to the course
to be pursued to drive them from power.
Some were for an immediate appeal to arms ;
but this proposal was overruled by the more
prudent ; and it was agreed that the King of
Navarre should present himself at the court
and the council, and that, by endeavouring to
strengthen their party, and especially to
draw over the queen-mother, Catherine de'
Medici, they should seek to overthrow the
Guises. Antoine, on arriving at court, then
at St. Germain, was received with marked
neglect; and he increased his degradation by
his obsequiousness to the Duke of Guise, the
author of the slight put upon him. Catherine
de' Medici refused to quit her connexion with
the Guises, but managed artfully to amuse
Antoine with promises ; and his want of
energy and decision ruined for the present
his own hopes and those of his party. He
assisted at the consecration of Franyois II. at
Reims, 12th September, 1559, and accepted
the mission, in conjunction with the Cardinal
of Bourbon, his brother, aud the Prince of
Roche sur Yon, his cousin, of conducting to
the Spanish frontier the Princess Elizabeth of
France, sister bf Francois II., who had been
promised in marriage to Philip II. of Spain.
He hoped thus to have an opportunity for en
tering into a negotiation with PhUip for the
restitution of Spanish Navarre, the great ob
ject of his wishes. He conducted the princess
60

from Bordeaux to Roncesvalles, and took the
opportunity of declaring his claim to Navarre
to the Duke of Infantado and the Cardinal of
Burgos, who were appointed to receive the
queen, and who, according to De Thou, re
turned a prudent answer. He also sent an
ambassador to Madrid to forward the busi
ness. PhUlp decidedly refused to restore
Navarre, but amused him with hopes of re
ceiving the island of Sardinia as an equivalent.
Occupied with this matter, Antoine remained
in Beam, jealous and apprehensive of the
Guises, who were all-powerful at court.
When the states-general met at Orleans in
1560 Antoine was summoned to attend, aud
to bring with him his brother the Prince of
Conde, who was charged with being a par
ticipator in the conspiracy of Amboise [Guise,
Francois, Duke of], and in a vain attempt
on the part of the Reformed to gain possession
of Lyon. This summons threw Antoine into
great perplexity. He was afraid to disobey,
being alarmed for the safety of his territories,
which were exposed to invasion on the one
side by France, on the other by Spain, if by
disobedience he laid himself open to attack ;
on the other hand, he was reluctant to go,
because he had received advice indirectly
from the queen-mother, Catherine de' Medici,
and from other quarters, of the designs of
the Guises against his life and that of Conde.^
The Cardinal of Bourbon, his brother, was
sent to persuade him to attend the states ;
and his infiuence, combined with the appre
hension of an army which Marshal Thermes
began to assemble, induced Antoine to pro
ceed to Orleans. Catherine de' Medici had
also been obliged by the Gtdses to write to
him inviting him to come; but when she
heard of his approach, in spite of the secret
warnings of his danger which she had con
veyed to him, she was surprised and grieved,
apprehending that the ruin of the Bom-bcu
princes would place every thing in the
power of the Guises, whom she feared. An
toine and his brother Conde were coldly
received ; the former was placed under sm--
veillance, and the latter arrested, tried by an
illegal process, and condemned to death.
There was no pretext for bringing Antoine
to trial ; but as it would be dangerous to
allow him to survive if Conde was executed,
a plot was formed, by the instigation of
the Cardinal of Lorraine and Marshad St.
Andre, for his assassination at an audience of
the king, to which he was summoned ; and
the king himself was to give the signal, if
not to strike the first blow. Antoine was
warned of his danger ; but determined to go,
intending to sell his life as dearly as he could.
Before going he gave this charge to Cotin, a
faltliful officer of his household : " Cotin, if I
am kUled in cold blood, as I am assured is
the purpose of my enemies, I charge you to
find meaus to obtain my bloody shirt, and
show it to my son." The interference ofthe

ANTOINE.

ANTOINE.

queen-mother prevented the young king from
giving the signal, and thus preserved Antoine
from danger. Guise is said to have bitterly
reproached the king for his want of resolution.
The opportune death of Fraufois II. (5th
Dec. 1560) and the accession of Charles IX.
prevented the execution of Conde ; and An
toine, as first prince of the blood, claimed
the regency of the kingdom. Catherine de'
Medici, no less jealous of the Bourbons than
of the Guises, was not disposed to allow his
claim ; and, after some negotiations, by acting
on his fears both for his brother and himself,
she prevailed on him to be content with the
title of lieutenant-general of the kingdom and
with a shadow of authority, and to leave the
actual government in her hands. Conde was
forthwith released ; and a reconcUiation was
effected between Antoine and the house of
Guise. The natural Inconstancy and easy
temper of Antoine induced him to consent to
these measures ; and he was further influenced
by his attachment to Louise de Rouet de
Beraudiere, one of Catherine's maids of
honour, whom Catherine, knowing his amo
rous constitution, had introduced to him.
Antolne's position was by no means an
easy one, and his jealousy of Catherine and
of the Guises was near breaking out into an
open rupture. He patronised the Reformed
party; and told Gluck, an envoy of the king
of Denmark, to inform his master that he
might hope within a year to see a purer form
of worship established in France. He was pre
sent at the colloquy of Poissy (which began
in September, 1561), and, according to Bran-
tome, was understood to have sought out the
foreign Protestant ministers, and to have
brought them to the conference at his own
expense. This show of zeal for the Reform
ation renders his re-conversion to Romanism,
whioh took place soon after, the more remark
able. He was probably instigated to this un
expected change by jealousy of the greater
reputation which his brother Conde enjoyed
among the Protestants ; and by impatience of
the influence of Admiral Coligni, and of the
stricter morality of the Protestant party. He
was induced also by the apprehension of losing
his dominions and his right of succession to
the throne of France, and by the hope of ac
quiring Sardinia as an equivalent for Spanish
NaTarre, with which he was still deluded by
the king of Spain, the Pope, and the French
court. It was proposed to him, also, to re
pudiate iis wife Jeanne d'Albret, who was
regarded as hopelessly confirmed in her
heretical views, and to marry Mary of Scot
land, widow of Fran5ois IL, whom he might
hope to obtain through the influence of the
Guises, her uncles; and in whose right he
would acquire the crown of Scotland, and
perhaps ultimately that of England. Though
Antoine rejected this proposition, and re
fused, out of affection for their children, to
divorce his queen, his re-conversion was deter-
61

mined. He banished the Reformed preachers
from his apartments lu the Louvre, aud from
all the royal residences, and attempted to
compel his wife to attend mass ; but Jeanne
was too resolute to submit ; and, having in
vain remonstrated against his proceedings,
retired (according to some accounts by An-
toine's desire) into Beam, with her children,
whom, notwithstanding their father's change
of faith, she brought up in the Reformed
religion. Antoine sent an envoy to the Pope
to solicit fuU reconciliation to the church,
which Pius IV. readUy granted. He also
connected himself with the Tritimvlrate, as
it was termed, that is, the alUance formed
between the Duke of Guise, the constable
Montmorenci, and Marshal St. Andre, to
oppose the progress of the Reformation.
Antoine, alarmed at the strength in which
the Reformed party was assembling in Paris,
and anxious to drive out his brother Conde,
who was at their head, determined to send for
the Duke of Guise, who had been for some
time at the court of Lorraine or its neigh
bourhood. The duke obeyed the invitation,
and repaired with a strong force to Paris : his
retinue having on the way kUled a number of
the Reformed, in an affray at Vassy, which
became one of the proximate causes of the
ensuing civil war. Conde, who was now in
ferior in force, was obliged to leave Paris ;
and Antoine completed his triumph by
obliging the queen-mother with her son,
the young king, to leave Fontainebleau ancl
come to Paris, where she was completely in
the hands of the Catholic party.
War now broke out, and Antoine took the
field at the head of the royal army. He took
Blois and Tours with little or no opposition
(July, 1562) ; and Bourges, after a siege of
three weeks (August) ; and then laid siege
to Rouen, which made a stout resistance.
Here, while visiting the trenchSs, he received
a gun-shot wound (15th Oct.), of which he
died at AndUly, on the Seine, while on his
way up that river to his castle of St. Maur
les Fosses, near Paris. He was attended
on his dying bed by Louise de Rouet, his
mistress. His mind was much agitated on
the subject of religion; he felt that his late
changes had been induced by worldly con
siderations ; and when the apprehensions of
death had weakened these, his mind was
agitated by doubts and uncertainties which
were increased by the influence of his two
surgeons, one Protestant, the other Catholic.
After receiving the rites of religion from a
Catholic priest at Rouen, into which city after
its capture (26th Oct.) he had been carried In
mournful triumph thi-ough the breach, he
declared his purpose, if he recovered, of
embracing the Confession of Augsburg, and
living and dying in it. His death took place
17th Nov., Uttle more than a month after re
ceiving his wound, in the forty-fifth year of
his age.

ANTOINE.

ANTOINE.

He had by his wife, Jeanne d'Albret, five
children, three of whom died in infancy.
The two who survived him were Henri,
afterwards Henri IV. of France [Henki IV.],
and Catherine, married to Henri, duke of
Bar. He left by Louise de Rouet a son,
caUed Charles de Bourbon, who was after
wards legitimated, entered the church, and
was successively bishop of Commlnges and
Lectoure, aud archbishop of Rouen, and
died A. D. 1610.
Antoine occupied a commanding position
at one of the busiest aud most interesting
periods of the history of France, and owed
whatever eminence he acquired to that posi
tion. His own irresolute and vaciUating
character prevented his being, what he might
have been, the leading man of his age and
country. His easy temper made hini the
tool of others, and the want of high principle
is evident in his abandonment of Protestant
ism, the recollection of which troubled his
dying hours. He is free, however, from the
reproach of cruelty, though he scrupled not
to defend the conduct of the Duke of Guise
at Vassy, and bitterly to reproach Beza,
who complained of the slaughter and de
manded justice. {Mimoires of Gaspard de
Saulx, Seigneur de Tavannes ; of Viellle-
vllle ; of Michel de Castelnau ; Palma
Cayet, Chronologic Novenaire ; Davila, Civil
Wars of France, translated by Ellis Farne
worth ; J. A. Thuanus (De Thou), Historia
sui Temporis; Brantome, Vie des Hommes
Illustres et Grands Capitaines Frangois ;
Gamier, Histoire de France ; Sismondl, His
toire des Frani^ais ; Salnte-Marthe, Histoire
G6nialogique de la Maison de France ; Ansel
me, Histoire Ginialogique de la Maison Royale
de France ; L'Art de Verifier les Dates.) J. C. M.
ANTOINE, JACQUES DENIS, an emi
nent French architect, was born at Paris,
August 6th, 1733. He is said to have ori
ginally been a mason, and afterwards to have
established himself as a builder and contrac
tor. One of the earliest works on which he
was employed as architect was, as successor
to Desmaisons, in the alterations of the Palais
de Justice at Paris, where he constructed
some galleries over the Salle des Pas Perdus,
vaulted with hollow bricks or pots, whereby
he obtained both strength and lightness of
construction. The portal in the court of the
Hospice de la Charite is another work of his,
whioh, though small in itself — the columns
being only fourteen feet high, and by no
means aiming at originality, — was a very re
markable one at the time, it being the first
attempt to make a practical application of the
ancient or Grecian Doric order, which Leroi
had then rendered an attractive novelty to
artists. If the severity of the order itself was
somewhat attempered by Antoine, its cha
racter is sufficiently preserved, and this archi
tectural study must have appeared to be of
62

singularly severe style in comparison with
the taste whioh then prevaUed in the French
capital. In one respect it wais a fair speci
men of the style professed to be foUowed,
since no anti-Grecian features were intro
duced into the design, which consists of a
tetrastyle portico, raised on a few steps, and
having a second flight of them within, behind
the columns, owing to which last circum
stance, and to the consequent depth of the
portico, there is, with great simplicity, con
siderable effect.
Whether that essay was his only one of
the kind we are not informed ; perhaps, while
it showed him what might be done with
Grecian architecture in buildings of limited
and simple plan, it also convinced him that
its character could not be at aU adequately
preserved where many windows are required,
and those in different stories. But if he did
not attempt to innovate any further by again
employing that style, Antoine showed him
self a decided reformer of the art in that
structure which forms a sort of epoch in the
architecture of the French capital and its public
buildings. The Hotel des Monnaies or Mint
is marked by a unity and simpUclty that
contrast very strikingly with the flutter and
fritter which then more or less stamped
French architecture. The bidldlng was begun
in 1771 and finished in 1776, and the prin
cipal facade, towards the Quai Conti and the
Pont Neuf, presents a fine unbroken mass,
nearly four hundred feet in extent. It consists
of a basement and two other floors, each -with
twenty-seven windows, without any other
break iu the whole elevation than that which
forms the centre, and which has five enti-ances
through the basement into a spacious open
vestibule with columns, leading into the inner
court. The upper part of this centre is com
posed of an Ionic order (six columns), and an
Attic with panels, and six statues between
them. Excepting this variation in the de
sign, and that the windows of the principal
floor have pediments, the composition is uni
form throughout, and the fuU entablatm-e of
the order, which has a bold cantiliver cornice,
is continued from end to end. Considered
merely as a design, this fai,'ade is, if not fault
less, in very sober and good taste ; neverthe
less, as a building, it has one radical defect,
inasmuch as it has no character, or rather one
quite at variance with its purpose. It has the
adr of being a spacious residence or palace,
but does not look at aU like a mint, at least
not like what a structure of the kind ought
to do. In such kind of edifice there should
be the expression of great strength, solidity,
and security : of windows there ought to be
as few as possible, and if they could be got
rid of altogether externaUy, at least on the
ground floor, it would be better. So far An
toine, certainly, did not treat his subject in a
masterly manner, but rather added another
instance to the long catalogue of lost oppor-

ANTOINE.

ANTOINE.

tunities ; and iu his case the opportunity was
one of exceedingly rare occurrence. Great,
however, as we consider the defect we have
animadverted upon to be, it is one which
others have either not been sensible of or
have indulgently overlooked. Among other
buildings which, if not executed, are said to
have been designed by him, are the Mint at
Berne, and a mansion for the Duke of Bervioq,
at Madrid, but of neither of them is anything
further said hy his biographer. Antoine died
August 24th, 1801. (Quatremere De Quincy,
Histoire des plus celebres Architectes; Thume-
loup, Lecons Elementaires d' Architecture-) W. H. L.
ANTOINE, PAUL GABRIEL, a Jesuit,
was bom at Luneville on the 21st of January,
1679. He was admitted into his order at
Nancy in October, 1694, and took the vows
on the 2d of Febmary, 1711. He appears to
have been professor of philosophy in several
coUeges, and ultimately chancellor of the uni
versity of Pont-a-Mousson, where he died on
the 22d of January, 1743. His works are :
1. " Theologia moralis universa, complectens
omnia Morum et Praeceptorum Principia,"
3 vols. Nancy, 1726, 12mo., and Nancy,
1731, 8vo., Paris, 1735 and 1744. It was
adopted in the college of the Propaganda at
Rome by order of Benedict XIV. In 1762
the parUament of Paris rejected several pas
sages. The work has passed through a great
many editions. One was published at Avig
non in 1818 in 6 vols. 8vo., with the com
mentaries of Philippus de Carboneano, B. Stai-
del, and J. D. Mansius. Querard and the
author of the article " Antoine " in the " Bio
graphic Universelle " ascribe the first edition
of this work to the year 1731. 2. " Theologia
universa, speculativa et dogmatica, complec
tens omnia Dogmata et singulas Quaestlones
theologicas qua; in SohoUls traetari solent,"
7 vols. Nancy, 1735, 12mo. According to
Querard and the " Biographle Universelle "
the first edition of this work was pubUshed
at Pont-a-Mousson in 1725. 3. " Lectures
Chrctiennes, par Forme de Meditations sur
les grandes Verltes de la Foi," &c., 2 vols.
Nancy, 1731 and 1736, 8vo. 4. "Medita
tions pour tons les jours de I'Annee," Nancy,
1737, 12mo. 5. "Les Moyens d'acquerir la
Perfection," Nancy, 1738, 16mo. 6. "De
monstration de la Vcrite de la Religion
Chretienne et CathoUque," Nancy, 1739,
12mo. 7. He also edited a work by Pere
Caussade, entitled " Instructions Spirituelles,"
Perpignan, 1741, Svo. {Ca,\met, Bibliotheque
Lorraine; Richard et Giraud, Bibliotheque
Sacree; Biographic Universelle.) J. W. J.
ANTOINE, SEBASTIEN, a French en
graver of Nancy, of the early part of the
eighteenth century. He was an artist of very
moderate ability ; he engraved some of the
plates of the work entitled " Versailles Im
mortalise, &c." Paris, 1720, 2 vols. 4to. ; the
portrait of the author, and some of the plates
6.3

to Calmet's "Histoire de Lorraine ;" the tri
umphal arch erected in 1744 to Louis XV.
at VersaUles ; also the crown with which that
monarch was crowned. Antoine was stiU
living in 1761. (Strutt, Dictionary of En
gravers ; Fiissli, AUgemeines Kii-nsder Lexicon.)R. N. W.
ANTOINETTE, MARIE. [Marie An
toinette.] ANTOLI', R. (i^itOiS "n). a Jewish
writer of the thirteenth century; his works are
— 1. " Ruach Chen " (" The Spirit of Grace "),
which is a commentary on the Praedica-
menta of Aristotle, and is attributed to this
author by R. Joseph Ashkenazi in his " Opus
cula," which were printed with the " Taalu-
moth Chocma " of R. Joseph Solomon Del
Medico at Basil, a.m. 5389, a.d. 1629, 4to.
2. " Perush al More Hannevokim" (" A
Commentary on the Director of the Per
plexed "). The " More Hannevokim '' is a
celebrated work of the great Maimonides;
the commentary above cited is among the
manuscripts of the Vatican library. 3. " Igge-
reth el Harambam " (" An Epistle to Ram-
bam, i- e- R. Moses ben Maimon, commonly
caUed Maimonides "), which, with an answer
from Maimonides relating to some questions
on the law, is also found among the manu
scripts of the Vatican. (Wolfius, Biblioth.
Hebr. i. 202., iii. 128. ; Bartoloccius, SiiKotfi.
Mag. Rabb. i. 375.) C. P. H.
ANTOLI', R. JACOB BAR SAMSON
('^IQaK IIE'DK' 13 npy "-)). a learned
Spanish rabbi and philosopher. He appears
to have been born in the kingdom of Naples
during the reign of the emperor Frederic
IL, in the early part of the thirteenth century.
He was the son-in-law of R. Samuel Aben
Tibbon, the celebrated translator ofthe " More
Hannevokim " of Maimonides ; his works
are — 1. " Malmad Hattalmidim" ("The
Stimulus for Scholars"), described as an
excellent phUosophical commentary on the
Pentateuch, which has, however, never been
printed. It is among the vellum manuscripts
In the Vaticam, as well as among those of
R. Oppenhelmer in the Bodleian, and among
those of De Rossi in the library of Turin.
This work has been ascribed by some authors
to R. Jacob ben Makir ; but the balance of
testimony appears to be in favour of R.
Jacob Antoll. 2. " Matzreph Lakeseph"
(-' A Fining-pot for Silver," Prov. xvii. 3.),
which is a Hebrew translation with a com
mentary of the Pracdicamenta of Aristotle
from the Arabic of A verroes ; the manuscript
of this work is also in the A'atican library, as
well as —3. "Sepher Melitza" (" The Book
of Interpretation "), which is also a transla
tion from the Arabic of Averroes of Aris
totle " De Interpretatione." Also — 4. A
translation from Arabic into Hebrew of the
book of Alfragan on the Elements of As
tronomy. Besides these works De Rossi
cites as among his own manuscripts, the

ANTOLL

ANTOLINEZ.

following translated by this author from the
Arabic : the Commentaries of Averroes on
the books of Aristotle, on the SyUogism, on
Demonstration, on Interpretation and the
Categories, also Abu Nasr Alfarabi on the
Sophistics, and the Isagoge of Porphyry ; he
says there were also other translations by
this author in the library at Turin. Among
the Bodleian manuscripts of Dr. Bobert Hun
tington is one partly on vellum, partly paper,
a translation of the Commentary of Averroes
on the former and latter Analytics, which
was finished by R. Jacob bar Abba Mori
Bar Antoll, as he styles himself at the end, at
Naples, on the second day of the month
Adar (February), A. M. 4992 (a. d. 1232).
(Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr- i. 618, 619. ; Bar-
toloccius, Biblioth- Mag- Rabb- iii. 867. ;
De Rossi, Dizion- Storic- degl- Autor- Ehr-
i. 53. ; Urus, Catal- MSS- Orient B- Bod
leian-, 1. 77.) C. P. H.
ANTOLINEZ. There were two Spanish
painters of this name.
Dom Josef Antolinez, a good landscape,
portrait, and historical painter, was born at
Seville in 1639. He learned his art from
Francisco Rizi, at Madrid, and was the most
distinguished of his scholars, particularly in
landscapes, which he coloured with great de
licacy and richness. He was of an extremely
jealous disposition: he abused every man who
painted better than himself, says Bermudez ;
he respected neither the humility of Cabe-
zalero, nor the gravity of Carreflo ; neither
the great abUity of Coello, nor the merit of
his master Rizi, whom he used to caU a
screen painter, because he painted the scenes
for the theatre of Buenretlro. Rizi, how
ever, chastised his Insolence in a masterly
manner. Upon an occasion when he was
much pressed to finish a scene, he procured
an order from the proper authority for An
tolinez to go to the theatre and assist him,
which to refuse was a penalty of one hundred
ducats ; Antolinez accordingly was obliged
to go ; and Rizi seeing that after a whole
day's work he had done very little, and that
very badly, said to him, " you see what it is
to paint screens ; " and then, turning to one
of his attendants, he said, " boy, wash this
canvass." Antolinez left the place deeply
humiliated. However, notwithstanding his
want of ability in this description of painting,
Antolinez promised to be the first landscape
painter of his time in Spain, if he had not died
prematurely. He was very fond of fencing,
and having met with an amateur who was
his superior, he fenced upon one occasion so
long and unsuccessfully that he brought on a
fever which killed him a few days after
wards. He died at Madrid in 1676, in his
thirty-seventh year.
Don Francisco Antolinez Y' Sarabia,
nephew of the preceding, was likewise a
native of SevUle, where he was born in 1644.
He studied in the school of Murillo, and
64

acquired his style of colouring. In 1672 he
joined his uncle in Madrid, and remained
with him untU the death of the latter in
1676. Although Francisco was one of the
best colourists in Spain, he was dissatisfied
with his profession, and wished to have the
character of a man of letters. He returned to
Seville and practised as an advocate ; he was,
however, obliged to paint also to earn his
living ; and during this time he painted
many beautiful small pictures from the Bible
and the Ufe of the Virgin. After he lost his
wife, he again left Seville and retumed to
Madrid with the intention of taking holy
orders ; he died, however, in 1700, without
having accomplished his purpose. (Ber
mudez, Diccionario Historica de los mas
Ilustres Profesores de las Bellas Artes en
Espana-) R. N. W.
ANTOLFNI, IL CAVALIERE GIO
VANNI, professor of architecture at Milan,
where he died towards the end of 1841, at
the age of eighty-six, therefore born in
1755. Beyond those bare dates, scarcely
any thing is as yet to be coUected respect
ing him, for all that we gather from Nagler
is that he studied his profession at Rome
between 1780 and 1790. Whether he ac
tually executed any thing as an architect
is doubtful, at least any thing of import
ance, for no building is attributed to him ;
nevertheless, his name is well known as that
of the author of several architectural publica
tions. The principal of these works, which
shows what he might have accompUshed had
he been favoured by opportimity, is entitled
" Opera d' Architettura, ossia Progetto del
Foro che doveva esseguirsi in Milano," a
large folio with twenty -five plates, but with
out any descriptive or even explanatory letter
press. This vast architectural project was
at one time actuaUy contemplated for the
embellishment of the capital of Lombardy,
and was to have been called the " Foro Bo
naparte ; " but, like Inigo Jones's palace of
" Whitehall," it was only a splendid vision.
In fact, the plan itself was upon such a gi
gantic scale as almost to exclude aU hope of
its being accomplished, even if no poUtical
changes had intervened to frustrate it. The
general plan was that of an area forming
an amphitheatre one thousand seven hundred
and seventy-one English feet in diaimeter
within. In the centre would have been a
mass of building about two hundred feet
square, and the whole inclosure would have
been sm-rounded by Grecian Doric colon
nades. Interrupted at regular intervals by
various buildings, presenting a unifo.rm com
bination, but of different design internaUy,
and intended for various purposes. Among
them was to have been a custom-house, ex
change, theatre, public baths, museum, aca
demy, — in short, almost every species of
public edifice would have been here intro
duced. It is not without reason, therefore.

ANTOLINL

ANTOMMARCHL

that MUlin says this forum would have sur
passed, if not in beauty, in grandeur and
magnificence, every ancient work of the
kind which has been described or mentioned.
In regard to beauty, indeed, there is not
much ; certainly no richness of design in the
external elevations of the buUdings : the
Doric order is poor, the columns unfluted,
and the frieze quite plain, and altogether
little more than the general masses and out
lines seem to have been considered.
Another, and probably earlier work, for
there is no date to that which has been just
mentioned, is " II Templo di Minerva in
Assisi, confrontato coUe 'Tavole di Palladio,"
Milan, 1803 ; but it is of no very great in
terest, as it shows very little more than Pal-
ladlo's error in giving lofty pedestals to the
columns of that hexastyle Corinthian portico.
In 1819-22, Antolini published a folio work
on the remains of the ancient city of VeUeja
("Le Rovine di Velleja"); and in 1832, "I
Principj di Architettura Civile di Francesco
Milizla ; prima Edlzione Milanese, iUustrata
per cura del Professore G. Antolini, il quale
con piu mature Riflessioni ha riformate le
Note gla edite, edagglunte quaranta Osserva-
zloni tutte nuove, ed un Metodo geometrico
prattlco per costrulre le Volte; con 36 Tavole
in Raine." The work appeared as the first of
a series, to be entitled " Raccolta de' Classici
Italiani di Architettura Civile, da L. Battista
Alberto sino al Secolo 19." The " Aggiunte
ed Osservazloni " to Milizla had been pub
lished separately at Milan, in 1817. (Anto
lini, Works-) W. H. L.
ANTOMMARCHI, FRANCESCO, a
surgeon of somereputationas an anatomist, but
more likely to be remembered in his capacity
of physician to Napoleon at St. Helena.
Antommarchi, a native of Corsica, studied
medicine at Pisa, and was towards the close
of the year 1812 elected anatomical dissec
tor to the hospital of S. Maria Nuova of Flo
rence, attached to the university of Pisa.
This appointment rendered him the prin
cipal assistant of his anatomical teacher,
Mascagni. The death of Mascagnl in October,
1815, was foUowed in little less than a year
by the deaths of his brother and nephew, who
had edited his "Anatomia per Uso degli Stu-
diosi di Scultura e Pittura." No other mem
ber ofthe family being qualified to superintend
the publication of Mascagni's other works,
a company was formed to undertake the
risk, and Antommarchi was appointed editor.
By his care the " Prodromo della grande
Anatomia" was carried through the press,
and the " Grande Anatomia," considerably
advanced towards publication. In 1818 the
Chevalier Colonna, chamberlain to Madame
Mure, made overtures to Antommarchi for the
purpose of inducing him to accept the appoint
ment of surgeon to the Emperor Napoleon.
He accepted the offer ; made arrangements
for the pubUcatlon of the " Prodromo," which
VOL. III.

appeared in 1819, and forthe transmission
of the MS. and proof-sheets of the " Grande
Anatomia" to and from St. Helena; and
sailed for that island, where he arrived in
September, 1819. The history of Antom
marchi, fi-om this time till his return to
Europe in 1821, is part of the biography
of Napoleon. Immediately on his return, he
was involved in a dispute with the heirs
of Mascagni, who wished to reclaim from
him the plates and MS. of the "Grande
Anatomia." He attempted to persuade the
family to sell the work to him, but with
out success. On the 19th of AprU, 1822, the
supreme tribunal of Florence decided that
the society formed for the publication of
Mascagni's works was dissolved. In conse
quence of this judgment Antommarchi,
according to his own statement in a letter
addressed to the Chevalier Karcher, Austrian
minister at Paris, on the 14th of May, 1822,
abandoned aU intention of publishing the
great work of Mascagni, and returned the
plates and the MS. to the family. In 1825 a
series of anatomical plates, the size of life, by
Antommarchi, were announced as on the eve
of publication at the Uthographical establish
ment of Count de Lasteyrie at Paris. The
heirs of Mascagni forthwith published a letter
to the count, in which they asserted that An-
tommarchi's lithographed drawings were mere
copies from the plates of Mascagni. A
favourable report of the work however was
presented to the Academie des Sciences by
Magendle and Dnmeril. Fifteen parts of this
work were published with the title " Planches
Anatomiques du corps Humain." Paris,
1823—26, royal foUo, including forty-five
finished and thirty-five outline lithographed
drawings of inconsiderable merit. The con
troversy appears to have died away, through
lapse of time, without a positive decision be
ing pronounced in favour of the claims of
either party. Antommarchi's notoriety ceased,
as soon as new topics superseded the discus
sions relative to the treatment of Napoleon
at St. Helena. After Napoleon's death An
tommarchi returned to Europe. During the
Polish revolution he went to Warsaw, where
he was appointed general inspector of military
hospitals. In the wiuter of the same year he
was a witness of some of the first ravages of
the cholera, on which, as weU as on quaran
tine regulations generaUy, he soon after wrote
his " Memoires et Observations sur Ie Cho-
lera-morbus regnant a Varsovie." Paris, 1831,
8vo. After living for « time at Paris, he
went, in 1833, to Florence, and about this
time wrote a paper on the use of the seeds
of Bignonia Catalba in asthma, which was
pubUshed in the Journal de Chimie Jledicale,
March, 1834. {Ex/ilication des Planches
Anatomicjues du Corps Humain, Preface, p. ii.,
Paris, 1826 ; Lettre des Ileritiers de fcuPaul
Mascagni a M- le Comte de Laslcy/ie- Paris,
1825; Derniers Momens de Napoleon parle

ANTOMMARCHL

ANTON.

Docteur F. Antommarchi. Paris and London,
1825. ; Callisen, Medicinischer Schriftsteller-
Lexicon, vols. 1. 26.) It is said that he went
in 1834 to America, and died there soon
after his arrival. W. W.
ANTON or Brunswick Wolfeneuttel.
[Anton, Ulrich.]
ANTON, CARL GOTTLOB VON, a
German historian, was born on the 23d of
July, 1751, at Lauban, in Upper Lusatia.
After having received his elementary educa
tion iu his native place, he studied law in the
university of Leipzig, where he took his de
gree of doctor of phUosophy in 1773, and
iu 1774 that of laws also. He settled at
Gorlitz, and divided his time between the
discharge of his professional duties as a
lawyer, and historical investigations. His
life presents scarcely any Incidents worth
mentioning. In 1797 he was made a senator
of Gorlitz, and afterwards he was raised to
the rank of nobUity. He died at Gorlitz on
the 17th of November, 1818.
Anton was a man of extensive learning and
unwearied industry. His great reading, the
sagacity with which he discovered the re
lations between things apparently uncon
nected, and their bearing upon the subjects
under his consideration, and his fideUty and
accuracy in collecting and combining his
materials, have secured him a place among
the distinguished historical critics of Ger
many. But he was not qualified for an his
torian in the strict sense of the word. He
leads his reader through all the processes of
his inquiries instead of giving the results. His
style is often declamatory, and his inferences
rash and merely supported by analogies. He
was one of the founders of the " Society of
Sciences of Upper Lusatia," the objects of
which are chiefly of a locaU nature ; but it is
StiU one of the most useful institutions of the
kind. Anton bequeathed to this society his
extensive library aud his MSS. He began
his literary career at an early age, before he
left the university. The great variety of
subjects on which he wrote were not taken
up at random, but a chronological list of his
works will show that, with a few exceptions,
one subject naturally led him to the other.
His earliest production is — 1. " De Dato
Diplomatum Regum et Imperatorum Ger-
manla3," Leipzig, 1774, 4to. This work was
followed by one of a similar nature in Ger
man, but without the author's name. 2.
" Diplomatlsche Beitrage zu den Geschichten
und zu den Deutschen Rechten," Leipzig,
1777, 8vo. 3. " Versuch einer Geschichte des
Tempelherren Ordens," Leipzig, 1777, 8vo.
A second edition appeared in 1781, and was
followed by — 4. " Untersuchung iiber das
Geheimniss und die Gebraiiche der Tempel
herren," Dessau, 1782, 8vo. 5. A German
translation of Tacitus's " Germania," with a
learned commentary, Leipzig, 1781, 8vo., of
which a second edition appeared at Gorlitz,
66

1799, Svo. These investigations led Anton
to others concerning the early history of the
Slavonic race, which he published under the
title — 6. " Erste Linien eines Versuchs iiber
der alten Slaven Ursprung," &c., Leipzig,
1783—1789, 2 vols. Svo. After the pub
lication of this work he was principally en
gaged with a history of the civilisation of
the Germans from the earliest times to the
ninth century. The work, however, was
never completed or published. But a por
tion of these researches, a history of agri
culture in Germany, of which he himself
possessed a good practical knowledge, ap
peared in his — 7. " Geschichte der Teut-
schen Landwirthschaft von den iiltesten
Zeiten bis zu Ende des funfzehnten Jahr-
hunderts," Gorlitz, 1799 — 1802, 3 vols. Svo.
This work is written with great learning and
judgment, but it is unfortunately incom
plete, as the fourth or finishing volume was
never published. 8. " Geschichte der Teut-
schen Nation," Leipzig, 1793, Svo. This
work is likewise incomplete ; only one vo
lume appeared, which contains the earliest
history of the Germans. His researches in
early history convinced him of the im
portance of the study of languages for his
torical purposes. On this subject he wrote,
— 9. " Ueber Sprache in Riicksicht auf Ge
schichte der Menschheit," Gorlitz, 1799, Svo.
He also coUected four foUo volumes of ma
terials for a dictionary of the ancient and the
middle High German language, and for other
works of a similar kind, which, however,
were never pubUshed. There exist also by
him in MS. very ample materials for a new
edition of the " Sachsenspiegel," and of the
" Autor vetus de BeneficUs." Many valuable
essays of Anton are contained in the pe
riodicals of his time. (Ebert, in Ersch und
Gruber's Allgem. Encyclopddie, iv. 335, &c. ;
Wolff, Encyclopddie der Deutschen National
Literatur, i. 58.) L. S.
ANTON L, CLEMENS THEODOR,
King of Saxonv, was born on the 27th of
December, 1755 ; he was the second son of
Friedrich Christian, elector of Saxony, who
died in 1763, and Maria Antonia of Bavaria,
daughter of Charles VIL, emperor of Ger
many. From his earliest youth he showed a
great disposition for a quiet life and hai-mless
occupations, and he was destined to enter the
church. He nevertheless married in 1781,
Maria Carolina Antonia, daughter of Victor
Amadeus HI., king of Sardinia, whom he lost
in the foUowing year. In 1787 he contracted
a second mai-riage with Maria Theresa of
Austria, daughter of Leopold, grand duke of
Tuscany, who became afterwards emperor of
Germany under the name of Leopold I.
He took no part in the administration of
Saxony, on the groimd of the jealous temper
of his elder brother, the elector Frederick
Augustus, as some say, though the real cause
was his want of capacity. He deUghted in

ANTON.

ANTON.

the performance of the reUgious ceremonies
of the Roman Catholic church ; he was fond
of music and flowers ; and he was an ex
cellent husband. This is all that can be said
about him during the period from his birth to
1827. In 1827 his brother Frederick Au
gustus, who had been king of Saxony since
1806, died, and Anton succeeded him. " I
come too late to the throne ; I am too old
now," said he when he was informed of the
death of his brother ; and he continued his
retired life, leaving the direction of state
affairs to Detlev, count of Einsiedel. This
minister, adhering to the principles of the
eighteenth century, was a stubborn opponent
of those civil and political reforms which
were the desire of all Germany, and which
were the more necessai-y for Saxony as the
country had been grievously ravaged during
the campaign of 1813. Besides this, the ex
travagance of former electors, two of whom
were also kings of Poland, had not only
brought a heavy debt on the nation, but cre
ated a tendency to luxury and splendour at
the court, which was the more pernicious to
the people, as Frederick Augustus, in conse
quence of his alUance with Napoleon, had
lost his grand duchy of Warsaw and half of
his kingdom of Saxony. There was a general
discontent in Saxony, but the political apathy
of Germany was so great that no active
measures were taken for political reform.
The French revolution of 1830 was a signal
for a general and spontaneous outbreak in
Germany. Some princes, such as the Duke
of Brunswick and the Elector of Hesse-Cas-
sel, were compeUed by the people to fly or
to abdicate ; and bad government, especially in
Hanover and Bavaria, was speedUy reformed,
though not without serious disturbances.
The discontent of the people of Saxony
showed itself in several well-conducted out
breaks at Dresden and Leipzig, and they ob
tained a first victory by compelling the Count
of Einsiedel to resign. The king then gave
the portefeuille to the Baron von Lindenau,
an enUghtened man who understood the times
well, especially aifter he had been some time
in his new office. It was probably at the
persuasion of Baron Von Lindenau that King
Anton did an act which gained him great
credit. Seeing his inabUity to govern the
state in such stormy times, and having no
children, he chose Prince Frederick Augus
tus, the eldest son of Anton's youngest bro
ther, Maximilian, his co-regent ; and Maxi
milian, who was likewise an old man, re
nounced his right to the throne in favour of
his son Frederick Augustus, who thus became
co-regent, and ultimately the successor of
King Anton. These changes met with gene
ral approbation ; but the hopes of the nation
were far from being satisfied. There was a
mock constitution in Saixony, a rotten institu
tion from which the kingdom had never de
rived any good, and for which it was the ai-dent
67

wish of the nation to substitute another consti
tution conformable to the wants of the time,
and ^ based on the principle of the nation's
participating in the government by its repre
sentatives. A committee was appointed to
draw up such a constitution, but their pro
gress being slow, new outbreaks took place
at Dresden and Leipzig in the summer of
1S31. This brought the question to a speedy
decision; and the new constitution was pub
lished on the 4th of September, 1S31. The
representatives of the nation, divided into two
bodies or " chambers," immediately as
sembled, and from this time they have worked
with such unremitting activity that the last
ten years are justly caUed the legislative
period of Saxony. As King Anton took no
part in this business, it would be out of
place to give any account of the numerous
important laws and regulations which have
proceeded from the representative body of
Saxony. It will he sufficient to say that the
reign of Anton I., notwithstanding his own
incompetency, has been rendered memorable
by a new criminal code ; by a law on the or
ganisation of municipal corporations ; and a
treaty with Prussia, by which Saxony adhered
to the Prussian commercial league or " Zoll-
verein," a treaty which has had most bene
ficial consequences for the manufacturing
districts of Saxony. Anton I. continued to
be nominal king tiU he died on the 6th of
June, 1836. His successor was his nephew,
Frederick Augustus, who now reigns under
the name of Frederick Augustus II. (Mey-
nert, Anton, Konig von Sachsen, Leipzig,
1836 ; Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen, Jahr-
gang, 1836, p. 378., &c.) W. P.
ANTON, GEORGE DAVID, a Danish
architect, of whom little m.ore is known than
that he practised at Copenhagen about the
middle of the eighteenth century. He was
inspector of the crown buildings ; and also
" Informator " or teacher of geometry, archi
tecture, and perspective, at the Academy of
Arts. The Frederiks-hospital at Copen
hagen was both designed and erected by him,
but does not appear to have obtained him
much credit for talent : it is spoken of as
very mediocre in style. He also bnUt the
spire of the Frederlks-kirke, in 1769, which
date is the only one that affords any clue
as to the time when he lived ; but what was
then his age, or how much longer he lived,
is not stated. (Weinwich, Dansk, Norsk, og
Svensk Kuntsner-Lexicon-) W. H. L.
ANTON, GOTTFRIED, commonly called
GOTHOFRE'DUS ANTO'NIUS, was a
distinguished professor of Roman and feudal
law. He was born at Freudenberg in West-
phaUa in 1571, and he studied law at Mar
burg, where he took his degrees in 1596.
Soon afterwards he became Professor Insti-
tutlonum, and, in 1604, Professor Pandec-
tarum, at Marburg. In the course of 1604
the Landgrave Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt

ANTON.

ANTON.

appointed him Professor Juris Primarius
in the university of Giessen, which had just
been founded by this prince, and Anton's
reputation was already so great, that many
students followed him to Giessen. He con
tributed greatly to the organisation of this
university, of which he became rector and
chancellor. He died on the 16th of March,
1618. Anton is the author of a great num
ber of treatises on the Roman and feudal
law ; the principal are ; — 1. " Dissertatio
de Judiciis et Foro competente," Marburg,
1594, 4to. 2. " Disputatio de Jure ve-
nandi, aucupandi et plscandi," Cologne,
1 604, 4to. 3. " Disputationes Feudales XV.
iu Academia Marburgensi habits," Mar
burg, 1604, 4to. ; Giessen, 1613, 1623 ; Mar
burg, 1624 ; HaUe, 1699, 1726, 1736. The
whole of these fifteen " Disputations " from
a complete handbook of the feudal law
of Germany, the groundwork of which is
the feudal law of Lombardy. Several other
" Disputations " are directed against Vul-
teius and Martinius with whom Anton did
not always agree, especially as to the legal
power of the emperors of Germany. These
disputations are written with bitterness,
and adversaries, for love of peace, did not
always answer them. Anton had a son,
William Anton, a jurisconsult of some
merit, who published some of his father's
works. (Jocher, AUgemeines Gelehrten-Lexi-
con, and Supplement by Adelung, who gives
a complete catalogue of the works of Anton.)
W. P.
ANTON GUNTHER, reigning Count of
Oldenburg, the son of Count John XVI.,
was born on the 1st of November, 1583, and
succeeded his father in 1603. Nothing re
markable occurred in the first twenty years
of his reign. During the Thirty Years' War
Anton Giinther, as one of the Protestant
princes of Northern Germany, was in a very
dangerous position. King Christian IV. of
Denmark urged him to adhere to the aUiance
which he had concluded with the Protestant
princes of Northern Germany against the em
peror and the League, but Anton Giinther
eluded this dangerous proposition. His coun
try was nevertheless occupied by TUly after
the battle of Lutter am Barenberg in 1627,
and for some time the count had to support
an imperial army of 25,000 men. During
the course of this war Anton Giinther ne
gotiated with equal skill with the emperor
and with Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden,
and he was the only prince of the empire
who succeeded in remaining neutral during
the whole course of the Thirty Years' War.
In 1647 he inherited the county of Del-
menhorst after the death of his cousin.
Christian IX., count of Delmenhorst. He
was married to Sophia Catherine, princess
of Holstein-Sonderburg, but this marriage
proved childless. Anton Giinther was the last
male of the younger branch of the house of
68

Oldenburg, the elder branch of which was
founded by Christian I., king of Denmark, and
eldest son of Diedrich the Forttmate, count of
Oldenburg, from whom are descended the
present kings of Denmark, the imperial family
of Russia, the dukes of Holstein, the grand-
dukes of Oldenburg, and the descendants of
Gustavus Adolphus IV., the late deposed king
of Sweden. After the death of Anton Giinther
in 1667, his states were inherited by Joachim
Ernst, duke of Holstein-Plon, who ceded
them to Frederick III., king of Denmark, in
the possession of whose descendants they re
mained tUl 1 7 73. They now form the greater
part ofthe present grand-duchy of Oldenburg,
which is in possession of the younger branch
of Holstein-Gottorp, the elder branch of
which reigns in Russia. Anton Gunther left
a natural son, Anton, who was created count
of Aldenburg by the emperor Ferdinand IL,
and who inherited the extensive allodial pos
sessions of his father. His house became ex
tinct in 1738. The sole heiress Charlotte
Sophia, countess of Aldenburg, was married
to William, baron and afterwards count of
Bentinck,the younger son of WiUiam Bentinck,
first earl of Portland, whose descendants are
still in possession of the inheritance of count
Anton of Aldenburg. This inheritance, the
lordships of Kniephausen and Varel, are at
present the subject of a suit between Gustavus
Adolphus, count of Bentinck and lord of
Kniephausen, and Charles Antony Ferdinand
(count of) Bentinck, a colonel in her Britannic
Majesty's army, who has lost his cause in the
first instance. (The chief source is : — G. A.
vonHalem, Geschichte des Herzogthwms Olden
burg, ii. ; Ersch und Gruber, Allgemeine En
cyclopddie der Kiinste und Wissenschaften,
voc. " Oldenburg ;" Private Correspondence-)
W. P.
ANTON OF OLDENBURG. [Anton
GtJNTHER.] ANTON, PAUL, a German Protestant
divine, was born on the 12th of February,
1661, at Hirschfeld in Upper Lusatia. He
received his early education in the gymnasium
of Zittau, and in 1680 he commenced his
theological studies in the university of Leip
zig. In 1683 he took part in the practical
lectures on the Bible (CoUegium PhilobibU-
cum) which August Hermann Francke was
then delivering at Leipzig, amd which gave
rise to the pietistlc disputes. [Francke,
Aug. Herm.] In 1687 he was appointed
chaplain to Prince Prederio Augustus, after
wards elector of Saxony and king of Poland,
and he accompanied the prince on his excur
sions through France, Spain, Portugal, and
Italy. On his return in 1689 he received
the office of superintendent at Rochlitz ; and
after having been distinguished by several
other titles and ecclesiastical offices, he was
appointed, in 1695, professor of theology iu
the university of Halle, and was at the same
time made one of the CounciUors of the con-

ANTON.

ANTON.

sistory of the elector of Brandenburg. In
1709 the general superintendence of all eccle
siastical and religious matters in the district
of the Saale (Saal-Kreis) was entrusted to
him. He died at Halle on the 20th of Oc
tober, 1730. Anton belonged to the pietistic
school of divines as they are caUed in Ger
many, and his numerous works, most of which
are in Latin, are all written in that spirit.
The following list contains the principal : —
1 . " Dissertatio de Sacris Gentilium Processio-
nibus," Leipzig, 1684, 4to. 2. Concilii Tri-
dentini adeoque et Pontificiorum Doctrina
publica," Halle, 1697, Svo., reprinted in 1713
and 1734. 3. " Sendschreiben an einen Sach-
sischen Theologen, die Materie von dem
wahren, lebendigen, thatigen Glauben be-
treffend," HaUe, 1698, 4to. This edition
was published under the assumed name of
" Sincerus Evangelicus." A second edition,
with the author's real name, appeared at
Halle, 1721, 4to. 4. "Disputatio de Vita et
Doctrina Haymonis," HaUe, 1704, 4to., re
printed in 1705, 4to. 5. " Elementa homi-
letlca," Halle, 1700, Svo., reprinted in 1707.
' 6. " Collegium Antitheticum universale fun-
damentale," HaUe, 1732, 4to. This work,
though it has a Latin title, is written in Ger
man, and was edited by J. U. Sohwentzel.
7. " Harmouisohe Erklarung der heillgen
vier Evangelisten," was edited after his death
by J. A. Major, Halle, 1737—48, in fourteen
vols. Svo. 8. " ErbauUche Anmerkungen
iiber die Epistel an die Romer," Frankfurt,
1746, Svo. 9. "Exegetische Abhandlung der
PauUnischen Pastoral Briefe," Halle, 1755,
two vols. 8vo., edited by J. A. Majer. {Au-
serlesene Theolog. Bibliothek, part 52. ; Heine,
Rochlitzer Chronik, p. 187. ; Walch, Reli
gions- Streitigkeiten, iv. 1141. ; Adelung, Sup
plement to Jocher's .Allgem. Gelehrten-Lexic.
i. 952, &e.) L. S.
ANTON OF SAXE-COBURG-MEl-
NINGEN. [Anton Ulrich.]
ANTON I. OF SAXONY. [Anton
Clemens Theodor.]
ANTON ULRICH, duke of Brunswick-
Wolfenbuttel, the younger son of Duke
Augustus and his second wife, Dorothea,
princess of Anhalt, was born at Hitzacker,
in the present kingdom of Hanover, on the
4th of October, 1633, His instructors were
Slgismund von Blrken, a poet of considerable
reputation ; Schottel, a well-known scholar of
that time, and Anton Ulrich's father, who was
known in the literary world under the name
Gustavus Selenus. He was ten years old when
he was chosen coadjutor of the bishopric of
Halberstadt, a dignity which he lost in conse
quence of the peace of WestphaUa, in 1648,
and for which he received a prebend at
Strassburg as an indemnification. After the
death of his father In 1666, he received u
portion of the paternal estates, but being
then highly distinguished as a poet and scho
lar, his eldest brother, Rudolph Augustus,
69

who was then reigning duke, appointed him
governor of the duchy of Brunswick-Wolfen-
biittel, and in 1685 chose him his co-regent.
In 1704 he succeeded his brother, Rudolph
Augustus, who had died without male issue.
In 1710, to the astonishment of Protestant
Germany, he adopted the Roman Catholic
religion, a step which was probably connected
with the emperor Charles VI. having married
in 1699, Wilhelmina Amalie, princess of
Brunswick-Hanover. He died on the 27th
of March, 1714. Duke Anton Ulrich had
married in 1656, Elizabeth Juliana, princess
of Holstein-Norburg, by whom he had seven
chUdren. His son Augustus William was his
successor. Duke Anton Ulrich was a member of
" Der Fruchtbringende Orden " (" The Fruc
tiferous Order "), a society of literary men
whose aim was the restoration of German
literature. Each member of the society chose
a surname. Anton Ulrich chose the name
of " Der Siegprangende " (" He who is glo
rified by his Victories "), a bombastic title,
whioh however was quite to the taste of the
time, and to which, according to the opinions
of his contemporaries, he was entitled by his
great poetical success. His poetry has con
siderable merit for his time ; his ideas and
sentiments are noble, and his expression is
elevated ; but his style is bombastic, and
he has extended his " Novels " to such an
enormous length, that they can only be con
sidered now as tedious specimens of the
tastelessness of the seventeenth century in
Germany. Calprenede aud Madame de Scu-
dery, who were then favourite authors in
Germany as well as in France, had apparently
great influence upon Duke Anton Ulrich,
whose works belong to that class which are
never asked for in libraries, except by lovers
of curiosities, or perhaps somo writer on lite
rary history. His principal works are a con
siderable number of melo-dramas, such as
"Andromeda," 1659; "Orpheus," 1659;
" Iphigenia," 1661 ; " Jakob des Patriarchen
Heurath " (" The Marriage of the Patriarch
Jacob"), 1662. He also wrote several
" Freudenspiele " or (" Joy-plays "), resem-
bUng what we now call oratorios, though
they had a distinct dramatic character ;
such are : — " Friedens-sieg," Wolfeubuttel,
1648, Svo., a dramatic hymn written in
memory of the peace of Westphalia, which
is the author's first essay ; " Natur-Ban-
quet " (" The Banquet of Nature "), lb.,
1654, fol. "Die Durchlauchtigste Syrerin
Aramena " (" Aramena, the Illustrious Sy
rian Lady"), Niirnberg, 1678, 5 vols. Svo.;
" Octavia, Romische Geschichte " (" Octavia,
a Roman Story"), Niirnberg, 1685 — 1707,
6 vols. Svo. 2d edition, Braunschweig, 1712,
7 vols. Svo. These two novels have prin
cipally contributed to the author's reputation.
"Chrlst-FurstlichesDavids-Harpfensplel,zum VorbUd himmelfiammender Andacht, mit
F 3

ANTON.

ANTON.

ihren Arien oder Slngwelsen hervorgege-
ben " ("David's Harp-playing, a Model for
the heavenly Flames of Devotion, published
with their Airs or Tunes"), Niirnberg, 1667,
Svo. ; Wolfenbiittel, 1670, Svo. This is a
collection of psalms, hymns, and other reli
gious songs, several of which, as well as the
tunes, are of great beauty : they were set to
music by the author's stepmother, Sophia
Elizabeth, a princess of Mecklenburg. His
religious songs would certainly have long
survived the author, if he had not adopted
the Roman Catholic faith; they were rejected
by the Protestants as the work of an apostate,
and they were not adapted to the Roman
CathoUc service. There is no history of
German literature which does not give some
account of Duke Anton Ulrich. (Jordens,
Lexicon Deutschcr Dichter, 1. 55., &c, ; Jo
cher, AUgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon, and its
Supplement by Adelung ; Ersch und Gruber,
Allqemeine Encyclopddie der Kiinste und Wis
senschaften, mentions many other sources.)
W. P.
ANTON ULRICH, duke of Saxe-
Cobukg-Meiningen, the youngest son of
Duke Beruhard I. and his second wife, Eli
zabeth Eleonore, princess of Brunswick-
WoUenbiittel, was born on the 22d of Oc
tober, 1687. At an early age he entered the
Spanish service, and fought afterwards in the
imperial armies in the Netherlands, where
he distinguished himself in the sieges of Lille,
Ghent, and Bruges. In 1710 he was pro
moted to the rank of major-general, but after
the peace of Rastadt he abandoned his mi
litary life for more peaceful occupations.
Gifted with uncommon talents he had always
shown a great predilection for classical studies,
and after having travelled some years in
Italy, he conceived a passion for every thing
connected with Roman and Greek antiquities.
He wrote Latin well ; he had a thorough
knowledge of history, jurisprudence, and li
terature ; and he was particularly versed in
numismatics. Great sums were expended
by him in collecting antiquities ; he liberally
rewarded artists, poets, and scholars, and
though he lived very economically, he did
not grudge expense whenever he cotUd in
dulge his passion for art and literature. He
published nothing, yet he was considered one
ofthe most accomplished scholars of his time.
His character was rather impetuous, and
he was ready to make the greatest sacrifices
to attain his objects. In 1711 he secretly
married PhUipplna Elizabeth Cassar, the
daughter of a German captain, by whom he
had ten sons and daughters, who, as well as
their mother, were raised to the r.ink of
princes and princesses of the empire by the
Emperor Charles VI. in 1727. Anton Ulrich
endeavoured unsuccessfully to obtain an un-
perial decree, by which his children might
be declared capable of succeeding to the
duchies of Saxe-Cobiirg and Meiningen,
70

from which they were excluded by the rank
of their mother. His elder brothers and
other agnati of the house of Saxony vigo
rously opposed his design, and thence arose
quarrels which embittered his life, and of
which the source cited below gives a long
and tedious account which can only be of
interest to an inhabitant of the duchy of
Saxe-Coburg. His wife died in 1744, and his brother
Frederick WUliam, the reigning duke, re
fused to allow her to be interred in the vaults
of the dukes of Saxe-Coburg, whieh so an
noyed Anton Ulrich that he ordered the
body to be deposited in a room of his palace,
where it was covered with sand. After the
death of Frederick WiUiam in 1746, Anton
Ulrich took a singular revenge ; he ordered
his brother's body to be deposited by the side
of his o-wn deceased wife, and Ukewise to be
covered with sand. Both the bodies remained
in this condition tlU 1747, when they were
interred in the ducal vaults.
The death of Frederick WilUam having
been preceded by the extinction of all his
descendants, and those of his and Anton Ul
rich's eldest brother, Ernst Ludwig, who
died in 1724, Anton Ulrich became sole duke
of Saxe-Coburg in 1746. As his chUdren
were incapable of succeeding him, the other
dukes of Saxony flattered themselves that as
he was rather advanced in years, the duchies
of Coburg and Meiningen would be divided
among them. But in 1750 they were sur
prised by the intelligence that Anton Ulrich
had secretly concluded a second marriage
with a young princess, Charlotte Amalie, of
Hesse-PhUlppsthal, by whom he had eight
children in the course of twelve years. At
the birth of each chUd, Anton Ulrich, in
order to vex his agnati, the other dukes of
Saxony, wrote with his o-mi hand to each of
them a letter on a sheet of royal folio paper,
in which he communicated to them the in
teresting event. When Anton UU-ich died,
in 1763, he was involved in svuts with aU his
agnati, before the high tribunals of the em
pire. Anton Ulrich is the ancestor of the
present house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha : his
successor was his eldest son by his second
wife, Augustus Frederick Charles WUUam.
(Ersch und Gruber, Allgemeine Encyclopddie
der Kiinste und Wissenchaften-) W. P.
ANTONELLE, PIERRE ANTOINE,
Marquis D', was born at Aries in 1747 ; the
family had been ennobled by Henri IV. for
mUitary services. He entered the army at an
eai-ly age and had risen in 1782 to the rank of
captain. For some imexplained reason he
quitted the service in that year. He embraced
the ultra-revolutionary opinions of the time
with fervour, and renounced his titles some
time before all titles were abolished by the
decrees of the national assembly. In 1790
he was appointed mayor of Aries, and he
employed all the influence of his post to

ANTONELLE.

ANTONELLL

promote the revolution. In 1792 he was
elected deputy to the legislative assembly by
the department of the Bouches-du-Rhone.
The assembly appointed him secretary, but
he rarely took any part iu the debates. On
the 1 1th of August he was sent with Kersaint
and Peraldy to arrest Lafayette, who with
difficulty rescued the " commissaires" from
the fury of his soldiers. Antonelle was an
unsuccessful candidate at the ensuing election
of the national convention. The executive
council selected him for the task of organising
a republican government in St. Domingo, but
an accident prevented him from proceeding
to the colony. He was director of the jury
which condemned the Girondins : on that
occasion he had the courage to declare that he
was not convinced by the evidence ofthe guilt
of the accused, but was too timid to vote
for their exculpation. Some days after the
trial he pubUshed a pamphlet in which he claim
ed more liberty for the juries, and for this he
was arrested by order of the committee of
public safety. The trial of Marie Antoinette
took place before he was restored to liberty,
and he was thus spared from participating
in her condemnation. During his confine
ment his name was expunged from the list
of the Jacobins, on account of his noble birth.
After the fall of Robespierre, Antonelle con
tinued to take part with the extreme demo
crats : he was an active member of the jury
and one of the editors of the " Journal des
Hommes libres." The directory, after a vain
attempt to gain his support, watched him as
an enemy, and after Babeuf's conspiracy
banished him to the department of Charente,
but he despised the sentence and continued
to reside at Paris. Under the consulate,
Antonelle was suspected of being implicated
in the plot of the infernal machine : he was
forbid to approach within forty leagues of
Paris, and though he had treated the direc
tory's sentence of exile with contempt, he
judged it prudent to obey that of Bonaparte.
Antonelle continued to live in obscurity from
this time tUl the restoration of the Bourbons,
when he re-appeared upon the political stage
as publisher of a pamphlet (" Le Reveil d'un
Vieillard,") advocating the re-establishment
ofthe legitimate king. He died at Aries on the
26th of November, 1817. Besides being afre-
quent contributor to the republican journals,
Antonelle was a voluminous pamphleteer.
A number of his brochures are preserved in
the library of the British Museum. {Supple
ment to the Biographie Universelle ; Pamphlets
by AntoneUe in the library of the British
Museum.) W. ^V.
ANTONELLI, the name of a family of
Italian origin, who distinguished themselves
as military and hydrauUc architects and
engineers in the service of Spain. The first
and most eminent among them was
Juan Bautista Antonelli, a native of
Gaeta, who, in 1559, entered the service of
71

the emperor Charles V., and was employed
on the fortifications of Cartagena, Oran, and
some other places. On the occasion of the
solemn entry of the archduchess Anne of
Austria (fourth wife of PhUip II.) into
Madrid iu 1570, he was called upon to dis
play his talents in a very different manner,
being intrusted with the arrangement of the
preparations. For one part of the spectacle,
Antonelli formed an artificial lake or nau-
machia in the Prado, where a mock com
bat took place between eight galleys ; and
he also erected three temporary triumphal
arches, adorned with statues and medallions
by the eminent sculptors, Lucas Mithata
and Pompeyo Leoni, of which the parti
culars are given by Juan Lopez de Hoyos in
the description published by him in 1572
of those splendid festivities. That very
brief display of his fancy and taste as an
artist seems to have been the only one
afforded to Juan Bautista. On Portugal
being seized upon by Philip II. and annexed
to his dominions (1580), he was sent thither
to put into repair several of the fortresses in
that country, and to construct others. About
the same time (1581), he submitted to that
prince a project for rendering the Tagus,
Guadalquivir, Ebro, Duero, and other rivers
navigable throughout their whole course.
Philip accordingly ordered that an expe
riment should be made in that part of the
Tagus between Abrantes and Alcantara.
The result was so successful that. In the
following year, he made a voyage from
Lisbon to Madrid and back again in a small
vessel fitted up for the purpose ; and, in
1584, Philip and his court made an aquatic
excursion from Vaciamadrld to Aranjuez in
two magnificent galleys. After this he was
instructed to make surveys of some other
rivers with a view to improving the inland
navigation of the country, and among others
of the Guadalquivir, to obtain a direct com
munication by water between Cordova and
Seville ; yet whether he actually accom
plished this last undertaking is somewhat
doubtful, because he died soon afterwards at
Toledo, 17th March, 158S.
Antonelli, Baptista, younger brother
of the above, was, Uke him, an eminent mili
tary architect and engineer in the service of
Philip IL, who sent him in 1581 to con
struct two forts in the Spanish settlemenfs
on the Straits of Jlagalhacns. He accor
dingly accompanied the expedition fitted out
under Florez de Valdes, which did not reach
its destination. After experiencing severe
hardships, Baptista returned to Spain in
1585, when, in consequence of the proceed
ings instituted against Valdez for having
failed in the undertaking, he found himself
also looked upon with mistrust, and was so
greatly reduced in circumstances, that he ^las
upon the point of turning monk, had he not
met with a friendly and powerful protector in
F 4

ANTONELLL

ANTONELLL

the secretary Juan de Ibarra, owing to whose
representations Philip appointed him engi
neer, with a salary of a thousand ducats,
and sent him to America in the expedition
under Alvaro Flores de Quinones. This
time he was as successful as he had before
been unfortunate ; and after examining the
fortifications at Cartagena, Puertobello, and
some other places, returned to Spain with a
great number of plans, drawings, descrip
tions, and other documents of various kinds
which he submitted to PhUlp, and which ob
tained that prince's approbation. In 1588,
he proceeded for the third time to America,
and with an augmented salary, in order to
carry into execution the works he had re
commended, and which he thenceforth pro
secuted with great diligence. So numerous
were they that to name them all would be
tedious, whUe merely to name them would
not be very satisfactory. They included
many at Puerto-Rico, San Domingo, Hon
duras, Havana, &c. Some years before he ac
tually did so, he petitioned for permission to
return home, on account of the climate not
agreeing with his health ; but a further aug
mentation of his salary and other favours
reconciled him to remaining in America,
where he continued till about 1603. When
he did at length retum, however, it was only
to be employed in similar labours, which,
tliough honourable and intended as rewards,
were also arduous tasks. Besides doing
much to the fortifications at Gibraltar, he
was occupied five years on those of Alarache,
iu the capture of which place he had assisted
the Marquis de la Hlnojosa. After being
about fifty years in the service of his so
vereign, he died at Madrid, 22d February,
1616, leaving a son,
Antonelli, Juan Bautista, called "el
Menor," in order to distinguish him from his
uncle of the same name. He was born in
1585, and was probably taken in his in
fancy to America, since he was there with
his father as his assistant just before the
return of the latter to Europe, after which he
proceeded to Havana, where his cousin Cris
tobal de Roda, also an eminent engineer, had
succeeded Baptista in constructing the forti
fications of that city. After being sent by
Cristobal to Spain to lay before the king the
plans of the various works then in progress,
he was appointed his assistant in 1611 ; and
in 1622 was employed to erect the fortress
of Punta de Araya, a labour that occupied
him seven years. On the death of Cristobal,
which happened at Cartagena, 25tli April,
1631, he was, as had been promised him,
named his successor as engineer in chief for
Spanish America, and continued to carry on
the works at Cartagena, where he died in
December, 1649.
Antonelli, Cristobal Garavelli, an
other member of the same family, was the
nephew of the elder Juan Bautista, who
72

brought him and his brother from Italy, and
instructed them in his own profession. Chris-
tobal was also a distinguished engineer, and
in great favour with Philip IL, but few par
ticulars relative to him are extant, nor is it
known either when or at what age he died.
His younger brother,
Antonelli, Francisco Garavelli, came
with him to Spain in 1573, being at that
time seventeen years of age. After the death
of Juan Bautista, he went to his other uncle
Baptista at Havana, but did not remain there
very long, in consequence of some unpleasant
circumstances which induced him to retum,
lest he should implicate Baptista and Cris
tobal de Roda in them : nothing further ap
pears to be recorded of him. (Llaguno,
Noticias de los Arquitectos y Arquitcctura de
Espana-) W. H. L.
ANTONE'LLI, GIOVANNI CARLO,
was born at VeUetri, in the beginning of the
seventeenth century ; his father, Giovanni Ba
tista Antonelli, was a nobleman. He studied
divinity and law, according to the faishion of
his time, when a knowledge of the Roman,
and especiaUy of the Canon law, was neces
sary for those who aspired to the higher ec
clesiastical dignities. Having acquired this
knowledge, and evincing considerable ta
lents, Antonelli became successively protono-
tarlus apostoUcus, canon, arch-priest, vicar-
general of the cardinal Francesco Barberini,
examlnator synodalis, judge of the Sacro
Ufiicio, and vicar -general at Albano and Cu
bic. His merits were acknowledged by the
learned cardinal Barberini, at whose recom
mendation AntoneUi was promoted in 1677
to the see of Ferentlno, by Pope Innocent
XI. He died at Ferentlno in 1694. In the
" Italia Sacra," Antonelli is the last of the
bishops of Ferentlno. AntoneUi was a dis
tinguished wT-iter, especiaUy on Canon law,
and the numerous editions of his works, in
different countries of Eiu-ope, prove that his
merits were not acknowledged in his native
country alone. His principal works are —
1. " De Regimlne Ecclesiae eplscopalis."
VeUetri, 1650, 4to. Venice, 1672, 1705,
1723, 4to. 2. "De Tempore legaU." Rome,
1660, fol. A'enice, 1670, fok Breslau, 1670,
fol. Jena, 1672, fol. 3. "De Loco legaU."
VeUetri, 1671, fol. Venice, 1687, fol. 1707,
4to. 4. "De Jurlbus et Oneribus Clerico
rum." Published aifter the author's death.
Rome, 1699, fol. Venice, 1716, fol. (Mazzu
chelli, Scrilturi d' Italia; Ughellus, Italia
Sacra, 1. col. 680.) W. P.
ANTONELLL GIOVANNI CARLO,
the son of Saverio Antonelli and Fulvla
Foruzzi, belonged to a noble family of A'el-
letri, where he was born on the 16th of July,
1690. It seems that he was a relative of Gio
vanni Carlo Antonelli, bishop of Ferentino.
After having studied theology, he took orders,
and In 1718 became canon of the chapter at
Velletrl, of which he was chosen sacristan in

ANTONELLL

ANTONELLI.

1721. He was patronised by cardinal Alex
ander Borgia, who had him promoted to the
dignity of protonotarius apostoUcus, about
1723, and a short time afterwards he was ap
pointed auditor generalis of the papal nunzi-
atura in Lower Saxony, at the head of which
was Don Caietanus de Cavaleriis, who re
sided at Cologne. In 1730 Antonelli returned
to Rome, in the hope of being promoted to
some episcopal see, but he had to struggle
with so many intrigues that at last he re
tired to VeUetri. Here he was involved in
disagreeable quarrels, concerning the civil
administration of that town, and his numerous
enemies availed themselves of this circum
stance to calumniate him to his superiors.
The chief object of his wishes was to be pro
moted to the see of his native town, but it was
not tiU 1752 that he was appointed bishop of
VeUetri. AntonelU was highly esteemed
for his eloquence, and for his elegant
style, both Latin and ItaUan. He founded a
literary society at VeUetri, of which he was
the president tUl his death. If it is true that
at his death he was seventy-eight years, six
months, and eleven days old, he must have died
on the 27th of January, 1769. Antonelli is
the author of " Epistola ad Polyarchum oc
casione Festivitatls quam ob electlonem de
mentis XII. D. Caietanus de Cavaleriis, Nun-
tins ApostoUcus, habult Colonia; Ubiorum
Die 10 Aug. 1730," without place or date.
He also -wrote several pamphlets on his pri
vate affairs, and some essays and poetry, of
which, however, no collection has been pub
lished. ( Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani
Illustri, Sfc. del Secolo XVIII, e de' Contem-
poranei ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia-)
W. P.
ANTONE'LLI, COUNT NICCOL'O
MARFA, the son of Count Francesco An
tonelli, was a distinguished Italian theologian
and historian. He was born on the Sth of
July, 1698, at Pergola, but he was not a
count of Pergola, as Adelung erroneously
states. He was educated at the " Collegio
del Nazareno" at Rome, and besides his
theological and historical pursuits, studied
with great zeal several Oriental languages,
of which he acquired a thorough knowledge.
After having taken orders, he became came-
rlere secrete, or private secretary, to pope
Clement XIL, whose successor,Benedict XIV.,
appointed him secretary of the Academy of
Sciences, founded by him. He became sub
sequently secretary of the Consistorio and the
Conclave, and was finally promoted to the
dignity of assessor of the Sacro Ufficio.
Clement XIIL made him a cardinal in 1759,
not in 1762 as Adelung states. AntoneUi
died on the 2jth of September, 1767. He is
the author of several distinguished works,
the principal of which are ; — 1. " De Tltulls
quos S. Evaristus Romanis Presbyteris dis-
tribult Dissertatio," Rome, 1725, Svo. 2.
" Ragioni deUa Sede ApostoUoa sopra U
73

Dueato di Parma e Piacenza, esposta a' Sovrani
e Principi deir Europa," Rome, 1742, 4 vols.
4to. (without the name of the author.) This
work is divided into nine sections. The first
four are an historical introduction on the
origin of the right of the popes to the duchies
named in the title ; and in the following five
the author compares the rights of the popes
with the claims of the emperor, who pre
tended that Parma and Piacenza were fiefs
of the holy Roman empire. 3. " Sancti
Patris nostri Athanasii Archiepiscopi Alex
andrini Interpretatio Psalmorum," &c., Rome,
1746, fol., taken from a MS. in the Barberini
library at Rome. 4. " Vetus Missale Ro
manum Monasticum Lateranense, cum Prae-
fatione, Notis, &c., nunc primum in Lucem
eduntur a P. Emanuele de Azevedo," Rome,
1754, 4to. Though the name of Azevedo is
in the title, the whole merit and by far the
greater part of the labour of this work belong
to Antonelli, who seems to have employed
Azevedo as a secretary. The second edition,
Rome, 1756, 4to, was published under the
name of AntoneUi. 5. " S. Patris Jacobi
Episcopi Nlslbeni Sermones cum Prajfatione,
Notis et Dissertatione de Ascetis, &c.,"
Rome, 1756, fol. (Tipaldo, Biografia degli
Italiani Illustri del Secolo XVIII, e de'
Contemporanei ; Mazzuchelli, the first volume
of whose Gli Scrittori ditalia was published
in 1753, is, of course, incomplete.) W. P.
ANTONE'LLI, SEBASTIA'NO AN
DRE' A, was descended of a noble family,
and was born in the latter part of the six
teenth century, at Ascoli. He took orders,
and was subsequently raised to the dignities
of canon and protonotarius apostoUcus. A
certain Cecco, surnamed d' Ascoli, because he
was a native of that town, a man known for
his talents, extensive learning, and singular
adventures, having been accused of witch
craft, his countryman, Antonelli, undertook
to defend him, which he did in a pamphlet
pubUshed in 1623. Antonelli died in 1644.
He also wrote " Historiae Asculanae Libri IV.
Accessit Historiae Sacra; Liber singularis,"
Padua, 4to. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia-)
W. P.
ANTONELLO DA MESSI'NA, a cele
brated painter of the fifteenth century, gene
rally said to be the first Italian who painted
in oils, by which must be understood certain
mixtures in oil, for the practice of painting
simply with oil even boiled is very old ; and
was well known in what are called the dark
ages. [Eyck, Hubert and Johann Van.]
This paiinter has various names : he is
caUed Antonello d' Antonio, Antonello degl'
Antoni, and Antonello Mamertini, besides
Antonello da Messina ; not a single date of
any event of his life is exactly known, al
though he holds such a conspicuous place in
the history of Italian painting. \'arious critics
have endeavom-ed to reconcile the facts re
lated by Vasari, Vanmander, and others.

ANTONELLO.

ANTONELLO.

regarding Antonello, John Van Eyck, and
his school and method of painting : and the
foUowing writers have, perhaps, said all that
can be said upon the subject : Lanzi, in his
" Storia Pittorica della ItaUa," vol. ii. ; Puc
cini, in his " Memorie Istorico-critiche di
Antonello degli Antoni, Pittore Messiuese,"
Florence, 1809, translated into French by
De Bast, in the " Messager des Sciences et
des Arts," Gaud, 1824, and into German with
notes by S. Boisseree in the " Kunstblatt " of
1826 ; Passavant, in his " Kunstrelse durch
England und Belgien," Frankfurt, 1833,
and Schorn in the notes to the Life of An-
toneUo, in his translation of Vasari, " Leben
der Ausgezeichnetsten Maler, &c." Stuttgart
and Tubingen, 1837. From the researches
of the above-mentioned writers the following
appears to be the most simple story of Anto-
nello's life. He was born at Messina about
1414, and was the son of Salvatore d' Antonio,
also a painter, from whom he learned the
first rudiments of his art. He afterwards
studied a few years in Rome, attracted thither,
says the author of the "Memoirs of the
Painters of Messina," by the great reputation
of Masaccio. He returned to Sicily, and
soon acquired the reputation of a great painter
by the works he executed at Palermo and
other places there. About 1442 he had oc
casion to go to Naples, where, in the posses
sion of the king, Alfonso I., he saw an oil pic
ture of the Annunciation by John Van Eyck,
or Giovanni da Bruggla, as he is called by
Vasari, and he was so much struck with the
superiority of the method in which it was
painted to the then common method of tem
pera or distemper painting, that he deter
mined to set out for Flanders, and learn, if
possible, of its author the manner in which
it was painted. He arrived at Bruges, and
soon acquired the friendship of Van Eyck, by
giving him many drawings in the Italian
manner, and several other presents. It was
not long before Van Eyck explained his new
method of painting with oil and other mix
tures ; but AntoneUo remained some time
with him, having resolved not to leave Flan
ders before he was complete master of Van
Eyek's method ; nor did he return to his own
country until after the death of Van Eyck in
1445, according to the now generally received
date. From Flanders he went for a short
time to his own country; then, for the first
time, to Venice, before 1450, and communi
cated his new acquisition to Domenico Ve-
nezlano, who was afterwards murdered in
Florence by Andrea del Castagno, about
1464. From Venice, where he did not remain
long, he went to Milan, where he remained
some time, and acquired a great reputation
for the brilliancy of his colouring and the
exquisite finish and impasto of his works.
A.bout 1470, after visiting severad cities of
Italy, he returned to Venice, and determined
to fix his residence there. In Venice he soon
74

acquired a great reputation and formed a
numerous school ; he painted many portraits,
besides religious pieces, for private gentlemen.
His first public work was a picture for the
church of San Caissiano, which, however, even
in Ridolfi's time, 1646, was already lost.
There is a small picture on wild chesnut,
now or very lately in the possession of a
gentleman at Utrecht, painted by AntoneUo
at this time, 1475, completely in the style of
Van Eyck : it represents Christ between the
two Thieves, and is marked " Antonellus Mes-
saneus me oo pinxit," 1475 ; the oo probably
are an abbreviation for " oleo," in oil, which
some have concluded to be sufficient evidence
to show that he had already at that time com
municated his method to his scholars in Ve
nice ; but, although this may have been the
case, it is not a necessary consequence, as
Van Eyek's secret was not that of simply
painting in oU, but with certain mixtures in
oils. Vasari says that Van Eyck, by boUing
linseed, poppy, and nut oils with other mix
tures, obtained that varnish which not only
he but every painter in the world had long
desired : this appears to have been overlooked
by most of the -writers who have written upon
this subject, and by keeping UteraUy to the
term oil painting, they have caused much use
less discussion upon Van Eyek's claim to its
invention. AntoneUo Uved upwards of twenty years
in Venice, constantly employed ; and he
painted many pictures during that time, but
the majority of them are now destroyed or
lost. Vasari says he died aged forty-nine,
just as he was on the point of executing
some works in the padace for the signiory of
Venice. But as it is impossible from the
various facts that have been stated above,
that he can have died so young, it has been
observed with great reason, that Vasari in
his authority has mistaken 7 for 4, and
thus written 49 Instead of 79, which date
can be quite reconciled with the other dates
mentioned in this notice. Supposing there
fore 1414 to be the correct year for hisbu-th,
of which there can be little doubt, as Do
menico Veneziano is said to have been assas
sinated when Antonello was in his forty-ninth
year, and this took place in 1464 as nearly as
can be ascertained, he died in 1493, if he
died aged seventy-nine, and this year cor
responds with the time when the repairs in
the signiory of Venice were completed : 1496
is also a date given by some writers as that
of Antonello's death. Notwithstanding the
advantages of this new method it appears to
have spread slowly in Italy generaUy, although
in Venice it made considerable progress ;
Bartolomeo Vlvarini was the first Venetian
who adopted it, according to Zanetti : he
painted, in 1473, a picture in oils for the
church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo. Although
the credit given to Antonello by Vasari of
having introduced the new method into Italy

ANTONELLO.

ANTONI.

has been since disputed by various writers,
it seems to have been Uttle, if at aU, questioned
in his own time in Venice, judging from the
following epitaph quoted by Vasari, but where
from he does not say : —

" D. o. M.
" Antonius pictor, priecipuum Messanse suffi et Sicilia3
totius ornamentum, hac hunio contegitur. Non solum
suis picturis, in quibus singulare artiflcium et venustas
fuit, sed et quod coloribus oleo miscendis splendorem
et perpetuitatem primus italicas picturae contulit sum-
mo semper artificum studio celebratus."
The works of AntoneUo appear to be very
scarce ; the edition of Boschinl's work " Pit
ture della Citta di Venezia, &c. " of 1733 men
tions only one, in Venice, and that was in the
supreme chamber of the Council of Ten, — a
dead Christ supported by Angels, and it has
since disappeared, but how is not known.
There is one of the same subject in the
gallery of Vienna. There is only one by
him in the Venetian academy, and that is
the Virgin reading. In the gaUery of Ber
lin there are three pictures by Antonello ;
and there is or was, according to Dr. Waa
gen, one in Devonshire house in London,
a head of Christ. His works are not more
numerous in Italy than they are in other
countries, which, considering his long and
industrious life, is very remarkable. It can
be accounted for only by the supposition
that he was not in the habit of always putting
his name to his works, and from the simi
larity of his pictures to those of Van Eyck,
many of the paintings in the various galleries
of Europe, vaguely designated as of the
school of Van Eyck, may have been executed
by the hand of Antonello. Gaetano Grano,
the author of the " Memoirs of the Painters
of Messina," says that his works were con
founded with those of the best masters of
his time, and that, at the time of the publica
tion of his work, 1792, all that remained of
AntoneUo in that city were twelve smaU
pictures around an old mosaic of the Ma
donna, in the monastery of San. Gregorio. R. N. W.
ANTO'NI, ALESSANDRO VITTO'BIO
PAPACI'NO D', a celebrated officer in the
I'iedmontese artillei-y,who was born May 17th,
1714, at ViUa Franca in the county of Nice.
It is said that the name Papacino was derived
from that of an Ulustrious family in Spain,
and had been borne by one of his ancestors
who, in the seventeenth century, held the
rank of admiral in the navy of that country.
Both his maternal uncle and his brother
were officers in the regiment of artiUery ;
the former died having only the rank of
captain, and the latter rose to that of Ueu
tenant-colonel. Being probably ambitious of foUowiiig the
steps of his relatives, he entered, in the
eighteenth year of his age, as a volunteer in
the same regiment, and he served with it for
a time in the capacity of a private soldier ;
the military career of young men belonging
75

to good families not unfrequently, in that age,
began in a simUar manner. At the sieges of
the citadel of Milan, the fortress of Pizzig-
hettone and the city of Tortona, he gave such
proofs of his courage and skiU that the king of
Sardinia, Charles Emanuel, made him, in 1 734,
sub-lieutenant ; and at the action of Parma
in the same year he held the post of adjutant
of the regiment. He became a lieutenant in
the artUlery in 1741, and on the renewal of
the war at the death of the Emperor Charles
VI., he had many opportunities of distin-
giushing himself : while snow lay on the
ground, he was employed in conveying the
artillery through the defiles and over the
heights of Savoy ; at the action of Madonna
del' Olmo he withdrew in safety the artUlery
of the left wing of the army to the camp at
Fossana ; and, as captain of the miners, he
advanced in two places under the ramparts
of Savona. He was made captain-lieutenant
in 1743, and full captain two years after
wards : in the beginning of 1747 the king
gave him the rank of major with a sum of
money ; and, on the peace being concluded,
he was sent to Piacenza, Pavia, and Milan,
for the purpose of treating with the Austrians
and Spaniards concerning the restitution of
the artillery agreeably to the treaty of Nice
in 1749 : in which mission he acquitted him
self to the satisfaction of all parties.
During the intervals of leisure which his
military duties afforded, Antoni employed
himself in the cultivation of literature and
science ; and, in order to prosecute the study
of physics with advantage, he obtained intro
ductions to the professors of the university of
Turin : he also succeeded in acquiring the
esteem and friendship of G. J. Bertola, the
director of the coUege of engineers, which had
been founded in that city in 1739. With
these learned men he was engaged in the
performance of experiments relating to the
strength of gunpowder and the practice of
artUlery ; and he distinguished himself so
much by the extent of his attainments that,
in 1755, he was chosen to succeed his friend
as director of the college above-mentioned.
At this time, Antoni began to coUect ma
terials for a work which might be used in
the college for the purposes of instruction in
the different branches of the military art ;
and, in carrying out this plan, he confided the
parts relating to arithmetic, algebra, and
geometry to his friends Tilartlno, Tlgnola,
and Rana, reserving for himself those which
relate to artillery, fortification, and tactics.
The works on these last subjects, in the order
in which they were published, are as follow : —
1. " Esame della Polvere," Svo. Turin, 1765;
this work has been translated into English,
French, and German. 2. " Istituzione fislca-
uiecchaniche per le regie Scuole d' Artiglieria
e di Fortificazlone," &c. Svo. Turin, 1773-
74 ; this work must ha-ve been written in or
before 1765, for it is cited in the " Esame della

ANTONL

ANTONL

Polvere," and it has been translated into
French and German. 3. " Architettura Mill-
tare per le regie Scuole," &c., Turin, 1778,
6 vols. Svo. This is divided into six books,
of which the first treats of regular fortifica
tion ; the second, of the attack and defence of
fortresses ; the third, of defensive fortifica
tion ; the fourth, of irregular fortification ;
the fifth, of the mechanics and physics of for
tification, or the construction, &c. of works ;
and the sixth, of field fortifications : the se
cond book is said to have been written by
Bozzollno, a major-general of engineers.
4. " L'Uso deir Armi da Fuoco," Svo. Turin,
1780 ; and 5. " II Maneggiamento delle
Macchine d' Artiglieria," Svo. Turin, 1782.
In 1759, Antoni received the cross of Sti
Maurlzio e Lazzaro ; in 1766, he was made
lieutenant-colonel ; and he became full colonel
in 1771. He was promoted to the rank of
brigadier in 1774; and in the foUowing year
he was further distinguished by having con
ferred upon him the rank of adjutant-general
of the army. He was made major-general in
1780; and finally, lieutenant-general in 1784.
Many men of talent are, during their lives,
less honoured in their own country than
abroad ; but Antoni was one of those for
tunate persons to whom the observation does
not apply, for he enjoyed the satisfaction of
being highly esteemed by his sovereign, and
his merit was acknowledged by all the learned
men of Europe who were engaged in pursuits
simUar to his. In 1763 he was appointed to
give military instruction to the young Duke
of Ciablese; and five years afterwards, the
Prince of Piedmont became his pupil. The
" Esame della Polvere " is highly spoken of
by Templehoff; and Denina, writing from
Berlin, stated that the works of Antoni were
then used as text-books by the professors of
the miUtary sciences in that city. Some of
the books on mUitary architecture were pub
lished at the particular request of the King of
Spain. Antoni possessed a sound constitution, and
he appears to have enjoyed good health tiU
he had nearly attained his seventy-third year,
when, after a short iUness, he died on the 7th
of December, 1786. He was much beloved
by his friends, by the officers and by the pri
vate soldiers of his regiment: the latter always
found him ready to advise and assist them ;
and he established a particular school in
which they might acquire the information
necessary for an efficient discharge of their
duties as artUlerymen, and even qualify
themselves for promotion.
Two sisters survived him ; and on these
ladies, who lived in retirement at Villa
Franca, the King of Sardinia conferred a
pension. Almost immediately on the publication of
the " New Principles of Gunnery " by Robins
in 1742, a great interest was excited both In
this country and on the continent respecting
76

the expansive force of gunpowder, the initial
velocity of shot, and the resistance of the
atmosphere on military projectiles ; and the
ItaUan engineers particularly distinguished
themselves by their researches on these sub
jects. In 1764 Antoni, with a revolving
drum, which twelve years previously had been
invented by J. F. A. Mattel Ginevrino, de
termined the initial velocities by the distance
through which a point on the convex surface
of the drum had moved while a shot was
passing through the latter in the direction of
a diameter ; and the general formula which
he obtained differs little from that at which
Dr. Hutton subsequently arrived from the
experiments made at Woolwich.
The arms whioh Antoni employed in his
experiments were muskets and wall-pieces ;
and he found that at elevated stations the
ranges of the shot, with equal charges of
powder, were more extensive than in valleys,
whUe the initial velocities were less : the
former circtimstance may be conceived to
arise from the smaUer resistance of the at
mosphere at the superior levels, and the latter
is ascribed to the air within the barrel acting
less favourably, from its smaUer density, in
promoting the expansion of the fired gtm-
powder. He also found that the velocities
were greater when the atmosphere was di-y
than when it was moist ; and that, in Uke
states of the air, the velocities increased when
the length of the fire-arm was greater.
Antoni showed how the inltiad velocities
might be computed, either from the depths
of the penetration of the shot in homogeneous
butts, or by firing it against a butt at different
distances from the gtm, the latter being laid
in a horizontal position : in this second me
thod, the distances of the point struck from
the fire-arm were to be measured, and also its
vertical depressions below the axis of the
latter. He ascribes to the wadding some
efficacy in increasing the strength of a
charge, and the same opinion has been main
tained by some engineers in this comitry : on
the other hand Dr. Hutton states that the
wadding produces no such effect.
In the treatise on gunpowder, Antoni lays
down a theory respecting the inflammation
of that material ; he then investigates the
initial velocities of projectiles, and states the
results of his experiments on the resistance
of the atmosphere. In the treatise on fire
arms, having described the metals employed
in their construction, he makes observations
on the figure, length and windage of guns,
and on the methods of proving them : he
compares the effects of howitzers and field-
pieces, and he gives a chapter on the firing
of shells. In the tract on the employment of
artillery, he begins with the attack of for
tresses, the construction of batteries, and the
formation of mines : he then explains the
manner of disposmg artillery during an action
in the field ; describes the construction aud

ANTONL

ANTONIA.

also the attack and defence of field-works,
and concludes with the marches and encamp
ments of armies. In his account of the at
tack and defence of fortresses, he recommends
the employment of a large proportion of
mortars for the purpose of throwing sheUs,
appearing to prefer that species of arm to
howitzers. The works of Antoni constitute a com
plete course of military engineering, and
they contributed to that improvement which
took place in the service of artiUery soon
after they were published. Soldiers cannot
indeed be formed entirely from books or in
schools, but they must by such means, under
the guidance of persons who have had op
portunities of witnessing the practice of war,
acquire a knowledge ofthe principles of their
profession before they are called upon to ful
fil its duties. ( Vita del D' Antoni, by Balbo
in the Memoires de V Academic des Sciences de
Turin, 1805. ; D' Antoni, A Treatise on Gun
powder, Sfc-, translated by Capt. Thomson,
R. A., London, 1789.) J. N.
ANTO'NI, VINCENZO BERNI DEGLI,
was born on the 25th of April, 1747, at Bolog
na. He studied law in the university of his
native city, with the reputation of a promising
young man, and soon after taking his degree
was appointed professor of civil law. From
this post he was promoted to be auditor to
two papal legates in succession. In 1798, he
was exiled for refusing to take the oath of
allegiance to the republican government estab
lished by the French in the pontifical states. In
1799, he was named a member ofthe regency
estabUshed at Rome by the Austrians. He sub
mitted to the government established by the
French on their second invasion ; he accepted
the appointment of commissary-general of
finance under it, and after the creation of the
kingdom of Italy was nominated by Napoleon
procurator for the king in the court of Cassa
tion, and a knight of the Iron crown. On the
re-establlshinent of the pontifical govern
ment, Antoni was offered the appointment of
president of the court of appeal by Pius VIL,
but declined it on account of his age and
infirmities. Antoni published many Latin
and Italian essays, some legal pamphlets,
comedies and fugitive poems, and was mem
ber of several academies. He died in 1828.
A notice of his life by Count Carlo PepoU
has appeared in some ofthe joumals. {Sup
plement to the Biographie Universelle.) W. W.
ANTO'NIA GENS. The Antonia Gens
consisted of two branches, one patrician, the
other plebeian, between which, however, no
consanguinity existed. The Patrician branch
had the surname Merenda — an appellation
which, according to Festus, signified the mid
day meal (Festus, Merenda, Mueller's ed. p.
!23.; Nonius, 28. 32.; Isidore, Origines, xx-
2. 12.), and at the present day Merenda, in
the Neapolitan dialect, has the same mean
ing. The Antonii shared this surname with
77

the Cornelii, one of whom, Sergius Corne
lius Merenda, was consul in b. c. 274. The
patrician Antonii are of no importance in
history. In the Fasti we find of this branch
only — Titus Antonius Merenda,
Decemvir B. c. 440.
II
Quintus Antonius Merenda,
Trib. Milit. Cons. Potest.
B. c. 422.
The Plebeian branch ofthe Antonia Gens was
rendered illustrious from b. c. 99 to b. c. 32
by M. Antonius, the orator, and his grand
son Marcus, the triumvir, and subsequently
by its producing in two collateral female
lines the emperors Claudius I. and Nero.
But, until the age of Augustus, the plebeian
Antonii had no surnames, with the exception
of Q. Antonius Balbus, propraetor of Sardi
nia, E. c. 84 — 3. After they became famous
they claimed descent from Anton, a son of
Hercules, and, according to Pliny {Hist.
Natur. vlii. 21.), the triumvir, after the
battle of Pharsalus, appeared in public in a
chariot drawn by lions, and was so repre
sented on medals, in order to remind the
Romans of his divine ancestor.
After the age of Augustus, the surnames
ofthe Antonii are numerous. Many of them,
however, probably belonged to freedmen ; as
Antonius Felix, freedman of Claudius (Ta
citus, Annals, v. 9.; Suetonius, Claudius, 28.;
Acts, xxiii. 24.) ; Antonia Harmeris, freed-
woman of Antonia MaximiUa (Pliny, Epis
tola, X. 4.); or they were assumed by pro
vincial citizens connected by clientage, friend
ship, or marriage with members ofthe Antonia
Gens. Among the surnames of the Antonii
under the empire are found the following: — .
Antonius Naso, Tacitus, Histor. 1. 20., No-
vellus, id. 1. 87. ; Saturninus, Martial, Epi-
grammat iv. 11. ix. 85.; Flamma, Tacitus,
iv. 45. The surname Flamma is found also
in combination with a branch of the Volum-
nii {Fasti B. c. 306.) ; Primus [Anto
nius Primus] ; Gnipho, Musa, Llberalis
[Antonius Gnipho ; Musa ; Lieeralis] ;
Atticus, a rhetorician ; Seneca, Suasoi-ia, 2. ;
Rufinus, Hiberus, {Fasti), and M. Antonius
Gordianus, emperor. [Gordianus.]
The Ust of the plebeian Antonii, who are
mentioned in the Fasti or in history, begins
with — (1.) M. Antonius,
Master of Horse to
tho Dictator P. Cornelius Rufinus,
B. c. 334.

(2.) L. Antonius,
expelled the senate
by the Censors,
B.C. 306.

(3.) Q. Antonius,
B.C. 190.
(Livy, xxxvii. 32.)

ANTONIA.

(4.)

A. Antonius,
Envoy to Perseus,
B. c. 168.

(.¦i.)

M. Antonius,
Tribune of the Plebs,
B. c. 167.

(6.)

L. Antonius.
(Priscian. p. 286.)

In this list, No. 1. and 2. may have been father and
son, and Nos. 4 and 5. brothers, and sons of No. 3.,
but their relationship to each other is quite unknown.
L. Antonius (No. 6.) was defended by M. Cato, the
censor, about b. c. 150.

STEMMA OF M. ANTONIUS TRIUMVIR.
(1.) C. Antonius.

(2.) M. Antonius Orator,
Cos. B. c. 99. Censor b. c. 07.

(3.) M. Antonius Creticu
PriEtor, B, c. 75.

, Numitoria (childless).
, Julia, daughter of
L. Julius Csesar,
Cos. B. c. 90.

(4.) C. Antonius
(Hybrida).
Cos. B. c. 63.

(5.) Antonia.

6.) Antonia Major
married
M. Antonius
Triumvir.

(7.) Antonia Minor
married
C. Caninius Gallus,
Trib. of the Plebs,
B. c. 56.

(8.) M. Antonius Triumvir.
Cos. B.C. 44. H. B.C. 34,
Triumvir B. c. 43—30,
married Fadia, daughter of
Q. Fadius (a freedman).
Antonia. [No. (6).]

(9.) C Antonius,
Prcetor Urbauus,
B.C. 44.
Pontifex.

(10.) L. Antonius,
(Pietas),
Cos. B. c. 41,
Censor b. c. 42.

(11.) Antonia, married
P. Vatinius,
Cos. B. c. 47.

(12.) Antonia married M. Lepidus,
son of
M. Lepidus Triumvir.
Fulvia, daughter of
M. Fulvius Bambalio (the stammerer).

(13.) M. Antonius
(Antyllus.)

(14.) lulus Antonius,
Cos. B. c. 10.

Warcella,
daughter of
C. Marcellus and Octavia
Cos. B. c. 50. (sister of Augustus).

Octavia, daughter of
C. Octavius and Alia,
Prsetor b. c. 61.
and sister of Augustus.

(15.) L. Antonius.

(IG.) Antonia Major
married
L. Domitius Ahenobavbus,
grandfather of Nero Imp.
[Ahenobarbi].
Cleopatra, daughter of
PtolemEGUS Auletes,
Queen of Egypt,
D.C. 51—30.

(17.) Antonia Minor
married
Claudius Drusus Nero
(son of the Empress Livia).
[Clacdii.]

(18.) Alexander. The Sun.

78

(19.) Cleopatra
The Moon
married Juba II.,
king of Mauritania.

(20.) Ptolemwus
Philadelphus.

(21.) Ptolemajus.

(22.) DrusiUa, married

Antonius Felix,
Procurator of Judeea,
A. D. 48.
W. B. D,

ANTONIA.

ANTONIA.

ANTO'NIA, the elder of the two daughters
of Caius Antonius Hybrida. She was
married to her cousin Marcus Antonius the
triumvir. In the year E. c. 44 her husband
alleged publicly in the senate an intrigue with
Publius Cornelius DolabeUa, consul in b. c.
44, as a reason for his having divorced her
three years before. It seems more probable,
however, that his own intended espousal of
Fulvia, the wealthy and powerftU widow of
Lucius Piso, and Publius Clodius, tribune
of the Plebs in B. c. 58, was the real motive
of Marcus Antonius for dismissing Antonia.
(Cicero, Philippic, ii. 38. ; Plutarch, Anto
nius, 9.) W. B. D.
ANTO'NIA, the younger of the two
daughters of Caius Antonius Hybrlda,
who married Caius Caninius GaUus, tribime
of the Plebs in E. c. 56. It is not, however,
certain which was the elder and which the
younger of the two daughters of Antonius
Hybrida. Glandorp in his " Onomasticon "
(p. 86.) supposes that Hybrida had only one
daughter, who married first C. Caninius Gal
lus, and afterwards her cousin, the triitmvir
Antonius. (Valerius Maximus, iv. 2. § 6.)
W. B. D.
ANTO'NIA was the daughter of the
emperor Claudius by his first wife iEUa
Petina, of the famUy of Tubero, and was
born before her father's accession to the
empire. She was married first to Cneius
Pompeius Magnus, and secondly to Faustus
Cornelius Sulla, consul in a.d. 52. Both the
husbands of Antonia came to violent ends.
Pompeius was put to death by Claudius, and
Faustus Sulla by assassins at Marseille, by
command of the emperor Nero, in A. D. 63.
Tacitus, on the authority of the lost history
of Pliny the elder, relates that in the con
spiracy of Piso ( A. D. 66) Antonia was to have
been produced in the PrEEtorian camp as a
genuine Cffisar in opposition to Nero, who
was only a CiEsar by adoption. He discredits
the story, however, because it presupposed
that Piso would marry Antonia, whereas his
wife was living, and his affection for her was
well known. After the death of Poppaea
Sabina, and probably during the second
widowhood of Antonia, Nero wished to marry
her. On her rejection of him he caused her
to be accused of treasonable designs, perhaps
on the ground of her aUeged share in Piso's
conspiracy, and she was put to death. ("Ta-
citus. Annals, xiv. 57., xv. 53. ; Suetonius,
Claudius, 27., Nero, 35. ; Dion Cassius, Ix. 4. ;
Seneca, Apolocyntosis or De Morte Claudii
Casaris-) W. B. D.
ANTO'NIA, daughter of Marcus Anto
nius the orator. Soon after her father's
triumph over the Cilician pirates in B. c. 102,
she was carried off by a band of freebooters,
and ransomed for a large sum. (Plutarch,
I'umpcius, 24 W. B. D.
ANTO'NIA Major, was the elder of
the two daughters of M. Antonius the trl-
79

umvir and the younger Octavia, sister of
Augustus Cffisar. She was bom in b. c. 39,
and betrothed in her third year, during the
interviews of Augustus and Antonius at Ta
rentum in b. c. 36, to L. Domitius Ahenobar-
bus, by whom she had three chUdren, Cneius
Domitius, father of the emperor Nero by the
younger Agrippina, Domitia, and Domitia
Lepida. [Ahenobarbi.] After the death of
Antonius, Augustus divided a portion of the
triumvir's personal estate between Antonia
Major and her sister. Tacitus {Annals, iv.
44., XU. 64.) makes L. Domitius Ahenobar-
bus to marry Antonia Minor. The time of
her death is unknown. (Dion Cassius,
xlviii. 54., 11. 15., liv. 19. ; Plutarch, Antonius,
33. 87. ; VeUeius, U. 72. ; Suetonius, Nero, 5.).
W. B. D
ANTO'NIA Minor, was the younger
daughter of M. Antonius the triumvir and
Octavia. She was horn about e.c. 36, and
died in a.d. 37-8. She married Claudius
Drusus Nero, the yotmger son of the empress
Livia by her first husband, Claudius Tiberius
Nero. On the death of Drusus, in e.c. 9,
Antonia was left with three children, Ger-
manicus, the husband of the elder Agrippina,
Livia or LiviUa, who first married Caius
Cajsar, the son of Agrippa, and after his
death (b.c. 9) Drusus, son of the emperor
Tiberius ; and Claudius, afterwards em
peror. Antonia was prevented by Tiberius
and Livia from appearing at the funeral of
Germanieus (a.d. 9), that the spectacle of
her sorrow might not increase the popular
excitement. The prudence of Antonia, her
beauty, her long widowhood, imattacked by
rumour or suspicion even at the court of Ti
berius, and her abstinence from poUtical In
trigue, procured for her universal esteem,
and even soothed the jealous temper of Ti
berius. According to Josephus {Jewish Antiq.
xvui. 8.) she was the first to apprise him of his
danger from Sejanus. On the discovery of
the conspiracy to which Drusus, the son of
Tiberius, had fallen a victim, LiviUa, who, at
the instigation of Sejanus, had poisoned her
husband (a. d. 23), was given into the custody
of her mother, Antonia, who shut her up in
her chainber tiU she died of hunger. The
death of Germanieus and the crimes of Li
viUa were not compensated to Antonia by
her surviving son Claudius. His stupidity
made her regard him as a monster, and when
she would designate any one as a blockhead
she compared him to Claudius. Antonia
educated her grandson Caligula and his sis
ters, the orphan children of Germanieus.
But her care of them was fruitless, and she
was the witness of their early and general
depravity. "With his wonted caprice Caligula,
when emperor, procured for his grandmother
from the senate aU the honours which Livia,
the widow of Augustus, had enjoyed, and
shortly afterwards, by his open neglect, his
express command, or by even more direct

ANTONIA.

ANTONIANO.

means, occasioned her death. He refused to
attend her funeral, which was hastily and
privately performed. Her son Claudius how
ever, after his accession, assigned to her
memory a covered chariot (carpentum) on
days of public procession, and the title of
Augusta. The temple of Antonia, mentioned
by Pliny {Hist- Nat xxxv. 10.), was pro
bably erected in honour of Antonia Minor.
(Tacitus, Annals, iii. 3. 18., xi. 3. ; Suetonius,
Claudius, 1, 3, 4, 11., Caligula, 1, 10, 15,
23, 24., Vespasianus, 3. ; Dion Cassius, 11
15., Ivlii. 11., ILx. 3.; Valerius Maximus,
iv. 3. § 3. ; Plutarch, Antonius, 87.)
Pliny {Hist Nat, vii. 19., ix. 55.) relates
of Antonia that she never spat ; and that
she had a pet lamprey at her villa at
Baull, whioh she adorned with earrings, aud
which brought many visitors to see her fish-
preserves. The characters of Drusus and
Antonia Minor are drawn by the author of
the poem " Consolatlo ad Liviam Augustam
de Morte Drusi." The beauty of Antonia,
which is commemorated by the historians, is
confirmed by a medal. The British Museum
contains a gold medal of Antonia with the
legend " Antonia Augusta " on the obverse,
and " Constantia^ Augusti " on the reverse.
The hair is dressed with great simplicity and
taste, and the beautiful features express an
elevated and decided character. W. B. D.
ANTO'NIA, a daughter of Marcus An
tonius Ceeticus, who was married to Pub
lius Vatinius, consul in e. c. 47. {Scholia
Bobiensia in Ciceronis Orat. in Vatinium, xii.
OreUi ed.) W. B. D.
ANTONIA'NI, ANTO'NIO, a name
given by Soprani {Vite de' Pittori, Sfc- Geno-
vesi) to a painter of Urbino, and a scholai- of
Baroccio, who settled in Genoa ; which Lanzi
considers a mistake, and supposes Antonio
Viviani to be meant. [Viviani, Antonio.] R. N. W.
ANTONIA'NO FERRARE'SE, or AN
TO'NIO ALBERTO of Ferrara, of the
school of Angiolo Gaddi, was the most dis
tinguished painter of Ferrara of his period.
About A.D. 1438, he executed some great works
in the palace of Alberto d'Este ; he painted
also, according to Vasari, many beautiful
works at S. Francesco d'Urbino and at Citta
di Castello. He died according to Baruffaldi
about A.D. 1450. (Baruifaldi, le Vitede' piii
insiqni Pittori e Scultori Ferraresi-) R. N. W.
ANTONIA'NO, SI'LVIO, was born at
Rome on the 31st of December, 1540. By
some Neapolitan writers he has been claimed
as a Neapolitan, and a native of Castello, in
the diocese of Abruzzo, but this appears to
be a mistake, originating in the fact that his
father, Matteo, a man in very humble cir
cumstances, was from Castello. Silvio, from
his earliest year.'^, was distinguished for his
singular talent for improvisation, which, at the
age of ten, procui-ed him the name of " II
Poetino," or " the Uttle poet," and the patron-
80

age of Cardinal Otto Truchsess, who defray
ed the expense of his education in the learned
languages. Before he was twelve years old
he was on one occasion introduced to display
his talent at an entertainment given by the
Cardinal Francesco Pisani, where the Car
dinal Alessandro Farnese, handing the boy a
nosegay, told him to present it to some one
in the company whom he thought most likely
to become Pope. Silvio, after some hesitation,
presented it to Cardinal Giovanni Angelo de'
Medici, and at the same moment burst out into
an extemporaneous poem in his praise. De'
Medici, however he might have been pleased,
expressed indignation at what he conceived
to be a concerted scheme to put him out of
countenance, and Farnese coiUd only con
vince him that the occurrence was unpre
meditated, by desiring him to name another
subject for the display of SUvio's genius, iu
which the yoimg poet was equaUy successful.
In 1555, Hercules the Second, Duke of Fer
rara, who was on a visit to Rome, was so
charmed with the talents of the young
improvisator, that he took him with him to
his own dominions, and, at the age of seven
teen, appointed him extraordinary professor
of classical literature at Ferrara, for which
he was well qualified by his knowledge of
the Greek and Latin languages. It was
about this time that an occurrence took place
which is related by Ricci in a letter to Pigna.
One day, after a feast at Ricci's viUa, near
Ferrara, Silvio was entertaining the company
with improvising verses to his Ijtc when a
nightingale in a nelghbom-ing tree "answered
to the music, and with such artifice and
variety, that you would say he had entered
into a contest with Silvio." The poet ob
served it, and addressed some charming verses
to the bird as he had just been doing to his
friends. This beautiful incident probably
gave rise to the well-known story of the con
test between the musician and the nightingale,
first related by Strada, in his " Prolusiones,"
which contain several other anecdotes of
Antoniano, and were rendered familiar to
English readers by the well-known lines
of Crashawe. On the death of Duke Hercu
les, in 1559, Silvio found a new patron in
the Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici, who was
elected Pope iu that year, and who, on as
suming the name of Pius IV., recalled to
memory the youth who had prophesied his
elevation, and summoned him to Rome. An
toniano was appointed Latin secretary to Car
dinal Charles Borromeo, and studied theology
under FiUppo Neri ; of both of whom he be
came the intunate friend. The Pope conferred
on him the professorship of classical literature
in the " Sapienza," or University of Rome,
where he lectured with great reputation. On
one occasion he had twenty-five cardinals
among his auditors. He took priests' orders
on the 12th of Jmie, 1507, and seems to have
devoted himself to his functions with a fervour

ANTONIANO.

ANTONIASSO.

which deadened his former taste for poetry. He
was one ofthe five critics to whom, in 1574,
Tasso submitted the " Jerusalem Delivered "
before pubUcatlon, and Antoniano seriously
advised him to cancel from the poem aU that
related to love and enchantment as unsuitable
to the solemnity of the subject. Fortunately
Tasso did not adopt this advice, and in a
letter which is printed in his works he de
fended the beautiful fictions which form per
haps the principal charm of his delightful
epic. Antoniano was probably at this time
of his life a more suitable adviser to his friend
cardinal Baronius, who was in the habit of
consulting him on all occasions with respect
to his " Annals of the Church." He is re
ported, but not on unquestionable authority,
to have drawn up the Acts of the Milanese
Council, and to have had a share in the Cate
chism of the CouncU of Trent, and he held
for twenty-four years the important office of
secretary to the College of Cardinals, in
which he is said to have displayed his usual
facility in composition by drawing up the
official documents without hesitation, and
without a necessity for erasure. His con
science was so tender that he repeatedly re
fused a bishopric ; but Clement the Eighth
insisted on creating him a cardinal, and raised
him to this dignity on the 3rd of March, 1598,
with the title of San Salvatore in Lauro.
Antoniano died on the 15th of August, 1603,
at the age of sixty-three.
The works of Antoniano are 1. " Dell'
Educazione Christiana de' FigliuoU," Verona,
1584, 4to., and since several times reprinted,
— a treatise ou education written at the re
quest of his friend St. Charles Borromeo. 2.
" Orationes XIIL," Rome, 1610, 4to., — thir
teen orations on different occasions, collected
by Giuseppe Castiglione, who has prefixed a
life ofthe author. Some other orations in
serted in different collections, some prefaces
to works which he edited, and of all his
poetical productions three sonnets only, are
enumerated by Mazzuchelli as the remainder
of the printed works of Antoniano. Several
other works which are mentioned in Jocher's
account of him are in aU probabiUty manu
scripts only, as is shown by MazzuchelU,
whose life of Antoniano is even more than
usually elaborate and correct, and leaves very
little to be added by Tiraboschi. (Mazzu
chelli, Scrittori d'ltalia, i. 856 — 860. ; Tira
boschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, edit.
of 1779, vU. parte 3. p. 192., &c.; Sei-assi,
Vila del Tasso, edit, of 1790, 1. 219., &c. ;
Strada, Prolusiones Academica, edit, of 1631.
p. 166, 240., &c.) T. W.
ANTONIA'SSO, a Roman painter of the
beginning of the sixteenth century, men
tioned by Vasari in the life of Filipplno
Lippi, the son of Fra Flllppo Lippi. He
states that Maestro Lanzilago of Padua, and
Antonio called Antoniasso Romano, two of
the best painters at Rome of that time, were
VOL. III.

required to estimate the value of the fres
coes of FiUppino, painted for the cardinal
Caraffa in his chapel in the church of the
Minerva ; they valued them at two thousand
ducats in gold, including the expenses of
ultramarine and assistants. There does not
appear to be any mention of these painters
elsewhere. (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, ^c.)
R. N. AV.
ANTO'NIDES VAN DER GOES, JO
HANNES, a distingcushed Dutch poet of
the seventeenth century, was born at Goes,
in Zeeland, May 3rd, 1647. About four
years afterwards lus parents removed to Am
sterdam, where he was first educated, and
had subsequently a course of private instruc
tion in the Greek and Latin classics from
Cocceius, conrector of the Latin school at
Haarlem. His first poetical attempts were
in Latin ; his next consisted of translations
from the Roman poets, done chiefly as exer
cises of versification and style in his native
language ; after which appeared his tragedy,
" TrazU of overrompelt Sina," and his poem
entitled " Bellona aan band," two productions
that obtained for him the most flattering
commendations from Vondel and other liter
ary men, and likewise great popularity with
readers in general. "Thus encouraged, he
undertook his principal work, the " Ij-
stroom," a sort of epic description of the
river Ij or Y, which was published in 1671,
and was received with a degree of enthusiasm
that now appears greatly exaggerated. It may
fairly be styled a national poem, being so
essentially local, and consequently limited in
interest, that it has little attraction for the
readers of other countries ; and though it
abounds with fine passages and striking epi
sodes, it seems upon the whole too artificial,
forced, and laboured ; and what is intended
for sublimity is frequently no better than pom
pous bombast. Some years afterwards he com
menced an epic or narrative poem founded
on the history of St. Paul, but did not Uve to
make any great progress with it. He died
September 18th, 1684, in consequence of
breaking a blood-vessel.
In his circumstances Antonides was very
much straitened, and it was only through the
assistance of friends that he was enabled to
prepare himself for the medical profession,
which he practised for a while, but afterwards
gave up on obtaining an appointment in
the Dutch admiralty. The year after his
death his works were first published in a col
lected form by his father ; were reprinted in
1705, and again in 1714 with a portrait by
Bakhulzen, engraved by P. Van Gunst.
(Geysbeek, Biographisch-Antologisch Woor-
denboeck ; De Vries.) W. H. L.
ANTO'NIDES, JOHANNES, an Arabic
scholar, who was born at Alkmaar in Hol
land, is known by his work " Pauli Apostoli
Epistola ad Titum, Arabice ; emu J. An-
tonidse Alcmariani interlineari A^'rsione La-
G

ANTONIDES.

ANTONINA.

tlna ad Verbum." Leiden, 1612, 4to. This
text is the same as that in Erpenius's Arabic
New Testament. From a letter written in
1612 by Erpenius to Isaac Casaubon, we
learn that Antonides had picked up some
knowledge of Arabic when in the service
of the learned Rapheleng ; that he had fur
ther improved himself by half a year's in
tercourse with an Arab resident at Amster
dam ; and that he was permitted to lecture
gratuitously in the university, Leiden, for a
year, in order that this test of his attain
ments should decide whether he should re
ceive a professorship. In this hope the far
superior acquirements of Erpenius himself
may have contributed to disappoint him ; for,
in all probability, he lost his election : al
though nothing more is recorded of the rest of
his Ufe. (Le Long ex ed. Masch, Biblioth.
Sacr. ii. 1. 134. ; Sohnurrer, Biblioth- Arab.
p. 354. ; Is. Casaubon, Epistola, Rotterdam,
1709, p. 666.) J. N— n.
ANTO'NIDES NERDENUS. [Van der
Linden.] ANTO'NIDES, THEODO'RUS, a pastor
in the church of Friesland, is known as the
author of some commentaries, in the Duteh
language, on the Epistles of James, of Peter
aud of Jude, and on the book of Job, which
were severally printed in 4to. at Leeuwarden,
between the years 1693 and 1700. Those
on the New 'Testament receive some com
mendations from Walch for their learning
and diligence ; and the chief censure which
the author meets with is directed against his
mystical system of interpretation. Of this
tendency his commentary on Job affords a
striking example, as he considers Job's three
fold state to typify the Christian church in
its early prosperity, in its persecution by
Antichrist, and in its restoration to pristine
purity at the Reformation. (Walch, Bibtioth-
Thcol- Sel. iv. 743. 753. ; Rosenmiiller, Scho
lia in Jobum, p. xxx.) J. N — n.
ANTONI'NA {' AvTi^viva), the wife of
BeUsarius, was born in a. d. 499. Her parents
were an actress and a charioteer. The pro
fession of both was esteemed degrading ; the
character of the former was infamous ; and,
according to Procoplus, who must not how
ever be implicitly believed, their daughter's
reputation was indifferent. Antonina's first
husband was noble, although not wealthy.
Of their several children, a son, Photius,
and a daughter, afterwards married to HU-
diger, an officer of distinguished merit, are
alone remembered. Antonina filled the post
of lady of the bedchamber (fwo-TTf; to The
odora, the wife of Justinian I., an office which
conferred on her the rank of patrician. She
married BeUsarius between January, a. d. 532,
and June, 533, during his residence at Con
stantinople, in the interval between his Per
sian and African expeditions. Besides great
personal charms, y\ntonina possessed unusual
powers of fascination (the vulgar imputed them
82

to witchcraft), by whieh, notwithstanding her
infidelities, she secured the affections of her
husband. She accompanied BeUsarius on his
African campaign (a. d. 533 — 535) against the
Vandals ; and in his Italian expedition (a. d.
536 — 540) against the Ostrogoths. On its pas
sage to Africa the fleet was becalmed between
Zante aud Sicily, and even BeUsarius and his
staff would have sufferedfrom the want of water
but for the care of Antonina, who had secured
a supply in glass bottles buried in sand in the
ship's hold. In the italian war she hired re
cruits, escorted convoys, collected provisions,
and presided at miUtary councils ; and her
energy detected and punished the treachery
of Pope SUverius, who had betrayed Rome to
the Goths, and the mutiny of Constantine,
who attempted the life of his general, BeU
sarius. Her intrigue with a youth, named
Theodosius, was disclosed by one of her at
tendants, and even by her son Photius, to
BeUsarius. But the discovery proved the
destruction of the informers. Antonina was
at first imprisoned by her husband, but was
released through the influence or by the com
mand of the empress Theodora, whose gra
titude Antonina had merited by the removal
of John the Cappadocian, Justinian's minister,
and Theodora's enemy. Photius was thrown
into a dungeon, banished, and finally driven
into a convent. Macedoiua, the attendant,
was put to the torture ; and BeUsarius was
recalled from the Persian frontier, whither
he had been sent in a.d. 541, stripped of his
offices, and hea-vily fined. A complete re
concUiation with Antonina was the price of
his restoration to his military command and
to a portion of his large estates. Antonina
did not accompany her husband in his last
Persian campaign. She remained at Con
stantinople with Theodosius. But the death
of her lover revived the affections of BeU
sarius ; and Antonina either formed no second
attachment or became more circumspect in
her conduct. By BeUsarius she had one
daughter, Joannina, born in the latter end of
a. d. 533, since in 549 she was sixteen years
of age. Joannina, during the absence of An
tonina and BeUsarius in Italy, was contracted
by Theodora to her nephew, or rather her
son, Anastaslus. The wealth of BeUsarius
Avas the inducement to the match. But on
Antonina's return to Constantinople, after
Theodora's death, the contract was anmUled,
although the reputation, the honour, and
perhaps the affections of Joannina were sacri
ficed by its dissolution. After the final dis
grace and the death of BeUsarius, Antonina
retired into a convent, where she died after
the year a. d. 565. (Procoplus, Anecdota and
De Bello Gothico. The former work must
be read with great allowance : the latter
without much distrust ; Gibbon, Decline and
Fall,vu. ch. 41. p. 263— 269. Milman's ed.;
Lord Mahon, Life of BeUsarius.) [Beli-
SARius ; Theodora.] w. B. D.

ANTONINL

ANTONINL

ANTONFNI, ANNI'BALE, the author
of several respectable books intended to faci
litate the study of the Italian language, lived
during the first half of the eighteenth cen
tury. He was born near Salerno, and is said
to have been a brother of the Baron Giuseppe.
Annibale, after wandering through most ofthe
principal countries lu Europe, settled at Paris
as a teacher of his native tongue ; and was
well known in that character for twenty-five
years, under the title of the Abbe Antonini.
At length he rettmied to Italy, where he died
in 1755. He was the author of an Italian
Grammar for the use of Frenchmen, first pub
lished at Paris in 1726, 12mo.,and again, with
improvements, in 1729, 12mo. Better known,
and (for a long time) greatly more esteemed,
was another work of his, the " Dictionnaire
Italien, Latin, et Franqais," first published at
Paris in 1736, 2 vols. 4to. He superintended
also several editions of Italian classics, chiefly
designed for the use of students. The fol
lowing list of such editions, although fuller
than MazzuchelU 's, is probably not quite
complete : — the " Prose e Rime di Mon-
signor Giovanni deUa Casa," Paris, 1729,
12mo. ; the " ItaUa Liberata dai Goti," of
Trlsslno, 1729, 3 vols. Svo.; a collection
of " Rime scelte de' piu illustri Poeti Ita
liani," Paris (really London), 1731, 2 vols.
I2mo. ; Arlosto's " Orlando Furioso," Paris,
1746, 1768, 1777, 4 vols. 12mo. There are
also attributed to him two other works :
" Memoires et Avantures d'un Homme de
Quallte, qui s'est retire du Monde," Paris,
1728, 2 vols. 12mo. ; and a French prose
translation of the Russian Satires of Prince
Cantemir, London, 1750, 12mo. (Mazzu
chelli, Scrittori d' Italia ; Ersch und Gruber,
Allgemeine Encyclopddie.) W. S.
ANTONFNI, FILIPPO, an ItaUan anti
quary of small note, Uved in the early part
of the seventeenth century. He was a
native of Sarzina in Umbria, the ancient
Sarsina, where Plautus the poet was born;
and, having embraced the ecclesiastical pro
fession, he became parish-priest of Sapigno,
a place near his native town, whose name
reminds us of the " Sapinla trlbus " of Livy,
(lib. xxxi. cap. 2.). Antonini's pubUshed
writings were the following : 1. " Disoorsi
deU' Antichita di Sarzina," Sarzina, 1607,
4to. This work, translated into Latin by
Havercamp, was inserted in Grajvius's "The
saurus Antiquitatum Italia;," tom. vii. part 2 :
and the editor of the coUection, in the preface
of the volume, has set down the few facts
known in regard to the writer. 2. " Sup-
plemento della Cronaea di Verrucchio, Terra
della Dlocesi di Rimini," Bologna, 1621, 4to.
(lAIazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia; Graevius,
Thesaurus Italia.) W. S.
ANTONFNI, GIUSEPPE, baron of San
Blase near Salerno, was a contemporary, and
(iis it Is understood) an elder brother, of the
Abbe Annibale. He is the author of a work
83

caUed "LaLucania," 1749, 4to., which treats
of the antiquities of the province whose name
it bears. There are also from his pen two
letters containing observations upon points in
Neapolitan geography, and addressed to Mat
teo d'Egizio, Naples, 1750, Svo. (Mazzu
cheUi, Scrittori d'ltalia.) W. S
ANTONFNUS. This name is given on
medals to six of the Roman Caesars, — An
toninus Pius, M. Aurelius, L. Commodus,
Caracalla, Diadumenianus, and Elagabalus,
all of whom, except Antoninus Pius, will be
found under the several names here enumer
ated. The rules for distinguishing the medals
of these several emperors are given by Rasche,
" Lexicon Rei Numariae." Lucius Verus and
Geta are also mentioned as bearing this name
(Capitolinus, Macrinus, 3.) ; but it does not
occur on extant medals or inscriptions. An
nius Galerius also bore the name of Antoni
nus, but he was never Csesar. [Antoninus
Pius.] G. L.
ANTONFNUS, a Roman senator, con
temporary with Pausanias, erected, or caused
to be erected, several buildings at Epldaurus.
He built the baths of iEsculaplus ; the temple
of the gods, called Epidotffi ; and a temple of
health {"tyiela), dedicated to iEsculaplus and
Apollo, the Egyptians ; he restored also the
portico caUed that of Cotys ; and he con
structed a reservoir {eXvTpor) for the Epl-
daurians. (Pausanias, 11. 27.) R. N, W.
ANTONI'NUS ('Aj/Tcwos), a Greek phi
losopher of Egypt, the son of Eustathius and
Sosipatra. He lived in or shortly after the
reign of the emperor Constantine the Great,
and belonged to the school ofthe New Platon
ists. He lived at first at Alexandria, but after
wards established a school near the Cauopic
mouth of the Nile, where he devoted himself
entirely to those who sought his instruction,
in order to fulfil a prophecy which his mother
had uttered respecting him. Great numbers
of young people flocked to his school, and he
and his disciples were very zealous in up
holding the ancient pagan rites, though he
was convinced of the great change which
was going to take place in the religious
affairs of the world, for he used to tell his
pupils, that after his death the temples of the
gods would be ruined, and that utter dark
ness would come over mankind. His pur
suits were principally of a mystical nature ;
but in his outward conduct there was nothing
to distinguish him from other persons, pro
bably because he feared the persecution of
the emperor. He appears to have died shortly
before the year a.d. 391, when the worship
of the pagan idols was finally prohibited by
the edicts of the Emperor Theodosius I., and
thus his prophecy was realised. (Eunapius,
Vita .^desii, p. 68 — 77. ed. Antwerp, 1568.) L. S.
ANTONFNUS HONORA'TUS, bishop
of Constantina, or Cirta, in Africa, was living
about A. D. 437, the year in which Genseric,
G 2

ANTONINUS.

ANTONINUS.

king of the Vandals, began his persecution
of the Catholic Christians. In some MSS.
he is called Honoratus, in others, Antoninus,
but in the best MSS. the two names are com
bined. We possess a Latin epistle of An
toninus Honoratus, which has reference to
the persecution under Genseric : it is ad
dressed to Arcadius, a confessor, who was
exiled by the Vandal king, and afterwards
died a martyr for refusing to embrace the
Arian heresy. The epistle is an exhorta
tion to bear up against the sufferings of
the persecution for Christ's sake. It is
written in a simple and elegant style, and
breathes the true spirit of the apostolic
times. It is printed in Baronius, " Annales
ad Ann. 437," and in the " Bibliotheca Pa
trum," viil. 665. (Cave, Scriptorum Eccle
siast. Historia Literaria, 1. 333. ed. London ;
Fabricius, Biblioth. Lat. Media et Infima
jEtatis, 1. 315. &c.) L. S.
ANTONI'NUS LIBERA'LIS {'AvtoivIvos
Ai^epdXis), a Greek writer of uncertain date,
who is generally supposed to have lived about
A.D. 150. Respecting his life no notice has
come do-wn to us, and he is not even men
tioned by any ancient author. There exists
under his name a work entitled Mera/xopcpcia-euv
¦Smayaiyn, that is, " A CoUection of Mythical
Metamorphoses." It contains forty-one tales ;
each of them fills a chapter, at the head of
which the author, in most cases, mentions the
ancient writers from whom he took his ac
counts. These writers are Nicander', Bosus,
Areus, Simmlas of Rhodes, Didymarchus,
Antigonus, ApoUonius Rhodius, and others.
As the works of these writers are lost, the
compilation of Antoninus Llberalis is of some
value in regard to ancient mythology. But
it is a very poor substitute for the originals.
His narratives are written without taste or
elegance, and as compositions they are with
out merit. The first edition is that of Xy
lander (Basel, 1568, Svo.). It was made
from a MS. now at Heidelberg, which was
then the only one known. It is printed with
the " Erotica " of Parthenius, and is accom
panied by a Latin translation by Xylander.
The subsequent editions of Gale and Muncker
are little more than reprints of the first. The
edition of Verheyk (Leiden, 1774, Svo.) is
much better ; it contains the notes of several
commentators. Little progress was made in
emending the text until the discovery of the
Paris MS., from which G. A. Koch derived
much assistance for his edition (Leipzig,
1832, Svo.), which contains nearly all the
notes of his predecessors together with some
valuable notes of his own. The most recent
edition is that of A. Westermann, in his
" Scrlptores Poeticac Historia; Grajci," Braun
schweig, 1842, Svo. (Bast, Epistola critica ad
Boissonade super Anionino Libcrali, Parthenio
et Aristaneto, ed. Wiedeburg et Schaifer,
Leipzig, 1809, Svo. ; Koch and Westermann's
Prefaces to their editions.) L. S.
84

ANTONI'NUS, MARCUS AURE'LIUS.
[Aurelius, Marcus.]
ANTONFNUS PIUS. The complete
name of Antoninus as given by Capitolinus
is Titus AureUns Fulvus Boionius Antoninus.
On some medals, which were struck after his
adoption by Hadrian, his name is Titus iElius
Cffisar Antoninus Pius, and Titus iElius
Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Plus. His
father's family belonged to the Roman colony
of Nemausus (Nimes). His paternal grand
father, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, was twice
consul and prEcfect of Rome ; and his father,
Aurelius Fulvus, also attained the consulship.
His mother's name was Arria FadiUa, and
his mother's father was T. Arrius Antoninus,
who was twice consul. The name Boionius
was derived from his mother's mother. An
toninus Plus was born on the 19th of Sep
tember, A. D. 86, in the reign of Domitian, in
a vUla at Lanuvium (Civita Lavinia) ; but he
was educated at Lorium, a small place on the
Aurelian road, near the mouth of the Tiber,
under the care successively of his paternal
and maternal grandfathers. His numerous
family connections brought him wealth, and
made the way easy to the honours of the
state. He was successively quaestor, prator,
and consul with L. Catilius Severus, a. d.
120. Antoninus was fond of agriculture aud
of a rural Ufe, and when Hadrian distributed
Italy into four divisions, and placed a consular
over each, he gave to Antoninus the admi-
nistra'iion of that division in which his pro
perty was situated. It was some time before
he went as proconsul to the province of Asia
that he married Annia Galeria Faustina, the
daughter of Annius A'erns. He administered
his province with wisdom and equity, and his
credulous biographer, Capitolinus, mentions
many omens of his futui-e elevation which
occurred during his residence in Asia. On
his retui-n he was much consulted by Ha
drian, and on the death of JElius Verus he
was adopted by Hadrian, early iu the year
A.D. 138 ; but at the same time he was re
quired to adopt Marcus Annius A'erus, the
son of his wife's brother, and Lucius Celonius
Commodus, the son of iElius A'eriis, both of
whom were afterwards emperors under the
names respectively of Aurelius and Verus.
According to Dion Cassius he had no male
issue living at the time of his adoption. He
was immediately associated with Hadrian in
the proconsular authority, and made his col
league in the tribuneship.
On the death of Hadrian, at the beginning
of July, A. D. 138, Antoninus became his suc
cessor. On this occasion he allowed his wife,
Faustina, to take the title of Augusta, which
appears on her medals, and the emperor him
self received from the senate the appellation
Plus. Many reasons, some of them very
absurd, have been assigned by the historians
for the name of Pius ; but as the Latin word
Plus is properly used to express all the

ANTONINUS.

ANTONINUS.

virtues of domestic and social life, and also
regard to religious duties, this honourable
title was most probably conferred as being
expressive of the general excellence of his
character, which had been well tried before
his accession to the imperial power. Xiphi-
linus says (for the history of Antoninus by
Dion Cassius was lost even in the time of
Xiphilinus) that the title was conferred by
the senate shortly after the death of Hadrian,
to commemorate the filial affection of Anto
ninus in urging the unwUUng senate to pay
to Hadrian the usual tokens of respect paid
to a deceased emperor. Xiphilinus repre
sents the senate as indignant against Hadrian
for his severity to some of their body, and
Antoninus as endeavouring to bend them by
his entreaties, to which the senate at last
yielded ; but Xiphilinus adds, pertinently
enough, they were somewhat afraid of the
soldiers. If the story is true, it may simply
show that the senate, presuming on the good
temper of Antoninus, affected a power which
they well knew they could not exercise.
"The biography of Capitolinus, which is
almost the only source for the life of Anto
ninus, does not enable us to trace the public
events of his reign with much precision. An
toninus apparently never left Italy after his
accession ; but various wars were carried on
hy his legati in distant provinces. LoUlus
Urbicus defeated the Britons in A. D. 140
and the years immediately foUowing, and
constructed the wall and ditch commonly
caUed the Wall of Antoninus, whioh extended
from the Clyde to the Forth, a. distance of
about thirty-six miles. The Mauri of Africa
were compelled to sue for peace ; and the
Germans, the Dacians, and the rebellious
Jews were kept down by the activity of his
commanders. Rebellions also in Achaea and
Egypt were put down ; and the Alani, a rest
less Asiatic tribe, were kept in check. Pha-
rasmanes, a king of the Iberi, visited the
emperor at Rome ; the Lazi, probably a tribe
bordering on the Caucasus, received from
him a king Pacorus ; and the Parthian king
was induced to desist from an invasion of
Armenia simply by the letters of Antoninus.
It appears from his settling a dispute between
one of his procurators and Rhoemetalces, a
king of Bosporus, that the Tauric Chersonese
was at this time under Roman influence.
The inhabitants of Olbla, a Greek colony on
the Borysthenes (Dnieper), asked for the
emperor's assistance against the Tauroscythac,
probably one of the nomadic tribes of that
neighbourhood ; and the Tauroscythjc were
compelled to give hostages to the people of
Olbla. If the emperor was not himself war
like, he had able commanders ; and his reign
of more than twenty-two yeai-s was a happy
period for the Roman empire.
It was his policy to continue good go
vernors in their provinces for seven and
nine vears. The imperial procurators, who
85

collected the revenue of the Fiscus, were in
structed to do it with moderation, and those
who violated these orders were called to
account. The name of Pater Patriae (Father
of his Country) was conferred upon Anto
ninus by the senate for his various acts of
munificence ; a title whieh appears on some
of his medals. Under his equitable rule all
the provinces flourished. Only one person
Is mentioned as having been put to death in
his reign for treason, Attilius Tatianus, who
was condemned by the senate ; but the em
peror forbade inquiry as to his accomplices,
and treated the criminal's son with kindness.
He kept himself weU acquainted with the
state of the provinces and the revenue ; and
in his own expenses he was frugal without
meanness, and yet liberal enough to avoid all
censure. In a word, his character by Capi
tolinus is one of unmixed panegyric.
He erected at Rome a temple in honour of
Hadrian, and the mausoleum of Hadrian ;
and he restored, among other buildings, the
temple of Agrippa, the Pons Sublicius, the
ports of Caieta and Tarracina, the aqueduct
of Antium, and the temples of Lanuvium.
At Lorium, where he had spent his youth,
he erected a palace. He was also liberal in
his grants to many cities, for the erection
of new and the reparation of old buildings.
He pleased the Romans by the magnificence
of his games : on one occasion he exhi
bited a hundred lions at once ; and even the
crocodile and hippopotamus were brought
from the Nile to gratify the populace of
Rome. His biographer mentions, among the casual
ties of his reign, a famine, the faU of a circus,
and a great fire at Rome, whioh destroyed
three hundi-ed and forty insulae and houses.
A great earthquake damaged the cities of
Asia and Rhodes, but the emperor contributed
munificently to their restoration.
An extract from Modestinus, contained in
the Digest (27. tit. 1. s. 6.)quotes arescriptof
Antoninus, addressed to the province of Asia,
but which was interpreted to have a general
application. This rescript gave to certain
classes of persons who are there named, im
munities from certain duties, to which other
persons were liable, and also from the offices
of tutor and curator : in the smaller cities the
emperor allowed four physicians, three so -
phists or rhetoricians, and as many gramma
rians to enjoy these privileges ; in the larger,
seven physicians, four sophists, and four
grammarians ; and in the largest cities, ten
physicians, five rhetoricians, and as many
grammarians. This rescript does not apply
to the number of persons who were to prac
tise any of these professions, but merely
determines how many might enjoy the pri .
vileges in the respective towns in which they
practised. The object of the rescript was
the public benefit, for many of the duties to
which citizens were liable would interfere
G 3

ANTONINUS.

ANTONINUS.

materially with the practice of medicine, or
the profession of a teacher. As to teachers
of philosophy, the same rescript fixed no
number ; and it says that this was becausephi-
losophers were few, and that those who were
rich would not object to contribute from their
means to the service of their cities, and that
if they should be greedy of their substance,
they were not philosophers. Capitolinus
says that Antoninus gave rhetoricians and
phUosophers in all the provinces honours
(honores) and salaries, a statement which has
been supposed to show either that Pius altered
or violated his own rescript, or that Capi
tolinus is mistaken in assigning the grant of
salaries to Antoninus instead of Marcus Au
relius. But it is possible that Capitolinus is
not mistaken : the rescript of the emperor
applied to exemptions (exousatlones) from
duties (munera) ; it says nothing of any thing
given ; it only applies to what the physicians
and others were not required to do. It Is
quite consistent with this, that they might
receive honom-s (honores) and salaries.
Antoninus published many edicts and re
scripts, and his age is one of great import
ance for the history of Roman jurisprudence.
In the Digest he is called Divus Pius. Ca
pitolinus mentions among the jurists, whose
services he employed, Umidius Verus, Sal-
vius Valens, Voluslus Metianus, Ulplus Mar
cellus, and Javolenus. He omits Gaius, who
commeneed his book of Institutes under the
reign of Pius, and completed it in the reign
of his successor Aurelius. Several of the
rescripts and constitutions of Pius are quoted
by Gaius. (Index to Goeschen's edition of
Gaius.) In the third year of his reign, his wife
Faustina died. Report accused her of too
great freedom, but Capitolinus does not pre
cisely say what he means by those words ;
but he adds that the emperor submitted with
sorrow to what he could not prevent. On
her death, Faustina received from the senate
the honour of deification, of games, and of a
temple and priests. This temple was erected
in the Forum Romanum : the hexastyle
portico and the return columns, which are of
the Corinthian order, still support a large
part of the entablature. The entablature con
tains the dedicatory inscription to Antoninus
and Faustina. Antoninus also commemorated
the name of his wife by an establishment for
the support of young females ( pueUa; ali-
mentaria)), who were called FaustiniauEe — a
name which is also recorded on medals. By
his wife he had four children, one of whom,
Annla Faustina, married her cousin Marcus
Aurelius. His daughter Aurella died before
he visited Asia as proconsul. Nothing is
known of his sons M. Galerius aud M. Au
relius Fulvus Antoninus. The name of
Galerius occurs on a Greek coin, but without
the title of Ca;sar. From an expression in
Capitolinus ( c. 9.) it appears that the emperor
86

had a concubine (concubina), as his successor
Aurelius had; but this, which has given
scandal to some of the admirers of AureUus,
is capable of an easy explanation. [Aurelius,
Marcus.] Antoninus died at Lorium on the 7th of
March (a. d. 161), in the seventieth year
of his age according to Capitolinus, but in his
seventy-fifth, if the date of his birth is rightly
given. He was buried in the tomb of Hadrian.
According to the practice of the Romans, he
received the honour of deification ( Divus ) ;
and games, a temple, and a college of priests
were instituted to commemorate his virtues.
His successors Marcus AureUus and Lucius
Verus erected a column to his memory, with
the inscription "Divo Antonino Augusto
Pio Antoninus Augustus et Verus Augustus
Fllii:" " To the Divine Antoninus Augustus
Pius Antoninus and Verus Augusti Sons."
It consisted of a single piece of red granite
standing on a white marble pedestal : it was
discovered at Rome in 1709, on the Monte
Citorio, and was used in the restoration of
the obelisks erected by Pius VI. This column
is represented on some of the coins, struck in
honour of Antoninus Pius, as enclosed by a
fence. Antoninus was taU and handsome ; the
character of the face on his medals is pleasing
and dignified. His mode of Ufe was abste
mious ; he was kind and courteous to aU per
sons, regular in his attention to business, and
just in all his administration : if we may
trust the biography of CapitoUnus, both as
a prince and a man he has seldom had his
equal. Though there is Uttle known of him
except from Capitolinus, there is nothing
that throws doubt on the fideUty of his
biographer. 'The toleration of Antoninus towards the
Christians has been urged as a favourable
part of his character. It is consistent with his
general good sense and moderation to suppose
that he did not persecute them ; but the
rescript in favour of the Christians, which is
by some authorities attributed to him, is by
others attributed to M. Am-eUus, and its
genuineness may even be altogether called in
question. The medals of Pius are very numerous.
The reverses of many of the Roman medals
commemorate the emperor's virtues and
munificence ; and his name is recorded on
the coins of numerous Greek cities. The
busts of Antoninus Plus are also numerous.
Many statues and remains of sculpture have
been found in the villa of Antoninus at La
nuvium. A few short letters of Antoninus are con
tained in the collection of letters of Fronto,
published by Mai, Svo. Rome, 1823.
The work called " Antonini Itinerarium "
cannot be ascribed to the time of either An
toninus Pius or his successor. There is no
evidence that such an Itinerary was com-

ANTONINUS.

ANTONINUS.

piled by the order of either of these emperors.
In the MSS. it is severally ascribed to Julius
Caesar, Antonius Augustus and Antoninus
Augustus, a variation which renders the au
thorship uncertain, even if we should admit
that the correct title of the work would de
termine the period when it was drawn up ;
but this cannot be admitted. Besides this, it
is not certain to whom the title Antoninus
Augustus belongs [Antoninus], if that be
the right reading. The work now called the
Antonine Itinerary contains all the chief
roads in Italy and in the provinces, which
are indicated by the names of the places upon
them, and the distance between them in Ro
man mUes. Under the article iEthicus there
is a notice of a survey of the Roman world
which, according to .JSthicus, was begun in
the consulship of Marcus Antonius and C.
Julius Caesar, e. c. 44 : it was completed
under Augustus CiEsar. There is nothing
improbable in this statement, according to
which a kind of survey of the empire was
commenced in the last year of the Dictator
Caesar's life and completed under his succes
sor Augustus. The work of Marcus Vip-
sanius Agrippa, called his " Commentaru,"
which is several times mentioned by PUny,
appears according to him to have been de
signed as the foundation of a map of the
world. But it is not improbable that the ma
terials which Agrippa collected, may either
have been derived from the survey mentioned
in iEthicus or may have formed part of it.
However this may be, the history of the
compUation caUed the Antonine Itinerary is
unknown. It may be safely assumed that
the compilation was a work of some time,
and in the absence of other evidence, it may
be considered to have been commenced under
the Dictator Caesar, completed under Au
gustus, and from time to time altered and
corrected under subsequent emperors. Thus
for instance, the Itinerary mentions the great
vallum of Septimius Severus in Britain ; but
the reign of Severus did not commence till
A.D. 193. There is also mentioned a city
DiocletianopoUs, which points to the reign of
Diocletian, or a period between a. d. 284 and
305, at least ; but it is said that there is no
name which marks a later period than that
of Diocletian. The best edition of the Itine
rary is that of Wessellng, Amsterdam, 1735,
4to. The preface to this work contains an
examination of the question as to the author
ship of this Itinerary. There is also a use
ful article on it in the " Penny Cyclopedia,"
" Antoninus, the Itinerary of," in which
a specimen of the Itinerary is given. (J. Ca
pitolinus, Antoninus Pius ; Dion Cassius, Ixx.
and note 10. ed. Reimar ; Rasche, Lexicon
Rci Numaria ; Penny Cyclopadia, arts. " An
toninus Pius and Rome," p. 94. 98.) G. L.
ANTONFNUS, SAINT, archbishop of
Florence, was the son of a Florentine notary
named Niccolo di Pierozzo, or, according to

other authorities, Niccolo di Forciglioni. He
was born at Florence in the year 1389. His
christian name was Antonio ; for which the
diminutive Antonino, or in Latin Antoninus,
was substituted on account of the smallness
of his stature. In early youth he became a
Dominican friar, and entered the convent of
Fiesole, which had just been founded. Of
his appUcatlon for admission as a novice a
story is told, presignifying the energy which
afterwards distinguished his character, both
in the pursuit of learning and in active bu
siness. The prior of the convent, it is said,
struck by the boyish appearance of Antonio,
(who was then about fifteen years old,) ques
tioned him about his studies. Hearing that
the boy had begun to read the " Decretum " of
Gratian, he told him to go away, and to return
when he should have learned the book by
heart. The young student took as a serious
advice that which was intended as a jocular
discouragement. He set eagerly about the
task prescribed, and, presenting himself again
before a year had expired, stood a severe
examination with success so remarkable, as
to fiU his examiners with the highest admi
ration. He was cordially received into the
convent, and rapidly fulfilled the promise of
exceUence which had been held out by his
entrance. His learning, especially in ca
suistry, in canon law, and in ecclesiastical
history, was reaUy very great for the age in
which he lived. His strength of under
standing was uncommon, and was not by
any means confined in its application to his
monkish studies : for he took a lively in
terest in public affairs, and probably helped
his rise not a Uttle by his prudent choice of a
political party, attaching himself zealously
to Cosmo de' Medici. To all these quali
fications for success in life, he added the
reputation, apparently well deserved, of ex
treme purity, integrity, and religious zeal.
He became successively prior of more than
one convent, auditor of the Roman rota, and
vicar-general of his order for Tuscany and
afterwards for Naples. In the discharge of
all these offices he distinguished himself by
energetic conscientiousness, and by the intro
duction of practical reforms.
In 1445, when he was in his thirty-sixth
year, the arehbishop of Florence died. An
toninus was immediately nominated by Pope
Eugenius IV. to the vacant place, which
however he did not assume till next year,
after having made great difficulties about
accepting it. He held the see for about
fourteen years, and was active, not only in
reforming the clergy, but in defending their
claims to jurisdiction and immunities ; while
he foimd time also to act more than once as
ambassador of the Florentines to the court of
Rome. Two of the orations which he de
livered on such occasions he has incorpo
rated in his historical work. He died in
1459, and was burled in the church of Saint
G 4

ANTONINUS.

ANTONINUS.

B'lark, the principal Florentine convent of
his order. In it there may stUl be seen
a splendid chapel dedicated to his memory,
erected in 1588 from a design of Glan Bo
logna, and containing a bronze statue of him
by that artist. He was canonised by Pope
Adrian VI. in 1523.
Mazzuchelli gives a full list of his works,
published and unpublished. His principal
works that have been printed are the three
following : — 1. " Defecerunt," [the first
word of the book], "sive Summa Confes-
slonalis ; " first printed at Rome in 1472, 4to.,
and reprinted about twenty times, in Italy
and elsewhere, before the end of the sixteenth
century. There is also an Italian translation
of it ; " Istruzione de' Sacerdoti, ovvero
Somma Antonina composta volgarmente,"
Bologna, 1472, 4to., and in several subse
quent editions.
2. " Summa Summarum, sive Summa The
ologica, in Quatuor Partes distributa," Niirn
berg, 1478, 4 vols, fol., black letter. This
work, which had been previously printed, in
successive volumes, at Venice, was afterwards
reprinted about twenty times, the latest and
best edition beiag that of Verona, 1740, 4
vols, folio. The following treatises, taken
from the "Summa Theologica," have been
published separately. 1. " De Virtutibus"
and " De Restitutionibus," Niirnberg, 1472,
fol. 2. " De Excommunicationibus, Suspen-
sionibus, et Interdictis, Irregularitatibus, et
Pajnls," Venice, 1474, 4to., 1481, 4to. 3.
" Annotationes de Donatione Constantini,"
Cologne, 1535. 4. "De Septem Sacramentis,"
printed without note of date or place. 5.
" Sermones de Laudibus Beatte Virginis," in
the " Bibliotheca Mariana " of Alva, Madrid,
1648, fol. 6. Five treatises in Ziletti's huge
collection (usuaUy known to lawyers as
the " Oceanus Juris," or " Tractatus Trac-
tatuum ; ") " Tractatus universl Juris in unum
congestl," Venice, 1584, 18 vols. fol. In vol. vii.
is the treatise of Antoninus, " De Usuris ; "
iu vol. xiv. are his treatises " De Interdleto
Ecclesife," " De Suspensione," " De Excom-
munlcatione," "De Irregularitatibus." The
titles thus enumerated might lead one to
suppose that the " Summa Summarum " is
reaUy a collection of treatises on the canon
law. This however is not the case. It is
intended as a systematic summary of Roman
Catholic morality, and is generally acknow
ledged to have been the earliest work in
which an attempt was made to carry the
treatment of such topics beyond the scholastic
limits. Its plan, however, which may be ga
thered from an abstract given by Negri,
seems to be chargeable with want of cohe
rence. The first part treats of the soul, its
connection with the body, the faculties and
passions, the causes and evil of sin, and the
seven kinds of law. In the second part a
classification and analysis of the seven deadly
sins and their varieties serve to introduce
88

some of the juridical dissertations derived
from the canonists. Other such dissertations
find a place in the third part, which begins
by treating of duty. The last part is headed
by a treatise on the cardinal virtues, which
lead to topics of a more spiritual character
than most of those that had been previously
handled. The authority which the Summa
long held in the Roman Catholic church, as a
digest of doctrines and authorities, may be
learned from the large number of its editions.
3. " Summa HlstoriaUs, sive Chronica,
Trlbus Partibus distincta, ab Orbe condlto ad
Annum 1459." Mazzuchelli names an edition
of 1480, Venice, 3 vols, fol., the existence of
which recent bibliographers pronounce doubt
ful. The oldest certain edition is that of
Nurnberg, 1484, 3 vols. fol. black letter.
Other editions (all in folio) are those of
Basle, 1491 ; Strassburg, 1496 ; Paris, 1512 ;
Lyon, 1517, 1525, 1543, 1585 ; and one or
two later ones, which are said to contain in
terpolations. The first part of the chronicles
of Antoninus ends with the faU of paganism
and ofthe Roman empire, or with the accession
of Pope Sylvester I., a.d. 314 : the second
part ends with the election of Pope Innocent
IIL, A. D. 1198 : the historical portion ofthe
third part closes abruptly with the oration
delivered by the author as Florentine ambas
sador to Pope Pius II. in October, 1458. In
the plan of the chronicles there are two fea
tures particularly deserving of notice. The
one is Its comprehensiveness : it aims at de
livering a history of inteUect asweU as of poU
tics and of reUgion. The other is its steady
attempt at philosophical exactness of subdi
vision : each department of human thought
or action is treated in a separate section. The
last ofthe three parts, for example, begins with
a title devoted to a review of some noted ec
clesiastical writers, including laborious ab
stracts of their principal works ; then follow
four titles relating the political history of the
times, digested under the reigns of the suc
cessive popes and emperors : and lastly comes
a title on the history of the Dominican friars,
with another on that of the Franciscans.
The more recent portions of the narrative
which refer to Italian affairs, especially to
those of Florence, exhibit marks of careful
prepai-ation, and have furnished, particularly
in their ecclesiastical sections, considerable
assistance to subsequent historians. The
saint's history of Florentine revolutions, how
ever, must be read with due allowance for
the partialities of the faction to which he him
self belonged. As an example there may be
cited his account of the banishment of Cosmo
de' Medici in 1433. In that passage the
tone of thought, and the whole turn of the
phraseology, make it plain that, in describing
the cabals of his patron's enemies for his
overthrow, the archbishop had in his mind,
as a parallel case, the plots of the Jewish
leaders against the founders of Christianity.

ANTONINUS.

ANTONIO.

There has appeared in modern times a
revised edition containing aU the works of
Saint Antoninus. " Antonini Archiepiscopi
Florentini Opera omnia, ad Autographorum
Fidem nunc primum exacta. Vita Auctoris
variisque Dissertatlonibus et Annotationibus
aucta, Cura et Studio Th. Mar. Mamachi et
Dion. RemedelU," Florence, 1741, 8 vols.
folio. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia; Negri,
Istoria degli Scrittori Fiorentini, 1722, 49 —
51. ; Acta Sanctorum, Mali, Die Secunda, 1.
310 — 358. ; Tiraboschi, Storia della Lettera
tura Italiana, 4to. 1787—1794, vi. 312. 670. ;
Eichhorn, Geschichte der Litteratur, vol. vi.
part 1. pp. 72. 133). W. S.
ANTO'NIO. Count Cicognara and others
mention several Italian sculptors of the name
of Antonio.
Antonio di Locate, a good sculptor of
the fifteenth century. He was one of those
employed over the celebrated works of the
facade of the Certosa di Pavia, which was
commeneed in 1473. The respective works
of the various sculptors engaged in the
adornment of this building are not known ;
for the monks merely registered the names
of the artists employed, without specifying
any of their works.
Antonio del Mezzano, a celebrated jew
eller of Piacenza of the fourteenth century,
of whom, however, no works now remain.
There was preserved in the cathedral of
Piacenza until 1798, when It was converted
into money, a richly ornamented silver-gilt
cross, between three and four French feet
high. It was ornamented with statues, bas-
reliefs, enamelled work, and other embellish
ments, all executed with great taste and
dUlgence. To make this cross, it appears
from the books of the church that Antonio
received in 1388 one hundred and thirty
ounces of silver in plate, and from the in
scription which was upon it, in enamel, it
was not finished until twenty-eight years
afterwards, — " Hec est Maj. Eccl. Plac.
facta per Anton, de Mezzano mccccxvi."
This interesting work was not entirely de
stroyed ; a few of the statues and some other
parts were saved by the canonico Boselll,
who saved them from the crucible by giving
their value for them. Cicognara does not
say who destroyed this work, but the neces
sity must have been very great that could
induce any civilised persons to destroy such
a work for the sake of one hundred and thirty
ounces of silver.
Antonio DI Niccolo, a sculptor of Venice
of the fifteenth century of moderate ability.
There is a work in the cathedral of Vicenza,
inscribed with his namc,~and the date 1448.
Cicognara supposes him to have been the
sculptor of the two statues which were in the
church of San Lorenzo at Vicenza, with the
inscription, " Hoc opus fecit Maglster Anto
nius de Venetiis."
There was also an Antonio di Nicolo of
89

Florence, of the same period, who worked at
Ferrara. He made, iu 1451, some statues in
wood for the sacristy of the cathedral, to
gether with the sculptors Abaisi of Jlodena.
Antonio di Cristoforo, likewise of
Florence, was also employed at the same
time, 1451, in the cathedral of Ferrara; and
there is still there a good figure in terra
cotta by him of the Virgin with the infant
Christ upon her knees.
Antonio da Faenza, a celebrated jeweUer
of the end of the sixteenth century, made the
very rich cross and two candlesticks of sUver
presented by Alessandro Farnese to the church
of St. Peter's on the Vatican. He also dis
tinguished himself by the variety of his in
ventions for fountains and such things. There
are several works by him in the churches
and palaces of Rome.
Vasari mentions an Antonio da Vegu or
DA Veggia, as one of the sculptors employed
in the cathedral of Milan in the early part of
the sixteenth century, and as an artist of
great merit.
Antonio di Federigo lived at Siena
in the middle of the fifteenth century. He
was a good sculptor for his time : he
executed three statues in the cathedral of
Siena, which Della Valle has assigned to Ja
copo della Querela. He made also, according
to its books, some of the works for the ex
ternal embellishment of the cathedral. In
1457 he was paid for a statue of St. Peter,
which has led some to suppose that he exe
cuted the statues of St. Peter and St. Paul in
the loggia di San Paolo, at Siena, which some
attribute to Francesco di Giorgio, and Vasari
to Lorenzo Vecchietto. (Vasari, Vite de'
Pittori, Ifc. ; Cicognara, Storia della Scultura ;
Nagler, Neues AUgemeines Kiinstler Lexicon.)
R. N. W.
ANTO'NIO ALBERTO. [Antoniano
ANTO'NIO BALOCKE. [Balocke.]
ANTO'NIO DE LA CONCEPTION.
[Conception.] ANTO'NIO, DOM, or DON, of Portugal,
was the illegitimate son of Don Luis, the
fourth child of King Emmanuel, and was
born at Lisbon in the year 1531. His mo
ther, Violante Gomes, took the veil in the
convent of Almoster, and died during the
lifetime of his father, who survived till
1555. Antonio, who was treated by Don
Luis almost as if he had been a legitimate
son, studied with credit at the university
of Coimbra, where he took his degree of
master of arts in 1551. Pursuant to the
wish of his father, but against his own, he
entered into holy orders and became a
knight of Malta, in which capacity he was
appointed grand prior of Crato, the highest
dignity held by those knights in Portugal.
After his father's death he resided with his
uncle the Cardinal Henry, the seventh child
of Ennuanuel ; but a disagreement with the

ANTONIO.

ANTONIO.

cardinal, who thought his illegitimate nephew
too forward, occasioned him to take refuge
iu Spain, where he was treated with much
kindness by PhUip II. On his return to
Portugal he grew high in favour with King
Sebastian, grandson and successor to King
John IIL, the eldest son of Emmanuel, was
appointed by him governor of Tangier, and
held high command in the fatal expedition to
Africa, which terminated on the 4th of Au
gust, 1578, in the total defeat of the Por
tuguese and the death of Don Sebastian at
the battle of Alcazar. Antonio was taken
prisoner, but after forty days' captivity was
ransomed and returned to Portugal, where
he found his uncle the cardinal-king on
the throne. The idea seems then for the
first time to have occurred to him of claim
ing the crown. Witnesses were found to
depose to a secret marriage of Don Luis
with Antonio's mother ; and on the 13th of
March, 1579, Manuel de Mello, a judge of
the order of the knights of Malta, issued
what purported to be a legal decision in fa
vour of Antonio's legitimacy. The cardinal-
king, indignant at these proceedings, which
implied that his own government was a usur
pation, procured from the pope the power
of adjudging the case, and after hearing evi
dence on the subject, pronounced Antonio
a bastard, on which his nephew appealed to
the pope, and succeeded in procuring a revo
cation of the power given to his uncle. For
the short remaining period of the cardinal's
reign they were at open variance. King
Henry summoned Antonio to appear before
him, and on his keeping out of the way, de
clared him guilty of high treason. On the
24th of June, 1580, a few days after the death
of Henry, Antonio was proclaimed king by
his partisans at Santarem, and shortly after
took possession of Lisbon, where the popu
lace was warm in his favour, and anxious to
escape the detested sway of the Castilians,
whose king, Philip IL, now claimed the cro-wn
in right of his mother IsabeUa, the second
child of Emmanuel. Antonio seems at this
time to have relied less on his claim of legi
timacy, which impartial historians consider
as completely disproved by evidence, than
on that of having been elected by the people,
who, ou the failure of the ancient line, had,
he asserted, the right of choosing a new one.
King John I. of Portugal had made good a si
milar claim, though an acknowledged bastard,
at the great battle of Aljubarrota in 1385, but
Antonio was not so fortunate. At the head
of an army of four thousand men, chiefly
composed of the rabble of the capital, he had
the temerity to encounter the duke of Alba,
in command of twenty thousand experienced
soldiers, at Alcantara, near Lisbon, on the
20th of August, 1580, and was totally de
feated. A reward of eighty thousand crowns
of gold was offered for his capture, but he
succeeded in escaping, though on one occa

sion so narrowly, that a faithful adherent
swam across the river Leira with him on his
shoulders. He sought and obtained assis
tance in France from the queen-mother, Ca
therine de' Medici, though she was herself
one of those who had claims on the Portu
guese crown. With fifty French ships and
seven thousand men under the command of
Flllppo Strozzi, he sailed for the Azores,
which had declared in his favour ; but on the
26th of July, 1582, this armament was totally
defeated near St. Michael's by the Spaniards
under Don Alvaro Basan, marquis of Santa
Cruz. He returned to France, but finding
his hopes of assistance disappointed by the
rise of the League, he passed over to Eng
land, whither he was invited by Queen EU
zabeth. While in England he sent letters
to the Grand Slgnior and the sherif, or,
as he is commonly called, the emperor of
Marocco, intreatlng their assistance. On
the receipt of an answer from the sherif
to the effect that he would aid bim with
money if he held a hostage as security for
repayment, Antonio sent him his son Don
Christovam, then a youth of fifteen, who
left Gravesend for Fez on this expedition
on the 23th of October, 1588. The sherif
treated Don Christovam kindly, but on se
cond thoughts decUned lending the money.
The defeat of the Spanish armada had ren
dered the EngUsh more able and wiUing to
annoy Philip IL, and in 1589, the year after
that event. Sir I?i-ancis Drake and Sir John
Norris, by permission of the queen, engaged
in a sort of joint-stock company expedition
in behalf of Don Antonio. In their way out
they unsuccessfully attacked Corunna, where
they committed unnecessary bloodshed, and
on their arrival in Portugal they effected
nothing. Don Antonio, who accompanied the
expedition, complained of the over-caution
of the English commanders, and Drake
and Norris of the want of that support
which they had expected from the parti
sans of Antonio, who indeed seem to have
been insensible to his proclamations. They
returned to England, bringing back with
them the plague. Of twelve thousand five
hundred men who had sailed in the ex
pedition, little more than six thousand re
turned, and the Spaniards boasted that Eng
land had lost more by the English armada
than Spain by the Spanish. After some
further unsuccessful appeals to the English,
Don Antonio returned to France, where he
was treated with great kindness by Henry
IV., and where on the 26th of August, 1595,
in the sixty-fifth year of his age, he died in
poverty at Paris. " It is stated "in the " Bio
graphic Universelle," and in the " Art de
Verifier les Dates," that he bequeathed
his rights to the crown of Portugal, such
as they were, to Henry IV. ; but nothing
of the kind appears in his wiU, which is
printed at length in the " Provas " to Sousa's

ANTONIO.

ANTONIO.

genealogical History of the Royal House of
Portugal. As a knight of Malta Don Antonio was
of course incapable of marrying, but he had
ten Ulegitimate chUdren. One of these, Don
Christovam, who has been already mentioned,
was always earnest in defence of his father's
claims, and, in 1629, published at Paris a
life of him, entitled " Briefve et Sommaire
Description de la Vie et Mort de Dom An
toine," which contains several interesting
documents relating to Don Antonio's appli
cations to the English and other courts. Don
Christovam died at Paris in 1638. His elder
brother, Don Manuel, whose death occurred
in the same year, was an officer under Prince
Maurice of Orange, and married his sister,
but afterwards entered the service of
Philip IL, and became a grandee of Spain.
He left several descendants, of whom the
females were remarkable for strict adherence
to Protestantism.
Don Antonio was the author of some
literary productions : — 1. " Panegyrls Al-
phonsi Primi Lusitanorum Regis," Coimbra,
1550, 4to. 2. " Psalmi Confessionales,"
Paris, 1592, 12mo. There are French,
Spanish, Portuguese, and English translations
of this work : the last is entitled " Royall
Psalmes or Soliloquies of D. Anthony, king
of Portingall, wherein the Sinner confesseth
his sinnes and imploreth the Grace of God.
Translated into French by P. Durier, into
English by Baldwin St. George, gent."
London, 1659, 12mo. The book appears to
consist of very common-place devotional
reflections, which in their original shape may
have possessed some merits of style ; but if
so, have totally lost them in the hands of
Baldwin St. George, in the copy of whose
book belonging to the Thomason coUection
in the British Museum, the last page, having
accidentally escaped the binder's knife,
has remained uncut for nearly two centuries.
Don Antonio also wrote a Ufe of himself in
three volumes, the original of which was be
queathed by his son Don Manuel to Juan
Caramuel the author of " Philippus Prudens,"
a work in defence of Philip's right to the
crown of Portugal. Caramuel states in this
work that he was in possession of many other
of Antonio's writings, and says of him that
he was " felix calamo, politicic scientiae doc-
tissinius." Antonio is generally supposed,
but, according to Caramuel, erroneously, to
be the author of a defence of his claims which
appeared in HoUand in 1585 in Latin, Dutch,
French, and English. The title of the En
glish version is " The Explanation of the
true and law full Right and Tytle of the most
excellent Prince Anthonie, the first of that
Name, King of Portug.all, together with a
briefe Ilistorye of aU that passed about that
Matter untUl the Yeare of our Lord, I58.j."
It is a small quarto, very neatly printed at
Leiden by Plantin. The other works of
91

Antonio enumerated by Barbosa Machado
are merely letters to different princes in-
treating their assistance. (De Sousa, Histo
ria Genealogica da Casa real Portugueza, iii.
369 — 402., Provas [attached to that work],
ii. 523—572. ; Barbosa Machado, Bibliotheca
Lusitana, i. 190 — 194. ; Lemos Faria e Cas
tro, Historia geral de Portugal c suas Con-
quistas, xvii. 261—330. ; D. Christovam de
Portugal, Briefve et Sommaire Description de
la Vie et Mort de Dom Antoine, Paris, 1629,
12mo. ; Caramuel, Philippus Prudens, p.
170, &c. ; Southey, Lives of the British Ad
mirals [in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopadia'],
in. 204 — 221. ; Prmted works ol Don An
tonio.) T. W.
ANTO'NIO, GIOVANNL [Sodoma.]
ANTO'NIO DE LEBRIXA. [Antonius
Nberissensis.] ANTO'NIO MALGARITA. [Antonio
Margarita.] ANTO'NIO, MARC. [Raimondl]
ANTO'NIO MARGARITA or MAL
GARITA (nnnxj^D in NDnano i*jid:x).
or more correctly MargaUtha, a descendant
of the celebrated Jewish family called
MargaUtha, of which name many are noticed
in the " Tzemach David." [Aaron Mar-
galitha.] His father held the office of
chief rabbi of the synagogue of Ratisbon.
In the year 1522 Antonio became a convert
to Christianity, and was baptised at Wasser-
burg in Bavaria, whence he removed to
Augsburg, where he became professor of
Hebrew, and gave lectures on the Hebrew
Scriptures. He afterwards filled the same
situation at Leipzig, and finaUy at Vienna.
Christ. Schlegel, in his work "De Celia
Veteri," says that Margarita taught the holy
tongue for a year and a half at Meissen
(Misnia), and afterwards for a year at Zell
(CeUa), before he went to Leipzig. AU his
works seem to have been written after his
conversion to Christianity. The following is
a list of them : — 1. "A true and candid Ex
position of the Jewish Religion, its Institu
tions, Ceremonies, Prayers, and Rites," in
the German language ; it was first printed
at Augsburg, a.d. 1530, 4to., afterwards,
with additions and emendations by the au
thor, at Leipzig a.d. 1531, 4to., and again in
the same year and at the same place, but in a
different type : all this shows the high esti
mation in which this little book was held by
his contemporaries. Indeed, Luther himself
speaks of it in high tei-ms, as weU as J.
MiiUer in the preface to his " Judaismus De-
tectus," and Hoornbeck in the Prolegomena
to his treatise "De convertendis Judaeis."
It was printed also at Frankfort on the Main,
A.D. 1544, 1561, and 1689, in 4to. ; this
edition, however, though published at Frank
fort was, according to Wolff, reaUy printed
at Helmstadt, aud from it was taken the last
edition by Christian Reineccius, which v.as
printed at Leipzig a.d. 1705, and again.

ANTONIO.

ANTONIO.

without alteration, a.d. 1713, in Svo. 2. A
German tract on the Christian (Roman Ca
thoUc) Ceremony of the Procession of the
Ass on Palm Sunday, in which he attempts
to prove its orthodoxy from the Old as well
as the New Testament ; it was printed a. d.
1541 in 4to., though neither Wolff nor
Gesner gives the place of publication. 3. A
Declaration or Elucidation of the Fifty-third
Chapter of Isaiah, in which he undertakes to
prove that the promised Messiah is already
come. This work is also in German, and the
subject is thus treated. I. A short, literal,
and grammatical exposition of the chapter is
given by the author himself. II. A German
version of three celebrated Jewish commen
taries on this chapter, namely, those of Aben
Ezra, Rashi (Solomon Jarohi) and Klmchi,
with a refutation of their arguments. III. A
comparison of the prophecies of the Old Tes
tament with the events of the New, in which
he proves them to have been fulfilled from this
fifty -third chapter, and finally a German ver
sion of the Targum, or Chaldee Paraphrase of
this chapter. This work was printed at Vienna
by Joan. Singremius a. d. 1 534, in 4to. 4.
A Hebrew Psalter, with points. In his Latin
preface, he speaks of a Hebrew grammar
which he is about to publish to be caUed
" Viccuach Halashon " (" The Strife of the
Tongue "), and also a complete translation of
the Gospel of St. Matthew. In his treatise
on the Jewish religion, he also mentions the
following works by himself as already in the
press : — " On Usury as practised by the
Jews ; '¦ " On the Jewish Family of Wolff; "
and " A Dialogue on Faith with a Jew."
After all the praise bestowed on this author's
celebrated tract on Judaism, WagenseU, in
his learned treatise on the Talmudic book
" Sota," says that Margarita is often very se
vere upon the Talmud, but that he had cer
tainly never read it. (Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr.
i. 202, 203., in. 129, 130., iv. 789. ; Bai-to-
loccius, Biblioth. Mag. Rabb. 1. 375. ; Com-.
Gesnerus, Biblioth. a Simlero, p. 63, 64. ;
WagenseiUus, Sota, p. 1105.) C. P. H.
ANTO'NIO MOROSI'NI (1N''J1t3JX
*J'DniD), an Italian Jew, who having be
come a convert to Christianity, resided at
the court of Ferdinand II. grand duke of
Tuscany, during the latter part of the seven
teenth century, where he wrote a volume of
Italian poetry on various subjects, among the
rest an eplthalamium on the marriage of the
Marquis Cosmo Rlcciardo (afterwards Cosmo
III.) and Julia Spada, which was printed at
Florence a.d. 1692, in 4to. (Wolfius, Bi'i-
lioth. Hebr.'m. \2'i.) C. P. H.
ANTO'NIO, NICOLAS, was born at
Seville on the 2Sth or the 31st of July, 1617.
His family originally came from the Nether
lands, his grandfather having emigrated to
Spain from Antwerp, and his father was at
the time of his blrtli administrator ofthe ad
miralty at SevUle. Antonio commenced his
92

studies in SeviUe, at the college of St. Thomas,
and pursued them at the university of Sala
manca, where he was the favourite pupil of
Don Francisco Ramos del Manzano, a cele
brated teacher of jurisprudence, who was
afterwards tutor to the prince who became
Charles II. of Spain. At Salamanca Antonio
commenced preparing --^ work on the names
of persons and places mentioned in the Pan
dects, and had already advanced as far as
the third part of the Pandects when he
found that his labours had been anticipated
by a previous work on the same subject by
Don Antonio Agustin, archbishop of Tar
ragona. This experience of the inconve
nience of the want of bibliographical know
ledge first led him to pay attention to that
study, and he soon formed the plan of the
great work which he lived to execute, of a
complete list of the authors of Spain, with
a catalogue of their writings. He com
menced his labours soon after at Seville,
where, on his return in 1649, the melan
choly occasion of a visit of the plague in its
most violent shape supplied him with abund
ance of leisure, and he was fortunate enough
to be able to employ it in a way both sooth
ing and useful. Residing, for the benefit of
the open air, at a house in a suburban gar
den without the gate of Carmona, he spent
his days in the Ubrary of the neighbouring
Benedictine monastery, collecting materials
for his intended work, during three months
that the pestUence lasted. In 1651 he went
to Madrid to seek some literary post, and in
the following year obtained the Ucense for
the publication of a legal treatise, " De ExiUo,"
which however did not make its appearance
till seven years after at Antwerp. He be
came a knight of Santiago, and in 1659 was
named by King Philip IV. his general agent
at the court of Rome, where he arrived in
September of that year, and continued to re
side for the following eighteen years. In
1677 he was recaUed to Madrid by his ap
pointment as " Fiscal of the Royal Council
of the Crusade " by King Charles II. WhUe
at Rome, in addition to his office of agent for
Spain, the duties of which were sufficient to
occupy the time of most men, he held that of
agent of the inquisition, of Naples, of MUan,
and of SlcUy, and yet, in spite of aU these
engagements, he contrived to labour at his
great bibliographical work, the second part
of which, comprising the authors from a.d.
1500 to his own time, he published at Rome
in 1672. After his return to Spain there was
some intention, in 1683, of sending him am
bassador to Portugal, but the appointment
never took place, and he died of epilepsy, at
Madrid, on the 13th of April, 1684, deeply
in debt, though in addition to his offices he
held a canonry of SevlUe. IMuch of this debt
had doubtless been incurred in the formation
of his valuable library, which is said by Car
dinal Saenz de Aguirre to have contained

ANTONIO.

ANTONIO.

thirty thousand volumes, and to have been
the best in Rome after that of the Vatican.
The works of Antonio require to be enu-
ftierated with some particularity. They are,
1. "De Exilio," Antwerp, 1659, folio, a very
learned treatise on exile from the earUest
times, commencing with that of the rebel
angels from Heaven and of Adam from Pa
radise. It is singular that on this subject
also Antonio found himself anticipated, and
that on sending the manuscript for inspection
to Ramos del Manzano he was informed that
his friend and fellow-pupil, Jose Fernandez
de Retes, had just completed some commen
taries on the title of the Digest " De Inter-
dictione et Relegatione." Both treatises were
published in friendly rivalry, and both of
them are highly spoken of by Gerard Meer-
man, who considers that of Retes to be supe
rior as a legal essay, and that of Antonio in
diversified learning. Antonio's first chapter
is a bibliographical one " On those who
have treated of Exile before him." A new
edition of this treatise, with very consider
able additions from the manuscript notes
of Antonio to his own copy in the royal
library at Madrid, was published in the
third volume of Meerman's " Novus The
saurus Juris Cjvilis." 2. The only other
work published by Antonio during his life
time was that portion of the " Bibliotheca
Hispana," afterwards caUed the " Bibliotheca
Nova," which relates to the authors who lived
from the year 1500 to the date of publication.
This work, which appeared at Rome, in two
volumes, folio, in 1672, was a sort of com
plement to the " Bibliotheca Vetus," which
contains the authors from the earliest periods
to the year 1500, but the " Bibliotheca Vetus"
did not appear tUl the year 1696, twelve
years after the author's death, when it was
published, also at Rome, in two volumes, folio,
under the editorship of Don Emanuel Marti,
afterwards dean of Alicant, and at the ex
pense of Antonio's friend and fellow-pupil.
Cardinal Saenz de Aguirre, who had obtained
it for that purpose from the author's heirs.
In the course of the next century these books
became so rare that a copy was difficult to be
met with in Spain, and when occasionally
offered for sale brought a very high price. A
new edition of the " Bibliotheca Nova " was
at length set on foot, under the patronage of
Charles III., and was considerably advanced
under the editorship of Sanchez, PelUcer, and
Casalbon, when Perez Bayer was requested
to superintend a new edition of the " Biblio
theca Vetus " also, and both were at last pub
lished at the same time, at Madrid, in 1 788,
in four foUo volumes of beautiful typography.
An error in the title page of the first volume
ofthe "Bibliotheca Nova," by which 1783,
instead of 1788, is given as the date of pub
lication, has occasioned much confusion on
that head. This edition of the " Bibliotheca
Hispann," which has since formed an indls-
93

pensable part of the Ubrary of every Spanish ¦
scholar, is, nevertheless, far inferior in value
to what might reasonably have been expected.
The " Bibliotheca Vetus," which, if Bayer
had had the time and opportunity to bestow
upon it his ample stores of learning, would
probably have been as good as a work of
the kind can be, was hurried through the
press in order that it might appear simul
taneously with the " Nova," and it was con
sequently impracticable to introduce all the
improvements which he wished, though his
additions are of great value. The " Biblio
theca Nova " was edited by PelUcer and
Sanchez on so singular a plan that, but for
the evidence of their own declaration in the
preface, it would be difficult to believe
that it could ever have been adopted by two
such men. They state that their design was
to present the work of Nicolas Antonio
entire, and add, that this " they have so
religiously observed, that even the authors
whom Antonio, through forgetfulness, in
serted twice over have not been retrenched ;
those whom he has once given as anonymous
and once with their names are both retained ;
omissions, which might easily have been
supplied, have been left as they were, and
some errors, which might readily have been
corrected, remain untouched." All that they
allowed themselves to do was to Insert in
their proper places the manuscript notes from
Antonio's own copy of the book, which
brought the information up to the year of his
death, and supplied an additional harvest of
eighteen hundred authors.
The " Bibliotheca Vetus " and " Nova " are
constructed upon different plans. In the
former the authors are given in chronological
series ; in the latter in alphabetical order,
according to their Christian names. This
preference of the Christian to the surname
was common to most of the early bibliogra-.
phers, beginning with Conrad Gesner, but
has now been long abandoned in every coun
try of Europe, except the Penmsula. The
inconvenience which it causes is partially
remedied in Antonio's book by an .index of
surnames at the end, to which are appended
six other indexes, all highly useful, one of
the birthplaces of the authors whom he men
tions, two of the orders secular and regular
to which some of them belonged, one of the
ecclesiastical and another of the civil dignities
which they attained, and finally, one eniuner-
ating the subjects treated of in their works.
By the last we are enabled to discover among
other things that the " BibUotheca Nova "
mentions four author.3 who have written on
optics and perspective, four on chemistry,
seven on mineralogy, eleven on agriculture
and eighteen on architecture, sculpture, paint
ing and mechanics (which are all Included
by Antonio under one head), while it enume
rates eighty-two who have written on the
sacred images of the Virgin, a hundred and

ANTONIO.

ANTONIO.

sixty-seven on the Immaculate Conception,
two hundred and twenty on the " Sum of
Theology " by St. Thomas Aquinas, and five
hundred and seventy-five on the lives of
saints and martyrs. Antonio gives a brief
memoir of each of his subjects, a Ust of their
works, both printed and manuscript, and of
their various editions, with, in some cases, a
reference to his authorities. He includes in
his catalogue Portuguese as well as Spaniards,
and all persons born in the Spanish or Por
tuguese colonies ; and he gives in the " Bib
liotheca Vetus " a separate list of Arabic au
thors connected with Spain, and in the " Nova"
another of writers who had resided in the
Peninsula, or treated of Its history, or might
in any way be considered as belonging to a
Spanish library. He had also dra-wn up a
list of rabbinical authors for the " Bibliotheca
Vetus," but it could not be found at the time
that work was printed, nor does it appear to
have been discovered since.
The merits of Antonio have been spoken
of in very high terms. In some commend
atory lines prefixed to the edition of the
" Bibliotheca Nova," published by himself,
he is caUed " a double miracle of nature ; "
Rodriguez de Castro, In his " Biblioteca Es-
paiiola," speaks of him as the " incoijiparable
Nicolas Antonio ; Seelen styles him " the
prince of bibliographers ; " Morhof and Cle
ment praise him highly, and we have seen
the enthusiastic reverence shown to him by
Sanchez and PelUcer. His merits are indeed
so great, and the service he has rendered to
literature so eminent, that it is but an un
grateful task to point out his deficiencies.
It may, however, be observed that his adop
tion of the Latin language iu treating of the
Spanish writers of the sixteenth and seven
teenth ceuturies appears to have been a se
rious error In judgment. As the nature of
his work requires a constant mention of the
names of places and persons, the titles of of-
ces, &c., all the objections which have been
urged against the employment of an ancient
language in modern history apply to it in
their fullest force ; and as after all he gene
rally gives the titles of books in their original
languages without translation, (though the
contrary has been often stated,) a great part of
his information is not accessible to those who
do not understand Spanish. Antonio's Latin
style is neither pleasing nor even correct.
Bayer, in the preface to his edition of the
" Bibliotheca Vetus," points out solecisms in
the first edition ofthe most unusual character,
false concords, the accusative used instead
of the nominative, and other things of the
kind. The adoption of the arrangement by
Christian names is one which every reader
regrets at least nine times out of ten that he
consults the work of Antonio ; it has no
perceivable recommendation, and it has the
disadvantage of separating widely many
names whieh ought to be close together.
94

The general character of his biographical
narratives is that of provoking dryness, even
in cases where the subject is interesting and
the materials ample. This is shown very
conspicuously in his account of Calderon,
whom he dismisses with a few vague sen
tences of praise, without even mentioning
the date or place of his birth, or particu
larising his works any further than as " some
volumes of comedies." Though generaUy
honest and candid in his criticism on se
cular subjects, he cannot be considered as
very liberal or enUghtened on ecclesiastical
matters, and he has carried his dislike of
heretics so far as to omit the name of Michael
Servetus altogether. It may be observed
also, that the list of authors in the " BibUo
theca" is far from complete. Even in the
second edition Antonio wiU be found to enu
merate no more than a hundred and eighty-
eight Valencian authors, while Rodriguez, in
the " Biblioteca Valentlna," gives more than
seven hundred. With all these deductions,
the " Bibliotheca Hispana " is stUl the best
work to consult on a subject of Spanish lite
rature, and often the only one. A ti-anslatlon
of it into Spanish, with an attempt to correct
its errors, supply its omissions, and continue
it to the present time, would be one of the
most valuable presents that could be made to
the libraries of Europe. FinaUy, if Antonio
was not a MazzuchelU, it is but fair to re
member that he estimated more justly than
Mazzuchelli what the ordinary Umits of
human Ufe wotUd allow to be performed, and
has left us a work which is at least in one
sense complete.
His third great work is the " Censura de
Historias Fabulosas," first pubUshed at '\"a-
lencia, in one volume folio, in 1742, by Don
Gregorio Mayans i Siscar. It is a learned
dissertation on the authenticity of certain
chronicles relating to ancient Spanish eccle
siastical history, which pm-port to be written
by Flavins Dexter, Marcus Maximus, Luit-
prand, and JuUan Perez, but are in reality
the production of Father Geronimo Roman de
la Higuera, who pretended to discover them
towards the close of the sixteenth centurj-.
The fact of the forgery is clearly established
in this very elaborate piece of criticism, which
occupies more than six hundred and forty
foUo pages closely printed in double columns.
Even this was only a portion of what An
tonio intended to write on the subject : he
speaks in the short account of himself which
he gives in the " Bibliotheca Nova " of a
projected work in Latin, to be entitled " Tro-
phaeiim historico-ecclesiasticum Deo Veritatis
erectum ex Mannbiis pseudo-Historicorum
Flavii Dextri," &c. ; and among his manu
scripts were several in Spanish relating to
the same affair, whicli Mayans announced
his intention of publishing as a supplement
to the " Censura." These fictitious chro
nicles had acquired much favour in tho

ANTONIO.

ANTONIO.

eyes of the Spanish ecclesiastics ; some ex
pressions of Antonio concerning them in
the " BibUotheca Vetus " had brought some
trouble on Cardinal Saenz de Aguirre when he
published it, and the whole of the copies of
the " Censura " were seized by order of the
Spanish government soon after its appear
ance. The investigation which followed con
vinced the government of the correctness of
Antonio's views, and the " Censura " was
three months afterwards allowed to be sold
again. Together with this work were given
some interesting literary letters by Antonio,
which had first been published by Mayans at
Lyon in 1733, and were afterwards reprinted
by him in his " Cartas de varies Autores Es-
panoles." Some misapprehension of the
meaning of the Spanish word " Cartas " (let
ters) has led the writer of the article on
Antonio in the " Biographie Universelle " to
describe the " Censura " as " ouvrage ome
de cartes," which Watt in the " Bibliotheca
Britannica," has translated " ornamented
with plates."
In a biography by Mayans prefixed to
the " Censura," he gives an account of se
veral unpublished manuscripts of Antonio :
— a " Series Historicorum ; " a " Hermes
Blbllcus ; " a " Censura Universal ; " two
Itineraries, &c., which are preserved in the
royal library at Madrid, to which they
were presented by Don Adriano Coning, the
nephew and one of the heirs of Antonio. A
fine portrait of Antonio, whose countenance
is remarkably sensible aud prepossessing, is
given in the last edition of the " Bibliotheca,"
and in the great collection of " Retratos de
los Espanoles." {Life by Mayans prefixed
to the Censura, and by Bayer to the Biblio
theca Vetus ; every edition of every work
of Antonio ; Arana de Varfiora, Hijos de
Sevilla, iv. 43 — 48. ; Seelen, Selecta Literaria,
p. 1 — 5ir; Meusel, Bibliotheca Historica, vi.
4—1.3.) T. W.
ANTO'NIO OF PADUA, SAINT, was
born at Lisbon on the 15th of August, 1195.
He was descended from a noble and wealthy
family, and on his father's side he was related
to Godfrey of Bouillon, the celebrated cru
sader. His real name before he entered the
monastic life was Ferdinand. In his fifteenth
year he entered the order of the Augustin
monks, but in 1220 he left them, and joined
the Franciscan order, whioh had been esta
blished some years before by St. Francis of
Assisi, of whose disciples Antonio became
one of the most zealous and renowned. With
a view to convert the heathens, or to win the
crown of martyrdom, he embarked in 1221
on an expedition to Africa, but a storm cast
hlra back upon the coast of Italy. His mis
sionary plans among the heathens were now
given up, and after having stayed for some
time in a hermitage in Italy, he went about
preaching in various towns of France and
Ital)', especially at Montpellier, Toulouse,
95

Bologna, and Padua. His biography consists
of numerous marveUous stories, from which
it is impossible to elicit the truths He is
chiefly celebrated for his extraordinary talent
of preaching. He himself, however, went so
far in his monkish humility, as to assert that
he was better fitted for washing the dishes
and spoons in a monastery than for preaching.
In truth, he possessed little knowledge, and
of theology he was profoundly ignorant. He
died at Padua on the 13th of June, 1231. In
the year foUowing Pope Gregory XI. placed
him among the saints, and a magnificent
church was dedicated to him at Padua. His
tomb in this church is a master-work of
middle age sculpture. The Church of Rome
celebrates his memory on the 13th of June.
He is invoked as one of the greatest of their
saints by the Roman Catholics, but more es
pecially in Portugal and Italy; and he is
believed to exert his influence in averting
diseases and epidemics among cattle. The
writings of St. Antonio, consisting of sermons,
a mystical explanation of the Scriptures and
a biblical concordance, are of very little value.
The following is a list of them : 1. " Ser
mones Dominlcales, Adventus, Quadragesi-
males, allique de Tempore," Paris, 1521, Svo.
The most correct edition is that of R. Maffei,
Venice, 1575, Svo. 2. " Concordantia; Mo
rales Sacrte Scripturas Praedlcatoribus ad
Virtutem commendandam utillssima;," Rome,
1624; Paris, 1641 ; Cologne, 1647. 3. " In
terpretatio Mystica in omnes fere Sacrae
Scripturae Libros," Paris, 1641, fol.; Lyon,
1653, fol.; Regensburg, 1739, fol. These
three works are also printed in L. Wadding's
edition of the works of St. Francis of Assisi
(Antwerp, 1623, 4to.), and in the edition of
the works by J. de la Haye (Paris, 1641, fol.,
reprinted at Lyon, 1653, fol.). In 1757, A.
M. Azzoguidius published from a MS. in the
Franciscan monastery at Bologna, some ser
mons entitled, " Sermones in Psalmos, ex
Autographo nunc primum in lucem editi," in
2 vols. 4to. The MS. contains no author's
name ; but the editor was convinced, by the
peculiar smell of the MS., that it was written
by St. Antonio's own hand, and that the ser
mons were his work. This edition contains
also a biogi-aphy of the saint. His life has
been often written, in all the languages of
Europe, both in prose and in verse. {Acta
Sanctorum, June 13. ; Nicolaus Antonius, Bib
liotheca Hispana Vetus, viii. t. 2. ; Hamberger,
Zuverldssige Nachrichten, iv. 365.) L. S.
ANTO'NIO DE PA'PHIA (IN'OIIDJN
nN''E)!<Q H), which Wolff interprets to mean
de Pavia (Ticlnensis). There was a folio
manuscript in the Ubrary of Colbert, on the
treatment of fevers, translated from the
Latin of Antonio de Paphia into Hebrew by
R. Solomon ben JNIoses the physician, but no
notice is given of the time at which this
author lived. (Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr.'m.
130.) C. P, H.

ANTONIO.

ANTONIOTTL

ANTO'NIO, PE'DRO, a Spanish histori
cal painter, born at Cordova in 1614. He
was the scholar of Antonio del CastUlo, and
painted several works, which, through the
freshness of their colouring, attracted the ap
plause of the vulgar at Cordova, where there
are several of his works. The best are, a
St. Rosa de Lima and a St. Thomas Aqui
nas, in the convent of St. Paul. He died at
Cordova in 1675. (Bermudez, Diccionario
Historica, SfC.) R. N. W.
ANTO'NIO DA TRENTO. [Trento.]
ANTO'NIO DA TREVIGI painted at
Trevigi about the beginning of the fifteenth
century (1402 — 1414). In the church of S.
Niccolo he executed with considerable skill a
colossal figure of St. Christopher. (Federici,
Memorie Trevigiane su le Opere di Disegno.) R. N. W.
ANTO'NIO VENEZIA'NO, one of the
most eminent painters in fresco of the four
teenth century, was born, according to Vasari,
in Venice in 1310, but Baldlnucci has con
cluded, from certain documents which he dis
covered, that he was a Florentine. He studied
at Florence with Angelo Gaddi, and painted
much in his style. Antonio painted some
frescoes in Venice for the signory, but was so
badly rewarded that he left the place in dis
gust. His chief works, now nearly all de
stroyed, were painted in Florence and in Pisa,
where in the Canipo Santo and in other places
he executed many works of extraordinary
merit for the period, in the opinion of Vasari
particularly, who praises the force of his co
louring, and the truth and harmony of his
chiaroscuro, io which he was scarcely equalled
by any painter of his time. His design also
was correct and graceful, and he was distin
guished likewise for the choice of his atti
tudes, the elegance of his draperies, and the
variety of his expression.
One of his most celebrated works was the
Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes, painted in
the convent of S. Spirlto at Florence. Vasari
says that his paintings in the Campo Santo
were decidedly the best pictures there. He
completed in this place the series commenced
by Simone Memmi, of the life of San Ranieri :
his own portrait is among the heads painted
Dy him. These works are still extant.
Towards the end of his life he devoted
himself to the study of medicine, and he be
came, says Vasari, no less skilful as a physi
cian than he was diligent as a painter.
He died of the plague in Florence (a. d.
1384), in the seventy-fourth year of his age;
a victim to his exertions to save the lives of
others. Paolo Uccello and Gherardo Star-
ninl were his scholars. (Vasari, Vite de' Pit
tori, !jix.) R. N. W.
ANTO'NIO DE YEPES. [Yepes.]
ANTONIOTTI, GIO'RGIO, was born at
Milan in 1692, and resided some time in
Holland, where, in 1736, he published his
first work, " Twelve Sonatas for the Violon-
96

cello or Viol di Gamha.'' He afterwards
came to London, where he lived more than
twenty years, without rising to eminence iu
any branch of his profession. His work
" L'Arte Armonica," translated into English,
was published by Johnson in 1760. It is
partly historical and partly theoretical, but its
intrinsic value is not great. (Fetis, Bio
graphie Universelle des Musiciens; Antoniotti,
L'Arte Armonica.) E. T.
ANTONI'SZE, KORNELIS, a good
Dutch painter of cities, and apparently also a
wood-cutter. He was bom at Amsterdam
about 1500. There is in the exchequer at
Amsterdam a painting of that place executed
in 1536 by Antonisze. He published also a
view of the same place in a set of twelve
woodcuts, dedicated to Charles V., which is
very scarce. Antonisze was one of the she
riffs of Amsterdam, and in 1547 was elected a
member of the city council. His name is
sometimes written Teunissen ; both forms
signify the son of Antony or Antonius : and
Sotzmann, " Ueber des Anton von Worms Ab-
bUdung der Stadt Coin aus den Jahren 1531,"
conjectures that Antonisze may have been
the son of Anton von Worms.
There was a Henrik Antoniszes or An-
theuniszen, who died at Antwerp in 1794,
aged fifty-seven : he painted excellent land
scapes in the style of Berghem, He had
many good scholars. (Houbraken, Groote
Schouburgh der Nederlantsche Konstschilders,
&c. ; Nagler, Neues AUgemeines Kiinstler
Lexicon-) R. N. W.
ANTO'NIUS. This name of a physician
occurs several times in Galen's works, but
whether all the passages refer to the same
person or to several individuals it is impos
sible to say. If it refers to several indi
viduals, they must all have Uved in or before
the second century after Christ. One is caUed
" the herbaUst," another " the druggist," and
the prescriptions of both are quoted with ap
parent approbation. They may both perhaps
be the same as Antonius Castor. A third is
the person to whom the treatise " On the
Pulse " (which is in the nineteenth volume
of Kiihn's edition of Galen's works, but which
is generaUy considered to be a spurious com
pilation from his other works on the same
subject) is addressed, and who is there styled
" a lover of learning and a philosopher." The
only reason for thinking him to have been a
physician is the natm-e of the work addressed
to him. An Epicurean phUosopher, who was
a contemporary of Galen, is added to this
list by Fabricius, but the writer is not aware
of there being any grounds for his so doing.
He composed a phUosophical work, entitled
UtpX TTJs M Toh 'ISlois ndeecrw 'EipiSpdas,
which probably means (for Galen himself
notices the obscurity of the title) " On the
guarding against one's own Affections," in
answer to which Galen wrote his work " On
knowing and curing the peculiar Affections

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

of each Man's Soul " {Uepl Aiayvii(Tea>s Kai
©epoTreias TWf 4v t^ hcdaTov 'Vvxjl 'ISiuv T\a-
eHif). Galen's treatise is still extant in the
fifth volume of his works, but that of An
tonius is lost. (Fabricius, Biblioth- Graca,
vol. xiii. p. 65. ed. vet.) W, A, G,
ANTO'NIUS DE AGUILERA. [An
tonius Cartaginensis.]
ANTO'NIUS, A'TTICUS, a rhetorician
mentioned by Marcus Seneca {Suasoria, 2.).
A few words from one of his declamations
are cited with high approbation by Seneca.
W. B. D.
ANTO'NIUS DE AZARO, [Antony
OF Parma,]
ANTO'NIUS, CAIUS, was the second son
of M. Antonius Creticus, and brother of An
tonius the Triumvir, Hefij-st appears in his
tory in B. c, 54, when, in conjunction with
his younger brother Lucius and C. Memmius,
tribune of the people, he prosecuted Aulus
Gabinius, consul in b. c, 58, for oppression
and extortion in his government of Syria,
In E, c. 51, Caius Antonius was qujcstor to
Q. Minucius Thermus, proprsetor of Asia, to
whom he was recommended by M. Cicero as
his deputy in that province until the new
proconsul arrived. Cicero's quarrel with the
Antonii was subsequent to b.c. 51, and he
described the three brothers as men of some
eloquence and talents, whom it would be
prudent in Minucius to conciliate, especially
as they were certain of soon being tribunes
of the people, and, iu due time, consuls {Ad
Familiares, 11. 18.). Caius Antonius, how
ever, was never tribune. But at the break
ing out of the civil wars in b. c. 49 he was
sent as Caesar's lieutenant to lUyrlcura, and
was besieged in the island Coricta on the
lUyrlan coast by M. Octavius and L. Scri-
bonlus Libo, who commanded a squadron of
the fleet of Cn, Pompeius. His provisions
faded him, one of his centurions, T, Pulfio,
proved treacherous, and he was compelled to
surrender. His army. — fifteen cohorts, ac
cording to Oroslus (vi, 15,) — was incorpo
rated with that of Pompeius, and Antonius
remained a prisoner until after the battle of
Pharsalus. He was appointed one of the
pontlfices by Julius (Cassar, and was city-
praetor with M. Brutus in E. c. 44. In the
same year his elder brother Marcus Anto
nius was consul, and his younger brother
Lucius tribune of the people. As Marcus
and the Caisarian party had driven M. Bmtus
and his fellow-conspirators from Rome, Caius
Antonius alone officiated as clty-pra>tor. In
this office he received Octa^'lanus Ca;sar's
declaration that he meant to claim the estates
of his late uncle, the dictator. The praatorian
games which Caius Antonius exhibited on
the 7th of July in the same year were anx
iously awaited by both parties, since it was
probable that the general feeling towards
t'a-sar's murderers would be manifested
during their representalion. The province of
VOL. Ill,

Macedonia, which Caesar had assigned to M.
Brutus, after having been first transferred to
Marcus Antonius, was finally, at his insti
gation, given by the senate to Caius. He
landed at ApoUonia in lUyricum late in the
autumn of E. c, 44, But his province was
already in possession of M, Brutus, and on
every side a superior- force was ready to
attack him. He expected to have been
joined at ApoUonia by the troops of Vatinius
and Hortensius. Vatinius, however, had
opened the gates of Dyracchium, and surren
dered his three legions to Brutus : and Hor
tensius had acknowledged Brutus as the
legitimate proconsul of Macedonia. Anto
nius had brought from Italy, according to
Appian, a single legion, according to Cicero,
only seven cohorts. His brother Marcus and
Cornelius DolabeUa had withdrawn five
legions to their respective provinces of Cis
alpine Gaul and Syria, and a sixth, under the
command of Caius's own lieutenant, Lucius
Piso, had yielded to Brutus : Caius, there
fore, finding himself too weak to defend
ApoUonia, and suspecting the disposition of
the townsmen, went to Buthrotus, but, on his
march thither, three of his cohorts were cut
off by Brutus. He was again defeated by the
lieutenant of Brutus, the young Marcus
Cicero, while attempting to seize some strong
posts in the neighbourhood of Byllls : and
shortly afterwards was overtaken on some
marshy ground and surrounded by the cavalry
of the enemy. About the middle of March,
B. c. 43, his troops obliged him to surrender
to Brutus, for his capture is mentioned by
Cicero in his thirteenth Philippic oration,
which was spoken in the senate on March
the 20th. Although the expediency of putting
him to death, in requital for the murder of
Trebonius at Ephesus by DolabeUa, was urged
by Cicero and others, Antonius was at first
allowed to retain his prtctorlan lictors and
fasces. But his confinement was rigorous
after the discovery of his attempts to excite
the soldiers to mutiny. The proscription
and murder of Decimus Brutus and Cicero
by the second triumvirate at length deter
mined M. Brutus to order the death of his
prisoner. The execution of the order was
entrusted to Q. Hortensius, late proconsul of
Macedonia, on which account M. Antonius,
after his victory at PhlUppl, caused Horten
sius to be slain on the grave of his brother.
The accounts of the death of C, Antonius
and its attendant circumstances are, however,
various. Dion Cassius says that he was put
to death in ApoUonia by one Caius Clodius,
who guarded him, without any authority from
Brutus, because he feared that the emissaries
ofthe triumvir Marcus Antonius would effect
his rescue. He mentions, however, the ver
sion of the story which Plutarch and Ap
pian followed, and which attributes his ex
ecution to M, Brutus. VeUeius Paterculus
(11. 71.) says that Q. Hortensius feU in the
u

ANTONIUS,

ANTONIUS.

action at Philippi, Livy {Epitome, cxxlv,)
leaves it undecided. Two medals are assigned
to this Caius Antonius by Rasche, Lexicon
Rei Numaria- One of them, a silver medal,
has the legend " C. Antonius Procos," on
the upper face, and the word " Pontifex " on
the reverse. The other medal has on the
reverse " Roma " and the head of Hercules,
(Ernesti, Clavis Ciceroniana ; Baiter, Ono-
¦masticon Tullianum, " Caius Antonius ;" the
indices to Plutarch's Lives, Bryant's ed. ;
Dion Cassius ; Appian, Civil Wars ; Caesar,
Bellum Gallicum, 111. 4. 10. 67. ; Florus, iv.
2. § 31. ; Lucan, iv. 406. ; Valerius Maximus,
vUi. 1. § 3.) W. B. D,
ANTO'NIUS, CAIUS HY'BBIDA, was
the younger of the two sons of M, Antonius
the Orator, and uncle of the Triumvir. The
origin and meaning of his surname, Hybrida,
are uncertain, Pliny {Hist- Nat. vlli, 79,),
Valerius Maximus (vlii, 6, § 4.), Horace,
{Satira, vii. 2.), and Suetonius {Octavius,
19.), apply the word to one who is born of a
Roman father and a foreign mother. The
parents of Caius Antonius must, however,
have been both of them Roman citizens,
although it is remarkable that his mother's
name is nowhere mentioned ; for otherwise
he himself would neither have ranked among
the Antonii, nor been eligible to the magis
tracies. Like Creticus, therefore, Hybrida
was probably a term of reproach, suitable to
the low habits of one whom Cicero calls a
gladiator, a robber, and a charioteer ( Oratio in
Toga Candida)- In B, c. 87, as military tri
bune, he accompanied Sulla into Greece,
But on the return of Sulla to Italy in E, c. 83,
Antonius remained behind with a few troops
of horse, and levied contributions on the pro
vince of Achaia, For this offence, on the
petition of the provincials, Antonius was pro
secuted by C, JuUus Caesar before M. Lu
cullus, the praetor peregrinus, B. c, 76, He
was cited, but refused to appear, alleging
some informality in the appointment of the
judges, and for a time the prosecution was
dropped. Six years afterwards, however, the
censors L. GelUus aud Cn. Cornelius Len-
tuliLs, B. c. 70, expelled him from the senate
for his original offence, for disobeying the
praetor's summons, and for squandering his
own property. Cicero says that Antonius
sold his herds of cattle and assigned over his
pasture-lands, but kept his herdsmen, and
threatened to employ them in a servile war.
Antonius returned from Greece in time to pro
fit by Sulla's proscription, and he was one of
the Roman nobles who flattered the dictator
by appearing in public as charioteers at his
Clreensian games, E. c. 81, At what time he
regained his seat in the senate is unknown.
Before his expulsion he had probably been
tribune of the people (Orelll's Inscriptions,
No. 3673.), and he was acdlle between B.C.
69 — 66 At the games which he then ex
hibited, the proscenium and stage decorations
98

were plated with silver. (Pliny, Hist
Nat xxxiii, 16.; Valerius Maximus, U, 4,
6.) He was one of Cicero's colleagues in
the praetorshlp, E. c. 66, and in the consul
ship, B. c, 63, At the praetorian comitia he
was raised, through Cicero's interest with the
people, from the lowest to the third place
among the candidates. In canvassing for the
consulship, Catiline and Antonius, secretly
supported by Crassus and Caesar, employed
every means to prevent Cicero's election, and
drew on themselves the orator's invective in
his speech in " Toga Candida." Their re
plies were published, but turned chiefly on
the obscurity of Cicero's family. They bribed
so openly, that the severe penalties of the
Calpurnian law against bribery were ren
dered more stringent on their account by
the enactment, after much opposition in
the senate, of the Lex TuUia de Ambitu,
Antonius was at length declared Cicero's
coUeague by a smaU majority in the cen
turies over CatUine ; and he owed it to
the respect entertained for his father's me
mory that some men of character supported
him. Once in the consulate, Antonius was
formidable, and must be concUiated. He
was the hope of Catiline and his party, and
his debts and profligate habits made him de
sirous or heedless of a revolution. But he
was also indolent and irresolute, and his
position as consul perhaps inclined him to
support the existing constitution, Cicero was
thus enabled to purchase his neutraUty, at
least during their joint magistracy, by giving
up to him, without awaiting the ballot for
the provinces, Macedonia, the plunder of
which would retrieve his broken fortunes.
After the complete exposure of CatiUne's de
signs, his personal interests kept Antonius
true to the senate ; but he never forgave or
voluntarily seconded his coUeague. Towards
the end of E. c. 63, Antonius went into Etruria
to assist the prastor Q. Metellus Celer in pre
venting Catiline's escape through the passes
of the Apennines into Transpadane GaiU.
With some lingering hope in his old asso
ciate, Catiline attacked the consul rather than
the praetor, and a seasonable or a pretended
fit of the gout saved Antonius from the regret
or the shame of conquering his late con
federate. His lieutenant, M. Petreius, de
stroyed Catiline and his army, and Antonius
obtained the title of Imperator. Triumphal
honours had not yet been granted for vic
tories in civil wars, yet Antonius traveUed
to Macedonia with laurel on his Uctors' rods.
Macedonia was the price of his adherence to
the senate, and he exacted it to its fidl amount
from the oppressed provincials. The appear
ance in his suite of one Hllai-us, an accountant
trained in the slave schools of Pomponius .Vt-
ticus, and afterwards a freedm.an of Cicero's,
gave rise to a report, which Antonius encou
raged, that his late colleague's resignation of
Macedonia had not been whoUy disinterested.

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

Antonius seems to have told the provincials
that he robbed on Cicero's account as well as
his own. (Cicero, Ad Atticum, i. 12.) If he
promised, however, he never performed ; and
in a letter to Antonius himself {Ad Familiares,
V. 5.), Cicero makes heavy complaints of his
former colleague's ingratitude. Antonius
pillaged the barbarians on the frontiers as
well as the subjects of his province. But the
Dardanians, a tribe of Lower Mcesla, attacked
him on his retreat, and while Antonius fled
with the horse, cut off his infantry, and re
covered the booty. He was defeated a se
cond time in Upper Mcesla by the natives,
assisted by the Bastarnae, a Scythian tribe.
His iU success, rather than his previous ex
tortions, attracted the notice of the senate.
He was threatened with a recaU, and by Cneius
Pompeius, then returning from the Mithri-
datic war, with prosecution for misgovern-
ment. The interest of Cicero with the senate
seems again to have been exerted in favour
of .'\ntonius, and he was quietly superseded
in Macedonia by C. Octavius, the father of
Augustus, B. c. 60. But in the foUowing
year, b. c. 59, the consulship of Caesar and
Bibulus, when Cicero was himself in immi
nent danger from Clodius, Antonius was pro
secuted by M. Casllns for his share in Cati
line's conspiracy, and at the same time by
his future son-in-law C, Caninius Gallus,
before the prajtor Cn, Lentulus Clodianus,
for malversation iu his province. Although
defended by Cicero, he was condemned,
under the Cornelian laws against treason
aud malversation, to a pecuniary fine and
banishment. He chose Cephallenia for his
residence in exile, and his pretensions to
act as governor of the island were con
nived at. In b. c, 49 his nephew Marcus
was tribune of the people and Caesar's Ueu
tenant In Italy. Yet Antonius was not
allowed to return to Rome before B. c. 47,
when his recall was the act, not of his ne
phew, but of the dictator himself, Cicero,
indeed, hints that Marcus was in his uncle's
debt, and since an exile had no civil rights,
and could not enforce payment, he purposely
deferred his uncle's recall. For the same
reason he excluded him from a commission
of seven who were appointed to divide lands
in Campania : because to appoint him a com
missioner involved the restoration of his civil
rights. Antonius was a candidate for the
censorship, probably about E. c. 45. His
character made the attempt deplorable and
ridiculous ; but the general contempt was
heightened by his nephew, who had urged
him to become a candidate, and, on the day
of election, abruptly closed the comitia. And
when, in order to make room for his third
wife, Fulvia, Marcus had ignomlniously dis
missed his cousin Antonia, he scrupled not to
charge her with adultery in her father's pre
sence, and before a fuU assembly of the senate.
This insult was offered to Antonius ou the 1st
99

of January, B. c. 44, and with the mention of
it by Cicero {Philippic. U. 38.) ends our
knowledge of his life. He died probably in
the same year. If by Teucris (Cicero, Ad
Atticum, i. 12., xiu, 6., xlv. 7.) C. Antonius
is meant, it increases the probabiUty that the
name Hybrida refers not to his parentage,
but was really a nickname. (" C, Antonius
Hybrida " in Ernesti, Clavis Ciceroniana ;
and Baiter, Onomasticon Tullianum, where all
the references for his history are given.)
W. B. D,
ANTO'NIUS CARTAGINENSIS, or DE
CARTAGENA, was a physician and pro
fessor of medicine at Alcala de Henarez. By
the Emperor Charles V. he was appointed
physician to the dauphin of France (after
wards Henry II.) and his brother, the Duke
of Orleans, when, from 1528 to 1530, they
were kept at Madrid as hostages for their
father, Francis I. of France. He is described
as a man of both learning aud elegance. He
wrote — 1, "Libellus de Fascinatione,'' 2,
" De Febre pestilentiali," 3. " De Signis
Febrium, de Causa Dierum criticorum et
ipsorum Notis," which were aU published
together at Alcala de Henarez, in 1530, in
folio. (Antonius Cartaginensis, Works.)
For distinction, two other physicians named
Antonius may be here mentioned. Anto
nius DE Aguelera was a physician at
Guadalaxara, and wrote — 1, Praeclarac Ru-
dimentorum Medicinae Libri Octo," Alcala
de Henarez, 1571, folio; a system of medi
cine and therapeutics collected from the
works of his predecessors. 2, " Exposiciou
sobre las Preparaclones de Mesne," Alcala
de Henarez, 1569, Svo.
Antonius de Viana, was at one time a
surgeon in the Spanish navy, and afterwards
was attached to the hospital founded at
SeviUe by Cardinal Cervantes. He wrote a
work entitled " Espejo de Chirurgia ; primera
Parte en Tres Exercitaciones de Theorlca y
Practica," Lisbon, 1631, 4to, (N, Antonius,
Bibliotheca Hispana Nova-) J. P,
ANTO'NIUS CASTOR, [Castor, An
tonius,] ANTO'NIUS CRE'TICUS, MARCUS,
was the eldest son of Marcus Antonius the
Orator, and father of Antonius the Triumvir.
He was quaestor in B. c. 80, and praetor in
E. c. 75. In the foUowing year, through the
influence of the consul, JI. Aurelius Cotta, and
of P. Cethegus, Antonius, with the title of pro
praetor, received the command of the coasts
of the Mediterranean, and of the whole fleet
of Rome and her allies, with instructions to
clear the seas of pirates. He made his com
mission — ¦ which was nearly as extensive as
the similar powers conferred on Cneius Pom
peius in u. c. 67 — a pretext for plundering
the provinces, especiaUy Sicily ; and his con
duct in command was so incapable and un
fortunate, that he was suspected of a secret
understanding with the pirates. Some par-
H 2

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

ticulars of the conduct of Antonius Creticus
in Sicily will be found in Cicero's orations
against Verres {Divijiatio- 55. ; Pseudo-As-
conius in Divination- p. 122., Orelli's ed.,
Verrin- ii. 8.) He attacked the Cretans,
alleging that they had aided Mithridates VL,
king of Pontus ; but, although he commanded
the fleet of the Greek maritime states, he
was totally defeated, aud the greater part of
his armament destroyed. His own escape
was believed to have been ignomlniously
purchased, and the surname Creticus was
the lasting memorial of his disgrace. Anto
nius never returned to Rome ; but died in
Crete shortly afterwards. Sallust describes
Antonius Creticus as one born to squander
money, and heedless of every thing beyond
the cares or pleasures of the moment. Plu
tarch describes him as of an easy and humor
ous disposition, but vicious from indecision of
character. He was first married to Numi
toria, daughter of Quintus Numitorius Pullus
of Fregellae, by whom he had no children.
By his second wife, Julia, daughter of L.
Julius Caesar, consul in b. c. 90, he had three
sons, Marcus, Caius, and Lucius, and a
daughter married to P. Vatinius. {Scholia
Bobiensia in Oration- in Vatinium, p. 321.
Orelli's ed, ; Plutarch, Antonius, 1.; Dio
dorus Siculus, Fragment- xxxviii., xxxix. ;
Cicero, Verrin. ill. 213.; VeUeius Paterculus,
il. 21.; Sallust, Hist 111. 39, ed. Gerlach.) W, B, D.
ANTO'NIU'S CYRUS. [Antony,
Saint.] ANTO'NIUS DIO'GENES ('Awwms
Aioyevrjs) was the author of a fabulous voyage
to ThiUe, in twenty-four books, of whom
Porphyrius in his Life of Pythagoras, and
Photius, alone make mention. Photius says
that he cannot ascertain the age of Antonius
Diogenes, but that he certainly preceded
Damascius, Heliodorus, AchiUes Tatius,
and Lucian, since these writers obviously
borrowed materials from him for their va
rious works of fiction. If he were older
than Lucian, Antonius must have lived be
fore A, D. 122 — 200, Photius adds that a
certain Antiphanes, whose age he does not
mention, set Antonius the example of writing
Incredible travels. He commends Antonius
for his clear style, his graceful descriptions,
and for poetical justice — ^a singular merit in
a writer of travels. The title of the work
of Antonius was probably " The Incredible
Things beyond 'Thule " (Ta vtrkp @ov\t]v
HirKrTa)- It was in the form of a dialogue,
rather than, as Photius says, of a drama, and
is the story told by Deinias, an Arcadian, to
his countryman Cymbas, who had been de
puted to solicit his retum from Tyre to the
place of his birth. Deinias, who was ad
vanced In Ufe, declined the proposal, but
sought to make Cymbas amends for his
fruitless voyage to Phoenicia by relating
some passages of his extraordinary travels,
100

Antonius tried to gain credit for his fic
tions by forging a letter from Balagrus, one
of the least eminent of Alexander the Great's
captains. In this epistle to his wife, —
Phile, a daughter of Antipater, — resident in
Macedonia, Balagrus relates that Alexander,
after the sack of Tyre, was shown by a
soldier certain coffins, under ground, made of
stone, and containing several legible inscrip
tions. Among these inscriptions were the
following : — " Deinias, the Arcadian, lived a
hundred and twenty and five years ; " " Man-
tinias, the son of Mnaso, lived forty and two
years, and seven hundred and sixty nights :"
" DercylUs, the daughter of Mnaso, lived
thirty and nine years, and seven hundred
and sixty nights." The singular addition of
nights to the sum of their years refers to the
sleep in which they were cast by an Egyptian
magician. In the crypt wherein the cofiBns
were found was discovered also a casket of
cypress- wood, on which were cut these words :
— " Whoever thou art, O stranger, open this
casket, and learn things worthy to be ad
mired." Within the casket, inscribed on
cypress tablets, were found the adventures of
Deinias and DercylUs.
Deinias related that, in company with his
son Demochares and three other Arcadians, he
left Greece in quest of knowledge; that he
crossed the Euxine and the Caspian Seas,
climbed the Riphaean mountains, visited the
mouth of the Tanais, and the region of
eternal snows, and sailed on the ocean that
surrounds the earth from the rising sun
to the western island of Thule. At ThiJe,
where he long sojourned, he met with a
noble Tyrian damsel of great beauty and
accomplishments, who, like himself, had
passed through surprising adventures. Her
name was DercyUis, and similar fortunes
inspired Deinias and DercyUis with mutual
love. The story of DercyUis is a counter
part for extravagance to that of Deinias,
Through the machinations of Paapls, an
Egyptian priest, she and her brother Jlan-
tinlas had been obUged to quit their native
Tyre, Paapls, who had been banished from
Egypt, was hospitably entertained by the
parents of DercylUs, He proved, however,
to be a magician, and prevaUed on Mantinlas
and his sister to administer to their aged
parents a potion, which he promised should
restore their youth, but which threw them
into a death-like slumber. To expiate this
involuntary parricide they fled from Tyre,
visited many lands, and beheld many wonders.
At Leontinl in Sicily they encountered Paapls,
and took their revenge on him by stealing his
books of magic, and his casket of medicated
herbs. They fled to Metapontum in Italy,
where they learned that Paapls was in pursuit of
them. Their informer was the phUosopher As-
traeus, a disciple of Pythagoras, and a compa
nion of the Scythian sage Zamolxls. Astra!us
accompanied the fugitives to the banks of the

ANTONIUS,

ANTONIUS,

Tanais, Here they found Zamolxis, who was
honoured by the Scythians as a god, and who
predicted the adventures that afterwards be
fel them. By his advice they saUed to Thule,
whither Paapls foUowed them, and by his
enchantments threw them into a death-swoon
by day, although they regularly revived at
night, A native of Thule, however, who
was enamoured of DercylUs, supposing that
Paapls had reaUy kiUed her, slew the magi
cian and then himself The books, which
they had taken from Paapls, prescribed the
mode of disenchanting Mantinlas and Der
cylUs, and their parents,
Astrajus also contributed his stock of mar
vellous accidents, and related to DercylUs
some particulars of the life of Pythagoras
and his father Mnesarchus. Mantinlas and
DercyUis returned to Tyre before Deinias
quitted Thule. But he afterwards rejoined
them, and Cymbas saw DercylUs at Tyre,
when he came as the delegate of the Arca
dians to Deinias. After he had related his
adventures, Deinias caused them to be in
scribed on two tablets of cypress-wood by
Erasinides, an Athenian, who accompanied
Cymbas. One of these tablets he gave to
Cymbas himself for the use of his country
men, and the other he directed DercylUs to
place in his coffin after death.
Antonius Diogenes gave authorities for
each of his stories, but showed little discri
mination in constructing them. The astro
nomical phenomenon of the days and nights
lengthening as the pole is approached, is
noticed, as well as the spherical form of the
earth. His geography is absurd. Although
Thule gives its name to the work of Antonius,
it is merely a halting place for travellers,
and its position is not defined. He makes
Deinias go through the Euxine Sea to the
Caspian, and from the latter to the mountains
called Riphaean, and the mouth of the Tanais,
though it is possible that the words of An
tonius may mean the source of the Tanais,
The cold drives Deinias northwards to
the Scythian Ocean, and from thence he
gets to the Eastern Ocean, and finds himself
where the sim rises. Whatever may have
been the age of Antonius Diogenes, he cer
tainly lived after Alexander the Great's con
quests had thrown open to the Greeks the
countries between the Tanais and the Indus,
and probably after the revival of the Pytha
gorean phUosophy in the second century of
our aera, (Photius, Codex, clxvi., Bekker's
edition ; Porphyrius, Vita Pythagora, Amster
dam, 1707, 4to.) W. B. D,
ANTO'NIUS FELIX, [Felix.]
ANTO'NIUS FLAMMA. [Flamma.]
ANTO'NIUS, ARCHBISHOP OF FLO
RENCE, [Antoninus, Saint,]
ANTO'NIUS, FRANCISCUS. [An
thonie, Francis.]
ANTO'NIUS GODEFROY. [Gode-
rnoY.] 101

ANTO'NIUS, lU'LUS, was the younger
son of Marcus Antonius the Triumvir, and
Fulvia, his third wife. His first name lulus,
or, as it is sometimes improperly written,
lulius, referred probably to the connexion of
the plebeian Antonii with the patrician lulli,
the progeny of Venus and Anchises, through
.apneas and lulus, by the marriage of M,
Antonius Creticus with Julia, daughter of L,
Julius Caesar, consul in e. c. 90, lulus Anto
nius was too young to accompany his father
into the east, and was brought up at Rome
by his step-mother Octavia with her own
children by M. Antonius, One of his in
stmctors was L. Crassitius of Tarentum, a
freedman, the author of a history or descrip
tion of Smyrna, who changed his proper
Greek name Pasicles into the Roman sur
name Pansa (Suetonius, De Illustr- Gram
matic. 18.). After the death of the triumvir,
Augustus provided for Iidus Antonius by
compeUing the freedmen of the Antonian
house to pay down the legacies which the
law obUged them severally to leave at thelr
death to their common patron. At the re
quest of his sister, Augustus gave his niece
Marcella, Octavia's daughter by her first
husband C. Marcellus, consid in b. c. 50, in
marriage to lulus Antonius, who thus be
came, after Julia and Agrlppa's sons, pre
sumptive heir to the empire. He appointed
him pontifex and one of the praetors of b. c,
13, and procured for him the consulate with
Q, Fabius Maximus in e, c, 10, In his
praetorship lulus Antonius celebrated the
birth-day of Augustus by a banquet to the
emperor and the senate in the capitol, be
sides the usual chariot races, and combats
with wild beasts. A province, apparently
Asia Minor, was assigned to Antonius after
his consulship, and one of his edicts respect
ing the toleration of the Jewish worship in
Asia is cited by Josephus {Jewish Antiq- xvi.
6, § 7.). But his adulterous Intrigue with Julia,
the daughter of Augustus, which was not
without suspicion of political ends (Seneca,
De Brevitate Vita, 5. ; Dion Cassius, Iv. 10.),
was the cause of his being condemned to death
in B.C. 2, Vellelus Paterculus, who was his
contemporary, says that Antonius anticipated
the executioner by self-destruction. lulus
Antonius was the author of an epic poem
entitled " Dlomedels," in twelve books.
Horace addressed to him the second ode of
his fourth book, (Dion Cassius, 11, 15., liv. 26.
36. ; Plutarch, Antonius, 87. ; Tacitus, Annals,
i. 10., iU. 18., iv, 44. ; PUny, Hist- Nat vii.
46.) Lucius Antonius, the son of lulus Anto
nius, by Marcella, after her divorce from M,
Vipsanius Agrippa, was, on his father's death,
although StUl very young, banished to Mar
seille, and there detained, on pretence of
pursuing his studies, until his death in a. d,
25. A place in the sepulchre of the OctavU
was the only public honour granted to this
u 3

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

member of the IUustrious and iU-fated famUy
of the Antonii. (Tacitus, Annals, iv. 44.)
W. B. D.
ANTO'NIUS, JULIA'NUS, wrote a his
tory of the Jewish nation, and is cited, to
gether with Josephus, by Minucius Felix,
Octavius. AV. B. D,
ANTO'NIUS LODOVI'CUS, was born
at Lisbon, and was a doctor of medicine of
Coimbra, His learning, not in medicine
alone, but in Greek and Latin, obtained for
him the professorship of medicine at Coim-
brai, and in 1547 he began to lecture on the
works of Galen, Aristotle, and others. He
died in 1565, at a very advanced age, and
left the foUowing works ; — 1 . " Problematum
Libri Quinque," Lisbon, 1539-40, folio. 2,
" De Occultls Proprietatibus, Libri Quinque,"
Lisbon, 1540, folio, 3, "De Re medica
Opera," Lisbon, 1540, folio. This consists of
nine chapters, and contains commentaries on
Galen's writings on crises, the soul, and the
foetus ; on some of the aphorisms of Hippo
crates and Avicenna ; on the errors of Pietro
di Abano in his expositions of the problems
of Aristotle ; and essays on respiration, the
heart, and difficult breathing, (N. Antonius,
Bibliotheca Hispana Nova; Antonius Lodo-
vicus. Works-) J. P,
ANTO'NIUS, LU'CIUS, was the youngest
son of M. Antonius Creticus, In E.c. 54 he
was associated with his brother Caius and
the tribune C. Memmius in the impeachment
of Aulus Gabinius, consul in b.c. 58, for
mlsgovernment in his province of Syria, In
B. c, 4 4 he was tribune of the plebs. His first
act on entering office, in the preceding De-
ce-aiber, was to bring forward a law to em
power the dictator Cajsar, who was then in
the midst of his preparations for the Parthian
war, to nominate the magistrates of the re
public for some years to come, and thus to
avoid, during his absence from Rome, the
hazards of popiUar elections. After Caesar's
murder, in B.C. 44, the tribunitian powers of
Lucius were highly serviceable to the designs
of his brother Marcus, and, without giving
entire credence to the invectives of Cicero,
it is evident that Lucius was an unscrupulous
partisan. As early as April in the same year,
Marcus Antonius, with the aid of Lucius, pro
posed and carried an agrarian law, the object
of which was to win the favour of the veterans
and the people. The execution of this law
was intrusted to seven commissioners, of
whom Lucius Antonius was chief These
were the septemviri who so highly excited
the fears and indignation of Cicero, although
it does not appear that his estates suffered by
their proceedings, but, on the contrary, Lucius
sought to concUlate him. For his conduct as
commissioner a gilt equestrian statue — " de
dicated," as the Inscription on its base stated,
" by the thirty-five tribes to their patron " —
was erected to Lucius on the left side of the
Forum, Cicero says that this tribute to Lu-
102

cius was the more preposterous since he had
deprived many members of the tribes of their
right of voting. The power of the commis
sioners extended over all the Public land iu
Italy ; Cicero adds, over private property
also. This, however, was a rhetorical exag
geration ; but from the honours assigned to
Lucius we may infer what classes of citizens
were benefited by the commission. The
equestrian order erected a second statue to
him as its patron : the mUitary tribunes a
third : the usurers a smaller one, with an
inscription recording their gratitude to the
patron of the " Middle Janus," the bankers'
quarter in Rome, Marcus Antonius was
absent from the city when Octavianus arrived
in the beginning of May ; but, with the con
currence of Lucius as tribune, he addressed
the people, and undertook to discharge his
late uncle's legacies. He was a more ve
hement opponent of the senate tham even his
brother the triumvir ; and, on one occasion
at Tibur (TivoU), he is said by Cicero to
have diverted by reproaches and threats
Marcus Antonius from his purpose of con-
cUiating the senate. He foUowed Marcus
to the siege of Mutina with a newly raised
legion; and on the 15th of April, e, c. 43,
during the battle at Forum GaUorum (Castel
Franco), took charge of the trenches around
Mutina, and attempted to divide the enemy's
forces by an assault on the camp of Octa
vianus. In common with his brothers, Lucius
was declared a public enemy by the senate, be
fore the final defeat of Marcus under the waUs
of Mutina was known at Rome, In the re
treat to Transalpine Gaul he led the advanced
guard, and drove CuUeo, the Ueutenant of M,
Lepidus, before him, and successfuUy resisted
the attempt of Munatius Plancus to dislodge
him from the passes of the Alps near Forum
Julli (Fi-iuU), In the year B.C. 41, Lucius An
tonius was consul with P, ServUius Isauricus,
and on the 1st of January celebrated a tri
umph for a pretended, or at least an unknown
victory over some of the Alpine moimtaineers.
There is a faint trace of his having been
censor in the preceding year with P, SiUpi-
cius, preserved in an inscription, but not
mentioned by any historian, (Pighius, An
nales, 111. 481.) The consulate of Lucius was
distinguished by the Perusine war, which
lasted from the summer of u. c. 41 to the
spring of B. c. 40, Lucius, an able officer In
subordinate commands, seems to have pos
sessed little original chm-acter. His eldest
brother's wife, Fulvia, was doubly aggrieved
by the infidelities of her husband, who was
now in Greece, and by Octavianus divorcing
her daughter Clodla, To recall the one
to Italy, and to avenge herself on the other,
she laboured to effect a breach between
the two principal triumvirs, and for this
purpose Lucius was a fitting instrument.
They inflamed the discontents of the veterans
and of the citizens, whom the miUtary colo-

ANTONIUS,

ANTONIUS,

nies had deprived of their lands. To the
former they represented that Marcus Anto
nius was able to Uquidate the arrears of their
pay : the latter they assured of redress and
protection. They inveighed against the tri
umvirate, and they insinuated or promised
that Marcus would restore the ancient go
vernment. By these means Lucius and Fulvia
coUected in the spring of E.c, 41 a consider
able force, Lucius, accompanied by his bro
ther's children, traveUed through Southern
Italy ; but, on the approach of the cavalry of
Octavianus, he fled to his brother's colonies
in Apulia, and placed himself and his nephews
under the protection of the veterans. After
a fruitless conference at Teanum in Apulia
between the adherents of the two trium
virs, Lucius, on pretence that his life was
in danger, retired to the strong fortress of
Praeneste (Palestrina). Octavianus made a
second attempt at reconciUation, which was
frustrated by Manius Rufus, Fulvia's agent.
At length, during the absence of Octavianus
in Umbria, Lucius, at the head of six newly
raised legions, repaired to Rome, where he
was welcomed by the citizens, although the
third triumvir, M. Lepidus, was stationed in
the city with two veteran legions. The lieu
tenants of Marcus Antonius, who were quar- '
tered in the more distant parts of Italy, did
not, however, second the movements of Lu
cius, who, finding himself nearly surrounded
by Octavianus and his generals, Salvidienus,
Agrippa, Aslnius Polllo, and Ventidius, re
tired to Perusla in Etruria, The strength of
the town enabled Lucius to repel every enemy
but famine. The " Peruslan famine," how
ever, became in after times a proverb for
intense and protracted suffering ; and Lucius,
after earnest intercessions for his soldiers,
surrendered himself unconditionally to Oc
tavianus, The fate of the garrison and towns
men of Perusla is differently related by his
torians, Suetonius says that, according to
some accounts, Octavianus slaughtered three
hundred senators and knights on an altar
raised to tbe manes of his uncle Julius, Ap
pian asserts that he put to death only the
senators of Perusla and a few of his most in
veterate enemies, and that his soldiers con
strained him to this cruelty, Lucius Antonius
was sent into Spain with the honorary title,
but without the power, of proconsul ; and he
probably died soon afterwards, since there is
no further mention of him. The pretence
that the war with Octavianus was undertaken
in defence of his brother the triumvir's rights,
procured for Lucius Antonius the honour of
the inscription " Pietas " that appears on his
medals. In Cicero's Philippic Orations and
Epistles Lucius Antonius is represented as
a ruffian and robber of the basest kind, who
was bom only that the world might have one
worse man in it than the triumvir Marcus,
\'elleius Paterculus (11. 74.) says that he had
all the vices and none of the virtues of his
103

elder brother. The historian, however, was
the panegyrist of Cassar and Caesar's house
hold ; and the orator was inflamed by personal
fears as well as political hatred of the An-
tonU. We have therefore rejected their evi
dence wherever it extends beyond the mere
facts of Lucius Antonius's Ufe. There is
a consular coin of Lucius Antonius with his
head on one face, and that of his brother
Marcus the Triumvir on the reverse, (Ernesti,
Clavis Ciceroniana; Baiter, Onomasticon Tulli
anum, " Lucius Antonius ;" Suetonius, Octavi
anus, 14, 15. ; Dion Cassius, xlviii. 4 — 15.; Ap
pian, Civil Wars,^. 19 — 50, ; Vellelus Pater
culus, U, 74. ; Seneca, De dementia, i. 11. ;
Lucan, Pharsalia, i. 41, ; Rasche, Lexicon
Rei Numaria-) W, B. D,
ANTO'NIUS, MARCUS, the son of C,
Antonius, and commonly called the Orator,
was born b. c. 142, and was three years older
than his illustrious contemporary Lucius Ll-
cinius Crassus, who was also a distinguished
orator. Marcus Antonius was quaestor ofthe Roman
province of Asia in the year B. c. 113, A
story is told by Valerius Maximus of a charge
of a criminal intercourse with a Vestal being
brought against him after he had left Rome
for Asia ; and it is added that he returned to
Rome from Brundisium, where he received
intelligence of the accusation, and successfully
defended himself In the year b. c. 104 he
was praetor urbauus, and in the following
year he had the government of the province
of Cilicia with the title of proconsul, and the
commission to act against the pirates in the
Cilician seas. On his voyage to his pro
vince he spent some days at Athens in the
schools of rhetoric and philosophy. Antonius
had already obtained reputation as an orator,
and his name wais known at Athens, It was
during his proconsulship also, as appears most
probable, that he visited the school of Rhodes,
The services of Antonius as proconsul are
not particularly recorded, but he had a tri
umph in the year B. c. 102. His daughter
Antonia was shortly after seized by pirates,
apparently in Italy, and ransomed at a great
price. In the year B, c, 100 he was em
ployed with a force outside of the walls of
Rome to put down the tumults which had
been excited by the tribune L. Appulelus
Saturninus ; and in the year b. c. 99 he
was consul with A, Postumius Albinus, and
opposed the measures of the tribune Sext.
Tltius, who followed up the policy of Satur
ninus, and attempted to gain popular favour
by an agrarian law. His defence of
M', Aquilius, who, in his proconsulship, had
terminated the Servile war in Sicily (b. c. 99),
and was prosecuted for malversation (pecuniae
repetundai), is commemorated by Cicero as a
case in which the genuine feeling of Antonius
for his client's cause made a corresponding
impression on his audience. His censorship
belongs to the year b, c. 97, in which he
h 4

ANTONIUS,

ANTONIUS,

adorned the rostra with the spoils taken in
his Cilician campaign. During his censorial
office he was prosecuted for bribery (ambitus)
by M. Diironius ; but nothing further is re
corded of this affair. He held a command in
the Marslc war, E. c. 91. Antonius belonged
to the arlstocratical party and adhered to SuUa.
When Marius and Cinna (b, c, 87) got pos
session of Rome, Antonius hid himself in the
house of a poor man of his acquaintance,
who generously sheltered him. But he was
unfortunately betrayed through the idle talk
of one of the slaves, who being sent to buy
some wine was very particular about the
quality, and told the wine-merchant that his
master was entertaining Marcus Antonius,
The wine-merchant carried the news to
Marius, who clapped his hands with joy, and
sent the tribune P. Annius and some soldiers
to bring him the head of Antonius. The
soldiers who went into the room to execute
their commission, while the tribune waited
outside, were overpowered by the forcible
appeal of the orator; but the tribune finding
there was delay went up stairs and cut off his
head. Marius received it with delight, and
it was nailed up to the rostra. (Plutarch,
Marius, 44. ; Cicero, De Oratore, 111. 3.)
IMarcus left two sons, M. Antonius Creticus
aud C. Antonius Hybrida, and a daughter
Antonia, already mentioned.
The public life of Marcus Antonius is not
marked by any great events. It is to the
place which he occupies in the history of
Roman oratory that he owes his eminence ;
and his great powers are recorded by his
admirer Cicero in his treatise " On the
Orator " and his " Brutus " or the treatise on
illustrious orators. In the opinion of Cicero,
Marcus Antonius and L. Liclnlus Crassus
were the first Roman orators who equalled
the great orators of Greece. Antonius had a
strong and ready memory, which enabled
him to arrange every thing iu its proper
place. He had the air of appearing to speak
without preparation ; but he was so fully pre
pared at all points that his hearers were very
apt to be thrown off their guard by him. He
was not distinguished for any peculiar ele
gance of expression ; yet he did not speak
incorrectly, and he showed great judgment in
the selection and collocation of appropriate
words, in the construction of his sentences,
and in the use of figures of speech. In ac
tion and in the management of his voice he
was pre-eminent : all his gesture was iu har
mony with his discourse. His judicious re
marks on the conduct of a cause, which are
preserved by Cicero, {De Orat. 11. 72.) were
probably derived from good authority, for
Cicero heard much about Antonius from his
uncle L. Cicero, who had accompanied An
tonius into Cilicia, and when a young man,
Cicero had often conversed with him. It was
a popular error, says Cicero, to suppose that
Antonius was not a woU-lnformed man :
104

Cicero found him well versed in all the sub
jects on which he spoke with him, Antonius
wished to render his oratory more effective
among the Romans by making them believe
that he had neither study nor preparation.
In a passage in the first book on the
Orator (c. 48.), Antonius is made to say that
he never learned any art of oratory, but that
he acquired his oratorical power bj' actual ex
perience of business and his practice in legal
cases ; a statement by no means contradictory,
as some suppose, to what Cicero, speaking in
his own person, says of the acquirements of
Antonius {De Orat ii. 1). The definition of
an orator which Cicero puts in the mouth of
Antonius is this : " I consider him to be an
orator who can employ words agreeable to
the ear, and arguments adapted to convince
in forensic and common causes. This I caU
an orator ; and I further require him to be
properly furnished with voice, and action,
and a certain amount of pleasing manner"
{De Orat. 1. 49). This is .said in reply to
L, Llcinius Crassus, one of the other chief
Interlocutors in the Dialogue on Oratory,
who required an orator to have universal
knowledge. As a speaker Antonius must be placed
among the first that have ever Uved. The
unwearied Industry of the Romans in the
study of oratory, and the frequent occasion
for its exercise in the senate, in the popular
assemblies, and on trials, enabled them to
attain a degree of excellence which in our
own times is never approached, for, though
there are abundant occasions for the exercise
of oratory in some modern states, the diligent
study of the Roman is wanting.
Antonius left no written orations ; and if
he had, it is clear from what has been said
that they would not have given an exact mea
sure of his oratorical skill ; for his pre-emi
nence was in speech. He -wrote a smaU
treatise on the "Principles of Speaking," which
Cicero and QulntiUan mention, ( The ehief
authorities for Marcus Antonius are cited by
Drumann, Geschichte Roms, vol, 1.) G, L.
ANTO'NIUS, MARCUS, the Triumvir,
was the eldest son of JIarcus Antonius
Creticus and J ulia, daughter of Lucius Julius
Cajsar, consul in e. c. 90. He was born about
B. c. 83, since, according to Appian, he was
full forty years of age at the time of his
meeting Cleopatra at Tarsus in b.c. 41, and,
according to one account preserved by Plu
tarch, iu his fifty -second year at his death in
B.C. 30. (Appian, Ciril Wars, v. 8. ; Plutarch,
Antonius, 86.) After his father's death
[Antonius Creticus, Marcus], and when
Marcus was about nine years old, his mother
married Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura,
who T,yas put to death in n. c. 63, as an accom
plice In CatUine's conspiracy. Antonius was
carefully educated by his mother : one of his
instructors In eloquence was the rhetorician
Epidius, who numbered also among his pupils

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

Octavianus Caesar ; and this branch of his
education Antonius certainly ciUtivated with
diligence, and practised declamation even in
the midst of his campaigns. But the loose
morals and the restless disposition that marked
his later life displayed themselves early, and
effectually counteracted the care of his mo
ther and instructors. From his step-father
Lentulus he could learn nothing good. His
fine person, popular manners, and skill in
martial exercises rendered his society agree
able to the young nobles of Rome ; and since
his father left him no estate, his poverty made
him in some measure dependent on their
favour. The most notorious of his early as
sociates wais the younger Curio. Common
rumour affixed a scandalous imputation on
their intimacy, which was at length dissolved
through the interference of Cicero, but not
until Curio's father had paid, as the price of
its dissolution, more than forty-six thousand
pounds in discharge of Antonius's debts.
The mediation of Cicero on this occasion,
and the active part he took as consul in the
conviction and execution of Lentulus in E. c.
63, were probably the origin of the feud be
tween Antonius and Cicero. In the year
B. c. 51, however, Cicero, in a letter to Quin
tus Minucius Thermus, propraetor of Asia,
speaks of the AntonU, Marcus, Caius, and
Lucius, as three able, popular, and not inelo-
quent men, whose interest was worth culti
vating. The open rupture of Cicero and
Antonius was therefore of later date. The
disposition of Antonius to set the laws at
defiance showed itself early, for soon after
his assumption of the manly gown he took
his seat on the equestrian benches in the
theatre, although he had not the property
required by the law of Roscius Otho, one of
the tribunes of the people, in b. c. 63. An
tonius seconded for a short time the acts of
Publius Clodius in his turbulent tribunate of
E. c. 58 ; but an intrigue with Fulvia, the
tribune's wife, produced a rupture between
them. In the same year Antonius withdrew
from his creditors at Rome to the schools and
gymnasia of Greece. Since his after-life
afforded few opportunities for study, he pro
bably acquired at this time his knowledge of
eloquence as an art, although, consistentlj
with his bold and irregular genius, he pre
ferred the ornate style of rhetoric, which was
entitled the Asiatic, to the severer manner of
the great masters of Roman oratory. But his
studies in Greece were soon interrupted by the
arrival of Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria,
who appointed Antonius to the command of
his cavalry In his war in Palestine with Aris-
tobulus, the younger son of Alexander Jan
naeus (Josephus, ./ems/! .^n*!?., xui. 16. § 1.),
B. c. 57, and afterwards in his expedition to
Egypt in e. c. 56 — 55, to restore Ptolemaeus
Auletes to the throne. Antonius greatly
distinguished himself in both these campaigns.
The defeat and capture of Alexander, son of
105

Arlstobulus, and the seizure of Pelusium on
the most eastern branch of the Nile, were
owing principally to Antonius ; and the bold
and generous spirit with which he conducted
the war gained for him the esteem of the
conquered as weU as the applause of the
Roman people. The war in Egypt was,
however, undertaken In opposition to the
command of the senate, and Antonius had
been its prime instigator. On the return
therefore of Gabinius to Rome in u. c. 54,
Antonius, dreading equally the censure of the
senate and the claims of his creditors, repaired
to C. Julius Caesar, then proconsul of Gaul,
who had just retumed from his second expe
dition to Britain. In e. c. 53, he came to Rome
as a candidate for the quaestorship with money
and recommendations from Caesar to the
principal senators, and to Cicero especially,
who employed his Interest in Antonius's be
half. This obligation he repaid by attacking
with an armed force In the forum Cicero's
implacable enemy, Publius Clodius, As soon
as his election was secure, Antonius, without
waiting for its confirmation by the senate,
retumed to Gaul, took part in the summer
campaign of b, c. 52 against Verclngetorix,
and, during Caesar's absence in the latter end
of the same year, commanded the winter-
camp at Blbracte (Autun). In Antonius
Cassar possessed an able officer, and a willing
and unscrupulous Instrument, and the mili
tary genius, the liberal temper, and the sus
pected designs of the great proconsul secured
the devotion of Antonius. Antonius was at
tached to Caesar's person for the greater part
of B. c. 51, and after the army had retired
into winter-quarters, he compeUed Commius,
prince of the Atrebates (Pays d' Artois), to
surrender. In e. c. 50, through Cassar's in
terest and the efforts of the tribune Caius
Curio, Antonius wais elected augur in place
of Q. Hortensius the orator, who died about
July in that year. At the end of the same
year he was chosen one of the tribunes of
the plebs, and by these two offices — one of
which enabled him to manage the auspices,
the other to bring any measure before the
tribes — he became an important auxiliary
to CiBsar in his revolutionary projects. On
the 23rd of December Antonius in a speech
to the people exposed the hollow and spe
cious conduct of Cneius Pompeius, who
had just left Rome, throughout his whole
political Ufe, On the 1st of January, e, u.
49, Antonius and his colleague lu the tribu
nate Quintus Cassius, demanded that Caesar's
letters, containing his proposals of accommo
dation, should be read in the senate. Accord
ing to Plutarch, Caesar offered in these
letters to resign his government, and dismiss
his army, if Cneius Pompeius would do the
like. He proposed also, according to Appian
and Suetonius, to dismiss immediately eight
of his legions, and to quit Transalpine Gaul,
retaining only two legions and Cisalpine

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS,

Gaul, or one legion with Cisalpine Gaul and
lUyrlcum, untU he should be again elected to
the consulship. All these overtures were
rejected, and Antonius then proposed that
Pompeius should be ordered to his province,
the proconsulate of Spain, On the 7th of
January, after an ineffectual attempt to put
their veto on the proceedings of the senate,
the tribunes Antonius and Cassius were
threatened, and, according to Appian, expelled
the senate-house, and the consuls were di
rected to take care that the commonwealth
received no detriment — a decree never re
sorted to except in times of the most urgent
danger, and which in fact placed the republic
under military law. In the afternoon of the
same day the tribunes quitted the city in a
hired chariot and habited as slaves, and In that
condition presented themselves before Caesar
at Arlmlnum (Rimini). Their ignominious
flight and appearance were alleged by Caesar
as a proof that the tribunitian office, which
even Sulla had respected, had been violated
by the Pompeians, and urged as a motive for
marching upon Rome. For his conduct on
this occasion Cicero, some years afterwards,
charged Antonius with being the cause of
the civil war, as much as Helen had been of
the Trojan. After the passage of the Rubi
con, Antonius, as Caesar's lieutenant, at the
head of five cohorts, drove Scribonius Libo
out of Arretlum, was received into Sulmo,
and by the end of March had resumed his
tribunitian functions at Rome. On the 1st
of April Antonius and Caissius summoned
the senate without the walls of the city in
order that Caesar, without a breach of law,
might be present : and, subsequently, they
presented him to an assembly of the people.
During Caesar's first Spanish campaign An
tonius, with the title of propraetor, governed
Italy. Although apparently immersed in
pleasure, he betrayed no want of either vi
gour or vigilance in his administration. The
Pompeians who stayed behind in Italy, and
those senators who affected neutrality were
rigidly watched ; the good-will of the army
was secured ; and the coasts and internal
communication of Italy were carefiUly super
intended by him ; and his correspondence
with Cicero at this period shows that he
could temper strictness with discretion, and
even with courtesy. In other respects, how
ever, his government was prejudicial to Cts-
sar's reputation. His contempt of decorum,
in appearing in public intoxicated or sur
rounded by players and buffoons, his con
nexion with the dancer Cytherls, and his
disregard of the laws, rendered him, and
through him C;csar, hateful to the better
order of citizens. His excesses, however,
were unreproved by Caesar on his return
from Spain, for Antonius was, in spite of
them, his most serviceable adherent. At the
beginning of n. c. 48, he conveyed from
Brundisium to ApoUonia and Dyracchium, in
106

the face of the superior fleet of Scribonius
Libo, and in tempestuous weather, the five
legions which Caesar had left in Italy. He
distinguished himself in the various en
counters between Caesar and Pompeius at
Dyracchium, beating, on one occasion, the
Pompeians with great loss to their trenches,
and on another, rescuing the Caesarians from
imminent rout. At the battle of Pharsalia,
which was fought on the 9th of August,
Antonius commanded the left wing ; but his
troops, which had suffered severely at Dyrac
chium, were held in reserve, and hardly
came into action, "WhUe Caesar, after his
victory, pursued Pompeius, Antonius was
sent back to Italy with a detachment of the
army, and with the same commission he had
held in the year preceding. He remained
for some months at Brundisium, watching
the movements of the still formidable fleet of
the Pompeians, and distributing troops and
stores among the cities on the eastem coast of
Italy. During his second sojourn at Brun
disium his correspondence with Marcus
Cicero, who had retumed thither after the
defeat at Pharsalia, was renewed. In b. c.
49 Antonius had recommended Cicero to
remain in Italy ; but his advice was dis
regarded. He had now returned without
permission from either Caesar or his repre
sentative. Antonius, however, while he
pressed upon Cicero the strictness of Caesar's
order respecting absentees, behaved towards
him with a forbearance that showed little of
his later implacable enmity. Cytherls and
her train were, however, at Brundisium also :
the excesses of the former year were renewed,
and the dissoluteness of Antonius rendered
the power of Caesar again the object of sus
picion and dread to the worthier members of
the opposite party.
In B. c. 47 began the flrst annual dictator
ship of Caesar, and Antonius was appointed
his master ofthe horse. He now occupied at
Rome the house of Marcus Piso, appropriated
the estates and country houses of friends or
foes at pleasure, turned day into night in
revels with his associates Cytherls and the
players Hippias amd Sergius, and harnessed
lions to his chariot. A mutiny in the army,
and disturbances in the city, occasioned by
the tribune, P. Cornelius DolabeUa, aroused
him from his pleasures, and his poUtical
quarrel was inflamed by an alleged intrigue
of DolabeUa with his wife Antonia, the elder
daughter of Antonius Hybrida, from whom
he divorced himself in this year. In b. c. 46,
he married Fulvia, the widow of Publius
Clodius andC. Curio, — a woman whose im
perious temper gave occasion some years
afterwards to Cleopatra's remark, that An
tonius was easy to mau.age, Fulvia had so
well broken him in. In Cajsar's third dic
tatorship (B.C. 46), BI. iEmillus Lepidus
was his master of the horse, .and from about
this period to within a few months ofCa?sar's

ANTONIUS.
murder, Antonius and his patron were upon
indifferent terms. While occupying the
house of Marcus Piso, Antonius, towards the
end of E. c, 47, had purchased at Caesar's
auction the magnificent dwelling and gardens
of Cneius Pompeius on the Carinae, but re
fused or was unable from his debts and ex
travagance to pay the purchase-money, which
Caesar, as they were state property, demanded
for the treasury, Lucius Plancus, city-prae
tor, was therefore ordered by the dictator to
put the estate up to sale again. But, although
a portion of it was sold, Antonius managed
to keep the house of Pompeius in his own
hands, and Caesar finally connived at his re
taining it. The secret cause of their dis
agreement was probably, however, the lawless
conduct of Antonius as Caesar's representative
in Italy, The Romans witnessed dally the
excesses of a military despotism, and they
attributed to the dictator himself the extra
vagances of his lieutenant. Antonius, on his
part, complained that his services, being too
great for recompense, were neglected, and
put on a level with those of C, Curio and P.
DolabeUa, But, although displeased, Anto
nius seems to have never wavered in his
fidelity to Caesar : and when at Narbo, whi
ther they had gone to meet the dictator after
his second Spanish war, Caius Trebonius, in
August, E. c. 45, sounded him on the subject
of a conspiracy against Caesar, Antonius gave
him no encouragement, although he did not
betray him. Shortly after this communication
from Caius Trebonius, Caesar, having em
ployment for Antonius in his projected Par
thian war more suited to his character than
civil government, restored him fully to favour.
He travelled in the dictator's own litter, and
was quartered in his tent during their journey
from Narbo to Rome. Cicero, indeed, says
it was Caesar's practice to take for his asso
ciates the neediest and most worthless men
he could find. But it is more probable that
these intimate and secret conferences were
devoted to plans of the approaching Gothin
and Parthian wars on the Danube and Eu
phrates, and to the dictator's schemes for the
future government of the Roman people.
While awaiting Ca;sar at Narbo, Antonius
was guilty of one of those indiscretions that
rendered him so unwelcome to the graver
portion of his countrymen. The city-practor,
Lucius Plancus, renewed his claims on An
tonius or his sureties for the price of the
Pompeian estate. Antonius hurried to Rome,
disguised as a courier, and was introduced
into Fulvia's apartment as the bearer of a
letter from himself The letter professed
contrition for their past disagreements, pro
mises to abandon the dancer Cytherls, and
other matters that caused even his tur
bulent consort to weep. On this Antonius
disco\'ered himself, and surprised Fulvia
by suddenly embracing her in his courier's
habit. 'J'ho frolic, however, was rcirtirded
107

ANTONIUS.
the next morning iu another light at Rome.
Cffisar was known to be highly incensed by
the protracted resistance of the Pompeians in
Spain, and the hasty arrival of Antonius In
the city was thought to be the signal for a
proscription. It required aU the efforts of
the dictator's more prudent friends C. Opplus
and L. Balbus to allay the general alarm,
which did not entirely subside so long as
Antonius remained in Rome In e. c. 44,
Antonius was nominated to the consulship,
at first with Caesar, and afterwards with Pub-
Uus Cornelius DolabeUa. The senate and
equestrian order now vied with each other
in heaping honours on Caesar ; and Antonius,
although with less inconsistency, was among
the foremost in servUity, at once disgraceful
to those who offered, and dangerous to him
who received it. A temple, an altar, and a
priest, were assigned him as to a " new Ju
piter," and Antonius was appointed flamen
dlalis, the chief priest of this mortal deity.
A new college of Luperci was estabUshed in
honour of Caesar, and styled by his name,
and at the next celebration of the Lupercalia,
February 15th, E.c. 44, Antonius offered
him, as he beheld the foot-races from the
rostra, a kingly diadem. On the Ides of
March, Antonius narrowly escaped sharing
Caesar's fate. The conspirators were greatly
divided in their opinions. Cassius aud the
majority strongly recommended the assassin
ation of Antonius, but both Decimus and
Marcus Brutus opposed what they termed
unnecessary bloodshed ; and their opinion
finally prevailed. With a strange ignorance
of Antonius's character and abUities they
argued that, if Caesar were once removed,
Antonius would be inefficient, and easily re
concUed to a constitutional republic. He
was withdrawn by C. Trebonius from the
senate-house just before the attack on Caesar
commenced; and during the tumult that
ensued, fled in the disguise of a slave to his
own house, which he began to fortify, and
where he remained concealed during the re
mainder of that day. It required, however,
less penetration than he possessed to discover,
within a few hours from Caesar's murder,
that the conspirators stood nearly alone, and
he promptly avaUed himself of his patron's
death, and of the uncertainty and disorganisa
tion of the persons and circumstances around
him, to establish his own fortunes on a loftier
and firmer basis than ever. His own posi
tion was, in itself, especially favourable, and
was aided by many fortnnate accidents. He
was consul at the time of Ca;sar's assassin
ation ; and he was also one of the augurs. His
brother Caius was city-praetor ; his younger
brother Lucius was tribune of the plebs.
Between the 15th and 17th of March, Cal
purnia, Caesar's widow, consigned to him the
money, the personal property, and the papers
of her late husband ; and he seized the public
treasures which were laid up in the temple

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

of Ops. He was, therefore, fully prepared
to meet the senate and the conspirators, on
the 17th of March, although they met in the
Temple of Earth within the precincts of the
Capitol, and guarded every avenue of ap
proach with the gladiators of Decimus Bru
tus. At this meeting Antonius proposed
the confirmation of Caesar's acts, and gave
weight to his proposal by an Insidious and
dextrous appeal to the personal interests of
the senators and conspirators. " If," he said,
" you decree Caesar a tyrant, you nulUfy his
acts, and with his acts your own appoint
ments to civil, provincial, and military offices
under him." Caesar's acts were, therefore,
declared valid, without any strict definition
of their dates or nature : an amnesty wais
published : Antonius placed his son Marcus,
afterwards known as Antyllus [Antyllus],
as a hostage in the conspirators' custody, aud
the deliberations of the senate closed with the
conspirators descending from their fortress
the Capitol, and the entertainment at supper
of Brutus by M. iEmUius Lepidus, Caesar's
master of the horse, and of Cassius by An
tonius himself. A public funeral was also
decreed to Caisar's body, although, but a few
hours before, the conspirators had talked of
throwing it into the Tiber. Appian has
given the fullest account of the speech of
Antonius at Caesar's funeral. It seems to
have been a dramatic exhibition, from which
nothing was omitted that could arouse
and point the indignation of the audience.
With earnest demeanour, in grave, and some
times vehement, language, attended by the
senators, the equltes, and the magistrates of
the republic, and addressing a dense multitude
of various speech and lineage, among whom
the veterans of the Gaulish wars were con
spicuous, Antonius recited the triumphs, the
titles, and the offices of the late dictator. He
contrasted the decree that declared his per
son sacred and inviolable, and the voluntary
oath by which the senate had bound them
selves to defend his life with their own, with
the act of the Ides of March, and with the
bloody garments, aud body that lay before
him. The pauses of his address were filled
up by the music of funeral hymns, or recita
tions of appropriate scenes from the " Electra "
of Attilius and Pacuvlus, The houses of
Brutus and his associates were attacked by
the mob, and hardly saved from conflagration
by the efforts of their friends, clients, and
armed gladiators, nor until the conspira
tors had quitted Rome did Antonius exert
himself to put down the tumult. After their
flight Antonius resumed his professions of
moderation ; and alternately dropped or wore
the mask, until he had deprived the opposite
party of every resource, except an appeal to
arms. He proposed an act, which the senate
passed by acclamation, to abolish for ever the
name and office of dictator ; but he refused the
conspirators a guard for their safety, and sent
108

Marcus iEmUlus Lepidus into Northern Italy
to watch over both Cisalpine and Transalpine
Gaul, He had previously secured the ad
herence of Lepidus, by allowing him to
seize without election the office of pontifex
maximus, and by giving his eldest daughter
Antonia in marriage to Lepidus's son Marcus.
While he affected to speak with the greatest re
spect of Brutus and Cassius, he deprived them
of their provinces of Macedonia and Syria,
which the late dictator had assigned them re
spectively, and gave them instead a commission
to purchase corn for the public granaries in
Asia and SicUy, He procured for them an ex
emption from the laws which forbade tbe city-
prastors to be absent for more than ten days
from Rome, and at the same time he decUned
to guarantee their safety within the waUs. He
put down the tumults excited in Rome by
Amatius or Herophllus, the pretended Marius
[Amatius]; but he availed himself of these
disturbances to obtain from the senate a
decree impowering him to raise a body-guard,
which he speedily augmented from a few
hundred to six thousand men. The most
effective implements in his hands, however,
were the papers and memoranda of the late
dictator. By Calpurnia's hasty confidence he
was their sole depositary. 'The senate had
declared aU Caesar's acts, prior to the Ides of
March, b. c. 44, valid : aud Antonius had
the assistance of Caesar's private secretary,
Faberius, in inserting in the same hand
writing whatever it suited him to introduce
into these documents. At first he proceeded
with some reserve, and foUowed ont the late
dictator's known Intentions. But speedily
the imposture became gross and palpable.
Exiles were recalled, immunities sold to
countries, cities, princes, and private men,
on pretence that Caesar had registered them
in his acts. The freedom of Rome was
granted to all Sicily in pursuance of a decree
of which no one had ever heard. The chief
cities of Crete were declared independent,
and the island, on the expiration of the next
proconsulship, was to become a province.
Deiotarus, king of Armenia ]\Iinor, recovered
all the territory of which C;csar had deprived
him, for the sum of ten mUlions of sesterces,
although it was notorious that if Caesar
hated any one especiaUy it was this monarch.
No account was made of the decree restricting
the date of Caisar's acts to the Ides of March,
and the memoranda frequently contained
entries of laws or privileges subsequent to
the dictator's de.ith. Nor was Fulvia less
diligent than her husband in disposing of the
rights and immunities of the commonwealth
to a motley crowd of purchasers, Thelr
house on the Carinae was a pubUc market in
which the dominions and power of Rome were
exposed to sale ; and, although, at the time
of Caesar's death, .Vntonins owed, according
to Cicero's statement, forty millions of ses
terces (322,916/.), within a fortnight after,

ANTONIUS,

ANTONIUS,

his creditors were paid. These profitable
occupations were scarcely interrupted by a
progress of Antonius through Campania and
Southern Italy for the purpose of visiting the
quarters and settlements of Caesar's veterans,
and of organising a miUtary force. On leav
ing Rome he appomted a meeting of the
senate on the 1st of June, and aUowed his
colleague in the consulship, Cornelius Dola
beUa, to govern Rome in his absence. An
tonius had opposed Caesar's nomination of
DolabeUa to the consulship of e, c, 44. But
it was now his interest to concUiate him, and
the payment of Dolabella's debts, together
with the promise of the rich province of Sy
ria, effaced their public and private enmity.
The arrival of Octavianus Caesar at Rome
iu the beginning of May, b. c, 44, checked
for a whUe the prosperous course of Antonius.
Octavianus was Caesar's kinsman by birth,
his son by adoption, and the principal heir
under his wiU, and on all these accounts
therefore a formidable rival. The claims of
Antonius on the favour of the Caesarians, the
people, and the legions, were feeble in com
parison. The effects and papers which Cal
purnia had consigned to him were the youth
ful Ctcsar's property ; and If, as a collateral
member of the Julian house, he had some
pretensions to avenge Caesar, the claims of
the direct relative were much stronger. From
their first meeting after Antonius returned
from Southern Italy, they parted with mutual
anger. Antonius treated Octavianus as a boy,
and dismissed him after a brief audience with
a recommendation to seek things more be
coming his years than the inheritance and
executorship of Caesar, Octavianus reiterated
the demand which he had just registered at
the tribunal of Caius Antonius, the clty-prae-
tor, to be put in possession of Caesar's personal
property and estates, Antonius, probably
through his brother Lucius the tribune's
veto, prevented a lex curiata being passed to
confirm Octavianus's adoption, and impeded
his election to a tribuneship of the plebs,
void by the death of Helvlus Cinna, Octavi
anus, on the other hand, courted the favour
of the senate by affected indifference ; of the
people by promises of discharging Caesar's
legacies ; and of the soldiers by his real or
assumed eagerness to avenge his uncle's mur
der. Of the two competitors Octavianus was
the more successful in concUiating all these
classes. Antonius lost much of the advantage
which his station and authority gave him by
rejecting all compromise, and by his efforts
to oppress a stripling who was at first almost
without protectors. He committed another
false step by obstructing Octavianus in the
celebration of the games in honour of Venus
Genetrix, the divine ancestress of the late
dictator and the Julian Gens. His conduct
towards the senate was neither firm nor con
ciliating. He had brought with him from
Campania and Southern Italy to the neigh-
109

bourhood of Rome a number of Caesar's vete
rans, whose open menaces against all who
were suspected of favouring the conspirators
kept many of the most illustrious senators,
such as Marcus Cicero and Marcus Varro,
away from Rome. With these and other
members of the Pompeian party, not involved
in the conspiracy, Octavianus for a time made
common cause. The invectives of Cicero, of
which the series began on the 2d of Septem
ber, E. c. 44, demolished the reputation of
Antonius. His reply to Cicero, which he de
livered in the senate on the 19 th of the same
month, and which he had carefully elaborated
at Scipio's villa at Tibur (Tivoli), was de
grading only to its author, nor, although un
doubtedly eloquent in the forum and the camp,
was Antonius at any time a successful speaker
in the senate. About the end of September
Antonius again left Rome. He had recently
thrown off all reserve, published several
threatening edicts against the conspirators,
and set up in the rostra a statue of the late
dictator, inscribed " To the Best Parent."
Ou the Sth of October he was at Brundisium.
Four of the legions designed for the Parthian
war had by his orders re-crossed the Adriatic,
and were encamped without the walls. Anto
nius believed himself sure of their allegiance,
and offered a donative of only four hundred
sesterces to each common soldier. His offer
was rejected with derision, for the agents of
Octavianus had already promised a much
larger sum. His anger fell on the centurions,
of whom and of seditious privates three hun
dred were executed in his own and Fulvia's
presence. Of the four legions encamped at
Brundisium one only, the Gaulish Alauda; or
the Larks, followed Antonius to Rome. There
he again issued some extravagant proclama
tions, in which the Ciceros, Jlarcus and his
nephew Quintus, were denounced ; Octavianus
was styled " Spartacus ;" and three of the
tribunes were interdicted from appearing in
the senate. He summoned the senate for the
24th of November, and threatened to punish
absence severely, yet neglected to be present
himself. The meeting was adjourned to the
2Sth, but although a bill to declare Octavianus
a public enemy was generally expected, An
tonius produced only a supplication or honor
ary vote to M. iEmillus Lepidus, a measure
which no one regarded or opposed. But
Antonius had learned as he entered the
senate-house, that two of the legions from
Brundisium, the Fourth and the Jlartial, had
formed a camp at Alba, within a few miles of
Rome, and declared openly for Octavianus.
He therefore abruptly dismissed the senate,
and, on the evening of the same day, ex
changed his consular robe for a military
garb, and hastened to his Gaulish legion and
cavalry at Tibur. A few days before, An
tonius, while halting at Tibur on his marcli
from Brundisium, meditated, according to
Cicero, an accommodation with the senate.

ANTONIUS.
but was diverted from his purpose by the re
monstrances and threats of his brother
Lucius. But it was now too late for con
ciliation. The senate, united with Octavianus,
possessed a considerable army : the consuls
elect of B. c. 43, Aulus Hirtius and Cains
Vibius Pansa, were hostile to Antonius ; and
Decimus Brutus [Brutus, Junius Decimus],
one of the conspirators, occupied Cisalpine
Gaul, which province, as it commanded the
passes from Italy to the Transalpine pro
vinces, Antonius had wrested from the senate
in lieu of Macedonia. After an unsuccessful
assault ou the camp at Alba, Antonius re
mained for a few days at Tibur to collect
his detached parties before he advanced
upon Cisalpine Gaul. Having tried without
effect to bring Decimus Brutus to an
engagement, and secured the towns of Bo-
nonia (Bologna) and Clatema (Quaderna),
Antonius formed the siege of Mutina
(Modena) before the end of E, c, 44. He re
mained before Mutina until the middle of
April, B.C. 43. Two deputations sent by the
senate with orders to Antonius to abandon
the siege were followed by the joint armies
of the consuls Hirtius and Pansa, and of Oc
tavianus. Between the 15th and the 29th of
April, Mutina was relieved after two engage
ments, in both of which Antonius was finally
defeated, but the two eonsiUs were slain,
Antonius, with his cavalry, made a rapid and
difficult march through the passes of the
Cottian Alps into Gaul. During his retreat
himself and his officers were constrained to
feed on horse flesh, on the unpalatable roots
and lichens of the mountain region, and the
pounded bark of trees. He was closely pur
sued by Decimus Brutus, and he appeared
rushing on certain destruction, since M,
iEmUlus Lepidus had not declared in his
favour, and Aslnius Polllo, the proconsul of
Spain, and Munatius Plancus, the proconsul
of the Further Gaul, were engaged to the
senate to attack him. On his retreat from
Mutina, Antonius had been joined by Publius
Ventidius. By the 29th of May the troops
of Lepidus admitted him into their camp :
Polllo, and subsequently Plancus, abandoned
the cause of the senate ; and within three
months after his defeat at Mutina, Antonius
re-passed the Alps with seventeen legions and
ten thousand cavalry, Octavianus had in the
mean time deserted the cause of the senate,
and in the autumn of B. c. 43 marched into
Cisalpine Gaul, whither also Antonius and
Lepidus were leading their combined legions.
On the 27th of November, upon a small
island in the channel of the Rhenus, about
two miles from Bononia, a triumvirate was
formed, after three days' secret conference, of
whieh the principal conditions were — a par
tition of the empire among the throe asso
ciates ; a proscription of the opposite party ;
war with the conspirators ; money for the
legions ; and at least a temporary suspension
110

ANTONIUS.
of the elective and legislative functions of the
senate and people of Rome. The lists of
proscription, the easiest article of the new
arrangement to execute, were subscribed by
Octavianus, Antonius, and Lepidus, and sent
to the consul Quintus Pedius at Rome. After
Cicero's murder, Antonius, devoid of steadi
ness in either good or evil, became the most
lenient, the most capricious, or the most venal
of the triumvirs. In the fresh partition of
the provinces the whole of Gaul on each side
the Alps, with the exception of Narbonne,
which was aUotted to Lepidus, fell to his
share. The principal burden of the war with
the conspirators devolved on Antonius. The
victory at Philippi over Brutus and Cassius
towards the end of B. c. 42, was due to his
skilful dispositions and personal valour ; and,
after the battle was over, his conduct to the
vanquished was humane and even magnani
mous. He protected the friends and clients,
and allowed funeral honours to the body of
Marcus Brutus. In a second division of the
provinces, Achaia, Asia, and the East gene
rally, with the charge of raising suppUes for
the legions, were allotted to Antonius.
From PhiUppi he went to Athens, where
he affected the studies and even the dress of
a philosopher, was initiated into the Mys
teries, and with his wonted versatility led a
simple and sober Ufe, At Ephesus, whither
he next proceeded with eight legions, he re
sumed his ordinary habits of licence, and was
entertained by the courtly Asiatic Greeks as
the god Bacchus, Neither Athens nor Ephe
sus, however, could avert by adulation the
enormous imposts which the treasury re
quired, and which with heedless profusion he
lavished indifferently on his soldiers and his
buffoons. A cook who had pleased his taste
was remunerated with the estate of an opulent
Magnesian ; a favourite player coUected the
tribute of four cities. He directed the taixes
of ten J'ears to be paid in two ; amd it was
remarked that if his demamds continued, he
must order more summers and harvests in
the year. Y^et of the enormous sums ex
tracted by Antonius in b, c, 41 fi-om the lesser
Asia, no portion -n-as sent to Italy or appUed
to the objects of his commission. As some
recompense for the calamities he inflicted,
Antonius granted to many of the Asiatic
cities valuable immunities, especially to
Xanthus, Laodicea, Tarsus, and the island
of Rhodes, all of which had suffered severely
from the exactions of Brutus and Cassius.
During his staiy at Ephesus, Antonius decided
many questions of territory and succession
between the kings and tetrarchs on each side
of the river Halys. Thus he awarded Galatia
to Amyntas, and Capp.adoela to Arlarathes
¦\'I1. But of these royal appellants by far
the most celebrated was Cleopatra, daughter
of Ptolemasus Auletes, and the last monarch
of Egypt. Cleopatra had sent both ships
and troops to the triumvirs, but Serapion, her

ANTONIUS,

ANTONIUS,

legate in Cyprus, had aided Cassius ; and for
this offence she was cited to Tarsus in Cilicia,
[Cleopatra.] Antonius had seen Cleopatra
in Egypt, when he was legate to Gabinius in
E. c. 55, and probably at Rome also in b. c.
44, when she dwelt in Caesar's house. Her
sojourn at Tarsus, however, began that in
separable and fatal connexion which ended
only with the death of Antonius and her
self. A hurried progress through Syria
brought Antonius to Egypt, and, during
the whole of E.c. 41, he remained at Alex
andria absorbed by the pleasures of that
voluptuous court and city. At length in
E. c. 41-40 the Perusine war, which had been
kindled by the levity of his brother Lucius
[ Antonius , Lucius ; Agrippa, Marcus
Vipsanius] and the jealousy of Fulvia, who
wished to separate her husband from Cleo
patra, recalled Antonius to Italy. On his way
thither he found Fulvia and his mother Julia
at Athens accompanied by many exiles,
who sought to embroil him with Octavianus.
Fulvia's death at Sicyon, however, in the
summer of E. u. 40, removed a principal im
pediment to peace, and by the intervention of
Maecenas, Cocceius Nerva, and other mutual
friends, the triumvirs were reconcUed, and
their reconciliation strengthened by the mar
riage of Antonius with Octavia, sister of
Octavianus and widow of C. Marcellus, consul
in B. c. 50, At the same time a fresh divi
sion of the state was agreed upon, and Anto
nius obtained for his share the provinces
between Codropolis in lUyricum and the
Euphrates, with the superintendence of the
Parthian war. In b, c, 39, a treaty was con
cluded at Mlsenum on the Campanian coast
between the triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius,
second son of Cneius Pompeius, who, with the
remnants of the Pompeian navy, had long
swept the Mediterranean and plundered the
coasts of Italy, Antonius passed the winter
of this year with Octavia at Athens, having
previously dispatched his lieutenant, Publius
Ventidius, to drive the Parthians from Syria.
In n. c. 38, Ventidius defeated the Parthians,
whose king, Pacorus, was slain in an action on
the 9th of June {Orosius, vi. 18.). He then
proceeded to punish the allies and subjects of
Romp who had aided or submitted to the Par
thians. He had nearly reduced Samosata, the
capital of Antiochus I., king of Commagene,
when Antonius arrived, and took on him.self
the conduct of the siege, lie succeeded so
ill, however, that although Antiochus had
offered the lieutenant a thousand talents as
the ransom of himself and his capital, he
treated with the triumvir on much easier
terms. In the same year Caius Sosius,
another of the legates of Antonius and praefect
of Syria and Cilicia, took Jerusalem, An
tonius, however, regarded the achievements
of his lieutenants with jealousy, and removed
them from their commands. In the winter
of E, c, 37 he was again in Italy, and the tri-
111

umvirate, which had expired in the preceding
December, was renewed for a second period
of five years.
At this period the intercession of Octavia
prevented an open rupture between her bro
ther and husband. Octavianus had recently
completed his preparations for a naval war
with Sextus Pompeius, when Antonius ap
peared with a fleet of three hundred ships off
Brundisium, His presence and participation
in the approaching war with Pompeius was
in conformity with the conditions of the tri
umvirate, which bound its members to aid
one another by land and sea. But the arrival
of his coUeague was unwelcome to Octavianus,
and Antonius was denied admission into the
harbour of Brundisium. He therefore saUed
round to Tarentum, where Octavia, who ac
companied him, landed, and sought an inter
view with her brother. Her intercessions
prevailed with Octavianus to meet his bro
ther-triumvir between Metapontum and Ta
rentum, and their reconciliation was once
more cemented by a marriage. AntyUus, the
eldest son of Antonius by Fulvia, was be
trothed to Julia, the daughter of Octavianus
by Scribonia, although the bride was not three
years old ; and Antonia, the infant daughter
of Antonius and Octavia, was at the same
time contracted to Lucius Domitius Ahenobar-
bus [Ahenoeareus, Lucius Domitius, IX.].
Octavianus, who wanted ships, received from
his coUeague a 'nundred war-galleys : and
Antonius, who required soldiers for his Par
thian war, borrowed two legions from Octa
vianus. And besides this exchange of forces
Octavia obtained for her husband a thousand
soldiers, and for her brother twenty light
brigantines called Myoparones. After these
mutual concessions the triumvirs parted with
apparent good wiU . but Octavia accom
panied Antonius only as far as Corcyra, from
whence he dismissed her to Italy, and pro
ceeded himself to Laodicea in Syria, whither
he had invited Cleopatra to meet him. The
queen of Egypt was conducted by Fonteius
Capito to Antonius, whose evil genius was now
again in the ascendant. The revels of Alex
andria were repeated at Laodicea. Alexander
and Cleopatra,Cleopatra's twin children by An
tonius, received respectively the surnames of
the Sun and the Moon. The fairest portions of
Roman Asia were annexed to the kingdom of
Egypt. The time which barely sufficed for the
preparations of a war so remote and formid
able as the Parthian was wasted in adjusting
at Cleopatra's pleasure the feuds of the kings
and tetrarchs of Syria, and the tribute which
was again extorted from the impoverished
provinces of Achaia and Asia Minor was
diverted by a thousand channels from the
equipment of the legions. The invasion of
the Parthian empire was accordingly a series
of disasters. Antonius, after dismissing Cle
opatra to Egypt, took the field too early in the
year ; his army was nearly unprovided with

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

magazines ; he narrowly escaped captivity ;
and the selfish precipitation of his retreat,
that he might rejoin Cleopatra at Alexandria
instead of wintering securely among his allies
in Armenia*, destroyed as many of his soldiers
as the arrows of the enemy.
According to Florus ( iv. 10. ) a third ouly
of his army, which before it entered Media
amounted to more than 120,000 men, returned
to Syria. Antonius called his escape a victory,
and while he forwarded to the senate at Rome
a pompous account of his expedition, he
awaited at a fort called Leucoma, somewhere
between Sidon and Berytus, the arrival of
Cleopatra from Alexandria. He sought to
forget his recent disasters in Intemperance,
yet frequently started from table and hurried
to the beach to catch the first glimpse of a sail
from Egypt. The year b. c. 35 was passed
by Antonius in Egypt. Sextus Pompeius, who
had long balanced the power of Octavianus
in the west, died in this year. M. iEmillus
Lepidus had been ejected from the trium
virate three years before [Pompeius, Sex
tus ; Lepidus, Marcus iEmiLius], and the
indiscreet and passionate Antonius was no
match for Octavianus in their contest for un
divided empire. In b. c. 35 Antonius in
flicted a fresh Insult on Octavia and Octa
vianus. Octavia was bringing to him from
Italy clothing, money, aud recruits for his
shattered Parthian troops. But he sent her
orders to proceed no further than Athens,
and finally, in compliance with Cleopatra's
entreaties, directed her to return to Rome.
In b. c. 34 Antonius was consul for the
second and last time. He invaded Armenia
in the spring of this year, took captive Arta-
vasdes, the Armenian king, and gratified the
Alexandrians with the spectacle of a Roman
triumph. About the same time, in a public
assembly In the gymnasium at Alexandria,
Antonius declared Cleopatra his lawful wife,
aud proclaimed her queen of Egypt, Libya,
Cyprus, and Csele-Syrla. Caesarlon, Cleo
patra's son by Julius Ca?sar, was named her
colleague, an appointment that aft'ected the
adoption of Octavianus. To Alexander and
Ptolemaeus, his own and Cleopatra's sons, he
assigned some of the richest provinces of the
East, and kingdoms which were not even
within the dominion of Rome. At this
solemnity, which was foUowed by a yet more
extravagant banquet, Antonius appeared in
the dress of Bacchus, and Cleopatra in that
of Isis. These extravagances attracted the
more notice from the contrast they pre
sented to Octavia's patience in desertion,
and to the care with which she educated
Antonius's children, and watched over his
interests iu Rome. In E. f. 33 Antonius,
on pretence of aiding Artavasdes, king of
Armenia, in an attack on Phraates, the
Parthian monarch, repaired to the banks of
the Araxes. But he advanced no further,
for his real object was to negotiate an ex-
112

change of Roman infantry for Median horse.
He had recently felt the superiority of the
eastern cavalry, and wished to engage a body
of them for his approaching conflict with
Octavianus. In the same year he vlsUed
Ionia and Greece for the purpose of raising
recruits and supplies. The year B. c. 32 was
employed by Octavianus and Antonius
in preparations for war. Caius Sosius and
Cneius Domitius Ahenobarbus [Ahenoear
eus, Cneius Domitius, VIIL], the consuls
of that year, were friends of Antonius, and
pleaded his cause, but ineffectuaUy and in
judiciously, in the senate. Antonius, at the
same time, sent a biU of divorce to Octavia,
ordered her to quit his house at Rome, and
unblushlngly avowed that he had been nine
years married to Cleopatra, and that his
children by her were consequently legitimate.
Octavianus had reproached him with his
bondage to the queen of Egypt, with appro
priating the whole tribute of the eastern pro
vinces, with his treatment of the king of
Armenia, and with the whole tenour of his
eastern administration since the battle of
PhUippi. Antonius, on his part, alleged
against Octavianus his divorce of Scribonia,
his marriage with Livia, the wife of Tiberius
Nero, his ejection of Lepidus from the tri
umvirate, and his cowardice at the battles of
Mutina and PhiUppi, A taunt of Octavianus
at the issue of the Parthian war was, how
ever, the immediate cause of Antonius's de
claring open war. He appointed the city of
Ephesus for the head-quarters of his land and
seaforces, whither, in company with Cleopatra,
he speedily followed from Alexandria his
legate Canldlus and his sixteen legions. At
Ephesus the consuls C, Sosius and Cneius
Domitius, who had been compelled to leave
Rome, joined Antonius, reported to him the
state of his affairs in the West, and earnestly
solicited him to send back Cleopatra to her
own kingdom. Her arts prevailed with him
to reject their entreaties, and she persuaded
film to leave Ephesus for the neighbouring
island of Samos, where she engrossed him
with a ceaseless round of festivities. The
kings, princes, and tetrarchs of the eastern
provinces from lUyricum to Armenia con
ducted or sent to Ephesus their soldiers,
their ships, and their apportioned tribute,
aud the city was for some months the centre
of a camp. Greece, Asia, and Egypt sent to
Samos a motley crew of musicians, dancers,
and players, and the island presented the ap
pearance of a theatre. The disorders and
incapacity of Antonius, at this crisis of his
fortunes, dismayed his friends, and alienated
his less attached adherents. At Rome Calm
Aslnius Polllo abandoned him, without, how
ever, joining the party of his rival. Lucius
Munatius Plancus, late his most servile flat
terer, and Tltius, nephew of Plancus, deserte 1
him at Ephesus, and Tltius revealed to Oc
tavianus the contents of the will which Auto-

ANTONIUS,

ANTONIUS,

nius had deposited with the Vestals at Rome.
This document was read to the senate by Oc
tavianus, and none of Antonius's acts of in
discretion alienated so entirely the affections
of the Roman people. In it Antonius re
asserted Caesarion's legitimacy ; bequeathed
to Cleopatra or his children by her the
fairest portions of the East; and directed
that if he died during his absence from
Egypt, his body should be transported to
Alexandria, and interred by Cleopatra. This
offensive clause was rendered more intoler
able to Roman prejudices by a contemporary
rumour that Antonius intended, after con
quering Octavianus, to make Italy an Egyp
tian province, and Alexandria the capital of
the empire. To counteract, if possible, the
effect of this disclosure of his wUl, Geminius,
one of Antonius's most active partisans, was
sent from Rome to Samos, to remonstrate
with him in the name of his remaining friends.
The mission of Geminius was to Antonius
alone ; but he could not elude the suspicions of
Cleopatra, who baflJed his mediation. Anto
nius at Samos confirmed every unfavourable
rumour by appearing in the fiowing robes and
with the diadem of an eastern monarch, while
Cleopatra was attended by a Roman guard,
and boasted of the laws which she would
dictate at Rome. The portraits or statues
of Antonius at this time represented him
adorned with the symbols of Osiris ; Cleo
patra was painted or sculptured as Isis, In
the autumn of B. c, 32 Antonius moved his
whole armament from Ephesus to Corcyra.
On their way thither he stopped with Cleo
patra at Athens, where he obtained a decree
of extraordinary honours to the queen of
Egypt, and presented it himself in the charac
ter of a private Athenian citizen, the chief of
a deputation. His fleet, both in number and
in the size of the galleys, was greatly superior
to that of Octavianus : his land forces were
not much more numerous : but both his le
gions and his naval armament were inferior
in discipline, and ill provided with magazines.
He retired early into winter quarters at
Patrae ( Patras ) at the mouth of the Gulf of
Corinth, and a disorderly winter increased
the disorganisation of his forces. His galleys
rotted in port, a third part of his best seamen,
the Phccnicians and Egyptians, deserted or
died of hunger, and in the spring their place
was hastily filled by the peasants of Elis and
Achaia, many of whom had never handled an
oar. Before Antonius left Patrae InB, c. 31,
M, Vipsanius Agrippa, the commander of
Octavianus's fleet [Agrippa, Marcus Vip
sanius], had intercepted his convoys, and
cut off his outposts, and had nearly surprised
him in the Gulf of Ambracia, Antonius dis
played some of his former skill in extricating
his fleet from Agrippa, and, for some months,
the competitors for empire lay opposite to
each other, Octavianus at Brundisium, Anto
nius within the Ambracian G ulf At this time
VOL. Ill,

Amyntas, tetrarch of Galatia, king Deiotarus,
and Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus went over to
Octavianus. The battle of Actlum, which was
fought on the 2nd of September, determined
the fortunes of Antonius. Cleopatra, who
was in the battle, fled while victory was yet
doubtful, and Antonius, suspecting treachery,
or overcome by his passion for her, followed
her retreating galleys. Yet even with his
army alone Antonius might have long con
tested the Roman world with Octavianus,
whom want of money and the unquiet state
of Italy disabled from a protracted war. But
the retum of Antonius to Alexandria broke
up his partisans and dependents, and dissolved
the allegiance of his soldiers, who, after vainly
waiting for his re-appearance, dispersed or
surrendered to Octavianus. After the loss of
his fleet and army Antonius abandoned him
self to profound melancholy. In a house
near the Pharos, and within the great har
bour of Alexandria, he secluded himself even
from Cleopatra. His dwelling he called the
Timonlum, and he professed the misanthropy
of Timon the Athenian. During an interval
of fruitless sorrow, his friends, allies, and
subjects fell away from him, and grief and
solitude were embittered by suspicions of
Cleopatra. He allowed Octavianus to take
Paraetonium and Pelusium, the keys of
Egypt on the respective frontiers of Cyrene
ancl Arabia Petraea, and to blockade the
outer port of Alexandria. Antonius, how
ever, quitted his abode in the Timonlum to
invest Caesarlon and his own son Antyllus
with the manly gown. He resumed his
wonted valour and protracted the siege by
vigorous assaults on the besiegers : and again
sought to bury remorse and shame in in
temperance. To his challenge to single
combat Octavianus replied, " Antonius had
many other ways to die." In his last sally
from Alexandria he beheld his cavalry and
fleet desert him, and he re-entered the city
with the purpose of revenging himself on
Cleopatra. The queen fled to a tomb of
great strength and difficult access, which sho
had buUt near the temple of Isis, and caused
a rumour of her death to reach Antonius.
Impatient equally of anger and grief Antonius
laid aside his armour, and bade his freed
man Eros, whom he had engaged by oath to
kill him, remember his engagement. Eros
eluded his oath by slaying himself, and An
tonius was constrained to be his own exe
cutioner. He fell by his own sword in August,
B. c. 30, in the fifty-second year of his age.
The wound, though mortal, was not instantly
fatal, and Antonius was conveyed into the
tomb, and expired in the arms of Cleopatra.
With his dying breath he enjoined Cleopatra
to trust Proculeius alone among the followers
of Octavianus; reverted to the IUustrious part
he had so long sustained on the world's stage,
and added that he now died not ingloriously,
"a Roman by a Roman valiantly vanquished."

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

The wish recorded in his will was fulfilled ;
and, although at Rome his statues were
thrown down, his birth-day declared unfor
tunate, and his praenomen Marcus forbidden
to the Antonii, his remains were granted to
Cleopatra, and reposed beside hers in the
same tomb. Antonius was married four times,
without reckoning his connexion with Cleo
patra, By his first wife Fadia, daughter of
Quintus Fadius, a freedman, he had chUdren,
but they probably died young, as their names
have not been preserved. His second wife
was his first cousin, Antonia, daughter of his
uncle Cains Antonius Hybrida, by whom he
had one daughter, Antonia, married to Mar
cus Lepidus, a son of Lepidus the triumvir.
She probably died before her father, since
she is not included by Plutarch among the
seven chUdren who survived him. His third
wife was Fulvia, daughter of Marcus Fulvius
Bambalio of Tusculum, and widow succes
sively of Cains Curio and Publius Clodius.
By Fulvia he had two sons, Marcus An
tonius, more usuaUy denominated by his
Greek name Antyllus, who was put to death
by Octavianus in b. c. 30 after the fall of
Alexandria, and lulus Antonius. [Antonius,
luLus.] By his fourth wife, Octavia, sister
of Octavianus, he had two daughters, Antonia
major and Antonia minor. [Octavia; An
tonia.] By Cleopatra he had two sons and
a daughter, [Cleopatra.]
The medals of M. Antonius the triumvir
are numerous. There is a gold medal which
contains on one face the head of Antonius
with the legend Antonius Imp. (Antonius
Imperator), and on the other the head of
Octavianus with the legend Caesar Imp.
There are also silver medals with the head of
A.ntonius on one face and that of Cleopatra
on the other with Greek legends : the legend
of Antonius gives him the title of autocrator
and commemorates his third triumvirate ; and
that of Cleopatra gives her the title of queen
and younger goddess (3-6t£ reo^Tepa). The
character ofthe face of Antonius is well pre
served on aU the medals, which are also
characterised by his aquiline nose, mentioned
by Plutarch, (Plutarch, Antonius; Appian,
Civil Wars, ii, ill, iv, v. ; Dion Cassius,
xl. — 111.; Ernesti, Clavis Ciceroniana; Baiter,
Onomasticon Tullianum ; and the indices to
Caesar's Gallic Wars and Civil Wars, to
VeUeius Paterculus, and to Suetonius, Julius
and Octavianus ; Rasche, Lexicon Rei Numa
ria, " Antonia Gens " and " Antonius.") W, B. D
ANTO'NIUS, MARCUS. [Antyllus.]
ANTO'NIUS, MARCUS GNFPHO, was
a native of Gaul, boi-n of free parents about
B. c. 114, but abandoned by them at his birth.
He was, however, rescued from perishing by
some person unknown, and, after being care
fully educated at Alexandria, was manumitted
by his preserver. In what year Antonius
Gnipho came to Rome is uncertain. He
114

gave lectures in grammar, which comprised
logic and criticism at first in the house of
C. Julius Caesar, probably under the protec
tion of AureUa, Cajsar's mother, and after
wards on both grammar and rhetoric in his
own. He explained daUy the rules of elo
quence and composition, and every eighth
day he declaimed. He numbered among his
pupils some of the most Ulustrious men of
Rome, including JuUus Caesar and Marcus
Cicero, who, even after he had been praetor,
and had estabUshed ,his reputation as an
orator, frequented, either for the sake of
practice, or from respect to his old instructor,
the school of Gnipho. The urbanity and
good humour of Gnipho concUiated general
esteem ; he was well versed in both the Greek
and Latin tongues ; his singular memory
rendered him one of the most learned of the
grammarians ; and his Uberal deaUngs with
his pupils, from whom he required no certain
stipend, procured for him, in return, both
wealth and honour. He died in the fiftieth
year of his age. Of the many writings attri
buted to Antonius Gnipho none have been
preserved. Their genuineness is indeed
doubtful, for according to Atteius, surnamed
the PhUologist, who was one of his pupils,
Antonius left only a treatise "De Latino
Sermone," in two volumes. From this work,
probably, Quintilian {Institution^ Orator. 1. 6.
§ 23.), cites. Many treatises, however, writ
ten by his scholars, and perhaps revised "by
him, went under his name. The treatise
entitled " Libri quatuor Rhetoricorum ad C.
Herennium," and usuaUy prefixed to Cicero's
rhetorical works, is ascribed to Antonius
Gnipho by Schiitz {Prolegomena ad Ciceronis
Rhetorica, p. IvUi. ff), on grounds of in*ornal
evidence alone. His opinion, which is sup
ported with great ability, is refuted by OrelU
in his edition of Cicero, p. 102., at the end
of the fourth book, " Ad Herennium," and
by a writer in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclo
pddie, xvii. 208. (Suetonius, De Rlustr.
Grammaticis, § 7., ^ 10. ; Macrobius, Satur
nalia, Ul. 12.) W. B. D.
ANTO'NIUS (^Avrivios), surnamed Me
lissa {ixeKuraa, a bee), to indicate the care
with which he coUected the materials for his
work, which is stiU extant. He was probably
a Greek monk, but the time at which he lived
is uncertain. Cave infers, from the fact of
Theophylact being mentioned by Antonius,
that he lived about fhe middle of the twelfth
century. But as there is nothing that would
lead us to believe that this Theophylact is
the archbishop of the Bulgarians, it may with
equal reason be said that he is the Theophy
lact who was surnamed Simocatta, and lived
in the seventh century of our aera, diu-ing the
latter part of the reign of HeracUus. As An
tonius is also called a disciple of Joannes Da-
mascenus, who lived about the middle of the
eighth century, it seems most probable that
the period of Antonius is the end of the eighth

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

century. His work is a collection of moral
sentences (loci communes) gathered from
the early Greek writers and the ecclesiastical
fathers. It is a work of the same kind as the
Sermones of Stobaeus ; it consists of two books,
and all the materials are arranged under one
hundred and seventy-six titles, which, with
a list of the authors from whom the sentences
are taken, are given by Fabricius in his
" Bibliotheca Graeca." 'The work is printed
at the end of some editions of Stobaeus, as
in those of Frankfurt (1581) and Geneva
(1609). The editio princeps is that of Conrad
Gesner (Zurich, 1546, fol.), in which the
" Loci Communes " of Antonius are printed
with the works of Theophilus, Tatlan, and
Maximus. They are also printed in the
" BibUotheca Patrum," v. 878. &c. ed. Paris.
(Cave, Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia
Literaria, i. 666. ed. London ; Fabricius,
Biblioth. Graca, ix. 744—757.) L. S,
ANTO'NIUS MUSA, [Musa, Anto
nius.] ANTO'NIUS NASO. [Naso.]
ANTO'NIUS NATA'LIS. [Natalis.]
ANTO'NIUS NEBRISSENSIS, or AN
TO'NIO DE LEBRIXA, a celebrated
Spanish historian, was born in Andalusia in
1444, He was probably a native of Nebrixa
or Lebrixa, the ancient Nebrissa, whence he
was named " Nebrissensis," Nothing is known
of his parents, except that they were land
proprietors, though poor. After making the
usual studies at the university of Salamanca,
Antonius left Spain at the age of nineteen, and
proceeded to Italy to complete his education
at the university of Bologna. He returned
to Spain in 1473, richly stored with classical
learning, and the liberal arts that were then
taught in the flourishing schools of Italy,
Soon after his arrival he was appointed to
the two chairs of grammar and poetry, and
lectured at the same time in these distinct
departments, a thing unprecedented in the
university of Salamanca. He was subse
quently promoted by Cardinal Ximenez to a
professorship In his newly-founded university
of Alcala de Henares, where he enjoyed the
entire confidence of his distinguished patron,
who employed him in various literary works,
and consulted him on all matters relating to
the institution. He continued delivering lec
tures and expounding the ancient classics to
a crowded audience tiU the advanced age of
seventy-eight, when he was carried off by
an attack of apoplexy, Antonius is justly
considered by the Spaniards as one of their
most eminent writers. What the labours of
the great Italian scholars of the fifteenth
century did for classical literature in Italy,
Antonius is generally acknowledged to have
effected in Spain by lus instruction and his
learning. For many years the anniversary
of his death was commemorated by publie
services, and a funeral panegyric in the uni
versity of Alcala. Antonius Nebrissensis wrote
115

several works, principally on philology,
grammar, and the ancient classics. The fol
lowing are the titles of some of them —
" Dictionarium Latino-Hlspanum et Hispano-
Latinum," Alcala, 1532, fol., afterwards re
printed ; " Gramatica sobre la Lengua Cas-
teUana," or a Grammar of the Castilian Lan
guage, Salamanca, 1492, 4to. Alcala, 1517,
4to, and elsewhere ; " AulU Persii Satyrae,
cum Interpretatione Hispana," Logroiio,
1529, Svo,; " Aurelii Prudentil Clementis
LibeiU cum Commento," Logroiio, 1512, 4to, ;
De Profectione Regum ad Compostellam,"
Granada, 1534, and Antequera, 1577, 4to,;
(this is an account of Ferdinand and Isa-
beUa's pilgrimage to St. James of Compos-
tella ;) " Artis RhetoricEE compendiosa Co-
aptatlo ex Arlstotele, Cicerone et QulntUlano,"
Alcala, 1529, 8vo., and several others, the
list of which may be seen in Nicolas Antonio.
Antonius Nebrissensis is, however, best known
as the author of a Latin chronicle of Ferdi
nand and Isabella, The circumstances at
tending the composition of this work are
singular enough. Carvajal, a contempo
rary writer, says that he gave Antonius the
Spanish chronicle of Hernando del Pul-
gar, after that writer's death, for the pur
pose of having it translated into Latin. An
tonius undertook it, and proceeded in his task
as far as the year 1486. This unfinished
performance being found among Antonius'
papers after his decease, with a preface, in
which there was not a word of acknowledg
ment to Pulgar, it was naturaUy thought to
be a work of his own composition, and was
accordingly pubUshed as such by his son
Sancho, under the following title — " Rerum
in Hispanla gestarum Decades," Granada,
1545, fol , together with the Latin chronicle
of Rodericus Toletanus. Twenty years after,
the first edition of Pulgar's chronicle was
published at Valladolid, from the copy which
belonged to Antonius, by his grandson Antonio;
and, strange to say, this edition also appeared
as the work of Antonius. Copies, however, of
Pulgar's chronicles were preserved in various
libraries ; and two years after, 1567, a new
edition was published at Saragossa, bearing
the real name of its author. Antonius' re
putation has sustained some injury from this
transaction, though unjustly. In the first
place, his history can hardly be called a
translation ; for, adthough it adopts the
same mode of treatment, it is diversified by
many new ideas and original facts. And
secondly, it is probable that he adopted
Pulgar's text as the basis of his own, intend
ing to continue his history to his own times.
(N, Antonius, Biblioth. Hisp. Vetus, 11, 132, ;
Prescott, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain,
vol. 1, p. 456,) P. dcG.
ANTO'NIUS, NICOLA'US. [Antonio,
Nicolas.] ANTO'NIUS NOVELLUS. [Novel-
LUS.] I 2

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

ANTO'NIUS DE PARMA or PAR-
MENSIS. [Antony of Parma.]
^ANTO'NIUS PO'LEMO (^AvTiivios Uo-
Af^aic), a Sophist, was born in the reign of
Hadrian, and died in that of Antoninus Pius,
who became emperor a. d. 138. Polemo was
a native of Laodicea in Phrygia (Ladik), but
he resided mostly at Smyrna, After attend
ing for four years the lectures of Timocrates
of Heraclea in Pontus, and of Scopelianus at
Smyrna, he went to Bithynia, to study under
the Sophist Dion. On his return to Smyrna
he found a singular feud prevailing among
the students. Timocrates was an eager dis
putant, and, while proposing or refuting
syllogisms, his hair and beard, both of which
he carefully cherished, bristled up like a
Uon's mane. Scopelianus, on the contrary,
shaved his beard and cropped his hair, aud
since he and Timocrates were rival teachers,
their respective pupils formed two parties —
the hirsute and the shorn. Polemo embraced
the hirsute faction. Besides attracting stu
dents from Asia, Greece, and the intervening
islands — and from the high fees demanded
by him for his lectures, his pupUs must have
been of wealthy families — the residence of
Polemo at Smyrna was highly beneficial to
that city. He was the general arbiter iu the
civil suits and the political feuds of the Smyr-
naeans ; their ambassador when an address or
petition was to be sent to the emperor, and
the cause and channel of Hadrian's bounty to
Smyrna, which had formerly been bestowed
rather on Ephesus. Nor did Polemo neglect
his native city Laodicea, but frequently visited
his family, and employed his influence with
the emperors and the senate in behalf of his
birth-place. The favours he received from
successive emperors must, as his biographer
Philostratus remarks, have been owing not
only to his talents, but also to a conviction of
his worth. Trajan allowed him the use of
the public posts when he travelled, a con
venience which the younger Pliny apologises
for granting, on the most urgent business,
to his wife {Epistol. x. 121, 122.), and
gratuitous lodging in the towns he passed
through. Hadrian extended this privilege
to Polemo's attendants, and gave him a pen
sion from the funds of the library of Alex
andria. He appointed him also to pronounce
the inaugural discourse at the dedication of
the temple of the Olympian Jupiter at
Athe.ns, of whieh the foundations were laid
by Pisistratus in the sixth century B. c, but
which the wealth of republican Greece was
unable to complete, Antoninus, afterwards
surnamed Pius, and emperor of Rome, was,
under Hadrian, proconsul of Asia. On a
progress through his province, he came to
Smyrna, and, as the custom was, took for his
quarters during his stay one of the best
houses in the city. The house was Polemo's,
who was absent from Smyrna at the time of
the proconsul's arrival. On his return, how-
116

ever, far from regarding the visit as an
honour, he complained loudly of the intru
sion, and obliged Antoninus to seek sonie
more hospitable roof. Hadrian took no
notice of the affront put upon his representa
tive, and Antoninus, when emperor, remem
bered it only as a subject of mirthful allusion.
When Polemo afterwards visited him at
Rome, Antoninus embraced him, and said to
his attendants, " Prepare a lodging for Polemo,
and take care that no one turns him out of it."
A player had given some offence to Polemo,
who was president of the Olympian games
established by Hadrian at Smyrna, and was
forbidden by him to act. The player com
plained to Antoninus that Polemo had ex
pelled him from the stage, " At what time
ofthe day," inquired the emperor, "did he
expel you .'" " At midday," " He expeUed
me," rejoined Antoninus, " at midnight, yet
I have never appealed against him," The
Smyrnaeans, in return for the benefits they
owed to Polemo, conferred on him the
highest honours in their gift — the perpetual
presidency of their Olympian festival, and a
seat lu their sacred galley, which yearly,
with the high priest of Dionysus for its
pilot, sailed from the open sea into the inner
harbour. This distinction was so highly
esteemed, that on the cenotaph of Polemo, at
Smyrna, was a bas-reUef, representing the
Sophist seated in the sacred gaUey. At times,
however, Polemo and the Smyi-naeans quar
relled. They accused him of applying to his
own uses money sent by Hadrian for the
repair and embellishment of their city.
Hadrian defended Polemo, saying that he
had accounted for the money ; and, on an
other occasion, at Rome, granted him a large
sum without asking why he wanted it, or
requiring any account of it afterwards. It
is impossible, however, to acquit Polemo of
avarice, for which his splendid manner of
life afforded some pretext. A Thracian
prince, who wished to become his pupil, was
rejected by him, until he himself brought
to Polemo's house a purse of ten talents
(387/. 10s.) ; and when, for a single extem
porary discourse, Herodes Atticus sent him
15,000 sesterces (about 60/.), he returned
them, but accepted 25,000 (about 104/.),
which Herodes gave him at the suggestion of
another Sophist, Jlunatius of Tralles, who
said that Polemo dreamed of 25,000, On his
journeys Polerao rode in an embossed chariot
or litter, with silver furniture and harness,
accompanied by a crowd of slaves and horses,
and a variety of hounds for the chase. His
demeanour was answerable to the pomp and
luxury of his habits. With the people, says
his biographer, he w.as lofty, with princes an
equal, before the gods undismayed. Even
Herodes Atticus, although praefect of the free
cities of Asia, and the general patron of the
Sophists, Polemo treated with a mixture of
pride and reverence. In his youth, however.

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS,

his means were scanty, and he borrowed
money from Varo, a rich young Sophist of
Smyrna, who exacted attendance on his lec
tures as part of the interest on his loans. For
his non-attendance, Polemo was threatened
by Varo with a writ, and was at length in
duced to sit out a declamation fuU of solecisms
and absurdities, until his patience was ex
hausted, and he cried out " Varo, send the
writ," Polemo's eloquence, like that of his
master Timocrate* was fervid and intense ;
and he copied the energetic gestures of his
other teacher Scopelianus, striking his hips,
and even leaping from his chair or platform
in the ardour of discussion. His utterance
was elaborate ; his voice clear and sonorous,
like the trumpet, says his biographer Philos
tratus, at the Olympian games. He entered
upon a debate or lecture with a cheerful,
and even careless, air. In the statement of
his argument he was earnest, in its iUus
tration fuU of action and emotion, but in
his perorations often lax and purposely re
miss, as one already confident of victory.
His periods were moulded on those of
Demosthenes. He was never unprepared
for debate, or rather the ceaseless study of
his art gave him the power of extemporary
speaking. Herodes Atticus, in his first in
terview with Polemo, begged him to appoint
a day for declaiming, " To-day, directly,"
was the reply, and he led the way to the
schools, where he delivered an oration in
praise of Herodes himself. Herodes has
transmitted some of the topics on which
Polemo declaimed before him. They were
the ordinary sophistical themes — a defence
of Demosthenes agailnst the charge of taking
bribes from Harpalus — the reconstitution of
the Athenian republic after the battle at
.32gospotami — the destruction of the Greek
trophies at the close of the Peloponnesian
war, &c. " I heard Polemo declaim thrice,"
Herodes wrote to one Barbaras ; " the first
time as a critic ; the next as a lover ; the last
time with unmingled wonder at his powers,"
And, although himself one ofthe most eminent
declaimers of his age, Herodes left Smyrna
privately that he might avoid competition
with Polemo, On his return to Athens,
Herodes declaimed on one of the theses he
had heard argued by Polemo, " A second
Demosthenes," shouted his audience as he
ended. " Nay," he replied, " a second Phry
gian," in aUusion to Polemo's birth-place,
Laodicea, which was then annexed to the pre
fecture of Phrygia. " What thought you of
Polemo?" inquired the emperor Marcus
Aurelius, " His eloquence," answered Hero
des, " was as the sound of rushing chariots,"
Some examples of Polemo's wit have been
preserved by his biographer, Philostratus,
A proconsul was at a loss for a punishment
sufficiently severe for some notorious robber :
" Make him learn by heart a fooUsh speech,"
was Polemo's suggestion. Seeing a gladiator
117

trembling and perspu-ing with dread, he said,
" One would suppose, friend, you were going
to declaim." " Favorinus is very fluent,"
observed Timocrates : "So," repUed Polemo,
" is many an old woman." Seeing a brother
Sophist at market buying sausages and coarse
vegetables, he told him, " You will never
speak like Xerxes or Darius, if you do not
live better." And once at Pergamus, when
he dreamed that iEsculaplus bade him avoid
cold drink, since he was afflicted with gout,
" I marvel," he said, when relating his
dream, " what the god would prescribe for a
gouty ox." Gout, indeed, undermined Polemo's
constitution, and he died of its effects in the
fifty-sixth year of his age. " When I would
eat," he wrote to Herodes Atticus, " I have
no hands ; when I would walk, I have no
feet ; but when I am in pain, I have both
hands and feet." He was buried at Laodicea,
near the Syrian gate, among the tombs of his
ancestors ; but a monument was erected to
him at Smyrna. The Sophist Hermocrates
was his great-grandson.
Polemo's influence survived him. The
privileges of the temples at Smyrna were
disputed, and Polemo was commissioned to
appeal in behalf of the city to the emperor
at Rome. He died, however, before the
appeal could be presented, and the deputies
intrusted with it mismanaged it. " Was not
Polemo," inquired the emperor Marcus
Aurelius, " originally employed in this affair ?
Let his speech be sought for, and when it is
found, we will make our decision." The
speech was brought from Smyrna, and read
by the emperor, who pronounced in favour of
the Smyrnaeans ; and thus, adds PhUostratus,
they had once more cause to rejoice in their
illustrious townsman. (Philostratus, De
Vitis Sophistarum, i. 25., ii. 25. ; Suidas,
noXefiaiv.) AV. B. D.
ANTO'NIUS PRIMUS, MARCUS, was
born at Tolosa (Toulouse) about A. d, 20,
In his native city he was called Becco, or
the Hook-nosed, Nothing further is known
of him untU a, d, 62, the eighth year of
Nero's reign, when he was banished under
the Cornelian law De Falsis or Testamen-
taria, for having with Valerius Fabianus
and others forged a will. He was, however,
restored to his senatorian rank by Galba, and
promoted by him to the command of the
seventh legion, the Galbian, which was then
stationed in Pannonia, Antonius, notwith
standing his obligations to Galba, was said to
have proposed to Otho to serve as his com
mander-in-chief in the rebellion of a. d. 69.
His overtures were, however, neglected ; and
Antonius took no part in the civU wairs of
that year, untU after the defeat and death
of Otho. The election of ViteUius by the
legions of the Rhine had excited the indigna
tion of the army generally, aud especially of
the troops in Pannonia and Mcesia, who were
further incensed by their recent defeat at Be-
l 3

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

driacum. The tribunes of the McEsian and
Dalmatian legions repaired to the winter-
camp of the Pannonian troops, to concert
with them the means of supporting Flavins
Vespasianus, whom the Syrian legions, a
large portion of the fleet, and the eastem
provinces had proclauned emperor. WhUe
some of the tribunes proposed awaiting the
Syrian legions under Liclnlus Mucianus,
praefect of Syria, and Vespasian's Ueutenant,
Antonius persuaded the majority to attack
ViteUius at once ; and to confide to him a
detachment of cavalry, and a picked company
of infantry, the vexUlarll of the three camps,
with which he immediately marched through
the passes of the Julian Alps to Italy. Aqui
leia, Opitergium (Oderzo, on the right bank
of the Plave), aud Altinum speedily sub
mitted to him. Their submission was fol
lowed by that of Patavium and Ateste (Este) ;
and at Forum Allieni (Ferrara) he defeated
a detachment of the VitelUan army. The
infantry of two of the Pannonian legions had
in the mean time reached Patavium. At this
station Antonius had the address or the good
fortune to turn to his own advantage a se
rious mutiny of the soldiers, by rescuing from
their fury, and dismissing unharmed to Ves
pasian, Minucius Justus, camp-praefect of the
seventh legion, who had Incensed them by his
strict discipline. Verona was the next object
of attack ; the wide plains around the city were
well adapted to the operations of cavali-y, hi
therto the most efficient portion of Antonius's
army. A'icentia (Vicenza) yielded to him on
his inarch thither. Under the walls of Ve
rona, a second mutiny of the legions enabled
Antonius to dismiss from the camp T. Am
pins Flavlanus and Aponius Saturninus, re
spectively the legate of the Pannonian army
and the commander of the seventh Claudian
legion, and thus to remain without a rival in
command, although he was neither appointed
by Vespasian nor formally chosen by the
troops. The arrival of two more legions, the
third and the eighth, and the indecision or
treachery of Caecina, the lieutenant of ViteUius,
who treated with an enemy whom he might
have crushed, enabled Antonius to take the
field, although his numbers were still inferior
to those of the VitelUans. He had previously
acquired some popularity for Vespasian's
cause by restoring in all the towns in his
possession the statues of Galba which had
been removed during the late war. A'croua,
however, was not taken by Antonius, who on
the intelligence that fresh dissensions had
broken out in the camp of the VitelUans, and
that Fabius Valens, the successor of the feeble
or treacherous Caecina, was advancing with
six legions, determined on striking a decisive
blow before the dissensions were healed, or
the reinforcements that ViteUius had sum
moned from tlie Danube aud the western
provinces could arrive. Having established
a chain of posts from the foot of the Rhajtian
118

Alps to Verona, and leaving a garrison at
Altinum to watch the movements of the Ra
venna fleet, he moved from Verona to Bedri-
acum, and occupied nearly the same ground
that the VitelUans held previous to their last
battle with Otho, A second battle at Be-
driacum, which began with mutual attacks
and defeats of the foragers on both sides,
terminated, after two days fighting, in the
defeat of the VitelUan legions. After the
first day's engagement, Antonius was re-in-
forced by the junction of his main army, the
reserve of the Pannonian and Ma*sian legions,
from Patavium ; and his second day's victory
was owing as much to the absence of any
regular command among the VitelUans, as to
the superior discipline of his own forces. An
tonius, however, performed at Bedriacura the
part of a soldier as weU as of an able general :
his entreaties, his commands, his example,
stayed the fugitives ; and he bore into the
heart of the enemy's ranks a standard
whose flying bearer he had slain with his
own hands. The second battle at Bedriacum
began about two hours after midnight, whUe
it was still dark ; but the rising of the moon,
which was in the rear of Antonius, favoured
his soldiers, and perplexed their opponents.
After the defeat of the VitelUans, the troops
of Antonius demanded to be led against Cre
mona. He represented iu vain that they
were weary, unprovided with the means of
assault, while Cremona was strongly for
tified and garrisoned, and surrounded by an
entrenched camp. Cremona yielded after a
murderous assault of a few hours ; and for
four days its inhabitants, whose numbers
were swollen by the influx of the country
people to a market or fair within its walls,
suffered all the horrors of war. The blame
of its destrtiction was laid on Antonius, and
the accusation derived colour from some care
less or purposed words he uttered shortly
after his entrance into the city. He had gone
to the baths, and complained that the water
had not been sufficiently heated ; " but," he
was said to have added, •' it wiU soon be hot
enough." Sensible of the detestation he had
incurred, Antonius Issued an order, after the
city was in aislies and the citizens were slain
or captive, that no inhabitant of Cremona
should remain a slave. The prohibition was
however rendered fruitless by the determina
tion of the Italians universally to purchase
no Cremonese prisoner ; and it was subse
quently withdrawn because the soldiers, find
ing their captives worthies,^-, began to murder
them. After the fall of Cremona, Antonius
was said to have relaxed his efforts in behalf
of \'espasian, and to have listened to over
tures from A'itelllus, who promised him rank,
wealth, aud his daughter in marriage. He
gave himself over for a while to pleasure ;
and _ relaxed the discipline by allowing his
soldiers to elect their own centurions in the
place of those who had fallen, while he him-

ANTONIUS.

ANTONIUS.

self assumed a superiority over the legates
and tribunes of his army which they could
not brook.
His conduct was, however, in some mea
sure owing to the doubtful orders and. the
ill-concealed jealousy of Mucianus, Through
out his expedition, Antonius had received
the most contradictory orders from the prae
fect of Syria. He was at one time urged to
press forward to Rome ; at another directed
to remain in Cisalpine Gaul until the legions
from the East could arrive. The tribunes,
also, whom the arrogance of Antonius had
ofi'ended, were in correspondence with Mu
cianus, and both to him and Vespaisian re
presented their leader in the most unfavour
able light. Nor did Antonius disarm their
misrepresentations by his own prudence. To
the praefect of Syria he wrote haughtily : to
Vespasian confidently, claiming for himself
the whole merit of the war in Italy. On in
telligence, however, that the party of ViteUius
was reviving in central Italy and at Rome, he
shook off his indolence ; appeared suddenly
on the western side of the Apennines, and
within a few hours' march of Rome. But he
arrived too late to prevent the burning of the
Capitol and the execution of Flavins Sablnus,
Vespasian's brother, and praefect of the city.
Yet the skill and promptness of his disposi
tions, the steadiness with which he rejected
all proposals of accommodation, and his final
victory at the gates of Rome, refuted the
rumour of his having listened to the offers of
ViteUius, Antonius treated Rome as a con
quered city ; appropriating to himself, or
dividing among his favourites, the estates, the
houses, and the wealth of the nobility. On
the arrival of Mucianus, however, his infiu
ence speedily declined. He was at first re
ceived with applause and distinction, and
even invested with the ornaments of a con
sular senator. But his friends and foUowers
soon deserted him, Mucianus treated him with
marked neglect, refused him a place among the
personal attendants of Domitian, and threat
ened him with an Inquiry into his conduct at
Rome and Cremona, From Rome Antonius
repaired to Alexandria, but his reception from
Vespasian did not equal his expectations, and
he probably withdrew soon afterwards to his
native city, where he devoted himself to Ute
rature, and was the early patron of the poet
Martial, whose description of his calm and
blameless life is singularly at variance with
the character of the bold and unscrupidous
partisan soldier delineated by Tacitus and
Dion Cassius. At what age Antonius died is
unknown : but he certainly survived his six
tieth year, (Suetonius, ViteUius, 18.; Tacitus,
Annals, xiv. 40., History, U, 86,, in, 2 —
78,, iv, 2 — SO, ; Dion Cassius, Ixv. 9. ; Mar
tial, Epigrammata, ix, 100., x. 23, 32.)
W. B. D.
ANTO'NIUS, BU'FUS, a poet contem
porary with Ovid, and mentioned by him.
119

{Epistol. ex Ponto, iv, 16 — 30, ; Wernsdorf,
Homerista Latini eorumque Fragmenta in
Poett Lat Minor., tom, iv, p, 585, f )
W, B, D.
ANTO'NIUS, SAINT, [Antoninus,
Saint.] ANTO'NIUS, SAINT, [Antony,
Saint,] ANTO'NIUS SATURNFNUS, [Sa
turninus.] ANTO'NIUS TAURUS. [Taurus,]
ANTO'NIUS THALLUS, [Thallus,]
ANTO'NIUS DE VIANA. [Anto
nius Cartaginensis,]
ANTO'NIUS DE ZAMORA, [Zamora,
Antonius de,]
ANTONY BEEK. [Beek.J
ANTONY OF BOURBON, [Antoine
DE Bourbon,]
A'NTONY, CHARLES and THOMAS,
brothers, EngUsh seal-engravers of the time
of James I. Charles Antony was graver to
King James at the beginning of his reign,
and probably untU 1620. Vertue supposes
he made the medal, in 1 604, struck iu com
memoration of the peace with Spain, In the
second year of James's reign he was paid
forty pounds for the metad and for graving
an offering piece of gold, Thomas Antony
was curator monetae et sigiUorum regis. Ver
tue found a warrant to him of the date 1617,
Walpole had in his possession a thin plate of
sUver, larger than a crown piece, represent
ing James I, on his throne, of very neat work
manship, and he concluded it was the work
of Charles Antony, (Walpole, Anecdotes of
Painting in England.) R. N. W.
ANTONY of PARMA (ANTONIUS
DE PARMA or PARMENSIS). A volume
of sermons bearing this title, " Incipit Pos-
tlUa notabllls F. Antonii de Parma super
Evangelia Dominicalia quae leguntur per
ciroulum anni," was printed in fol. Cologne,
1482. A second edition with the title " Me
dulla Sermonum recognita et emendata per
F. F. Joannem LancelU et Joannem Nocart
ejusdem Ordinls," appeared in Svo. Paris,
1515, The authorship of these sermons is
claimed by Echard, on the authority of se
veral manuscripts, for Antonius de Azaro, a
Dominican monk of Parma, who probably
lived early in the fourteenth century. Others
have ascribed them to Antonius de Parma,
said to have been general of the CamaldoUte
order from 1410 to 1419, to have been an ex
cellent Latin and Greek scholar, to have as
sisted at the council of Constance (a. d, 1414
— 1419), and to have been bishop of Ferrara
after 1419. Echard has shown that some
particulars of this account are either plainly
incorrect, or at least doubtful ; and that at
any rate there is no sufficient ground for
ascribing the above-mentioned sermons to
him. (Echard, Scrlptores Ordinis Pradi-
catorum-) J. C M
ANTONY or ANTONIUS, SAlN'f, a
I 4

ANTONY.

ANTONY.

disciple and biographer of St, Symeon or
Simeon the Stylite. It is supposed that
Evagrius Scholastlcus refers to Antony when
speaking of Symeon, he says, " his miracles
were related by one of those who were eye
witnesses." {Eccles- Hist- book 1. chap, 13,)
There are two lives of Symeon extant, pro
fessing to be written by Antony : they are
given by Bolland. The first written in
Greek, and translated by Gulielmus Gratius,
a Jesuit of Bruges, is perhaps genuine. The
other, which is longer, is thought to have
been formed from the narrative of Antony,
with the addition of particulars derived from
other sources. Antony lived in the fifth cen
tury, (BoUandus, ^cfci Sanctorum, Sto Jauu
arii de Scto- Simeone Stylita, tom, 1, ; G. J,
Vossius, De Historicis Latinis, lib. U, c. 18.)
J, CM.
ANTONY or ANTO'NIUS, SAINT, of
Lerins (sometimes called Antonius Cyrus),
was bom in Valeria, a subdivision of Pan
nonia, near the junction of the Drave and
the Danube, Having lost his father Se-
cundinus when only eight years of age, he
was placed under the care of St. Severinus,
the apostle of Norlcum or Austria, and
after his death under the care of Con
stantius, a bishop, his paternal uncle, who
brought him up in great strictness. The
death of Constantius, and the devastation of
Pannonia by the barbarians of the north,
compelled Antony to flee into the Valteline,
where he remained for a time with a priest,
Marius, but afterwards withdrew to pur
sue a life of seclusion, not far from the
tomb of St. Felix the Martyr, on a lofty
mountain near the Lake Larius or Lake of
Como. Here he met with two old men,
hermits like himself, one of whom died soon
after Antony joined them. Becoming known
through the district for his sanctity, and
wishing to avoid those who resorted to him,
he retired to a more remote solitude, where
he lived many years alone ; but this retreat
becoming known and frequented he left, and
went to the monastery of Lerins, where
he died two years after his arrival. The
anniversary of his death is kept on the
28th December. The year of his death is
not known. He was contemporary with his
biographer Ennodius, who died at the age
of forty-eight in a.d. 521. (Ennodius of
Ticinum, 'Vita Beati Antonii Monachi-) J. C, M.
ANTONY, SAINT, a martyr, put to
death by Olgerd, great duke of Lithuania, at
Wilna, A. D. 1328, His festival, with that of
St. John and St. Eustachius or Eustace, is
kept by the Roman Catholic church on the
14th April, Antony and John were brothers,
of noble family, attached to the court of Ol
gerd. They were converted from idolatry
by Nestorius, a priest, and were baptized by
him. They concealed their conversion for
a time, but were discovered ; and on their
120

refusal to renounce Christianity were im
prisoned. After a year's confinement John
agreed to renounce Christianity, and so ob
tained his own and his brother's release,
Antony, however, stUl continued to profess
his belief in Christ, and was re-committed to
prison ; and John, ashamed of his apostacy,
again avowed himself a Christian, and was
also imprisoned. Both were hung ; Antony
some weeks before his brother. Eustachius,
who was quite young, and, like the others,
was of noble family and attached to the
court of Olgerd, was also hung, after being
crueUy tortured, some months after John, but
apparently in the same year. (BoUandus,
Acta Sanctorum, 14° Aprilis.) J, C, M.
ANTO'NY or ANTO'NIUS, SAINT, in
Greek 'Avtoivios, one of the Christian fathers,
commonly celebrated as the founder of mo-
nasticlsm, though his title to be so regarded
is matter of dispute. He was of an Egyptian
family, and was born A. d. 251, during the
reign ofthe Roman emperor Decius, in the
neighbourhood, as we gather, of HeracleopoUs
the Great, on the west bank of the Nile,
His parents were of noble lineage and con
siderable wealth : they were Christians ; and
Antony in his earUest years was brought up
in the Christian faith, and in great privacy,
so that he formed no acquaintance beyond
his father's household. His love of solitude
showed itself early, for " in his boyhood, as
he was growing up, he refused," says Atha
nasius, " to be instructed in literature, be
cause he wished to avoid the society of boys."
It is probable that his refusal to study related
not to the mere elements of knowledge, but
to the secular studies which were pursued iu
the public places of education : for Athana
sius has recorded that he " gave attention to
reading " (rots avayv^jiOfxaat Trpoaex'^v), an ex
pression which is more naturaUy interpreted
of his own reading than of his attending to
what was read by. others. It appears that he
never learned Greek.
When he was eighteen or twenty years
old (about A. D. 270) he lost his parents; and
by their death he was left in ch«ii-ge of their
household, and of an only sister, then a very
little girl. About six months after this, as
he was going, according to his custom, to
public worship, he was thinking of the sacri
fices made by the apostles amd others of the
first disciples of Christ ; and when he en
tered the church the words of Christ to the
rich young ruler, " If thou wUt be perfeetT go
and sell that thou hast and give to the poor,
and thou shalt have treasure in heaven ; and
come and foUow me " (Matt, xix, 21.), struck
his ear, being part of the gospel read that
day. Regarding this as a divine admonition
to himself, he gave up his paternal estate,
which was considerable, to the people of his
native village ; and having sold his movable
property, distributed it to the poor, except a
smaU portion which he reserved as a provi-

ANTONY,

ANTONY.

sion for his sister. This portion also he soon
after distributed, on hearing in church the
words " Take no thought for the morrow "
(Matt. vi. 34.), and gave his sister in charge
to a community of virgins of good repute,
that she might be brought up by them. Ac
cording to the account in the Egyptian mar-
tyrology, Antony was baptized when he was
about twenty years of age ; and it is not im
probable that the surrender of his worldly
goods was the result of the feelings con
nected with that ordinance.
He now gave himself up to ascetic ex
ercises, without, however, quitting his native
village. The practice of retiring far into the
wilderness had not yet been introduced ;
though it had been for a long time common
to pursue a secluded and ascetic life. He
laboured with his own hands, influenced by
the declaration of the apostle Paul (2 Thes.
iil. 10.) " that if any would not work, neither
should he eat : " with part of his earnings he
supported himself, part he distributed to the
poor. The commencement of his solitary life was
not unaccompanied with a severe inward
struggle. The remembrance of the wealth
which he had given up, anxiety for his sis
ter, the desire of intercourse with his friends,
and a longing for the Indulgences of an easier
life, tempted him to give up his purpose; but
in vain. Athanasius, who ascribes the occur
rence of these trials to the malice of the devU,
proceeds to describe the further temptations
and assaults to which the evil one proceeded.
He sought to excite him to lasciviousness ;
but Antony met these new trials by increased
austerities : he often passed the whole night
in watching ; or if he slept, it was on straw
or rushes, or the bare ground : he fasted
daUy till sunset, contenting himself with
bread, salt, and water ; and frequently going
for two or even four days without food.
After a time he withdrew to a burial-ground
at a distance from the village, and having
arranged with a friend to supply him at long
intervals with food, made his abode in one of
the sepulchres. Here, we are told, when he
was about thirty-five years of age (about a. d.
286), new temptations of another kind awaited
him : he was assaulted by daemons, and
beaten almost to death, and beset with horrid
forms of lions, bears, wolves, bulls, and ser
pents, which threatened to assaU him. In
the midst of this sore trial, he remained un-
terrified, defying the power of the devU, un
tU he beheld the roof of the sepulchre open,
and a ray of light descend as it were from
heaven to visit him : the daemons who assailed
him then took to fiight ; and a heavenly voice
cheered him with the assurance of support so
long as he continued faithful, and with the
promise of a reputation which should fill the
earth. The pain of his bruises was healed,
and his strength restored and even increased.
He now withdrew further into the wUderness,
121

and took up his abode in a deserted fort filled
with reptiles, who fled on his approach ; and
in this dismal place he remained twenty years,
never quitting his retreat, and rarely, if ever,
seeing any of those who came to the place,
having a store of bread conveyed to him twice
a year, and finding water within the fort.
His friends who resorted to him were never
allowed to enter ; but they heard the noise
of his conflicts with evil spirits, the reproaches
which they uttered, and the hymns with
whioh the saint sustained his faith or ex
pressed his exultation at his victories. The
locality of this long soUtude of Antony was
probably in the desert on the western or
Libyan side of the NUe, at no great distance
from HeracleopoUs.
At the end of his twenty years' sojourn,
about A. D. 306, when he was fifty-five years
of age, the eagerness of his friends, who broke
down the doors of his retreat, compelled him
to come forth ; and, to the astonishment of
all, he appeared unaltered in person by his
long confinement. His reputation had spread
far and wide, and many came to see him.
These he addressed with great effect, con
soling the mourners, reconciUng enemies, and
persuading so many to enter on a solitary life,
that the desert was fiUed with anchorites, by
whom Antony was regarded as a father. He
is said also to have healed the sick, and
cast out evU spirits. The distrlct.of Faioum
and the desert adjacent to it appear to have
been the scene of these events. A Greek
version of a long discourse which he deli
vered in the Egyptian (/. e- Sahidic) language
to the solitaries who had assembled to him
is preserved by Athanasius. It gives a cu
rious picture of the mind of Antony, and
of the current opinions of the Christians
of Egypt of that time. He dweUs chiefly
on the importance of an ascetic life, the
necessity of constant self-mortification, and
the number and malignity of the daemons to
whose hostility ascetics were exposed : he re
lates the fall of these daemons from heaven,
the forms they assume, and the deceits they
practise: he enforces the value ofthe sign of
the cross as a means of defence against
daimons ; teaches how to distinguish between
good and evil spirits, and between heavenly and
infernal visions ; and Ulustrates his subject
by instances drawn from his own experience.
The discourse produced a great impression ;
and Athanasius rapturously describes the
state of the wilderness, peopled by such a
multitude of holy men, " as If it were the
peculiar residence of piety and righteous
ness." These tenants of the wUderness were
hermits rather than monks, living not in com
munities but commonly alone ; although
they had occasional Intercourse, more or less
frequent, with each other.
In the persecution under Maximin (about
A.D, 310), some of the solitaries appear to
have been led from the wilderness to Alex-

ANTONY.

ANTONY.

andria to martyrdom, and Antony followed
them, saying, " Let us go also ; that, if called
upon, we may share their sufferings ; if not,
that we may behold them." He visited the
sufferers in the dungeons aud the mines to
which they were condemned ; attended them
before the judgment seat, encouraging them
to suffer willingly ; and foUowed them to the
place of execution : until the judge, seeing his
fearlessness, and that of his companions, pro
hibited any of the solitaries from entering the
judgment-hall, or even remaining in the city.
Antony openly disobeyed the command,
hoping to obtain the crown of martyrdom ;
but to his mortification, no notice was taken
of his contumacy. After the persecution had
ceased, he returned to the wilderness, and
pursued his ascetic practices more rigorously
than ever.
Troubled by the resort of many persons to
him who desired to be healed of their diseases,
and fearing lest the wonders which were per
formed by him should inflame his pride, or
induce others to think too highly of him, he
left his accustomed dwelUng and retired fur
ther into the desert, to the foot of a lofty moun-
taun, where was a spring of clear cold water,
and a few palm trees. Here he fixed his abode.
At first he was furnished with bread by the
Saracens, or Arabs of the desert, who, struck
with reverence for him, made a point of
passing that way, and leaving him a supply.
Afterwards his friends, the solitaries of
Falomn, hearing of his retreat, sent bread to
him. But as he was unwUling to burden
others, he cultivated a small spot of ground
near his habitation, and so raised a supply
for himself, and for some persons who, even
in this remote place, resorted to him. He
also employed himself in making baskets,
which he gave to those who brought him
any thing. The wild creatures of the de
sert at flrst injured his crop: but this dis
turbed not the saint's equanimity. Having
caught one of the plunderers, he addressed
the whole herd of them, " Why do ye hurt me
who have never hurt you ? Depart, and in
the name of the Lord, never come hither
again." And from that time, adds Athanasius,
" as if they reverenced the prohibition, they
never approached that place again," Jerome,
in his life of Hilarion, has given a somewhat
different account of the same miracle ; he adds
that the intruders were wild asses, and that
the saint, before he dismissed his captive, be
laboured him well with his staff, which may
sufficiently account for their subsequent de
sertion of the place.
In this solitude Antony was again exercised
with the assaults of dasmons, who assumed all
manner of hideous forms to terrify him, but
in vain. After remaining a while in this soli
tude he was intreated to visit his former friends
at Faioum ; and he was received with the
greatest joy ; and had the satisfaction of flnd-
ing that his sister had grown old in a state of
122

virginity, and was now the leader of other
virgins. He had a great reverence for those
who led a solitary life, and Jerome has given
an account of a visit which he paid to Paul
the Hermit, when he was ninety years old,
and Paul a hundred and thirteen, more than
ninety of which he had spent in seclusion.
Paul died shortly after, and, at his own request,
was buried by Antony. Antony had the
greatest abhorrence of heretics, and was most
indignant when some of the Arians claimed
him as holding their views. In order to re
fute the charge, and influenced by the desire
of the Egyptian bishops and solitaries, he
visited Alexandria, and preached against
Arianism, which he declared to be the last
heresy and the forertmner of Antichrist. His
orthodox zeal deUghted the people of Alex
andria, who flocked to see the man of God.
Even the heathens and their priests partook
of the general curiosity, and crowded to the
church, thinking to derive some benefit from
merely touching so holy a person. " Certainly,"
says Athanaislus, " as many became Christians
in those few days as one may commonly see
converted in a year." This visit is placed by
Bolland in the year 330 ; by the Benedictine
editors of Athanasius between A. d. 326 and
335, andbyTUlemont (who gives his reasons
in a judicious note) in the year 355, just before
the death of Antony.
The fame of Antony extended to Constanti
nople ; and the Emperor Constantine, and his
sons, Constans and Constantius, " wrote to him
as a father," and desired to receive letters
from him in retum. Antony was by no meams
elated with the distinction. He at first refused
to receive their letters, saying he knew not
how to answer them ; however, at the entreaty
of his companions, who urged that the princes
were Christians, and that they would be hm-t
by his neglect, he did answer them. Antony
wrote to Constantine in behalf of Athanasius
when in banishment, and received a courteous,
though unfavourable, reply. Even in the
wilderness, the Arian controversy seems to
have occupied the greater pai-t of his thoughts.
He had a vision, which was understood to
portend the injuries resulting to the church
by the temporary triumph of Arianism. He
wrote to remonstrate with Gregory, patriarch
of Alexandria, whom the Arians had sent to
succeed Athanasius, when he was deposed
from the patriarchate ; and forewarned Ba-
lacius, an Arian noble, charged with perse
cuting the Christians, of the divine judgment,
by which in a few days he was overtaken.
He died, as is computed, on the 17 th Jan.,
356, aged a hundred and five years. On his
dying bed he warned his two companions,
Amatus and Macai-ius, whom he had allowed,
on account of his infirmities, to live with him
the last fifteen years, against any commimica-
tion with the Arians ; charged them to bury
him, and keep secret the place of his inter
ment ; and bequeathed his garments, as tokens

ANTONY.

ANTONY.

of remembrance, to his friends, Athanasius,
and Sarapion, an Egyptian bishop. He re
tained his sight to the last ; nor had he lost
one of his teeth, though they were all worn
down to his gums, through extreme old age.
The place of Antony's interment was kept
secret, according to his desire. But nearly
two centuries after his death, in the reign
of Justinian, when the relics of saints were
eagerly sought after, a body said to be that
of Antony, discovered by a revelation from
heaven, was brought to Alexandria, and in
terred with great solemnity in the church of
St. John the Baptist. When the Saracens
took possession of Egypt, the relics of the
saint were transferred to Constantinople ; and
from thence the greater part of them were
again transferred in the tenth century to a
convent near Vienne in Dauphine, while va
rious parts, real or supposed, were deposited
in different churches at Rome and in Ger
many, the Netherlands, &c.
The celebrity of Antony, both in his own
and subsequent ages, and the impulse which
his example gave to the growing spirit of
monasticism, impart interest to his history.
That he wais the originator of the monastic
system is a common supposition, but by no
means a correct one ; he led the life of an
anchorite or hermit, rather than of a monk :
but there were anchorites before him ; and the
origin of religious communities is due rather
to St. Pachomius than to St. Antony, who
does not appear to have instituted or joined
any community, unless we consider that he
and the two disciples who Uved with him,
and attended on him in his extreme old age,
formed one. The extent of his celebrity, and
of his influence, wais due to the earnestness of
his devotion, and to the benevolence and for
bearance of his character, some interesting
anecdotes of which are preserved by his
biographers. The sincerity of his piety there
is no ground to question, though some circum
stances indicate that he was influenced also by
the love of human praise, in the austerities he
practised. His bigotry may find some pallia
tion in the spirit of the age, and the fierceness
of the theological and ecclesiastical contests
then going on, as well as in the earnestness
and depth of his own convictions ; and in the
tendency of a solitary life, and of the defer
ence so generally paid to him, to inspire or
strengthen a dogmatic temper.
His works are few and unimportant.
Greek versions of some of his discourses,
and the substance of his letters to the Em
peror Constantine and his sons, and to the
Arian noble Balacius, have been preserved
by Athanasius ; and Jerome informs us
{De Viris Illustribus, or De Scriptoribus
.Ecclesiasticis, u. IxxxvUi.) that he wrote
seven letters in the Egyptian, i-C- Sahidic,
language to different " Monasteries," of
which the most important was " ad Arsi-
noitas," /. f ., " to those of the Nomos Arsi-
123

noites," or district of Faioum. These letters
had been in Jerome's time translated into
Greek, and were afterwards translated from
the Greek into Latin, in which language
they were first printed at Paris in the year
1515, and afterwards in other places; they
are found in the 4th vol. of La Bigne's " Bi
bUotheca Patrum" (edition of Lyon, 1677),
where they are aU inscribed " ad Arsinoitas,"
though Jerome speaks of only one as being
so addressed : it is supposed that the second
epistle, according to the arrangement in the
BibUotheca, is the one specified by Jerome.
A short letter, or rather a Greek version of a
letter, from Antony to Theodore of Tabenna,
in the upper part of the Thebaid, is preserved
by Ammon, an Egyptian bishop, in his letter
to TheophUus of Alexandria (BoUandus,
Acta Sanctorum, Mali, tom. iii.) ; and some
fragments in the Sahidic language, of two
letters of Antony, one to Theodore of
Tabenna, the other to Athanasius, are given
by Mingarelli, in his " .lEgyptiorum Codicum
reliqua," 4to. Bologna, 1785.
A discourse " De Vaiutate Mundi, et
de Resurrectione Mortuorum," (" On the
Vanity of the World, and the Resurrection of
the Dead,") is subjoined to the epistles of
Antony in the " Bibliotheca Patrum " ; but its
genuineness is very doubtful. Abraham
Ecchellensis, a Maronite, professor of Syriac
and Arabic, at Paris, pubUshed, in 1641,
twenty letters, ascribed to Antony, translated
from the Arabic ; seven of these letters are
the same as those given in the " Bibliotheca
Patrum " : the genuineness ofthe rest is doubt
ful. Ecchellensis also pubUshed, in 1646, a
small volume containing several pieces from
the Arabic, ascribed to St. Antony, viz., his
" Rule " for his Monks ; twenty short dis
courses delivered to his Monks ; several of
his sayings, with an exposition by one of his
disciples ; and his answers to various questions.
To these were added, three notices of the
Saint, one from a book entitled, " The Key
of the Gate of Paradise," another from the
Egyptian Martyrology, and a third from the
Martyrology of the Maronites. The pieces
ascribed to Antony are all of doubtful genuine
ness, to say the least : the notice from " The
Key of the Gate of Paradise" is worthless:
It contains an absurd story of St. Antony
curing a litter of blind pigs by the sign of the
cross, which has given rise to the fancy of
some painters of representing the Saint ac
companied by a pig; the notice from the
Egyptian Martyrology is a more trust- worthy
piece, and is indeed the most valuable in the
collection. The pieces pubUshed as Antony's
in this volume of EccheUensis are given in
the " Bibliotheca Patrum " of Gallandius. In
some editions of Trithemius, a work in two
books, called " Melissa," (" The Bee,") is
ascribed to St. Antony, but is of a much later
date. There are (or were) among the Syriac
MSS., in the King's Library, at Paris, two

ANTONY.

ANTYLLUS.

works ascribed to St. Antony, one entitled
" Offieiuin Schematis Sancti," the other,
" Antonii Monita Dlscipulis Testamenti Loco
relieta." Antony received the highest eulogiums
from the most eminent fathers of the church.
Beside Athanasius, Augustin, and Jerome, he
is mentioned by Chrysostom (Sth Homily on
St. Matthew) with the highest praise ; and
is noticed, though incidentally, by Gregory
Nazlanzen (in his twenty-first oration),
and by Socrates (book 1. c. 21.), and Sozomen
(book 1. c. 13.), the ecclesiastical historians,
not to mention others of less note. He is
commonly caUed " the Great." In propor
tion, however, as the credit of monasticism
has declined, the reputation of St. Antony
has decUned also.
His history is so connected with the records
of supernatural events, that it would be
almost impossible to separate them. Many of
the miracles recorded of him, such as his
confilcts with daemons, and his visions of
glorified spirits, may be resolved into the
delusions of a diseased imagination, aggra
vated by a life of unnatural seclusion. The
cures he wrought were probably owing, in
many cases, to the effect of imagination in
the patients. For those miracles which do
not admit of this explanation, it is in vain at
this period of time to attempt to account.
The two monastic orders of St. Antony
originated long after the time of the Saint ;
one, a branch of the Augustinians, commenced
in Dauphine in the eleventh century, when
the people were imploring the intercession
of St. Antony, that they might be delivered
from erysipelas, by which many were afflicted,
and which theu acquired the name of St.
Antony's Fire; the other, a military order,
was instituted in Halnault iu 1382 by Count
Albert of Bavaria. It existed only a short
time. The chief authority for this article is the
life of Antony by Athanaisius. Among
modem writers Bolland and his partners in
the Acta Sanctorum (17th Jan.); TiUemont,
Memoires, ^c-, tom. vil. ; CeilUer, Auteurs
Sacris, torn. iv. ; T>ap'in, Nouvelle Bibliotheque
des Auteurs Ecclesiastiques ; and Baronius,
Annales Ecclesiastici, may be referred to.
See also, for his works, Fabricius, Bibliotheca
Graca, ed. Harles, tom. ix. J. C. M.
ANTONY, THOMAS. [Antony,
Charles.]
ANTO'RIDES, a Greek painter, contem
porary with Euphranor ; he lived therefore
about B.C. 360. (Pliny, Hist Nat xxxv. 36.)
R. N. AV.
ANTRAIGUES. [Entraigues.]
ANTWERPEN. [Anversa.]
ANTYLLUS or ANTILLUS CAi'tuAAos
or "AvTiWos), or, as his name has been cor
rupted In the Latin translations of the Arabic
physicians, ANTILES and ANTILIS, an
eminent ancient physician and surgeon, of
124

whose life no particulars are known, and
of whose works only a few fragments re
main, which have been preserved by Oriba-
sius, Aetius, and others. His precise date
is unknown ; but, as Oribasius is the ear
liest writer who mentions him, and as he
was apparently unknown to Galen, he may
probably be placed between the end of the
second century after Christ and the end of
the fourth. The most interesting fragment
of his writings that remains is one preserved
by Paulus jSEgineta, which contains the
earliest practical directions that we possess
for performing the operation of tracheotomy,
" The best surgeons," says Paulus, " have
described this operation also, Antyllus par
ticularly in the foUowing manner : — 'In
cases of synanche {i-jrl Ttav owayxiKliiv) we
think the operation ought not to be at
tempted, as the division [of the trachea] is
useless in cases where aU the bronchia
{dpri^piai) and the lungs are affected ; but in
those cases where the infiammation is about
the mouth and chin, or the tonsUs which
cover the top of the trachea* {Ppoyxov), whUe
the trachea Itself {a-prnipias) is unaffected, the
operation of tracheotomy {(papv-yyoTop-ia.) is
very rational, in order to avoid the danger
of suffocation, AVhen we proceed to per
form it, we must, about the third or fourth
ring below the larynx {K£(pa.\ris tou 0p6yxov).
cut through some part of the trachea {dpTij-
pias), for to divide it entirely would be
dangerous. This place is the most suitable,
because it is not covered by any muscle, and
because there are no vessels near the divided
part. Therefore, bending back the patient's
head, so that the trachea {$p6yxos) may come
more forward to the view, we must make
the division transversely between two of the
rings, so that not the cartUage, but only the
membrane which unites the cartilages to
gether, may be cut through. If, however,
the operator be a little fearful, he may first
extend the skin with a hook amd divide it ;
and then, proceeding to the trachea {(pdpvyyi)
itself, and putting aside the vessels, (if any are
In the way,) he may make the section.' 'Thus
far Antyllus," continues Paulus ; " who
thought of cutting through the trachea
{fipiyxov) from observing [when it was, I
suppose, cut by accident,] that the air rushed
through the wound with some degree of
violence, and also that the voice was inter
rupted. AVhen the danger of suffocation is
over, we must pare {veapo-^oi^a-apTes) the
lips of the wound, and unite them by sutures,
taking care to sew the skin only, aud not the
cartilage : we must then apply proper vul
nerary medicines, and, if the Ups of the
* In the following extract no less tlian three words
(^^uyl, fi^6yx.o;, and i^rr^/a) are used to designate the
trachea, each of which bears, in modern anatomical
writings, quite a different meaning : the various sig-
niflcatluns of the three words are explained in the
Notes to the Oxford edition of Theophilus, Be Corp,
Hum. Falir. Svo. 1842.

ANTYLLUS.

ANTYLLUS.

wound do not agglutinate, we must make use
of an incamant. We must follow the same
plan of treatment if we should meet with any
one who has cut his throat with the design of
committing suicide." His works seem to have
been numerous, and he probably enjoyed a
great reputation, as, besides being frequently
quoted by Oribasius and Rhazes, he is men
tioned in the Ust of eminent physicians in a
Greek extract from Cyril's Lexicon given in
the fourth volume of Cramer's " Anecdota
Graeca Parisiensia." One of his works
(quoted by Oribasius in the fourth volume of
Angelo Mai's " Classici Auctores e Vaticanis
Codicibus editi," Rome, Svo. 1831) was a
treatise on surgery entitled Ta Xeipovpyovpieva,
and consisting of at least two books, from
which work it is probable that aU the ex
tracts in Mai's Oribasius are taken. Another
of his works, from whioh are taken the frag
ments quoted in Matthaei's Oribasius (con
tained in his " XXI. Veterum et Clarorum
Medicorum Graecorum Varia Opuscula,"
Moscow, 4to. 1808) appears to be named
differently in different passages ; nor is it
quite certain whether the works entitled
Uepl Bori67}t^dTaiv "E^uOev TlpooTnTVTdvTwv , Tlepl
Twv Tlotouf^evwi/ Tiorjdrj/j-dToir, and Uepl Twf
Kevovixevct>v Bo7iQT)ixdTojv, were so many dif
ferent treatises, or only different portions of
one great work entitled Uepl Bo7\6niJ-dToiv,
" On Remedies." Almost all these quotations
come from the second book, but in one pas
sage (if the text be sound) the thirtieth book
is quoted (p, 106, ed, Matth.), and in another
the seventy-sixth (p. 66. ed. Mai.). All the
fragments and extracts of the writings of
Antyllus that were to be found in works
published up to the end of the last century
were collected by Kurt Sprengel, and pub
lished at Halle in 1799, 4to., as an inau
gural dissertation with the title " Antylll,
Veteris Chirurgi, to Aeitf/afa A^entllanda ex-
hibet Panaglota Nlcolaldes, Praeside Curtio
Sprengel," The collection, however, might
now be much enlarged, and, if re-published,
would be useful and interesting, as it con
tains some of the most valuable surgical ob
servations that have come down to us from
antiquity. ( A further account of the opinions'
of Antyllus is given in Freind's Hist of
Physic ; Haller's Biblioth- Chirurg,, and Bib
lioth- Medic- Pract- ; and Spreugel's Hist de
la Med.) AV. A. G.
ANTY'LLUS {"AptuXXos), was the eldest
son of Marcus Antonius, the triumvir, and
Fulvia. He received his father's name, Mar
cus, but is more commonly styled Antyllus
by Dion Cassius, Plutarch, and the Greek
historians of Rome. When the triumvir,
after Caesar's murder, invited the conspirators
to descend from the Capitol and assemble in
the temple of the Earth, Antyllus, then a
child, was sent by his father as a hostage for
their security. During the siege of Mutina
and the retreat and return of the triumvir,
125

B. c. 43, AntyUus remained with his mother,
Fulvia, at Rome, and was protected from his
father's opponents, the senate, Octavianus,
and Cicero, by Titus Pomponius Atticus.
He accompanied his father, in e.c. 42, to
Philippi, and during his subsequent journey
through Asia Minor and Syria to Egypt.
Antyllus was present at the congress of the
triumvirs at Tarentum in e.g. 37, when he
was contracted to Julia, the infant daughter
of Octavianus by Scribonia, a political mar
riage which was never completed. Antyllus
is mentioned in a story which Plutarch re
lates, on the authority of his grandfather
Lamprias, of the profusion of the triumvir's
household at Alexandria. A certain phy
sician had annoyed the company at supper
time by his logical tricks and sophisms, and
Philotas, another physician, silenced him at
last with this syllogism — "Cold water Is
good for a certain fever ; but every one who
has a fever has a certain fever ; therefore
cold water is good for aU fevers." Antyllus,
who was at table, was so pleased at the
silencing the impertinent physician that,
pointing to a sideboard covered with costly
bowls and goblets of sUver, he said to Phi
lotas, " I give you aU these." Philotas ac
knowledged his kind intention, but deemed
that a lad was unauthorised to make such a
present. One of the attendants, however,
presently asked Philotas to seal the chest in
which the cups were deposited, that it might
be sent to his house. But as Philotas still
scrupled to accept them, the attendant said to
him, " Why are you so nice ; know you not
that the giver is son of Antonius, and that
even if the cups were of gold he is competent
to give them. In your place, however, I
would take their value in money, since his
father may miss some of these cups, which
are indeed antique and of most curious work
manship." In B. c. 30 Antyllus was invested
with the manly gown at Alexandria at the
same time with Caesarlon, Cleopatra's son by
C. Julius Caesar. As this ceremony was
generally performed at the expiration of the
fourteenth year, it may afford some clue to
the age of Antyllus. His mother married
the triumvir Antonius in B. c. 46. Antyllus
therefore may have been fifteen at the time
of his investiture with the manly gown in
B. c. 30, and a few months older at the time
of his death after the surrender of Alexandria
in the autumn of the same year. During
the siege of Alexandria Antyllus was sent to
the camp of Octavianus to negotiate, and he
wais the bearer of a large sum of money,
which was probably designed to purchase the
principal officers of the besiegers — Procu
leius, Gallus, and DolabeUa. His mission
however faUed ; and after the capture of the
city Antyllus was betrayed to Octavianus by
his tutor Theodorus, and put to death in the
temple of Julius Caesar, to whose statue he
had fled for refuge. Theodorus reaped little

ANTYLLUS.

ANUND.

benefit from his perfidy ; for being detected
in stealing from the neck of his unfortunate
pupil a jewel of great value, he was impaled.
There is only one medal of Antyllus extant.
On the upper face it has the bare head 'of a
youth, with the legend " M. Antonius. M. F.,"
and on the reverse the bare head of M. An
tonius, the triumvir. (Eckhel, Numismat
Veterum Doctrina, vi. 68. ; Plutarch, Anto
nius, 28. 57. 71. 81. 87. ; Dion Cassius, xlviii.
54,, 11, 6, 15.; Suetonius, Octavianus, 17.)
W. B. D.
ANUND, or AMUND, or ORNUND, a
king of Sweden, the son and successor of
Yngvar, the father and predecessor of In-
glald, is supposed by Dalln to have ascended
the throne about a. d, 725, and to have died
about 760. He obtained the name of Braut-
Anund from the numerous brants or roads
that he made through his dominions ; and
he was also called Elstra-Dolgi, or the Foe
of the Easterlings, from the vigour with
which he revenged on the Esthonians the
death of his father Yngvar. He perished
-with his brother Hedin and many of his train
by the fall of an avalanche of snow mingled
with gravel and clay, as he was riding through
a mountain-pass in Westmanland, and his
tumulus is still shown in the neighbourhood
of the town of Kuugsiira, He was one of the
most celebrated kings of the heathen times in
Sweden, and his celebrity was entirely owing
to peaceful improvements, (Snorro Sturla-
son, Heimskringla, Ynglinga-Saga, cap, 37 —
39. Schoning's ed, 1, 45 — 48, ; Dalin, Svea
Rikes Historia, i, 394—397,) T. W.
ANUND, or AMUND, or EMUND, king
of Sweden, the successor of Bibrn, king of
that country, is supposed by Dalin to have
been the brother of Biorn and son of HSkan
Ring, and to have ascended the throne about
A. D. 830. The preceding reign had been
signalised by the introduction of Christianity
into Sweden, under the auspices of St. Ans-
carius, the first bishop of Hamburg, often
caUedthe Apostle ofthe North. Anund was
driven from the throne, according to Vasto-
vius and Hvidfeldt, for persecuting the
Christians ; according to Wilde and Dalln
for protecting them. The former would
seem the more probable, if, as Dalin conjec
tures, a fleet of pirates which soon after
burned and plundered Hamburg was com
manded by Anund, who is known to have
become a sea-king. According to Mes-
senlus, he carried his incursions as far as
England, where he met and defeated in a
great sea fight, Ethelwulf, king of the West
Saxons, He afterwards returned to Sweden
and besieged the capital Sigtuna, but allowed
it to be ransomed for a sum of silver, and
was finally slain in battle by his brother
Sivard. 'The accounts respecting hlra are so
contradictory that every step of his career
presents a question to solve. Joannes Mag
nus calls him Bratemundus, thus confounding
126

him with the very different person Braut-
Anund ; and it is singular that the field of
battle in Nerike where he lost his life is
called Anunda-brbt, (Ornhjalm or Arrhe-
nius, Historia Sveonum Gothorumque Ec
clesiastica, p, 95. &c. ; Messenlus, Scondia
illustrata, i, 65., &c. ; Joannes Magnus,
De omnibus Gothorum Sveonumque Regibus,
p. 543. ; Dalln, Svea Rikes Historia, i. 491.)
T. W
ANUND JACOB, son and successor of
Olof Skotkonung, the first Christian king of
Sweden, was born about the year 1012, on
St. James's day, and baptized Jacob or James,
In 1025, when the Swedes, who were dis
contented with Olof, associated his son, then a
boy of thirteen, with him in the government,
they were dissatisfied with his Christian name
of Jacob, and changed it to that of Anund, as
more suitable for a Swedish king. The most
conspicuous event iu the reign of Anund is
the part that he took with his brother-in-
law Olof Haraldsson, king of Norway, in a
war in defence of Norway agamst Canute
the Great, king of England and Denmark,
who wished to add it to his dominions.
Anund and Olof inflicted a signal defeat on
Canute by a singular stratagem : they dam
med up all but a small portion of Helge-S, a
river in Scania, in which his fleet took re
fuge, then suddenly letting loose the accu
mulated volume of waters, overwhelmed
some of his ships, and drowned many of his
men. Anund afterwards abandoned the
cause of Olof, who was driven from Nor
way in 1028, and on his return in 1030 was
defeated and kiUed by some insurgents at the
battle of Stiklarstad, after which he was
canonised. He is known in England as St.
Olave, and is recorded by Sturlason to have
worked miracles at his church by London
Bridge about 1060, though the earUest men
tion Stow could discover of that church was
two hundred and twenty-one years later. The
aid of Anund wais given to his nephew Alagnus
the Good, the son of St, Olave, who recovered
Norway principally through his assistance in
1034, It is stated in the " Biographie Uni
verselle " that, according to Joannes Gothus
and Loccenius, Anund perished in a battle
against King Canute in 1035 ; but in fact
neither of these historians makes any such
statement, tliough they both mention a report
that Anund died of grief at the death of St.
Olave, which the researches of later historians
show to have been without foundation. Anund
appears to have died in 1055, without issue,
and was succeeded by his elder brother
Anund or Emund bin Gamla, or the Old,
who had been passed over till then because
inferior in birth hy the mother's side, AVith
the death of Anund bin Gamla in 1059 ter
minated the line of Sigurd, founded by Sigurd
Ring about 750, after the famous battle of
BrSvalla heath,
Anund Jacob was called Kolhi-iinna ac-

ANUND,

ANVILLE.

cording to some from a secondary punish
ment whioh he instituted of burning the houses
of criminals ; according to others, from a
law whioh he made that incendiaries shotUd
be burned alive. The Christian religion
made a slow but steady progress in Sweden
during his reign; and the strength of the
Heathen party is conjectured by Lagerbring
to have been the fortunate cause that its in
troduction was not disgraced by such violence
and persecution as in Norway under St.
Olave. (Snorro Sturlason, Heimskringla,
Saga af Olafi hinom Helga, cap. 141. 159, &c.,
Schoning's ed. ii. 216. 269. &c. ; Saga af
Haralldi Hardrada, cap. 39., Schoning's ed.
iii. 116. ; Joannes Magnus, De omnibus Go
thorum Sveonumque Regibus, p. 576. ; Loc
cenius, Historia Svecana Libri IX-, p. 65,
&c. ; Dalin, Svea Rikes Historia, i. 645 — 660.;
Bring, afterwards Lagerbring, Swea Rikes
Historia, i. 244, &c.) T. W.
ANU'SHFRWA'N. [NAusHfRWA'N.]
ANVERS, CALEB D'. [Amhurst,
Nicholas.] ANVERSA, D', a surname given by Ita
lian writers, 'Vasari and others, to several
Flemish artists.
Hugo d' Anversa, or of Antwerp, was one
of the earliest oil painters. In the time of
Baldinuooi there was a painting by him in the
church of Santa Maria Nuova. He is pro
bably the same as Hugo Van der Goes, of
Brugge, according to Van Mander.
In a work pubUshed in 1800 by J. Morelli,
at Bassano, entitled " Notizia d' Opere di
disegno Scritta da un Anonimo," there is
mention of a Llevino d' Anversa, otherwise
unknown. He painted, together with Hans
HemUng and Gerard of Ghent, one hundred
and twenty-five miniatures in a beautiful
manuscript which is now in the library of
St. Mark at Venice. (Nagler, Neues AUge
meines Kiinstler Lexicon-) R. N. W.
ANVILLE, JEAN-BAPTISTE BOUR-
GUIGNON D', eldest son of Hubert Bour-
guignon and Charlotte Vaugon, was born at
Paris on the 11th of July, 1697. The bent
of his mind carried him at an early age into
those pursuits, perseverance in which was to
make him the first of modern geographers.
A map which fell into his hands by accident
in the course of his twelfth year excited his
imitative propensities, and the employment
was so congenial to his tastes and talent that
the accident decided the occupation of his
future life. A map of Greece which he con
structed between his twelfth and fifteenth
year has been preserved by M. de Manne
and pubUshed together with the first volume
of his edition of the works of D'AnvlUe.
Hubert Bourguignon, though engaged in
trade, was ambitious of introducing his sons
to a more elevated career, and with this view
Jean-Baptiste and his second brother Hubert
(about a year and a half his junior) were
sent early to a private academy, and thence
127

transferred to the university of Paris (Col
lege des Quatre Nations). Hubert (afterwards
better known as the able engraver Gravelot),
[Gravelot], who was of a more mercurial
temperament, quitted college in the third year,
but Jean-Baptiste completed the usual course
to the satisfaction of his teachers. The clas
sical knowledge he acquired at the college of
the Four Nations accounts for the marked
taste he evinced through life for the inquiries
of comparative geography. Indeed these in
quiries seem to have been the sole source
of any interest he took in the classics, for of
their artistical beauties he appears not to have
had the most distant suspicion. In so far
as the mathematical sciences are concerned
his education appears to have been neglected,
and he continued to the last deficient in this
branch of knowledge.
D'Anville's peculiar studies procured for
him, soon after he left college, the acquaint
ance of the Abbe de Longuerue. AVith a
view to his future career he could not have
contracted a more useful acquaintance. The
abbe was not only a man of extensive learn
ing, he was exacting and hypercritical in his
estimate of the works of others. The severe
censure De Longuerue was accustomed to
lavish upon the inaccuracies of others had a
beneficial effect upon D'AnviUe, whose un
imaginative and unsusceptible temperament
seldom led him out of the beaten track, and
whose rarely equalled powers of continuous
labour made the laborious search after accu
racy comparatively easy.
The earliest published works of D'Anville
known to exist are: — "France Ancienne;"
" France et les Pays voisins jusqu'a I'Etendue
de la Gaule Ancienne ; " " Be de France,
Champagne, &c. ; " " Auvergne, Limosln,
&c. ; " " Lyonnals, Bourbon, &c. ; " " Les
Pays Bas ; " " Lorraine, Alsace ; " and " Suisse,
Savole," compiled for the historical and geo
graphical description of France ancient and
modern by the Abbe de Longuerue. About
the time that these maps were published,
D'Anville received his " Brevet de Geographe
du Roi." A map of the kingdom of Aragon,
compiled from a memoir of the Abbe de
Vairac, some topographical maps of M. Reus-
sel, Ingenieur du Roi, and notices gleaned
from Spanish authors, belongs to this epoch.
D'Anville was himself dissatisfied with this
work, and unwUling that it should be pub
lished, but the regent, Duke of Orleans,
ordered it to be engraved. This is the first
intimation we have met with of the connec
tion with the house of Orleans, which appears
to have continued unbroken tiU the death of
D'AnviUe. His next works were his maps of Africa,
prepared for Father Labat's accotmt of
Western Africa. They consist of: a general
map of Africa ; a map of Western Africa
from Argnim to Sierra Leone ; a map of the
concession of Senegal ; and a map of the

ANVILLE.

ANVILLE.

course of the Senegal. These appeared in
1727 ; and in the same year D'Anville com
pleted a map of Eastern Africa from Cape
Guardafui to the Cape of Good Hope, for
Legrand's translation of Jerome Lobo's ac
count of Abyssinia. In 1729 he constructed
the maps destined to Ulustrate Labat's account
of Desmarchals' " Travels in Guinea and
Cayenne ;" and those which accompanied
Charlevoix's account of St. Domingo, and
Father Le Quien's " Oriens Christianus."
D'Anville's reputation as a chartographer
was now completely established. It was in
the year 1729 that the king communicated
to him the map of Egypt, prepared by Slcard,
at Cairo, iu 1722, with permission to take a
copy of it. And it was in the same year that the
Jesuits selected him to prepare for publication
the maps of the Chinese provinces, compiled
by their missionaries, and destined to accom
pany M. Duhalde's account of China. The
maps constructed by D'Anville for this work
are twenty -four in number : they constitute
the collection known by the name of " Atlas
de la Chine de M. D'AnvUle." The fifteen
special maps of Chinese provinces, the special
maps of Chinese Tartary, of Tibet and
Corea, are mere copies of those transmitted
by the missionaries. Four of the maps
(" Carte la plus generale, qui comprend la
Chine, la Tartaric Chinoise, et le Tibet ;"
" Carte generale de la Chine ;" " Carte
generale de la Tartaric Chinoise ;" and " Carte
generale du Tibet ") are original maps by
D'AnviUe. In them he corrected the data of
the special maps by the astronomical obser
vations transmitted by some of the mission
aries, and added information derived from
other sources ; as, for example, a chart of the
course of the Kastricom, on a scale of rather
more than two inches to a degree. The cor
rections which this chart emboldened him
to make on the coast line of Chinese Tartary
as laid down by the missionaries, involved
D'Anville in a controversy with the Jesuits,
which led to his publishing in 1737 a letter
to Father Castel.
Previously to this, however, the informa
tion coUected by D'Anville in the course of
preparing the maps of China had tempted
him to rush into print. He published in
1735 a small volume, entitled, "Proposed
Measurement of the Earth, showing a con
siderable Diminution in the Circumference of
the Parallels," ( " Proposition d'une Mesure
de la Terre dont U resulte une Diminution
considerable sur les Paralleles ") ; and in 1736
" A conjectural Estimate of the Earth's Cir
cumference at the Equator deduced from the
Extent of the South Sea," (" Mesure conjec-
turale de. la Terre sur I'Equateur, en conse
quence de I'Etendue de la Mer du Sud ").
'These were not exactly his first attempts at
authorship. He drew up for the Bishop of
Lisieux in 1830, and for the Bishop of Blois
jn 18.'52, instructions to enable the cures to
128

prepare such maps and memoirs of their re
spective parishes as would furnish adequate
materials for maps of the two dioceses. Both
sets of instructions appear to have been
printed : the one for the cures of the dio
cese of Lisieux appears to have been lost ;
that for the euros of the diocese of Blois
was re-printed in the first volume of De
Manne's coUection of D'Anville's works.
It is from the "Mesure conjecturale de
la Terre sur I'Equateur," that we learn ap-
proximatively the date of D'AnvUle's ap
pointment to superintend the geographical
studies of Louis PhUippe, due de Chartres,
and after the death of his father in 1752,
due d'Orleans. In the work referred to, the
author states that it was suggested hy a map
of the world drawn by the Due de Chartres
in his eleventh year, which, as the duke was
born in 1725, must have been in 1736. The
map was drawn by the young prince, it is
said, in consequence of his governor, the
Marquis de Balleral, having given directions
that he should draw the maps of the four
quarters of the globe as the best means
of impressing geographical facts upon his
memory. This geographical exercise of the
young prince was the original suggestion
of a StUl more important undertaking by
D'Anville — his General Atlas. In the pre
face to his ¦' Analyse geographique d'ltaUe "
he mentions that the Duke of Orleans having
discovered that the maps prepared by D'An
ville for his son to copy differed in several
points from those in general use, encouraged
the author to compile a collection of general
maps, and promised to be at the expense of
their pubUcatlon. The fruit of this liberal
support was an Atlas on a larger scale, aud
prepared with more exactness than any that
had preceded it. The maps were published
not in the order in which they foUow each
other in the completed work, but as each
could be got ready. The author proposed
that each should be accompanied with a me
moir, assigning the reaisons for the adoption
of principal positions and other points that
might appear to require explanation or de
fence. This intention was cai-ried into effect
in the case of a good many. Some of the
memoirs (as for example the " Analyse
geographique d'ltalie " already alluded to)
formed volumes of considerable size, and are
still among the most valuable dissertations
we possess both in positive and comparative
geography. From 1738 to 1745 D'Anville appears to
have been principally engaged upon the maps
which he prepared for the Ancient History
of Rollin, and the Roman History of Rollin
and Crevier. The memoir on ancient geo
graphy incorporated into the sixth volume of
the first four editions of RoUin is from the
pen of D'AnviUe. But this employment did
not entirely divert his attention from the
Atlas. The modern maps were in a great

ANVILLE.

ANVILLE.

measure completed in the course of fifteen
years from the time that the publication was
first announced. As during the earlier part
of these years he was engaged simultaneously
upon ancient maps for Rollin and Crevier ; so
in the latter part he was engaged upon ancient
maps for Crevier's History of the Roman
Emperors and Martin's History of the Gauls.
The " Notice de 1' Ancienne Gaule, tiree des
Monumens Remains," published in 1760, was
the fruit of inquiries suggested by the Abbe
BUley's " Eclaircissemens Geographiques sur
rAncienne Gaule," communicated to D'An
ville in 1741, and by him published in that
year together with his " Traite des Mesures
itincraires." The intimate acquaintance with ancient
geography which he derived from these tastes
suggested the composition of his "Geographie
Ancienne abrcgiie," a compendium of ancient
geography, published at Paris in 1768, 3 vols.
12mo., and next year in one large folio vo
lume. The same maps of the world and its
principal regions, as known to the ancients,
to which this work more especiaUy relates,
had been pubUshed in the course of the
years 1702 to 1765.
D'Anville's connection with the Academie
des Inscriptions et BeUes Lettres appears to
have commenced about the year 1754 ; it
continued uninterrupted till the close of his
life. His first contribution to their Memoirs
was an answer to a question regarding the
difference between the paces of an ancient
Roman and modern French soldier. Be
tween the 9th of July, 1754, on which this
paper was read, and the 20th of August, 1773,
when his Memoir on the Names of Peoples
and Towns in a fragment of the ninety -first
book of Livy, found in the A^atican, was read,
D'Anville contributed to the Transactions of
that Society no less than thirty-eight papers
on points of geography calculated to throw
Important lights on ancient history.
The compendium of ancient geography
was followed, in 1771, by a work entitled
" Etats formes en Europe apres la Chute de
I'Empire Remain en Occident." The object
of this book was to connect ancient (or classi
cal) geography with modern, by delineating
the gradual introduction of the modern divi
sions of Europe, and their nomenclature. In
1772, two small volumes on the rise and pro
gress of the Russian and Turkish empires
completed this introduction to the geography
of.modern Europe, by supplying the outlines
of the two states which lie entirely beyond
the limits of the western empire.
In 1773 D'Anville was elected to fill the
only chair in the Academie des Sciences re
served for a geographer ; and in the same
year he was appointed, without solicitation
on his part, first geographer to the king.
His contributions to the Academie des Sci
ences were, in 1773, " Mimoire pour cor-
riger les Cartes de la Geographie sur la
vol. III.

Latitude de la Mesopotamie entre I'Euphrate
et le Tigre;" in 1774, " Memoire sur la
Mer Caspienne." The former was subse
quently expanded into his classical work,
" L'Euphrate et le Tigre," published in 1779.
In 1775 D'Anville published " Antiquite
Geographique de I'lnde et de plusieurs autres
Contrees de la Haute Asie." This was the
fruit of many years' laborious investigation.
In 1752, at the request ofthe Company ofthe
Indies, he constructed a map in two sheets,
of Indiai, from the eastern coast of the Bay
of Bengal westward. It was with much re
luctance he undertook the task, feeling that
the materials were very inadequate. His
representations on this head were the means
of procuring for him valuable contributions
from M. de Bussy, Law of Lauiston, and
English navigators. A memoir which he
composed upon these materials was hastUy
printed at the royal press, and the few copies
thrown off soon disappeared. Meanwhile
the author continued to contribute from
time to time memoirs on special points of
Indian geography to the learned societies
of which he was a member. The communi
cations mentioned, combined with the mate
rials placed in his hands by the Jesuits, for
the geography of China, enabled him to give
a new and more satisfactory form to the map
of India ; and the results of the investigations
by which he was enabled to do this are
embodied in the " Antiquite Geographique
de I'lnde.''
D'AnvUle's latest publication appeared in
1777 : it is entitled " Considerations gene-
rales sur I'Etude et les Connoissances que
demande la Composition des Ouvrages Geo
graphiques," It is a plain, sensible, recapi
tulation of the principal branches of know
ledge that the geographer requires to be
familiar with. It contains also some hints
for the literary biography of the author. It
may be considered as his last testament to
future geographers ; for at the time it was
composed he was almost blind; and soon
after it was completed he sunk into a state
of dotage, in which he continued tUl his
death, on the 28th of January, 1782.
D'Anville married in 1730, Charlotte Tes-
tard, by whom he had two daughters. The
elder took the veil ; the younger married
M. de Hauteolair, treasurer of France. Ma
dame d'AnviUe died a few years before her
husband, but he was already incapable of
feeling his loss.
D'Anville's constitution was naturally deli
cate, but his extreme temperance and the
regularity of his habits enabled him to per
severe from youth to an advanced age in
working fifteen hours every day. His taste
was defective ; he was insensible to the beau
ties of finished composition, as weU as to
those of sentiment and imagination. His
scientific acquirements were inconsiderable.
The source of his superiority as a geographer

ANVILLE.

ANVILLE.

was the instinctive tact with which he divined
the meaning of the frequently vague state
ments of travellers, and his power of eliciting
truth by comparing and contrasting a num
ber of imperfect accounts. These natural
talents, a perseverance which the most pro
tracted investigations could not weaken, and
perfect self-possession when beset by a mul
titude of contradictory assertions, enabled
him to give a new form to geography.
It was between 1720 and 1780, the extreme
limits of D'Anville's active life, that the great
outlines, and many of the details of geogra
phical science assumed the form they still in
a great measure retain. To this the investi
gations of the Academic des Sciences, the
Royal Society, and other associations of sci
entific men, and also the voyages of Anson,
Bougainville, Cook, and others, in a great mea
sure contributed. But it was D'Anville who
availed himself of their discoveries to approx
imate maps more nearly to au exact repre
sentation of the outlines of seas and conti
nents than they had ever been before ;_and
his researches in comparative geography,
and respecting the proportions of ancient and
modern standards of measurement, are still
models. He was the first who made geogra
phy an exact science.
A complete Ust of the publications of
D'AnvUle would far exceed the limits of a
biographical dictionary. His maps and books
were purchased by the king towards the close
of 1779, and are now national property. A
tolerably complete catalogue of his works
was published in 1802 by M. de Manne, con
servator of the royal library. That gen
tleman announced a complete edition of D'An
ville's works. So far as we have been able
to learn, only two volumes of the publication
have appeared, both since M. de Manne's
death. 'The most Important works have been
noticed in tracing the progress of D'Anville's
geographical studies. {E'loge de M- d'An
viUe par M, Dacier, dans les Memoires de
VAcademie des Inscriptions et BeUes Lettres,
vol. xlv. ; E'loge de M- d'AnviUe par M.
Condorcet, dans VHistoire de VAcademie
Royale des Sciences, annee 1782 ; Notice des
Ouvrages de M- d'Anvillc, pricildie de son
Eloge, Paris, 1802 ; CEuvres de D'Anville,
publiies par M. de Manne, vols, i, and ii.,
Paris, 1834 ; E'loge de M- Gravelot, dans le
Necrologe des Hommes ciliibres de France,
Paris, 1774 ; and the various publications of
D'Anville in the library of the British Mu
seum.) AV. W,
ANVILLE, NICOLAS DE LA
ROCHEFOUCAULD, DUC D', was born
at the commencement of the eighteenth
century, entered the French naval service
early in life, and was distinguished no less
for the elegance of his manners than for his
talents as an officer. In 1745, having then
attained to the rank of admiral, he was ap
pointed to the command of a naval armament
130

intended for the attack of the EngUsh colo
nies in America, which was the largest that
ever left the shores of the Old AVorld for those
of the New. It consisted of seventy sail,
eleven of which were ships of the line and
twenty of the rest frigates, not only manned
with strong crews, but carrying three thou
sand one hundred and fifty discipUned troops,
and the whole ofthe force, mUUary as well as
naval, was under the command of D'AnvUle.
His instructions were to retake from the. Eng
lish and dismantle Loulsbourg, to take and gar
rison Annapolis Royal, to destroy Boston, to
range along the coast of North America, and
finally to pay a visit to the West India Islands.
This voyage was one of the most unpropitious
on record. Before reaching Nova Scotia
D'AnvUle was obliged to order one of his
ships, which had been injured by the weather,
to be burned ; off the isle of Sable he lost a
transport and fireship ; two ships of sixty-
four guns were so much damaged that they
put back for Brest, which they never reached,
being taken by the EngUsh off the coast of
France ; and finaUy, after a voyage of ninety
days, during which the fleet had parted com
pany, he reached Chebucto harbour, the
place where four years afterwards the city
of Halifax was founded, with his own ship
and three transports only. This disap
pointment of the high expectations which
he knew the armament had raised in France
so preyed on D'AnvUle's mind that ou the
fourth day after his arrival he died sud
denly, according to the French of apo
plexy, and according to the English of poison.
This event took place about the middle of
September, 1745. It is singular that his
Vice-Admiral Destournelles, who entered
Chebucto harbour with three or four ships of
the line on the afternoon after D'AnvUle's
death, wais also so affected at being over
ruled in a councU of war which decided on
the 18th of September on attacking Anna
polis in opposition to his proposal to return
to France, that he fell into delirium amd in
that condition committed suicide. The at
tack on Annapolis finaUy proved successful,
and conferred much honour on the French
arms, {Biographic Universelle,Tie'W ed. 1843,
11. 97 ; Haliburton, Account of Nova Scotia,
1. 126, &c.) T. AA'.
ANWANDER, JOHANN, a Bavai-ian
oil and fresco painter, bom at Landsberg in
the beginning of the eighteenth century. He
lived several years at Bamberg, and executed
many works there. His fresco are superior
to his oil paintings, (Jiick, Leben und Werke
der Kiinstler Bambergs.) R, N. W.
ANAVARI' (Awhad-ud-din), one of the
most celebrated of the lyric poets of Persi.a.
He was born in the district of Abiward in
Khorasan, in the early portion of the twelfth
century of our aera. Like many a distin
guished scholar, Anwari had to struggle
against poverty and destitution at the com-

ANWARL

ANAVARL

mencement of his career. He was admitted
a student at'the Mansiiriah college in the city
of Tiis ; but whilst he ranked highest of all
for his proficiency in the various sciences
there taught, he was often at a loss for food
sufficient to support existence. One day,
when seated at the gate of his college, a man
richly dressed rode by him on a fine Arabian
horse with a numerous train of attendants,
Anwari Inquired who this distinguished per
sonage might be ; and on being told that it
was the chief poet of Sultan Sanjar's court,
he exclaimed, " O heavens, if such high rank
is open to knowledge, why should I be poor ?
I vow to God that from this day forward I
will devote myself to poetry ! "
On that very night Anwari composed one
of his finest odes, addressed to Sultan Sanjar.
Next morning the poor student quitted his
college and proceeded on foot to the city of
Merw, the capital of Sultan Sanjar, This
monarch, whose enlightened reign is dis
tinguished for justice and liberality, received
the young poet's offering with kindness and
courtesy. Sanjar, who was himself an ac
compUshed scholar and a great admirer of
the fine arts, was so struck with the merits of
Anwari's ode that he immediately invited the
poet to reside in his palace ; and in time he
raised him fo the highest honours of the
state. About a.d. 1148 Sultan Sanjar was
defeated and taken prisoner in an engagement
with the Turkoman tribe caUed Ghuz, a
ferocious horde, who had up to that period
been his tributaries. These savages, having
got possession of the monarch, soon overran
his country, which they devoted to plunder
and outrage. The unfortunate Sanjar was at
first treated with a show of respect, but ulti
mately confined to an iron cage. During
this period, which extended to nearly four
years, the fair region of Khorasan presented
one scene of desolation, doomed to every
species of cruelty and oppression. The mi
serable Inhabitants sent a mission to the
Prince of Samarkand to Implore his aid, and
among the letters which the ambassador
carried to that monarch was a poetical ap
peal from Anwari, entitled the " Tears of
Khorasan." This poem is deservedly ranked
as one of the finest compositions in the Per
sian language. It consists of upwards of
seventy couplets, and has been beautifully
paraphrased into English by Captain W.
Kirkpatrick, and published with the original
in the "Asiatic Miscellany," Calcutta, 1785.
C'aptaln Kirkpatrick's version however con
veys but a very faint idea of the terse and
unaffected beauty of the original. For exam
ple, the following couplet, UteraUy translated,
contains a perfect picture of a country over
run by a ruthless foe. " You wUl not see
a man joyful, except at the gate of death ;
you will not find a female unviolated, ex
cept the Infant unborn," Captain IC.'s para
phrase is considerably amplified as to words ;
131

whether the idea be more forcibly expressed
is doubtful,
" Is there, where ruin reigns in dreadful state.
Whom fortune smiles on, or whom joys auait?
'Tis yonder corse descending to the tomb ;
Is there a spotless female to be found
Where deeds of diabolic lust abound ?
'Tis yonder infant issuing from the womb."
Although Sultan Sanjar succeeded in ef
fecting his escape from the Turkomans, yet
the deplorable situation in which he found
his territories so preyed on his spirits that he
at last sunk under the burden of his afflic
tions iu the year 1157, Anwari long sur
vived the death of his patron — a period which
his biographers pass over in silence. We
find, however, a few anecdotes of him men
tioned by the historians, which may be here
briefly stated on account of their singularity.
It appears that the poet was a great proficient
in astrology — " the science of the stars " —
for it would be absurd to call it astronomy,
as the event will show. It happened in the
first year of the reign of Toghrul IL, the
last king of the Seljukian dynasty, a,d,
1185, that a conjunction ofthe " seven planets "
(speaking astrologically) occurred in the sign
Libra. Anwari being asked what might be
the result of so extraordinary a conjunction,
predicted that on a certain night, which he
named, a whirlwind would sweep over the
earth sufficient to destroy the whole human
race, and tear up the mountains" from their
foundation. The whole country was in the
utmost dismay, and the good Moslems " even
when wrapped in the mantle of patience,"
looked forward with anxiety to this awful
visitation. At length the ominous even
ing came, calm, clear, and serene, without
one breath of wind stirring. As the night
advanced the people took courage, and one
man most maliciously took a lighted candle
to the top of a mosque, where it continued to
burn till eclipsed by the rays of the sun.
The next day Anwari was summoned before
the king and upbraided as an impostor ; and
as he had many enemies at the court of
Toghrul he found it necessary to withdraw
to the city of Balkh, where he spent the re
mainder of his life. The admirers of An
wari's astrological talents however maintain
that his prophecy was amply verified, for it
was at that very period that the formidable
Jenghiz Khan became the sovereign of the
different tribes of his own nation, and com
menced that overwhelming career of conquest
which nearly annihilated all the sovereign
powers of Asia. It might be an Interesting
investigation for a good astronomer to ascer
tain whether such a conjunction of the
heavenly bodies really took place in a.d.
1185. The seven planets or wandering
bodies alluded to are Saturn, Jupiter, Mars,
the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon. The
histories of most authority among the Per
sians, such as the Rozat-us-safai, the Habib-

ANWARL

ANWARL

us-Siyar, and the Labb-ul-tawarikh explicitly
state that the conjunction took place in the
3d degree of Libra ; hence, if true, it must
have happened a few days after the autumnal
equinox, and at the tune of new moon. Now
we happen to know from a table of dates that
the Mohammedan year 581 began on the 3d
of April, 1185, which must have been a day
or two after the new moon ; hence the sixth
new moon from that period would really take
place about the 25th of September. Thus we
get the sun and moon in conjunction very
near the time and place specified by the his
torians, and we leave it to the astronomers to
ascertain whether the other five wanderers
assisted at that famous meeting.
Ferishta, in his history, relates an anecdote
of Anwari which shows that he was some
times successful in his predictions. The
king of the day (Ferishta says Sabak-
tagln, a gross anachronism, as that king
lived two hundred years before), iu order to
test Anwari's skill, took him to a summer-
house with twelve doors, and commanded
him to foretel by which of these twelve doors
he would go out. Anwari, having consulted
his astrolabe, wrote the resiUt on a piece of
paper and placed it under a pUlow. The
king then ordered a portion of the wall to be
thrown down, whereby he made his exit.
On examining the paper he found, to his
great vexation, that Anwari had anticipated
his project." In his rage he ordered the poet
to be imprisoned, but he afterwards relented,
and restored him into high favour. This
story does not prove that Anwari was gifted
with the power of prophecy : it shows that
he had a readiness iu drawing conclusions
which served the same purpose. The period
of Anwari's death Is uncertain ; perhaps the
best authority is that of Captain Kirkpatrick,
who says in a note to his " Tears of Khora
san:" — " Anwari lived to see the empire of
his first patron, Sanjar, pass into the hands
of the Khorasanians, and died A. H. 597, or
A, D. 1200." It would appear that in most
copies of Daulatshah, the period of Anwari's
death is given A. n. 547 by mistake for 597,
This erroneous date (a. h, 547, or a. d. 1152)
is followed even by Von Hammer {RedekUnste
Persicns, p. 89), although several of the ex
tracts from the poet's works translated by
Von Hammer must have been written long
after, particularly the ode addressed toToghrul,
The poems of Anwari are still held in the
highest estimation among the Persians, and
the manuscripts of them are not rare even in
our own country. They consist of lyric
pieces on almost all sujijects ; and in a beauti
ful MS. in the possession of the author of this
article, written at Shiraz A. H, 1023, or a, d,
1614, they are arranged as follows: —
First, a book of kasidahs, or long odes ; se
cond, a book of mukat'at, or fragments of a
miscellaneous kind; and lastly, a book of
ghazals, or the dlwiin. He is said to have
132

written many works on his favourite subject
of astrology, but we are not aware whether
any of these be now extant. It would be
endless to mention the many eulogies be
stowed on Anwari by later writers : suffice it
here to state the sentiments of the author of
the " A'tash Kadah," who says, " There have
been four men who carried off the ball of
eloquence from their contemporaries ; and
until the present time their equal has not
appeared. The first was Abii-1-kasim Fir-
dausi of Tus ; the second. Shaikh Nizami of
Kum ; the third. Shaikh Sa'di of Shiraz ; and
the fourth, Awhad-ud-din Anwari of Abi
ward." (Daulatshah, Persian Poets; Atash
Kadah ; Habib-us-Siyar ; Asiatic Miscellany,
Calcutta, 1785 ; Ferishta, History,) D. F.
A'NYSIS {"Amais), a king of Egypt who
succeeded Asychis. Anysis was blind. Dur
ing his reign Sabacos, king of .SLthiopia, in
vaded Egypt, which he occupied for fifty
years. Anysis fled to the marshes of Egypt,
where he Uved dm-ing the fifty years and
occupied himself with making an island of
the earth whioh the Egyptians brought him
at his request, whenever they caime to him
with food. This island, which Herodotus
calls Elbo, measured ten stadia in length and
breadth, and it wais not discovered tlU about
seven hundred years after the time of Anysis,
during the reign of Amyrtaeus. When Sabacos
withdrew from Egypt, Anysis retumed from
the marshes and resumed the government.
If the flight of Amyrtaeus to the island in
the marshes took place about b.c. 456, this
flxes the time of Anysis approximately in
the twelfth century b, c, ; but the statements
of Herodotus about this king are obviously of
little value, [Amyrtjeus.] (Herodotus, ii,
137, 140.). G. L,
ANY'SIUS, JA'NUS, [Anisio, Gio
vanni.] A'NYTE {'Avln-n), of Tegea, a Greek
poetess, who was connected with the temple
of iEsculaplus at Epldaurus, and made the
oracular verses of the god, Antipater of
Thessalonica called her the female Homer, a
name which is commonly explained by the
supposition of a resemblance between the
simple and antique style of her poetry and
that of Homer ; but it is more probable that
it was simply because Anyte also wrote epic
poetry, as Pausanias s.ays. The Alexandrine
grammarians included Anyte in their canon
of the nine Greek poetesses, whom they com
pared to the nine muses. The Greek An
thology contains upwards of twenty epigrams
which are usually ascribed to Anyte of Tegea.
Her time is generally placed about B. c. 300 ;
but tho date commonly assigned to her is a
mere inference from the fact that, according
to Tatian, two artists, Euthycrates and Ce-
phisodotus, who lived about the third century
B. c, made a statue of Anyte. It is uncertain
whether the Anyte mentioned by Tatian is
the poetess of Tegea, or some other person

ANYTE.

ANYTUS.

of the same name. But even admitting that '
it is the poetess, it does not by any means
follow that she must have been a contem
porary of those artists. The antique cha
racter of some of the epigrams attributed to
her, both in form and thought, would lead us
to assign to her a much earlier date ; and
there is one among her epigrams (viU. No.
308. ed. Tauchnitz) which seems to decide
the question. This epigram is an inscription
for a monument erected to the horse of
Damis, which haid been kUled in battle. Now
we know of no historical person of the name
of Damis except the person who succeeded
Aristodemus as commander of the Messenians
in their first war against the Lacedaemonians,
and who therefore lived about B. c. 723. If,
then, Anyte was a contemporary of Damis,
the date usuaUy assigned to her is more than
three centuries too late. There are, it is
true, some of the epigrams bearing the name
of Anyte, which unquestionably belong to the
period commonly assigned to her ; but one of
them (vii. 492.) is expressly ascribed to a
dift'erent person, Anyte of Mitylene ; and as
it is a common thing in the Greek anthology to
give merely the names ofthe authors without
any further characteristic, we may fairly con
clude that those epigrams which bear marks
of a later date belong to Anyte of Mitylene,
and those which do not, belong to the more
ancient poetess of Tegea. (Pausanias, x. 38.
^ 7., iv. 10. §4-, 13. § 3.; Julius Pollux, v,
48, ; Stephanus Byzantius, sub voc. Teyea ;
Tatian, Adver sos Graces, p. 114, ed, Paris;
Jacobs, Ad Anthologiam Gracam, xin, 852,,
&c.) L. S,
A'NYTUS {^AvvTos), a son of Anthemlon,
a wealthy tanner of Athens, who, by his ta
lent and skill, was raised to the highest ho
nours of the state. His name does not appear
in the history of Athens till the latter part of
the Peloponnesian war, and however great his
power as a demagogue may have been, there is
scarcely anything in his conduct and charac
ter, so far as we know them, that could in
spire us with any esteem for the man. In his
earlier years he was one of the favourites of
Alcibiades, by whom he allowed himself to
be grossly insulted. In B. c. 409, when the
Lacedaemonians attacked Pylos, which was
occupied by a Messenian garrison, by land
and by sea, the Athenians sent thirty ships
under the commamd of Anytus, to the relief
of the Messenians ; but as he was prevented
by bad weather from doubUng Cape Malea,
he returned without having done any thing.
The Athenians, indignant at his conduct, ac
cused him of treachery ; but Anytus escaped
the danger by bribing those who tried him ;
and it is a well-attested fact that he was the
first person that set the example of bribery
in the courts of Athens. During the govern
ment of the Thirty Tyrants, in e. c. 404,
Anytus, who was one of the leaders of the
democratical party, and had great influence
133

with them, was sent into exile. He joined
the patriots at Phyle, and is mentionad as one
of their leaders, together with Thrasybulus.
This is the only occasion on which his actions
are mentioned with praise. Lysias states that
he behaved with great prudence and mode
ration, and prevented his fellow exUes from
committing any outrages, advising them to
reserve their vengeance tUl they recovered
the possession of their country, Anytus is
chiefly notorious as the most powerful among
the accusers of Socrates, In former times he
had been on friendly terms with the phUo
sopher : he had consulted him, and appears
to have even been one of his disciples. The
cause of his subsequent hostility towards So
crates was personal hatred, which may have
arisen as much from their different poUticad
opinions as from the offence which Socrates
is said to have given him in a conversation
recorded in the Mono of Plato. After the
death of Socrates, the Athenians repented of
their rashness, Meletus, one of his accusers,
was put to death, and the two others, Lycon
and Anytus, were seut into exile, Anytus
is said to have gone to Heraclea, in Pontus,
but was expelled by the inhabitants. Accord
ing to Themistius, however, he was stoned
to death by the citizens of Heraclea. (I'lu-
tarch, Alcibiades, 4., Coriolanus, 14. ; Ama-
torius, p, 762, ed. Frankf ; Diodorus, xiii.
64. ; Harpocration, sub voc. Ae/caftof ; Plato,
Meno, p. 90 — 95. ; Apologia, p. 18. and 23.;
Xenophon,. Histor- Grac. 11. 3. §§ 42. 44. ;
Memorabilia, 1. 2. §§ 37, 38. ; Apologia, 29.;
Lysias, Contra Agoratum, p, 497. ed. Reiske ;
Diogenes Laertius, ii. 38. 43. ; 'Fhemlstlus,
Orat II.) L. S,
ANZOLELLO, GIOVANNI MARIA.
[Angiolello, Giovanni Maria,]
AOUST, JEAN MARIE, Marquis
D', was bom at Douai about the year 1740,
of a noble famUy, At the commencement of
the Revolution he was sent to the states-ge
neral as the deputy of the noblesse for the
balUUage of Douai, He was one of the mi
nority of his order who joined the sittings of
the tiers etat. In 1792 he was deputy to the
convention for the department of the north,
and one of the commissioners to watch over
the defence of the frontier. He voted for
the death of Louis XVI, without appeal or
reprieve. Notwithstanding he joined in all
the violence of the time, he was excluded
from the Jacobin club, as a noble, and was
unable to preserve his son from the scafibld.
Under the consulate he was made mayor of
Quincy, where his estates were situated,
and where he died in 1812, His eldest son,
EuSTACHE d'Aoust, who was born at Douai
in 1763, was a generad under the convention,
and in September, 1793, by a successful at
tack on Peyres-Fortes, succeeded in reUevlng
Perpignan. During the then rapid changes
of generals, D'Aoust was often left for a time
in the chief command, and on one of these

AOUST,

APAFL

occasions, 20th December, 1793, he suffered
a signal defeat. As usual under the circum
stances, he was accused of treason and inca
pacity, condemned by the revolutionary tri
bunal of Paris, and executed on the 2d July,
1794. (Rabbe, &c., Biographie des Contem
porains, 1. 126.; Biographie Universelle-) J, W,
APA'CZAI, or APA'TZAI TSERE,
JOANNES, was born in the town of Apatza
in Transylvania in the first half of the seven
teenth century. He commenced his studies
at the schools of Clansenburg and Welssen-
burg, and was subsequently sent to Utrecht,
where he acquired so high a reputation by
his skUl in oriental languages and other
branches of science that on taking his degree
of doctor in theology, he was offered a pro
fessorship in the university. This however
he decUned and returned to his native coun
try, and in the year 1653 became teacher of
poetry, geography, natural history and astro
nomy in the gymnasium at AVelssenburg,
Notwithstanding the success with which he
discharged his duties as an instructor, he
found himself opposed by a host of enem.ies
ou the ground of his adoption of the Car
tesian philosophy and the tendency of his
theological opinions. The intervention of
Paul Kereszturi alone saved him from being
ordered to be thrown headlong from the
tower of Weissenburg, By the same friendly
interference he was allowed to transfer
his labours to the gymnaisium of Clausen-
burg, where he taught theology, phUosophy,
mathematics, and other sciences, with great
reputation. Here again his opinions met with
violent opposition, but the persecutions of his
enemies were put an end to by his death,
which took place in 1659. His works are: 1,
" Disputatio de Introductione ad PhUosophiam
sacram," published at Utrecht in 1650, ac
companied by letters to Leusden, Glandorp,
and A, Gelder, 2. " Magyar Entziklopedia,
az az, minden igaz, es hasznos bbltsesegnek
egybe-foglalasa," (" Hungarian EncycR)-
pacdia, or a Compendium of all true and useful
Knowledge") Utrecht, 1653, 12mo. This
was the first Hungarian encyclopedia, and
the author was obliged to invent many words
before unknown to the Hungarian language in
order to express the different scientific terms.
The historical and geographical articles
are said to be the best, 3, "Magyar Logica,"
Weissenburg, 1656, Svo. 4. "Oratio de
Studio Sapientiaj," Utrecht, 1655, 12mo. 5.
" Disputatio de Politia ecclesiastica," Clan
senburg, 1658, Svo. He likewise left two
pieces in manuscript, 1. " De summa Scho-
larum Necessitate." 2. " Modus fundandi
Academiam in Transylvania. (Horanyi,
Memoria Hungarorum; Benkb, Transsilvania,
11. 256. 273, &c. ; Wallaszky, Conspectus Rei-
publica Litteraria in Hungaria, 38. 208. 211,
&c. ; Adelung, Sujiphmcnl to Jiichcr's AUge
meines Gelehrten Lexicon.) J. AV. J.
134

APAFI, MFHA'LY or MICHAEL L,
prince of 'Transylvania, was descended from
a noble Transylvanian family, and the son of
Gyorgy or George Apafi, councillor of state
to Bethlen Gabor or Gabriel Bethlen, prince
of that country. He was bom about the year
1633. In 1657 he accompanied George
Rakotzi the Second, the then prince of Tran
sylvania, in an expedition to Poland to make
good Rakotzi's claims to the crown of that
country, but the army, though assisted by the
Cossacks and Swedes, was almost totally
destroyed by hunger, the Poles and the
Tartars. Apafi was taken prisoner by the
Tartars, and remained in captivity in the
Crimea till he was redeemed by a large
ransom, when he retumed home with his
spirit so broken by the miseries he had
suffered, that, out of compassion, he was
aUowed to remailn quiet in his castle of Apa-
falu (the modern EUsabethstadt) whUe Tran
sylvania was in open war. Kemeny Janos
or John Kemeny, who had been elected
prince by the states after Rakotzi feU, in a
battle against the Turks, in 1660, was dis
approved of by the Porte, which sent an
army into Transylvania under the com
mand of Ali Pasha of Silistria, to depose him.
Ali inquired of the deputies of some Tran
sylvanian towns who would be the fittest
person to put in the place of Kemeny, and on
hearing their account of Apafi, who was
small of stature and it was said deficient in
spirit, he sent some janizaries to' bring him
to his camp at Maros Vasarhely. Apafi was
terrified at the summons, and supposed the
intention of the pasha was to put him to death,
but his castle was too weak to be defended,
and he obeyed however unwiUingly, His wife,
Anna Bornemisza, was at the point of chUd-
birth, and before he had left the domains of
the castle a horseman overtook him with the
news that she had borne him a son, when his
Turkish captors cheered him with the re
mark that this was an omen of good fortune.
On his entering the camp, AU Pasha received
him as a prince, and getting together two
Transylvanian magnates who had been im-
able to take the field with Kemeny, one from
the gout and another from corpulence, with
a few nobles of inferior ramk, directed them
to elect Apafi — a demand with which, of
course, they were wise enough to comply.
All these particulars are related in a history
of Transylvanian affairs by Betlen, which
was written by Apafi's desire, was dedicated
to him as " by the grace of God prince of
Transylvania," and was published at Amster
dam in 1664. In the year after his election,
Kemeny, though disappointed of the assist
ance he had expected from Montecuculi, the
imperial general, broke into Transylvania
and besieged Apafi in Segesvar. The Turks
relieved him, and in the battle of Nagy
SzoUos, whieh followed (on the 2Sd January,
1662) Kemeny was defeated and slain, after

APAFL
which the title of Apafi was universally re
cognized. Apafi seems, nevertheless, to have
been no friend to the Turks: in Betlen's
book, published under his patronage, the
Turkish pacha Kuchuk, who reUeved him at
Segesvar, is called " rather a beast than a
man," and it is frequently asserted that he
assisted in their plans unwillingly. He fol
lowed, however, in the train of the grand
vizier Kiuprill, in his expeditions against the
Austrians ; he recovered possession of all the
garrisons held in Transylvania by the im
perialists, less by the force of arms than of
bribes ; and he probably did not let his
opinion of the Turks become too public till in
the great battle of St. Gotthard, on the 1st of
August, 1664, the Austrians had obtained a
decided superiority. In the truce of Temes-
var, then concluded for twenty years, be
tween Vienna and Constantinople, he ob
tained the recognition of his princedom by
both those powers, with a confirmation of the
ancient limits, laws, and privileges of Tran
sylvania. This truce procured him a long
space of comparative quiet, though he assisted
the Hungarian insurgents against Austria,
had once or twice to guard against assassins
said to be hired by the court of Vienna, and
was once engaged in a contention for his
princedom with a formidable competitor of
the name of Pedepol, During this period he
showed much favour to literary men, and in
particular to theologians, theology being his
favourite study. He himself translated into
Hungarian a Calvinistic Compendium of
Theology, by Wendelln, which was printed
at Clansenburg in 1674, in quarto. It is
asserted by Czuittlnger that to the surprise
of every one he embraced, in 1672, the Ro
man Catholic Religion ; but the date of the
translation of this book is referred to by Ho
ranyi as a proof of the incorrectness of the
statement, and Budlay quotes some expres
sions from a letter of donation to the coUege of '
Debreczin, dated in March 1683, which show
that he was then a Calvinist. Later in that
year, 1683, Apafi was again called upon to
show his attachment to the Turks by assist
ing in their last great expedition against the
Austrians, and he guarded the passage of the
Danube while the grand vizier, Kara Mus
tapha, besieged Vienna. By this obedience
he obtained from the Porte, in 1684, a con
firmation of the Principality to his son, but
this did not appear likely to be of much
value when, in the next year, the imperial
field-marshal Caraffa entered Transylvania,
and took Clansenburg and Hermannstadt.
Apafi was obliged to appeal to the clemency
of the emperor Leopold, and by a treaty
signed on the 28th of July, 1686, at Vienna,
Transylvania was placed under Austrian
protection. After the battle of Mohaoz, in
the following year, an agreement, concluded
with Duke Charles of Lorraine, the Austrian
commander, on the 27th of October, put the
135

APAFL
military power of Transylvania in the hands
ofthe emperor ; and, on the 1st of July, 1688,
at a diet at Fogaras, the states of Transyl
vania took a solemn oath of fidelity to the
house of Austria. Apafi died on the 15th of
AprU, 1 690, at Fogaras, in the fifty-eighth
year of his age, and twenty-eighth of his reign.
One of the most popular tales of Josika, the
Hungarian Walter Scott, is entitled " Apafi."
(Buday Esaias, Magyar Orszdg Historiaja a'
mostani idohig, Harmadik kiadas, 11. 227. &c.,
iii. 7. &c. ; Oesterreichische National-Ency-
clopddie, i 94 ; Czuittlnger, Specimen Hun
garia Literata, p. 19 ; Horanyi, Memoria
Hungarorum, 1. 57 — 60. [almost entirely
taken from Czuittlnger] ; Betlenius, Rerum
Transylvania libri quatuor, p. 248. &c., &c. ;
VoUstdndige Universal-Lexikon, i. 39. &c.)
T. W.
APAFI, MIHALY or MICHAEL II.,
prince of Transylvania, was bom in 1676 and
could not therefore be more than fourteen
years old at the time of his father's death, in
1690. The diet which was assembled at
Fogaras when that event took place delayed
acknowledging Michael as his father's succes
sor till they had obtained the decision of the
Emperor Leopold on the subject, and mean
while the Porte nominated Count TiikoU, the
head of the Hungarian insurgents, to the
princedom of Transylvania. Tokoli made
an irruption into the country, defeated the
Austrian general, Heissler, and was proclaim
ed prince on the 12th of September, 1690, in
his camp at Grossau, but he was driven out
of the coimtry almost as soon as he had taken
possession of it, by Prince Louis of Baden.
The emperor confirmed Apafi in his princi
pality, but declared himself his guardian, and in
an imperial diploma of the date of the 4th of
December, 1691, laid down the conditions on
which for the future Transylvania was to be
connected withAustria. In 1 694 Apafi married
Catherina, the daughter of George Bethlen,
one of his magnates, and he was thereupon
summoned in displeasure to Vienna, where,
according to some authorities, he remained
thenceforth to the end of his life, while others
assert that he was allowed to return to Tran
sylvania for a few years, but recalled to the
Austrian capital in 1697. After the conclu
sion of the peace of Carlowltz, in 1699, he
made a solemn cession of his rights on the
princedom to the emperor, in return for a
yearly pension of twelve thousand florins.
He died at Vienna on the 1st of February,
1713, without issue. The Austrian National
Encyclopa;dia states that he was only eight
years old at the time of his father's death and
thirty-one at his own, but these dates appear
less probable than those which we have
given from Zedler's Lexicon. (Buday
Esaias, Magyar Orszdg Histdridja d mostani
iddkig Harmadik kiadds,'m- 8. See-; VoUstdndige
Universal-Lexicon, 1, 41 ; Oesterreichische
National-Encyclopadie, i, 95.) T, AV,
K 4

APARICIO.

APEL.

A'PAME, [Seleucus Nicator.]
APART CIO, a Spanish sculptor, of
Castile, of the earUer part of the eleventh
century. He constructed, for Don Sancho
the elder, king of Navarre, Castile, and
Aragon, a costly and elaborately ornamented
tomb, to contain the remains of St. Millan,
who died in the year 564. This tomb was
still preserved in the time of Cean Bermudez,
who describes it in the monastery de Yuso,
where it was placed in the year 1053.
There was a Don Manuel Moreno Apa-
ricio, who distinguished himself as a painter j
on glass, at Toledo and Leon, in the latter j
part of the eighteenth century. (Cean Ber
mudez, Diccionario Historica, §-c. ; FlorUlo,
Geschichte der Mahler ey, vol. iv.) R. N. W.
APATU'RIUS, a scene painter of Ala- .
banda. We know this painter solely through
the singular mention which occurs of him in
Vitruvius, Apaturius painted a fanciful scene
for the small theatre at Tralles in Lydia, in
which, instead of columns, he had introduced
statues and centaurs as architectural supports,
and had ornamented the cornice with lions'
heads ; above which he had painted a repeti
tion of domes and porticoes, half pediments,
and other parts of roofs and their ornaments.
The people upon the exhibition of the scene
¦ were about to applaud it, when Llcinius a
mathematician converted their satisfaction
into censure, by stepping forward and asking
them, who amongst them would place columns
or pediments upon the tiles of their houses ;
observing also that such things were placed
upon floors, not upon tiles ; and that if they
applauded representations in painting which
could have no real existence, they must be
reckoned among the illiterate,
Apaturius was thus compelled to alter the
scene, and make it consistent with truth.
(VUruvius, vii. 5.) R. N. W.
APA'TZAL [Apaczal]
APCHON, CLAUDE MARC AN
TOINE D', was born at Montbrison in
1721, He was consecrated bishop of Dijon
on the 19th of October, 1755, and became
archbishop of Auch in 1776. He died in
1783. He was remarkable for his piety and
charity, and his " Instructions Pastorales "
are highly spoken of (Richard and Giraud,
Bibliotheque Sacrie, xxvill. 111.) J. W. J,
APEL (APELLUS), JOHANN, would
scarcely deserve a place here, but for his
connection with Luther, He was born at
Nurnberg, in 1486 : in 1502 he was one of
the first students enrolled lu the new univer
sity of AVittenberg : in 1 524 he was appointed
professor of law, and rector ofthe university.
A zealous adherent of Luther, he availed
himself of his rectorial power to abolish
the mass within his jurisdiction ; he had pre
viously followed the example of his great
teacher, and, adthough in orders, married a
nun. He subsequently entered the service
of the Prussian court, and became ultimately
136

legal adviser to the town council in his native
city. Apel's defence of his marriage ad
dressed to the bishop of Wiirzburg, " (De
fensio Joannis Apelli pro suo Conjugio"), was
preached at Wittenberg in 1723, and re
printed at Kiinigsberg in 1724, An enco
miastic epistle by Luther is prefixed to it,
but it is nevertheless a trivial work, Adelung
attributes to Apel, in addition to this pam
phlet : — I. " Isagoge in IV, Libros Institu-
tionum Juris," Cologne, 1564, 12mo. 2,
" Tyrocinia Juris Distinctionibus repetita,"
Basel, 1580, Svo, 3, " Methodica Dialec-
tices Ratio ad Jurispmdentiam accommodata,"
Niimberg, 1535. (Adelung's Supplement to
Jocher's Allgem- Gelehrten-Lexicon ; Defen
sio Johannis Apelli ad Episcopum Herhipo-
lensem pro suo Conjugio, apud Regiomon-
tanos Boruss., 1524.). AV. AV.-^-
APEL, JOHANN AUGUST, a volumi
nous, and In his day popular German writer,
was bom at Leipzig in 1771 ; studied
at Leipzig and Wittenberg from 1789 to
1793 ; was admitted in 1801 a member of
the Senatus Academicus of Leipzig, and
from that time devoted himself to the belles
lettres. He had acquired an extensive but
superficial acquaintamce with various sciences,
composed verses with facUity, and persuaded
himself that he understood ScheUing, A
tolerably complete Ust of his ballads, legends,
elegies, songs, epigrams, tragedies, romances,
&c, &c. is given in the sketch of his life in
the " Biographie UniverseUe," His most ambi
tious work is his " Metrik," a treatise on
classical prosody; a subject, for the successful
treatment of which his phUologicad acquire
ments were far too shaUow, Apel died of
quinsy on the ninth of August, 1816, whUe
the last sheets of the " Jletrik" were passing
through the press. {Supplement to the Bio
graphie Universelle ; Ersch und Gruber's
AUegemeine Encyclopddie ; Metrik von August
Apel, Leipzig, 1834, Svo.) AA'. AV.
APELLAS {'AircWas), a Greek scidptor,
who, says Pliny, made bronze statues of
females in the posture of prayer or adoration,
Pausanias mentions a statue by an artist of
this name of Cynisca, the sister of Agesilaus
II, king of Sparta, who gained a victory in a
chariot race at the Olympic games. The
same artist is apparently spoken of by both
writers, and as ApeUas wais contemporary
with Agesilaus, he lived about 400 E, c. and
earUer. (Pliny, Hi.st Nat- xxxiv. 19. ; Pau
sanias, vi. 1, ; SlUig, Cat Artif.) R, N, AV,
APELLAS or APOLLAS {'A-^eXXas or
'AiroAAas), of Cyrene, a Greek geographer,
who is mentioned by Marcianus of Heraclea,
and who is probably the person to whom
Athena3us ascribes a work on the towns of
Peloponnesus, QuintUian mentions an Apol-
las CaUimachus, aud if, as some critics have
proposed, we might read Callimachius instead
of CaUimachus, the age of Apollas would be
determined, as in that case he would have

APELLAS.

APELLES.

been a disciple of CaUimachus, and ha-ve lived
about E. c. 235. Clemens of Alexandria
speaks of an ApeUas who had written a work
on Delphi {AeXipMd), and as Suidas (sub voc.
'Po5<o7ri5os) mentions a writer, ApeUas of
Pontus, who, to judge from what Suidas
quotes from him, must be the author of the
" Delphica," we must conclude that the per
son mentioned by Clemens is not the ApeUas
of Cyrene, but a native of Pontus. (Mar
cianus Heracl. p. 63. ed. Hudson ; Athenaeus,
U. 63., ix. 369.; Quintilian, xi 2. § 14.; Cle
mens Alexandr. Protrept p. 42. ed. Potter.) L. S.
APELLAS PO'NTICUS. [Apellas of
Cyrene,] APELLES ('ATreWfls), one of the most
celebrated painters of antiquity, was a native
of Colophon or of Cos : Pliny and Ovid say
he was of Cos, but Suidas states that he was
a native of Colophon, and was made citizen
of Ephesus, which may account for his being
termed an Epheslan by Strabo, He lived
in the latter half of the fourth century before
the Christian a;ra. He had, apparently, se
veral masters, and he studied under Epho-
rus of Ephesus before he entered the school
of Pamphilus at Sicyon, where Melanthius or
Melanthus was his fellow-pupil, in which fa
mous school the routine of study is said to
have occupied ten years ; but Plutarch says
that Apelles entered this school, and paid the
feeof atalent (216/,),not so much on account
of the instruction or improvement which he
might derive from it, as for the mere reputa-
tation of having studied in the school of
Sicyon, Apelles appears, according to the general
testimony of the ancients, to have not only
had the most briUiant success during his life,
but also after death to have eclipsed all other
painters in reputation. Painting is tei-med,
by some of the Romans, the Apellean art ;
and PUny asserts that he alone contributed
more towards perfecting the art than all other
painters. Indeed, in Pliny, the name of
Apelles is synonymous with unrlvadled ex
cellence ; yet to define distinctly wherein he
excelled all other painters would be difficult.
He seems to have claimed the palm In ele
gance and grace or beauty, the charis {xdpn)
of the Greeks, the venustas of the Romans ;
a quality for which, among the modems,
perhaps Correggio is the most conspicuous,
but in the works of Apelles it had un
questionably the advantage of being com
bined with a proportionably perfect design ;
a combination which we may search for in
vain among the modems. Plutarch relates
that, when Apelles first saw the lalysus of
Protogenes, a very celebrated picture, he was
for a time mute with astonishment, but pre
sently exclaimed that it was a great, a won
derful work, but that it was deficient in those
graces for which his own pictures were so
famous, Pliny has also recorded that Apelles
137

allowed that he was equalled by Protogenes
in all respects save one, namely, in knowing
when to take his hand from the picture ; from
which we may infer that the deficiency in
grace, which Apelles remarked in the works
of Protogenes, wais owing to the excessive
finish for which that painter was celebrated,
PUny and QulntiUan also remark that Apelles
was inferior to several of his contemporaries
in many respects, but that he claimed the
first place in grace. Many other ancient
writers aUude, in a simUar manner, to this
quality of his works ; from the nature of
which remarks, it is evident that the peculiar
excellence of his paintings did not consist so
much in any particular brUUancy of colour
ing, or beauty of design, as in general grace
of conception, and in the perfect harmony of
execution as a whole, especially through the
degree of finish bestowed upon each object,
in due proportion to its local importance in
the picture.
Apelles was famed for his industry : he is
said to have never aUowed a day to pass
without exercising his pencil in some
way or other. " Nulla dies sine Unea," is a
saying which arose from one of his maxims.
His principal works appear to have consisted
generally of single figures, and rarely of
more than a single group. Diana surrounded
by her nymphs, in which he was allowed to
have surpassed the lines of Homer, from
which he took the subject, and the pomp or
procession of the high priest of Diana at
Ephesus, are the only compositions of his
upon a large scale that are mentioned in
ancient writers.
In portrait ApeUes was unrivaUed ; he is
said to have enjoyerl the exclusive privilege
of painting the portraits of Alexander the
Great, whom, as well as his father Philip, he
painted many times. In one of his portraits
of Alexander, which was preserved in the
temple of Diana at Ephesus, he represented
hun wielding the thunderbolts of Jupiter ;
the hand and lightning appeared to start
from the picture, says Pliny, and judging
from an observation in Plutarch, the figure of
the king was apparently lighted solely by the
celestial fire which he held in his hand,
Apelles received for this picture, which was
termed the Alexander Ceraunophorus, ac
cording to Pliny, twenty talents of gold (up
wards of 50,000/, sterling), so enormous a
sum that it was not counted but measured to
the painter. The censure of Lysippus upon
this picture, which has met with approval
from both ancients and modems, that a lance,
as he himself had given the king, would
have been a more appropriate weapon in the
hands of Alexander, than the lightnings of
Jupiter, was the criticism of a sculptor who
overlooked the pictorial value of colour, and
light and shade. The lightning would have
certainly had comparatively no effect in a
work of sculpture, but had a lance been sub-

APELLES,

APELLES,

stituted in its place in the picture of Apelles,
a totally different production would have been
the result. This picture gave rise to a saying,
that there were two Alexanders, the one of
Philip, the invincible, the other of ApeUes,
the inimitable.
Competent judges, says Pliny, reckoned
the portrait of Antigonus (king of Asia) on
horseback the masterpiece of Apelles, He
excelled greatly in painting horses, which he
frequently introduced into his portraits, and
several anecdotes are told by ancient writers
which attest their extraordinary exceUence,
The most celebrated of all the numerous
works of Apelles mentioned by the ancients
was the Venus Anadyomene, or Venus rising
out of the waters ; this picture was painted
for the people of Cos, and was placed in the
temple of iEsculaplus on the island of Cos,
which place it continued to ornament until it
was removed by Augustus, who took it in
lieu of one hundred talents tribute, and dedi
cated it in the temple of JuUus Caesar the
dictator at Rome. It was unfortunately
damaged upon the voyage, and was in such
a decayed state in the time of Nero, that the
emperor replaced it by a copy by a painter
of the name of Dorotheus. This happened
about three hundred and fifty years after it
was painted, and what then became of it is
not known. This celebrated painting, upon
which every ancient writer that has noticed
it has bestowed unqualified praise, represented
Venus naked, rising out of the ocean, squeez
ing the water with her fingers from her hair,
and her only veil was the silver shower which
fell from her shining locks. Ovid makes an
elegant aUusion to its composition —
" Sic madidos siccat digitis Venus uda capillos,
Et modo maternis tecta videtur aquis."
Ovid. Trist. ii. 627.
Again. " ut Venus artificis labor est et gloria Coi,
jEquoreo madidas quae premit imbre comas."
Ep. ex Ponto, iv. Ep. 1.
In aUusion to this picture, Ovid prettUy re
marks that if Apelles had not painted his
Venus Anadyomene, fhe goddess would still
have remained beneath the waves of the sea.
" si Venerem Cous nunquam pinxisset Apelles.
Mersa sub iequoreis ilia lateret aquis."
Ovid, Art. Amat. iii. 401.
This picture is said to have been painted
from Campaspe, a beautiful slave of Apelles,
formerly the favourite of Alexander. The
king had ordered Apelles to paint her
naked portrait, and having perceived that the
painter was smitten with the charms of his
beautiful model, he gave her to him, and
contented himself with the painting. The
idea ofthe composition was said to have been
taken from the celebrated Phryne, who enter
ed the sea publicly during a festival of Nep
tune at Eleusis. Phryne, says Athena;us,
was most be.iutiful in those parts which are
138

not exposed to view, ApeUes commenced a
second Venus for the people of Cos, which,
according to Pliny, would have surpassed the
first, had its completion not been interrupted
by the death of the painter : the only parts
finished were the head and bust.
Among the numerous portraits of Alex
ander which were painted by Apelles, two
met with a strange fate. These two pictures
were dedicated by Augustus in the most con
spicuous part of the forum bearing his name ;
in one was Alexander with Caistor and Pol
lux, and a figure of Victory ; in the other was
Alexander in a triumphal car, accompanied
by the figure of AVar, with her hands pinioned
behind her. The Emperor Claudius took
out the heads of Alexander from these pic
tures, and substituted for them two of Au
gustus. The following portraits also were
among the most famous works of ApeUes :
— Clitus preparing for battle, mounted on
his charger, and receiving his helmet from
his arm-bearer ; Antigonus in armour, walk
ing by the side of his horse (Antigonus was
painted in profUe to hide his defective eye) ;
and Archelaus, the general, with his wife and
daughter. It is probable that ApeUes accom
panied Alexander the Great at least in part
of his Asiatic campaigns ; for without this
supposition, it is not easy to admit the stories
of the painter's intimacy with the Macedonian
king. Stobaeus relates that ApeUes painted a
figure of Fortune, sitting, and being asked
why he had selected that posture, he answer
ed, " because she never stands ;" and Pau
sanias mentions a clothed figure of one of the
Graces by him, which he saw in the Odeon
at Smyrna : a famous back view of a Hercules
also, in the temple of Antonia at Rome, was
said to be by the hand of ApeUes, He
painted many other famous works ; Pliny
notices a naked hero by him, which, he says,
challenged Nature herself AVe learn also
from Pliny that he glazed his works in a
peculiar manner; he covered them when
finished with a dark transparent Uqtud or
varnish, which had the effect of toning and
harmonising the colours, and at the same
time of preserving them from injury, AVe
may form some idea of the truth of the
colouring of ApeUes, from a rem,ark in
Cicero, who, alluding incidentaUy to the A'e-
nns Anadyomene, observes, that its tints
were not blood but a certain resemblance of
blood, Lucian also speaks of Apelles as one
of the best colourists among the ancient
painters. The celebrated contest of Unes between
ApeUes and Protogenes, as related by Pliny,
is a subject which has generally perplexed all
painters or critics who have bestowed any
attention upon it. Certainly one of the prin
cipal causes of the obscurity of Pliny's ac
count is the mutilated state of his text. The
substance of the story is this: — Apelles

APELLES.

APELLES.

went to Rhodes for the express purpose of
seeing the works of Protogenes, whose study
he sought out immediately upon his arrival ;
the Rhodian painter was not at home, but
there was an old woman taking charge of a
large panel, which was standing upon the
easel, prepared for paiinting, who asked the
stranger what name she should give to her
master upon his retum. " His," said Apelles,
and at the same moment drew with a pencil
upon the panel, a line (Unea) of the greatest
delicacy. When Protogenes returned, the
old woman pointed out to him what had been
done, and the story says that he immediately
exclaimed, " Apelles hais been here, for that
is the work of no other hand," and he took a
pencil and in another colour he drew upon
the same Une or panel (in ilia ipsa) (Unea or
tabula ?) a stUl finer line, and going away
left orders that if Apelles should return, she
was to show him " That," and teU him 'twas
whom he sought. Apelles returned, and
blushing to see himself surpassed, drew a
third between or upon those two (secuit
lineas) in a third colour, and attained the
summit of subtilty, leaving no possibility of
being surpassed. AVhen Protogenes returned
a second time, he acknowledged himself van
quished, and immediately sought out ApeUes.
'This panel, continues Pliny, was handed
down a wonder for posterity, but particularly
for artists ; and notwithstanding it contained
only those three scarcely visible Unes (tres
lineas), still it was the most noble work
(omnique opere nob'Uorem) in fhe gallery,
although surrounded by many finished paint
ings of the most renowned masters. It was
preserved in the gallery of the Imperial
Palace on the Palatine, and was destroyed by
the first fire which consumed that palace, in
the time of Augustus, and was therefore not
seen by Pliny, and the story must be related
by him from some other work.
What ought to be the interpretation of the
word Unea here is not the only difficulty, for
the whole story is told with obscurity. If
this great panel contained three simple lines
onlj', ais it appears to have done, it may be
asked how could it be termed the most noble
work ia the gallery — how the wonder of pos
terity, aind particularly of painters? And
it may be objected, that such a display is not
even within the province of painting, and in
stead of commanding the admiration of paint
ers of modern times, woidd more probably
meet with contempt, as, according to Vincen-
zio Carducci, the mere idea of the feat did
from Michael Angelo, and many other famous
painters of that renowned age. It is the
notion, however, notwithstanding it has been
rejected by painters, of several antiquaries
of reputation, and perhaps must be of all
those who abide by the letter of Pliny ; but the
bare meaning of the words is certainly all that
can be said to favour such an interpretation.
If the text of Pliny wUl not allow us to deviate
139

from the Uteral meaning, and look upon the
lines as three distinct rival sketches, w e may
perhaps stUl suppose that Apelles made a
masterly sketch, as a line or profUe, if not of
a whole limb at least of some part of the
human figure, which was improved upon by
Protogenes, according to the ancient standard
of ideal beauty, and was finaUy rendered
perfect by the second effort of Apelles, the
unerring line passing both upon and between
his own original line and the correcting line
of Protogenes ; thus he intersected the two
former lines (secuit lineas), all three lines
being easily distinguished, having been
drawn each in a different colour. Yet, sup
posing that the text of Pliny forces us to
adopt the notion that these rival lines were
three simple lines, one within another, and
that this feat was simply the accomplishment
of a surprising subtilty of Une ; the sin
gularity of the contest, and the extraordinary
nature of the production, are by no means
diminished, but rather enhanced, for it sup
poses a much more difficult, though a more
manual, feat, than that of making the mere
profile of a part of the human figure, which
can have required no effort from the ex
perienced hands of such painters as Apelles
and Protogenes. But if they were three
simple nearly invisible lines, one within
another, as PUny appears to affii-m, the com
mand of hand required, as well as the excel
lence of the hair pencil used, to accomplish
them, must have been prodigious ; and a panel
with such Unes upon it, and with such a
history connected with it, must have certainly
been a general object of wonder, and especially
to painters, independently of its singularity.
The character of ApeUes shows itself in a
noble light in his conduct towards Proto
genes ; for when he perceived that the Rho
dians did not appreciate his paintings accord
ing to their merits, he volunteered to purchase
all the finished works he had by him, at any
valuation which Protogenes might fix upon
them ; and the Rhodian painter having esti
mated them much below their real value,
Apelles generously offered fifty talents
(10,800/.) for the whole, and spread the re
port that he intended to sell them as his
own. He thus opened the eyes of the Rho
dians to the merits of their painter, and they
accordingly secured the works in question, at
a still higher price. There are several anec
dotes recorded of Apelles and his works ;
according to one of which, the common pro
verb, " Let the cobbler keep to his last," or
" Every man to his trade," is said to have
originated in one of his sayings. It was a
custom with the Greek painters when they
had finished a work, to place it either before
or in the porches of their houses, for the
purpose of having the public opinion. Upon
one occasion, when ApeUes thus exposed a
picture, a cobbler is said to have foimd faiUt
with the sandals, and upon the succeeding

APELLES.

APELLES.

day he discovered that the fault had been
corrected. Emboldened by the success of
his criticism, he ventured to find fault with
the leg also, but Apelles coming forward, ex
claimed indignantly, that the cobbler should
keep to his last (" ne supra crepidam sutor
judicaret"), which thenceforth became a pro
verb, Plutarch tells us, that upon an occa
sion when a very indifferent painter showed
Apelles one of his worthless productions,
which he boasted of having painted in a very
short time, Apelles very properly remarked,
" I see that it has been painted hastUy; but
such as it is, I wonder that you did not do
much more in the same time," Clemens
Alexandrinus also has preserved a memora
ble reproof of Apelles to one of his scholars,
who iu a picture of Helen had loaded her
with ornament : " Youth," he said, " since
you could not paint her beautiful, you have
made her rich," From this we may infer
that the pictures of Apelles owed a very
small portion of their beauty to accessories,
or mere richness of effect and costume. Many
anecdotes also are related attesting the high
favour he enjoyed with Alexander the Great,
Apelles survived Alexander some time ; but
neither the date nor the circumstances of his
death are known, Pliny relates a singular
adventure which happened to him at Alex
andria, whither he had been driven by con
trary winds. Ptolemy I. was then king of
Egypt, with whom, whUst general, Apelles
had been in no great favour. Taking ad
vantage of this circumstance, some rival
painters, jealous of the great fame of ApeUes,
prevailed upon a royal fool to invite the
painter to sup with the king, Apelles at
tended accordingly, but Ptolemy, indignant
at the intrusion, demanded by whom he had
been invited ; when the painter, seizing an
extinguished coal from the hearth, drew upon
the wall the features of the man who had
invited him, with such accuracy that the
king, even from the first lines, immediately
recognised the face of his buffoon; and he
thenceforth received Apelles into his favour,
ApeUes left writings upon the arts, which he
dedicated to his pupil Perseus, who, however,
does not appear to have realised the antici
pations of his great master. Aniongst his
scholars also is mentioned his own brother
Ctesilochus. (Pliny, Hist Nat xxxv. 36. ;
Suidas, 'ATreAAiJy ; Quintilian, In.^t. Or. xii.
10. 3.; Horace, Ep. II. i. 239.; Plutarch,
Aratus, 12., Alexander, 4., Fort. Alex. Mag.
2. 3. ; Cicero, De Nat Deor. 1. 27. ; Lu
cian, Imag. 7. ; TElian, Var. Hist. xli. 34. ;
Athenajus, xlii 590. ; Stobaeus, Serm. 251.;
Clemens Alexandrinus, Padag. ii, 12.)R. N. W.
APELLES ('AireAAiis), an ancient Greek
physician, whose cruel and superstitious re
medies are mentioned by Pliny, and who
must therefore have lived in or before the
first century after Christ. He was a native
140

I of the island of Thasos ; but no other par
ticulars are known of his life. He may
perhaps be the same person whose medical
formulae are quoted by Galen. (Galen, De
Compos. Medicam. sec. Gen. lib, v. cap, 14,
tom. xiii. p. 853., De Antid., lib. ii, cap. 8.
tom, xiv, p, 148, ; Pliny, Hist Nat, Ub.
xxxii, cap, 16, ed, Tauchn,) W. A, G,
APELLES ('ATreAA^f) a heretic, who lived
at the end of the second century of our aera.
He was most active between 160 and 190 a,d,,
and lived to a very great age. Little is known
of his personal history. At first he was a
disciple of Marcion, but he left his school, on
account, as it seems, of his rejecting some of
Marclon's opinions, and he went to Alex
andria, where he became acquainted with a
virgin, named Philumene, who professed to
have supernatural communications of know
ledge, and by her aid he established a new
sect. The ancient writers state that ApeUes
derived most of his peculiar opinions from
the pretended revelations of Philumene. This
may be true to some extent, for he seems,
like most of the Gnostics, to have been of a
visionary mind ; but it is also probable that
he used her as an instrument for recommend
ing his views by her supposed inspiration.
TertulUan tells the tale in a very different
form. According to him ApeUes had carnal
intercourse with a virgin, and it is nearly
certain that the words of TertulUan cannot be
explained as referring to marriage. Incon-
tlnency was, according to the principles of
Marcion, one of the worst of e-vils, and he
accordingly expelled the offender from his
school, ApeUes then went to Alexandria,
whence, having returned, says TertulUan,
" in no respect a better man, except that he
was no longer a Marcionite," he formed a
connection like the first with another virgin,
named Philumene, by whose inspiration he
wrote the revelations {phaneroseis), which he
learned from her,
'The connection of Apelles with Philumene
is also mentioned by Jerome and other writers,
not one of whom refers to the charges of
TertulUan, though they would certainly not
have passed over in silence such a blot on the
character of a heretic. On the other hand,
Eusebius has preserved the testimony of
Rhodon, who was the personal antagonist of
Apelles, that " he was reverenced for his
course of life and for his age." 'The story
of his incontinence must therefore be regm-ded
as an^ invention, TertuUlan, the great an
tagonist of the Marcionites, in an age when
the fashion of accusing heretics of crimes was
already introduced, would easily be led to
believe the version which he has given of the
nature of the connection between Philumene
and Apelles.
In the latter part of his life ApeUes had a
dispute with Rhodon, who, according to
Eusebius and Jerome, confuted his heretical
opinions, and exposed him to public ridicule.

APELLES.
From Rhodon's account of this controversy
we learn that the heretics, who were supposed
to err in the philosophy of divine things,
did not always reject the essentials of the
Christian faith, for Apelles maintained that
" all who put their trust in the crucified one
would be saved, if only they were found in
good works."
The points in which Apelles differed from
Marcion are the following: — Rhodon and
Phllaster tell us that he beUeved in one first
principle of all things, and not in two co-
eternal principles ; Rhodon also says he haid
no clear views respecting God ais the first prui-
ciple. In place of the eternal evil principle
of Marcion, Apelles taught that " the one holy
and good God, who is over all, made one
other God, and that this other God created
all things, the heaven and the earth, and all
things in the world.'' According to Ter-
' tullian, this inferior deity of ApeUes was a
glorious fiery angel, and the God of the
Jewish people, and the author of their law.
I-loldingthls opinion, Apelles would, of course,
pay much greater regard to the Old Testament
than Marcion, who aiscribed its authorship to
the evil principle, but in practice he seems to
have allowed little authority to the Old Testa
ment. Rhodon and Origen say that he affirmed
that the prophets were fuU of contradic
tions, and that he received the visions of Phi
lumene in place of the Scriptures of the Old
Testament, and another writer says that he
rejected the law and the prophets ; and some
of his writings were in opposition to the Old
Testament, The truth seems to be that he
treated both the Old and the New Testament
according to his own fancy, as Epiphanius
says, "taking and leaving what he liked,"
His belief respecting the person of Christ
differed from that of the Gnostics in general.
He held that Christ, being the son of the
good God, aud being also his Holy Spirit, was
manifested in the last times for the salvation
of the world ; and that he not only came in
appearance, but in reality assumed flesh,
though not from the Virgin Mary, for in his
descent from heaven to the earth he gathered
to himself a body out of the elements. In this
body he was really crucified, rose again, and
showed himself to his disciples, and in his
ascent to heaven he rendered back this body
to the elements, Apelles denied the resur
rection of the body ; and he held that the
difference of sex is connected with a dif
ference in the soul. He agreed with Marcion
in opposing marriage, and in most other
matters. He wrote a work entitled " Revelations "
{^avepiitren), which contained an account of
PhUumene's visions, and another entitled
" Syllogisms," The latter, if not both of
these works, contained many notices of pais-
sages in Scripture, written in a spirit hostile
to Moses. Ambrose quotes the thirty-eighth
\olume of Apelles. Apelles seems also to
141

APELLES.
have written an account of the life of Christ,
for Jerome, in the preface to his " Com
mentary on Matthew," mentions " the Gospel
of Apelles" among other works which he
affirms to have been the cause of many
heresies, (TertulUan, De Prcescriptionibus
Hareticorum ; Adversus Marcionem ; Euse
bius, Hist. Eccles. V. 13. ; Epiphanius,
Hares. 44, ; Hleronymus, De Viris Illus
tribus ; Origenes, Contra Celsum, iv, c, 54. ;
Lardner, History of Heretics, c. 12.) P. S.
APELLES of Ephesus, mentioned by
Lucian in his treatise against Calumny, was
apparently a different Apelles from the cele
brated painter. Bayle speaks of Lucian's
blunder in supposing the celebrated Apelles
to have been contemporary with Theo
dotus, governor of Coele-Syria, but if Lu
cian has committed a blunder, it is more pro
bably that of having confounded two dis
tinct persons on account of a similarity of
name. [Antiphilus.] It must be observed,
however, that in the passage referred to at
the end of this article, Lucian calls Apelles
" the Epheslan," by which he may intend to
distinguish him from the other Apelles, whom
he mentions several times and simply calls
Apelles. If the anecdote of Lucian is true
in all its parts, this Apelles of Ephesus must
be a different person from Apelles of Cos.
This Apelles, who stood in high favour
at the court of Ptolemy Philopator, whose
reign began rs. u, 222, was falsely accused
by Antiphilus, a celebrated painter, and a
native of Egypt, of having participated in
the conspiracy of Theodotus at Tyre, But
upon his innocence being established, Ptole
my, who had listened to the accusation, pre
sented hlra with 100 talents, and condemned
Antiphilus to be his slave, Apelles, how
ever, was not satisfied with this reparation,
but having returned to Ephesus, he painted
a picture of Calumny, in which Ptolemy
acted a principal part, Lucian saw this pic
ture, and thus describes it : — On the right
hand was the sitting figure of a man, with
ears very much like those of Midas, holding
out his hand to Calumny yet at a distance,
who wais approaching him. Near him on
each side stood a female figure, represent
ing Suspicion and Ignorance. Calumny was
represented as a beautiful maid, but with a
most malicious expression ; in her left hand
she bore a burning torch, whUe with her
right she was dragging along a young man
by the hair, who was extending both his
hands towards heaven ; she was preceded by
Envy, as an emaciated man, and followed by
two females, representing Deceit and Arti
fice, In the back-ground was Repentance
weeping, and 'Truth approaching her, (Lu
cian, irepl TOV (U^ ptfSiciS TZKTTeveiu AiaffoXy, and
the note iu the edition of Hemsterhusius, iii.
127.) R. N, W,
APE'LLICON {'ArreXXtKui') of Teos, a
Peripatetic philosopher who lived during the

APELLICON,

APER.

first half of the first century before the
Christian aera. He resided at Athens, where
he was honoured with the citizenship. He
was a man of considerable wealth, but he
acquired greater reputation for his love of
hooks and his extensive library than for his
talents as a philosopher. He spent great
sums in collecting old, rare, and curious works
or documents, which he got together from all
parts of Greece. His love for old documents
was so great that when he could not purchase
them, he is said to have stolen them. This
practice was at length found out, and he was
obliged to fiee from Athens in order to avoid
being tried for theft. Not long afterwards,
however, he returned, and became reconciled
to Aristlon, or as Athenaeus calls him, Athe-
nion, who was likewise a Peripatetic phUo
sopher, and was then tyrant of Athens. Apel-
licon was subsequently put by Aristlon in
command of a force to defend the island of
Delos against the Romans. But he and his
troops completely forgot the object for which
they had been sent out, and abandoned them
selves to pleasure. The Roman general Oro-
bius,who was stationed with a fleet near Delos,
took advantage of the carelessness of Apel-
licon, and in a dark night he surprised the
Athenians, who were sleeping after a drunken
revel. Six hundred of them were cut down,
four hundred were taken prisoners, and Apel-
licon with the rest escaped by flight. He
died shortly before the taking of Athens by
Sulla in E. c, 86, The library of ApelUcon
feU into the hands of SuUa, and two years
later, when SuUa returned to Italy, he took it
with him to Rome. The name of ApelUcon
is connected with an interestuig point in the
history of ancient literature. Among the
works contained in his Ubrary, it is said
there was the autograph copy of the works of
Aristotle and Theophrastus, which ApelUcon
had purchased of some of the descendants of
Neleus, the heir of Theophrastus. After the
works of Aristotle were carried to Rome, they
were arranged by the grammarian Tyran-
nion, who allowed Andronicus of Rhodes
to take a copy of them for publication.
Respecting the credibility of this story, see
Andronicus Rhodius and the works there
cited, (Athenaeus, v, 214, &c, ; Strabo, xiii,
609, ; Plutarch, Sulla, 26.) L. S,
APELLUS, [Apel,]
APER, a Greek grammarian, who lived in
Rome in the reign of Tiberius (a, d. 14 — 37),
and was the instructor of Heraclldes Pon-
ticus. He belonged to the school of Arls-
tarchus, and was a strenuous opponent of the
grammarian Didymus, (Suidas, sub voc.
'HpaKXdSris.) C, P, M,
APER, MARCUS, a Gaul (probably) by
birth, who caime to Rome, and by his ora
torical talent raised himself successively to
the dignities of qua3stor and praetor. He
lived in the reign of Vespasian (a.d. 69 —
79). In the "Dialogue on Orators," com-
M2

mouly attributed to Tacitus, he is introduced
as the defender of the modern in opposition
to the ancient style of oratory. None of his
speeches or writings are extant. (See espe
cially chap. 2. 7. 33., and Ruperti, in his
edition of Tacitus, 1. 1. p. Ixxvii. f.) C. P. M.
APER, [Numebian ; Diocletian,]
APEZTEGUIA, DON JUAN FELIPE,
a Spanish sculptor, of Navarre, of the latter
part of the eighteenth century. He was in
his youth a singer, and was employed as such
In one of the chapels of Madrid ; but having
a love for the art of design, he placed him
self with the sculptor Salvador Carmona, and
after his death with Francisco Gutierrez,
with the view of becoming a sculptor. He
made rapid progress, and executed several
works of ability, by which he acquired con
siderable reputation. There are some of his
works in the church of San Cayetano at Ma
drid. He was elected a member of the aca
demy of St. Ferdinand in 1777, He died in
1785, (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario His
torica, SfC-) R. N, AV,
A'PHANES. [Apollophanes.]
APHA'REUS {'A(papevs), an Athenian
poet and orator, and a contemporary of
Isocrates. His father was a rhetorician of
the name of Hippias. His mother's name
was, according to Plutarch, Plathane, and she
was the wife of Hippias ; but, according to
Photius, she wais a courtezan of the name of
Lagisce. She had three sons, of whom
Aphareus was the youngest. She afterwards
married Isocrates, who adopted Aphareus as
his son. Aphareus appears to have felt very
grateful towards his adoptive father, for he
erected to him a bronze statue near the
01ympieum,with an inscription which is pre
served in Plutarch. Aphareus wrote judicial
and deliberative orations {\6yoi SucapiKoi and
oufj-^ouXeuTtKoi), but the only fact we know
concerning his oratory is, that in e. u. 355,
when the action called Trepl di/rtSdo-eaJs was
brought against Isocrates by MegacUdes,
Aphareus successfuUy defended his adoptive
father, who was prevented by iUness from
pleading his o-wn cause. His reputation as a
tragic poet appears to have been greater than
that as an orator. He begam his career as a
tragic poet in the archonship of Lyslstratus,
B, c. 369, and continued it for twenty-eight
years down to the archonship of Soslgenes,
B. c. 342. During this period he is said to
have produced thirty-seven tragedies, of
which, however, two were considered spuri
ous. These tragedies formed tetralogies, that
is, four together constituted one great drama,
so that he composed eight tetralogies and one
trilogy. Six of these tetralogies were brought
out at Athens at the festival of the Greait
Dionysia in the city, and two at the Lenaea.
Aphareus gained four victories, two at the
Dionysia and two at the Lenaea, None of the
titles of his tragedies have been preserved,
(Plutarch, Vita Decem Oratorum, p, 839!

APHAREUS.

APHTHONIUS.

ed. Frankf. ; Dionysius Halic. Isocrates, 18.
Dinarchus, 13. ; Suidas, sub, voc. 'Atpapevs,
'AflrjraTos, and PjfTmp ; Eudocia, p. 67; Photius,
Biblioth. Cod. 260.) L, S,
A'PHROD AS {'A(ppoSa.s), an ancient Greek
physician, of whose life no particulars are
known, but who appears to have enjoyed con
siderable celebrity, as his prescriptions are
very frequently quoted by Galen, and gene
rally with apparent approbation. With re
spect to his date, it can only be determined,
that, as Andromachus is the earliest writer
who mentions him, he must have lived some
time in or before the first century after
Christ. He wrote some medical works,
which are not now extant, nor (as far as the
writer is aware) are the titles any where
preserved. One of his medical formulae is
found in a MS, in the King's Library at
Paris, the title of which is given in the first
volume of Dr. Cramer's " Anecdota Graeca
Parisiensia," and which is probably the same
as that which is preserved by Galen, De
Compos. Medicam. sec. Locos, lib. v. cap. 5.
tom. xii p. 878. (Galen, De Compos- Medi
cam- sec- Locos, lib. iii. in fine, tom. xii,
p. 695., lib. viii cap. 2. tom. xui. p. 135.,
lib. V. cap. 13. tom. xiii. p. 837, 838, and
often ; Cramer, Anecd- Gr. Paris, vol. i. p.
395.) W. A. G.
APHRODISIA'NUS {'A<t>poSiomi'6s ), a
Persian who wrote in the Greek language a
Description of the East, which is referred to
by the anonymous geographer of Ravenna,
and in the Chronicle of Hippolytus of Thebes.
A fragment of the work is printed in a note
of Du Cange on Zonaras, (p. 50). The im
perial library of Vienna contains some MS,
extracts from a work of Aphrodisianus, which
give an account of the birth, the manners,
figure and dress of the Virgin Mary, These
extracts probably belonged to a different
work from the Description of the East, and
show that the author must have been a Chris
tian, (Vossius, de Historicis Gracis, p, 394,
ed, Westermann ; Fabricius, Biblioth- Grac.
xi. 578.) L, S,
APHRODI'SIUS, a sculptor, a native of
Tralles in Lydia, who is supposed to have
lived in the first century of the Christian aera.
He is mentioned by Pliny as one of the artists
who decorated the palace of the Caesars on
the Palatine hill, at Rome, with some of its
finest statues. (PUny, Hist Nat xxxvi. 5.)
R, AV, jun.
APHTHO'NIUS, {'A(l>S)6vios), of Antioch,
to whose name is usuaUy annexed the title of
" The Sophist," was, as that title indicates, a
Greek teacher of rhetoric. His extant works
enable us to fix his place in the series of the
ancient rhetorical writers. He and Theon were
the most eminent among those who derived
their system from the school of Hermogenes ;
and it is thus ascertained that he belonged to
those times of literary and philosophical decline
which succeeded the age of the Antonines.
143

Uncertainty prevaUs, however, in regard to
every other fact in the history of Aphthonius,
excepting only the place of his birth, which
was Antioch. Several persons of the name
are mentioned by Greek writers of later
times, especially the ecclesiastical historians ;
but there are not satisfactory reasons for
positively identifying the Sophist with any of
those persons. Even the age in which he
Uved is doubtful. However he preceded the
end of the fourth century of our aera, since
Libanius uses that division of the " Pro-
gymnasmata " of which Aphthonius is una
nimously pronounced to have been the in
ventor. On the other hand, this date is
not contradictory of a conjecture, otherwise
plausible, which supposes Aphthonius the
Sophist to have been the same person who, as
Philostorgius relates (iii. 15. edit. Gothofredi,
p. 51. and note p. 160.), was celebrated at
Alexandria for his learning and eloquence,
and who, adhering to the Manichaean heresy,
defended his opinions unsuccessfuUy against
the Arian Aetius, and died of mortification
immediately after his defeat. If this story
really refers to the rhetorical teacher in ques
tion, he Uved under Constantius and Constans,
in the middle of the fourth century.
Declamations and other works ascribed
to Aphthonius (among which was an Art of
Rhetoric) have perished. There still exist
two of his writings : his " Upoyvfivda-fxara," or
" Rhetorical Exercises ;" and his " MCSoi," a
coUection of forty Fables. The Fables, short
sketches in the manner of iEsop, and partly
derived from Phaedrus and other sources,
are neat and terse, but have no peculiar
merit. The Progymnasmata held for many
centuries a prominent place in the prevailing
systems of rhetorical instruction. The work,
like that of Theon, which bears the same
name, was founded upon the Progymnasmata
of Hermogenes ; and the treatises of the two
disciples, being believed to be better exposi
tions of the master's principles than that
which he himself had given, not only gradu
ally superseded his work, but in their turn
found commentators and improvers. The
treatise of Aphthonius was especially popular :
there are extant nearly as many Greek scholia
upon his one work as upon all the works
of Hermogenes : and Latin translations and
commentaries were heaped upon him till the
middle of the seventeenth century. To what
merits Aphthonius owed this general prefer
ence it is not now very easy to discover. He
is inferior in real talent both to Hermogenes
and to Theon. He possesses neither the
singulair subtlety and fine taste of the former,
nor the practical good sense which in the
latter continually straggles against the fetters
imposed by a shallow and erroneous theory.
But he had an excellence of style which fairly
entitled him to approbation so long as the
higher classics were unknown. In the matter
of his work, likewise, there were two points

APHTHONIUS.

APHTHONIUS.

(neither of them very important) in which
he had a claim to originality. The first of
these was a very small matter, but one which
seemed otherwise to the pedants of the Lower
Empire. In the system of Hermogenes, as
well as in that of Theon, (who probably,
though not certainly, preceded Aphthonius),
the Exercises prescribed to the rhetorical
student and represented as embracing all the
kinds of argumentative composition, were no
more than twelve. Aphthonius increased
the number to fourteen, by no more abstruse
process than that of dlvidingthe head " Proof"
into the two heads of " Proof Confirmative "
and " Proof Refutative ; " and the head
" Encomium " into the heads " Encomium "
and " Dispraise." His second improvement
was this ; that for the incidental iUustrations
(chiefly derived from other writers, and often
merely referred to), which had been used by
his predecessors, he substituted elaborate ex
amples composed by himself, whioh indeed
make up a very large part of his work.
The Progymnasmata of Aphthonius went
through a large number of editions in the
course of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries ; the earliest was that which was
contained in the Aldine Rhetores Graeci,
Venice, 1508, fol. Latin translations of the
work, each as usual borrowing from the
preceding, are those of Cattaneo, Escobar,
Rudolph Agricola, Harbart, and Daniel
Heinsius. The Fables have been frequently
printed and translated since their first pub
lication in 1597, several of their appearances
being in editions of the iEsopian fables. Edi
tions including both the surviving works of
the author are the foUowing : 1. " 'A^Ooi'iov
'S,Q(pLo'Tov HpoyviJ,vd(rftaTa Kai Mudoi : Progym
nasmata, Francisco Scobario Interprete, Fa-
bulae nunc primum in lucem prolatae : apud
Hleronymum Commelinum, " Heidelberg,
1597, Svo. 2,3,4. Reprints of this edition,
Paris, Cramoisy, 1626, 1648, and 1660. 12mo.
In Y^riarte's " Catalogi Codicum Manuscrip-
torum Graecorum .Bibliotheca! Matritensis,"
are the Procemium and chapters 1. and 9.
of the missing " Ars Rhetorica " of Aphtho
nius ; and the same work is entered by Dr.
Hiinel, of Leipzig, in his " Catalogus Librorum
Manuscriptorum," as existing in MS. in the
public library at Basle.
The most correct as well as most re
cent edition of the Greek text of Aphthonius,
with the only complete coUection of his anno-
tators, is In the " Rhetores Grajci " of Walz,
9 vols. Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1832-36.
In vol. i. p. 55 — 126, are the Progymnas
mata ; in vol. 1. p. 127 — 136., is an anonymous
epitome of them ; in vol, ii, are the following
sets of scholia on them: (1,) p. 1 — 68., the
anonymous scholia previously published in
the second volume of the Aldine Rhetores
Graccl, attributed by Renouard and others to
Phoebammon, by Westermann to Doxo
pater, and by Walz to Maximus Planudes ;
144

(2.) p. 69 — SO,, the Prolegomena of Doxopater;
(3.) p. 81 — 564,, a most elaborate series of
commentaries andUlustratlve examples, by the
same writer, called " Rhetorical Homilies ; "
(4,) 565 — 684,, anonymous scholia older than
the tenth century, (Westermann, Geschichte
der Beredtsamkeit in Griechenland und Rom,
1833 — 35., i, 230 — 234.; Fabricius, Bibliotheca
Graca, ed, Harles, vi, 94—97,; Belin de
Ballu, Histoire Critique de V Eloquence chez
les Grecs, 1813, ii 398 — 420, ; Walz, as above.) W, S.
APHTROD, R.DAVID (TntSDK TIT "1),
a German Rabbi, who wrote a commentary
on the " Sepher Hachaisldim " [Chasid,
Samuel], which was printed with that work
at Frankfurt on the Main, a. m, 5484 (a, d,
1724) in 4to, (Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr, iv,
803.) C. P. H.
APIAN, PETER and PHILIP, father
and son, mathematicians and astronomers of
the sixteenth century. Their real name was
Blenewitz, latinised into Apianus, often Ap-
pianus.* Peter Apian was born in 1495
(Vossius has 1500) at Leissnig in Misnia,
and died at Ingolstadt, April 21, 1552, No
thing is known of his life except that he was
patronised and ennobled by the emperor
Charles V, and that he taught mathematics
at Ingolstadt in the latter part of his Ufe.
He had also a printing press of his own, and
several of his worlts are "ex officina Apiani"
Perhaps there has been some confusion be
tween works printed at his press and those
written by himself : probably the " Inscrip
tiones SS. A^etustatis, &c." Ingolstadt, 1534,
mentioned f by Delambre, and the "Anti
quitates Europae," and " Descriptio Pere-
grinationis S. Pauli," attributed to him by
Teissier, were either by other authors of the
same name, or merely printed at his press.
Dr, Hutton has set down in his dictionary, as
works actuaUy written by Apian, the Ust
which he announced as containing his intended
pubUcations in the " Astronomicon Caesa-
reum," Apian was at one time a writer universaUy
read. This distinction he owes mostly to his
work on Cosmography, a treatise of mixed
astronomy and geography. It is now re
membered by its containing, for the fii-st
time, the suggestion for finding longitude hy
the distance of the moon from a fixed star,
which is now the principal method used at
sea. The first edition of the " Cosmogra-
« Tyclio Brah6, who has preserved Ph.Apian's letter
hereinafter noticed, ciiUs him Appian throughout ; but
as Tycho Br.ihe's printer spells Philippus, the flrst
time it occurs in this n.ime, with three ps, the au
thority is somewhat weakened.
t We h.ave since found that this work is by MatUiew
Peter Apian (Lipenius). Teissier, to mend the matter,
speaks of '• hiscrlptiones Orbis," in which he was
helped by Bart. Amantius. But this work is " Bart.
Amiintn et Pet. Apiani Antiquitates et Descriptioncs
Luropa;," Ingolstadt, 1534, the Apian being probably
the one of this article. There is also •• Pet Apiani et
Bart. Amantu Uomana; Antiquitates," Ingolst.idt, l!ir>4.
(Lipenius.) '

APIAN

APIAN.

phia " was printed at Landshut iu 1524, 4to. ;
the author reprinted it " cum Observationibus
multarum Eclipsium " at Ingolstadt, 1 530, 4to. ;
it was edited by Gemma Frisius, Antwerp,
1529, 4to., and this edition was often reprinted ;
Antwerp, 1533, 1540, 1545, 1550, 1564, 1574,
1584, 1586; Antwerp, 1544 and 1581 (in
French); Paris, 1551 and 1553; Antwerp,
1592 and 1598 (in Dutch); Antwerp, 1575
(in Spanish) ; and very likely in other places
and languages : all the above are in quarto.
Apian's edition of Purbach's " Theoricse
novae Planetarum" appeared at Ingolstadt
in 1528. At the same place, in 1532, " ex
off. Apiani," appeared his " Quadrans Astro-
nomicus," a description of a new astronomical
quadrant. Apian was the inventor of many
instruments, none of which are now in use.
At Ingolstadt in 1 533 appeared the " Ho-
roscopion Generale," a work which, from the
long title given by Lalande, seems to be
purely astronomical, though the word horos-
copion might give a suspicion of astrology.
At Ingolstadt, 1533, folio, appeared the
" Folium Populi," a description of a species
of sun-dial. Also at Ingolstadt, 1533, foUo,
" Introductio Geographica in Verneri Anno
tationes .... adjuncto Radio Astronomico
..,.," containing, besides Verner's notes
and Apian's upon them, a Latin translation of
the first book of Ptolemy's Geography, with
the description of Apian's astronomical ra
dius, and a letter of Regiomontanus. At
Nurnberg, 1534, folio, appeared the " Instru-
mentum Primi MobUis," the description of an
instrument which really amounts to a table of
sines, aud was reprinted at Niimberg as late
as 1641, folio, under the title " Instrumentum
Sinuum seu Primi MobiUs," Both the " In
troductio Geographica " and this one contain
tables of sines to every minute, which, with
the posthumous tables of Regiomontanus,
printed in the same year, were the earliest
tables of sines printed : Apian says they are
of his own calculation. At the end of the
" Instrumentum Primi MobUis " was printed
the treatise on astronomy by Geber, to which
the preservation of that writer is due. At
Nurnberg, 1641, appeared the " Organum Ca-
tholicum," a work of which we know nothing,
except that Lipenius places it in his list of
works on the quadrature of the circle : nor
do we know on what grounds it is attributed
to Apian.
But the most remarkable work of Apian is
the " Astronomicon Caesareum," Ingolstadt,
1540, atlas folio, a work for which Charles V.
is said to have given the author three thousand
crowns. In the same year, also at Ingolstadt,
was published an explanation, " Griindliche
auslegung des Buchs Astronomicon Casareum
und seiner Insti-umenten." Were it only as
a rare specimen of typography of the atlas
kind, this work would be remarkable. It is
an attempt to reduce astronomical computation
to mechanical work, by means of those re-
VOL. III.

volving paper planispheres which have only
lasted to our time in the frontispieces of books
on the use of the globes. We allude to the re
volving paper circle by which the relative
times of the day at different places are found.
Such planispheres not only form the staple
of the " Astronomicon Caesareum," but are
several times introduced in the " Cosmogra-
phia," and we conjecture that Apian was the
inventor of them. Those in the former work
are beautifully illuminated. But a still more
remarkable circumstance about the " Astro
nomicon Caesareum " is its containing observ
ations ofthe comet of 1531, which now bears
the name of Halley, who could not have sus
pected that the comet of 1607 and 1682 was
periodic, if he had not had the evidence of its
appearance in 1531 whioh was furnished by
Apian, The work was so scarce, even in the
time of Halley, that he had to make much
search for it ; the only copy we know of
in England belongs to the Astronomical
Society. The work also mentions the fact of
the tails of comets being always turned from
the sun, and it was generally believed that
Apian was the first to notice this phenomenon :
but Delambre pointed out .that in the treatise
on homocentrics of Fracastoro, printed at
Venice five years before Apian's " Astrono
micon," the same thing was mentioned as
true of four different comets. Apian enjoyed
a very high reputation, and not undeservedly :
many attempts were made to draw him from
Ingolstadt, but the Bavarian government
always succeeded in preventing him from
wishing to leave their service.
Philip Apian, the son, was born at In
golstadt, September 14th, 1531, and died at
Tiibingen in the end of 1589. At his father's
death, being then not twenty-one years old,
he was appointed to the chair of mathematics,
vacated by that event. By order of Prince
Albert of Bavaria he began a description of
that principaUty in 1554, which was published
in 1570* at Ingolstadt, "Phil, Apiani Ba
varia in Libri Formam redacta, in Tabulis
XXIV," He travelled in Italy, and was re
ceived doctor of medicine at Bologna in 1564.
In 1568 he became a convert to Protestantism,
and was obliged to quit Ingolstadt in con
sequence. He retired to Tubingen, where he
obtained a chair of astronomy and geometry.
He published at 'Tiibingen (1586, 4to,) " De
UtUitate Trientis Astronomlci, Instrumenti
novi." Delambre mentions a work of his,
" De Cylindri UtUitate," which is perhaps the
last with a wrong title : and Teissier attributes
to him " Dialogus de Geometrise Princlpiis "
and " Liber de Umbris." Tycho Brahe (" De
Nova Stella," p. 643.) has preserved a letter
of his on the new star of 1572. (Delambre,
Biog- Univ- and Moyen Age ; Teissier, E'loges
* Teissier says 15G7, and Lipenius has also a book
with a German title, " XXIV. Bayerische Landtafeln "
15G9.

APIAN.

APICIUS,

des Savans ; Lalande, Bibliographie Astron- ;
Lipenius, Bibliotheca Philosophica, §-c.) A. De M.
APICA'TA. [Sejanus.]
API'CIUS, the name of three Romans who
have been sometimes confounded,
1. The first Apicius is mentioned only by
Athenaeus, who calls him simply " a certain
Apicius," and says (on the authority of Posi-
donius) that he was the cause of the exile of
Rutilius Rufus (b,c, 92), and that he surpassed
all men in luxury and profligacy, (Athenaeus,
lib, iv. cap. 66. p. 168. ; Posidonlus, Reliquia
Doctrina, ed. Bake, Leiden, 1810.)
2. The second, Marcus Gaeius (or Ga-
vius) Apicius (the most famous of the three)
lived at Rome about the beginning ofthe Chris -
tian aera, under Augustus and 'Tiberius. He
is mentioned by several ancient authors, who
have preserved numerous anecdotes respect
ing him, some of which, however, are so very
singular (and almost incredible) that one is
almost tempted to believe that they were told
of him in joke. It is said by Athenaeus
(and Suidas copies and repeats the story,)
that he passed great part of his time at Min-
tumae, iu Latium, on account of the excellent
shell-fish (/faplSes, probably lobsters) that
were found there, but that, having heard that
very large ones were to be had on the coast
of Libya, he set sail thither without delay.
Upon his approaching the land, several fisher
men, who had already heard of his intended
visit, came off in boats to the vessel with some
of their finest lobsters ; but when Apicius saw
that they were inferior to those of Minturnae,
and was assured that no finer were to be
found in Libya, he ordered the pilot imme
diately to sail back to Italy. He squandered
immense sums in procuring the most expen
sive delicacies from all parts of the world ;
invented certain cakes which were caUed
after his name, Apicia ; and formed gas
tronomy into a science, A work was written
by Aplon, the grammarian, entitled Xlepl
TTJs 'AiriKiov Tpvcfiis, " On the Luxury of
Apicius," and his name has become prover
bial for gluttony both in ancient and modern
times. The story of his death is hardly
credible, amd yet rests on such evidence that
it cannot reasonably be doubted. It is men
tioned by Seneca, that after having spent upon
his culinary dainties one hundred millions of
sesterces {sestertium millies) that is (reckoning
with Hussey, " Ancient Weights and Money,"
&c., the mille nummi, or sestertium, to be
worth, after the reign of Augustus, seven
pounds, sixteen shillings, and three pence),
about seven hundred and thirty-one thousand,
two hundred and fifty pounds, he became
overwhelmed with debts, and was thus forced
for the first time to look into his accounts.
He found that he would only have ten million
of sesterces {sestertium ccnties) remaining
after paying off his debts (or about seventy-
three thousand one hundred and twenty-five
146

pounds), upon which he put an end to his life
by poison rather than be obliged to live on such
a pittance. The story is repeated, with a
slight variation in the figures, by Dion Cassius ;
and Martial has made it the subject of an epi
gram. (Athenaeus; Suidas; Dion Cassius, lib,
Ivii, cap. 19. ; Seneca, Consol- adHelv. cap, 10. ;
Martial, JS/)/^. lib. iU,ep,22.; and other ancient
authors referred to by the commentators on
these passages,)
3, The third person of the name of Apicius
is said by Athenasus (and by Suidas, who
copies the passage,) to have sent to the em
peror Trajan during the Parthian war (a, d,
114 — 1 16), at a time when he was many days
distant from the sea, some fresh oysters,
which he had learned how to preserve with
extraordinary skill, (Athenaeus, lib, i, cap.
1 3. p. 7. ; Suidas, sub voc. "Oo-rpea.)
A treatise on cookery is stUl extant under
the name of " CaeUus Apicius," which, how
ever, is generaUy considered to belong to
none of the three persons mentioned above,
but to be the work of a later age, to which
the author prefixed the attractive name of
" Apicius," It consists of ten books, to each
of which is prefixed a Greek title, intimating
more or less definitely the subject of its con
tents. The first is caUed 'Eu-if-ieXTJs, " The
Careful ;" the second, ^apud-jrTTjs, or 'Apr67rTt)s,
"The Carver," or "The Baker;" the third,
KrjTrovpos, " The Gardener; " the fourth,
nafSeKTr^p, " The All-receiver ; " the fifth,
"Oairptos, " Belonging to Pulse ; " the sixth,
Tpo0?)T7)s, or rather 'Aepoirerifs, " Of Flying
Animals ; " the seventh, UoXureXris, " The
Expensive ; " the eighth, TeTpdwous, " The
Quadruped ;" the ninth. edXaa-rra, " The Sea;"
and the tenth, 'AXieis, " The Fisherman." The
work is written in Latin in a somewhat bar
barous style ; from its subject-matter it is pro
bably Uttle read ; and its whole value arises
from its being the only ancient treatise on the
culinary art that is stiU extant.
The first edition was printed at MUan in
1498, and is said to be very scarce ; Sir Mark
Sykes's copy (now in the Bodleian Library
at Oxford) was bought in 1824 for 10/. 5s. ;
but this edition is sadd by Brimet to have
been sold abroad for thirty francs, and twenty-
one francs. An elaborate description of it is
given by Dr. Dibdin in his " Bibliotheca
Spencerlana," It is a simdl quarto volume,
consisting of forty-two leaves, amd printed in
Roman characters. The title is, " Apicius in
Re Quoquinarid ;" the colophon, " Impressum
Mediolani per magistrum Guilermum Signerre
Rothomagensem Anno dni- Mcccclxxxxviii.
die XX- mensis Januarii-" It has been sup
posed that there was a Milan edition anterior
to the present one, of the date of 1490 ; but
this (says Dibdin) is cleai-ly proved to be
fictitious, and the edition printed at Venice
by Bernardinus Venetus, 4to., without date
(but probably 1500), is now agreed to be this
imagined anterior one. The work was re-

APICIUS.
printed four times in the sixteenth century ;
but the next edition worth mentioning was
Martin Lister's, printed by Bowyer, London,
1705, Svo., which is now very rare, as only
one hundred and twenty copies were printed,
and which was republished by Almeloveen,
with some additions, at Amsterdam, 1709, Svo.
The last edition is that by J. M. Bernhold,
Markt-Breit, 1787, Svo. (printed without place
or date), with a new title, at Baireuth, 1791 ;
and again at Anspach, 1800 ; this was in
tended as the forerunner of a larger edition,
which, however, has never appeared. The
work was translated into Italian and pub
lished at Venice, 4to. 1516 : and there is a
little volume on this subject hy J. H. Dierbach,
entitled " Flora Apiciana," Heidelberg, Svo.
1831. {'D'lbdin, Bibliotheca Spenceriana, vol. i.
p. 248—250. ; Schwciger, Handb- der Clas-
sisch. Bibliograph. ; Ebert, Bibliograph. Diet ;
Brunet, Manuel du Librairc-) W. A. G.
APIN, JOHANN LUDWIG, was born
on the 20th of November, 1668, at Ho-
henlohe, in Franconia, where his father was
a minister. He early in life evinced an
attachment to letters, although his father had
few means of enabling him to pursue them.
He, however, went to Altorf, and there
commenced the study of medicine, and soon
found himself involved in difficulties for the
want of money. Under these circumstances,
he commenced giving private lessons to the
younger students of the University, and was
also engaged by Meyer the printer as cor
rector of the press. By these means he not
only obtained a Uvelihood, but saved enough
to enable him to take his degree in medicine
in 1690. He was shortly after appointed
physician to the city of Herrspruck, in the
territory of Niirnberg, and in 1699 was
elected a member of the College of Phy
sicians of Nurnberg. Previous to his gra
duation he made several contributions to
medical literature, and wrote a work on
flatulence, which was published at Altorf
in 1687, entitled "iEolus, sive Disquisitio
Physlco-pathologica de Flatibus," 4to. His
inaugural disputation was on fainting. In
1697 he pubUshed a work on the epidemic
fevers of Herrspruclj and its neighbourhood,
with the title " Febris Epidemicae, Anno
1694 et 1695, in Noricae Ditionis Oppido
Herrspruccensi et vicino Tractu grassari
deprehensa; tandemque Petechialis reddita;
historica Relallo." Nurnberg. In this work
he gives a description of several cases of
fever, with the treatment adopted. He was
one of the first to try the bark of the casca-
rUla as a substitute for the cinchona or Jesuits'
bark, against the use of which the German
physicians long maintained a prejudice. The
cascarllla, although still much used in medi
cine, did not supplant to amy great extent
the use of the cinchona in fevers.
Apin was elected a member of the
Leopoldine Academy, under the name
147

APIN.
of Nonus, and several medical and sur
gical cases, with remarks, were contri
buted by him to the Transactions published
by that body. In 1702, the chair of phy
siology and surgery at Altorf having be
come vacant, he was invited to fill it. He
accepted this post, but he only filled it one
year : he was carried off by a fever on the
2Sth of October, 1703. In 1702 and 1703, he
published at different times five dissertations
on the vital principle, and a " Programma de
nepiepyia Hippocratica." These, with his
inaugural disputation, and a dissertation on
the origin of the difference of temperament
in man, were republished after his death, in
1718, by his son, under the title " Fasciculus
Dissertationum Academlcarum," Svo. He
also left behind him a manuscript on inter
mittent and other fevers, which was edited by
Goetz, and pubUshed in 1726, with the title
" Collectanea de Febribus praecipue inter-
mitteutibus." Apin was a disciple of StalU,
and assisted Gcetz in a work entitled " Scripta
Stahlii," which gives an account of the writ
ings of Stahl and his contemporaries. The
subject of the present article was the father
of Slgismund Jacob Apin. (Eloy, Diction
naire de Midecine; Adelung, Supp. to Jocher's
Allgem- Gelehrten Lexicon; Mangetus, Bib-
Script Med-) E. L.
APIN, SIGISMUND JACOB, was the son
of Johann Ludwig Apin, and born at Herrs
pruck, near Niirnberg, on the 7th of June,
1693. He studied at Altorf, and took his
master's degree in 1713. In the year 1720
he became Inspector of the Nurnberg
Alumni ; in 1722, professor of logic and meta
physics in the Gymnasium at Nurnberg ;
in 1726, a member of the Academia Naturae
Curlosorum, and in 1729 rector of the school
of St. iEgidlus at Brunswick, where he died
on the 24th of March, 1732. His principal
works are — 1." Disputatio de Regula Lesbla."
Altorf, 1715, 4to. 2. "Historia naturalis
de Veritate Scripturaj Sacrae Testimonium
perhlbens." Altorf, 1 7 1 7, 4to. 3. " Obser
vationes de Loricis lintels Veterum cum
novo Loricamm Invento." Altorf, 1719, 4to.
4. " Meditatio de Incremento Physices per
Medicos facto." 1720, fol. 5. " Anonymi
nothiger Unterricht, die Griechische Sprache
a-af cine leiohte Art zu lernen und zu leh-
ren." 1720, Svo. An enlarged edition of
this work was pubUshed in 1726, in Svo.
6. "VitJE et Effigies Pro-CanccUariorum Aca
demiae Altorfinje." Niirnberg, 1721, 4to.
7. " Dissertatio de quibusdam nondum editis
EpistoUs J. Camerarii." Niimberg and Al
torf, 1724, 4to. 8. "Vitaj Professorum Phi
losopbiae Altorfinorum." Niimberg, 1728,
4to. 9. "Glossarium novum ad jEvi hujus
Statum adornatum." Niimberg, 1728, Svo.
10. " Anleitung, wie man die Blldnisse be-
riihmter und gelehrter Manner sammeln soil."
Niirnberg, 1728, Svo. 11. "Oratio de
iEdificiorum sacrorum, qua; vulgus Coenobia
L 2

APIN.

APION.

vocat, in Soholas publicas Mutatione." Brans-
wick, 1730, 4to. He also edited, 12. " J. J.
Grynaei Epistolae LXVI ad C. A. Julium,
cum vita Grynaei et SohoUls. " Niimberg,
1718, Svo. 13. J. Facciolati Orationes X
de optimis Studiis, cum Praefatione. Leipzig,
1725, Svo. 14. C. G. SchwarzU Carmina,
colleota et edita. Frankfort and Leipzig, 1728,
Svo. A complete list of this author's works
may be collected from the authorities cited
below. His life, written by Reuscli, was pub
lished at Helmstadt, in 1732, 4to. (Jocher,
AUgemeines Gelehrten Lexicon ; Adelung,
Supplement to Jocher ; Grosses voUstdndiges
Universal Lexicon, Supplement.) J. W. J.
A'PION. [Appion.]
A'PION {'Airiciy), surnamed PLISTO-
NI'CES {TTXeiOToviKTjs, which Suidas mis
takes for the name for Apion's father),
the son of Posidonlus, was a Greek gram
marian, and Uved in the reigns of Tibe
rius, Caligula, and Claudius (a. d. 1 5 — 54).
He was a native of Egypt, and his name is
supposed to have been derived from the
Egyptian god Apis : it is incorrectly written
by some of the Latin writers Appion, perhaps
by a confusion with the Roman name Appius.
Though born in Oasis, he caUed himself an
Alexandrian, because he had been educated
at Alexandria by Apollonius, the son of
Archibius, and by Didymus, and also because
he had received the freedom of that city.
From Apollonius and Didymus he imbibed a
strong love for the Homeric poems, and he
devoted himself to the explamation of them
with such success, that when, in the reign of
Caligula, he made a journey through Greece,
the cities which he visited conferred their
freedom upon him, as an honour due to his
association with the name of Homer. This
took place, perhaps, on his way to Rome, at
the head of au embassy which the Alexan
drians sent to Caligula, to complain of the
Jews in their city (a. d. 38), It is not im
probable, however, that Aplon may have
gone to Rome as early as the reign of Ti
berius, whom we know to have been ac
quainted at least with his fame ; and Suidas
expressly says that he taught at Rome under
Tiberius and Claudius, and that he was the
successor of Theon, the grammarian. Per
haps, therefore, he was still at Rome (or he
may have been at Alexandria during a tem
porary absence from Rome) when the Alex
andrians sent this embassy, and the influence
he had acquired there may iave led them to
place him at its head. 'The Jews of Alexan
dria sent a counter embassy under Philo. Of
the result we are not informed ; but it appears
that Aplon, who is known to have been bit
terly hostile to the Jews, and who wrote
against them, used every effort to excite the
hatred of Caligula against the Jews by re
presenting that they neither set up the em
peror's image, nor swore by his name. Aplon
continued to teach in Rome in the reign of
148

Claudius. In the manner of his death his
antagonist Josephus traced a peculiarly suit
able retribution for his sarcasms upon the
rites of the Jews,
Aplon is said to have been an eloquent
man, and possessed of extensive and varied
learning, much of which, however, was cer
tainly of a most trivial kind. His extreme
laboriousness procured for him more than
one epithet, such as poxSos, and irepiepySTaTos
ypa/xiiaTiKoii'. He was one of the vainest of
men. He used to say that he conferred im
mortality on those to whom he dedicated any
of his works. He put himself on a level
with Socrates, Zeno, Cleanthes, and other
such men, and congratiUated Alexandria that
she had such a citizen ; at least, if we may
believe Josephus, who adds that it was need
ful for him to bear witness to himseff, since
in the eyes of aU other men he was regarded
as a bad town-crier, and corrupt both in life
and speech. It was probably on account of
his loquaciousness and vanity, that the
emperor Tiberius appUed to him the epithet,
cymbalum mundi.
His chief grammatical writings were on
Homer, Besides his lexicon to Homer,
{Xe^eis 'Oix-/)ptKai), the remains of which are
thought to be incorporated with the Homeric
lexicon of Apollonius, the son of Archibius,
he made a recension of the text of Homer,
which was esteemed the best in existence;
and he wrote other works on the poet him
self, and on his writings. The trifling cha
racter of much of the matter contained in
these works may be imagined from the
statement of Seneca, that Aplon supposed
that Homer designedly placed two letters in
the first line of the Iliad, to describe the
number of his books on the Trojan wars.
He appears to mean the pen ofthe word pcriviv,
which represent the number forty-eight. He
also wrote a work on the language of Rome,
(irepl TTjy ''Poip.aiKns SiaXeKTov). He appears,
from the testimony of Suidas, to have com
posed works relating to the history of several
nations {laropia kutoi edvos) ; but of his his
torical works we have only the titles of those
on Egypt, on Alexander the Great, and on
the glutton Apicius, In his work on Egypt
(Atyi/TTTtaKa), which consisted of five books,
and contained an account of every thing which
was remarkable in the country, he made
several statements opposed to the Jewish
scriptm-es, and attacks on the Jewish reli
gion. He also wrote a special work against
the Jews {uaTd 'lovSaiaiv $l0\os), in answer
to which, and to the attacks of other writers,
Josephus wrote his two books " On the Anti
quity of the Jews" (•n-spi rrjs t£v 'louSalwv
apxa"!T7)Tos), which are, from this circum
stance, also entitled " against Aplon" (fmra
'Air'iavos). Josephus's second book contains
all that we know of the work of Aplon,
Pliny mentions a work by Aplon, " De Me-
talllca Disciplina,"

APION.
Only a few fragments of Apion's writings
are preserved, of which the largest are the
stories of Androclus and the Lion, and of the
Dolphin near Dicaearchia, in Aulus GelUus.
It is not known whether this Aplon is the
same whom Suidais mentions as a writer of
epigrams. (Suidas, sub voc. 'Airiaj;/, 'Ayvprris, airiXdSes,
fffpdpayoy, TpiyXT]va ; Gellius, v. 14., vi 8. ;
Seneca, Epist 88. § 34. ; Pliny, Hist Nat
Prolog., xxx. 6., xxxi. 18., xxxii. 9., xxxv.,
Elenchus, 36. § 14., xxxvi, 17., xxxvii.
19.; AtheuiEus, vii 294., xv, 680; Josephus,
On ihe Antiquity of the Jews, 11, ; Jewish An
tiquities, xviii. 10 ; Justin Martyr, Cohortatio
ad Gracos, 9. ; Clemens Alexandrinus,
Stromata, 1. 138. ; Eusebius, Praparatio
Evangelica, x, 10. ; Tatian, adversus Gracos,
44, 59. ; Volloisin, Prolegomena ad Apollo-
nium; De Burigny, sur Apion, in Memoires
de I'Academie d'Inscriptions, xxxy'iii. 171, ; K.
Lehrs, Quastiones Epica, i. ; Vossius, de
Historicis Gracis, p. 234, edit. Westermann ;
Fabricius, Biblioteca Graca, ed. Harles.) P, S,
APITZ, [Alerecht of Thuringen.]
APOCA'UCUS, or APOCHA'UCUS,
ALE'XIS, {'ATToKavKos, according to Nice-
phorus Gregoras, and 'AirSxavKos according
to Cantacuzenus) was grand duke of the
Byzantine armies during the reign of John
Palaeologus, and the regency of John Canta
cuzenus. tlohn Cantacuzenus, whose history
is the chief source for the life of Apocaucus,
was once the friend, and afterwards the rival
and mortal enemy of Apocaucus, Nicephorus
Gregoras, the other source, however un
favourable his opinion of Apocaucus may be,
judges with moderation, and does not show
that hostUe disposition to Apocaucus of which
there occur so many instances in Cantacuze
nus, Nicephorus Gregoras is equally mo
derate with regard to Cantacuzenus, though
he hated him for personal and reUgious mo
tives. Alexis Apocaucus was born towards the
close of the fourteenth century, but neither
the year nor the place of his birth is known.
According to Cantacuzenus (1. 4.) he was of
a good famUy ; but the same author also tells
us that he was of low origin (1. 23,), and, in
another passage (111, 18,), that he had been
a slave of Andronicus Asanes, the son-
in-law of Cantacuzenus. Nicephorus Gre
goras (xii. 9.) also says that he was of low
origin, and that he had been brought up in
poverty. However this be, he became early
connected with John Cantacuzenus, and he
took an active part with him in the conspira
cies of Andronicus III,, the younger, against
his grandfather, the emperor Andronicus II.,
the elder. Andronicus III. having ascended
the throne in 1328, rewarded the aimbitlons
zeal of Apocaucus by conferring upon him
several high dignities, civU and military. He
became high chamberlain, paymaster-general,
149

APOCAUCUS.
and sometimes also he was invested with a
command both in the army and navy. But
he obtained no gi-eat success as a commander,
and both Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gre
goras reproach him with timidity. On the
accession of John Pateologus, the son of
Andronicus III., the younger, in 1341, John
Cantacuzenus, who was regent by virtue of
the wiU ofthe late emperor, conferred upon his
friend Apocaucus the high dignity of grand
duke, or commander-in-chief of all the By
zantine forces ; and Andronicus Palaeologus,
the son-in-law of Apocaucus, was appointed
magnus stratopedarcha, or general and com
mander. The appointment of a timid man
to the highest military post seems at first to
be surprising, but it shows the ultimate views
of Cantacuzenus, who aspired to uncontrolled
power either as regent, or as emperor, and
who saw his army in the hands of an unwar-
like man with less fear than in those of a
bold and experienced general. Cantacuzenus
was nevertheless much deceived : he had
conferred great authority upon a "true Proteus
in intrigues," as Nicephorus Gregoras calls
Apocaucus, " a man who slept and spoke little,
who was always thinking and active, and
whose imagination was fertile in schemes
for turning to some profit the knowledge and
experience which he had acquired ; an am
bitious man, who was profoundly versed in
history, and who admired nothing more than
the manner in which Octavianus Caesar got
rid of his rival Antonius." Cantacuzenus
wais completely outdone by Apocaucus, and
hence that acrimony towards his former
friend which he shows through the whole
course of his History.
It has been already said that John Canta
cuzenus had been appointed regent, and
the guardian of John Palaeologus. Apocaucus
resolved to seize the government. With this
view he persuaded the dowager empress,
Anne of Savoy, to claim the guardianship as
her natural right ; and by showing a forged
letter of the late emperor to the patriarch of
Constantinople, John of Apri, he convinced
the old and ambitious priest that he had like
wise been designated as guardian. No sooner
had these two persons begun to act conform
ably to their secret views, than Apocaucus
advised Cantacuzenus to reign in his own
name, and Apocaucus suddenly made
common cause with the empress and the
patriarch. Cantacuzenus, who was absent
from Constantinople, was declared an enemy
of the state, his fortune was confiscated, and
his aged mother was thrown into prison.
Under these circumstances Cantacuzenus as
sumed the imperial title, but he considered
himself only as joint emperor [John Canta
cuzenus], and he respected the right and
title of his imperial pupil. Beaten on the
banks of the Melas, and pursued by the
forces of Apocaucus, he fled to Servia ; and
the usurper assumed the title of emperor.
L 3

APOCAUCUS.

APOCAUCUS.

The history of the ensuing civil war, during
which the two rivals had recourse to foreign
alliances with the Servians, the Bulgarians,
and the Turks, belongs to the reign of John
Cantacuzenus. The contest was doubtful.
The chief theatre of the war was Thessaly
and Macedonia. Apocaucus lost the town of
Thessalonica ; his armies were defeated ; two
of his sons went over to Cantacuzenus ; and
a third was kiUed by the inhabitants of Thes
saly. But his cause was not lost ; and he
hastened to Constantinople to prepare for a
new campaign in 1347. One day when the
usurper was occupied in inspecting a prison
where several partisans of his rival were con
fined, he imprudently ventured among them,
leaving his guard behind him : aU at once
the prisoners rushed upon him and murdered
him -before he could utter a cry. They cut
his head off, and showed the mutUated corpse
from the walls of the prison to the crowd
which had thronged round the tower to see
Apocaucus, At the sight of the head of their
master, the people, with Greek versatility,
caUed out the name of John Cantacuzenus,
and the contest was finished, (Cantacuze
nus, iii. SS. ; Nicephorus Gregoras, xiv, 10,)
But this long and bloody war prepared
the way for the capture of Constantinople
by the Turks, and the fall of the eastern
empire, Cantacuzenus says that God had deprived
Apocaucus of his reason, but this is ridi
culous, Nicephorus Gregoras says that he
was gifted with uncommon talents, and that
if he had employed them for the cause of
truth and justice, he would have been an
ornament of the Roman (Greek) nation. But
having turned to wickedness, he could only
be compared to Stratocles of Epldaurus, who
was a good performer on the flute, but not a
good man. Apocaucus was not only well
versed in history, but also thoroughly ac
quainted with medicine. In the royal library
at Paris there is a Byzantine MS. containing
the greater part of the works of Hippocrates,
and two pictures in one, representing Hippo
crates and Apocaucus. Hippocrates sits
on the right of Apocaucus, on a chair
called hemlcyclus, under a canopy, holding
a pen in his right hand and an open book
in his left. Apocaucus, clad in the dress
of a grand duke, sits on a square chair or
cathedra, under a canopy, and behind the
chair there stands a boy holding a book in
which Apocaucus seems to read. On the
wall under the canopy over the chair of
Apocaucus there is this inscription " Meyas
Aou| 6 'ATrrf/tooKos ; " and over Hippocrates,
also on the wall beneath the canopy, there is
this inscription " 'iTriroKpdT^s KtSos," amd in
the middle ofthe canopy there are some cha
racters somewhat resembling the arrow-
headed characters and which seem to have a
cabballstlcal meaning. These pictures are
accompanied with a long Greek dialogue in
150

Iambic verse between Hippocrates and Apo
caucus, who pay great compliments to one
another for their medical knowledge. This
dialogue and the lithographed copy of the
pictures are contained in the Bonn edition of
Nicephorus Gregoras.
The history of Apocaucus is not contained
in Lebeau's " Histoire du Bas Empire," which
finishes with the end of the reign of Andro
nicus III. The account of Gibbon is vague,
and even more rhetorical than usual. (Can
tacuzenus, especiaiUy lib. in. ; Nicephorus
Gregoras, vin. — xiv.) W. P.
APCEMANTES ('ATroi^uai'TTjs), an ancient
Greek physician, who appears to have been a
follower of Eraslstratus, but of whose life
nothing else is known. His date Is rather
uncertain, but as he is mentioned by Galen
in conjunction with Straton, who is supposed
to have lived in the third century before
Christ, he probably lived about the same time.
He is quoted by Galen as having brought
forward several ridiculous objections against
the practice of blood-letting, (Galen, De
Vena Sect adv. Erasistr. cap. 2. tom. xl.
p. 151. ed. Kiihn.) W. A. G.
APOLINA'BIUS {'ATToXo'dpwi), or APOL-
LINA'RIUS, CLAUDIUS, SAINT, whose
Latinised name is APOLLINA'RIS, was
bishop of HiERAPOLis in Phrygia, in the
second century of our aera. Various eccle
siastical writers speak of him in terms of
high commendation. Theodoret {Har. Fab-
lib. iU. c. 2. ) says that " he was a man worthy
of praise, and that he added profaine learning
to the knowledge of things divine." But
nothing is known of his life, and his name is
mentioned in ecclesiastical history, chiefly
because he wrote an Apology or defence of
Christianity, which he presented to the
emperor Marcus Antoninus, and which Jerom
{De Viris Illustribus, c. 26.) calls an " ex
ceUent book. " As the work has perished, it
is impossible to discover what was its par
ticular subject. The exact date of its com
position is nowhere stated, but Eusebius
{Histor- Eccles- Ub. iv. c. 26.) speaks of it
at the same time that he mentions the
Apology which MeUto, bishop of Sardis,
also presented to Marcus Antoninus. He
says that MeUto and ApoUnarius were Uving
at the same time, but not that they presented
their apologies together. The dates for
Mellto's Apology, according to various autho
rities, are A, D, 170, 175, 177, The passages in
Jerom {Chronicon) and in Photius {Bib
liotheca, Cod. xiv. p. 12.), from which it has
been conjectured that ApoUnarius was a
native of HierapoUs, may only mean that he
was bishop of that place. It is however
certain that he lived in the reign of Marcus
Antoninus. Eusebius in his Chronicle, at
the eleventh year of Marcus Antoninus, and
the one hundred and seventy-first of oiir
Lord, says, " then flourished ApoUnarius,
bishop of Illerapolis." That ApoUnarius

APOLINARIUS.
lived beyond this date is also certain. Ac
cording to Theodoret {Har- Fab- lib. 1, c.
21.) he wrote against those Encratites who
were called Severians, That heresy, ac
cording to the Chronicle of Eusebius, began
in 172. Eusebius in his Ecclesiastical His
tory (lib. iv. c. 27.) says that ApoUnarius
wrote against the heresy of Montanus, when
that heresy " was making its first appear
ance. " The heresy of Montanus began about
A. D, 171, Eusebius (lib. v. c. 5.) also
says, that ApoUnarius mentioned in his
writings the miraculous victory which
Marcus Antoninus obtained in the year 174.
He does not specify the work, but it may be
conjectured that he means the Apology,
The words of Serapion quoted by Eusebius,
(lib. V. c. 19.) " I have sent you the writ
ings of the most blessed Claudius ApoUna
rius, who was bishop of Hierapolls in Asia,"
show that ApoUnarius was dead in A. d. 211,
as Serapion himself died in that year, accord
ing to the Chronicle of Eusebius. It is said
that ApoUnarius assembled at HierapoUs a
council of twenty-six bishops, which excom
municated Montanus and his principal fol
lowers. (Labbeus, Concilia, tom. i. p. 599. ;
Synodicon Vetus, inserted in Fabricius,
Bibliotheca Grceca, tom. xii. p. 362. ed.
Harless.) Nothing remains of the writings of ApoU
narius except some fragments, and the ge
nuineness of these is questioned. Besides the
three works already mentioned, he wrote the
following ; — 1, " Five Books against the
Gentiles." 2. "Two Books of Truth." 3.
" 'Two against the Jews." Nicephorus (lib.
iv. c. 11.) is the only authority for this work,
as though it is mentioned in the text of the
printed editions of Eusebius (Valeslus, note,
lib. iv. e. 27.), it is left out in the principal
manuscripts of that passage. 4. A work on
"Piety." Photius (J3/6?iorfi«ca, Cod. xiv.) is
ths only author who mentions this work. 5.
There are two fragments preserved in the
preface to the Paschal, or as it is often called,
the Alexandrian Chronicle (p. 6, 7. ed. Du
Cange, Paris, 1668), which the author of that
chronicle professes to quote from a work of
ApoUnarius, which he calls " A Discourse on
Easter " {^v T(p ¦nepl too natrxo A6yc(>). The
single testimony of this ainonymous author,
who is conjectured to be a writer of the
seventh century, is not considered sufficient
by Lardner and TUlemont to prove that
ApoUnarius was the author of a discourse
upon Easter ; but Gallandius, who has printed
the fragments in his " BibUotheca Patrum "
(tom. i. p. 680.), shows that he was the author
of them. TUlemont and Lardner are mis
taken in the opinion that ApoUnarius wrote
" Letters " against the Montanist heresy ;
they have mistranslated the word ypdp-pa-ra,
which occurs in the passage of Eusebius
{Histor- Eccles-, lib. v, c, 19,), which means
" writings " (Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graca,tom.
151

APOLINARIUS.
vU. p, 160, note h h, ed. Harless). These are
the only works of ApoUnarius whieh are
mentioned ; but Eusebius says that he vm-ote
many. Photius commends his style, and
Jerom {Ep- 83- al.S4, ad Magnum), sa,ys that
he showed iu his works " the origin of the
several heresies, and from what sects of the
philosophers they had sprung." TUlemont
proves in note 2, p, 140,, that it is a mistake
to attribute to ApoUnarius the extract from
a discourse against the Montanists, which
Eusebius has given in his "Ecclesiastical
History" (lib, v, c, 16, 17.). Gleseler {Text-
Book of Ecclesiastical History, vol. 1. p. 95.
English translation) says that fragments from
ApoUnarius Claudius are printed in the Setpd
. ... els tV 'OKrdTevxof, published at Leip
zig, fol. 1772. Routh published the frag
ments of ApoUnarius in his " Reliquiae sacrae,"
vol. i. p. 147, Oxford, 1814, Svo. (Fabricius,
Bibliotheca Graca, tom. vii. p. 160. ed. Har
less ; TiUemont, Memoires pour servir a
VHistoire Ecclesiastique, &c., tom. ii. part 3.
pp. 89— 92. 139—141.268—270.; Lardner,
The Credibility ofthe Gospel History, part. 2.
ch. 28. § 11.) C. J. S.
APOLINA'RIUS {'ATToXo'dptos) or
APOLLINA'RIUS, whose Latinised name is
APOLLINA'RIS, presbyter of Laodicea In
Syria, wais born at Alexandria in Egypt.
From Alexandria he went to Berytus,
where he taught grammar, and afterwards to
Laodicea, where he married, and continued
to teach grammar. He was made presbyter,
and his son, who was also called ApoUnarius,
a reader. The son became at length bishop
of Laodicea, The history of the son in his
earlier years is mixed up with that of the
father. The son is generally considered the
author of the ApolUnarlst heresy, but Socrates
attributes the heresy to the father as well as
to the son. The various accounts of the
origin of this heresy are the following. In
Laodicea there was a heathen sophist named
Epiphanius, with whom the two ApoUnarii
were very intimate. The younger ApoU
narius studied under him for some time.
Theodotus, bishop of Laodicea, commanded
them to break off their connexion with
Epiphanius, but the ApoUnarii would not
obey their bishop. One day Epiphanius re
cited aloud a hymn which he had written in
honour of the heathen god Bacchus, and ac
cording to custom, before he began, he bade
all who were not Initiated in the mysteries of
the god to retire ; but neither the ApoUnarii
nor the other Christians who were present
went away. When Theodotus heard of this
he pardoned the others who were laymen,
but he pubUcly reprimanded the ApoUnarU
and separated them from the Church. They
did penance for their fault, and were restored
to communion with the Church. But they
continued to associate with Epiphanius ; and
George who succeeded Theodotus, about the
year 335, as bishop of Laodicea, excommuni-
L 4

APOLINARIUS.
cated them both. The resentment, says Socra
tes, which the younger ApoUnarius felt at this
disgrace, and the confidence which he placed
iu his eloquence, led him to invent the heresy
to which he gave his name. Such is the
story of Socrates {Histor. Eccles- lib. 11. c.
46.). But from Sozomen {Histor. Eccles- lib.
vi. 0. 25.) it appears that this was not the
reason which led George to excommunicate
them. George, the bishop, was a semi- Arian.
Athanasius, the great opponent of the Arians,
came to Laodicea in the year 349, and seeing
the great abilities of the younger ApoUnarius,
he conceived a strong regard for him, and
they associated together. George pretended
that ApoUnarius had violated the canons in
holding communication with Athanasius, and
he excommunicated him. George at the
same time alleged, as a further justification
of the act, the event which had occurred in
the life-time of Theodotus. Sozomen is here
speaking only of the son.
It is impossible to decide what works
were written by the elder ApoUnarius, and it
is probable that he is the author of some of
the writings which are generally attributed
to the son. The emperor Julian published
an edict (a. d. 362), forbidding the Christians
to read or teach the Greek authors. Then,
says Socrates ( Histor- Eccles- lib. 111. c. 16.),
the two ApoUnarii were very useful to the
Christians ; the elder wrote a grammar in a
Christian form, and put the books of Moses
into heroic verse, aud all the other books of
the Old Testament into various kinds of
metre, used by the Greek poets. The younger,
who was an excellent writer, put the Gospels
and the apostolical doctrines into dialogues
after the manner of Plato. Sozomen ( Histor -
Eccles- lib, v. c. 18) says that "ApoUnarius
of Syria" wrote on this occasion the Jewish
Antiquities in verse, to the reign of Saul, in
four-and-twenty books, giving to each book
the name of a Greek letter, as Homer had
done. He also wrote comedies in imitation
of Menander, tragedies in imitation of Euri
pides, and lyric poems after the manner of
Pindar, taking aU his subjects from Scripture,
Sozomen seems here to be speaking of the
son. Among the poems of Gregory of Nazi-
anzus is a tragedy, entitled Xplo-Tos n-ao-xw^,
( " Christ suffering," ) which some have sup
posed to have been composed by one of the
ApoUnarii on this occasion, but it Is probable
that this tragedy was not written by Gregory
or by either of the ApoUnarii. (Fabricius,
Bibliotheca Graca, tom-y'n\- p. 587. ed. Harless ;
TiUemont, Mimoires pour servir d VHistoire
Ecclesiastique, §-c. tom. vii. part 3. p. 1067 —
1075, ed. of Brussels ; Lardner, IVie Credi
bility of the Gospel History, part 11. e. 95.)
C J S
APOLINA'RIUS('A7roAwtipioj,)orAP6L-
LINA'RIUS.whose Latinised name is APOL
LINA'RIS, bishop of Laodicea in Syria,
•was the son of the Presbyter, ApoUnarius
152

APOLINARIUS,
the younger taught rhetoric at Laodicea
while Theodotus was bishop of that city,
consequently before a.d. 335. It has been
questioned whether he was ever a bishop.
Socrates, Sozomen, 'Theodoret, and some
others merely call him ApoUnarius of Laodi
cea, but the testimony of Jerom {De Viris
Illustribus, c. 104., and also in his Chronicon,
p. 186.), and of Rufinus {Eccles- Hist lib. 11.
c. 20.), is sufficient to prove that he was
bishop of Laodicea in Syria. He was bishop
in the year 362, at the latest, if he is " ApoU
narius the bishop" who sent deputies to the
council of Alexandria, as the council was
held in that year. He died in the reign of
Theodosius the Great ; he was aUve in 381,
and died probably soon after this date, cer
tainly before 392. Epiphanius in 376 or 377
calls him " an old man," and " a venerable
old man," and Suidas says that he " lived in
the time of Constantius, and JuUan the Apos
tate, to the reign of Theodosius the Great,
being contemporary with BasU and Gregory."
ApoUnarius wais >• man of great abilities
and learning. He was eloquent, subtle, well
versed in philosophy and the knowledge of
the Greeks, and wrote with great faclUty on
all subjects, so that as St. BasU of Caesarea
says in a letter written in 377, he had
fiUed the whole world with his books. He
also knew Hebrew. In the earlier part of
his life he did good service to Christianity
by his various works in explanation or
defence of the Scriptures, and he was
highly valued by aU the defenders of the
orthodox faith, especiaUy by Athanaisius, St.
Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Serapion.
It is difficult to fix the time when ApoUnarius
began to propagate his heretical opinions.
It seems that he was suspected as early as
373, but he was not openly charged with
heresy till 377, when Basil, who in 376
{Epis- 79.), doubted whether he was gnUty of
the errors imputed to him, wrote strongly
and openly against him. In 377 Epiphanius
calls the Dimoerit^e heretics, who he says
were ApolUnarists. Athanasius, who in 369
wrote several pieces agaiinst his errors, does
not mention ApoUnarius by name. Although
the error of ApoUnarius touching the incar
nation was condemned in 362 by the council
of Alexandria, and by another councU held at
Rome, apparently in 375 (Holstenius, Col
lectio Romana, t. 1. p, 181. &c.), yet he was
condemned by name for the first time in the
year 378, by a council held at Rome. The
sentence was confirmed by a council at Alex
andria in the same year, and by the OBCumenlcal
council of Constamtinople in 381. This last is
the year in which Theodoret says that ApoU
narius declared himself openly the head of his
party, " having till then endeavom-ed to hide
his impiety." By a law dated the 3d of
September, 383, the ApolUnarists and other
heretics were forbidden to hold any assembly
within or without a town, or to appoint a

APOLINARIUS,
bishop (Baronius, 383, § 36,), On the 21st
of January of 384, Theodosius ordered that
all the bishops and ecclesiastics of their sect
should be banished from Constantinople, as
well as the Arians, Afterwards they obtained
permission to hold assembUes, but another
law, (10th March, 388) naming the Apol
Unarists alone, forbids their holding any
assembly, having ecclesiastics and bishops,
and even remaining in the towns {Codex
Theodosianus, lib. xiii. p. 129., lib. xiv. p.
130, Lyon, 1665.). Sozomen says that Theo
dosius put in force this last article against
the leaders of the ApolUnarists, and thus
stopped the progress of the sect. After the
year 416 they were reduced to a very small
number, and began to be confounded with
the Eutyohians. The emperor Marcian in
455 declared that the Eutychians were Apol
Unarists, and subjected the Eutychians to all
the edicts which had been passed against
the others (Labbeus, Concilia, tom. iv, p,
SSS, 887.).
'What opinions were held by ApoUnarius
is now a matter of dispute. It seems to be
certain, that ApoUnarius denied the perfect
humanity of Christ, He allowed that Christ
had taken flesh and the sensitive soul {'pvx'il),
but he denied that he had the rational soul of
man {vovs) ; the word or Divinity supplied its
place. " He said that God the 'Word became
flesh by taking a body and soul (i|'ux'!)' not
a rational but an irrationad soul, which some
call sensitive and animal " (Theodoret in
his Heretical Fables, lib. iv, c. 8.), "for the
mind (i/oDs) was superfluous, God the Word
being present," (lib, v, c. 11.) ApoUnarius
himself allows this in a letter preserved by
Leontius of Byzantium {Adversus Fraudes
Apollinaristarum, in the Bibliotheca Patrum,
Lyon, tom. ix. p, 712.). " We confess, not
that the Word of God, which was in the pro
phets, came to a holy man, but that the Word
itself was made flesh, assuming not a human
and mutable mind (mens), which is led cap
tive by base thoughts, but a divine mind, im
mutable and heavenly," He seems to have
derived this error from the writings of the
New Platonists. Plotinus, for instance, was
of opinion that man was made up of three
things, a. body, the vegetative faculty, and
the rational ; and that these three things were
different. The opinion that our Lord had uo
rational soul was also entertained by the dis
ciples of ApoUnarius, Vitalis, Jobius, and
Valentinus, who were aU bishops. They ar
gued that two perfect things cannot make
one thing ; Christ could not have assumed
the sinful and condemned soul, else he would
be a sinner ; they could not recognise in
Christ two natures, opposed the one to the
other, and separated (dTrtipTTj/ievcis) without
any union or dependance on each other. To
the CathoUcs they said, " If Christ put on
the perfect man, you are man-worshippers ; "
but Gregory of Nazianzus answered, " If
"l53

APOLINARIUS.
I am a man-worshipper, you are flesh-
worshippers " (Gregor. Naz. Carmin- 146.
p. 247. c; Orat 51. p. 742. c. Compare
Orat 52. p. 748. b. c). Rufin says that
ApoUnarius first began by asserting that
Christ had taken only the body, but that he
afterwards aUowed that Christ had also taken
the animal soul. This account Is supported
by Marius Mercator, by Augustin, and ap
parently by Epiphanius. Augustin generally
divides the followers of ApoUnarius into three
classes ; those who allow no soul at all to
Christ, those who take from him only the
reasonable soul, and those who say that his
flesh was not taken from a woman, but was a
part of the divinity changed into flesh, (Au
gustin, i>eZ)onoPer5et'eran<effi, cxxlv.) Other
heretical tenets are attributed to ApoUnarius
by contemporary writers, but there are some
fragments of his works in which he denies
them. These tenets are : 1. That the body
of Christ wais of the same substance or
homoiisian with the divinity. This is con
demned as " great madness " by ApoUnarius
in a passage preserved by Leontius {Biblio
theca Patrum, t- iv. p. 2. p, 1031, c), and by
his disciple 'Valentinus {ib. p, 1035. b.), 2,
That his deity suffered. Theodoret {Dia
logus, iil.) reckons ApoUnarius among those
who held that the Deity was incapable
of suffering. 3, That the body of Christ
came down from heaven ; hut Apolinarius
denies this. 4. That the divine and human
nature were confounded in Christ. Apolina
rius denies this (Theodoret, Dialogus, ii.).
Some or all of these opinions are attri
buted to ApoUnarius himself by Gregory
of Nazianzus in his letter to Nectarius of
Constantinople, written about the year 385,
and Gregory quotes as a voucher a work of
ApoUnarius {Ad Nectarium, Orat 46, p,
722,), as also does Gregory of Nyssa, who
attacks them in his long work against ApoU
narius, published by Zaccagni in his " Mo
numenta Vetera," Rome, 1698, p, 123 — 287,
They are mentioned by Athanasius in his
treatise against the ApoUinarists, written in
372 (t, i, p. 921—925), and in his letter to
Epictetus, bishop of Corinth, (t, 1, p, 901, &c.)
written about the year 371, and by Epipha
nius In his article upon the ApolUnarists,
written in 377, It has been argued that
these opinions were only held by various
bodies of his followers, but Apolinarius was
living at the time that these works were
written ; and Theodoret says that Apolina
rius used very different language in various
works, and that his different followers ap
pealed to his writings. Enough of the works
of ApoUnarius do not remain to enable any
positive opinion to be passed, whether these
tenets were really held by him, or whether
they are consequences from his doctrines,
which he did not own. It is clear, however
that his disciples disagreed in their inter
pretation of their master's writings, Pole-

APOLINARIUS.

APOLINARIUS.

mlus or Polemo was the head of one party
among them, Valentinus and Timotheus of
another. Both Leontius of Byzantium, who was no
friend to Apolinarius, and Philostorgius, who
was an Arian, allow that he beUeved in a
consubstantial Trinity, and this authority is
sufficient to decide this point. However, Theo
doret says that in some writings he spoke
of different degrees in the Trinity, saying
that the Spirit is great, the Son greater, and
the Father greatest of all. Apolinarius held
other opinions, which were not however con
sidered heretical, that souls are propagated
from souls (Jerom, Epist. 78. al, 82, tom,
iv, p, 642,), and that good men would be
raised up again to live a thousand years in
Judaea, when the law of Moses would be re
established, with the rites of circumcision
and sacrifices at the temple (Basil, Epist.
263, al. 74, ; Jerom, in Joel- c, iii, t, 3, p. 2.
p. 1364, and elsewhere). Of the numerous
works of Apolinarius only one work has
come down entire. 1, A Greek Paraphrase
of the Psalms in hexameter verse, which is
attributed by some to the elder Apolinarius,
and it cannot be decided which of them is
the author. It is entitled " Psalmorum
Davldlcorum Metaphrasis," and was first
published by Adrian Turnebus from two
manuscripts in the royal Ubrary of Paris,
Svo. Paris, 1552. It has been reprinted
with a Latin version in the " Bibliotheca
Patrum" of Morell, Paris, 1644, tom, xiv,
p. 162 — 298, and in the " Bibliotheca Patrum "
of Gallandius, tom, v. p. 359, Venice, 1769,
and elsewhere. 2, " He published innu
merable volumes upon the Holy Scriptures,"
(Jerom, De Viris Illus. c, 104.), Some of
these were commentaries, and we can trace
out from ancient writers, particularly from
Jerom, that he wrote commentaries upon
most parts of Scripture, Fragments of his
commentary upon St, Luke were published
by Angelo Mai in his " Classici Auctores,"
tom. X. p. 495, 4to, Rome, 1827, and also in
his " Scriptorum Veterum Nova Collectio e
Vaticanis Codicibus edita," tom, i. pars 1,
p, 179 — 1S9, Rome, 1825, 4to, A fragment
of his commentary upon Daniel is quoted by
Jerom {inDan-ix- t, 111, p, 1114.). The com
mentaries of Apolinarius upon Scripture were
much too concise and left many difficulties
unexplained, 3, Other fragments are ex
tant in the " Acta Concilii Lateranensls "
{Concilia, tom, vi. ed. Labbe, p. 314.) and
elsewhere ; but the author who has pre
served most fragments from his works is
Leontius of Byzantium in the treatise already
quoted. 4. 'The Eutychians attributed se
veral letters and treatises of ApoUnarius
to Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius, and
Pope Julius. A letter written to Dionysius,
priest of Alexandria, by Apolinarius, and an
other to Prosdocius by Apolinarius or his dis
ciple 'Timotheus, were attributed to Julius,
154

These letters may be seen in Constant, " Epis
tolae Romanorum Pontificum, &c. Appen
dix," fol. Paris, 1721. 5. " Thirty Books
against Porphyry," which says Jerom {De
Viris Illustribus, c- 104.) "are esteemed the
most valuable of all his works," This work
Is lost, but a passage from it is quoted
by Jerom {in Daniel, ix, p, 594,), 6,
" Hymns and short Psalms" (Sozomen,
Histor. Eccles. lib. vi c. 25.) 7. A work
" On Behalf of Truth" (Sozomen, Histor.
Eccles. Ub. V, c. 18,). It is not clear whether
this is the same as the work against Porphyry,
or different from it. Apolinarius -wrote
against various heresies, 8, " Against the
Manichees " (Epiphanius, Har. 66. n. 21.),
9. " Against ISunomius " (Philostorgius, vlli,
12,), 10. "Against the Arians," and 11,
" Origen and others " (Theophilus, Lib.
Pasch. 1. ap, Hieronyn. t. 4, p. 2, p, 694.),
Some account of his other works is given
in the foUowing authorities. (Lardner,
Credibility of the Gospel History, parCii,
ch, 95. ; TiUemont, Mimoires pour servir
d VHistoire Ecclisiastique, ^c. tom. vii,
part 3. p, 1055—1118, 1445 — 1456. ed,
Brussels ; Basnage, Historia Haresis Apol-
linaris, reprinted by Volgt in his Bib
liotheca Haresiologica, tom, i. fascic, 1, p.
1 — 96, ; Basnage, Thesaurus Monumentorum
Ecclesiasticorum, 8fC- vol. 1. p. 226. ; C. G. F.
Walchlus, Historia Hares, tom. iii p. 120. ;
Fabricius, BibUotheca Graca, tom. viU, p.
584, ed, Harless.) C. J. S.
APOLLAS OF CYRENE, [Apellas of
Cyrene,] APOLLINAIRE, SAINT, whose Latmised
name is APOLLINA'RIS, was bishop of
Valence, a town on the Rhone, He was pre
sent at the councU held on the 15th of
September, 517, at Espaonne, an obscure
place, which was probably in the diocese of
Vienne, and also at the third councU of Lyon,
held soon afterwards. He was bishop for
more than thirty-four years. Many miracles
are said to have been wrought at his tomb.
His life, by an anonymous -writer, was pub
lished by Labbe, in his " Nova Bibliotheca
Manuscriptorum," vol. i p. 689 — 692, and
reprinted by Martene in his "Veterum
Scriptorum et Monumentorum amplissima
CoUectio," vol. vi. p. 779 — 783. This life
is of little importance, but it contains an ac
count of the principal events of the third
council of Lyon, {Histoire Literaire de la
France, tom. Ui, p, 91. 143.) C. J. S.
APOLLINA'RIS, AURE'LIUS, a Latin
poet of the third century, who wrote a poem in
Iambic verse on the life of the Emperor Carus,
which is now lost, Carus died in the year
283, Numerian wrote a much better poem
on the same subject. (Vopiscus, Numerianus,
c. 11.; Histoire Litirairede la France, tom. i
P- 41-''-) C. J. S.
APOLLIN.VRIS, CLAUDIUS, SAINT.
[Apolinarius, Claudius, Saint.]

APOLLINARIS.
APOLLINA'RIS OF HIERA'POLIS.
[Apolinarius of Hierapolis.]
APOLLINA'RIS OF LAODICE'A.
[Apolinarius of Laodicea.]
A P O L L I N A' R I S, SAINT. [ Apolli-
NAiRE, Saint.]
APOLLINA'RIS SIDO'NIUS, CAIUS
SOLLIUS, SAINT. Some manuscripts add
the name of MODESTUS, which they place
before ApoUinaris. He was bom at Lyon on
the 5th of November, A. D. 430, but his family
seems to have been originally of Auvergne,
and was one of the most distinguished in
Gaul. His grandfatK-jr, ApoUinarls, wais the
first ofthe family who embraced Christianity;
and he was praefect of the Gauls in the reign
of the tyrant Constantine. His father was
tribune and secretary of state under the em
peror Honorius, and praefect of the Gauls
under Valentinian III. His mother, whose
name is unknown, was nearly related to the
mother of an Avitus, who is supposed to be
the emperor of that name. ApoUinaris re
ceived aii education suitable to his birth. He
was taught poetry by the poet Hoenius ( Car
men 9.), phUosophy by Eusebius {Epist iv.
1.), from whom perhaps he also learned arith
metic, astrology, and music, which ApoUina
rls says are essential parts of education {Car
men 14.). He acquired enough of Greek to
translate it into Latin. But poetry was the
favourite subject of ApoUinaris. He was also
ambitious, and he thought of rising to posts
of honour. It is probable that he chose the
profession of the bar. But before he obtained
any office he married Papianilla, daughter of
that Avitus who was afterwards emperor.
She brought him as a dowry the domain of
Avltac in Auvergne, which ApoUinaris has
described in one of his letters {Epist ii. 2.).
He was not twenty when he married, and he
had at least four children.
His father-in-law, Avitus, was declared
Augustus on the 10th of July, 455, and Apol-
llnaris followed him to Rome, where he pro
nounced his panegyric in verse in the presence
of the Roman senate and people on the first
day of the next year, on which Avitus com
menced his consulship. The only reward
which he received for this poem, which he
wrote at the age of twenty-five, was, as he
complains, the erection of a bronze statue,
which was placed near the statue of Trajan,
under the portico which led to the Greek and
Latin libraries. The reign of Avitus, by
whom ApoUinaris expected to be advanced,
was of short duration. Before the end of the
year 456 Avitus was dethroned by the in
trigues of Count Ricimer, and Majorian suc
ceeded him. A part of the Gauls took up
arms to avenge Avitus, and ApoUinaris went
to Lyon, which declared for Avitus, and re
ceived within its walls a body of Visigoths,
sent by the Visigoth king, Theodoric H. The
city wais besieged by the Romans and com
pelled to surrender ; it was deprived of its

APOLLINARIS.
privileges, laden with imposts, and obhged to
receive a garrison, whioh was guilty of the
greatest excesses. ApoUinaris entreated Ma
jorian for his Ufe, and his life was spared.
He also addressed to the emperor a suppli
cation in verse in behalf of his native city.
Majorian came to Lyon in 458, and the poet
pronounced a panegyric upon him in verse
{Carmen 5.). Majorian granted his petition
in behalf of Lyon ; he withdrew the garrison,
restored to the city Its privileges, and ex
empted it from the contributions which it
had promised to pay. This emperor raised
ApoUinaris, in 461, to the dignity of a count,
and gave him some other offices about his
court. In 461 Ricimer caused Majorian to
be assassinated, and placed the diadem on the
head of Severus. It appears that ApoUinaris
took this opportimity of quitting the Roman
court, and that he passed the whole reign of
Severus in his domaiin of Avltac, occupying
himself with literature, his domestic aff'airs,
and the society of his friends {Epist. ii 9.;
Carm. 23. v. 439. 490—501.).
Severus was poisoned by Ricimer, and An
themius becoming emperor in 467, ordered
ApoUinaris, who was then at Lyon, to come
to Rome. He arrived at Rome in time to
be present at the marriage of Ricimer with
the daughter of Anthemius, and pronounced
a panegyric in verse upon the emperor the
1st of January, 468 {Carmen, 2.). Anthemius
made him chief of the senate, praefect of the
city, and after some time patrician.
ApoUinaris had now obtained every ho
nour to which a private person could aspire,
except the consulship, when he gave up all,
and passed, as he says himself, from a se
cular life and the first offices of the court
to the humility and sanctity of a bishop
{Epist iil. 1.). Towards the close of the
year 471, he was elected bishop of Clermont,
though not yet admitted among the clergy.
As the diocese of Clermont at that time
comprehended all Auvergne, ApoUinaris is
called " Arvemorum Episcopus." With the
change iu his condition, ApoUinaris became
a new man. He renounced profane litera
ture, and even poetry ; he wrote verses
rarely, and such as he did write were ge
nerally in honour of the saints and martyrs
{Epist ix. 16.). He contented himself with
composing letters in prose, and he sought to
form a style more suitable to his profession,
less studied and more approaching to com
mon conversation than he had used before
{Epist- iv. 3.). He became a man of prayer,
of fasting, and charity. The greatest pre
lates of the church in those days, St. Lupus
of Troyes, St. Remiglus of Reims, St.
Patiens of Lyon, corresponded with him and
were his friends. Most of the letters which
he wrote after he became bishop were ad
dressed to men of power in behalf of the
temporal Interests of the people committed
to his charge. In 474, the city of Clermont

APOLLINARIS.

APOLLINARIS,

was besieged by Euric, king of the Visigoths,
It suffered greatly. 'Winter forced Euric to
raise the siege : but the city was distracted
by two factions ; one party wished to abandon
the town, another to stay and defend it,
ApoUinaris brought from Lyon the priest
Constantius, who, by his eloquence, restored
concord amidst the inhabitants. The country
through which the Visigoths had passed was
entirely devastated ; more than four thousand
Burgundians came to Clermont, destitute of
every thing. The bishop sold even his silver
plate secretly to supply the necessities of his
people. But Papianilla, when she heard of
this, bought back the plate, and retumed it
to her husband. In order to implore divine
mercy, ApoUinaris now established in his
diocese the ceremony of rogations, in imita
tion of St. Mamert, who had just instituted it
at Vienne in Dauphine {Epist- vii, 1 ,), But Ju
lius Nepos, the emperor of the West, bought
peace with Euric by the cession of Auvergne,
and the Visigoths became maisters of Cler
mont before the end of the reign of Nepos,
that is, before the 28th of August, 475,
ApoUinarls demanded of Euric, who was an
Arian, that the Catholics, who now passed
under his dominion, should be allowed to
elect their own bishops, Euric refused and
sent him prisoner to the castle of LlvIa not
far from Carcassone, where he remained for
a year. When he was restored to his diocese,
he endeavoured to assuage the suff'erings of
his people under the barbarian rule. No
thing is known of the last years of his life,
except that he experienced much trouble
from two priests who endeavoured to get pos
session of his bishopric, but did not succeed,
ApoUinaris died on a Saturday, which was
the 21st of August. This is the day on
which his memory is honoured by the church
of Clermont, which has placed him among
its saints. The church of Lyon celebrates
his festival on the same day. The year is
uncertain, but the most ancient monuments
and the epitaph on his tomb show that he
died during the reign of Zeno. It is probable
that he died in the year 488, which was the
fifty-eighth of his life and the eighteenth of
his episcopate. His body was interred first
in the church of St. Saturninus and after
wards transferred to that of St. Genes (Ba
silica Genesiana). The French house of
PoUgnac, which is exceedingly ancient,
reckons its descent from the brother of the
bishop, and believes that the name of Po
Ugnac was foi-med by degrees from that of
ApoUinarls. When the wife of ApoUinarls
died is unknown ; she was alive in the year
474. When her husband became a bishop,
" it cannot be doubted," say the Benedictines
of St. Maur, " that she became his sister ac
cording to the canons " {Histoire Literaire
de la France)- They bring forward no proof
ApoUinarls wrote several works which are
lost. Those which are e.-ctant he published
156

himself They are : — l, "Carmina XXIV,"
These poems appeared before the letters at
different periods, and before ApoUinaris be
came a bishop. Some other pieces of poetry,
epitaphs, and inscriptions are inserted among
his letters. The most remarkable of these
poems are the panegyrics upon the three
emperors, Avitus, Majorian, and Anthemius,
They are not printed in chronological order.
2, " Epistolae." There are nine books of
letters, and two others are inserted among the
verses. ApoUinaris published these books
separately and at different periods after he
became a bishop. The last book was pro
bably published in 483, as may be inferred
from the tweffth letter of the ninth book ; but
ApoUinaris in the publication of his letters
observed no order either of subject or chro
nology. The literary merit of his works is
not great. His style is tumid, obscure, aud
affected, too fuU of antithesis and points.
His metaphors and comparisons are too bold ;
many of his words are unusual, and some he
coined for himself. Yet there is considerable
eloquence, fire, and conciseness in his diction.
He excels in description. The real value of
his works is this, that they contain historical
facts which cannot be found elsewhere ; and
although ApoUinaris mentions the events of
his age very briefly, yet his writings throw
considerable Ught on the poUtical and Uterary
history of the fifth century. Gibbon and the
other historians who treat of that period refer
continually to him.
The editions of his works are numerous.
The earliest appeared without any mark to
fix the place and date of publication, with
this title, " Call SolU ApoUinaris Sidonii Ar-
vernorum Episcopi Opera," foUo, 151 paiges.
It is supposed to have been printed at Utrecht
about the year 1473, soon after the invention
of printing, (Nodier, Bibliotheque Sacree, p.
253. ; Laire, Index Librorum ab Inventa Typo-
graphia, tom. 1. p. 184.)
The first edition with date appeared at
Milan, fol. 1498, with a commentary by J.
Baptista Plus. The first good edition was
published with notes by Savaron, Svo. 1598,
Paris, who sent forth a second and improved
edition at Paris, 4to, 1609, Sirmond pub
lished a better edition, -n ith valuable notes,
Svo, Paris, 1614 ; it was reprinted under the
superintendence of Ph. Labbe, 4to. Paris,
1652. The text of Sirmond was adopted in
the " Bibliotheca Patrum" of Lyon, in 1677 ;
but the best copy of Sirmond's edition is the
one printed in the " Opera "\'aria " of Sirmond,
tom. 1. fol, Paris, 1696. Both the editions of
Savaron and Sirmond should be used. Sa
varon is more anxious to display his erudition
than explain his author ; Sirmond is content
with explaining him. The works of ApoUi
naris form a part of the " BibUotheca Pa
trum " of Gallandius, tom. x. p. 463, &c.
Venice, 1774. From the character of that
work this is probably an excellent edition.

APOLLINARIS.
There is no English translation ; but the
recent French translation, with the Latin
text on the opposite side, by Grogoire and
CoUombet, Svo. Paris, 1836, three vols., con
tains a good life and introduction to the works
of ApoUinaris. {Histoire Literaire de la
France, tom. ii. p. 550 — 573. ; Grcgoire and
CoUombet, CEuvres de C- Sollius ApoUinaris
Sidonius, SfC-) C. J. S.
APOLLINA'RIS, SULPFTIUS CAIUS,
a celebrated grammarian, who is supposed to
have been born at Carthage, and who taught
at Rome during the reign of the Antonines iu
the second century of our aera. He is supposed
to be the author of those siunmaries in Iam
bic verse which are generally prefixed to
the comedies of Terence, headed with these
words, " C. Sulpitli ApoUinaris Periocha."
Crinitus, in a letter which is inserted among
the letters of Politian (Ub. xii. ep. 22., Paris,
1526, 4to.), says that in a very ancient manu
script this inscription, " C. Sulpici ApoUinaris
Periocha," was found prefixed to these sum
maries, and this manuscript is the authority
upon which they are attributed to ApoUinaris.
lie wrote an epigram upon the order which
Virgil gave that the iEneid should be burned
after his death. The epigram is extant, and
may be found among the " Testimonia Vete
rum" prefixed to various editions of Virgil.
It consists of six verses, of which the last two
are the best :
" Infelix gemino cecidit prope Pergamos igne,
Et pajne est alio Troja cremata rogo."
One of the pupils of ApolUnaris was Helvius
Pertinax, who from a teacher of grammar
became emperor of Rome. Another was
Aulus Gellius, who in various parts of his
" Noctes Attlcae" expresses a high respect for
his master. He says that, when he was a
young man (adolescentulus) at Rome, he
attended the lectures of ApoUinaris more
frequently than those of any other gramma
rian (lib. vi. c. 6. and lib. xx. c. 6.) and that
ApoUinaris was the most learned man that he
ever knew, (lib. xviii. c. 4). In this last passage
Aulus Gellius gives a long anecdote of the
way in which ApoUinarls turned into ridicule
a vain-glorious pretender to knowledge " by
that kind of facetious irony which Socrates
used against the Sophists." In another pas
sage (lib. xiii. CIS.) he relates how ApoUina
ris ffhecked aforward young scholar, "as was
his custom when he rebuked, with exceeding
placidity and mildness." Nothing remains
of any works which ApoUinarls might have
written, except the epigram and the summa
ries of the comedies of Terence and a few
explanations of Latin words and phrases, which
Aulus Gellius has inserted in the parts of his
" Noctes Attlcae" already quoted, and also in
the following passages : lib. 11. c. 16., lib. iv.
c. 17., lib. xi c. 15., lib. xii. c 13., lib. xlii.
c. 16., lib. XV. e. 5., lib. xvi c 5., Ub. xix.
c. 13., lib. XX. c. 6. From Ub. xv, c, 5. it
157

APOLLINARIS.
appears that some letters of ApoUinaris were
extant in the tune of Gellius. In Ub. 11. c. 16.
GelUus quotes a passage in which ApolUnaris
corrects an explanation of a Latin word given
by another grammarian named CaeselUus Vln-
dex, who wrote a work entitled " Lectiones
anticjuac," which was celebrated at the time.
Gellius does not say whence he took the re
marks of ApoUinaris, (Bayle, Dictionnaire,
&c ; TiUemont, Histoire des Empireurs, tom,
ii p. 331., 4to. Paris, 1720.) C, J, S,
APOLLINA'RIUS {'A^oXXivdptos), a
writer of Greek epigrams, two of which are
inserted in the " Analecta Veterum Poetarum
Graecorum " of Brunck, ii. 283., and the " An-
thologia Graeca" of Jacobs, book xi. 399,
421, (Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graca, tom, viii,
p. 586, ed. Harless.) C. J, S.
APOLLINA'RIUS, CLAUDIUS, SAINT,
[Apolinarius, Claudius, Saint.]
APOLLINA'RIUS OF HIERATOLIS.
[Apolinarius of Hierapolis.]
APOLLINA'RIUS OF LAODICE'A,
[Apolinarius of Laodicea.]
APOLLO'CRATES, [Dionysius the
Younger.] APOLLODO'RO, FRANCESCO, called
II Porcia, an ItaUan paiinter of the Friuli,
who Uved at Padua about 1 600. He was an
excellent portrait painter, and among many
other portraits painted those of nearly all the
men of letters at Padua in his time, (Ridolfi,
Le Maraviglie del Arte, §-c. ; Lanzi, Storia
Pittorica, Sj-c.) R. N. W.
APOLLODO'RUS ("ATroAAiJSwpos), a Greek
jurist of the time of the emperor Theodosius
the Younger, from a. d. 408 to 450, and one
of the commission appointed by that emperor
to compile the Theodosian code. Respecting
his life nothing is known, except that he is
mentioned in several official capacities : thus
we know that in a. d, 429 he is called " comes "
and " maglster memoriae," and some years
after " comes sacri consistorii," It has been
supposed that he is the same person as the
Apollodorus to whom some of the letters of
Symmachus are addressed, who was proconsul
of Africa in the years A.D. 399 and 400, and
who is mentioned a few years before (a. d,
396) as " comes rei privatae " under the em
perors Arcadius and Honorius. But there Is
no evidence that is decisive on this point.
{Codex Theodosianus, i. tit. 1. s. 5. &c., xi.
tit. 36. s. 32., xvi. tit. 11. s. 1. ; the second
preface to the Corpus Juris Antejustinianei,
ed. Bonn ; Aurel. Symmachus, Epist vUl. 4.,
IX- 14. 48.) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS, a sculptor who was
remarkable for the great labour that he
bestowed upon his works, and for the severity
with which he judged them. He often des
troyed his finished statues from their faUing
to satisfy his fastidious taste. This conduct
procured for him the name of " insanus," or
the mad. SUanion, a brother artist, made a
bronze statue of him, in which the energy and

APOLLODORUS.

APOLLODORUS.

violence of his character were so strongly
expressed that Pliny says it was rather a
statue of Rage than of a man. From the
known date of SUanion, it is probable that
Apollodorus lived about the 114th Olympiad,
324 B. c. The name of Apollodorus Is
mentioned in the inscription on the pUnth of
the Venus de' Medici as the father of Cleo
menes, the maker of that statue ; but it is
uncertain who this ApoUodorus is. (Pliny,
Hist Nat xxxiv. 8.) R. W. jun.
APOLLODO'RUS ('AiroAAdSajpos), a
physician who is said by Pliny to have
written a treatise addressed to one of the
Ptolemies of Egypt giving him directions as
to what kinds of wine he ought to drink. In
this work, as the Italian wines were unknown
at the time, he particularly recommended
those of Naspercenae in Pontus, of Oreus in
Euboea, of a place called QSnea, of Leucas
in Acarnanla, of Ambracia in Epirus, and,
above all, of the Island of Peparethus in the
.SSgean Sea. Perhaps he may be one of the
two physicians mentioned by Pliny, of whom
one was a native of Citlum in Cyprus, and the
other of Tarentum in Apulia. Perhaps, too,
he may be the author of the work Uepl Q-npicov
or Q^nptaKhs A6yos, (" On Venomous Animals,")
which is mentioned by iElian In his " History
of Animals," Athenaeus, the Scholiast on
Nicander, aud PUny in the Index of Authors
quoted in his eleventh book ; and whioh
is sometimes attributed to ApoUodorus the
Grammarian of Athens. This is probably
the work quoted by Pliny in several places
of his Natural History, and by Galen in the
second book of his work on Antidotes.
Another physician of this name ( or possi
bly one of the two mentioned above) is said
by the Scholiast on Nicander to have written
a work Uepl BoTavav (" On Plants") ; and Athe
naeus quotes a treatise Uepl Mipav khI 'Xre^dvuv
(" On Ointments and Chaplets"), written by a
person of this name, which may perhaps be
the work quoted by Pliny in the Index to
his twelfth and thirteenth books, under the
title " De Odoribus." Of all these works a
few fragments remain, and it is only from
their subject-matter that they may be sup
posed to belong to one or both of the two
physicians mentioned by Pliny. (Fabricius,
Biblioth. Graca, vol, iv, p, 299, ed, Harles ;
Heyne, ApoUodorus, p, 1168, seq-; Schwelg-
haeuser. Notes and Index Auctorum to Athe-
naus; Harduin, Index Auctorum to Pliny-)
W. A. G.
APOLLODO'RUS ('AiroAAliSaipos), of
AcHARNiE in Attica, a son of the wealthy
banker Pasion, was born about E.c. 395, On
the death of his father, in E,c, 370, Apollo
dorus had attained the age of twenty-four,
and his mother, Archippe, who was an Athe
nian courtesan, then married Phormion, a
freedman of Pasion, who was also appointed
guardian of Pasicles, the younger son of
Pasion, The banking business as well as a
158

shield manufactory, which had been conducted
by Pasion, passed into the hands of Phormion
for a fixed term of years, and he had to pay
an annual rent, which was divided between
Apollodorus and Pasicles, After the expi
ration of this term, Apollodorus got the shield
manufactory, and Pasicles the banking busi
ness, and the capital left by their father was
likewise divided between them. Archippe
died in E.c. 360, and the two brothers now
came into possession of their mother's pro
perty. After ten years, in e.c. 350, Apol
lodorus, who was then archon eponymus at
Athens, brought an action against Phormion
for not having delivered up to himself and his
brother aU the property belonging to them.
The case was tried, and Demosthenes wrote
the defence for Phormion {vwep ^opfxlmvos),
which is still extant. In this trial Phormion
was supported by one Stephanus and some
other witnesses, who were immediately after
accused by Apollodorus of having given false
testimony. The two orations of Demosthenes
against Stephanus stUl extant (koto 'S.Te^dvov
^euSopapTvpiiot/) were -written by Demosthenes
on that occasion for ApoUodorus. Among
the numerous suits which ApoUodorus is said
to have had, and in most of which Demos
thenes wrote the speeches for him, there is
one against Nesera, which probably belongs
to the year e.c. 340. The speech which
he then deUvered is likewise extant among
the orations of Demosthenes (/caro Neaipas).
Further particulars are not known about
ApoUodorus, except that he twice performed
the liturgy of the trierarchy. (The Greek
argumenta to the orations of Demosthenes
for Phormion, against Stephanus and Neara;
Demosthenes, pro Phomi- p. 951., c. Polyclem,
p. 1208., c- Nicostratum, p. 1247. ; .Silschines,
de falsa Legat. 50.; Plutarch, Demosth. 15.;
Diodorus Siculus, xvi. 46. ; CUnton, Fasti
Hellenici, 11. 440., &c. second edit.) L. S.
APOLLO'DORUS CATroAAoSwpoi), of Ar-
TEMITA in Parthia, whence the ethnic adjec
tive 'AprefxiTas or 'ApTepiirrivSs is sometimes
added to his name to distinguish him from
the numerous other personages of the same
name. He belongs to the period between
Alexander the Great and Strabo, and wi-ote
a work on the history of the Parthians, of
which the fom-th book is quoted by Athe
naeus, In two passages Stralbo speaks of an
Apollodorus of Adramyttium {'ASpa/j.vr'njvSs),
and from these passages we must infer that
he is speaking of the author of the work on
the Parthians, It is therefore now generally
supposed that in those two passages the read
ing 'ApTe/xiTTiv6s must be substituted in the
place of 'ASpo/iuTTDi/ifj, Stephanus of Byzan
tium speaks of an Apollodorus as the author
of a work on Caria, which must have con
sisted of at least fourteen books, but it is un
certain if this is the Apollodorus of Artemita,
(Strabo, ii 118., xi. 509. 519., xv. 685., xi
516. 526. ; Athenaeus, xv, 682. ; Stephanus

APOLLODORUS.
Byzantius, sub voc, 'Aprep-iTa, 'ApK6vri<ros, and
Aayivia.) L, S,
APOLLODO'RUS {'AT!oXX6S^pos), of
Athens, one of the most celebrated of the
ancient Greek painters, was bom at Athens
about 440 B.C. He was the founder of a new
school of painting, or rather he rendered paint
ing complete as an imitative art, by adding to
or combining with the essential and generic
style of design whieh had prevaUed since
Polygnotus and Phidias, local colour and tone
{t^Bopdv KoX a,-n6xpo>atv ffKtas). Earlier painters
had distinguished themselves for a certain de
gree of effect of chiaroscuro, as Dionysius of
Colophon for instance, but ApoUodorus was
the first who appears to have attained that
perfect imitation of the numerous effects of
Ught and shade invariably seen in nature,
arising from light reflected reciprocally from
one contiguous object to another, which
always partakes in a slight degree of the
colour of the object from which it is re
flected. If we may depend upon the criti
cisms of ancient writers, the works of Apol
lodorus were not Inferior, in this respect, to
the works of the most distinguished masters
of modem times. His pictures riveted the
eye, not on account of their local colour or
tone only, but also for a powerful and pecu
liar effect of Ught and shade; on whieh
account he acquired the surname of " the
Shadower " {<rKiaypd<jios). Apollodorus wais
the first, says Pliny, who dtdy proclaimed the
pencUs' honours (the style or cestrum was
also an instrument used by the Greek
painters), for he was the first who painted
men and things as they really appeared (hic
primus species exprimere instituit). This
constituted the distinction of style between
his works and those of Polygnotus of Thasos :
the style of Polygnotus was representative
and generic ; that of Apollodorus was imita
tive and dramatic,
Pliny commences his sketch of the history
of Greek painting with Apollodorus, terming
him the first luminary of art ; but he men
tions only two of his paintings, — A Priest in
the act of Devotion, and Ajax wrecked,
both remarkable works, not only in chiaro
scuro, but in invention and in composition.
The Ajax wrecked was, in Pliny's time, at
Pergamum, ApoUodorus used to wear a Persian tiara;
and he was in the habit, says Plutarch, of
writing upon his pictures, — " It is easier to
find fault than to imitate " {pian'iiaeTai tis
IxaXhov ^ pi/iT^aeTat). Pliny states that Zeuxis
wrote the same line upon one of his works.
Zeuxis was the great rival of Apollodorus,
and probably did so in derision of Apollo
dorus, whom he seems to have surpassed,
and apparently in his own style, for Apollo
dorus complained that Zeuxis, upon whom
he wrote some verses, had stolen his art
from him.
A picture attributed to PamphUus, of the
159

APOLLODORUS.
HeracUdae, Alcmena, and the daughter of
Hercules, suppUcatlng the Athenians when
under fear of Eurystheus, is said by the
scholiast on the " Plutus" of Aristophanes
(v. 385.) to have been painted by ApoUo-
doras. (Pliny, Hist. Nat lib. xxxv, c. 11,
36. ; Plutarch, De Glor. Athen. 2. ; Hesy
chlus, sub voc. :iKiaypa(piay.) R, N, W.
APOLLODO'RUS {'A-:roXX65cpos), of
Athens, a celebrated grammarian and his
torian. He was a son of Asclepiades, and
was instructed in philosophy by Panaetius of
Rhodes, and Diogenes, the Babylonian, who
was sent, in E. c. 155, by the Athenians as
ambassador to Rome with Carneades' and
Critolaus, In grammar he was a pupil of the
famous Aristarchus, This is all that we
know about the life of one of the most active
and vadnable writers of antiquity. As to the
time at which he lived, we may form some
judgment from the persons by whom he was
instructed ; and iu addition to this we know
that Apollodorus carried one of his works,
the Chronica, down to b, c. 143, and that he
dedicated it to Attalus II, ( Philadelphus ),
king of Pergamus, who died in B, c. 138,
Apollodorus therefore must have survived
the year b, c, 143,
Among the numerous and useful works of
Apollodorus, only his Bibliotheca (Bi;8Aio-
flrf/cT?) has come down to us, and even this
is not complete, as the last portion of it is
wanting. It now consists of three books, a
division which does not appear in any ofthe
extant MSS,, and was made by the first editor,
Benedictus .SSgius of Spoleto, The work is
a brief manual of Greek mythology : it begins
with a short account of the ancient cosmogo
nies and theogonies, and then proceeds to the
heroic ages of Greece, The first book, from
the seventh chapter, is chiefly occupied with
the stories and legends connected with the
iEolic race. The second contains the stories
about the families of Inachus, Perseus, Hercu
les and the Heraclids ; and the third book
those of the family of Agenor, whioh lead the
author to speak of the legends of Crete and
Thebes, He then proceeds to the legendary
history of Arcadia, Laconia, and Attica,
Here the work breaks off in the history of
Theseus, although we know from Photius,
who had the complete work before him, that
it also embraced an account of the Trojan
stories, and of the return of the heroes from
Troy: consequently a considerable part of
the work is lost, Apollodorus relates his
stories in the plainest and briefest manner, so
that the work has all the appearance of a mere
chronicle of events. This has led many
modern critics to regard the Bibliotheca in
its present form as an abridgement of the
original work, or as a compilation from the
work of ApoUodorus on the gods (te/)! &eaf).
Various arguments have been brought for
ward to establish this opinion, but none of them
seem to be conclusive. The style, if we can

APOLLODORUS.

APOLLODORUS.

at all speak of style in a work of this kind, is
simple, and the author gives what he found
in the plainest language, which is in many
cases not free from great carelessness, and
without any attempt to explain or illustrate
the mythi. He took his accounts from the
best sources, especially the ancient poets,
such as Homer, Hesiod, Eumelus, Aslus,
Cercops, Pisander, Panyasis, Stesichorus,
Pindar, the tragic writers and others. It is
to us the best and most useful extant work
on Greek mythology. The MSS. are in a
bad condition, and the text was still more
corrupted by the arbitrary alterations of
Benedictus .^gius, who published the editio
princeps of the Bibliotheca at Rome, 1555,
Svo. The next edition of Commeliuus
(Heidelberg, 1599, Svo.) has a somewhat
improved text. After various other editions,
among which we need mention only those of
Tanaquil Faber (Paris, 1661, Svo. ), and
Thomas Gale in his collection of the " Scrlp
tores Historiae Poeticae" (Paris, 1675, Svo.),
there followed the first critical edition by
Ch. G. Heyne, in 4 vols., 12mo. ( Gottingen,
1782-83), which also contains a commentary
and the fragments ofthe lost works of Apollo
dorus. An improved edition of it in 2 vols.
Svo. appeared at Gottingen, 1802. The best
among the subsequent editions are those of
Clavier (Paris, 1805, 2 vols. Svo.) with a
learned introduction, a commentary, and a
French translation, of C. and Th. Muller in
their " Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum"
(Paris, 1841, Svo.), and of A. Westermann
in his " Mythographi " (Braunschweig, 1843,
Svo.). The foUowing is a list of the lost works of
Apollodorus, of which we possess only some
fragments which are collected in Heyne's
edition of the " Bibliotheca," and in Miiller's
" Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum."
1. A work on the Gods {irepl Qeiav). It
contained an account of the gods and some
of the heroes ; with descriptions of festivals
and religious rites, both In Greece and foreign
countries. It consisted of twenty-four books,
and was as much of a grammatical as of a
mythological nature, for the author gave alle
gorical interpretations of the mythi, which
were mostly based upon etymologies. The
numerous fragments, as well as the passages
of ancient writers, in which the work is men
tioned, have been collected by Heyne (iv.
1039—1072), and C, and Th, MiiUer (p, 428
—435,), 2, A versified Chronicle of the History of
Greece {Xpovtud or XpopiKii 'Zuyra^is), which
comprised the history from the fall of Troy
to B.C. 143. It was dedicated to Attalus II.
of Pergamus, and was written in t'ne so-called
comic metre, that is, in Iambic senarii. The
statement of Suidas that Apollodorus invented
the metre called traglambi cannot have any
reference to this or any other versified work
of Apollodorus, and is perhaps a mere mis-
160

take of Suidas, which he made in consequence
of confounding this Apollodorus with some
other writer of the same name. This chro
nicle of Apollodorus was a valuable work.
There is still a considerable number of frag
ments which are in the collections of Heyne
(p, 1077—1099) and MiiUer (p, 435—449,),
The number of books of which the Chronica
consisted is not quite certain ; the fourth is
mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium ; but
if we may refer to it a statement of SynceUus
(p, 349, ed, Dindorf ), it must have consisted
of at least eight books. The three works
which we have mentioned hitherto — that on
the Gods, the Bibliotheca, and the Chronica,
formed a complete history from the creation
of the world to the time of Apollodorus : the
first treated of the gods, the second of the
heroic, and the third of the historical age,
3, A work on the Homeric Catalogue of
the Ships that saUed against Troy {irepl NeoSi',
or -repl KaTuXiyov). It consisted of twelve
books, and gave an historical and geographi
cal account of the people and tribes which
took part in the war against Troy. It is
often referred to by Stephanus of Byzantium
and Strabo. Strabo occasionally censures
Apollodorus for doubting the statements of
Homer, or for treating them as fictitious.
The fragments are collected in Heyne (p.
1119—1126,) aud Muller (p, 453—459,),
4. A work on Universal Geography or
Chorography (Ptji Trepi'oSos, or -irepl Ti)s), in
the comic metre, or Iambic verse. It was
therefore a work of the same kind as those
which were subsequently written by Scym
nus of Chios, and Dionysius, the geographer,
whose versified geography is extant. It is
often referred to by Stephanus of Byzantium,
Strabo, and others ; and it consisted of at least
seven books. The fragments are in Heyne
(p. 1126—1138.), MuUer is of opmion that
this was not a sepai-ate work, but formed a
part of the Chronica,
5, A work on Sophron {Ttt irepl 'S,tl>c\>poms),
which was a commentary on the mimes of
this poet. It consisted of at least four books.
The fragments are collected in Heyne (p, 1 138
— 1142,) and Muller (p. 561., &c.).
6. A work on the comic poet Epicharmus
{irepl 'ETrixdppLov). It appears to have been a
commentary on the plays of Epicharmus, in
which Apollodorus explained the antique ex
pressions and words which occurred in them.
It consisted of ten books ; but only a very
few fragments are preserved, (Heyne, p.
1142—1144.; Muller, p. 462.)
7. A work on Etymology (^ErvixoXoyim, or
'ETvp.oXoyovp.eva,), consisting of at least two
books. Numerous statements from it are
preserved in the works of later grammarians.
It would seem that this work is sometimes
quoted by merely referring to a particidar
article such as uepl KpaTrjpos or nepl kuXIkoiv,
which some writers, and among the rest
Heyne and Muller, regard as separate works.

APOLLODORUS.
(Heyne, p. 1144—1163.; MiiUer, p. 462—
467.) 8. On the Courtezans of Athens (irep! ™y
'A6r)i'7)(ri 'ErmpSv), apparently in one book,
which is frequently referred to by Athenaeus.
(Heyne, p. 1163—66. ; Muller, p. 467. &c)
9. On Wild Animals (-n-epl @T\p'mv) is re
ferred to by Pliny, Athenaeus, jElian, Ni
cander, and others (Heyne, p. 1168., &c.).
It is, however, doubtful whether this work
belonged to Apollodorus of Athens, or to
some other writer of the same name.
10. A work called 'VpoSiKbs Sia,K6<rixos, which
treated probably on the manner in which the
war against Troy was conducted. But it is
not certain whether the work referred to
under this name did not form a part of that
on the Homeric Catalogue. The fragments
are coUected in Miiller, p. 461. &c. (Fa
bricius, Biblioth. Grac. iv. 287— 299. ;
Heyne's ^/)o/Zo(/oras, iv. 1035 — 1179.; Cla
vier's Introduction to his edition of Apollodo
rus ; C. and Th, Miiller, Fragmenta Histori
corum Gracorum, p. xxxviii — xlv,) L, S,
APOLLODO'RUS ('AiroAAdSa.pos), of Ca
rystus in Euboea, a Comic poet, who, ac
cording to Athenffius, was a contemporary of
Machon, and must therefore have Uved during
the latter half of the fourth century before
the Christian aera. He belonged to the mid
dle Attic comedy, as it is called, and was one
of the most distinguished poets of that school.
He seems to have Uved at Alexandria, for it
was there that his plays were performed.
They were held in very high esteem, and it
is now established that 'Terence took the sub
jects of his two comedies, the Hecyra and
Phormio, from two comedies of Apollodorus
of the same name. Apollodorus is said to
have written forty-seven comedies, of which
some fragments remain, and have been col
lected by Meineke. It cannot in all cases be
determined whether the fragments of comedies
attributed to Apollodorus belong to the Ca-
rystian or to others, for there were at least
two Comic poets of the name of ApoUodorus,
one the subject of this article, and a second a
native of Gela in Sicily, Suidas, who does
not notice the Carystian, mentions an Apol
lodorus of Athens as a Comic poet. But as
this Athenian is not mentioned any where
else, it is probable that he is the same person
as the Carystian, who may have had the
Athenian franchise, and for that reason have
been called an Athenian, (A. Meineke, His
toria Critica Comicorum Gracorum, p. 462.
&c., where all the references to ancient au
thorities are coUected.) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS {'A-n-oXXdSapos), tyrant
of Cassandria, a town in the peninsula
of Pallene, originally caUed Potidaea, which
Cassander peopled with the inhabitants of
other towns of the peninsula, in b. c. 316.
After having been in the hands of several
Jlacedonian chiefs for many years, the in
habitants were at last restored to freedom by
vol.. III.

APOLLODORUS.
Eurydice, the daughter of Lysunachus. One
of the citizens, named Apollodorus, now came
forward as the champion of popular liberty,
and pretended to be an implacable enemy of
the tyrannies which were then estabUshin"-
in many towns of Greece. With these and
similar pretences he induced his fellow-citi
zens to pass a decree by which the Athenian
demagogue Lachares who, after the capture
of Athens by Demetrius, in b. c. 296, had
wandered about for several years, was pre
vented from taking up his residence within
the territory of Cassandria. After thus se
curing the confidence of the people, he began
to carry out his plans : he formed a conspiracy
with some of his intimate friends for the pur
pose of making himself tyrant. He bound
his associates to secrecy and fidelity by
a barbarous ceremony: he sacrificed one of
his own friends, and he and his associates
ate his flesh and drank his blood mixed
with wine, as a symbol of fraternity. After
he had accompUshed his ambitious scheme,
about B. c. 279, he began to display his
cruel and avaricious character. No means
were spared for extorting money from the
wealthier citizens of Cassandria, and with the
money thus obtained he secured a party
among the populace. A SiciUan of the name
of CalUphon, who had become famUiar with
the ways of a tyrant at the courts of the
Sicilian tyrants, was his constant adviser.
Numbers of Gauls, who were then invading
the south of Europe, were engaged by Apollo
dorus, who, by his liberal pay, made them the
ready instruments of his crimes. He thus
acquired a power which was formidable even
to the king of Macedonia. About b. c. 276
Antigonus Gonatas directed his arms against
Apollodorus ; but his army having besieged
the town for ten months without any success,
Antigonus raised the siege and withdrew.
But he left behind him a pirate named
Ameinlas, who contrived to gain the confi
dence of Apollodorus, and then made him his
prisoner. ApoUodorus was put to death by the
command of Antigonus Gonatas, ( Diodorus
Siculus, Excerpt de Virtut. et Vit. lib. xxii.
562, 563. ; Polybius, vil. 7. ; Seneca, De Ira,
11. 5., De Benef. vii. 19. ; Polyaenus, 111. 7.,
iv. 6. 17., vi. 7.; iElian, Varia Historia, xiv.
41,, Historia Animal- v, 15. ; Plutarch, De
Sera Numinis vindict- 10, 11. ; Pausanias, iv.
5. § 1.) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS ('ATroAAdS^pos) of Cy
rene, a Greek grammarian, who is often re
ferred to by other Greek grammarians and
scholiasts as am authority for the meaning of
certain words. Natalis Comes indeed refers
to a work of his on the gods, but he evidently
confounds this Apollodorus with the cele
brated grammarian Apollodorus of Athens,
who wrote a work on the gods (nepi i&euv).
(Athenaeus, xi. 487.; SchoUast ad Euripid-
Orcst. 1485.; Suidas, under "Ai'Ti/cpus, ^w^oAd-
Xos, ^dviov, pSeXvaaw ; Elymologicum Mag-
M

APOLLODORUS.

APOLLODORUS.

num, under $<i>p-oX6xo' ; Natalis Comes, lii.
16—18., ix. 5.) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS ('ATroAAdScopos) of Cy
zicus, a general of whom nothing is known
beyond what is said by Plato in his " Ion,"
that he was one of the foreigners to whom the
Athenians had often entrusted the command
of their armies, and under whom they had
fought. The statement of Plato, which is
repeated by iElian, is remarkable only for
the comment made upon it by Athenaeus,
who mentions Apollodorus as an instance of
the malignity of Plato ; although the passage
of the " Ion," far from speaking of Apollo
dorus with any disrespect, seems to imply
that Athens had reason to be grateful to him.
(Plato, Ion, 541.; iElian, Varia Historia,
xlv. 5.; Athenaeus, xl. 506.)
There is another Apollodorus of Cyzicus
who lived at a much later time, and seems to
have written about the philosopher Demo-
critus. (Diogenes Laertius, ix. 38.) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS {' AToXx6Soipos) of Da
mascus, a celebrated ancient architect of
the second century A. d., and a native of Da
mascus. He was in favour with the emperor
Trajan, for whom he erected many great
works, and he had apparently the superintend
ence over all the architectural undertakings
of that emperor in Rome and in other parts
of the empire. He built, in a.d. 113, the
celebrated forum and column of Trajan at
Rome, of which the latter still remains, and
there are also some ruins of the forum. The
column was erected to Trajan by the senate
and the Roman people. This forum had a
brazen roof, which was supported upon co
lumns of single pieces of granite, and it was
considered the most splendid in Rome : it
has lately been partly excavated. Apol
lodorus built also for Trajan at Rome a
theatre, an odeum or music-hall, a library, a
college, the Basilica Ulpla, some baths and
aqueducts, and most probably superintended
the repairs of the Circus Maximus. But his
greatest work was the immense bridge, built
iu A. D. 105, over the Danube, in Bulgaria,
near the point where the Aluta (Alt) flows
into that river. Some of the stone piers
are stUl standing ; the rest of the bridge was
of wood : this is evident from the small
figure of it in basso-rillevo, on Trajan's
column at Rome. It was destroyed (the
wood-work only probably) by Hadrian, on
account of its affording the barbarians
too great facility for entering the Roman
dominions. This great work is described by
Dion Cassius (Ixviii. 13. and the note on
Relmar's edition), who, however, does not
mention the name of Apollodorus ; but it is
assigned to him by Procoplus {De .31dif.
.Justiniani, lib. iv.), who also intimates that
Apollodorus wrote a description of his bridge.
According to Dion Cassius the bridge stood
on twenty piers, 150 feet high above the
foundations, 60 wide, and 170 feet apart ; amd
162

of all the magnificent works of Trajan, says
Dion, it was the„most magnificent. There
was a castle at each end of it.
This celebrated architect fell a victim to
the envy of Hadrian, who himself dabbled
in architecture as well as other arts. Apol
lodorus was, according to one account, so
indiscreet as to speak in ridicule of the pro
portions of the temple of Rome and Venus,
which had been built according to the designs
of Hadrian : he said that if the goddesses
who were placed in it should be disposed to
stand up they would be in danger of breaking
their heads against the roofs ; or that if they
should wish to go out, they could not, which
so incensed the emperor that he banished the
architect, and had him put to death. An
other story is, that as Trajan was conversing
with ApoUodorus about some ofthe buildings,
Hadrian, who was present, made some re
marks, on which the architect said, " go and
paint pumpkins, for you know nothing about
these matters," an affront which Hadrian
never forgot, and avenged by the death of the
architect when he became emperor. ApoUo
dorus was one of the most distinguished archi
tects of antiquity. He is also the author of
a work entitled lIoAiop/ojTiKa, or " On Engines
for Sieges," which was written at the request
of Hadrian, and to which is prefixed a letter
to the emperor. This work is quoted by the
younger Hero in the preface to his work on
" Military Engines." It is printed in the Col
lection of Ancient Mathematicians of Theve-
not, Paris, 1693, fol. (Dion Cassius, Ixix,
4, ; Aelius Spartianus, Hadrian, c. 19. ; Fa
bricius, Biblioth- Grac. iv, 230, ; Hirt, Ges
chichte der Baukunst bei den Alten.) R, N. W.
APOLLODO'RUS {{'AToXX6da>pos), sur
named Ephillus, a Stoic phUosopher, who
is frequently mentioned by Diogenes Laertius
as the author of two works, one on physical
science (#u(nK7J) and the other on ethics
('HfliK))). The latter of these works is lost;
on the former Theon of Alexandria is said
to have written a commentary, and some
fragments of the work aire preserved in Sto
baeus. It is not improbable that this ApoUo
dorus is the SEime as the one mentioned by
TertulUan in conjunction with Chrysippus.
The academic philosopher Apollodorus men
tioned by Cicero, however, is a different per
son. (Diogenes Laertius, vii. 39. 41. 54. 64.
84. 102, 121. 125. 129, 135, 140,; Suidas,
under Qeon/ ; Stobaeus, Ecloga Physica, i
257. ed. Heeren; Cicero, De Natura Deorum,
1, 34.; TertulUan, De Anima, 15.) L, S,
APOLLODO'RUS (.'AiroAAdStopos), an
Epicure.in phUosopher, who was at the head
of the school of Epicurus till about E. c. 84,
when he was sueceeded by his pupil Zeno of
Sldon. ApoUodorus was nicknamed Kepo-
tyrannus {uriTroTvpamos), probably because he
exercised a kind of tyranny in the garden or
school of Epicurus. Diogenes Laertius as
cribes to him upwards of four hundred hooks

APOLLODORUS.
(/Si'SXict). The only work, however, of which
the title is known was one on the life of
Epicurus ('nept tou 'E-iriKovpov ^iov), of which
the first book is quoted. (Diogenes Laertius,
X. 2. 13. 25.) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS {'A-ivoXXdSapos), of
Gela in Sicily, a Comic poet who must have
lived between the years b. c. 340 and 290,
as he is called a contemporary of Menander.
Suidas and Eudocia have preserved the titles
of seven of his comedies, though Suidas in
another passage attributes one of these seven
comedies to Apollodorus of Cai-ystus. As
these two Comic poets are frequently men
tioned without any distinguishing epithet, they
have often been confounded both by ancient
and modern writers. There are a few frag
ments of the plays of Apollodorus of Gela,
which are contained in Meineke. (Meineke,
Historia Critica Comicorum Gracorum, p.
459. &c) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS, ('AiroAAdSwpos), a na
tive of the island of Lemnos, who lived
before the time of Aristotle, and is only
known as the author of a work on agricul
ture, now lost, but often referred to by ancient
writers. (Aristotle, Politics, i. 2 1 . ed. Gottling ;
Varro, De Re Rustica, i. 1. ; Pliny, Elenchus,
lib. viil. X. xiv. xv. xvii. xviii.) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS, {'ATroXx6Soipos), sur
named, according to Diogenes Laertius, Lo-
gisticus {XoyiffTiKds), was a mathematician or
at least wrote upon mathematical discoveries,
for he is the authority for the statement that
Pythagoras discovered the property of the
squares on the sides of a right-angled triangle.
He must be the Apollodorus whom Athenajus
calls an arithmetician (ctpifluTiTiKcSs), for Dioge
nes and Athenaeus quote the same statement
from him. Plutarch in speaking of the dis
covery of the Pythagorean theorem refers to
one A pollodotus, from whom he quotes a distich
on the subject. If Plutarch meant to refer
to Apollodorus Logisticus, the name of course
ought to be corrected, and we should then
know that the work of Apollodorus, what
ever it may have been,was inverse. (Diogenes
Laertius, 1. 25., vlii. 12. ; Athenaeus, x. 418. ;
Plutarch, Non posse vivi secundum Epicur.
p. 1094. ed. Frankfort.) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS ('AiroAAdSapos) of Per
gamus, a Greek rhetorician, a contemporary
of Strabo, by whom he is reckoned among the
most distinguished Pergamenians of his time.
He was born about b, c, 104, and settled at
Rome as a professor of rhetoric, Octavius
(afterwards Augustus) was one of his pupils,
and when, in b , c, 44, Octavius went to
ApoUonia, Apollodorus, who was then an old
man, accompanied his pupil and stayed some
time with him. After the murder of Julius
Cajsar both of them returned to Rome, Here
ApoUodorus appears to have passed the last
years of his life, enjoying the friendship
and esteem of his iUustrious pupil. He died
at the age of eighty-two, about b, c, 22,
163

APOLLODORUS,
Apollodorus was the founder of a new school
of rhetoric, which was caUed after him'ATroA-
XoStipeias alpeais and his followers 'AiroAAo-
Siupeioi, This school was vehemently attacked
by that which was founded by Theodorus of
Gadara {QeoStipeios a'lpeois). Apollodorus
himself wrote very little, and he diffused
his principles chiefly by oral instruction,
Strabo speaks of theoretical works (rs'xi'ai)
of Apollodorus on rhetoric, but Quinti
lian states that he wrote only one work,
which was dedicated to Matins (Ars edita
ad Matium,) and in which Apollodorus treated
on oratory only in reference to courts of
justice. Among his disciples C. Valgius and
Atticus are ccnsidered by Quintilian as those
who best explained the theory of Apollodorus.
An exposition of what this theory probably
-was, and its difference from that of Theodorus
of Gadara, is given in the little work of
Piderit cited below, (Strabo, xni. 625, ;
Suetonius, Augustus, 89.; Quintilian, iill,
§ 2,, 15, § 12., iii 1. § 1, 18,, iv. 1. § 50, ;
Tacitus, De claris Orat- 19.; Seneca, Contro-
versia, 1, 2,, 11, 9, ; Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Ma-
themat 11. 79. ; Lucian, Macrob- 23. ; C. W.
Piderit, De ApoUodoro Pergameno et Theodora
Gadarensi, Rhetoribus, Blarburg, 1842, 4to.) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS ('A;roAA(i5a;por), of
Phalerum in Attica, a disciple and friend
of Socrates, was sincerely attached to his
master, but he does not appear to have pos
sessed a strong intellect, and down to the
last moments of Socrates he appears to have
been completely ignorant of the great objects
for which Socrates had been struggling. He
was a person of an enthusiastic or eccentric
character {p.aviK6s), sanguine in his hopes
and easily dejected. He did not possess that
firmness which raises a man above the vicis
situdes of fortune. The character of A pollo-
dorus appears from various passages in Xe
nophon and Plato, but more especially in the
" Symposium " of Plato, where Apollodorus
is one of the interlocutors. .33lian relates,
that when Socrates was going to take the
poison, Apollodorus oftered him a suit of
new clothes that he might die respectably ;
but this anecdote seems to be an idle inven
tion. (Xenophon, Memorabilia, ili 11. § 17.;
Apologia Socrat § 28.; Plato, Phado, p. 117.
173. &o.; F. A. Wolf's Preface to his edi
tion of Plato's Symposium, p. 41.) L. S.
APOLLODO'RUS ("AiroAAdSoipos), of
Tarsus, a Tragic poet, of whom nothing is
known except that he was the author of six
tragedies, of which the titles are preserved in
Suidas and Eudocia (p. 61.). Another Apol
lodorus, who was likewise a native of Tarsus,
appears to have been a grammarian, and to
have written commentaries on some plays of
Euripides and Aristophanes. (Scholiast ad
Euripid- Medeam, 148. 169., ad Aristoph.
Ran. 323., ad Plutum, 535.) L, S.
APOLLO'NIDAS ('AirpAAMflSas), a Greek
11 2

APOLLONIDAS.

APOLLONIDAS.

writer of epigrams, of whom nothing is
known except what can be gathered from
the epigrams themselves which are extant in
fhe Greek Anthology, Their number is up
wards of thirty, and several of them bear in
ternal evidence that the author lived about
the time of Augustus and Tiberius, Most of
them are distinguished by a simplicity and
elegance of thought and expression worthy
of the best age of Greek literature, Apol-
lonldas is usually regarded as a native of
Smyrna, as one of his epigrams {Antholog.
Plqnudea, 232.) is headed ' A-noXXoiviZov 'Xpaip-
vaiov. But this ApoUonidas of Smyrna may
be a difi'erent person from the author of the
other epigrams. This circumstance led
Reiske to ascribe the epigrams bearing the
name of ApoUonidas to two different poets,
one of whom is placed by him in the time of
Augustus, and the other in that of Hadrian
(Jacobs, ad Antholog- Grac- xlii. 854.), If
the simple fact of an ApoUonidas being known
as a poet might be a sufficient ground for
conjecturing that he also wrote epigrams, we
niight perhaps attribute some of the epigrams
to the tragic poet of this name who is
mentioned by Clemens Alexandrinus and
Stobaeus, who have preserved some lines of
his. (Clemens Alexandr. Padagog, iii. 12, ;
Stobaeus, Florilegium, Ixvii, 3. 6,, Sermones,
76,) L, S,
APOLLO'NIDAS or APOLLO'NIDES
{'AiroXXomSas), of SiCYON, a prudent and pa
triotic statesman of the Achaaans. In e. c,
186, when the great congress of the Achaeans
was held at Megalopolis, there appeared
among other ambassadors some who were
sent by Eumenes II,, king of Pergamus,
Eumenes wished to renew the friendship
which had existed between his father and the
Achaeans, and still more to establish his in
fluence in Greece, With this intention he
made a singtdar proposal to the assembled
Achasans : he offered to give them one hun
dred and twenty talents, out of the interest
of which those Achaeans who attended at
their annual meetings were to receive a cer
tain sum for defraying the expenses of their
attendance. The friendship with the Achae
ans which he desired was willingly granted,
and the large sum of money which he offered
did not fail to draw forth eulogies on his
generous liberality. But ApoUonidas, who
was present at the congress, saw through the
king's schemes, and declared that although
the magnitude of the sum was worthy of the
Achaeans, yet the Intention with which it
was offered would bring disgrace and ruin
on them. He pointed out that it w:is con
trary to their laws for any one to accept
money from a king, and he showed how
they would disgrace themselves by accepting
from a foreign king pay for the services
which as citizens they owed to their country.
ApoUonidas was supported by other Achae
ans, and the objections made so strong an
164

impression upon the assembly, that no one
ventured to support the king's offer, and the
Achaeans unanimously refused the money.
In the same year that this congress was held,
Q, Caecilius came to Argos and complained
of the manner in whicli the Achaeans had
treated Sparta; and when he returned to
Rome, the Spartans, in b, c, 185, sent an
embassy to renew these complaints before
the Roman senate. The Achaeans also sent
envoys to justify their conduct. ApoUonidas
was at the head of the latter, and succeeded
iu showing to the senate that PhUopoemen
and the Achaeans had not done any injustice
to Sparta. In b. c. 169, when the war be
tween Perseus of Macedonia and the Romans
broke out, the Achaeans held a general meet
ing to deliberate what conduct they should
adopt during that war. ApoUonidas, who
was one of the Achaean envoys at this meet
ing, advised his countrymen not to oppose
the Romans openly, but at the same time
severely censured those who wished to throw
themselves into the arms of the Romans
altogether. The congress accordingly de
creed to side with neither of the beUlgerents,
but to be prepared and watch their own
interests. (Polybius, xxiii. 8. 11. 12., xxviU.
6.) L. S.
APOLLO'NIDES {'AwoXXoivIStis), an an
cient Greek physician, whose birthplace is
unknown, as are also the events of his life.
He is mentioned by Galen as having differed
from Archigenes respecting the state of the
pulse during sleep, as that physician affirmed
it to be then very full, while ApoUonides
taught the contrary. Le Clerc and HaUer
say that he wais the pupU of Olympicus and
tutor to JuUanus, which appears to be an
oversight that has arisen from their reading
in the passage of Galen, where ApoUonius of
Cyprus is quoted, 'AiroXXuvidov instead of
'ATToXXicriov- AVith respect to his date, he
may safely be placed in the first or second
century after Christ.
A surgeon of the same name is mentioned
by Artemidorus and Aetius, in which latter
place the word is written " ApoUoniades."
(Le Clerc, Hist- de la Med- ; Fabricius, Bib
lioth. Graca, vol. xui. p. 74. ed. vet. ; Haller,
Biblioth. Medic. Pract tom. i. p. 213, 214.)
W. A. G.
APOLLO'NIDES {'AiroXXan/iSvs), gover
nor of Argos. He was appointed to this
post by Cassander, apparently in or shortly
before the year b.c. 315. In that year he
invaded Arcadia, and in a nightly sur
prise made himself master of the town of
StjTnphalus. \\Tiile he was engaged with
his new conquest, the Argives, who hated
Cassander, invited Alexander, the son of
Polysperchon, to come and taike possession
of their city. As Alexander was dilatory in
carrying this proposition into effect, Apol-
lonides, to whom the scheme was probably
betrayed, immediately returned to Argos.

APOLLONIDES.

APOLLONIDES.

He found about five hundred men of the
party hostile to him assembled in the senate
house, and before they had time to disperse,
he ordered all the entrances to be shut up, and
then set the building on fire. The five hundred
Argives were burned aUve. Most of the other
Argives who had been implicated in the
scheme were sent into exUe, and a few others
were put to death. This cruel act is the
only thing known of this ApoUonides.
(Diodorus Siculus, xix. 63.) L. S.
APOLLO'NIDES {'A^KoXXteplSTis), of
Chios. In b. c. 332, while Alexander the
Great was occupied in the conquest of Syria
and Egypt, his admirals Hegelochus and Am-
photerus were successfully engaged against
some of the islands in the iEgean, where
Pharnabazus and Autophradates, two Per
sian generals, still kept up a Persian party.
At the head of this party in Chios was
ApoUonides, though the majority of the
people wished to join Macedonia. The two
Macedonian admirals besieged Chios, and
after they had continued their operations for
some tune, the town fell into their hands,
and ApoUonides and his partisans were made
prisoners. Hegelochus took them with some
other prisoners to Alexander in Egypt, who
was then just engaged upon the building of
Alexandria. The king ordered some of the
prisoners to be put to death, but ApoUonides
and his adherents to be kept in close custody
at Elephantine in Upper Egypt. What be
came of ApoUonides is not known. (Arrian,
Anabasis, ili. 2. ; Curtius, iv. 5.) L. S,
APOLLO'NIDES {'ATroXXaMris), an an
cient Greek physician and surgeon, was a
native of the island of Cos, and went to the
court of Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of Per-
sla,B, c,465 — 425. Herehe curedMegabyzus,
the king's brother-in-law, of a dangerous
wound which he had received ih battle.
After the death of Megabyzus he feU in
love with Amytis, his widow, and sister of
Artaxerxes, whom he was attending for an
illness, which he persuaded her was some dis
ease of the uterus ; and he prevailed upon the
princess (who was herself a profligate woman)
to consent to his desires as a means of curing
the disease. Amytis, however, did not re
cover ; and, being neglected by her seducer,
and seeing there was no hope of her recovery,
revealed the whole affair to her mother,
Amistris, ApoUonides was immediately
seized, and given up by the king into the
hands of Amistris, who kept him in prison
for two months while Amytis lived, and
upon her death ordered him to be buried
alive, (Ctesias, De Rebus Persicis, p. 71, 74,
ed, Biihr.) W, A, G.
APOLLO'NIDES {'A^woXXoiyiS^ns), of Nl-
ciEA, a Greek grammarian, who Uved in the
time of the emperor Tiberius, as wo must
infer from the fact mentioned by Diogenes
Laertius, that ApoUonides wrote a commen
tary on the SilU of Timon, which consisted
165

of several books and was dedicated to the
emperor Tiberius. This is all we know
about ApoUonides, His commentary on
Timon, as well as several other works
ascribed to him by the ancients, are lost,
with the exception of a few fragments. The
foUowing is a Ust of the works which Apol-
lonides is known to have written: — 1, A
Commentary on the Oration of Demosthenes
(Ilepl napairpea^elas), which is mentioned by
Ammonius under 'OrfiXeii'. 2, A work on
Proverbs {Tlepl TlapoipuSiv), which is referred
to by Stephanus of Byzantium under Tepiva.
3- A work on Fictitious Stories or Forgeries
in History {Tlepl Kare\peuap.evaiv, or ITepl Ka-
Te'^iev(rixevris 'laropias), of which the third
book is mentioned by Ammonius, under Ka-
TOLK^rjais, and the eighth by the anonymous
author of the life of Aratus. 4. A work of
which the title is not known, but in which
he spoke of the work of Ion called Tptayp-oi.
This, however, may have belonged to some
of the works mentioned before,
Strabo, in several passages, speaks of an
ApoUonides who seems to have written au
historical or geographical account of Pontus,
Armenia, and other neighbouring countries.
It is not stated what was the native place of
this ApoUonides, but it is at any rate a pro
bable opinion of Clinton that he is a different
person from the Nicaean, and Uved at an
earlier period. The ApoUonides mentioned
by Pliny (viii, 2,) is undoubtedly the same
who is mentioned by Strabo. The Scho
liast on ApoUonius Rhodius speaks of an
ApoUonides as the author of a Periplus of
Europe, but it cannot be decided whether he
is the Nicaean or the one mentioned by
Strabo, (Diogenes Laertius, ix, 109. ; Har
pocration, under "Iwc; Strabo, viii. 309., xi.
523, 528.; Scholiast ou Apollonius Rhodius,
U. 964., iv. 983, 1174,) L, S.
APOLLO'NIDES OF SICYON. [Apol-
LONiDAS or Sicyon.]
APOLLO'NII, GULIELIMUS or WIL-
LEM, is called Gulielmus Apollonius in several
catalogues, but never, so far as we have ob
served, in his own title-pages. He was bom
at Veere in Zeeland, where his father had
been burgomaster, became in 1627 preacher
at St. Anne ter Muiden, and was caUed in
1631 to Middelburg, where he was ap
pointed professor in the gymnasium on the
retirement of Alexander Morus. He died
in 1657.
His principal writings related to a contro
versy on church government with Vedelius,
who maintained the supremacy of the tem
poral authority over the ecclesiastical. The
first of them, which was entitled, " Jus
Majestatis circa sacra, seu de Jure Magis-
tratus circa Res ecclesiasticas, contra Nic.
Vedelil Tractatum de Episcopatu Constantini
Magnl," appeared at Middelburg in 1642,
and was answered by an anonymous writer,
said by Pfaff to be one Lansberg, in a book
M 3

APOLLONIL

APOLLONIO.

entitled, " Gralte" or " Stilts." Larenus, a
friend of Apollonii, published an " Epistola
ad G. Apollonii, contra Calumnias Libelli
famosi cui Nomen Grallae," Middelburg,
1646, and was answered by the anonymous
writer in " Bombomachia Ulissingana,"
Franeker, 1647. Apollonii himself pub
lished " Grallopaeus delectus, seu Epistola ad
J. Larenum, de Grallarum Authore," at
Middelburg in the same year, according to
the catalogue of the Bodleian library, or,
according to Chalmot, in 1646, and he was
answered with " Grallator Furens," There
are other writings belonging to this contro
versy, a full account of which is given in the
work of Thomasius, " Historia Oontentlonis
inter Imperium et Saoerdotium ;" the pre
ceding have been noticed, in order to correct
some inaccuracies which have crept into the
accounts of them in Jocher and elsewhere,
Apollonii was also the author of a work
which was published at London, in Latin, in
1644, and in English in 1645, The English
title is, " A Consideration of certaine Contro
versies at this time agitated in the Kingdome
of England, concerning the Government of
the Church of God, Written at the Com
mand and Appointment of the Walachrlan
Classis, by GuUielmus Apollonii, Minister
of the Word of God at Middleburgh ; and sent
from the Walachrlan Churches to declare the
Sense and Consent of their Churches to the
Synod at London, October 16, 1644, Stilo
novo- Translated out of Latine according
to the printed Copy," The book, which is
throughout an argument in favour of Pres
bytery, appears to have made a considerable
impression, as it elicited two answers, one in
English, by John EUis, entitled, " Vindiciae
Catbolica;," London, 1647, small 4to, ; and
another in Latin, by John Norton, " Resp,
ad Guil, ApoUonii Syllogen ad componendas
Controversias in Anglia," London, 1648, Svo,
Apollonii was also the author of two Dutch
treatises — 1. " Tractaat van eenige byzon
dere Deugden der Kinderen Gods" (" Trea
tise on some especial Virtues of the Children
of God"), Middelburg, 1652, 12mo, 2, " Over
den Sabbath" (" On the Sabbath"), Utrecht,
1652, 12mo,, and of "Disputationes Theo-
logiciE de Lege Dei," Middelburg, 1655,
12 mo. (Chalmot, Biographisch Woorden-
boeh der Nederlanden, i 302 ; Jocher, AU
gemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon, i. 476. ; Adelung,
Supplement, i. 971.; some of the works of
Apollonii.) T. W.
APOLLO'NIO (APOLLO'NIUS), caUed
GnEco, or the Greek, was a Greek painter
and mosaic worker, mentioned by Vasari in
the life of Andrea 'Tafi, who lived at Florence
in the beginning of the thirteenth century.
He executed some mosaics in the church of
San Giovanni at Florence ; he was also the
master of Andrea Tafi, whom he taught to
make the glass composition and the cement
for moiiaic work.
166

Lanzi mentions as a. good painter an
Agostino Apollonio, of Sant' Angelo in
Vado, who was the nephew and heir of Luzlo
Dolci, and settled at Castel Durante towards
the end of the sixteenth century.
There was a Jacopo Apollonio, the
grandson, by a daughter, of Jacopo da Ponte
of Bassano. He was born in 1584 or 1586
at that place, and was one of the best painters
of the Bassanese school, but was inferior to
the Bassans themselves ; he excelled in land
scape. His master-pieces are a St. Sebastian
and other saints at the church of San Sebas-
tiano, a San Francesco at the Riformati, and
a Magdalen in the cathedral of Bassano. He
died in 1654. ( Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, ^c. ;
Lanzi, Storia Pittorica della Italia-) R. N.W.
APOLLO'NIS. [Attalus L]
APOLLO'NIUS {'AiToXXiiivios), the name
of a great number of ancient physicians,
whom it is extremely difficult, if not quite
impossible, to distinguish in all cases from each
other. In making the attempt to distinguish the
various physicians of the name of ApoUonius,
who are here placed in alphabetical order
among other persons of the same name, the
writer has made use of Le Clerc's Hist de la
Mid. ; Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca,vo]. iv. p. 272.
ed. Harles, and vol.xUip. 74. ed.vet. ;Teucher's
improved edition of Meursius's Apollonius
Dyscolus, Leipzig, Svo. 1792.; Haller's jB/S-
lioth. Medic- Pract- tom. i. ; Spreugel's Hist-
de la Mid. and also his lives in Ersch and
Gruber's Encyclop- vol. iv. p, 439. ; and Kiihn's
Additam- ad- Elenchum Medicor- Veter. a Jo.
A. Fabricio, Sfc-, exhibitum, Leipzig, 1826, 4to.
fascic. iil. : and he hopes that by the help of
Dietz's Scholia in Hippocr- et Gal-, which
have been published since the above-named
writers composed their works, he has been
enabled to avoid one or two errors into which
they have faUen. There is also a little work
by C. F. Harles entitled " Analecta Historico-
critica de Archigene Medico, et de ApoUonus
Medicis, eorumque Scriptis et Fragmentis,"
Bamberg, 1816, 4to., which the writer has
not been able to meet with. W, A, G,
APOLLO' NIUS {'A-rroXXiivios). There
were several Greek sculptors so called, whose
names are inscribed upon works which have
reached our time,
Apollonius, an Athenian, the son of Nes
tor, was the sculptor of a marble statue of
Hercules, of which a fragment, well known as
the 'Torso of the Belvedere (or the Torso of
Michel Angelo, from the high estimation in
which it was held by that artist), is preserved
in the collection of sculpture in the 'Vatican at
Rome, This monument, one of the finest
specimens of art which remauns, is much
mutilated ; the body and thighs adone are
preserved. The figure was seated on a lion's
skin. The inscription AnOAAnNI02 NE2-
T0P02 A0HNAIO2 EnOlEI is on the block
whioh forms the seat. This Torso Is engraved
in the Museo Plo-Clementino, The time of

APOLLONIUS,
ApoUonius is unknown ; but in all probabiUty
he lived in the century immediately preceding
our aera,
Apollonius of Athens, the son of Ar-
chius or Archias, according to an inscription
on the work, was the author of a bronze
statue of a youthful hero, the head of whioh
was found in the ruins of Herculaneum, and
is engraved in the Museo Herculano.
Apollonius, the name of an artist en
graved on a statue of a youthful figure of a
fawn, or satyr, in the collection of sculpture
at Petworth, in Sussex,
Apollonius and his brother Tauriscus,
the sons of Artemidorus, were the sculptors
of a marble group, life size, of Zethus and
Amphion tying Dirce to the horns of a wild
bull, which was brought to Rome from Rhodes
by Aslnius PoUio^ and which Pliny says was
formed out of one block of marble. The
group of this subject, known as the Toro
Farnese, from its having at one period be
longed to the Farnese family, is believed to
be the work aUuded to by Pliny, It stood
till within a few years in the public gardens
at Naples ; but as it was found to be much
injured by its constant exposure to the sea
air, it is now removed to the cortile or court
of the Museo Borbonico,
Pliny tells us that Tauriscus declared that
Menecrates, who had instructed him and his
brother in their art, appeared to be, or had
acted as, their father, though Artemidorus
was considered their natural parent, Tau
riscus was a native of Tralles in Lydia,
Apollonius is usually called of Rhodes. There
is no record of the date of these artists, but
from the style of sculpture of the original
portions of the above work, they probably
lived about two centuries before our aera. Some
writers have considered them to be of a stUl
later period. (Pliny, Hist- Nat- xxxvi. 5. ;
Silllg, Cat-_ Artificum; Winckelmann, Storia
delle Arti del Disegno-) R, W. jun.
APOLLO'NIUS {'AnoXXiimos), a Christian
martyr who suffered death in the reign of
the emperor Commodus. He is caUed a
senator of the city of Rome. He was tried
in the senate for having adopted Christianity,
on which occaislon he delivered an oration in
defence of the Christian religion, which was
subsequently translated into Greek by Euse
bius, and incorporated in his history of the
martyrs, whioh is now lost, Nicephorus
confounds ApoUonius the martyr with Apol
lonius the bishop of Ephesus. , (Hieronymus,
Epist- 84., Catalog- 42.53.; Eusebius, Historia
Ecclesiast V- 21. ; Nicephorus, iv, 26. ; Fa
bricius, Biblioth. Grac. Yii. 163. &c,) ' L, S,
APOLLO'NIUS ('AiroAA^j'ios), of AcHAR-
NiE in Attica, is known only as the author of a
work on the Religious Festivals of the Greeks
(Ilepl 'EopTwi'), which is occasionally referred
to by the grammarians. (Harpocration,
under IleXavos, Uvavo^ia, and XaXKela ;
Photius, under 'TSpocfopla.) L. S.
167

APOLLONIUS,
APOLLO'NIUS {'Amxxdmos) of Alaban-
DA. There is some confusion In the ancient
writers as to the persons to whom this name
is applied.' But the name seems to have be
longed to two Greek teachers of eloquence,
both of whom were natives of Alabanda in
Caria, and both of whom likewise taught
eloquence in Rhodes.
1, Apollonius, called 6 MaXaKds, or the
Soft, seems to have been the person with
whom, according to Cicero, in his dialogue
"De Oratore" (i 17,), Mucins Scaevola the
Augur conversed at Rhodes, whither he went
during his prastorship. The praetorship of
Scaevola probably belongs to the year b. c.
120. It is probably to this Apollonius, and
not to the other, that we ought to refer the
story told by Cicero, of his making it a prac
tice to refuse admission into his school to
pupils whom he believed incapable of becom
ing orators.
2, Apollonius, called Molon, was much
more distinguished than his namesake and
fellow-countryman. He is supposed to have
derived his second appellation from the name of
his father ; and some critics, not unsupported by
manuscript readings, will have it that his name
should be Apollonius Molonis, On the other
hand, several remarks of ancient writers,
which appear to refer to this Apollonius,
speak of him by the name of Molon alone,
Apollonius Molon was celebrated not only as
a rhetorical teacher, but as a judicial and
political orator ; and, having been com
missioned by the Rhodians as an envoy to
Rome in the year b, c, 81, he is said to have
been the first Greek who addressed the senate
without an interpreter. On this occasion
Cicero became his pupil, and afterwards
(e. u. 78) again placed himself under his
instruction at Rhodes. 'There, likewise,
Apollonius became the teacher of C. Julius
Caesar. No writings have come down to us, either
from the one Apollonius or from the other.
The second of the two, however, seems to
have been both a rhetorical and historical
writer. For Phcebammon quotes from him
a definition of the rhetorical figure {axnp,a,
Walz, Rhetores Graci, viii. 494.) ; and he is
one of those of whom Josephus complains by
name {Against Apion, lib. 11.) for having,
either ignorantly or through malice, spoken
unjustly and falsely of Moses and his law,
(Cicero, De Oratore, 1, 17. 28. with MiiUer's
notes, 1819, Brutus, 89, 90, 91, ; Dionysius
Halicarnassensis, Deinarchus, cap. 8. ; Sue
tonius, Julius Casar, cap. 4. (with Casaubon's
notes) ; Valerius Maximus, ii. cap. 3, ;
Quinctilian, Instit Orator- Ui, cap. 1,
(with Spalding's notes), xii. cap. 6. ;
Westermann, Geschichte der Beredtsamkeit in
Griechenland und Rom, 1833 — 1836. 1. 177,,
U. 133, 145, 168.; Meursius, De Apolloniis
Syntagma, in his edition of the Grecian His
toria Mirab lies, 1 62'2-) W.S.
M 4

APOLLONIUS.

APOLLONIUS.

APOLLO'NIUS {'A-iroXXdyios), the son of
Archibius, Archebius, or Archebulus, was
a distinguished Sophist and grammarian
of Alexandria, who lived about the time of
Augustus. According to Suidas, he was a
pupil of Didymus, and teacher of the gram
marian Apion. VUloison, in the prolegomena
to his edition of Apollonius, has endea
voured to corroborate this statement of Sui
das ; while other scholars, such as Ruhnken
and Gottling, have tried to prove that Apollo
nius lived after the time of Apion, and made
use of Apion's Homeric lexicon in his own
Homeric lexicon, which Is still extant. It
is true Aplon is referred to as an authority in
the lexicon of Apollonius ; but if we consider
that the lexicon of Apollonius is full of in
terpolations, it is scarcely safe to draw any
conclusion from such a quotation ; and the
question is one which still requires discus
sion. The Homeric lexicon of ApoUonius
to the "Iliad" and " Odyssey," the only work
which he is known to have written, is of
great value notwithstanding its numerous
interpolations and its meagreness, as it is the
only work of the kind that has come down
to us. The first edition was published by
VUloison (Paris, 1773, 2 vols. foL and 4to.)
from a MS. in the library of St. Germain. It
contains a very learned introduction, a copi
ous commentary, and a Latin translation. It
was reprinted in the same year at Leipzig, in
2 vols. 4to. In 1788, Hermann Tollius pub
lished at Leiden a new edition in one volume
Svo. of the lexicon of ApoUonius, with some
additional notes of his own ; but the intro
duction of VUloison and his translation are
unfortunately omitted. The best critical
edition of the text is that of Immanuel Bek
ker, Berlin, 1833, Svo. The " Etymologium
Magnum " {nafSs and o-o<f>i(rT^s) refers to an
Apollonius as the author of a work on the
peculiar expressions of Herodotus {yXMaaat
'HpoSoTov) ; but whether he is the same as the
son of Archibius cannot be ascertained, though
it seems probable. (Villolson's Prolegomena
to his edition of Apollonius ; Gottling, .4m/-
madversiones critica in Callimachi Epigram
mata, Jena, 1811, Svo.) L. S.
APOLLO'NIUS ANTIOCHE'NUS
{'ATToXXtai/tos 'AvTioxeifs), the name of two per
sons, father and son, who were natives of An
tioch and belonged to the sect of the Empirici ;
they lived after Serapion of Alexandria, and
before Menodotus, and therefore probably in
the first or second century e. c. One of these
is supposed by some persons to be Apollonius
Biblas, by others Apollonius Herophileus,
and by others Apollonius Empiricus. (Galen,
Introd. cap. 4. tom. xlv. p. 683. ed. Kiihn.) W. A, G.
APOLLO'NIUS {'AwoXXiimos), of Aphro-
DisiAs in Cilicia, is called by Suidas and
Strphanus of Byzantium a high priest, to
which Suidas adds the title of historian. 'There
are three works mentioned by the ancients
168

of which he was the author : — 1, "A History
of the Town of Tralles " {nepl TpaXXewy). 2,
" On Orpheus and the Orphic Mysteries "
(Ilepl 'Op^etas Kai tcov TeAerwi/ avrov). And
3, " On the History of Caria " (Kopiicd).
The first two works are lost, but of the last
several fragments are preserved in Stephanus
of Byzantium, who often refers to it. It con
sisted of at least eighteen books. Wester
mann ascribes to this Apollonius a work on
the foundation of Cnidus which more pro
bably belonged to ApoUonius Rhodius, and
another on Lycia, which Stephanus of By
zantium calls the work of an Alexander.
(Suidas, under ' ATToXMivws ; Stephanus By
zant. under Bdpyaoa, XaX'bv Teixos, ^vKTiiptos,
Atjtovs TToX-ts, KoxXiovaa ; Etymologicum
Magnum, under "Apuaaos ; Vossius, De
Historicis Gracis, p, 396, &c ed, Wester
mann.) L, S,
APOLLO'NIUS QAnoKXdvios), son of
Apollonius, was an intimate friend of De
metrius, the son of Seleucus Philopator, In
B. u, 175, when Demetrius went to Rome as
a hostage, ApoUonius, who had been educated
with him, and whose family had been in
timately connected with that of Seleucus,
accompanied him, and aided him with his
advice. Demetrius wished to get rid of the
bondage in which he was held at Rome, and
after he had twice requested the senate in
vain to aUow him to depart, he concerted
with Apollonius a plan to escape from Rome
in secret, which was successfuUy carried
iuto effect, (Polybius, xxxi, 19, 21.) L. S,
APOLLO'NIUS (; AivoXXdvios), of Athens,
a rhetorician who Uved in the reign of
the emperor Septimius Severus, about a. d.
200. He was a disciple of the rhetorician
Adrianus, and distinguished himself by his
forensic oratory as weU as by other declama
tions. He taught rhetoric at Athens at the
same time with HeracUdes, and had the prin
cipal professorship of political eloquence, for
which he received the annual salary of one
talent He was employed by the Athenians
on several embassies, held several high offices,
aud in his advanced years he was promoted
to the dignity of hierophant. It is recorded
that on one occasion, when he was sent as
ambassador to the emperor, ApoUonius had
in his presence a rhetorical contest with
Heraclldes, and gained such a complete vic
tory over his opponent, that the emperor
deprived HeracUdes of his privileges, and
honoured Apollonius with presents. His
oratory, of which no specimens are now
extant, is described as of the same impetuous
and passionate character as that of his master
Adrianus. The desire to round and poUsh
his style often led him unconsciously to
make his sentences metrical, and it is said
that anapajstlc lines were frequently found
in his declamations. He died at the age
of about sixty-five, and was buried in the
neighbourhood of Eleusis, (PhUostratus,

APOLLONIUS,

APOLLONIUS.

Vita Sophistarum, 11, 20, ; Eudocia, p, 57,
&c) L, S,
APOLLO'NIUS BIBLAS ('AmAAto'vios 6
Bi€Xas) lived in the third century before Christ,
and pubUshed a work after Zeno's death, in
answer to one which he had written on the
subject of the obscure marks {xapaKTTJpes)
which are fotmd affixed to certain medical
cases in the third book of Hippocrates " On
Epidemic Diseases," In this work he charged
Zeno with having altered these marks ac
cording to his own fancy in order to be able
to explain them the more easUy ; and affirmed
that his account of them did not agree with
the copy of the work that was in the royal
library at Alexandria, nor with that which
came from the vessels'^ {rh eK tuv ¦TrXoiaiy),
nor with the edition by Bacchius, which
were apparently the three most authentic
copies of the work that were then known.
Some persons suppose ApoUonius Biblas to
be one of the physicians called Apollonius
Antiochenus, others Apollonius Empiricus,
and others Apollonius Herophileus, His
name " Biblas " was probably given him,
as Reinesius conjectures, because he was
BigAia/tdj, heluo librorum, " a gormandizer of
books," (Galen, Comment II. in Hippocr.
"Epid. III." 5 5, tom, xvU, pt. 1. p.618. ed.
Kiihn ; Reinesius, Varia Lect- lib. iii, cap, 4.
p, 412. ; Littre's edition of Hippocrates, tome
i Introd- p. 91. 275.) W. A, G,
APOLLO'NIUS (^A-rroXXtivios), of Chal
cis or Chalcedon, or as Dion Cassius says,
of Nleomedia in Bithynia, was a Stoic philo
sopher. He lived in the reign of Antoninus
Pius (a, D, 138 — 161), who invited him to
come from Chalcis to Rome for the purpose of
instructing his adopted son Marcus Aurelius
in philosophy. On his arrival at Rome the
emperor summoned him to the palace that
he might introduce his son to him ; but
Apollonius answered that a pupil ought to
come to his master, and not the master to
his pupil. He is censured for his avarice.
From a passage in Lucian we must infer that
he came to Rome with a crowd of pupils,
and Demonax, who was then with the em
peror, wittUy said, " Lo, there comes Apol
lonius with his Argonauts," alluding to Apol
lonius the author of the " Argonautica."
(Dion Cassius, Ixxi. 35. ; M. Antoninus, De
Rebus suis, 1, 8.; J. Capitolinus, Antoninus
Pius, 10. ; Lucian, Demonax, 31.) L. S.
APOLLO'NlUSCITIENSISCATroAAiii'm
KiTievs) was born at Citlum (or Cittium) in
the island of Cyprus, and lived in the first
century B, c. He studied at Alexandria,
whioh was at that time the most celebrated
medical school in existence ; here he was a
pupil of Zopyras, and a feUow. student with
a certain Posidonlus. He composed a trea
tise in eighteen books, in answer to a work
which Heraclldes of Tarentum had written
^ The meaning of this expression ia explained in
Littre's Introduction, p. 274,
169

against Bacchius ; but we must not from this
(as M, Littre says) conclude that he was a
contemporary of HeracUdes, as he was in
point of fact posterior to him. Of this great
work nothing remains, unless the short com
mentary on Hippocrates Tlepl "Apepom, " On
Artictdations," be a fragment of it. This
treatise is curious and valuable as being
the most ancient commentary on Hippocrates
that we possess, and it tends to show how
great the authority of the Father of Medicine
had become even in those early times, as
ApoUonius already bestows on him the epi
thet of QeioTaTos, " the most Divine," (p. 1 ,)
It consists of three books, and is addressed to
a king named Ptolemy, who is supposed by
Cocchi to have been the younger son of
Ptolemy the Eighth (or Lathyrus), king of
Egypt, who reigned in Cypi-us a- c, 81 — 58,
(Clinton's Fasti Hellen- voL iii p. 394.) In
this work the author contents himself with
reviewing the different methods of reducing
dislocations employed by Hippocrates ; and
enters into no other pathological details. He
speaks rather slightingly of Bacchius (p. 4. 1 0.)
and Hegetor (p, 34, 35,), and attacks the fol
lowers of Herophllus on the score of their
boasted knowledge of anatomy (p, 4, 34,) ;
thus plainly proving that he did not himself
(as Sprengel and others have imagined) be
long to that school. He illustrated his work
with figures explanatory of the manoeuvres
of reducing luxations, and concludes with a
recapitulation of the methods to be employed.
It was published for the first time by F. R,
Dietz, without any Latin translation, in the
first volume of his " Scholia in Hippocratem
et Galenum," 2 vols, Svo, Konlgsberg, {Re-
gim- Pruss-) 1834, Parts of the work had,
however, been previously published by Ant.
Cocchi in his " Discorso delT Anatomia,"
Florence, 1745, 4to., and in his " Graecorum
Chirurgici Libri," Florence, 1754, fol. ; also
by C. G. Kiihn, in his " Additam. ad Elen
chum, &c." referred to above. Kiihn began
to republish the work, with a Latin trans
lation and a few notes, in a series of aca
demical prograims, of which the thirteenth and
last appeared at Leipzig, 1837, 4to. Ero-
tlanus in his glossary quotes some explana
tions given by Apollonius of Citlum ; and Cae
lius Aurelianus refers to the second book of a
work of his entitled either " Curationes " or
" De Epilepticis." The same writer mentions
in another passage that Apollonius of Citlum
was one of those who disapproved of blood
letting in affections of the spleen. Some
persons suppose him to be the same as Apol
lonius Mus or Mys, (whieh, however, it
seems tolerably certain that he was not) ;
others identify him with Apollonius of Cy
prus ; others imagine him to be one of the
" Apollonii duo " mentioned by Celsus as
having given particular attention to surgery,
and others that he is the " ApoUonius Hero-
phUeus" quoted by Athenajus, which last

APOLLONIUS.

APOLLONIUS.

conjecture is certainly erroneous, (Strabo,
Geogr. lib. xiv. cap. 6, p, 243, ed, Tauchn ;
Erotianus, Gloss. Hippocr. p, 6, 10, 86. 198.
ed. Franz ; Caelius Aurelianus, De Morb.
Chron. lib, ii. cap. 4., lib. iii. cap, 4. p, 323,
451. ed. Amman ; Littre, CEuvres Completes
d'Hippocr. tome 1. Introd. p. 93. ; Choulant,
Handbuch der Bilcherkunde fur die Aeltere
Medicin, Leipzig, 1841, Svo, ; Dietz, Schol.
in Hippocr. et Gal. tom. 1. Praf) W, A, G,
APOLLO'NIUS, CLAUDIUS, appears,
from his name Apollonius, to have been a
Greek by birth, who probably took the name
Claudius, either from his being born (like
Claudius Agathemerus) in one of the cities
under the patronage of the Claudia Gens at
Rome, or perhaps from having been a freed
man to one ofthe members of that family. He
must have lived in or before the first century
after Christ, as he was mentioned by Ascle
piades Pharmacion, but nothing is known
of the events of his life, Galen has preserved
one of his medical formulae, which was in
tended as a cure for hydrophobia, and also as
an antidote to poisons in general, of which the
powder of burned crabs appears to have been
the most important ingredient. (Galen, De
Antid. lib, ii cap, 11, tom. xiv. p, 168 — 171,
ed, Kiihn.) W. A. G.
APOLLO'NIUS {'AiroXXdyios), surnamed
DY'SCOLUS {SviTKoXos), that is the lU-
tempered or Morose, was a celebrated gram
marian of Alexandria who Uved in the reigns
of Hadrian and Antoninus Plus. Being a
native of Alexandria he is sometimes called
Alexandrinus ; and to distinguish him from
Apollonius Rhodius, who was likewise a
native of Alexandria, the adjective Minor or
the younger, is sometimes added, so that he
appears under the name of Apollonius Alex
andrinus Minor. His parents Mnesitheus
and Ariadne lived at Alexandria, and were
so poor that their son was unable to purchase
even the most necessary writing materials.
It is not improbable that these unfavourable
circumstances may have produced in him
that disposition to which he owed the sur
name of Dyscolus, According to his anony
mous biographer he lived at Alexandria in
the Bruchion {Bpovxiov, also caUed BpvX'ov
or Uvpovxe'iov), which some believe to be only
another name for the celebrated museum of
Alexandria, In the same place he was also
buried. His biographer further states that
he spent some time at Rome, where he
enjoyed great reputation as a writer on gram
mar and a teacher, and attracted the attention
of the emperor Antoninus Plus. But this
statement seems to be founded on a confusion
of this Apollonius with Apollonius of Chalcis,
who is known to have been invited to Rome
by Antoninus Plus. Apollonius Dyscolus
and his sou, iElius Herodian, who was
educated by his father, were the most distin
guished grammarians of their age. Priscian,
who was a competent judge, expresses his
170

admiration of Apollonius in several pas
sages ; he even calls him the greatest of
grammarians and owns that he could not
have written his own work without the
assistance whieh he had derived from the
works of Apollonius. The number of works
ascribed to Apolloniusisupwards of thirty; all
were on grammatical subjects, but the greater
part of them have perished. The following
list contains those which are stiU extant : —
1. nepl 'Zvvrd^eus rov Aoyov pepav, or as the
Latin grammarians call it, "De Construc-
tione Orationis," or " De Ordinatione sive Con-
structione Dictionum," in four books. This
is the most important of the extant works of
Apollonius : he shows great acuteness, and
his style is plain and clear. It was first
printed by Aldus (Venice, 1495, fol.). In
1590 Fr, Sylburg published at Frankfurt a
much better edition with a Latin translation.
It also contains the life of ApoUonius by an
anonymous writer. The best edition is that
of Immanuel Bekker (Berlin, 1817, 8vo.),
who avaUed himself of several uncoUated
MSS. for the purpose of correcting the text,
2. nepl 'AvToii'vfuiSi', or on the Pronouns in
one book. This work was first edited by
Immanuel Bekker in the " Museum Antiq.
Stud." vol. 11. part 1. Berlin, 1811, Svo. and
afterwards separately by the same scholar,
Berlin, 1814, Svo, 3, nepl SwSe'cTjutDi', or on
Conjunctions, and 4, nepl 'ETvi^pjifidTcav, or on
Adverbs, The only edition of the last two
little works is that of Immanuel Bekker in
his " Anecdota," 11. p. 477. &c. Among the
lost works of ApoUonius Dyscolus, Suidas
mentions one nepl KaTe^evap,evT]s 'I(rTopi'as,that
is on False or Fictitious History, or on Fictions
Introduced into History, which tiU very
recently was supposed to be extant. We
possess, indeed, a work by one ApoUonius
which consists of a coUection of wonderful
phenomena in nature, gathered from the works
of Aristotle, Theophrastus, and other writers.
Now this work is manifestly quite different
from the one described by Suidas as nepl Ka-
Tp\iev(Tp,evrts 'laropias. In addition to this plain
fact, Phlegon has preserved some statements
from the work of ApoUonius Dyscolus men
tioned by Suidas, and not one of these state
ments is in the extant work of Apollonius,
Notwithstanding these facts, when the mis
take was once made, it was as usual repeated
by subsequent writers. The work of Apol
lonius (who is otherwise unknown) was first
published by Xylander at Basel (1568, Svo,)
under the title of " Historiae commentitiac,"
Xylander expresses his belief that it is the
work of Apollonius Dyscolus mentioned
by Suidas. Upon this conjecture Meursius
(Leiden, 1620, 4to,) and Teacher (Leipzig
1792, Svo,) published their editions of it
under the name of Apollonius Dyscolus,
From that time the mistake became the cur
rent opinion until it was pointed out by A,
Westermann in his edition of the Greek

APOLLONIUS.
'[lapa.So^Sypatpoi (p. 20. &c.). The ApoUonius
whose work is extant belongs to this class of
writers, and his little work has therefore
been added to them by Westermann (p. 103
. — 116.) (Suidas, under 'AiroXXdiaos ; The
Greek Life of Apollonius, by an anonymous
writer ; Fabricius, Biblioth. Grac. vi. 272. &c.)
L. S.
APOLLO'NIUS (^AiToXXiivias) of Egypt.
Many persons are mentioned of this name
who were natives of Egypt. Some of them
are characterised by the names of their
native places, such as Alexandria, Memphis,
Naucratis, and others, but where no such
distinction is mentioned, it is often impossible
to identify the persons. One Egyptian Apol
lonius is mentioned by Theophilus of Antioch,
who stated in a work that according to some
the age of the world was 15,003,075, and
according to others 15,000,375 years. Whether
this Egyptian is the same as the Apollonius
mentioned ty Athenaeus as an authority
about the symposia among the early Egyp
tians is uncertain, according to the judgment
of Fabricius. Dion Cassius mentions an
Egyptian soothsayer Apollonius who pre
dicted the death of the emperor Caligula.
(Theophilus, .4(/^M/o/^cwm, p. 127. 136. 139.;
Athenaeus, v. 191. ; Dion Caissius, lix. 29. ;
Fabricius, Biblioth. Grac. iv. 272.) L. S.
APOLLO'NIUS EMPFRICUS ('ATroAAti-
vtos 6 'EimeipiKos), lived probably in the second
century E. c, as Celsus says he was a suc
cessor of Serapion of Alexandriai, and a pre
decessor of Heraclldes of Tarentum. He
belonged to the sect of the Empirici, and is
very Ukely the person mentioned in a cor
rupt passage in the first volume of Cramer's
" Anecdota Graeca Parisiensia," He wrote
a book in answer to Zeno's first work on the
XapaKTTJpes in Hippocrates, which was an
swered by Zeno, and which, therefore, must
not be confounded with the refutation of this
second treatise, written after Zeno's death by
Apollonius Biblas, Upon the whole, it seems
most likely that this Apollonius is one of
the persons called Apollonius Antiochenus.
(Celsus, De Medic, lib. 1. pracfat. p, 3, ed.
Argent.; Galen, De Meth. Med. lib. 11. cap,
7, tom, X, p. 142, ; Id,, Comment. II. in Hip
pocr. " Epid. IJI." § 5. tom. xvU.pt. i. p, 618,
ed, Kuhn ; Cramer, Anecd. Gr. Paris, vol.
i. p. 395. 1. 22.) W. A. G,
APOLLO'NIUS {'AmXXtinos), said to have
been a bishop of Ephesus in the reigns of
Commodus and Septimius Severus, about a,d,
190, He wrote a work against the Christian
sects called Cataphryges and Pepuziani, of
which some fragments are presei-ved in Eu
sebius, He appears to have also attacked the
Montanists, for it is stated that TertulUan
defended them against him and Soter, bishop
of Rome ; and Hieronymus says that the
seventh book of TertulUan's work, nepl 'EKirrd-
aeios, which is now lost, was directed against
ApoUonius. (Anonymas, Pradestinatus, 26,
171

APOLLONIUS.
27. 68, ; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiast. v.
18, 21. ; Hieronymus, Catalog. 40. ; Fabri
cius, iJt6?/orfi. Grcec. vii 164.) L S
APOLLO'NIUS GLAUCUS, the author
of a treatise " On Internal Diseases," " De In-
terioribus," consisting of several books, from
which CaeUus Aurelianus quotes a passage
on the subject of lumbrici He must have
lived some time in or before the second cen
tury after Christ. W. A, G.
APOLLO'NIUS, GULIELMUS, [Apol
lonii, Gulielmus.]
APOLLO'NIUS LIEROPHILE'US
{' AnoXXiivws 6 'Hpo<piXeios) lived before Archi
genes and Andromachus, (by which latter
writer he is several times quoted,) and there
fore in or before the first century after Christ,
He was a foUower of HerophUus, (and there
fore Uved at least as late as the third century
B, c) and is said to have passed some of his
time at Alexandria, which was at that time,
under the reign of the Ptolemies, the most
celebrated medical school in existence.
Nothing more is known of the events of his
life, but it seems most probable that he is the
same person who is sometimes called A pol-
lonius Mus, He wrote a work nepl Mvpaiv,
" On Ointments," an extract from which is
preserved by Athenaeus, in which he speci
fies which cities and countries were famous for
the preparation of particular perfumes. Among
other persons he mentions a Stratonice,
" the wife (or daughter) of Eumenes" {rijv
Evp-evovs), who was probably the daughter
of Ariarathes IV,, king of Cappadocia, who
was betrothed, e. c. 188, to Eumenes IL,
king of Pergamus, B, c, 197 — 159. (Clinton,
Fasti Hellenici, vol. iii.) ; and as Apollonius
speaks of her as a person who had apparently
been dead some time when he wrote, this
would help to fix his date in the first century
B, c. His principal work appears to have
been a pharmaceutical treatise entitled,
EvTT6pi<na ^dp^aKa (or BoTjdijpLaTa,) " Medi
cines (or Aids) that are easily procured,"
consisting of at least two books. It is very
frequently quoted by Galen, and generally
with apparent approbation, who says that it
contained almost all that was to be found in
the work of Archigenes on the same subject,
and that it was in some respects superior to
it though written earlier. It is probably this
work that is referred to by Oribasius in the
beginning of his treatise on the same sub
ject ; and it is also from this work that a
fragment is taken, which stUl exists in MS,
in the king's library at Paris, of which the
title is given in the first volume of Dr,
Cramer's " Anecdota Graeca Parisiensia,"
and which is probably the same as that which
is preserved by Galen in the ninth chapter of
the sixth book of his work "De Compo-
sitione Medicamentorum secundum Locos."
It is uncertain which work of Apollonius is
referred to by CsdUus Aurelianus, when he
says that he considered the veins and arteries

APOLLONIUS.

APOLLONIUS.

of the lungs to be the parts affected in
pneumonia. (Caelius Aurelianus, De Morb.
Acut. lib. 11. cap. 28. p. 139. ed. Amman ;
Athenaeus, lib. xv. cap. 38. p. 688. ; Cramer,
Anecd- Gr. Paris- vol. i. p. 395. ; Oribasius,
Eupor- ad Eunap- lib. i Procem- p. 574, ed,
H. Steph, ; Galen, De Compos- Medicam-
sec- Loc. lib, 11, cap. 1. tom. xii p, 510.
514., lib, V, cap. 5, p. 858,, Ub, vi, cap. 9.
p, 995,) W, A, G,
APOLLO'NIUS HIPPOCRA'TICUS, a
pupil of Hippocrates II. (the most celebrated of
that name) who must have lived in the fourth
century B. c. Nothing more is known of the
events of his life. He is said to have been
excessively severe with regard to the quantity
of drink which he allowed to his patients that
were suffering from fever ; for, having
divided the cyathus into twelve parts, he
gave them only two or three of these, which
(reckoning the cyathus as containing ,0825
of a pint, or rather more than thirteen
drachms) would amount to about three dr
four drachms, or not quite a table spoonful.
This gave occasion to Eraslstratus to throw
the blame on Hippocrates himself, and to
accuse him of half killing his patients by
starving them. He does not appear to have
written any medical works. (Galen, De Opt
Secta, cap, 14, tom, i, p, 144, ed, Kiihn ;
Comment- in Hippocr. "De Acut Morb- Victu,"
lib, 1, cap. 24, tom, xv, p, 478., lib. iU, cap, 38.
p. 702., lib. iv. cap, 5, p, 744, ; De Vena Sect
adv- Erasist- cap, 9, tom, xi. p. 182. ; Littre,
CEuvres Completes d'Hippocr. tome 1. p. 328.
et seq.) W. A. G.
APOLLO'NIUS, LiEVrNUS, a geo
grapher and historian, was a native of a
village in the neighbourhood of Bruges, and
lived during the latter half of the sixteenth
century. He called himself sometimes Gando-
bruganus Middelburgensis. He died in one of
the Canary islands while on a voyage to Peru.
ApoUonius is the author of two works which
in their time had a great reputation, and
were translated into several languages. They
are still indispensable to those who study the
history of Peru and Floridai. 1. " Libri
Quinque de Peruvlae Reglonis inter novi
Orbis Provlnclas celeberrimac Inventlone, et
Rebus in eadem gestis," Antwerp, 1567,
Svo. 2. " De Navigatione GaUorum in Ter-
ram Florldam, deque Clade Anno 1565 ab
Hispanls accepta," Antwerp, 1568, Svo.
(Andreae, Bibliotheca Belgica; Swertius,
Athena Belgica ; Adelung, Supplement to
J'ocher, Allgem. Gelehrten Lexici- 971.) L.S.
APOLLO'NIUS MEMPHI'TES ('AtoA-
Xtinos d MepapiTrts) was, as his name implies, a
native of Memphis in Egypt, who belonged to
the school of Eraslstratus, and who, as he is
first quoted by Erotianus, must have lived be
tween the third century b. c. and the first cen
tury after Christ. He is probably the same
person who Is called Apollonius Stratonius.
He wrote a work Tlepl "ApBpoi)', " On the
172

Articulations," which is quoted by Erotianus ;
another, Tlepl toiv 'EKr'bs Mepuy rov ^tc/xaroy,
Kai Tives at 'Ovop-aaiat Avroiv, " On the ex
ternal Parts of the Body, and their Names ; "
and a third called "Opoi, " Definitions,"
both quoted by Galen. It is uncertain
whether it is from either of these works that
two passages are quoted by Caelius Aurelianus ;
but, besides these, Apollonius seems to have
written a work on Materia Medica, which is
not now extant, but which seems to have
enjoyed some reputation, as it is quoted by
Galen, Aetius, Nicolaus Myrepsus, and the
Scholiast to Nicander. (Galen, Definit, Proam-
tom. xix. p. 347. ed. Kiihn, De Antid- lib. 11.
cap. 14. tom. xiv. p. 188., Introd- cap. 10.
tom. xiv. p. 700. ; Erotianus, Gloss- Hippocr.
in voce "Ai^ffriv, p. 86. ed. Franzius ; Caellus
Aurelianus, De Morb- Chron- Ub. iii. cap. S.
p. 469., lib. iv. cap. 8. p. 537. ed. Amman ;
Aetius, De Medic- tetrab. ii serm. u, cap.
84, p. 289,, serm, Ui, cap, 20. p. 307. ed.
H. Steph. ; Nicolaus Myrepsus, De Compos.
Medicam. p. 831. ed. H. Steph. ; SchoUa in
Nicand. p. 28. b., 38. b. ed. Aid. ; Gronovius,
Thes- Grac. Antiq. vol. Ui lit. U.) W. A. G.
APOLLO'NIUS MOLON. [Apollonius
OF Alabanda.]
APOLLO'NIUS MUS {'A-KoXXiivtos dWds),
was a contemporary of Strabo, and therefore
lived at the close of the first century b. c.
He was a follower of HerophUus, and a fel
low-pupil of Heraclldes of Erythrae, and
therefore, perhaps, a pupU of Chrysermus,
who was one of the tutors to HeracUdes.
Nothing more is kno-wn of the events of his
life; but it seems probable that he is the
same physician who is sometimes caUed
Apollonius HerophUeus. He -wrote a long
work, " On the Sect founded by HerophUus,"
Tlepl Tris 'Hpo(/)iAou A'tpeaews, of which the
twenty-eighth book is quoted by Caelius Au
relianus, on the subject of pleurisy, and the
twenty-ninth by Galen, on the subject of the
pulse. This is also referred to in a corrupt
passage* by Soranus, where, in treating of
the question whether or not there are any
diseases peculiar to women, he mentions
Apollonius Mus together with HerophUus
and Eraslstratus as holding the negative. He
is said by Celsus to have written a work
on pharmacy, which is probably the treatise
by Apollonius HerophUeus, " On Medicines
that are easily procured." Perhaps too this
may be the work alluded to by Palladius,
when he says that he wrote a Dynameron, in
which he ordered the same troche for every
kind of dysentery. (Caelius Aurelianus, De
Morb- Acut- lib. 11. cap. 13, p. 110, ed. Amman;
Celsus, De Medic, lib, v. Praf- p, 221. ed.
Argent. ; Strabo, Geogr. lib. xiv. cap. 1. p.
182. ed. Tauchn; Galen, De Differ. Puis.
lib. iv. cap. 10. tom. viii. p. 744. or 746., De
Dignosr. Puis- lib. iv. cap. 3. tom. vin. p. 955.,
* Instead of T^/™ tJJ? a-'tsiiritu? - we should read t^'itu
Ilsgi Tns Ai^ea-ius, or t-^/tw IlegJ t^j 'Hgo^/Aou Ai^itnais.'

APOLLONIUS.

APOLLONIUS.

De Antid. lib. ii cap. 7, 8. tom. xiv. p. 143.
146. ed. Kuhn ; Palladius, Comment- in
Hippocr. " Epid. VI." in Dietz, Schol. in
Hippocr. et Gal. vol. ii. p, 98, ; Soranus, De
Arte Obstetr. p, 210. ed. Dietz.) W, A. G,
APOLLO'NIUS {'AmXX^vios), of Myn-
Dus, an astronomer and astrologer who lived
in the time of Alexander the Great, He
asserted that he had learned his science from
the Chaldaeans, He mauitained that the
comets were stars like the sun and the moon,
only of a different form ; that they were very
nmnerous and moved in the more distant
regions of the universe, but that they became
visible only when they came nearer to our
earth. He also maintained that the Chal
daeans knew the courses of the comets as
well as those of the planets. These state
ments are just sufficient to show the import
ance of his works, which are completely lost,
with the exception of the above-mentioned
notices, which are preserved in Seneca. Apol
lonius was also greatly skilled in explaining
nativities. Stephanus of Byzantium speaks
of a grammarian, Apollonius, who was like
wise a native of Myndus, but his identity
with the astronomer is more than doubtful.
(Seneca, Naturales Quastiones, vii. 3. 17.;
Stephanus Byzant., under MvvSos-) L. S.
APOLLO'NIUS {'AiroXXdvios), a Greek
sophist and rhetorician of Naucratis in
Egypt. He was a pupU ofthe sophists Adrianus
and Chrestus, but resembled them in his oratory
as Uttle as if he had never heard them. He
taught rhetoric at Athens as an opponent to
HeracUdes, and consequently in the reign of
Septimius Severus, that is, about a. d. 200.
He chiefly cultivated political oratory, which
is said to have been very polished and
studied, but without spirit. He and his
pupils and friends formed a faction, which in
its hostUity to Heraclldes went so far as to
compel him to quit Athens. Apollonius
was at one time engaged as private tutor
to a Macedonian family of not very high
rank, and he is censured for this as if
he had made the engagement out of mere
love of money ; but he was nevertheless very
generous towards the Greeks whenever they
needed assistance ; and it is also stated that it
was very easy to make a bargain with him
for instruction. He was universally beloved
at Athens, where he died at the age of seventy.
He had a son Rufinus, by a concubine, who
Ukewise devoted himself to rhetoric, but ap
pears to have been a person of no talent.
(Philostratus, Vita Sophistarum, U. 19. 26.
8 2. ; Eudocia, p. 66.) L- S-
APOLLO'NIUS OPHIS {'A-,roXXii>vtos S
"Oifis), lived probably in the second or first
century b. c, and is by some persons sup
posed to be Apollonius Pergamenus, by others
Apollonius Ther. He wrote a work, which
is not now extant, in which he abridged and
arranged the treatise of Bacchius in explana
tion of the obsolete words to be found m
173

Hippocrates. (Erotianus, Gloss. Hippocr.
p. 8. ed, Franzius.) WAG
APOLLO'NIUS ORGA'NICUSCAiroAAdjl
vios 'OpyaviK^s), if the reading be not corrupt,
is the author of some medical formulae quoted
by Galen, and must therefore have Uved in
or before the second century after Christ.
Perhaps, however, the work quoted may be
the Einrdpio-Ta of Apollonius Herophileus.
(Galen, De Compos. Medicam. sec. Gen. lib.
V. cap. 15. tom. xiii. p. 856. ed. Kiihn.)
W. A. G.
APOLLO'NIUS PERCffiUS {'AmXXiivios
Tlepyaios), so called from Perga in Pamphylia,
his birth-place, was born in the reign of
Ptolemy Euergetes, and lived at Alexandria
under Ptolemy Philopator ( b, c, 222 — 205),
The time of his death is not known accurately:
but he was living when Archimedes died
(e, c, 212), Pappus represents him as in
clined to do injustice to the merits of others :
Eutocius, his commentator, states that, while
Uving, he was called " the great geometer,"
on account of his discoveries in conic sections.
This title, with the definite article, belongs
rather to Archimedes. But Apollonius lived
at Alexandria, the geometrical capital, and
Archimedes in Sicily, then the " ultima Thule"
of all science. Nothing more is known of
his life.
ApoUonius was an astronomer as well as a
geometer. Ptolemy has preserved his theo
rems on the stationary points of the planets ;
and we must suppose that he was the first
who solved the problem of finding the
stationary points and arc of retrogradation,
on the epicycUc hypothesis, which, though it
now bears the name of Ptolemy, had been
struck out by Hipparchus. Another Ptolemy
( not the astronomer, but the one surnamed
Chennus, the son of Hephaestio, whose frag
ments are preserved in Photius ) says that
Apollonius, who became a, celebrated as
tronomer under Philopator, got the nick
name of Epsilon, because he was a diligent
observer of the moon, which was signified by
the letter e. Fabricius thinks this refers to
another Apollonius, but without assigning
any reason. Copernicus (according to his
biographer, Gassendl) attributes to Apollonius
an astronomical system identical with that
afterwards proposed by Tycho Brahe, of
which we never could find any other notice.
But lately, in the extracts from the " Har-
monicon Cceleste " given by M. Libri, we
have seen an assertion of Vieta, that the
system just mentioned was caUed Apollonian,
because the Sun (Apollo) is the centre of
the planetary epicycles : and this is likely
enough to have been the true state ofthe case.
The works of Apollonius which have been
preserved are seven books of Conic Sections,
and a book " De Sectione Rationis." Besides
these. Pappus, in the celebrated preface to
his seventh book (in IlaUey's edition of the
tract " De Sectione Rationis," this preface is

APOLLONIUS.

APOLLONIUS.

given In Greek and Latin) gives the titles of
other works, " De Spatii Sectione," " De
Sectione determlnata," " De Tactionibus,"
" De Incllnationibus," " De Planis Locis,"
with a short description of the several con
tents. Various attempts have been made to
restore these and other lost treatises ; that is,
to write the most probable imitations of them
from such hints as surviving authors have
left. Mention of these properly belongs to
the biography of the restorers, not of the re-
scored ; it is here only necessary to caution
the reader against a mistake sometimes made,
namely, taking the restorations for genuine
works., Proclus mentions two works of
ApoUonius, " De Cochlea," and " De per-
turbatis Rationlbus." Vitruvius attributes to
him the invention of a species of clock caUed
pharetra; and Eutocius speaks of a work
called '^KVToSoov, a word which has puzzled
the commentators, in which Apollonius ex
tended the quadrature of the circle given by
Archimedes. Pappus, in the fragment ofthe
second book which Wallis has preserved, re
fers to some arithmetical work of ApoUonius,
but not hy name. Proclus mentions an
attempt of his to prove the axioms of Euclid.
Up to the middle ofthe seventeenth century,
nothing of Apollonius was known except the
first four books of the Conic Sections, which
had come down in Greek, with the commen
tary of Eutocius of Ascalon (a. d. 540) in the
same language : of these, one Latin transla
tion had appeared at Venice in 1537, by
J. B. Memmius ; another, by Commandine
at Bologna, in 1566 ; and a third, of little
note, by the Jesuit Claude Richard, at Ant
werp, in 1655. Translations had been made
into Arabic, which were to be found in Eu
ropean libraries, but had not been looked for.
About the middle of that century, James
Golius, professor of Oriental languages at
Leiden, returned from the East with abund
ance of Oriental manuscripts, and among
others, with seven books of the Conic Sec
tions. But, so it happened, in 1658, before
Golius had published anything, Affonso Bo-
relli found, among the manuscripts which had
been removed by purchase from the Medicean
library to that of Florence, an Arabic writing
with a Latin title " Apollonii Pergici Coni-
corum Libri Octo,'' Montucla says that it
has an Italian title : the fact is, the Italians
were long in the habit of speaking of Latin
as if they considered it a vernacular lan
guage, 'This manuscript, which professed to
be a translation by Abalphat of Ispahan,
on being examined by the assistance of cer
tain Maronites then at Florence, turned out
to agree with the Greek in the four books
which were common to both, and was accord
ingly acknowledged as a genuine translation.
But it only contained seven books, and a note
on the manuscript which Golius brought to
Europe stated, that no Arab translator had
ever found more than seven books ; but (ac-
174

cording to Golius as cited by Mersenne) Aben
Eddin, a learned bibliographer, states that he
had seen a part of the eighth book in Arabic,
and also that he had seen, in the same lan
guage, all the works of Apollonius mentioned
by Pappus, and more. The Maronites above-
mentioned recommended that the translation
should be entmsted to Abraham EccheUensis
(so his name, whatever it was, had been
Latinised), another Maronite, then at Rome,
and a distinguished teacher of Oriental lan
guages. Accordingly Borelli and Ecchel
lensis completed the translation of the fifth,
sixth, and seventh books, and pubUshed it at
Florence in 1661. Ravins also pubUshed a
translation of the same, from the Arabic of
one Abdu-1-malek, at Kiel (Kilonium) in
1669: this translation HaUey terms barbarous.
'The story of the restoration of these three
books, which was nearly completed when
Borelli made his discovery, belongs to the Ufe
of Viviani [VrviANi, Vincentio.]
But the best edition of ApoUonius, and the
only one which contains the Greek as far as
it goes, is the foUo pubUshed at Oxford in
1710, by Halley, (Gregory, who began it,
died before much progress had been made).
The origin of the splendid editions of EucUd,
ApoUonius, and Archimedes, which the uni
versity of Oxford pubUshed during the last
century, belongs to the Ufe of Doctor Edward
Bernard.* [Bernard, Edward.] HaUey
had previously, in 1706, (Svo.) published at
Oxford, from the Arabic, the treatise " De
Sectione Rationis;" he did not understand
Arabic when he began, and had only the
assistance of a few leaves of the translation
which Bernard had left. He procured, for
the edition of Apollonius, the manuscript
brought to Europe by GoUus, which he
found useful in interpreting and filling up
even the Greek text. This edition contains
the four books and the commentary of Euto
cius in Greek and Latin ; the fifth, sixth, and
seventh books, in HaUey's translation from
the Arabic ; and HaUey's attempt at a res
titution of the eighth book from the preli
minary lemmas given by Pappus. It also
contains the two books of Serenus on the
cone and cylinder.
The contents of the gi-eat work of Apollo
nius, taking the several books in order, are :
— I. The cone and its sections, the subcon-
trary circles, the eUlpse, hyperbola, and pa
rabola, and their distinctive properties. Apol
lonius uses all these terms ; Archimedes had
the yfQ\'& parabola only (56 propositions). 11.
On the axes, diameters, and asymptotes (53
props.). III. A misceUaneous book, in ex
tension of the former ones, with properties of
what are now caUed the foci (56 props.).
IV. On the mutual intersections of the cm-ves
* It is singular that, by a mere accident<il coincidence,
the university has fulfilled his first three intentions in
his own order. He meant that Pappus should be tho
fourth.

APOLLONIUS.
(55 props.). V. On maxima and minima
lines, and on normals (77 props,), VI, On
equal and on simUar sections (33 props.).
VII, On conjugate diameters (51 props.),
VIII. (conjectural) Problems for construc
tion from given data. It is asserted by Pap
pus that Euclid wrote on conic sections, and
that the first four books of ApoUonius are
taken from Euclid's work ; and Eutocius
mentions that Heracleius, the writer of a life
of Archimedes, charged Apollonius with pla
giarism from Euclid. But since it is certain
thjt Archimedes, and all who preceded Apol
lonius, only used that section of a right cone
which is at right angles to one of its sides,
and that Apollonius used every section of every
cone, right or oblique — it is as certain that
every part of the work of ApoUonius in
which he has any obligation to his predeces
sors must have been entirely remodelled ac
cording to his own system. The student who
wishes to get an idea of the genius of Apol
lonius should read the fifth book, (Pappus ;
Eutocius ; Viviani, Pref. Op. de Max. et
Min. ; HaUey, Op. Cit ; Montucla ; Fabri
cius, Biblioth. Grac. vol. iv.) A. De M,
APOLLO'NIUS PERGAME'NUSCAttoA-
hdivios & Tlepydprims), a native of Pergamus in
Mysia, must have lived in or before the first
century e. c, as he is mentioned by Varro in
his treatise on agriculture, as having writ
ten on that subject. He is also mentioned
by Columella and Pliny, He appears also to
have written a surgical or medical work, the
title of which is not preserved. Rather a
long extract from it is quoted by Oribasius, in
which Apollonius recommends scarification
of the legs in certain cases in preference
to blood-letting. In another passage (also
quoted by Oribasius) he says that he had
heard that many persons had recovered from
hydrophobia produced by other causes, but
not one after he had been bitten by a mad
dog. Different persons suppose him to be
the same as Apollonius Ophls, or Apol
lonius Ther, or Apollonius Herophileus, but
apparently without sufficient reason. (Varro,
De Re Rust. lib. i. cap. 1. § 8. ; Columella,
De Re Rust lib. i cap. 1. ^9. ed. Schneider;
Pliny, Index to Hist- Nat lib. x. ; Oribasius,
Synops. lib. i. cap. 14. p. 10., lib. viil. cap.
13. p. 124., Medic. Collect lib, vii. cap. 19,
20. p. 316., Eupor. ad Eunap- lib. i cap. 9,
p. 578. ed. H. Steph,; Matthaei's Collection
of Greek Medical writers, entUled XXI-
Veterum et Clarorum Medicorum Gracorum
Varia Opuscula, Moscow, 1808, 4to. p, 144.)
W, A, G,
APOLLO'NIUS, PETRUS COLLA'-
TIUS, calls himself a presbyter of Novara,
but nothing is known of him, except that he
is the author of several Latin poems. One
of them, in four books, is on the "Destruction
of Jerusalem" (de Excidio Hierosolyma;),
which was first printed at MUan in 1481, 4to,
A second edUion was published by J, Gagna;us
175

APOLLONIUS,
at Paris (1516), and a third at Antwerp by A.
Vanderbruch. Some other poems of Apollo
nius, among which we may mention " Car
men heroicum de Davide et Golla," "Christi
Querela ad Judaeos," " Elegia de Laudibus
Vitae rustlcae," and epigrams were coUected
and edited by L. A. Cotta, Milan, 1692, 4to,
The poetical merits of theseproductions are not
great ; and almost the ouly remarkable thing
in the history of Apollonius is, that some
editors of the Fathers have regarded him as
a Christian poet of the seventh century of our
aera, and accordingly have printed his poem on
the destruction of Jerusalem among the works
of the Fathers, But Gerard Vossius, Fabricius,
and others, have shown that he must have
lived about a. d, 1480, and that he is the
same person whom J, Caesar Scaliger mentions
in the sixth book of his poetics as belonging
to the fifteenth century, and of whom he says
that he pubUshed (versified) Fasti which were
praiseworthy for their pious spirit, but were
cold as poetical productions, and unsuccessful,
whenever the author went out of the elegiac
metre, (Vossius, De Historicis Latinis, p,
811, &c, ; Fabricius, Biblioth. Latina, lib. iv,
c 2,) L. S,
APOLLO'NIUS PRUSIENSIS {'AmXXci-
vios 6 Upovaievs), a native of Prusa in Bithynia,
who must have lived in or before the second
century after Christ, as he is quoted by
Soranus on the subject of the proper method
of extracting the placenta after parturition,
(Soranus, De Arte Obstetr- p. 95, ed, Dietz,)
W, A. G,
APOLLO'NIUS RHO'DIUS {'AttoXX^vws
'P6Stos) was a native of Alexandria, and a
son of Silleus or Ulcus and Rhode, He be
longed to the tribe (<()"Arj) Ptolemais, at Alex
andria, When Athenaeus and jElian call
him " a Rhodian or Naucratian," they pro
bably mean no more than that he was ho
noured with the civic franchise at Naucratis,
as he had before been at Rhodes. The exact
time of his birth is not known, but it is pro
bable that he was born about E, c, 235, in the
reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, and that he died
in that of Ptolemy Epiphanes, who was king
of Egypt from E, c, 204 to E, c, 181, Apol
lonius was at first a pupil of Callimachus,
but a difference in taste and in viewing the
objects of poetry soon arose between them,
which alienated the pupU from his master,
and ended in that enmity which gave vent in
bitter invectives, Apollonius appears to have
imbibed at an early age a great love for an
tique simplicity. Homer and the early Greek
poets were his great models, whereas Calli
machus, who possessed scarcely any poetical
talent, mistook a pompous display of anti
quarian lore for poetry, Apollonius con
ceived the plan of writing an epic poem on
the expedition ofthe Argonauts {' ApyovavTtKi),
with Jason as its hero. The Homeric poems
were his models, and he completed his poem
when yet a youth {eifnjgos). But when he

APOLLONIUS.

APOLLONIUS.

read it before a public assembly at Alexan
dria, he was treated with contempt and ridi
cule. The youthful production may, to some
extent, have deserved this severe censure ;
but there is no doubt that the envy and malice
of the other Alexandrine poets, with Calli
machus at their head, prejudiced the audience
against the young poet. Disheartened by
this failure, and unable to bear the disgrace
or to struggle against the jealousy of his con
temporary poets, Apollonius left Alexandria,
and went to Rhodes. The Greek Anthology
(xi. 275.) contains a severe epigram by him on
Callimachus, which was in all probability writ
ten about this time. Callimachus retaliated
by several satirical allusions in his poems, of
which his hymn on Apollo exhibits some
specimens, and more especially by a separate
poem, called " Ibis," which is now lost, but
of whieh we may form an idea from the imi
tation in Ovid's " Ibis." In Rhodes, ApoUo
nius taught rhetoric with great success, and
subjected his " Argonautica " to a thorough re
vision ; and when it had received all the
improvements of which the author thought
it capable, he read it to the Rhodians. It
was received with extraordinary favour ; and
this proof of his poetical talent, together with
the ability he had shown as a teacher of rhe
toric, induced the Rhodians to honour him
with their franchise and other distinctions.
He himself was so delighted with this, that
henceforth he called himself a Rhodian ; by
which name he was afterwards, and is to this
day, distinguished from the numerous other
persons of the name of Apollonius. Not
withstanding this acknowledgment of his
talents in a foreign land, he is said to have
returned to Alexandria. Here he now read
the second and improved edition of his poem,
which is said to have made such a sensation,
that he was at once looked up to as the greatest
poet of the day. He was appointed chief
manager of the libraries in the museum at
Alexandria, probably in E.c. 194, as the suc
cessor of Eratosthenes, ApoUonius appears
to have passed the remainder of his life at
Alexandria, for he is said to have been
burled there, and in the same tomb with Cal
limachus, This account of the life of Apol
lonius is based upon Suidas and the two ano
nymous Greek biographies which are printed
in most editions of the " Argonautica,"
Of the works of Apollonius Rhodius, which
do not appear to have been very numerous,
the " Argonautica," in four books, is the only
one that has come down to us. The work in
its present form is the second or revised
edition, which he pubUshed during his stay
in Rhodes, Gerhard, in the work cited below,
has shown satisfactorily that there is no MS,
of the first edition, but that those which do
exist contain the text of the second, with a
few interpolations here and there from the
first, of which the Scholia also have pre
served some readings. As regards the nia-
176

terials of the " Argonautica," Apollonius, like
all the poets of that period, coUected them by
extensive reading. The legends they took
for their subjects had ceased to live in the
minds of the people, and had become the ex
clusive property of the learned, who gathered
them from the early poets, logographers, his
torians, and geographers, and combined them
into new forms. 'The SchoUa on Apollonius
seldom lose an opportunity of telUng us from
what source the particular statements are
derived. The arrangement of the materials
in the " Argonautica " is of the simplest kind :
there is no artificiad contrivance for the pur
pose of making a plot ; and at first sight it
might even appear that the plan of the " Ar
gonautica" is simpler than that of the " Odys
sey," The course of the narrative is seldom
interrupted by episodes, and generally speak
ing they are not introduced except where
they are essential, and they are scarcely ever
mere ornaments. The interference of the
gods in the events described is very rare, and
occurs only incidentally. The Interest of
the whole poem, therefore, does not Ue in its
plot, but in the manner in which the whole
subject and each part is treated, and in the
pecuUar interest which is attached to the
story. But as this interest was no longer
sufficiently fresh to secure popularity, Apol
lonius enlivened it with his descriptions of
the tender passion of love, and of the emotions
of the heart, which are rarely introduced in
the earlier epics. The portions of the poem
containing such descriptions are executed
with great felicity, and the "Argonautica" on
the whole shows that the author was superior
to most of his contemporary poets. But,
notwithstanding these an^ other exceUencies,
the narrative is occasionaUy tedious ; and
notwithstanding all the variety of character
and incident, the poem wants that freshness
of conception and execution which in the
best epic poems secures the interest and wins
the sympathy of the reader. We cannot help
feeling that it is the work of labour rather
than of faith and inspiration : the poet pro
ceeds throughout with the utmost caution.
Even QuintUian and Longlnus appear to
have felt this, for QuintUian speaks of the
mediocrity that pervades the whole poem,
above which ApoUonius does not rise, and
below which he is prevented from falUng by
his caution (aequalis qiiaedam mediocritas) ;
and Longinus speaks of his thoughtfulness,
which, indeed, prevented him from rushing
into errors and inconsistencies, but is at the
saune time one of the causes of his inferiority
to the earlier epic poets. The style and lan
guage are imitations of Homer; but the
language is cramped by the aim of the author
to be brief and gi-ammatlcally correct. Apol
lonius, however, is free from aU studied ob
scurity and the learned pomp and ostentation
of the poets of that period. The opposition
which the reigning school of poetry at first

APOLLONIUS,

APOLLONIUS.

made to Apollonius and his views of poetry
seems to have been silenced soon after the
pubUcatlon of the second edition of the poem,
for several learned Greeks, some of whom
must have been contemporaries of Apollo
nius, -wrote commentaries upon the " Argo
nautica." Among these commentators we
may mention Charon, Aristophanes of Byzan
tium, Lucilius of Tarrha, Theon, and Ire-
naeus. From their commentaries are derived
our present valuable Scholia on ApoUonius.
Some of them were published in the editio
princeps of the Argonautica, by Janus Las-
carls, at Florence (1496, 4to.), whence they
are usuaUy called the Florentine Scholia ; and
others (Scholia Parisina) were subsequently
added to them from a Paris MS. by Schajfer
in his edition of the " Argonautica " (Leipzig,
1810-13, 2 vols. Svo.). Among the Ro
mans, the " Argonautica" of Apollonius were
very popular : Virgil has borrowed verses
from it ; and P. Terentius Varro Atacinus,
another poet of the Augustan age, made a
Latin translation of it, of which QulntiUan
speaks favourably. The Latin poem " Ar
gonautica " of Valerius Flaccus is a free imi
tation of that of Apollonius. About A. d. 500,
in the reign of Anastaslus I., a Greek, of the
name of Marianus, made a paraphrase of the
poem, consisting of 5608 iambic lines. Be
sides the two editions of the " Argonautica "
already mentioned, the following deserve to
be noticed. The editio princeps was fol
lowed by that of Aldus (Venice, 15S1, Svo,),
which is scarcely more than a reprint of the
former ; in fact, all the subsequent editions,
even including that of Henry Stephens, have
no critical value. The first scholar who
attempted to correct the text partly by the
assistance of MSS., and partly by conjectural
emendations, was Brunck, whose edition ap
peared at Strassburg, 1780, both in 4to, and
Svo. The edUion of J, Shaw (Oxford, 1777,
4to,) has no merits except the fine paper and
print. The best editions are those of Schaefer
and of Wellauer (Leipzig, 1S2S, 2 vols, Svo,),
the latter of which contains all the known
Scholia ; and the text is much emended with
the assistance of many MSS, There are
several English translations of the Argonau
tica ; those of F. Fawkes and Edward Bur-
naby Greene were printed in London, iu
1780, Svo.
Besides the " Argonautica," the ancients
mention the following works of ApoUonius :
— 1. " Epigrams," of which we possess only
that on CaUimachus. 2. Grammatical or
critical works, one of which was on Archi-
lochus (Trtpl 'Apx'Xdxov), and another Uphs
Z-riv6SoTov, which referred probably to the
revision of the Homeric poems made by that
grammarian, since the Scholiasts on Homer
occasionally refer to remarks of Apollonius.
A peculiar class of works, of which Apollo
nius wrote several, were, 3. his Kriaets, that
is, " Accounts of the Foundations of Towns."

Most of them appear to have been epic poems
and written in hexameter verse, as we see
from the fragments stiU extant. Five of
them are known — a. 'PoSov kt'otis, of which a
small fragment is preserved by Stephanus
Byzantius, under Adriov ; b. I^avKpdTeais
KTi'ons, of which six lines are preserved in
Athenaeus ; c, 'AXe^avSpeias ktIctis ; d. Kavvov
KTiffis ; ande, Kvi^ov Kricns, which is mentioned
by Stephanus Byzantius, under ^vKT-qptos.
Of the last three no fragments are extant.
There is also mention of a work of ApoUo
nius called " Canopus," which was probably a
work of a similar kind to his Kn'o-eis, It was
written in verse, and consisted of at least two
books ; only two lines of it are preserved,
(E, Gerhard, Lectiones Apolloniana, Leipzig,
IS 16, Svo,; A, Weichert, Ueber das Leben
und Gedicht des Apollonius von Rhodus, Meis
sen, 1821, Svo,) L. S.
APOLLO'NIUS STRATO'NIUS
{'AtroXXojvtos 5 a-Trb 'ZTpdruvos) is called by Ti-
raqueau (Tiraquellus) in his work " De Nobili-
tate," the son of Straton, but, as Fabricius re
marks, it seems more likely that he was only
his pupil. He was a foUower of Eraslstratus
(as was also his tutor Straton), and therefore
may be conjectured to have lived about the
third or second century e, c. He appears to
have written a work on the Pulse, or else a
medical treatise in which he gave three dif
ferent definitions of the Pulse, which are pre
served by Galen, He is by some .supposed to
be the same person as ApoUonius Memphites,
and with some probabiUty, (Galen, De Differ.
Puis- lib. iv. cap. 17. tom, vUi p. 759. ed,
Kiihn,)" W. A, G,
APOLLO'NIUS T ARSENSIS ('AiroAAoJwos
& Tapcreis,) a native of Tarsus in Cilicia, who
must have lived in or before the first century
after Christ, as he is quoted by Andromachus,
His medical formulae are sometimes quoted
hy Galen, but nothing is known of the events
of his life, (Galen, De Compos. Medicam.
sec. Locos. Ub. v. cap. 13. tom. xiii. p. 843.
ed. Kuhn.) W. A. G.
APOLLO'NIUS THER {'AiroXXdviosSerip)
must have lived in or before the first century
after Christ, as he is mentioned by Erotianus,
He is by some persons supposed to be the
same as Apollonius Ophls, or Apollonius
Pergamenus, He appears to have written
a work on the difficult words used by Hippo
crates, of which nothing remains but one
short extract presei-ved by Erotianus ; and
also a surgical treatise, from which Oribasius
has extracted the account of a bandage to be
used in case of a fracture of the jaw, (Ero
tianus, Gloss- Hippocr. p. 86. ed, Franzius ;
Oribasius, Collect. Medic, lib, xlviii, cap, 40. in
Mai, Class. Auct e Vatic- Codic- Editi, Rome,
Svo. 1831, tom, iv. p. 105.) W. A. G.
APOLLO'NIUS of Ty'ana {'AiroXXdvios
Tvavevs), a Pythagorean philosopher, who
lived in the first century after Christ, He
appears to have been a compound of the

APOLLONIUS.

APOLLONIUS.

philosopher, the fanatic, and the impostor,
respecting whom authentic accounts were
sufficiently scanty to leave plenty of room
for fiction to play in, while what was known
of him was remarkable enough to give an air
of credibility to the most extravagant fictions
of a later and uncritical age. We have what
professes to be an historical account of him
in a circumstantial narrative of his life by
Flavins Philostratus the elder. This work
was undertaken at the desire of Julia Domna,
the wife of the Emperor Septimius Severus,
who lent Philostratus an account ofthe travels
and adventures of Apollonius, written by an
Assyrian named Damis, who had accompanied
him. His account seems to have been the
groundwork of the narrative of PhUostratus,
The reader may form his o-wn opinion of the
credibility of a writer who, if our biographer
may be believed, gravely asserted that in
crossing Mount Caucasus he saw the chains
with which Prometheus had been bound to
the rock.* The other sources from which
Philostratus professes to have drawn his in
formation were, a work by one Maximus of
iEgae, giving an account of the life of Apollo
nius at that place ; a copy of the wUl of
Apollonius, and some of his letters, pre
served in the Ubrary of Hadrian, at Antium ;
and various traditions collected in cities
where the sage was revered, or temples whose
obsolete rites he had restored. There wais
another account of Apollonius by Moeragenes,
which Philostratus says he disregarded on
account of the ignorance which the writer
showed of many circumstances connected
with the philosopher. Suidas and Eudocia
(p. 384.) likewise mention an account of Apol
lonius by Sotericus Oasites, The most prolific
source has been the invention of the writer
himself. So preposterous are most of his
fictions that some have even doubted the
personal existence of Apollonius himself.
That such a person, however, Uved, and by
his ascetic habits and pretended supernatural
gifts attracted not merely the wonder but the
adoration of the vulgar appears unquestion
able. The assertion of Dion Cassius that he
lived in the time of Domitian, and the re
ligious reverence paid to him in many
temples, are inconsistent with any other sup
position, though the fact that he is not
mentioned by any writer earlier than Apu-
* The personal existence of Damis is very question
able. There is nothing to show tliat the work as
cribed to him was not a mere fiction. According; to
Philostratus it had been presented by one of his rela
tions to the Empress Julia, from whose hands it passed
into those of Pliilostratns, BO that at all events it was
not a book commonly known. Bohlen, who considers
it to have been a mere romance, remarks that the
name Damis, or something like it, is a kind of standing
type, when any account is to bo given of India. Thus
in Strabo Onesicritus converses with a Mandanis ;
Porphyrius mentions Damad.imis, with whom Bar-
desanes held intercourse ; and the same hero Dan-
damis is found in Palladius. Amongst the Indi.ans,
Damas or Dama is a common name. (Das alie Indien,
Th. 1. p. 73.) 178

lei US and Lucian may be looked upon as a
proof that he did not play so important a,
part as is assigned to him by his biographer.
Had he been mixed up with the political events
of his time in the way described by Philos
tratus he could not faU to have been men
tioned by Tacitus and Suetonius. Dion
Cassius talks of him as a certain Apollonius
of Tyana. Having no other authentic sources
of information, it is of course impossible for
us to separate throughout the true from the
false in the narrative of Philostratus ; but if
we strip it of its marvellous features there
seems no sufficient reason for denying it
altogether a foundation in fact. The out
lines of it are perhaps genuine, and this
appears to have been the light in which
it was regarded by Eusebius. The following
is a sketch of the account given by PhUos
tratus : —
ApoUonius was bom at Tyana, a Greek
colony in Cappadocia, somewhere probably
about the commencement of the Christian
aera. He was named after his father, who
traced his descent to the original founders of
the city. Wonders were not wamting at his
birth, and we are told that the god Proteus
appeared to his mother, and announced to
her that the child she was about to bring forth
would be an incarnation of himself. A
chorus of swans is said to have ushered him
into the world. In his native country he was
reputed to be a son of Jupiter, hut it appears
that he did not himself lay claim to a divine
parentage (PhUostratus, i 6.). At the age of
fourteen he was taken to Tarsus and placed
under the care of a rhetorician named Euthy
demus, a native of Phcenicia. Disgusted with
the luxuries and effeminate manners of the
place, he obtained his father's permission to
remove with his instructor to the neighbour
ing town of iEgae. Here he became
acquainted with disciples of the schools of
Pythag;oras, Plato, Aristotle, Chrysippus,
and Epicurus, He was instructed by Euxe-
nus iu the doctrines of Pythagoras, and by
the age of sixteen was an enthusiaistic dis
ciple of that phUosopher, and resolved to
observe rigidly his ascetic regulations. Ac
cordingly, he clothed himself in linen, went
barefoot, suffered his beard and hair to grow,
abstained from flesh and wine, and renounced
the company of women. He betook himself
to the temple of jEsculapius at .Slgse, and the
god was pleased to intimate his satisfaction
at having such a guest. The fame of his
wisdom soon spread, and attracted numbers
to the place. When he had reached the age
of twenty his father died. He hastened to
Tyana, and buried him with his own hands.
He divided his own share of the Inheritance
with his elder brother, whom he succeeded
in reclaiming from a vicious course of life,
and distributed most of the remainder among
his relatives. He then returned to his ascetic
discipline, and entered upon the observance

APOLLONIUS.
of the five years' mystic silence. This period
he spent partly in Pamphylia and partly in
Cilicia. He afterwards visited other parts of
Asia Minor. His principal concern was to
re-establish in their original purity the re
ligious rites of the Greek cities which he
came to, and to replace barbaric ceremonies
with others of a purer kind. Either urged
by a thirst for knowledge, or desirous of
emulating Pythagoras, he resolved to visit
India. He first went to Nineveh, where he
met with Damis, who agreed to accompany
him, and whom he contrived to impress with
the notion that he was a superhuman beiug
(i. 19.), making him believe that he had an
intuitive understanding of aU languages, not
excepting those of animals (iv. 3.), and could
even discern the thoughts of men. From
Nineveh he proceeded to Babylon, where he
was admitted to intercourse with the Parthian
king Bardanes, and made himself acquainted
with the doctrines of the magi. After a con
siderable stay here the travellers were fur
nished by the king with camels to convey
them to Taxila, the residence of king
Phraotes, who entertained them during their
stay at his capital, which the law did not
permit to be extended beyond three days.
On their departure he gave them a letter of
introduction to larchas, the chief of the
Gymnosophists. On reaching the river
Hyphasis, we are told, they found some
altars which had been erected by Alexander,
when he reached this, the limit of his expe
dition. At last they arrived at the residence
of the Brahmins, in the description of whom
either Damis or Philostratus has dra-wn most
copiously on his imagination. Apollonius
was received with great condescension by
larchas and his companions, who unfolded to
him all their stores of knowledge, and after a
stay of four months dismissed him with a
full conviction that Pythagoras must have
derived his wisdom from them. From the
abode of the Brahmins the traveUers made
their way to the sea coast, and proceeded by
water to Babylon. After- an interview with
Bardanes they went to Nineveh, and thence
to Antioch. From Seleucia, near the mouth
of the Orontes, they sailed to Cyprus, and
thence to Ephesus in Ionia.
The fame of the wisdom of Apollonius had
gone before him ; crowds met and followed
him, and deputations came to him from other
cities of Ionia. He now assumed the charac
ter of a moral reformer, preached against the
luxury and vices of the Ephesians, and
warned them of a plague that was coming
upon them. Finding them deaf to his ex
hortations and his warnings, he left them,
and travelled through other parts of Ionia,
preaching and urging the people to apply
themselves to virtue and the study of phi
losophy. While at Smyrna, ambassadors
came to him from Ephesus, where the plague
was raging, praying him to come to their
179

APOLLONIUS.
assistance. He instantaneously transported
himself thither, and pointed out to them the
da!mon of the plague under the form of an
old beggar, whom by his direction they
stoned, and afterwards found under the heap
the dead body of a huge dog, which the
daimon had entered. Leaving Ionia, he set
out for Greece, visiting the temples on his
way, and supporting his character of a moral
and religious reformer, by pretensions to
supernatural powers and prophecy. It is
after his return from the East that we first
hear of his working miracles. It has been
suggested that by his intercourse with the
Magi and Brahmins he had probably acquired
the knowledge of some secrets, which enabled
him on many occasions to exert what ap
peared to be a superhuman power. He
arri-yed at Pirajus at the time of the cele
bration of the Eleusinian mysteries, but the
hierophant at first refused to initiate him, on
the ground of his being a magician. When
he aftei-wards offered to do so, ApoUonius
refused to undergo the ceremony at his
hands. After visiting the great temples and
principal places in Greece, he set out for
Crete, and thence took ship for Rome, with a
considerable train of disciples. He reached
Italy just after Nero had issued his edict
against philosophers and magicians, and the
danger he incurred by proceeding speedily
caused the number of his followers to
diminish. On arriving at Rome he was
taken before the consul Teleslnus, who dis
missed him out of regard for philosophy,
and gave him introductions to the priests
of the different temples, where he preached
and taught as usual. Having been brought
before TigelUnus for some disrespectful ex
pressions to-wards the emperor, as soon as
the roll containing the accusation was opened,
the writing was found to have vanished.
TigelUnus wisely took warning and let him
go. His wise discourses and modest be
haviour, and especiaUy the miracle of restor
ing a young lady to life, drew upon him
universal attention and respect. "When Nero
was setting out on his journey to Greece, he
published an edict directing all philosophers
to quit Rome. Apollonius accordingly left
Italy and visited Spain, After setting on
foot, or at all events encouraging, a plot
against Nero, he crossed over into Africa,
Thence, touching in his course at Lower Italy
and Sicily, where he heard of the death of
Nero, he went to Athens, and was initiated
into the Eleusinian mysteries by the hiero
phant, whose appointment he had foretold on
his previous visit. He next traveUed into
Egypt, At Alexandria he met with \'espa-
sian, who was preparing to seize the imperial
power, Vespasian was anxious to secure his
assistance, and begged him to make him
emperor. Apollonius repUed that he had
already done so, for he had prayed the gods
to grant the people an upright and venerable
N 2

APOLLONIUS.

APOLLONIUS.

sovereign. Vespasian declared he would be
guided by his advice, and professed to rest
all his hopes of success on his assistance and
direction. Euphrates, a Stoic in Vespasian's
train, was jealous of the superior deference
paid to ApoUonius, and inveighed against his
servUity and the ambition of Vespasian.
This laid the foundation of a lasting enmity
between Apollonius and Euphrates, which
broke out into an open quarrel on Vespasian's
departure from Egypt. ApoUonius next
visited .Ethiopia and the cataracts of the
NUe, and discoursed with the .Ethiopian
Gymnosophists. On his retum from the ex
pedition he spent some time in Lower Egypt,
and then took a journey into Phcenicia, At
the invitation of Titus he repaired to Argos
in Cilicia, where he had an interview with
the emperor. On the accession of Domitian,
he endeavoured to excite the provinces of
Asia Minor against the tyrant. At last in
formation of a prophecy which he had uttered
against the emperor was conveyed to Rome
by Euphrates, Orders were sent to have
Apollonius arrested and brought to Rome,
but he anticipated this design by going to
Rome of his own accord. On his arrival
he was thrown into prison. The charges
brought against him were, that his dress and
manner of living were singular ; that adora
tion had been paid to him as to a god; that
he had spoken against the emperor ; and
that, in order to procure his death, he had in
company with Nerva, sacrificed an Arcadian
boy in a solitary place by night. When
brought before the emperor he launched out
into the praise of Nerva, and bitterly re
proached Domitian for listening to the false
accusations of informers. He was sent back
to prison, and treated with great severity.
On being again brought up and put upon his
trial, he made so exceUent a defence, that
Domitian acquitted him, whereupon, after
administering another severe rebuke to the
emperor, he vanished from their sight, and
appeared the same hour at Puteoli to his
disciples Damis and Demetrius, He then
crossed over to Greece, As soon as his
arrival there was known, crowds flocked to
see him, and he gave out that he had been
acquitted and liberated by Domitian, After
a stay of two years in Greece, he again went
to Ionia, and at Ephesus is said to have pro
claimed the assassination of Domitian, at the
very time it was perpetrated, Dion Cassius
(Ixvii, 18, ) also mentions this circumstance.
Of the time and place of his death we have
no account, and Philostratus expresses a
doubt whether he ever died at aU. Accord
ing to one story he ascended to heaven from
the temple of Dictynna in Crete. Numerous
temples and altars were dedicated to him in
Asia Minor and Greece, (Vopiscus, Aure
lius, c, 24,), Caracalla dedicated one to him
(Dion Cassius, Ixxvii. 18,), The emperor
Alexander Severus reverenced him as one of
180

his Penates, together with Abraham, Or
pheus, and Jesus Christ (Lampridius, Alex
ander Severus, 29,), Eusebius says that even
in his time there were persons who pretended
to perform magical incantations by invoking
ApoUonius, His native city, where a temple
was dedicated to him, was held sacred, and
had the privUege of choosing its own magis
trates, though by whom this right was con
ferred we are not infoi-med,
Apollonius is stated by ancient writers to
have been the author of the foUowing works :
1, "Tpivos els MvripoaivTiv (Philostratus, i, 14,;
Suidas, sub voc. 'ATroXAdvios). 2. Uvdaydpov
S6^ai, said to have been preserved in the library
of Hadrian at Antium, (Philostratus, viii. 20.).
3. TlvBaySpov Bios (Suidas, I, c), lamblichus
{De Vita Pythag. 254.) mentions the work of
Apollonius on Pythagoras, It has been sug
gested by Jonsius and Meiners that much of
what we read in Porphyry and lamblichus
about Pythagoras wais derived from this
source. 4. AioS^kt), his wUl, written in Ionic
Greek, while all his other works were written
in the Attic dialect (Philostratus, 1. 3.,vU. 39.).
5. 'AiroXoyia, a defence against the charges of
Euphrates (Philostratus, viU. 7.). 6. nepl Mai/-
reias 'AoTepcoj/, the fruit of his intercourse
with the Indian Gymnosophists (Philostratus,
Ui. 41.), 7, T€AeTa!, ^ Trepl @v(riuv (PhUostra
tus, Ui, 41,, iv, 19,; 'Eusehias, De Prap. Evang.
iv. 13.), 8. Xpria-p-oi (Siudas). They were
engraved on brazen piUars at Byzantium,
{Codinus in Orig. Constantinop. p, 30,), 9.
NvxB^fifiepov, a spurious work. 10, Letters.
There is extant a collection of ninety-five let
ters (including some written to ApoUonius)
which are undoubtedly spurious. They differ
from the letters referred to and quoted by
Philostratus. Opinions are divided as to
whether these last are genuine or not. The
'AiroAo7i'a (preserved by PhUostratus, viii, 7,)
is the only other extant work of Apollonius.
Apollonius seems to have laid but very
little stress on the Pythagorean doctrine of
numbers (PhUostratus, iii. 30.), and though
he attached some value to mathematics, music,
and astronomy, he considered them as of su
bordinate importance. His endeavours were
mainly directed to the purification of reli
gious usages. From a fragment of his work
on sacrifices (Eusebius, Prap. Evang. iv. 13.),
it appears, that he not only rejected animal
sacrifices, but taught that no sacrifices shoiUd
be offered to the deity, because every thing
connected with eai-th would be impure in his
sight, but that he should be worshipped with
that prayer which is the offering of the heart,
and which need not be expressed in words.
His belief in the transmigration of souls was
probably connected with his aversion to ani
mal sacrifices. There can be no doubt that
he laid claim to supernatural powers and
prophetic foresight, and was believed by his
contemporaries and by posterity to be a
magician (Dion Cassius ; Lucian ; Apuleius ;

APOLLONIUS.

APOLLONIUS,

Eusebius, &c,). Philostratus strives to incul
cate the notion that he wrought his miracles
not by magic, but through a supernatural in
sight into the laws and operations of nature
(see especiaUy, i, 2,, iv. 45., v. 12.). It was
probably on this account that PhUostratus
rejected the account of Apollonius given by
Moeragenes, the only one of the authors he
alludes to who is known to us from other
sources. Origen {contra Cels. -vi. 41.) tells
us that Mcsragenes had described Apollonius
ais a magician, by whose impostures many
philosophers had been deceived,
A great deal of the celebrity of ApoUonius
has arisen from the circumstance that several
attempts have been made to set him up as a
rival to our Saviour. Such an attempt was
made by Hierocles of Nleomedia in the time
of Diocletian, (in a work entitled ^iXaX-riBns
A6yos), a refutation of which by Eusebius,
bishop of Caesarea, we still possess. The
attempt has been renewed by deistical writers
of modern times, for example, Blount and
Lord Herbert. Blount wrote a translation
of the life of Apollonius by Philostratus, ac
companied by a commentary. In consequence
of the deistical tendency of the latter, the
work was suppressed after the publication of
the first two books. (Note I. in Bayle, Diet
Crit art, " Apollonius de Tyane.") The co
incidence between many circumstances in the
narrative of Philostratus and those recorded
in the evangelical history, has led many to
suppose that he wrote his account of ApoUo
nius with a simUar view. It contains how
ever no sufficient traces of an intention on
the part of the writer to institute any com
parison at all between Apollonius and Christ.
It is at all events clear that he did not write
with any feeUng of hostility towards Chris
tianity. If he intended to draw any paraUel at
all, it was probably between Apollonius and
Pythagoras. He seems to have borrowed from
all sources whatever wonderful circumstances
promised to give interest to his narrative (as
may be shown with regard to Ctesias, Agathar-
chides, and others), and amongst the rest he
has taken several from the history of Jesus
Christ recorded by the evangelists. Some of
these have been given in this sketch of the
life of Apollonius, For others, as the heal
ing of the sick and the casting out of devUs,
we refer the reader to Philostratus, The
absurdities and incongmities of his story
have been pointed out by several writers, as
Bishop Lloyd (in a letter to Bentley), Bishop
Parker, and Du Pin. A long account of
Apollonius, as he is depicted by Philostratus,
may be found iu a work by Dr. F, C. Baur,
entitled " ApoUonius von Tyana und Chris
tus, Oder das Verhiiltniss des Pythagoreis-
mus zum Christenthum," Tubingen, 1832,
He considers that PhUostratus intended that
his work should be regarded, not as a history,
but as the delineation of the ideal of a Py
thagorean philosopher and reformer of the
181

world in the person of Apollonius ; and that
he intended to draw a parallel between him
and Christ, though without any controversial
aim. There is an English translation of
Philostratus by the Rev, E, Berwick. (See
also the preliminary dissertation by Olearius
in his edition of Philostratus ; Bayle, Diet.
Crit. art, " Apoll. de Tyane ;" Brucker, Hist
Crit. Phil. vol. u. p. 98.; Tiedemann, Geist
der Speculativen Phil. vol. in. p. 108.; Ritter,
Gesch. der Phil, vol, iv. p. 523. ; Rasche, Lex.
Rei Num.) C. P. M.
APOLLO'NIUS {'AiToXXdivws), of Ttre,
a Stoic philosopher, lived shortly before the
time of Strabo, who mentions him as the
author of a history of the philosophers and
their works from the time of Zeno {Tltva^
Twv anb 'Lrjvrtivos <piXotr6(p(ov Kai tuv jSijSaIqjc).
On Zeno himself he appears to have written
a separate work consisting of several books.
It is not unUkely that he may be the same
as the Stoic Apollonius, who, according to
Photius, -wrote a history of women who had
distinguished themselves as philosophers or
otherwise {8(rat yvvdiKes e(piXoff6(p'r\(jav ^ Kai
hXXots TI eir'iho^ov dteirpd^avTo). AVhether
he is the same as the Apollonius to whom
Stephanus of Byzantium ascribes a chronicle
{xpoviKd), of which he quotes the fourth
book, cannot be ascertained. (Strabo, xvi,
757, ; Diogenes Laertius, vii, 1, 2. 24, 28, ;
Photius, Biblioth. p. 104. b. ed. Bekker ; Ste
phanus Byzant. imder XaXKJiTopiov.) L. S,
APOLLO'PHANES {'A-!roXXo,pdvns) an
Attic poet of the school of the Old Comedy,
supposed to have been contemporary with
the comic poet Strattis, and therefore to
have lived about B,c, 400, Suidas ("AttoA-
Xorpdvris) ascribes to him five comedies, of
three of which some fragments are extant,
hut none of the other two. (Meineke, His
toria Comicorum Gracorum, p. 266. ; Bode,
Geschichte der Hellenisehen Koniik, 1. 390, ;
Harpocration, s\ihroc.'ASeX<pi(^eiv.) R.W — n.
APOLLO'PHANES {'AiroXXoipdvris) an an
cient physician, was bom at Seleucia, but at
which city of that name does not appear. He
was physician to Antiochus the Great, king of
Syria (b. c. 223 — 187), who seems to have
treated him also as a friend and counsellor, of
which an instance is given by Polybius. He
may perhaps be the same physician, who is
said by Caelius Aurelianus to have been a
follower of Erasistratus, and who is quoted
by Celsus, PUny, Galen, and other ancient
authors. Reinesius, in cortecting the corrupt
reading Aphanes in Athenaeus to Apollo
phanes, (which reading is now universaUy
adopted,) considers the Stoic phUosopher to
be the same person as the physician of Anti
ochus, though, apparently, merely because
they must have been contemporaries. There
are extant two bronze coins of the city of
Smymai, having on one face the name Apol
lophanes ; and Dr. Mead wrote an elegant
and leai-ned Latin dissertation to prove that
N 3

APOLLOPHANES.

APOSTOLI.

these and several other coins of the same
city were struck in honour of certain eminent
physicians of the Herophilean and Erasistra-
tean schools of medicine, which are men
tioned by Strabo as having been established
at Men-Carus in Phrygia and at Smyrna.
This supposition is, however, now generally
considered to be incorrect ; and the best au
thorities seem agreed in the opinion, that
though some of the persons named on these '
coins may have been physicians, yet it is not
as physicians but as magistrates that their .
names are mentioned. (Polybius, Hist. lib. v.
cap. 56. 58. ; Caelius Aurel. De Morb. Acut.
lib. ii cap. 33. p. 150, 151. ed. Amman; Rei
nesius, 'Varia Lect. lib. iii. cap. 2, p, 335. ;
Athenaeus, Deipnos. lib. vil, § 14. p. 281. ed.
Casaub. ; Mead, Dissert, de Numis quibusdam
a Smyrnais in Medicorum Honorem percussis,
London, 1724, 4to. p, 47, ; Strabo, Geogr.
lib. xU. p. 580. ; Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca,
vol. xiii. p. 76. ed. vet. ; Wise, Catal. Numm.
in Museo Bodl. p. 145. &c. ; Eckhel, Doctr.
Numm. Vet. tom, ii, p. 539, ; C, G, Kiihn,
Additam. ad Elench. Medicor. Veter. a Jo.
A. Fabricio, S^c. exhibitum, Leipzig, 1826, 4to,
fasc, iU, p. 8.) W, A, G,
APOLLOS, [Paul.]
APOLLO'THEMIS. [Lvcurgus.]
APOMASAR. [Paulus of Alexan
dria.] APONTE, SEBASTIAN DE, a Spanish
sculptor who lived, says Ponz, when good
taste in the arts began to revive in Spain,
He made the stalls of -the choir ofthe colle
giate church of Medina del Campo, which,
according to tradition, were transported from
the celebrated monastery of St, Gerome at
Guadalupe in Spain, ( Ponz, Viage in Es
paiia ; Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historica,
Sfc) R, N, W,
APO'NUS, PE'TRUS, [Abano, Pietro
DI,] APOSTOLES, PEDRO DE LOS.
[Apostolis, Petrus ab.]
APOSTOLI, FRANCESCO, was born at
Venice in the latter half of the eighteenth
century. He early obtained an appointment
in the civil service of his country, but soon
abandoned it iu order to visit France and
Germany. He spent eighteen months in
Bavaria with Count Maximilian von Lam-
berg, who was at that time occupied in re
vising and enlarging his work, entitled,
" Memorial d'un Mondain," the second
volume of which he dedicated to Apostoli.
In Augsburg, Apostoli formed an intimacy
with Le Roy di Lozembrune, and wrote
jointly with him five " Contes sentimentaux."
Having returned shortly afterwards to Venice,
he wrote several letters, from time to time,
under the assumed name of IClost, to his
friend Lozembrune, which were pubUshed at
Augsburg, lu 1777, under the title, " Lettres
et Contes sentimentaux de George Wan-
derson ;" the tales being in part the compo-
182

sition of Lozembrune, For some years he
remained quietly in his native city, em
ployed in the service of the government. In
1782 he published, "Saggio per servire alia
Storia de' Viaggi filosofici e de' Principi
Viaggiatori," but being again seized with a
desire to travel, he went to Vienna, where he
remained until the commencement of the re
volutionary disorders in France, when he re
tumed to Venice, Indulging in too great
freedom of speech, he was exiled to Corfu,
His banishment terminated with the exist
ence of the Venetian republic, and on gain
ing his freedom, he went to Milan, where he
underwent various reverses of fortune, as re
lated in his " Lettere Sirmiensi," At Milan
he also published, in three volumes, a work
entitled, " Rappresentazione del Secolo
XVIII," The repubUc of San Marino chose
him their representative to Napoleon, then
first consul, and he proceeded to Paris with
much satisfaction ; unfortunately, however.
he was extremely diminutive in person, and
was much annoyed with the saying, " petite
republique, petit representant," appUed to
him by the French. The Uttle consideration
also in which he found himself held induced
him to avoid pubUcity, and he occupied him
self with the composition of his " Histoire de
la Revolution par un Etranger," when he was
suddenly ordered to quit Paris within twenty-
four hours. On his retum to Italy, he ob
tained the post of delegate of police, first at
the Ponte di Lago Scuro, and aifterwards at
Venice. But he soon lost aU public em
ployment, and then commenced his " Storia
dei GalU, Franchi e Francesi. This work
was so iU received, that no more than
the first volume was published ; but it
procured him the office of Departmental In
spector deUa Libreria e Stanipa in Padua,
which post he held until the downfall of
Napoleon. He theu applied himself to
theatrical composition, aud two of his farces,
" E' tutto un Momento," and " La Merenda
alia Zuecca," were played with success, and
are inserted in the " CoUezione di Opere
teatrali," published at Venice ; but the profits
arising from these labours were far from
sufficient for his maintenance, and he died at
Venice, in February, 1816, in a state of the
most abject poverty. He was a man of great
wit, and a pleasing -writer, but restless and
imprudent, and is stated to have died " aban
doned by all." {Biografia Universale Antica
e Moderna ; Biographie Universelle, Suppl.) J. W. J.
APO'STOLI, GIOVANNI FRANCES
CO, was a native of Montemagno, a vUlage
of Monferrato, and lived in the latter half of
the sixteenth century. Hewas professor of the
humanities in Casale, and a member of the
Academia degl' lUustratl di Casale. He is
principally known as a Latin poet: Tiraboschi
gives him credit for facility of expression,
and Vallam-i claims for some of his verses

APOSTOLL
the merit of " a certain deUcacy of thought."
He was much addicted to satire and playful
compositions, and in 1580 published, at Milan,
in Svo., a volume of Latin poems of this
species, with the title "Succisivae Horae."
This work was the source of great trouble to
him, many persons of both sexes considering
themselves personally attacked in it, and re
garding it consequently as a defamatory libel.
At the representation of the bishops of Alex
andria and Aqui, and the inquisitor of these
two cities, to Carlo Borromeo, it was resolved
that the book should be suppressed ; but very
little appears to be known respecting this
part of the transaction. However, it is cer
tain that a few years afterwards the book was
reprinted, with alterations and additions, in
two volumes, in Svo, : the first volume, printed
at Pavia in 1588, comprises four books of
epigrams and one of elegies; the second,
which did not appear until the following
year, consists of two books of silve, two of
epistles, and one of odes. Another edition
was published at Asti in 1597, in Svo,
Some of these poems were afterwards inserted
by J. Gruter in his " Delitiaj Italorum Poet
arum," published in 1608, vol, i p. 239—257,
Some of his verses are Ukewise printed in the
"Carmina Illustrium Poetarum Italorum,"
Florence, 1719, vok i. p, 307—326. In
addition tothe above, he -wrote — 2, "Epi
grammata varia in Funere Margueritae Valesiae
Ducissae Sabaudiae," Pavia, 1589, Svo, 3.
" Ode dicolos distrophos ad Franciscum Be-
cium Montisferrati Senatorem, Item de
eodem Epigramma :" inserted in vol, i, of the
" ConsUiorum Becii," 4. Latin Verses in
serted in the " Paedarchidion," &c. of G,
Furni da Asti, Turin, 15S1, Svo. (VaUauri,
Storia della Poesia in Piemonte, Torino, 1841,
; 158—160, 243, 244. ; MazzuchelU, Scrit
tori d'ltalia.) J- W. J.
APO'STOLI, PIE'RO FRANCESCO
DEGLI, was a native of Val d'Ugia, in the
district of Novara, and in 1594 entered the
order of canons regular of the Lateran. He
studied at Padua, and applied himself particu
larly to canon law under Marcantonio Ottelio.
He acquired much reputation as a preacher
in Palermo, Genoa, Rome, Malta, and other
places; was theologian to Cardinal Orsini,
consultore of the inquisition, and the second
abbot of the Grazie di Novara, in which city
he coUected a choice library. He died some
time after the year 1649. His works are —
1. DeUe Lodi di S. Carlo Borromeo Pane-
girico, &c" Rome, 1617; and the following,
which have not been published — 2. " Plura
ad Quinque Libros Decretalium." 3. "Ad
Loca selecta Sacrae Scripturae." 4. " De Im-
munitate ecclesiastica." (Rosini, Lycei La
teranensls Illustrium Scriptorum Elogia, ii.
162.; Cotta, Museo Novarese, 253, 254.;
MazzuchelU, Scrittori d'ltalia.) •^¦^'i'
APOSTO'LIDES, ARISTOBU'LUS.
Apostolius, Aristoeulus.]
183

APOSTOLIS.
APO'STOLIS, PETRUS AB, or PE
DRO DE LOS APOSTOLES, a Carmelite,
prior of the convent of Gibraltar, was born
at SeviUe towards the middle of the sixteenth
century. He wrote — 1. "A Life of Andreas
Corsini, Bishop of Fiesole," in Italian, whieh
wais pubUshed at Florence prior to the year
1603. 2. " Kalendarium perpetuum Ordinis
CarmeUtarum," Venice, 15SS, Svo. 3. "Ca;-
remoniale Ordinis CarmeUtarum," pubUshed
anonymously at Rome in 1616, 4to. (VilUers
a S. Stephano, Bibliotheca Carmelitana, U.
548. ; N. Antonius, Bibliotheca Hispana Nova,
U. 172. ; Arana de Varfiora, Hijos de Sevilla-')
J. W. J.
APOSTO'LIUS, ARISTOBU'LUS, arch
deacon of Rome, was a son of Michael Apos-
toUus. The time of his birth and death is
not known. He edited, with a Greek pre
face, the first edition of the " Galeomyoma-
chia," or " Battle of the Cats and Mice " (a
Greek burlesque poem in imitation of Homer's
" Batrachomyomachia "), supposed to have
been printed by Aldus about the year 1494.'''
Ebert, in his " Bibliographical Repertory,"
asserts that Arlstobulus and Arsenius are one
and the same person, and refers to VUloison,
who, however, caUs Arlstobulus the brother of
Arsenius, and there appears no reason to doubt
the correctness of this statement. In a Greek
epigram by him prefixed to the " Thesaurus
Cornucopiae et Hortl Adonidis," printed by
Aldus in 1496, he is called Arlstobulus
ApostoUdes. (Boerncr, De Doctis Hominibus
Gracis, §-c. ; Hodius, De Gracis Illustribus,
Lingua Graca Instauratoribus, 320. ; Fabri
cius, Bibliotheca Graca, ed. Harles, 1. 337.)
J. y\'- J.
APOSTO'LIUS, MICHAEL, a learned
Greek, a native of Constantinople, who lived
in the middle of the fifteenth century. On
the capture of Constantinople by the Turks,
in 1453, or shortly afterwards, Apostolius,
being obliged to quit his native country,
passed into Italy, where he obtained for some
time the protection of Cardinal Bessarion. In
the year 1462, he was residing at Viterbo.
He had engaged in the dispute between the
Platonists and AristoteUans, and in order,
according to Tiraboschi, to please his patron
the cardinal, he adopted the arguments of the
Platonists, and wrote against Theodorus Gaza,
who advocated the opinions of Aristotle. f
His remarks both upon Gaza and Aristotle
were characterised by coarseness and scurri
lity, and drew upon him very severe animad
versions from Bessarion, in a letter which has
been published by M. Boivin, tom. 11. p. 775.
of the " Miimoires de TAcadcmie des Inscrip
tions," together with another addressed hythe
* The author of this work was not known until
VUloison, in his " Anecdota Graica " (ii. 245.), proved
it to be by Theodorus Prodromus.
t This work, which was never printed, is called
" Apologia pro Gemisto Plethone adversus Theodori
Gazx irsgl Ower/ow Librum, Piatonis Philosophiai detra-
hens, Anstotelicara cxtoUens."
N 4

APOSTOLIUS,

APOSTOLIUS.

cardinal to Andronicus Callistus, who had
answered Apostolius with much moderation.
These letters were written in the year 1462.
Whether this circumstance induced the cardi
nal to withdraw his protection from Aposto-
Uus, as has been asserted by some, or whether
he had involved himself in difficulties by the
manner in which he advocated the cause of
the Greek church against the Latins and the
council of Florence, is not certain; but it
appears that he was obliged to quit Italy and
that he retired to Crete, where he gained a
scanty subsistence by teaching chUdren and
transcribing manuscripts. He called him
self the King of the Poor. Valery, in his
" Voyages en Italic," 2nd edit 1838, tom. ii
p. 7, states that iu the Ubrary of the univer
sity of Bologna there is a manuscript of the
Icones of Philostratus written by Apostolius
and bearing the inscription, " The king of the
poor of this world has written this book for
his subsistence." He died about the year
1480, leaving two sons, one the celebrated
Arsenius, archbishop of Malvasia in the
Morea, and the other AristobiUus Apostolius.
Apostolius wrote much, but very few of his
pieces have been printed. The latter are — 1.
Tlapoip.lat ("Proverbs"),Greek,Basil,1538, Svo.
This edition comprises only extracts from
the greater work, which was first published
in a complete form, comprising 2027 proverbs,
in Greek and Latin, at Leiden in 1619, 4to.,
edited by D. Heinsius ; the Latin version
and notes were by P. Pantinus and others.
It appeared again at Leiden in 1653, 4to.
This work is also inserted in the " Clavis Ho-
merica," published at Rotterdam in 1655, 4tO.
and at London in 1741, Svo. It would appear
from a preface prefixed by Arlstobulus to the
" Galeomyomachia" printed by Aldus about
1494 in 4to. that Apostolius had made two
collections, one consisting of sayings and of
apophthegms and the other of proverbs, both
addressed to Caspar, bishop of Osma in Spam ;
viz. that published by Pantinus and another
entitled, 'l(Aivia {" Garden of Violets "). The
latter is mentioned by SchoeU, " Histoire de la
Litterature Grecque," as an unpublished work,
and Fabricius conjectures that the apoph
thegmata {'AnoipB4ypiaTa) published by Ar
senius, the archbishop, were selected from it.
The fullest explanation of this subject is
given in the preface to a work entitled
" 'Apaeviov 'iMvla- Arsenii Violetum .... nunc
primum edidit C, Walz," Stuttgard, 1832,
Svo. Walz states that Michael Apostolius
had promised Caspar, the bishop of Osma, to
form a Collection of Proverbs — and with this
object had noted down the sayings and
apophthegmata of wise men which he met
with in the course of his reading : that the
entire work he called Ionia : that after he
had completed the collection of proverbs he
delivered it to Caspar, leaving the rest of tho
collection for revision at some more favour
able opportunity : that his death having
184

taken place in the mean time, his son Arse
nius added many proverbs to the 'laivia and
afterwards printed that portion whioh con
tained the apophthegmata. Walz then, after
mentioning the publication of the epitome
ofthe proverbs in 1538, and the entire coUec
tion, with the Latin version, by Pantinus in
1619, states that the greater number of the
proverbs in the Violetum of Arsenius are the
same as those published in the collection by
Apostolius, but that Arsenius had omitted
nearly one haff, had shortened some, amplified
others, and added some himself, but had not so
strictly maintained the distinction between the
proverbs and sayings as Apostolius had done.
2. " Oratio panegyrica ad Fridericum IIT.
Imp., Gr. Lat, ex Versione Bart. Kecker-
manni," printed in Freherus, "Scrlptores
Rerum Germanicarum," tom. 2. p. 33., Frank
fort, 1624. 3. " Georgii Gemisthi Plethonis
et Mich. ApostolU Orationes funebres Duae,
in quibus de ImmortaUtate Animae exponitur.
Nunc primum ed. G, G. FuUebom," Leipzig,
1793, 4to, 4. A work by him against the
Latin church and the CouncU of Florence is
inserted in Le Moine's " Varia Sacra."
His manuscripts wUl be found in several of
the principal libraries of Europe : the biblio
theque du roi at Paris, the imperial library
at Vienna, the library at Munich, and the
Vatican at Rome, the Bodleian at Oxford,
and others, A complete list of his works
may be coUected from the authorities cited
below, (Oudin, Commentarius de Scriptorib-us
Ecclesiasticis, iu, 2514 — 2519, ; Bcemer, De
DoctisHominibusGracisLitterarumGracarumin Italia Instauratoribus, 152 — 163, ; Chaufe
pie, Nouveau Dictionnaire Historique ; Fabri
cius, Bibliotheca Graca, ed, Harles, xi. 189
—193. &c) J. W. J.
APOSTOOL, SAMUEL, a Dutch Men
nonite or Baptist theologian, wais born in
1638, In March, 1662, he was appointed
one of the five ministers of the Baptist con
gregations at Amsterdam, of the branch caUed
Flemings, not of the Waterlanders, as stated
by Mosheim, On the 15th of October, in the
same year, he preached in the forenoon a
sermon to which one of his colleagues, Gale
nus Abraham de Haan, preached in direct
opposition on the afternoon of the same day.
The main difference in the opinions of the
two, according to Mosheim, was that Galenus
maintained that the Christian religion was
not so much a body of truths to be believed
as of precepts to be obeyed, and wished that
admission to the chm-ch should be open to all
who merely believed in the divine inspiration
of the Old and New Testaments and led pure
and holy lives, while Apostool insisted on a
greater strictness and conformity in doctrine.
Their disputes embraced also the questions
of the eternal Godhead of Christ, of
plenary justification by his atonement, and
the visibility of the church on earth. The
sect became divided into two parties, known

APOSTOOL.
by the name of the Galenists and the Apos-
tolians, two of the preachers adhering to the
former and three to the latter. The Apos-
tolians accused Galenus before the court
of Holland, or States-general, of holding
Socinian opinions, of which, on the 14th of
September, 1663, in a sentence which is
printed by Wagenaar, that court pronounced
him innocent, though by his subsequent pub
Ucations it would appear that he really held
such opinions. On the 10th of January, 1664,
the burgomasters of Amsterdam, to prevent
further dissension, prohibited the discussion of
difficult theological questions from the pulpit ;
but the prohibition appears to have been of
no effect ; Apostool rejected the concUiatory
offers of Galenus, and the sect separated into
two distinct congregations. That of Apostool,
which was six or seven hundred in number,
was the least numerous, and established itself
in an old brewery, which was known hy the
sign of the " Sun," from which the sect is
sometimes called " the Mennonites of the
Sun." Frequent attempts were made to
heal the schism, but none succeeded tiU
the year 1801, when, according to Hamels-
veld, the parties of Galenists and Aposto-
llans coalesced again into Mennonites. The
date of the death of Apostool is not given by
any of our authorities, Herman Schyn, who
published the first edition of his History of the
Mennonites in 1723, mentions that Apostool
had been his coUeague, and that he discharged
the duties of the ministry " for very many
years," The only work which Apostool pub
lished was a short catechism entitled " Veri
tatis Exercitatio," in conjunction with his col
league Samuel van Deyl, (Mosheim, Institutes
of Ecclesiastical History, translated by Mur
dock, American edition, 111, 539, &c,, English
reprint, iv, 367, &c. ; Hamelsveld and Ijpelj,
Algemeene Kerhelijke Geschiedenis der Chris
tenen, xxv, 281, &o, ; Commelin, Beschry-
vinge van Amsterdam, 1, 500, ; Wagenaar,
Amsterdam beschreeven, folio edit, ii, 205, ;
Schyn, Historia Mennonitarum plenior Deduc-
tio, p. 327—332,) T, W.
A'PPEL, JACOB, a Dutch painter ofthe
eighteenth century, who distinguished him
self equally in landscape, portrait, and history.
He was born of a good family at Amsterdam
in 1680, and showed when a boy such a dis
position to excel in the arts, that his parents
placed him with the landscape painter J, De
Graef, with whom he remained two years.
He studied afterwards some time with the
portrait painter David Vander Claes, and
he imitated the landscapes of Meyering, He
obtained at Haarlem, as early as his eight
eenth year, the reputation of a good land
scape painter ; from Haarlem he went to the
Hague, and thence to Amsterdam, where he
chiefly resided, constantly employed in land
scape, portrait or history. He died in 1751,
aged 70. He left a son of the same name,
who was likewise a good painter. (Van Gool,
185

APPEL.
Nieuwe Schouburg der Nederlantsche Kunst
schilders, Ij-c.) B N W
APPELMAN, BARENT, a clever land
scape painter, born at the Hague in 1640.
He studied in Italy, and painted many large
landscapes in saloons and other apartments,
principally of Roman scenery, whieh acquired
him a great reputation ; his best works in
this style are some paintings in the palace of
Soesdyk. He painted also landscape back
grounds to the pictures of other masters, and
many for the portraits of Jan de Baan. He
died in 1686, aged forty-six. (Houbraken,
Schouburg der Schilders, §-c.) R. N.W.
APPENDI'NI, FRANCESCO MARFA,
born at Poirino, near Turin, in 1 768, received
his early education in his native country,
after which he went to Rome, where he
entered the order of the Scolopj or Schola-
rum Piarum Fathers, which devotes itself to
the instruction of youth, and supplies with
teachers many of the colleges and schools
of Italy and of the neighbouring countries.
Having gone through his theological studies,
Appendini took priest's orders, and some
years after he was appointed professor of
rhetoric in the college of the Scolopj at
Ragusa. Being already a good Latin and
ItaUan scholar, he appUed himself at Ragusa
to fhe Slavoniam language, in which he
became a proficient. The French revolu
tionary invasion having debarred him from
the expectation of returning to Italy, he ac
customed himself to look upon Ragusa as his
own country, and he took pleasure in inves
tigating its history and antiquities. After
several years of labour in consulting the old
documents and chronicles, and the traditions
of the poets, he published in 1802-3,
his " Notlzie Istorico-critiche sulla Anti
chita, Storia, e Letteratura de' Ragusei," in
two vols. 4to., which he dedicated to the
senate of the republic of Ragusa. It is the
best work on that interesting little country,
which was for centuries like an advanced
post of civUisation on a barbarous coast,
and which maintained its independence
against the wild Slavonians and the more
ferocious Ottomans, caused its flag to be re
spected all over the Mediterraneam, and pre
served the religion and cultivated the learn
ing and the arts of Europe, on a narrow strip
of land encompassed by the Turks. Its recent
disappearance from the list of independent
states has been hardly noticed in the midst
of .the revolutionary storms which have swept
away most of the old republics of Europe.
In the flrst volume of this work, Appendini
investigates the history and antiquities of the
lUyrian Epldaurus, the parent of Ragusa,
which was destroyed by the Slavi in the
seventh century of our aera. He enters into
disquisitions conceming the ancient iuhabi-
tants of lUyricum, their language and reUgion,
the migrations of Thracians and Greeks to
the coast of the Adriatic, and the wars of the

APPENDINL

APPENDINL

lUyrlans with Rome, until their final sub
jugation. The author argues from etymolo
gical affinities, that the language of the
ancient Illyrians was of the same family as
that of the Slavonian tribes who afterwards
invaded the country. His speculations on
this subject are matter for philological critics.
He describes the site of Epldaurus and the
extent of its territory, and gives copies of
several Roman inscriptions found among its
ruins, near Ragusa Vecchia. The sepulchre
of P. Cornelius DolabeUa, who was consul
under Augustus and governor of lUyricum,
and the remains of a fine aqueduct, are in the
same neighbourhood. Appendini then pro
ceeds to account for the origin of modern
Ragusa from the runaway inhabitants of
Epldaurus, who were joined by emigrants
from Salona and other places, and for its
name of Lausa or Rausa, according to the
derivation given by Constantine Porphyro-
gennetus. The maritime part of Dalmatia
continued to be called Roman Dalmatia, and
remained subject, at least nominally, to the
eastern emperors. Ragusa, however, go
verned itself as an aristocratic republic
under the protection of the Byzantine empire.
Manuel Comnenus in 1170 gave to the
Ragusans the rights of citizens of Constan
tinople. The Latin language, although cor
rupt, continued to be spoken at Ragusa tiU
the thirteenth century, when it was graduaUy
superseded by the Slavonian. The senate
however decreed that the Latin should con
tinue to be the language of administration,
and in order to keep up the study of it, in
stituted a chair of Latin, which was filled
in succession by some of the most learned
men of Italy.
We cannot foUow our author through his
interesting account of the history of Ragusa,
a history little known in general, and yet fuU
of important information. He describes in
separate chapters its form of government, its
church, always attached to the Latin com
munion, its laws, customs, and manners, its
relations with Venice and with the Slavonian
principalities of Bosnia and Croatia, its prudent
and at the same time firm policy towards the
formidable Ottomans, and lastly its extensive
commerce. The merchant vessels of Ragusa
engrossed at one time much of the carrying
trade between the Levant and the ports of
Europe. They traded also with Spain and
with England. The name of Argosies given
by writers of the middle ages to large vessels
laden with rich cargoes is said to have been
derived from Ragusa, where they were built.
In the sixteenth century the Ragusans had
no less than three hundred ships in the
Spanish navy, of which Banduri gives a list,
and most of which were lost- in the expedi
tions of Tunis, Algiers, and others, under
Charles V. and Philip II. These losses and
the earthquake of 1667, which destroyed the
greater part of Ragusa, were the causes of
186

the decay of its maritime trade, which how
ever revived to a certain extent during the
eighteenth century. Appendini concludes
his first volume with a chronological abstract
of the principal events in the history of
Ragusa from its foundation to the great
earthquake of 1667.
The second volume of Appendini's work
treats ofthe literature of Ragusa. The author
gives separate notices of those native writers
who have written in Italian or Latin, and
afterwards of those who have written in the
vernacular Slavonian. Among the historians
are : Meletius, who wrote in the twelfth cen
tury in Latin verse conceming the history of
Epidaurus and of Raigusa ; Ludovico Cerva
or Cervano, surnamed Tuberone, who wrote
on the history of the Turks, " de Turcarum
Origine, Moribus et Rebus gestis Commen
tarius," Florence, 1590, and also on the
history of Ragusa ; Matthias Flaccus lUy-
ricus, who went to Germany, embraced the
doctrines of the Lutherans, and was one of
the chief compilers of the " Centm-iae Mag-
deburgenses ;" Luccarl, who wrote in Italian
the Annals of Ragusa tiU the end ofthe 16th
century ; Mauro Orbini, author of a history
of the Slavonian principaUties estabUshed in
lUyricum during the middle ages; Eusebio
Caboga, a Dominican, who wrote in Latin the
Annals of Ragusa and the lives of its bishops
and of other distinguished men of Ragusa ;
Giunio Resti, who -wrote a good history of
Ragusa in ItaUan down to 1454 ; Michele
Misliscich, who died in 1798, and wrote a
history of the kings of Bosnia and Slavonia,
which has not been pubUshed; Serafino Cerva,
who has -written on the ecclesiastical history
of Ragusa ; Benedetto Orsinich, author of a
genealogical history of the Comneni ; An
selmo Banduri, the learned author of the
" Imperium Orientale ;" and lastly, Sebastiano
Dolci, a Franciscan, who wrote " De lUyricae
Linguae Vetustate et Amplitudine," Venice,
1754, and " I Fasti letterarii Ragusei," Venice,
1767, and also a Commentary on the Ufe and
works of Saint Jerome, printed at Ancona
in 1750.
Ragusa reckons also among her sons the
physician Baglivi, whom some have by mis
take stated to be a native of Lecce ; the ma
thematician Boscovich ; several members ofthe
family of Stay, such as the painter Benedetto,
and his grandson and namesake the leau-ned
Benedetto Stay, the author of several elegant
Latin poems, among others one on Newton's
system, and secretary of the Briefs at the
Papal court ; Raimondo Cunich, the author
of many Latin poems and for a long time a
professor in the Gregorian college at Rome ;
Bernardo Zamagna, who translated into Latin
the Odyssey, Hesiod, Theocritus, and Mos
chus ; Cardinal Giovanni Stoiko, who was
sent as legate to the council of Basle ; Simone
Benessa, a jurist, the author of a book on the
practice of the courts of Ragusa, " Praxis

APPENDINL
Curiae ad Formam Legum et Consuetudinum,
Reipublicaj Ragusinae, in qua exacts agitur
de Modo tam in Curia Consulis quam in
Appellationibus servandis a prineipio Litis
usque ad Executionem Sententiae, Quatuor
Libris distincta ;" and Benedetto CotragU,
who wais employed in several important
offices of state, and who -wrote a didactic
work on the profession of commerce and the
duties of a merchant, " Della Mercatura e
del perfetto Mercante," Venice, 1573. Lastly,
Appendini gives a list of the Ragusan poets
who wrote in the Slavonian language, among
whom Giovanni di Francesco Gondola ranks
the first. He also notices several Slavonian
poets of other parts of Dalmatia and of
Bosnia and Montenegro, their Popjevke or
ballads and their Saclnke or erotic songs.
This catalogue is valuable inasmuch as it
gives information about works little known
beyond the local precincts in which they
were written. LTpon the whole, Appendini's
book contains the most complete view of the
condition of Ragusa as it was before its
military occupation and the subversion of its
government by Napoleon in 1806. Whatever
was the pretext for that encroachment, the
Ragusans, it is well known, regretted for
many years their former independence.
After the French had taken miUtary pos
session of Ragusa in 1806, and annexed the
country to the province of Dalmatia, which
was governed by Marmont, one of Napoleon's
generals, Appendini prevailed upon the new
government to retain the order of the Scolopj,
and entrust to it the instruction of youth in
the districts of Ragusa and of Cattaro. He
was appointed rector of the new college of
Ragusa, and he sent to Rome for assistants
among the fathers of his order. His own
brother, Urbano Appendini, was made pro
fessor of mathematics. In 1808 Appendini
published a grammar of the Illyrio language,
that is to say, of the dialect of the Slavonian
spoken in Dalmatia. In 1810 he wrote a
treatise " De Praestantia et Venustate Linguae
lUyricao," and another on the analogy be
tween the languages of the ancient nations of
Asia Minor and the languages of the Thra
cians and Illyrians. Both these treatises are
prefixed to the " Dictionary of the Illyric
Language " of Father Gioacchino Stulli of
Ragusa. He also undertook a work entitled
" II Varrone IlUrico," on the etymology of
the Illyric language, tending to show the
derivation of the ancient names of« the prin
cipal rivers, mountains, and other localities
of Europe from Illyric radicals, but he did
not live to complete the work, which has
remained in MSS. among his papers. He
also wrote biographies of some distinguished
men natives of Cattaro,
¦When the Austrian government recovered
possession of Dalmatia in 1814, and with it
of the town and territory of Ragusa, which
had been incorporated with that province by
187

APPENDINL
Napoleon, Appendini was commissioned to
establish a central institution at Zara, for the
purpose of forming teachers for the different
gymnasia of the province. He and his brother
Urbano set to work with earnest zeal, and as
they experienced numerous obstacles to their
plan, they repaired to Vienna in order to
secure the support of the Emperor Francis
and his ministers, which they obtained, and
the school for teachers at Zara was main
tained. Appendini returned to the house of
his order at Ragusa, which had become as
his country and where his worth was fully
appreciated. His brother remained at the
head of the school at Zara, where he died
in 1834, upon which Appendini repaired to
Zara to fiU his brother's place. He died of
apoplexy in January, 1837, He was buried
with great solemnity, his funeral being at
tended by the magistrates and nobility of
Zara, His brethren at Ragusa honoured his
memory by funeral ceremonies, A biogra
phical memoir of him was published at
Ragusa by one of his disciples, the advocate
Antonio Casnacich, Appendini wrote, be
sides the works already mentioned in the
course of this article, the following :  1,
" Memorie sulla Vita e sugli Scritti di Gio,
Francesco Gondola," Ragusa, 1837, in which
he gives an abstract of Gondola's epic poem
the " Othmanid," the subject of which is
the war between Sultan Othman II. and the
Poles in 1622, in which the Turks were de
feated, soon after which the sultan was de
posed and strangled by the Janizaries, it heing
the first instance of a Turkish sultan put to
death by his revolted subjects. Appendini
in his work- on the history and literature of
Ragusa gives extracts of the Slavonian text
of the poem with Italian and Latin versions
of the same, 2, " De Vita et Scriptis Ber-
nardi Zamagna," Zara, 1830. 3. " La Vita
e T Esame deUe Opere del Petrarca," 4.
" Esame critico sulla Quistione intorno alia
Patria di S, Girolamo," Zara, 1835. 5, A
translation in the Illyric or Slavonian of the
Austrian civU code ; besides several funeral
orations and other minor works, (Tipaldo,
Biografia degli Italiani Jllustri ; Appendini,
Notizie Istorico-critiche sulla Antichita, Storia,
e Letteratura dei Ragusei,) A. V.
APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES, a
writer on sporting subjects of considerable
reputation, better known by the pseudo-
nyme of " Nimrod," was the second son of
Thomas Apperley, a Welsh country gentle
man, and was born at his father's seat of
Plasgronow, in Denbighshire, in the year
1777. He received his early education at
home from his father, but he also spent
some years at Rugby school, where he ac
quired some knowledge of the classical lan
guages, and much more of the sports of the
field. In 1798, he became cornet in the
Ancient British Light Dragoons, but appears
to have seen no service. In 1801, he married

APPERLEY,

APPERLEY.

the daughter of WiUiam Wynne, Esq., and in
1804 he took up his residence at Bilton
Hall, once the country seat of Addison, in
Warwickshire. Here he lived as a gentle
man farmer, but devoted himself so entirely
to the chase, that for some years his only
pursuit was that of a fox-hunter. Besides
hunting with the packs in his nwn neigh
bourhood, he often rode thirty or forty miles
to distant covers ; and he contrived to defray
the expences of the sport by disposing of
hunters, after he had ridden them for some
time, to those of his friends whose knowledge
of the horse was not so intimate as his, and
who therefore could not trust their own judg
ment in the purchase of an untried animal.
In 1821 he removed into Hampshire, and
commenced farming on a larger scale ; and
in the same year he began to write for the
press. His contributions to the " Sporting
Magazine," especially his Hunting Tours,
attracted so much attention that the cir
culation of the work was doubled in two
years ; and the example of " Nimrod" was
followed by so many practical sportsmen,
that in a few years sporting might be
said to have a Uterature of its own. His
assistance was considered of so much im
portance, that Mr. Pittman, the proprietor
of the magazine, not only remunerated him
handsomely, but also paid the expences of his
tours, and kept for him a stud of hunters.
On Mr. Pittman's death these allowances
were withdrawn, and differences followed,
which led to a suit by his representatives for
money advanced, the result of which was that,
to avoid a prison at home, " Nimrod " was
compelled to take up his residence in France.
In 1830 Mr, Apperley estabUshed himself at a
chateau called St, Pierre, near Calais, where
he chiefly resided for the remainder of his
life, supporting himseff by his pen, which
was employed more actively than ever, not
only in the columns of the sporting periodi
cals, but in magaizines of a more general
character. He died in London on the 19 th
of May, 1843.
Nimrod's superiority consisted in his per
fect knowledge of his subject, and in a certain
air of good humour, which won upon the
reader. His works are made up almost en
tirely of anecdote, and partake of that gossip-
ping character which distinguishes so many
of the books produced for the numerous class
of light readers. His style possesses little
literary merit, and is too often disfigured by
commonplace scraps of Greek and Latin. He
has been reproached, with some justice, for
the freedom with which he alluded to cir
cumstances which could have become known
to him only in the confidence of social inter
course; but this is fairly attributable to the
haste with wluch he wrote, and the quantity
of matter which he produced. To the same
cause must be assigned the diffuseness of his
style. especiaUy iu late years, and the habit
188

into which he feU of repeating the same
anecdote in several different shapes, or rather
several times in the same shape. His know
ledge of fox-hunting could not be disputed,
for, previously to his quitting England, he
had hunted with no less than eighty-two
different packs, in every quarter of Great
Britain. Almost all Mr. Apperley's works were
written for periodicals, but many afterwards
appeared in a coUected shape. The principal
were: — 1. " Remarksonthe Condition of Hun
ters, the Choice of Horses, and their Manage
ment," originaUy pubUshed in the " Sporting
Magazine" between 1822 and 1828, London,
1831, Svo. Besides its Uterary success, this
work achieved an important alteration in the
treatment of the hunter,. — the abolition of
" summering " and the consequent confine
ment of the horse to his stable aU the year ;
a practice now become universal. 2. " Nim
rod's Hunting Tours; to which are added,
Nimrod's Letters on Riding to Hounds,"
London, 1835, Svo., also originaUy pub
lished in the "Sporting Magazine." 3.
" The Life of the late John Mytton, Esq.,
of Halston," 1837, Svo. A reprint, with con
siderable additions, from the " New Sporting
Magazine," a periodical started in rivalry with
the " Old Sporting Magazine," and to which
Nimrod transferred his services on his arrival
in France. There can be no doubt as to the
entertaining character of the memoir, but
there have been many of the propriety of
exposing the faults and follies of a departed
friend so glaringly as Nimrod thought proper
to do in its pages. 4. " The Chase, the Turf,
and the Road," 1837, Svo.; three essays,
which, on the whole, may be classed as
Nimrod's best productions. They were
written for the "Quarterly Review" in 1827,
and their appearance in so grave a periodical
excited no small sensation. The Uveliness
with which they were written, however, carried
them through triumphantly, and the result
was a considerable addition to the number of
Nimrod's admirers, as a, consequence of his
introduction to a new and wider circle of
readers. They were collected in a volume,
with a portrait ofthe author, in 1837, and so
well received, that ia 1842 another edition
appeared, profusely Ulustrated with wood
cuts. 5. " Nimrod's Northern Tour, descrip
tive of the principal Hunts in Scotland and
the North of England," London, 1838 ;
another reprint from the " New Sporting
Magazine." 6. " Sporting by Nimrod," 1840,
4to. ; a miscellaneous production, iu which
other writers participated, to whose co-opera
tion Nimrod attributed its Ul-success. It was
most expensively iUustrated. 7. " The Horse
and the Hound," Edinburgh, 1842, 8vo.; a
reprint of some articles contributed to the
" Encyclopaedia Britannica," with additions. 8.
" Nimrod Abroad," London, 1 842, 2 vols. Svo. ;
a collective reprint of articles contributed to

APPERLEY.
the "New Monthly Magazine," and then caUed
" Foreign Sporting." From one of them we
learn that, after eight years' residence in
France, Nimrod remained a stranger to the
French language. 9. " The Life of a Sports
man," 1842, Svo. This novel was intended
originally for separate pubUcatlon, but first
appeared in the " New Sporting Magazine." It
was afterwards collected and published in a
splendid style, with thirty-six illustrations;
but it faUed of success.
Besides these works, Mr. Apperley wrote a
treatise on the race-horse, which was trans
lated into French, especiaUy for publication
in Paris, but proved a faUure, in consequence
partly of the simiUtaneous appearance of a
cheap pirated edition at Brussels. He wrote
also a pamphlet on the operation of Peel's
BiU of 1819 on the currency, and numberless
articles on agricultural subjects for various
newspapers. Among his contributions to
"Eraser's Magazine," a series on the "Anatomy
of Gaming " excited great attention, from the
plainness with which it exposed the frauds
of a certain portion of the sporting world.
From another series, in the same magazine,
" My Life and Times, by Nimrod," most of
the materials of this sketch have been drawn.
The straightforward character of his writings
is well exemplified in this series. He does
not hesitate to state the amounts he had re
ceived for his literary labours, a subject on
which most writers are not at all communi
cative. His usual remuneration he states at
a guinea a page ; for his essays in the " Quar
terly Review" he received twenty-five guineais
per sheet, with a further sum of one himdred
pounds for revisal on their publication in a
separate form; and for his four articles in the
"EncyclopEedia Britannica" two hundred and
eighty guineas. Notwithstanding his emolu
ments, however, he was generally in pe
cuniary embarrassment. ( My Life and
Times, by Nimrod, in " Eraser's Magazine,"
for 1842, vols. xxv. xxvi. ; Sporting Maga
zine, for July, 1843, p. 66. ; the Works of
Nimrod noticed.) J. W.
APPIA'NI. 'There have been three Italian
painters of reputation of this name.
Andre'a Appia'ni, one of the most cele
brated Italian painters of the eighteenth cen
tury, born at or near Milan in 1754, was distin
guished both in fresco and in oil painting ; in
fresco, in which he was superior to any painter
of his time, he executed several great works at
Milan, whioh are conspicuous for graceful
composition, good colouring, and elegaint
drawing. Appiani visited the principal cities
of Italy in his youth, studied carefully the
frescoes of the great masters, and formed a
style of his own, chiefly from that of Correg
gio ; and in 1795 he estabUshed his reputa
tion as a great painter at Milan by the frescoes
which he executed in the church of Santa
Maria Vergine. He painted also some fine
works in the imperial palace at Monza ; but
189

APPIANI.
his best works are the frescoes of the royal
palace of Milan, which he left unfinished in
1813, in consequence of a stroke of apoplexy:
they have been engraved by Rosaspina.
Napoleon appointed Appiani his principal
painter in Italy, with a pension of 6000
francs per annum ; he made him also a mem
ber of the Legion of Honour, and a knight
of the Iron Crown ; and he was elected a
member of the Italian Institute. At the
change of government in 1814, Appiani lost
his pension, and the attack of apoplexy which
he had suffered in 1813 having rendered it
impossible for him to continue to paint, he
was reduced to the extremity of selling aU
his drawings and other valuables to procure a
subsistence. He lived in this condition for
a few years, until 1817 or 1818, when a second
attack of apoplexy caused his death.
Appiani painted several good oil pictures,
and many portraits, among which is one of Na
poleon, which has been engraved by Barto-
lozzl. Several other engravers have executed
prints after the works of this painter. An
account of Appiani's frescoes was pubUshed
by L. Lamherti at MUan in 1809 : "Des-
crizione dei Dipinti a buon Fresco eseguiti
dai S. A. Appiani."
Giuseppe Appiani, also of MUan, ac
quired a reputation as a painter in fresco and
in oil at Mainz and its neighbourhood in the
latter half of the eighteenth century ; but his
works are without merit. He was court
painter to the elector at Mainz (Chur-Mainz-
ischer Hofmaler), where he died.
Francesco Appiani, bom at Ancona in
1702, acquired considerable reputation as a
fresco painter at Rome and Perugia. He was
the scholar of Domenico Simonetti or Ma-
gatta as he is called, and studied also long at
Rome, in the time of Benefial, Trevisani,
Conca and Mancini, through the friendship
of whom, but especially of the last, he had
every faciUty for perfecting himself in the
style that he adopted, which is conspicuous
for delicacy of design and harmony of colour.
His best work at Rome is the death of San.
Domenico, painted in San. Sisto Vecchlo for
Benedict XIIL, and for which the pope pre
sented him with a gold medal. From Rome
he went to Perugia, where he was presented
with the freedom of the city, and he settled
there. In Perugia Appiami's works are
very numerous ; he continued to paint unre
mittingly untU his death in 1792, when he
had completed his ninetieth year, an instance
of vigour with perhaps only one paraUel in
the history of art, says Lanzi, in the case of
Titian. The same writer states that Appiani
painted many pictures for England, (Ticozzi,
Dizzionario degli Architetti, Sfc. ; Fussli, AU
gemeines Kiinstler Lexicon ; Lanzi, Storia
Pittorica, Sfc. ed, 1822.) R. N. W.
APPIA'NO, a famUy of Pisa which rose
to sovereign power as princes of Piomhino
and the island of Elba.

APPIANO.

APPIANO.

Vanni d'Appiano, a man of humble
birth, left his native viUage of Appiano, and
went to reside at Pisa in the early part of the
fourteenth century. He became attached to
the faction nicknamed the Bergolini, at the
head of which was the wealthy mercantile
family of the Gambacorti. The Bergolini
were opposed to the faction of the Raspanti,
who were warm Gulbelines, and the republic
of Pisa was frequently agitated by the feuds
of both parties. "When Charles IV, of Ger
many went to Italy to be crowned emperor
at the beginning of 1355, the Gambacorti,
who were then in power, were denounced to
him by their antagonists the Raspanti, as
ambitious men of Guelph principles, and dis
affected towards the empire, Charles en
deavoured at first to re-establish concord, and
caused several of the Raspanti who were in
exile to be restored to their country, but this
only served to embolden that faction, which
was bent upon the ruin of their antagonists.
On the emperor's return from Rome in
May, 1355, he stayed some time at Pisa,
when the Raspanti used every means to win
his favour and discredit their rivals. A fire
which broke out in the palace of the elders,
where the emperor was quartered, was repre
sented as an attempt of the Gambacorti to
get rid of him, Charles, a weak narrow-
minded man, gave or appeared to give im
plicit confidence to the Raspanti, who, being
supported by his men at arms, assailed the
Gambacorti and their principal friends, im
prisoned them and gave up their houses to
plunder. Two brothers, Francesco and
Lotto Gambacorti, who were at the time at
the emperor's court, unconscious of what was
going on, were arrested by order of the
emperor and given up to the Podesta, The
trial, which was attended by the usual tor
tures, ended iu the condemnation of three
brothers Gambacorti, and of several of their
adherents, who were beheaded. Among
these was Vanni d'Appiano, The remainder
of the Gambacorti and of their supporters
were banished. Shortly after this, the em
peror quitted Pisa, leaving the Bishop of
Augsburg as imperial vicar, but the real
power remained in the hands of the Ras
panti, The Florentines gave asylum to the emi
grant Gambacorti, and among others to
Pietro, brother of the three who had been
beheaded and to Jacopo d' Appiano, son
of Vanni, a. shrewd active man, who became
intimate with Pietro Gambacorti, now the
leader of his party. After several changes
in the political condition of Pisa, which have
been alluded to under Aonello, Giovanni,
the Gambacorti were recaUed by the popular
voice in 1369, and Pietro was proclaimed cap
tain-general and defender of the people and
community of Pisa. He chose for his secretary
Jacopo d' Appiano, whom he caused also to be
appointed chancellor of the council of elders,
190

and in whom he placed unbounded confidence.
The administration of Pietro Gambacorti lasted
for more than twenty years, during which Pisa
enjoyed internal tranquillity and considerable
prosperity. Pietro was prudent, temperate,
and a lover of peace. Through his influence
an end was put to the war between the
sister republics of Pisa and Florence,
and it was stipulated that the Florentines
should again enjoy the former facilities and
exemption from transit duties in carrying
their manufactures to the port of Pisa for
embarkation. Gambacorti conceived and
nearly accomplished another and a more im
portant scheme for the general advantage of
Italy. He went repeatedly to Milan to induce
Glan Galeazzo Viscontl not only to make
peace with Florence, but also to enter into a
defensive alliance with Florence, Pisa, Siena,
and other Italian states against the depreda
tions of the foreign mercenary bands which
overran the country, and against foreign
interference in general. Gambacorti pre
vailed upon Viscontl, and upon the common
wealths of Florence, Siena, Bologna, Peragia,
and Lucca, and also upon Albert of Este,
marquis of Ferrara, Francesco Gonzaga,
lord of Mantua, Malatesta, lord of Cesena,
Ordelaffi, lord of Forli, and Antonio, count of
Montefeltro, to send deputies to ]?isa with
powers for the purpose ; and on the 9th of
October, 1388, the conditions of the league
were solemnly signed, leaving it open to the
other ItaUan states to join it. Each member
of the league was to furnish, at his o-wn
expense, a contingent of regular troops for
the common protection. All disputes that
might arise in future between the confracting
parties were to be referred to a congress of
delegates of the confederate states. This in
teresting convention, which might have be
come the foundation of a great ItaUan con
federation, and might have saved Italy from
innumerable calaunities, was soon after 'broken
by the ambition and treachery of Viscontl;
but the attempt deserves record, and reflects
credit on the foresight of Pietro Gambacorti.
Glan Galeazzo Viscontl was not sincere in
acceding to the league formed by Gamba
corti : he had his own view of subjecting to
his sway all northern and central Italy, and
thus reviving the old kingdom of the Longo
bards ; and he seemed at one time near ac
complishing his object. Florence was the
state that stood chiefly in his way, and he
was anxious to detach the Pisans from its
alliance, an aUiance which was maintained
by the influence of Gambacorti. He found a
willing instrument in Jacopo d'Appiano, who
revealed to him the secrets of the Plsam coun
cils. Viscontl had again declared war against
Florence, but Gambacorti, both from policy
and inclination, refused to forsake the Flo
rentine alliance. Viscontl now resolved to
put Gambacorti out of the way ; he intimated
to Appiano, with whom he kept an active

APPIANO.

APPIANO.

correspondence, that he might supplant his
master, and make himself lord of Pisa. Vanni,
a son of Jacopo, who was staying at Milan,
was sent to Pisa, accompanied by a party of
Visoonti's men. Jacopo at the same time
raised soldiers in the territory of Lucca.
Gambacorti, through his attachment to the
Florentine alliance, had roused the old jealous
feeUngs of the Pisans, and had lost much of
his popularity. Several friends of Gamba
corti advised him to be on his guard ; but he
would not listen to any reports against the
faith of a man whom he had so much bene
fited as Appiano ; and the latter accounted
for his assembling armed men by expressing
his fears of his personal enemies, among
whom was Giovanni Lanfranchi. On the
20th of October, 1392, Lanfranchi and his
son were murdered in the street, and the
assassins took refuge in the house of Ap
piano, who refused to give them up to justice.
Gambacorti hearing of a tumult at Ap-
piano's house, sent forth his son Lorenzo with
some militia; but Appiano, at the head of
his men, defeated and wounded him. Ap
piano then proceeded to Gambacorti's resi
dence, who seeing him from a window, asked
him for the meaning of aU this, and Ap
piano told him to come down and mount his
horse that they might quell the tumult ; but
as Gambacorti was in the act of mounting, he
was stabbed to death, and his body was left
in the street. Appiano then rode through
the town, and was proclaimed by his friends
captain of the people and defender of Pisa,
and the council of the elders sanctioned his
nomination. High mass was said in the
cathedral, and the Te Deum sung ; and
Appiano was installed in the government.
Lorenzo and Benedetto Gambacorti, the two
sons of Pietro, were soon after put to death
in prison. AU the famUies friendly to the
Gambacorti were banished. Viscontl sent to
Pisa a body of three hundred horsemen in
addition to the other MUanese troops which
were already in the town, and Appiano
joined him in making war against Florence.
Viscontl intended to use Appiano as an in
strument in order to get possession of both
Pisa and Florence ; and Appiano _ on his
side wanted the assistance of 'Viseonti to sup
port him in his usurpation, but no further.
The two men were an equal match in point
of cunning. When Visconti's agents re
quested Appiano to give up to their master
the citadel of Pisa, and the forts of Livorno
and Piomhino, in order to secure them against
the Florentines, he replied that he could not
do it without consulting the elders, although
it was weU known that the elders would do
whatever he bade them ; and as the agents
insisted and threatened, Appiano ordered
his son Gherardo (his other son Vanni had
died a natural death) to assemble the town
guard and attack the MUanese soldiers, who,
heing taken by surprise, were defeated, and
191

their officers were taken prisoners and con
fined in the citadel. Viseonti, instead of re
senting this, sent fresh envoys to Pisa in order
to conciliate Appiano and prevent his joining
the Florentines ; and a fresh agreement was
entered into between Appiano and Viseonti.
Appiano also concluded a treaty of com
merce between Pisa and MiUey, king of
Tunis. In 1398 Jacopo d'Appiano died at a very
advanced age, after having caused his son
Gherardo to be acknowledged captain-
general of the republic. Gherardo, who
had not the abUity and determination of his
father, finding himself surrounded by dangers
from his own dissatisfied countrymen, from
the Florentines, and from the duke of Milan,
listened to the proposal of the duke to give
up Pisa to him for 200,000 golden florins,
and for the sovereignty of the port, town,
and district of Piomhino and of the islands
of Elba, Pianosa, and Montecristo, which were
thus to be detached from the territory of Pisa.
In the meantime the Duke Viseonti sent
more troops to Pisa, which were introduced
by Appiano into the town. Thus finding
himself sufficiently supported, Appiano in
January, 1399, rode to the town house, from
which he drove away the elders, and placed
the duke's soldiers in the citadel and other
strongholds. The chief citizens of Pisa
entreated Gherardo, instead of seUlng his
country to strangers, to sell it to them,
and they would pay him more than the duke
had offered him ; to which Gherardo answered
that he could not now break off his engage
ment with Viseonti Porro, as vicar of the
duke, assumed the government of Pisa, new
elders were elected as well as a new Podesta,
and a new captain of the people, all favourable
to the duke ; Gherardo d'Appiano received
100,000 florins and security for the re
mainder ; and in February of that year he
sailed for Piomhino and took possession
of his new principality. This treacherous
bargain proved the cause of the total ruin of
Pisa. Glan Galeazzo Viscontl at his death,
which happened soon after, in 1402, left Pisa
in the possession of his IUegitimate son
Gabriello Maria, who was driven away for
his tyrannical behaviour, and for having sold
several fortresses to the Florentines. Gio
vanni Gambacorti, nephew of the murdered
Pietro, was recalled with others of his party,
A. D. 1405, and was made captain of the
people. Pisa was soon after besieged by the
Florentines, assisted by a Genoese and Cata-
lonian squadron, which prevented provisions
coming by sea. Gambacorti seeing no chance
of reUef, whUst the popidation were suffering
from famine, entered into secret negociations
with the Florentines, making stipulations for
himself and famUy, and gave up or rather
sold Pisa to its old rival Florence, in October,
1406. From that time the decay of Pisa
began.

APPIANO.

APPIANO.

Gherardo d'Appiano, first Lord of
Piomhino, fortified the town, built himself
a palace, which is now used for the custom
house, strengthened himself by an alliance
with the Florentines, and died in 1405, leav
ing a son Jacopo, a minor, under the tutor
ship of the community of Florence. His
widow Paola Colonna was by his will ap
pointed regent during her life.
Jacopo II. d'Appiano died in 1440, be
fore his mother, without having exercised
the sovereignty, and left no issue. His uncle,
Emmanuello d'Appiano, half brother to Ghe
rardo, was designated in Gherardo's will as
the next in order of succession ; but Donna
Paola, the regent, refused to acknowledge
him as such. She sought the protection of
the republic of Siena, and having given her
daughter Catherine in marriage to Count
Rlnaldo Orsini, a celebrated commander, who
was in the service of Siena, she appointed
her to be ruler of Piomhino after her death,
which took place in 1445. Catherine and
her husband strengthened and embeUished
Piombino, and their administration was popu
lar. In 1447 Alfonso V. of Aragon, king of
Naples, being at war with the Florentines,
made several attempts to seize Piombino, in
order to secure a harbour for the supply of
his army in Tuscany, but Rlnaldo Orsini
defended the town bravely, being weU sup
ported by the inhabitants and by a Florentine
auxiliary force. King Alfonso was obliged
to rause the siege after having lost more than
two thousand five hundred men, and to give
up for the present his expedition against
Florence. In 1450 Rlnaldo Orsini died of
the plague, and his wife Catherine died shortly
after, in February, 1451.
Emmanuello d'Appiano, son of Jacopo
the elder, who was Uving at Troja in the
kingdom of Naples, having married a natural
daughter of King Alfonso, was proclaimed
Lord of Piombino by the elders of the com
munity, and was supported by both Siena and
Florence. The relatives of Orsini, who had
the fortresses in their possession, surrendered
them partly by force and partly through
bribes. In 1457 EmmanueUo died, leaving his
son Jacopo to succeed him.
Jacopo III. d'Appiano, gave at first great
dissatisfaction to his subjects through his
arbitrary and licentious conduct. A conspi
racy was formed against him, but failed, and
the leaders and abettors of it were cruelly
punished. Galeazzo Maria Sforza, dulte of
Milan, availing himself of the refugees who
had escaped from Piombino, sent a body of
soldiers, who attempted to surprise the to-wn
in the night, but the attempt failed. Jacopo
constructed a citadel at Piombino, in whioh
he fixed his residence. After some dis
putes with King Ferdinand of Naples, son of
Alfonso, concerning the town of Castiglione
della Pescaja, which Alfonso had taken and
Jacopo had afterwards occupied, an arrange

ment was made by which Jacopo placed himself
under the protection of the crown of Naples,
and agreed to admit a Neapolitan garrison
into Piombino, and in 1465 King Ferdinand
authorised Appiano to assume the royal coat
of arms of Naples, and to add the name of
Aragon to that of Appiano. The title
was Jacopo III. d'Appiano d'Aragona Count
and Lord of Piombino and its Dependencies.
In 1474 Jacopo III. died leaving the princi
pality to his eldest son and namesake.
Jacopo IV. d'Appiano d'Aragona proved
a very good prince. He restored to the people
of Piombino their statutes and privUeges, of
which they had been deprived by his father,
which were printed in 1706, under the title
ofthe Statutes of Piombino. In 1478 Jacopo
IV. married Donna Vittoria, daughter of the
Duke of Amalfi and of Maria of Aragon, a
natural daughter of Ferdinand of Naples.
Jacopo served as a superior officer in the
allied army which King Ferdinand and Pope
Sixtus IV. sent against Lorenzo de' Medici
after the failure of the conspiracy of the
Pazzi, and was taken prisoner by the Floren
tines, but was ransomed soon after. Jacopo
had afterwards troublesome disputes with
the Bishop of Massa Maritima concerning
the estates and alum mines of Montione and
Valli, which the bishop claimed, and his
claim to which he sold to the apostolic
chamber in 1478. The Lord of Piombino
refusing to acknowledge the title of the
cession, was summoned to appear at Rome,
and was excommunicated by the pope ac
cording to the practice of those times. He
however remained in possession of the
estates, and the question was compromised.
Jacopo maintained friendship with his neigh
bours of Florence and Siena. "When Cesare
Borgiai, supported by his father Pope Alex
ander VL, was spreading terror aU over
central Italy, he invaded amiong others the
state of Piombino, in June, 1501, and besieged
the town. Jacopo was obliged to escape by
sea, and he appealed to Louis XIL, king of
France, the ally of Borgia, against the unpro
voked attack. But not meeting with justice in
that quarter, he turned himself to the Emperor
MaximUian I., from whom he received in 1502
the investiture of the principality of Piombino
for himself and his heirs. Meantime Pope
Alexander having died, the people of Piombino
rose against the garrison of Borgia in August,
1 503, and drove it away with the assistance
of the Florentines, and Jacopo re-entered
his paternal dominions amidst the acclama
tions of his subjects. By a diploma of the
Emperor Maximilian, dated November, 1509,
the principaUty of Piombino was declared to
be an Imperial fief, and power was given to
Jacopo aud his successors to strike money,
both gold and silver. In the same year the
famous Maohiavelli, secretary of the Floren
tine repubUc, was sent to Piombino to nego
tiate with the envoys of Pisa, which town had

APPIANO.
shaken off some time before the dominion of
Florence, but the conferences produced no
result. In 1 5 1 1 Jacopo IV. died at Piombino,
after having caused his son and namesake to
be acknowledged his successor.
Jacopo V. d'Appiano d'Aragona governed
his dominions in peace for many years.
He obtained of the Emperor Charles V.,
in 1520, the renewal of the investiture of
his principality with the privilege of inserting
the imperial eagle iu his coat of arms. About
1539, when the intrigues of the French
at the Ottoman Porte brought forth an
aUied Turkish and French fleet which swept
over the Mediterranean Sea, and threatened
Italy with invasion, Charles V. charged
Duke Cosmo of Florence with the defence of
the coast of Tuscany, including the territory
of Piombino. Jacopo d' Appiano, mistrusting
Cosmo's intentions, refused at first to receive
a Florentine garrison within the town of
Piombino, but when the Turkish admiral
Khair-ed-deen, surnamed Barbarossa, ap
peared in 1543, with a powerful armament off
the Italian coast, Cosmo's troops were ad
mitted into the town. There was at or near
Piombino a boy, the son of Slnan Pacha,
the well-known renegade, who had been
taken some years before in a Turkish ship,
and had been baptized and brought up in the
Christian faith by Jacopo d'Appiano. Bar
barossa having appeared with his fieet off the
channel between Piombino and Elba, sent on
shore to demand the boy. It was answered
that the boy was not then at Piombino, Bar
barossa, prevented by contrary winds from
sailing up the channel, directed his fleet to
the leeward, and landed his men on the island
of Elba, which they desolated. About a year
afterwards when Barbarossa, after the attack
upon Nice, separated himself from his French
allies and saUed for the Levant, he stopped
again off Piombino and demanded the son of
Slnan Pacha, offering to restore all the Chris
tian prisoners belonging to the territory of
Piombino. The exchange was agreed upon,
several Turkish galleys came to the harbour of
Piombino, the boy was given up to the officer
in command amidst a general salute and
the acclamations of the Turkish crews, the
Christian prisoners were restored, and Bar
barossa sailed to the south without doing any
injury to the coast of Tuscany.
Cosmo, duke of Florence, urged Charles V.
to let him retain possession of Piombino, giving
an equivalent to Appiano. The emperor
ordered his general Don Juan de Luna to see
about this matter. Meantime Jacopo V.
d'Appiano fell iU and died, in 1545, and the
Spanish general took possession of Piombino
in the name of the emperor as guardian to
the infant son of the late prince.
Jacopo VI, d' Appiano was not put in
possession of his dominions till 1559, after
the subjection of Siena by Duke Cosmo and
the general pacification of Tuscany, In the

APPIANO,
intervening tune Piombino and Elba were
occupied by Spanish and Florentine troops,
and Duke Cosmo was several times on the
point of obtaming from the Emperor Charles
V, the full dominion of those territories,
which he greatly coveted. But by the treaty
of May, 1557, Duke Cosmo was obliged to
restore Piombino to its hereditary sovereign,
retainmg however for hUnself the town of
Portoferrajo in the island of Elba, in con
sideration of his expenses in fortifying that
place as weU as the neighbouring coasts of
Elba and Piombino, and defending them
against the incursions of the French and the
Turks during the preceding war. It was
thus that a part of Elba came to be annexed
to the Grand Duchy of 'Tuscany, the rest of
the island remaining subject to the princes
of Piombino. In 1559 JaeopoVI. d'Appiano
took possession of Piombino, to the great
satisfaction of the people, who were weary of
foreign dominion, and in 1562 he obtained
from the Emperor Ferdinand I. the confirma
tion ofthe investiture granted to his ancestors.
A small Spanish force however continued to
garrison the cUadel of Piombino. Jacopo
died in 1585, leaving his principality to his
natural son Alessandro, whom he had caused
to be legitimated by the emperor,
Alessandro d'Appiano proved a tyran
nical and Ucentious ruler, and so exasperated
his subjects against him that a conspiracy
was formed by the principal people of Piom
bino, to which it is hinted that his own wife
Isabella de Mendo5a was privy, and Ales
sandro was murdered in September, 1589.
Neither IsabeUa nor the commandant of the
Spanish garrison took any measures against
the assassins, and the elders and other citi
zens of Piombino having assembled declared
themselves freed from their allegiance to the
house of Appiano, Some of them proposed
to give the principality to the Grand Duke of
Tuscany, but another party offered it to the
Spanish commandant, who accepted it in the
name of his king, PhlUp II. The Grand Duke
Ferdinand I. of Tuscany assumed the pro
tection of Jacopo, the infant son of Ales
sandro, and in 1591 the Spanish court
consented to restore Piombino to Jacopo,
under the guardianship of his uncle, Alfonso
d'Appiano. Jacopo VII. d' Appiano obtained a new
investiture of the territory of Piombino from
the Emperor Rudolf IL, and died in 1600
without issue. Several collaterals claimed
the succession. In 1624 the Emperor Fer
dinand II, acknowledged, by a decree of the
Aulic chamber, the claims of the sons of
Carlo Sforza d'Appiano, descended from
Jacopo IIL, on condition of their paying
800,000 florins to the Imperial treasury,
which payment the claimants being unable
to effect, the emperor, after several years,
declared the Appiani to have forfeited their
claims, and in March, 1634, gave the in-
o

APPIANO,

APPIANO.

vestiture of Piombino to Niccolo Ludovisi,
prince of Venosa, subject of Philip IV,,
king of Spain and of Naples, on condition of
the prince paying one million of florins to
the Aulic chamber. Ludovisi having effected
the pajrment took possession of Piombino.
His male line becoming extinct in the third
generation, the succession fell to the house
of Buoncompagni of Rome, which was allied
to the Ludovisi by marriage, and in 1701
Don Gregorio Buoncompagni entered into
possession, with the title of Prince of Piom
bino. His descendants continued to govern
their little state tiU 1801, when Bonaparte,
then First Consul of the French republic,
took possession of Piombino and Elba, and a
few years later gave Piombino to his sister
Elisa Baclocchi. After the fall of Napo
leon the principality of Piombino was incor
porated with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany,
and the house of Buoncompagni received an
indemnity for the aUodial property from the
Grand Duke.
The branch of Sforza d'Appiano, the re
maining descendants of the former princes of
Piombino, still exists at Piacenza. (Troncl,
Memorie Istoriche della Citta di Pisa ; Repettl,
Dizionario Geografico Storico della Toscana;
Pignottl, Storia della Toscana ; Litta, Famiglie
celebri Italiane,) A. V.
APPIA'NO, NTCCOLA, an ItaUan
painter mentioned by Latuada {Descrizione
di Milano) as one of the scholars of Lionardo
Da Vinci ; and he attributes to him a fresco
over the door of the church della Pace at
MUan. (Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, Sfc.) R. N. W.
APPIA'NO, PA'OLO ANTO'NIO, bora
at Ascoli in the Papal State in 1639, en
tered the order of the Jesuits, and became a
distinguished preacher. He was also well
versed in the study of history, and especially
in the history of his native country. He was
a member of the Arcadian society, amd was
intimate with the learned Magliabechi and
with the poet Gio. Batista FagiuoU, He was
appointed assessor to the office of the In
quisition at Rome and confessor to the
Roman college. He died at Rome in 1709.
He was the author of the foUowing works : —
1. " Vita di S. Emidio primo Vescovo
d' Ascoli, con una Descrizione deUa suddetta
Citti'i," 4to. Rome, 1702, and again, iuan im
proved edition, in Svo., 1704. This work,
which contains much historical information
concerning the town of Ascoli, was noticed in
the memoirs of Trevoux and other literary
journals of the time. 2, " Vita di Cecco
d' Ascoli," a celebrated poet and philosopher
of the fourteenth century who was burned for
heresy. This life has been inserted by
Bernini in his "Storia delT Eresie," 3,
" Panegirlco in Lode di S. Flllppo Neri Fon
datore della Congregazione dei PP. dell'
Oratorio," 4to., Parma, 1686. 4. "Ildoppio
Spirito di S. Filippo Benizi, Ampliatore de'
194

Servi di Maria, Panegirico," 4to., Florence,
1684. Benizi was the second fotmder or re
former of the order of Servites. 5. " II
Frumento che produce le Palme, Orazione in
Rendimento di Grazie a Dio per le Vittorie
ottenute T Anno 1687 daU' Armi Cristiane
nell' Ungheria, neUa Grecia, e neUa Dal-
mazia." Venice, 1688. The year 1687 is
memorable for the conquest of the Morea by
the Venetians under Morosini, and by other
successes obtained by the Venetians and the
Austrians over the Turks in Hungary and
Dalmatia. 6. " Vita del P, Niccolo Maria
PaUavicino Genovese della Compagnia di
Gesil," inserted in the second volume of the
" Vite degU Arcadi iUustri." Niccolo Palla-
V iciao, a learned Jesuit, is the author of several
polemical works, among others a voluminous
book in defence of the Pontifical authority
of the Roman See. Appiano wrote also a
biographical work in Latin, containing the
authors who were natives of Picenum, his
own country, entitled, " Athenaeum Pice
num," which is mentioned by CineUi, Cres-
cimbeni and others, but which, it appears,
has never been pnblished. (MazzuchelU,
Scrittori d'ltalia,) A. V.
APPIA'NUS {'ATnriavSs), an historian,
who, as we gather from several passages of
his writings, Uved in the reigns of Trajan,
Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. In his Pre
face, c. 7., he speaks of Rome having been
governed by emperors {avTOKpdTopes) for two
hundred years from the time of JuUus Caesar
to his own day. This would bring us to
the reign of Antoninus Pius (a. d. 138—161).
Again, in o. 9., he speaks of the Roman
power having lasted nine htmdred years.
In his history of the Civil Wars (ii. 90.)
he mentions a temple of Nemesis which
was destroyed in his time by the Jews of
Egypt, when Trajam was carrying on his
destructive warfare against them (a. d. 1 1 6,
117). Elsewhere {Iber, 38.; DeBell- Civ- 1.
38.) he speaks of Hadrian as no longer adive.
The few particulars of his personal history
with which we are acquainted are derived
from his own works. At the close of the
preface to his history he says : " I am
Appianus of Alexandria, who attained to the
highest dignities in my own country, and
pleaded causes at Rome in the judicial eom-ts
of the emperors, until they deemed me
worthy to be intrusted with the manage
ment of their aiffairs ; " that is, as we gather
from a letter of Fronto to Antoninus Pius
(p. 13, &c. ed. Nieb.), he was made pro
curator ; but whether in Egypt, as Schweig-
hiinser supposes, or elsewhere, we have no
means of determining. At the end of the
same preface Appian refers to an auto
biography, which has not come do-wn to us.
Appian was the author of a Roman his
tory in twenty-four books (Photius, Cod. 57.),
written in Greek, and entitled 'Pupia'iKd,
or 'Pw/iai'/d) 'laropia. He has himself in his

APPIANUS.

APPIANUS.

preface described the plan upon which it was
composed (cc. 12, &c.). Finding that a
synchronistic arrangement of the events of
Roman history in different parts of the
world occasioned the reader great perplexity,
as his attention was continually diverted
from one thing to another, Appian resolved,
instead of describing aU these events in
chronological succession, to make an ethno
graphical classification of them, so as to give
a separate history of each people up to the
time of its incorporation in the Roman em
pire ; prefixing to the more detailed nar
rative of its affairs from the period when it
first came into coUision with Rome to that
of its final subjection, a short account of its
earlier history. He took the different na
tions according to the order in which they
successively came into conflict with the
Romans (c. 14.). To make his history com
plete, he commenced with the kingly period
of Rome, which formed the subject of the
first book {'Pafia'iKdiv /3atriAiK^), and in sub
sequent books he gave an account ofthe Ro
man Civil Wars. The second book ('ItciAik^)
was devoted to the history of the Italian na
tions which Rome subdued. The remaining
books took up the history of the other na
tions in the following order : the third (2c!|U-
mrucii), the Samnites ; the fourth {KeXTucn),
the Gauls ; the fifth {SiueXiKii Kai NrpriairiKri),
SicUy and the other islands ; the sixth
('ISi)pi/of), Spain ; the seventh ('Awi§a'i/C7f),
the wars with Hannibal (Appian was in this
instance compeUed to depart from his original
plan in order to avoid the very objection
which that plan was intended to obviate) ;
the eighth {AiSvk^ Kai KapxTjSoct/c^, to which
Photius adds NofiaSiK^j), Libya, Carthage,
and Numidia ; the ninth (MaKeBoi/i/cl)), Ma
cedonia ; the tenth {'EXXrjvuc^fi Kai 'luviu^n),
Greece, and the Greek states of Asia Minor ;
the eleventh {Svpiann Kai TlapBiK-li), Syria and
Parthia ; the twelfth {MiBpiSdreios), the war
with Mithridates ; the thirteenth to the
twenty-first inclusive ('E|tu|n5Aia), the ci-vil
wars, from those of Marius and SuUa to the
battle of Actlum and the conquest of Egypt
(the last four books were also called rd
AiyvTTtaKd) ; the twenty-second {'EKarov-
Taerla), the first century of the empire, be
ginning from the battle of Actium ; the
twenty -third ('lAAupiKi^ orAaKuc<)),themyrian
wars ; the twenty-fourth ('ApoSiKi)), the wars
with Arabia. Of the first five books we
only possess fragments (preserved for the
most part in the " Excerpta," made under the
direction of the emperor Constantinus Por-
phyrogennetus). The same is the case with
books viii. and ix. We possess entire books
vi. vii. viii xi. (as far as the first division
of the Syrian history), xii. xiii— xvU. in
clusive, and xxiii The Parthian history,
formerly ascribed to Appian, is, as Schweig-
hiiuser has shown, a mere compilation of
late date from Plutarch's Uves of Antony
195

and Crassus. Appian's account of the Civil
Wars of Rome is very valuable, as it suppUes
in some degree the loss of so many other
works. As an historian Appian's merits are not of
a very high order. He was a mere com
piler, though on the whole a careful one. In
the earlier part of his history he followed
Dionysius, and, as Niebuhr remarks (iii. 212.
transl. notes 353. 844. 872.), is to be regarded
as a mere epitomizer of him so far as he went.
He also consulted the older annalists, and
the writings of Polybius, Aslnius Polllo,
Julius Cajsar, Terentius "Varro, Augustus,
Hieronymus of Cardia, and others. He has
thus preserved much useful information, as
an instance of which may be mentioned his
account of the Agrarian laws of the Gracchi,
which is the best extant. He possessed one
great advantage over Plutarch in his superior
knowledge of the Latin language. He now
and then, however, gives singular specimens of
his ignorance of geography. Thus, he makes
Spain about four times its actual size, and
says that the voyage from it to Britain may
be made in half a day {Iber. 1.) ; he con
ceives the Iberus to flow into the Northern
Ocean {Iber, 6.), and places Saguntum on
the north of that river, confounding it like
wise with Carthago Spartagena {Iber. 7.
10. 12.). Appian's style is clear, easy, and
simple, devoid of rhetorical ornament, some
times dry, but never exaggerated or bom-
baistic. Appian's history was first published in a
barbarous Latin translation by Candidus, at
Venice, in 1472. The first printed edition
of a part of the Greek text was published
by Carolus Stephanus, at Paris, in 1551.
The best edition of Appian is that by
Schweighauser, Leipzig, 1785, 3 vols. Svo.
Some new fragments were discovered by
A. Mai, and printed in the second volume of
his " Nova CoUectio Vet. Script." They
have been reprinted in Lucht's " Polybli et
Appiani Historiarum Excerpta Vaticana,"
Altona, 1830. A letter of Appian to Fronto,
also discovered by Mai, is printed in Nie-
huhr's edition of Fronto, p. 229. An English
translation of Appian was printed in 1579,
4to. by Raufe Newbery and Henrie Bynni-
man, and another by J. D. was published in
1696, fol. There are French translations by
Claude Seyssel, fol. Lyon, 1544, and Odet
Desmarres, fol. Paris, 1659, and of the
History of the Civil "SS'ars, by Combes Dou-
nous, Paris, 1803. There is also a German
translation by F. W. J. DUlenius, 2 vols.
Svo. Frankfort, 1793— 1800. (Schweighauser,
Exercit in App. sect. ili. p. 12, &c ; Wy t-
tenbach, Biblioth. Crit T. iii. P. 1. p. 93.
&c. ; DiUenius, in the preface to his transla
tion.) C. P. M.
APPIA'NUS. [Apian.]
APPIER or HAPPIER. [Hanzelet.]
APPION ('ATm-iaii'), a Christian who Uved
o 2

APPION.

APPLETON.

at the end of the second century after Christ
(about 196 A. D.), and wrote Commentaries
on the Six Days' "Work of the Creation (Hex-
aemeron). The work is entirely lost. (Eu
sebius, Hist Eccles. V. 27. ; Hieronymus, De
Viris Illustribus, p. 46. ; Cave, Historia Lit
teraria, 1. 95. Basil, 1741.) P. S.
A'PPION. [Apion Plistonices.]
A'PPIUS CLA'UDIUS. [Claudius.]
APPLEGARTH, ROBERT. The only ac
count we appear to have of this writer is that
given by himself in the preface to his " Apo
logy," which was published in 1 789. He says :
" I was born and educated amongst the people
called Quakers, but for these fourteen years
last past I have gradually declined their
meetings, and instead, have frequented the
public service of the Church of England ;
and about two years since I was married ac
cording to her ritual ; for which crime only
(if it may be called one) the Quakers soon
after disowned me, and tho' there was
something pointed in this excommunication,
yet I have never considered it as an evil,
because my principles, for some years pre
vious to this censure, had been wholly with
the established church ; and I was accordingly
baptized soon after by the minister of the
parish where I then resided, in doing which
I reverted to the religion of my ancestry."
Applegarth was a resident in Salisbury during
the early part of his life : the time of his
death is not known. His works are: — 1.
" Theological Survey of the Human Under
standing," Salisbury, 1776, Svo. This was
published anonymously. 2. " Apology for
the Two Ordinances of Jesus Christ, the Holy
Communion and Baptism, recommended to
the Quakers, " London, 1789, Svo. This was
intended as a refutation of some of the leading
errors of Quakerism as maintained in " Bar
clay's Apology." 3. " A Plea for the Poor ;
or. Remarks on the Price of Provisions and
the Peasant's Labour, the Bounties allowed
on the Exportation of Corn, especially Wheat,
&c.," London, 1789, Svo. 4. "Essay con
cerning Tithes, as appertaining to the Clergy
ofthe Church of England," London, 1791, Svo.
5. " Rights for Man ; or. Analytical Stric
tures on the Constitution of Great Britain
and Ireland," London, 1792, 12mo. (Watt,
Bibliotheca Britannica ; Biographical Dic
tionary of the Living Authors of Great Britain
and. Ireland.) J. W. J.
APPLETON, Commodore, an English
naval commander in the time of the Com
monwealth, known for a desperate battle
which he fought with the Dutch In the har
bour of Leghorn, on the 2d of March, 1652.
The Dutch admiral. Van Galen, having fallen
in with an EngUsh squadron commanded by
Captain Bodley or Badilo near the isle of
Elba, had captured a ship called the Phoenix,
which he brought into the harbour of Leg
horn, where the squadron commanded by
Appleton was lying. Unable to resist the
196

temptation of re-capturing the ship, Apple-
ton sent a certain Captain Cox with three
well-mannedboats to effect that object, which,
as the Dutch were lying in the security of a
neutral port, he easUy succeeded in doing.
The date of this enterprise was the 20th of
November, 1652; and although the Grand
Duke of 'Tuscany, on the violation of neu
trality being complained of, ordered the En
glish either to restore the Phoenix or leave
his port, it appears that they retained the
ship, and did not quit Leghorn tUl the 2d of
March in the year foUowing. Appleton,
whose fleet of six ships, carrying two hun
dred and twenty guns, was no match for that
of Van Galen, consisting of sixteen vessels of
war and nine fire-ships, sent off to Bodley,
who had eight vessels and a fire-ship, to re
quest him to appear off the port and draw
off the Dutch in pursuit, to allow him to
escape. The stratagem was executed, and
seemed Ukely to succeed ; but Appleton left
the roadstead too soon ; and the Dutch per
ceiving his design, retumed and encountered
him, while Bodley held aloof and rendered
scarcely any assistance. Appleton fought
with the most desperate courage, and held
two Dutch ships engaged for four hours, but
was at last compeUed to yield, though it is
said that but for his own crew, he woidd
have blown up the ship. Two of his vessels
were completely destroyed, one of them es
caped to Bodley's squadron, and the rest
were captured. The Dutch admiral Van
Galen was so severely wounded that he died
a few days after. The grand duke, in De
cember, 1 652, had complained of the conduct
of Appleton to the English government, who
sent orders to the commodore to return home
by land without delay. Nothing further is
known of Appleton ; but two years after, the
Commonwealth demanded satisfaction of the
grand duke for the damage done by "\"an
Galen, when he forced Appleton to leave the
port ; and it is beUeved that the duke was
finaUy compeUed to pay sixty thousand
pounds compensation money on this and
other accounts. It should seem therefore as
if the Commonwealth resented the conduct of
the duke, in forcing the English to leave his
port and expose themselves to destruction,
aifter redress had been applied for amd for
merly promised ; or possibly there may have
been other circumstances, not yet in print,
that gave a different colour to the whole
transaction. It is remarkable that the Dutch
historians Brandt and Wagenaar say nothing
of the violation of neutraUty, the account of
which is taken entirely from English autho
rities. Wagenaar relates on the contrary, that
the states of Holland were dissatisfied with
the conduct of Van Galen in not pursuing the
English with sufficient vigour, and that it was
on the account of their censures, that he did
his best to come into combat with some En
glish ships " which had been for some time

APPLETON.

APPLETON.

beset in the harbour of Leghorn." (Colliber,
Columna Rostratra, or A History of the English
Sea Affairs, 2d edition, p. 119 — 122. ; Camp
beU, Lives of the British Admirals, edition of
Berkenhout, 11. 27 — 30. ; Wagenaar, Vader
landsche Historie, xii, 237. &c.) T. W.
APPLETON, JESSE, was bom at New
Ipswich, in the State of New Hampshire,
U. S., on November 17th, 1772, of a famUy
which traced its descent to the Appletons of
Great Waldingfield in the English county of
Suffolk, His father was a farmer, and young
Appleton was at first intended for a me
chanic trade, but in 1788 was entered at
Dartmouth College, and took his degrees
there in 1792, After studying theology un
der Dr, Lathrop, of West Springfield, he was
ordained iu February 1797 pastor of a church
at Hampton, in New Hampshire, where he
continued till elected, in 1807, president of
Bowdoin College, on the death of its first
president, Dr, Mackeen, an Irishman, Bow
doin College is the principal educational es
tablishment or university for the state of
Maine; was founded in 1794 at Brunswick,
in that state, and takes its name from the
Honourable James Bowdoin of Boston, after
wards minister plenipotentiary at the Spanish
court, who bestowed on it at its outset
money and lands to the value of nearly seven
thousand dollars, and at his death, in 1811, a
library and collections to the value of fifteen
thousand more. At the time that Dr. Apple-
ton assumed the presidency, there was, we
are told by an officer ofthe college, " through
out the con. munity a tendency to looseness of
sentiment and character," and " at no period
in the history of American colleges had there
been more recklessness on the part of youth."
Dr. Appleton by unwearied assiduity and a
uniform system of discipline corrected these
evUs, and under his management the college
acquired a reputation for good morals as well
as sound scholarship. After ten years of
these exertions, his health became much im
paired, and a painful Ulness terminated in his
decease on the 12th of November, 1819, at
the age of forty-seven.
Dr. Appleton had pubUshed in his lifetime
several occaisional sermons, and in 1820 ap
peared a volume of his annual addresses at
college, and in 1822 of his lectures and
occasional sermons, with a life by the Rev.
Benjamin Tappan of Augusta. A collected
edition of his works was published in two
vols. Svo. at Andover, in 1837. It con
tains a memoir of his life, and comprises
a series of fifty-two lectures on the most
important subjects of theology, which he
delivered in the chapel of the college to the
assembled students, a selection of sixteen of
his sermons, a collection of his college ad
dresses, and a dissertation on the question
" What constitutes good use of a word in the
English language ?" Dr. Appleton's religious
views were originaUy Arminian, but before
197

his election to the presidency had assumed
an entirely different cast. His works are
said by a writer in the American Quarterly
Register to " place him in the highest rank
of the ethical and theological writers of his
country," They appear to exhibit clearness
of idea and purity of diction, ( Life prefixed
to Works ; Historical Sketch of Bmvdoin Col
lege by an Officer of the College, in Edwards's
American Quarterly Register, vlii. 110, &c. ;
Allen, American Biographical and Historical
Dictionary, second ed. p. 47.) T, W,
APPONCOURT. [Graffigny,]
APPREECE, JOHN, [Prise, John.]
APPULE'IA or APULE'IA GENS (Ple
beian), In inscriptions and MSS, the name
is usually written with a double p. We know
only of three family names or cognomlna of
this gens, — Decianus, Pansa, and Saturninus,
The first member of this gens who obtained
the honour of the consulship was Quintus
Appulelus Pansa, in b, c, 300. L. S.
APPULE'IUS, a member of the Appuleia
Gens, whose praenomen and cognomen are
not mentioned. He was proscribed by the
Roman triumvirs in E. c. 43, but escaped with
his wife to Sicily. Whether he is the same
as the Appulelus, a tribune of the people
mentioned by Appian, is uncertain, (Ap
pian, De Bello Civili, iv, 40,, iii. 93.) An
other Appulelus, Ukewise without either prae
nomen or cognomen, is mentioned by Cicero
{Ad Atticum, xU, 14, 17.) ; and to a third,
designated as proquaestor, two letters of Cicero
are addressed. {Ad Familiares, xUi. 45, 46.)
L. S.
APPULE'IUS. [Apuleius.]
APPULE'IUS DECIANUS. [Decia
nus.] APPULE'IUS, LU'CIUS, was tribune of
the people in e.c. 371, and impeached M.
Furius Camillus for having secreted a part of
the spoUs of Veil. (Livy, v. 32. ; Plutarch,
Camillus, 12.) L. S.
APPULE'IUS, LU'CIUS, was sent with
C. Petronius, in E. c. 156, as ambassador to
Asia to inquire into the condition of the
affairs between the two hostUe kings, Attalus
and Prusias. (Polybius, xxxii. 26.) L. S.
APPULE'IUS, MARCU.S, was elected a
member of the college of augurs in b. c. 45,
on which occasion Cicero requested Atticus
to excuse him for not talking part in the feast
of the installation, since he wais not weU.
In E. c. 44 Appulelus was quajstor, probably
in some part of Asia Minor ; and when Brutus,
after the murder of C. JuUus Ca;sar, went to
Greece and Asia, he found a ready supporter in
Appulelus, who surrendered to him all the
troops and adl the money he had at his com
mand. During the triumvirate of Octavian,
Antony, and Lepidus, n. c. 43, M. Appuleius,
who was then at Rome, and a candidate for
the office of pontife.K minor, was proscribed,
but he escaped to Asia, where Brutus assigned
to him the government of Bithynia. He re-
o 3

APPULEIUS.

APRAXIN.

mained in possession of this country till after
the death of Brutus, when Bithynia was sur
rendered to Antony, and Appuleius obtained
permission to return to Rome, It is not im
possible that he may be the same as the M,
Appuleius who was consul in E, c, 20 together
with P, Silius Nerva, (Cicero, Ad Atticum,
xii 13 — 15,, Philippica, x. 11,; Pseudo-Bru
tus, Ad Ciceron. 1, 7, ; Appian, De Bello
Civili, iii 63,, iv, 46. 75. ; Dion Caissius,
liv. 7.) L. S,
APPULE'IUS PANSA, [Pansa.]
APPULEIUS SATURNFNUS. [Sa
turninus.] APPULE'IUS, SEXTUS, was consul in
B.C. 29 with Augustus. After his consul
ship he went to Spain as proconsul, and for
some victory, concerning which no particulars
are known, he triumphed in B.C. 25. (Dion
Cassius, 11. 26. ; Fasti Triumphales.) L. S.
APPULE'IUS, SEXTUS, was consul in
the year of the death of Augustus, a.d, 14,
and he and his colleague Sextus IPompeius
were the first who took their oath of alle
giance to Tiberius, Dion Cassius in two pas
sages calls this Appuleius a relative {crvyyev-fis)
of Augustus, but in what this relationship
consisted is uncertain. (Dion Cassius, liv.
30., Ivi 29,; Suetonius, Augustus, 100,;
Tacitus. Annales, i. 7, ; Vellelus Paterculus,
ii 123.) L. S.
APRAXIN, STEPAN THEDORO-
VICH, the son of a stolnik or seneschal,
was born on the 30th of July (o. s.) 1702,
In the seventeenth year of his age he entered
the army, he served in the campaign of
1737 against the Turks, under field-marshal
Count Miinnich, and was present at the
taking of Oczakow by storm. After the
conclusion of the war, he was appointed com
mander of the forces in the government of
Astrakhan ; in 1741, he welcomed, in that
capacity, the ambassadors of Nadir Shah of
Persia, and in the following year he visited
the court of Nadir, as the ambassador of
Russia. In 1748 he took an active share,
with the chancellor Bestuzhev, in occasioning
the fall of Lestocq, the favourite of the Em
press Elizabeth, and was president of the
committee of inquiry into his alleged crimes.
He advanced rapidly through the various
stages of military rank to that of field-mar
shal in 1756; and in 1757 he was entrusted
with the chief command of the Russian army
intended to act against Frederick the Great,
At this time he is described in no very
flattering terms in the despatches of Mr.
Williams, afterwards Sir Charles Hanbury
WUliams, the EngUsh ambassador at St. Pe
tersburgh. " Apraxin," he says, " is to com
mand the Russian army ; he is lately made
field-marshal. He is the laziest of manldnd,
and a rank coward, for he was grossly abused
the other day and almost kicked by the het-
man of the Cossacks without resenting it."
" A praxin," he says in another letter, " is a
198

very corpulent man ; lazy, luxurious, and
certainly not brave. He has never yet seen .
an army of any enemy, nor ever served but
in Miinnich's Turkish campaigns. I know
he is sick of his command, and they already
begin to find here that the marching of so
large an army is not so easUy done as talked
of" Williams soon after opened a corre
spondence with the Grand Duchess Catharine,
the wife of Peter, the heir to the reigning
Empress Elizabeth, to bribe the field-mar
shal. " Apraxin is, or at least pretends to
be," writes Williams, " entirely devoted to
the grand duchess. He is no soldier, and
has a very indifferent opinion of the army he
commands ; and it is believed he does not
wish to meet the Prussians in the field,
Apraxin is besides very extravagant and
very needy, notwithstanding the great boun
ties bestowed upon him by his mistress.
From these circumstances, the King of Prus
sia thinks it may be worth while in the
present conjuncture to give him a sum of
money, in order to delay the march of the
troops, which a commander-in-chief can
easily find pretences to do," Whatever
means were employed to prevent him were
ineffectual, for Apraxin entered Prussia in
May, 1757, at the head of a Russian army
said to consist of 97,000 men. On the 5th
of August he took Memel ; on the 2 Sth he
passed the Pregel, drove back the Prussian
field-marshal Lehwald, who was at the head
of an army of 30,000 men, and encamped at
Grossjiigemdorf. Here the atrocities which
from want of discipline his army committed
against the peasantry drove Lehwald to
hazard a battle. On the 30th of August,
early in the morning, the Prussians in a body
20,000 strong attacked the Russian army
which was three times that number, accord
ing to Prussian authorities ; the Russians
state their own numbers at 50,000 and the
Prussian at 30,000. Success was at first on
the side of the Prussians, but they pursued it
so warmly as to entangle themselves : a skUful
movement of General Rumiantzov, who com
manded the Russian reserve, decided the
fortune of the day, which ended in the com
plete defeat of the Prussians, who lost twenty-
nine pieces of cannon. There was now no
thing to hinder the Russians from advancing
to Konlgsberg, and even taking BerUn, but
to the amazement of Europe, the ai-my first
remained immoveable in its camp, then con
tented itself with a few insignificant incur
sions, and finally, on the 11th of September,
withdrew to winter quarters in Corn-land,
leaving nothing behind but a garrison of
10,000 men in Memel. The explanation of
these events soon foUowed. At the time of
the victory, the Empress EUzabeth was dan
gerously ill ; her heir, the Grand Dulce Peter,
was well known to be an uncompromising
admirer and supporter of Frederick the
Great, and the chanceUor Bestuzhev, anxious

APRAXIN.

APRAXIN.

to pay his court to the rising sun, had sent
secret orders to Apraxin to retire. Unfor
tunately for them the empress recovered, and
indignant to find her anticipations of revenge
on Frederick so unexpectedly disappointed,
she banished Bestuzhev to a vUlage, and
ordered Apraxin to resign his command to
Count Fermor, and repair to Narva to give
an account of his proceedings. A commis
sion of inquiry was nominated, and Apraxin,
whose death occurred soon after, on the 26 th
of August (o. s.), 1758, is said to have died
of apoplexy occasioned by the shock of their
first questions. (Despatches of Sir C. H.
WiUiams, as quoted from the origmals in the
State Paper Office, in Von Raumer, Contribu
tions to Modern History, Frederick II. p. 304
¦ — ^318, &c. ; Article by Viskovatov 'm Ent-
siklopedechesky Lexikon, ii 438, &c. ; article
by Haisse and Buhle in Ersch und Gruber,
Allgemeine Encyclopddie, v. 9.) T. W.
APRAXIN, THEDOR MATVAYE-
VICH, was one of the three sons of Matvay
Vasillvich Apraxin, stolnik or seneschal at
the court of the Tzar, whose daughter Maria
Matvaye-vna was married tothe Tzar Theodor
Alexiiyevlch, the elder brother and prede
cessor of Peter the Great. The famUy of the
Apraxins was descended from a Tartar
prince of the Golden Horde, who in the
year 1304 had been converted to Christianity
and married the sister of the Russian prince
of Riazan.
Thedor Matvayevich was born in the
year 1671, and at the age of ten was appointed
stolnik to the Tzar Theodor, his brother-in-
law, after whose death in 1682 he passed into
the service of Peter the Great, whose inse
parable companion amd favourite he became.
In 1692 hewas appointed governor of Arch
angel, the only port in Russia which then
carried on foreign commerce, and here he
caused to be built a merchant vessel to
the great delight of Peter, whom he accom
panied on some sailing excursions on the
White Sea. 'When Peter in 1697 left Russia
to study foreign countries, Apraxin was ap
pointed chief superintendent of ship-building
at Voronezh, and on the return of the tzar,
he took part in August, 1699, in the first
manoeuvres of the Russian fleet at Taganrog.
In 1 700 he was appointed governor of Azov,
at the same time that he held many other
important offices ; and during the six years
following, while the tzar was carrying on
his wars against the Swedes in the north,
Apraxin held almost unlimited command of
the south, and fuUy justified the confidence
that his master reposed in him. During that
time he added many new vessels to the Azov
fleet, he rebuilt Azov, he buUt Taganrog with a
haven for the reception of vessels of war, and
a fortress towards the land-side, he provided
the ship-building wharfs at Vorenezh with
docks and sliuoes, and he acted in every respect
as a worthy lieutenant of Peter the Great. In
199

1707, on the death of Count Alexayevich, he
was named in his place admiral and president
of the A.dmiralty, and in this situation he ren
dered StUl more important services. In 1708,
by his judicious measures, he saved the infant
city of St. Petersburg from the sudden attack
of the Swedish general Liibecker, a service
for which Peter caused a medal to be struck
in his honour. It was to him that in the
following year Peter directed the news of the
battle of Poltava, and in 1710, after a hard
siege, he captured in command of an army
of eleven thousand men, the important
city of Wyborg, the capital of Carelia. In
his subsequent operations on the coast of
Finland, Apraxin had the honour of seeing
Peter serve under him as vice-admiral. On
the breaking out of the war between Russia
and the Porte in 1711, he was recalled
to his former scene of action in the south,
but no triumphs were to be obtained in the
campaign which ended in the treaty of the
Pruth, m which the tzar was glad to cede
anything to save his army from destruction.
Apraxin was employed to destroy Taganrog
and to give back Azov to the Turks, in pur
suance of the conditions of that treaty, but
he had secret instructions not to carry the
latter provision into effect till the 'Turks
had ejected Charles the 'Twelfth from their
dominions, and he had thus the embarrassing
task of contriving delays for a whole year in
the face of the pressing remonstrances of the
Turkish officers. On his return to the north
in 1712, he was entrusted with the command
of all the forces in the conquered Swedish
provinces by land and sea, and in 1713, with
a fleet of two hundred vessels, he spread
terror along the shores of Finland, taking
Helsmgfors and Borgo, and on the 6th of
October (o. s.), defeating the Swedish fleet
at the mouth of the river Pelkin. In the next
year he shared the glory of another naval
victory over the Swedes with Peter the Great,
who was present ; but on his return to the
capital, after a dreadful tempest in which
many of his ships and men were lost, he had
the mortiflcation, and unfortunately adeserved
one, of being subjected to an examination
on a charge of embezzlement. Apraxin it
seems had been concerned with many other
of the Russian nobility in various malversa
tions which had already crept into the naval
service. He was found guilty, but only con
demned to a fine, which was only a nominal
punishment, as Peter withdrew none of his
favour, and in 1716 presented him with the
estates which had belonged to his sister,
the Tzaritza Maria, on the occasion of the
tzaritza's death.
In 1717, he rose to the dignity of presi
dent of the college of the Admiralty, with the
title of general, admiral, and senator, and iu
1718 he was the second member of the com
mission of inquiry into the affair of the
Tzarevich Alexis, which condemned Alexis
o 4

APRAXIN.

APRAXIN.

to death. His elder brother Peter, who
had served in several wars against the
Tartars and was governor of Kazan, was im
plicated in the affair of Alexis, but after a
strict investigation was pronounced innocent,
released from prison, and restored to his
employments. Immediately after the trial
of Alexis, Peter proceeded to another de
monstration against the "oppressors of the
people," ais he called the embezzlers, and
Menshrikov and Apraxin, the two most con
spicuous, were again condemned to fines,
which they were well able to pay, while
others were sent to Siberia, and some were
put to death. Notwithstanding this second
condemnation, Apraxin was appointed in
1719 governor-general of Esthonia. By his
active measures as admiral, in 1720 and 1721,
for spreading destruction along the Swedish
coast, he greatly contributed to the triumph
which Russia obtained at the conclusion of
the peace of Nystad. In 1722 he accom
panied Peter in his Persian war, and nearly
lost his Iffe by the dagger of a captive
Lesgian at the siege of Derbend. In 1723
he returned to Petersburg, and took the
command of the fleet, then consisting of
five frigates and twenty-four ships of the
line, in which Peter the Great, who had
raised the whole of this tremendous force
from nothing, now took his last excursion by
sea. After the death of Peter, Apraxin was pre
sent at the marriage of Anna Petrovna with
the duke of Holstein to give away the bride.
His last marine expedition was in 1726, when
he was ordered with the fleet to Revel, to
protect that port from an apprehended attack
by the English. In the February of the fol
lowing year, Apraxin retired to Moscow,
where on the 10th of November (o. s.), 1728,
he died, in the fifty-seventh year of his age.
He left his house at St. Petersburg to the
reigning Emperor Peter the Second, the son
of the prince whom he had condemned to
death, and all the rest of his property of
whatever kind to his younger brother Audrey
Matvayevich Apraxin. Thedor was never
married and left no issue, his elder brother
Peter left none but in the female line, and the
present family of the Apraxins is descended
from the youngest brother Audrey, the least
known of the three. Thedor Apraxin was,
we are told in the Russian Cyclopaedia, " a
nobleman in the fullest sense of the word,
hospitable and full of the warmest wishes for
the public and private weal ;" a panegyric,
however, from whioh his undeniable propen
sities for embezzlement, and his disgraceful
compliance with the tyranny of Peter towai-ds
Alexis, will render necessary very serious
deductions. Though so great a favourite
with Peter, he enjoyed, what is so rare inthe
case of favourites, an unbounded popularity
among his contemporaries. (Article by Vis
kovatov in Entsiklopedechesky Lexikon, 'i.
200

435 — 438. ; Halem, Leben Peters des Grossen,
ii 13. 136. 257., &c) T. W.
APRE'S DE MANNEVILLETTE,
JEAN BAPTISTE NICOLAS DENIS D',
an eminent French hydrographer, was born
at Havre on the 11th of February, 1707.
His father, Jean Baptiste Claude d' Apres de
Blangy, captain of a vessel in the service of
the company ofthe Indies, educated him for
a seaman. Mathematics and their application
to navigation were almost the exclusive studies
of the boy till he attained his twelfth year.
In 1719, Captain d' Apres de Blangy was ap
pointed to the command of the company's
vessel Le Solide, destined for Bengal. The
urgent solicitations of his son to be taken
with him prevailed ; and after considerable
hesitation, he procured for the boy a brevet
appointment of enseigne de vaisseau. The
voyage lasted two years, and during this time
the young sailor had ample opportunities of
rendering himself famiUar with the practice
of his profession.
On his retum to France in 1721, D' Apres
de ManneviUette was sent to Paris to perfect
himself in the studies of astronomy and geo
metry. He made rapid progress under his
teachers DeUsle and Desplaces. In 1726 he
embarked with the rank of fourth officer on
board of the Marechal d'Estrees, sent by the
company of the Indies to Senegal and the
Antilles. On the 20th of September, 1727,
the ship had almost foundered off the island
of St. Domingue, in a hurricane, which ac
companied the earthquake which in that year
wrought such damage among the American
islands. The vessel was with great difficulty
carried into the harbour of Cape Fran5ois.
The necessary repairs having been completed
the vessel again set saU, but the ignorance of
the pilot made him cast the ship away, and
D' Apres with the greater part of the crew
were exposed for several days with a short
allowance of food and water on a barren rock.
He returned to France, and three years
elapsed before he was again employed by the
directors of the company. During this in
terval he made two voyages to America in
private vessels.
In 1730 he was appointed second in com
mand of the company's brig Le Fier. On
this voyage he had an opportunity of observ
ing the western coast of Africa, from Cape
Blanco to the Bissao, and being struck with
the inaccurate manner in which it was laid
down in the Dutch and Portuguese charts.
and even in Thornton's English Pilot, he
conceived the first idea of the work that
was to preserve his name.
He returned to France in 1732, and re
mained for a short time at Brest, where
he married Marie Madeleine Jacquette de
Binard. But he left his wife almost immedi
ately aifter the marriage to accompany M.
de TrediUac, on a voyage to Cadiz and
Madeira. Between 1733 and 1742, he made

APRES.

APRES.

four voyages in vessels belonging to the
company. During the third of these (which
he performed as second lieutenant of the
Prince de Conti, and which began in 1736)
D' Apres made a number of observations with
HaUey's sextant. The biographical sketch
prefixed to the posthumously published
" Supplement au Neptune Oriental," asserts
that D' Apres was the first navigator who made
use of this instrument. D' Apres' claim, as
stated by himself in the preface to the " Nep
tune Oriental," is to be considered the first
navigator who endeavoured to carry into effect
HaUey's suggestion of determining the longi
tude by observing lunar distances. " I have
always practised this method in my voyages,
and I am the first navigator who has made
use of it."
Having collected a great number of charts
and memoirs, D' Apres completed, about 1743,
his " Neptune Oriental." The publication
of such a work involved an expenditure be
yond what his limited fortune admitted and
he applied for assistance to the company
of the Indies. The directors insisted that
the work should be submitted for the opi
nion of the Academie des Sciences. A com
mittee ofthe academy having reported favour
ably, the directors of the company of the
Indies undertook the expense of publication.
D' Apres was, in 1743, elected a correspond
ing member of the society ; and, in No
vember, 1745, he presented the first copy
of his " Neptune Oriental " to the king.
The work, as at first published, was on a
much more limited scale than it afterwards
expanded to. It consisted merely of charts
and sailing directions for part of India and
China. 'The uncertainty which existed re
specting the positions of the Cape of Good
Hope and the islands of France (Mauritius)
and Bourbon, prevented them from being in
cluded. With a view to supply these deficiencies,
D' Apres solicited the company of the Indies
to employ him upon some expedition, in the
course of which he might make the necessary
observations. The frequent complaints made
by seamen of the errors of the charts in
common use, and, above all, the loss of the
company's vessel the Centaur, which was
lost off Cape Agulhas in January, 1750, at
last induced the directors to comply with his
request. He was appointed to the command
of the Glorieux, the vessel destined to
convey to the isles of France and Bourbon
the annual supply of provisions and other
stores. The Abbe de la CaUle, who was
on terms of intimacy with D' Apres, and had
obtained the sanction and support of the
Academie des Sciences for a visit to the
Cape of Good Hope, in order to determine
its position, and make a catalogue of the
southern stars, had a passage granted him in
the Glorieux by the company.
D' Apres employed the time which elapsed
201

between his appointment and his sailing to
procure the necessary Instruments, and in
formation from the Parisian men of science.
From Canivet he obtained one of two sex
tants (of twenty-two inches' radius), which
had been constructed by order of the king ;
and from London a reflecting sextant made
by Morgan, under the superintendence of
Short. He had assiduously exercised him
self in the use of an instrument of this kind
during a voyage which he had made to Se
negal in 1749, but the mirrors and the gra
duation being faulty, with inadequate suc
cess. He took great pains at Paris to verify
his instruments. He sailed from L'Orient
on the 21st of November, 1750. The ex
pedition was forced to put into Rio Janeiro
for repairs, and La Caille and D' Apres em
braced the opportunity to make observations.
Resuming their voyage. La CaUle was landed
at the Cape of Good Hope, and D' Apres,
after wooding and watering, proceeded to
Bourbon and the Isle of France. Having
surveyed the coasts of these islands, and the
governor having detained the Glorieux for
the service of the colonies, D' Apres sailed in
the Treize Cantons on the 24th of Decem
ber, 1751, from Bourbon ; reached the Bay
of Fort Dauphin in the island of Madagas
car, on 1st of January, 1752 ; Delagoa Bay
on the 15th ; and thence coasted the southern
extremity of Africa ais far as Cape Town,
where he arrived on the Sth of May. During
this expedition D' Apres made several ob
servations on the dip of the needle ; and
his determination of the positions of the
Cape of Good Hope, Bourbon and the Isle
of France corresponded within a few seconds
with those obtained more at leisure by the
Abbe de la Caille. The fruit of this ex
pedition was a corrected chart of the eastern
ocean, which D' Apres presented to the king
in 1753.
In 1754, D' Apres had the honour to be the
first French seaman who explored the route
pursued by Boscawen in 1748, through the
archipelago N. E. of Madagascar. This,
with the exception of the expedition under
Count d'Ache in 1757, in which he com
manded an armed vessel, was D' Apres' last
voyage. Some charges made against him
for faulty manoeuvres by D'Ache, induced
D' Apres to retum to France to demand a
court of inquiry, and fading to obtain it, he
threw up his commission. His hydrogra
phic labours, however, experienced no inter
ruption. In 1762 the company of the Indies insti
tuted a depot of charts, plans, and journals
of voyages to India at L'Orient, and
named D'Apres de ManneviUette inspec
tor. This appointment was continued to
bim by the king after the suspension of the
company. Criticisms on the charts of his
Neptune, which had been sent to him from
various quarters ; the perusaU of journids

APRES.

APRES.

kept by the most eminent navigators of his
day ; and his own enlarged experience, had
taught D'Apres the defects of his work, and
induced him to contemplate a second edition.
Whilst engaged upon this task, the shipwreck
ofthe Dromadalre (1762) on the N.E. point
of St, Vincent, one of the Cape Verde Islands,
led the minister of the day to charge
D'Apres with the preparation of a body of
sailing directions from France to India, In
obedience to this command he prepared a
voluminous memoir, which contains, in addi
tion to the sailing directions, remarks on the
prevailing winds, corrected positions of the
most important places touched at, exposures
of the errors of old charts, and of many
prejudices entertained by mariners, A chart
of the Cape Verde Islands was annexed to
the memoir. This work was presented to
the king in 1766, who being informed that
D'AprSs was engaged upon a new edition of
his Neptune, politely expressed a wish to see
it completed, and conferred upon him the
order of St. Michael, with an annual pension
of 1200 Uvres,
Thus encouraiged he applied himself earn
estly to his task. He collected information
from all quarters, and from no one did he
receive more cordial and disinterested assist
ance than from his illustrious countryman
D'Anville, and from Alexander Dalrymple,
afterwards the first official hydrographer of
England, as D'Apres was of France, The
second edition of the " Neptune Oriental "
appeared in 1775. It embraced the sailing
directions from France to India, illustrated
by three charts, prepared for the work by
the Abbe Dicquemare, professor of physics
and natural history at Havre : 1. the west
ern coasts of France, with part of the coasts
of Great Britain and Spain ; 2. the western
coasts of Portugal and Barbary, with the
islands of Madeira and Porto Santo ; 3. the
Azores and Canary Islands. The west coast
of Africa, from Cape Blanco to the Gambia,
the Cape Verde Islamds, and Rio Janeiro,
were laid down principally from D'Aprfcs'
own observations. The Cape of Good Hope,
South Africa, and the isles of France amd
Bourbon, were laid down in accordance with
the observations of La Caille and the author
himself; Madagascar principaUy from his own
observations; S, E. India, the straits of Sunda,
and as far as Borneo, in a great meaisure from
his own observations. The authorities fol
lowed for the Chinese Seas and the coasts of
China were Dalrymple and D'Anville, The
eastern coast of Africa, the western coast of
India, the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and
the Gulf of Persia, were derived from a num
ber of sources ; Niebuhr, officers of the
French navy and of the English East India
Company's navy. The " Neptune Oriental "
of D'Apres is perhaps even a greater advance
upon any thing of the kind that preceded
it, than any that has succeeded it is upon
202

itself Comprehensive surveys have since
that time been made at the expense of various
governments ; great improvements have been
made in the instruments of observation ;
D'Apres had retired from the service before
Mayor's tables were published ; and yet we
have no one systematic combination of charts
and sailing directions that affords such an
accessible compendium of the knowledge
of our time as D'Apres' does of the know
ledge of his,
D'Apres was busied preparing a supplement
to the " Neptune," when jtie died suddenly on
the 1st of March, 1780. His brother, M.
D'Apres de Blangy, was at the expense of
publishing the supplement, which contains
some valuable additional charts and impor
tant rectifications of others. AU the charts,
plans, drawings, and memoirs prepared or
collected by D'Apres, were purchased by the
king for the Depot de la Marine,
The published works of D'Apres are — 1,
"Le Neptune Oriental;" first edition, 1745;
second edition, 1775. 2. " Description et
Usage d'un nouvel Instrument pour observer
la Longitude, appele le Quartier Anglais,"
1751, 3, "Relation d'un Voyage aux Isles
de France et de Bourbon" (in the fourth
volume of " Memoires de Mathematlque
et Physique presentes a I'Academie des
Sciences," 1763). 4, "Instructions sur la
Navigation de France aux Indes," 1766, 5.
"Supplement au Neptune Oriental," 1781,
( Vie de VAuteur, prefixed to the Suppliment
au Neptune Oriental; Biographie Univer
seUe ; Preface to the second edition oi Neptune
Oriental; Relation d'un Voyage au-v Isles de
France et Bourbon (in Mimoires presentes
a VAcadimie des Sciences, vol, iv,) ; Journal
Historique du Voyage fait au Cap de Bonne
Espirance par feu M- VAbbi de la Caille,
Paris, 1763,) W, \\',
A'PRIES ('Airpiijs), king of Egypt, was
the son of Psammis or Psammuthis. He
succeeded his father about b. c. 593, and he
reigned twenty-five years. Herodotus says
that his reign was prosperous. According
to the same authority he led an army iigalnst
Sidon, and fought a naval battle with the
Tyriams, Towards the close of his reign he
sent an expedition against Cyrene, which
turned out unsuccessful, and led to the
revolt of Amasis, aud his own dethronement.
He was succeeded by Amasis b, u, 569,
[Amasis,] Apries is apparently the Pharoah-Hophra
of the Scriptures. During his reign Nebu
chadnezzar took Jerusalem (b. c. 586), upon
which many of the people of Judah took
refuge in Egypt. Apries is the eighth king
of Egypt, ofthe twenty-sixth or Salte dynasty.
His name is also written Ouaphres. (Hero
dotus U. 161., iv 159.; Jeremiah, x,vxvii,
xliv., xlvi.) G. L.
APRTLE, GIUSEPPE, was born at Na
ples about 1746, and from 1763 he was for

APRILE.

APRONIA.

some time the primo musico of several ItaUan
and German theatres. He fitnally settled at
Naples, where, it is beUeved, he died about
1798. Aprile wais an eminent teacher of
singing, and several celebrated Italian artists
(among them Cimarosa) were his pupils.
His work, " The ItaUan Method of Singing,"
was re-published in London, and was long in
extensive use with English singing-masters.
He also published six vocal duets. Dr, Bur
ney, who heard Aprile when he was at
Naples in 1770, says that he had "rather a
weak and uneven voice, but constantly steady
in intonation :" that " his shake was good,"
and that he had " much taste amd expression,"
(Fetis, Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;
Burney, Present State of Music in Italy,) E. T.
APRO'NIA GENS, (Plebeian), There
occur in Roman history only four persons
belonging to this gens, and as three of them
are not distinguished by any cognomen or
family name, we subjoin an account of them
here in their chronological succession,
Apronius, Caius, was one of the tribunes
of the people in B. c. 449, after the abolition
of the deeemvirate. (Livy, ui. 54. )
Apronius, Quintus, the principal among
the decumani or farmers of the tithes in
Sicily during the administration of Verres,
from E. c. 73 to 71. Cicero states that Q.
Apronius was the only man in Sicily whom
Verres found a match for himself in rapa-
clousness and wickedness of every kind.
(Cicero, contra Verrem, U. 44., in. 9. 12. 21.
23.) Apronius, Lucius, a Roman eques, makes
his first appearance in history in A. D. 8,
when, according to the Capltoline Fasti, he
was consul sufl'ectus from the 1st of JtUy in
that year. In A. D. 14, he was one of the
friends who accompanied Drusus in his mis
sion to the revolted legions of Pannonia, and
he was also one of the ambassadors whom
Drusus sent to Tiberius at Rome, to lay the
case of the legions before the emperor and
solicit pardon for them. On his return to
Germany he served as a general in the army
of Germanieus, who, while hastening against
the Chatti, left Apronius on Moimt Taunus
to protect the fortifications of the roads and
rivers. The year after this he was rewarded
with the insignia of a triumph for the ser
vices he had performed during the campaign
of Germanieus. During the next five years
he seems to have remained at Rome. In
A. D. 20 he succeeded Furius CamiUus as pro
consul of Africa, whither he took with him
his only son, L. Apronius Cacsianus, the only
one among the ApronU who is mentioned
with a cognomen. In Africa L. Apronius
restored the discipline of the Roman troops,
and carried on a successful war against the
African chief Tacfarinas. In A. d. 28 he
was proprajtor of Lower Germany, and
fought against the revolted Frisians ; but he
203

suffered some severe defeats, and as he is not
mentioned after this campaign, it is usually
supposed that he feU in some engagement
with the Frisians. L. Apronius had two
daughters ; one, Apronia, was married to
Plautius SUvanns, and murdered by her hus
band for some unknown reason. The other,
whose name is not mentioned, was married
to Lentulus Gaetulicus. His son was consul
with Caligula in A. D. 39. (Tacitus, Annales,
i. 29. 56. 72., ii 32., iii 21., iv. 22. 73., vi.
30., xi. 19 ; Dion Cassius, lix. 13.) L. S.
APRONIA'NUS, CA'SSIUS. [Dion
Cassius.] APRO'SIO, LUFGI, afterwards ANGE
LICO, an Augustine monk and very learned
but whimsical writer, was bom at Vinti-
miglia, a city of Liguria, on the 19th
of October, 1607. He was so celebrated in
his day that he was frequently styled simply
" D Padre VintimigUa." His love for books
was so remarkable, even in his early child
hood, that he obtained the soubriquet of the
philosopher from his school-feUows. At the
age of fifteen, on the 19th of March, 1623,
he entered the order of the Eremitani di S.
Agostino della Congregazione di Geneva, on
which occasion he laid aside the name of
Luigi, which he had received at his baptism,
and adopted that of Angelico. In his early
life he appears to have been extremely rest
less. He inhabited in succession the convents
of Genoa, Siena, Monte S. Savino, Pisa, Tre
vigi, Feltre, Losina in Dalmatia, 'Venice, Mu-
rano, and RapaUa, and always found some
reasonable pretext in justification of his love
of change. Ultimately, however, he settled
in his native city, and was appointed vicar-
general of the inquisition. He was a mem
ber of many academies, among others that
of the Incogniti of Venice, the Geniali of
Codogno, the Apatisti of Florence, &c. His
death took place on the 23d of February,
1681. In 1648, being then in his native city, he
determined to found there a, library, and in
the accomplishment of this object expended
much time, labour, and money. In a letter
written by him to J. FioreUi in 1678, he
states that he had coUected upwards of seven
thousand volumes. This library became ce
lebrated as the BibUoteca Aprosiana, but sub
sequently lost most of its rare books and
manuscripts : its number is stated to be now
under five thousand.
AU the works of Aprosio were written
under assumed names ; the foUowing are the
principal : — 1. "II Vaglio ' Sieve' Critico di
Masotto Galistoni da Terama sopra 11 Mondo
Nuovo del Cav. Tommaso StigUani. da Ma
tera," Rostock (Trevigi), 1637, 12mo. This
is a critique upon the first canto of Stigliani's
poem, " II Mondo Nuovo," and was written in
retaliation for his criticism upon the "Adone "
of Marini, The name assumed by Aprosio
is an anagram of Stigliami's own name, Stig-

APROSIO.

APROSIO.

Hani's son Carlo, or himself under his son's
name, having replied to the " Vaglio Critico "
by a work called " II MoUno " (" The MUl "),
Aprosio wrote — 2, " II Buratto (" the Bolter ")
Replica di Carlo Galistoni al Molino del Sig,
Carlo StigUani," Venice, 1642, 12mo, Apro
sio had also written another work, intitled
" II Batto, owero Pietra di Paragone, che
mostra i Furti del Cav, StigUani nei Mondo
Nuovo, di Sapricio Saprici ; " but it does not
appear that this was ever printed, 3, " L'Oc-
chiale stritolato di Scipio Glareano, per Ris-
posta al Slg. Cav, Tommaso StigUani," Ve
nice, 1641, 12mo, This was a reply to a
work by StigUani against the "Adone," called
" L'Occhiale." 4. " La Sferza poetica di Sa
pricio Saprici, lo Scantonato Accademlco
EterocUto, per Risposta alia prima Censura
delT Adone del Cav, Marino, fatta dai Cav.
Tommaso StigUani," Venice, 1 643, 12mo, 5,
" II Veratro, Apologia di Sapricio Saprici per
Risposta alia seconda Censura dell' Adone,
&c." 2 parts, Venice, 1647, 1645, 12mo, 6,
" Annotazioni di Oldauro Scioppio aU' Arte
degli Amanti del Sig. Pietro Michele," Ve
nice, 1642, 12mo. 7. "Lo Scudo di Rlnaldo,
ovvero lo Specchio del Disinganno, Opera
di Scipio Glareano," Venice, 1642, 12mo.
This is a work on Morals. S. " Sermonl di
tutte le Domeniche e Festivita de' Santi, che
occorrono nell' Avvento . , , , per Opera del
P, Agostino Osorio, trasportati daUa Spag-
nuola nelT Italiana Favella da Oldauro Sci
oppio," Venice, 1643, 4to, 9. " Le Bellezze
della Belisa, Tragedia del Slg, Antonio Mus-
cettola, abbozzate da Oldauro Scioppio,"
Lovano (Genoa), 1664, 12mo, 10, "Della
Patria di A, Persio Flacco Dissertazione,"
Genoa, 1664, 4to, In this work Aprosio
endeavours to prove that Persius was born in
Liguria. 11, "Le Vigilie del Capricorno,
Note tumultuarie di Paolo Genari da Scio,
air Epistole erolche, Poesie del famosissimo
Lorenzo Crasso." Venice, 1667, 12mo,, and
again in 1678, 12mo. These annotations
only extend to the first five epistles, 12,
" La Grillaja, Curiosita erudite di Scipio
Glareano," Naples, 1668, 12mo, 13, "La
Biblioteca Aprosiana, Passatempo autunnale
di Cornelio Aspasio AntivlgiUni," Bologna,
1673, 12mo, This is one ofthe most curious
of the author's works. It consists of two
parts ; the first contains many particulars of
his life, the second comprises an alphabetical
list, as far as the letter C, of all those who
had presented any work to him, with the full
title and some account of each book. In
1734, J, C, Wolff published a Latin trans
lation of this work at Hamburg in 8vo,,
omitting, however, the whole of the first part,
and some passages of the second, 14. " La
Visiera Alzata : Hecatoste di Scrittori, che
vaghl d' andare in Maschera fuor del Tempo
di Carnovale, sono scoperti da Gio. Pietro
Giacomo Villani, Senese Accademlco Humo-
rista Infecondo e Geniale, &o, Passatempo
204

canicolare, 8cc," Parma, 1689, 12mo. This
is the most rare of all the works of Aprosio,
and contains many valuable notices upon
literary history. At page 91. is an appendix,
entitled " Pentecoste d' altri Scrittori che an-
dando in Maschera, &c. Continuazione deUa
Visiera Alzata." "Vincenzio Plaocio has in
serted the work, separated into many parts,
in his " Theatrum Anonymorum et Pseudo
nymorum. "
Some of his poems in Italian are inserted
in the " Poesie degli Accademici Infecondi
di Roma," Venice, 1678, 12mo,, and the
" Fieri Poetici dell' Eremo Agostiniano del
P, Domenico Antonio Gandolfi," p. 55,, Ge
noa, 1682, 12mo, Crescimbeni mentions him
among the "poeti volgari" of his time : he
also published some poems in Latin,
His unpublished works are fourteen in
number, comprising among others " Ozj Es-
tivi ; " " Parte seconda dello Scudo di Rlnal
do ; " "II Batto, ovvero Pietra di Paragone,"
mentioned before ; and " Athenae Italicae, sive
de Viris clarissimis qui Italiam Ingenio et
Scriptis illustrarunt,"
Aprosio was considered to be the best bibUo-
grapher of his time, {Le Glorie degli Incog
niti, overo gli Uomini illustri delV Accademia
de' Signori Incogniti di Vcnetia, 38 — 41,;
Giustiniani, Scrittori Liguri ; Soprani, Scrit
tori della Liguria ; Oldoini, Athenaum Ligus-
ticum; MazzucheUi, Scrittori d'ltalia; Tira
boschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, viii,
128,) J, W. J,
APSHOVEN, THEODOR VAN, a
Dutch painter of the seventeenth centm-y,
a scholar or imitator of the younger Teniers,
and also a good painter of still-life ; there is
a clever picture by him in this style in the
gallery of Dresden, containing a table with
oysters, fruit, a plate with a half-peeled
lemon in it, and a wine rummer standing
upon it. This painter is not mentioned by
Houbraken or Van Gool, {Gemdlde-GaUerie
zu Dresden.) R, N. "\\',
A'PSINES ('AiJ/i'i/Tis), was a name common
to three (perhaps four) Greek teachers of elo
quence, of one of whom only we now possess
any works. This A psines was, as Suidas in
forms us, a native of Gadara in Phajuicla. He
studied under Heracleides the Lyciau at Smyr
na, afterwards under Basilicus at Nleomedia ;
and, establishing himself as a rhetorical
teacher at Athens, he enjoyed high reputa
tion during the reign of the emperor Max
imin, that is, a little before the middle of the
third century. He is mentioned with warm
commendation by his friend Philostratus, the
author of the " Lives of the Sophists ; " but,
although two works bearing his name are stUl
extant, their state is not such as to afford
adequate materials for determining the grounds
upon which his celebrity was founded. In
those parts, however, which are clearly his,
there is a close coincidence, or rather identity,
with Hermogenes, not merely in thought.

APSINES.
but in the very words of whole paragraphs.
In short there is gross plagiarism ; and of
course Apsines was the plunderer. The
shameless prevalence of such literary thefts
among the Greek rhetoricians of the empire
is hardly sufficient as an excuse for the
offence. The two extant works attributed
to Apsines are, 1. Tix^n '7r\TopiK^l], or an " Art
of Rhetoric," (otherwise entitled somewhat
more aptly, " A Treatise on Procemia "). 2.
A treatise nepl iiTx^npaTarp,eva>v TlpoSXripidTav,
that is, on the " Figuratae Quaestlones," or
propositions maintained figuratively, a topic
out of which the later rhetoricians constructed
one of the most complicated and artificial
divisions in their system.
The manuscripts from which these trea
tises have been pubUshed are more hope
lessly corrupt than those of any other works
belonging to the same class : they not only
present numerous gaps, but they abound also
in perplexing repetitions and contradictions,
evidently arising from interpolation, a scho
liast's remarks being often incorporated with
the original text. But in the second of the
works there is believed to exist an interpola
tion greatly more extensive and interesting.
Ruhnken, in studying the Greek rhetoricians
fbr his edition of Rutilius Lupus, found that
two of the scholiasts on Hermogenes cite, as
from Longinus, a passage which stands in all
the manuscripts as part of the treatise of A p-
sines nepl Tlpo6Xr]pi,dTQiv. Following the clue
thus presented, the sagacious philologer was
able to convince himself that a considerable
portion of the matter given to Apsines by the
manuscripts really belongs to another work,
that it must have been written by another au
thor, and that it forms a part of the section
on Invention in the lost work of Longinus on
the Art of Rhetoric. The bold conjecture
was cordiaUy approved by Hemsterhusius,
and afterwards by Wolf; and it has since
been keenly canvassed by the critics who
have handled this part of Grecian literary
history. It appears to be generally admitted
that in the manuscripts of the treatise of Ap
sines there exists a considerable portion which
does not properly belong to it ; but upon all
other points in the controversy opinions
differ widely ; and the corruption of the text,
combined with the desultory nature of the
work, makes it nearly impossible to attain to
positive conclusions. In the first place, no
tivo critics are exactly agreed on the ques
tion, how much of the matter which the ma
nuscripts attribute to Apsines should be ex
cluded from his treatise. Ruhnken, as we
learn from a communication by his friend
Wyttenbach, given In the preface to Weiske's
Longinus, proposed to take away from Ap
sines four long sections (in Walz's Rhetores
Graci, ix. 550, Tlepl 'EAe'ou, — 578, Ovk i^'
vpitv) ; Weiske, making up his opinion in
ignorance of the limits assigned by Ruhnken,
gives to Longinus no more than a part of one
205

APSINES.
section (Walz, ix. 557, Ovk iXdx'arov, — 567,
'Aper^ TTpe-TTovTa) ; Walz, going far beyond
Ruhnken, assigns to Longinus the whole
treatise except the first nine pages of his own
edition (ix. 543—596) ; and Finckh, in an
appendix to Walz, proposes to give to him
somewhat less than Ruhnken, or three sec
tions and a small part at the end of a fourth
(Walz, ix. 552, Ka! X'<'P"«, — 578, Ovk e<l>' ripuv).
Again, it has been doubted whether even the
part which does not belong to Apsines, ought
to be assigned to Longinus ; a problem which
the state of the text makes as difficult of solu
tion as the other. But though it is impossible
to conjecture, in any part, what may have
been the original aspect of the work of
Longinus, yet there seems to be no solid
reason for questioning the fact that some
portion of his work has really found its way
into that of Apsines. The dissimilarity which
Weiske has so justly remarked as existing,
both in thought and in style, between the
interpolated passages and the treatise on the
SubUme, furnishes no argument against refer
ring those passages to Longlnus. It raises only
a new argument against the supposition that
the treatise on the Sublime was written by
him. The only complete editions of the two trea
tises attributed to Apsines are those of the
Aldine " Rhetores Graeci," 1508, fol., and of
Walz's " Rhetores Graeci," 1832-36, Svo.
ix. 467^596, One section, " On Memory,"
which all the critics except Weiske now re
fer to Longlnus, was published by MoreU,
with a Latin translation, at Paris, in 1618;
and Weiske gives as his eighth Fragment
the passage which he considers to have been
composed by his author, (Suidas,- sub voc,
" Apsines," with Kuster's note ; Philostratus,
Vita Sophistarum, lib. ii. cap. 33. ed. Olearil,
ii. 628.; Wyttenbach, Vita Ruhnkenii, ed.
1790, p. 127.; Weiske, Dionysii Longini qua
supersunt, Oxford, 1820, p. vii.. — x, ; Walz,
Rhetores Graci, ix. Prolegomena ,- AVester-
mann, Geschichte der Beredtsamkeit in Grie
chenland und Ram, 1833-36, i. 231, 232.; Fa
bricius, Bibliotheca Graca, ed. Harles, vi.
106.; British Critic, first series, xxvii, 573 —
576,) W. S.
A'PSINES {'A^vns). It may be useful to
name one other of those who bore this name.
This Apsines had for his grandfather a name
sake of his own, who is described as the
rhetorician Apsines of Athens: for his father
he had Onaslmus, an historian and rhetorical
teacher, who lived in the time of the emperor
Constantine, and is said by Suidas to have been
either a Cypriote or a Spartan. The latter
specification of his father's birth-place gives
to the younger Apsines of the two an im
portance somewhat greater than that which
belongs to either of his immediate ancestors.
For it has hence been conjectured, by Fabricius
and others, that he may have been the same
Apsines who is cited by Ulpian in the scho-

APSINES.

APSLEY.

Iia to the Oration of Demosthenes against
Leptines ; and who is named also by Eunapius
as having caused disturbances at Athens,
while teaching eloquence there in opposition
to the Sophist JuUanus. The date assigned
to this event would coincide with that
which should belong to the son of Onaslmus ;
and it would agree Ukewise with the asser
tion of Suidas, that this Apsines was more
modern than Apsines of Gadara. Eunapius
indeed calls his Apsines a Lacedaemonian,
which appears to some critics to indicate a
different person from the grandson of Apsines
the Athenian ; but others think, with more
plausibility, that the description may apply
correctly to one whose father was perhaps a
Spartan. (Suidas, Lexicon, sub voc. 'AtjiivTis,
'Ovdaip,os ; Eunapius, Vita Philosophorum
et Sophistarum, "JuUanus," p. 113 — 122.,
ed. 1568 ; Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graca., ed.
Harles, vi. 107. ; Westermann, Geschichte
der Beredtsamkeit i 225. 238.) W. S.
APSLEY, SIR ALLEN, was born, ac
cording to his sister, Mrs. Hutchinson, a year
before their father, also named Sir Allen
Apsley, was made lieutenant of the Tower,
an office which he held, according to the in
scription on his monument in the Tower
chapel, for the fourteen years previous to his
death in 1630. These circumstances fix the
date of the birth of the second Sir Allen in
1615 instead of 1619, which has been some
times mentioned. His father, who had been
a victualler in the navy, an office at that time
of more estimation than afterwards, obtained
a beautiful lady of the house of St. John in
Wilts, the second Sir Allen's mother, for his
third wife, when he was at the age of forty-
eight and she of sixteen. In his office of
lieutenant of the Tower he was, according
to his daughter, Mrs. Hutchinson's, report,
"a father to all his prisoners, sweetening
with such compassionate kindnesse their re
straint, that the affliction of a prison wais
not felt in his dayes." The second Sir AUen
was educated at Trinity College, Oxford,
and on the breaking out of the civil wars
joined the royal party. He was governor
of the fort at Exeter when that city yielded
to the parliament in April 1646, and after
wards governor of Barnstaple before that
town surrendered. After the Restoration he
was captain-lieutenant in the regiment of
James, Duke of York, and also treasurer of
the household and receiver-general to the duke.
He was member for Thetford in Norfolk, in
the parUament which begun in May, 1661.
During the time of the ascendency of the
Commonwealth he enjoyed the protection of
Colonel Hutchinson, the husband of his
youngest sister, a distinguished member of
the parliamentarian party, and after the Re
storation he repaid the favour by his efforts
in behalf of the colonel, whose life he suc
ceeded in preserving. The particulars of this
manly friendship kept up between consclen-
206

tious members of opposite parties during the
fury of a civil war, form one of the most in
teresting portions of the " Life of Colonel
Hutchinson," by his wife, one of the standard
works of English literature. Sir Allen
Apsley died, according to Wood, "in St,
James's Square, near London," about the 15th
of October, 1683,
Sir Allen was the author of a poem en
titled " Order and Disorder, or the World
made and undone: being Meditations upon
the Creation and the FaU, as it is recorded in
the beginning of Genesis," London, 1679,
4to, It consists of five cantos, (Wood, Fasti
Oxonienses, Bliss's edition, ii, 272,; Mrs. Hut
chinson, Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hut
chinson ; Britton and Brayley, Memoirs of the
Tower of London, p, 306,) T. W.
APSYRTUS or ABSYRTUS Q'A'f'vpTos),
the most celebrated of the ancient veterinary
surgeons, was born in Bithynia, either at
Prusa or Nleomedia, Suidas and Eudocia
say that he served under Constantine during
his campaign on the Danube, and he himself
mentions at the beginning of his work that it
was on this occasion that he had an oppor
tunity of studying the diseases of horses. It
is not specified which emperor of the name
of Constantine is meant, but it is generaiUy
supposed that the campaign of Constantine
the Great, a. d. 322, is alluded to. Sprengel
in his " History of Medicine," and also in his
account of Apsyrtus in Ersch and Gruber's
" Encyclopadie," supposes that the campaign
under Constantine IV., or Pogonatus, a. d.
671, is meant ; but, as Apsyrtus is quoted by
Vegetius (who Uved probably in the fourth
or fifth century after Christ), this cannot be
the case ; and Choulant mentions that Spren
gel himseff in a later work (which the -wi-iter
has not seen), confessed that he had placed
the date of Apsyrtus too late. No other par
ticulars are known of his Iffe, but he wrote
several works, one of which treated of the
diseases of horses, 'lir'niaTpiKhv Bi^Xiov, and
another was probably a zoological treatise
{^vaiKhv irepl twv avTuv 'AXSyotv) in four books.
Of these only some extracts are extant, con
tained in the Greek coUection of -wi-iters on
veterinary surgery, formed at the command
of the Emperor Constantine VIL, or Porphy-
rogenitus, A. D. 945 — 959. Tins collection
was fu-st published in Latin at Pai-is, 1530,
fol., translated by Johannes RueUius ; the
Greek text was pubUshed at Basel, 1537, 4to.,
edited by Simon GrynaBus, and is said to be
scarce. It Jias also been translated into
several modern languages, and was published
in Italian at Venice, 1543, 1548, and 1559,
Svo. ; in French at Paris, 1563, 4to. ; and in
German at Eger, 1571, foL An account of
some of the diseases mentioned by Apsyrtus
is given by Haller amd Sprengel ; of these
perhaps the most remarkable is glanders,
which Lafosse and others have supposed
to be a comparatively modern disease, but

APSYRTUS.

APTHORP.

which Apsyrtus has clearly and accurately
described. (Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca, vol.
vi, p. 493 — 4, ed. vet. ; Haller, Biblioth- Medic-
Pract- tom, i p, 289, ; Sprengel, Hist, de la
Med. ; Choulant, Handbuch der Bilcherkunde
filr die Aeltere Medicin. There is also a
little work by Sprengel, entitled Programma
de Apsyrto Bithyno, Halle, 1832, 4to.) W. A. G.
APTHORP, EAST, D.D., an eminent
divine, was born at Boston in New England,
in the year 1733. His father was a mer
chant. He was sent to England to complete
his studies, and entered as a student of Jesus
College, Cambridge, where he obtained one
of the chancellor's prize medals for classical
learning in 1755, and the members' Latin
dissertation prize, as middle bachelor in
1756, and as senior bachelor in 1757. He
took his degree of A.M. in 1758, and was
elected a fellow of his college. In the year
1761, the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in Foreign Parts appointed him mis
sionary at Cambridge in Massachusetts, where
he founded and built a church, called Christ
Church. He does not appear however to
have remained here more than three years ;
the opposition he met with from the congre-
gationists in America inducing or compelling
kim to quit his church, and he returned to
England. Under the sanction of Archbishop
Seeker, he entered into a controversy with
Dr. Mayhew, an American clergyman, upon
the subject of sending bishops to that coun
try. He had previously, while at Cambridge
published several tracts against the indepen
dent sectaries of Boston. In 1765 he was
collated by the archbishop to the vicarage
of Croydon, and in 1770 he accepted the
office of civic chaplain, on the election of his
brother-in-law, Mr. Alderman Trecothick, to
the mayoralty of London. In this year he
pubUshed "Conspectus novae Editlonis His
toricorum veterum Latinorum qui extant
omnium, ita disponendae, ut, pro Ordine Tem-
porumet Rerum Serie, integrum Corpus com-
ponat Historiae sacrae et orientalis, fabulosae
et heroica?, Graoeae et Romanae, ab Orbe con
dlto ad Exeidium Imperii Occidentalis et
Initia Regni Itallci : Cum singulorum Scrip
torum Historia literaria, et Annotationibus
phUologicis Anglice conscriptis : adjectis
Nummis, Tabulisque cbronologicis et geogra-
phicis. " London, 4to. This scheme, however,
not meeting with sufficient encouragement
was abandoned.
In 1778 he published four letters against
Gibbon, — 1. A view of the Controversy con
cerning the truth of the Christian ReUgion.
Origin of Deism. 2. On the study of His
tory ; containing a methodised catalogue
of Historians. 3. Characteristics of the past
and present Times. 4. Establishment of
Paganism ; aU of which appeared under the
title "Letters on the Prevalence of Chris
tianity before its civil Establishment ; with
207

Observations on a late History of the DecUne
ofthe Roman Empire;" dedicated to Arch
deacon Backhouse, and, as it is said, written at
his desire. This work was received with the
warmest commendations, and was eulogised
even by Gibbon himself, who at p. 92 of his
"Vindication," published in 1779, says,
" ¦\"nien Mr. Apthorp's letters appeared I was
surprised to find that I had scarcely any in
terest or concern in their contents. "They
are fUled with general observations on the
study of history, with a large and useful
catalogue of historians, and with a variety
of reflections, moral and religious, all pre
paratory to the direct and formal considera
tion of my two last chapters ; which Mr.
Apthorp seems to reserve for the subject of
a second volume. I sincerely respect the
learning, the piety, and the candour of this
gentleman, and must consider it as a mark of
his esteem that he has thought proper to
begin his approaches at so gi-eat a distance
from the fortifications which he designed to
attack." Soon after this publication Archbishop
CoruwaUis conferred upon him the degree of
D.D., and collated him to the rectory of St.
Mary-le-Bow, London, and the rectories of
St. Pancras Soper-lane, and All-Hallows
Honey-lane annexed, and appointed him to
preach the Boyle Lecture. Gibbon, in allu
sion to this new church preferment, says in
his Memoirs, p. 231, " I enjoyed the pleasure
of collating Dr. Apthorp to an archiepiscopal
living," insinuating that it was conferred
upon the doetor as a reward for the attack
upon himseff. In 1790 he was collated to a
prebend in the cathedral of St. Paul, and
had the offer of the bishopric of Kildare,
but was advised, on account of his health, to
decline it ; and in 1793, on the death of
Bishop WUson, he obtained from Dr. Por-
teus, bishop of London, the rich prebend of
Finsbury, for which, by command of the
archbishop, he resigned all his other pre
ferments. After this he retired to Ccmbridge,
where he continued to reside until his death,
which took place in 1816. His remains were
deposited in Jesus College Chapek He was
twice married.
Dr. Apthorp was a man of gre"it talents,
extensive learning, and pure and engaging
manners. He had so completely conciliated
the esteem of his parishioners of Croydon,
that after the loss of his sight, an affliction
which befel him about the year 1790, they
made him a present of nearly two thousand
pounds. In addition to the works mentioned above.
Dr. Apthorp published — 1. "A Sermon at
the opening of Christ Church, in Cambridge,
New England," Boston, 1761, 4to. 2. " A
Thanksgiving Sermonfor the General Peace,"
Boston, 1763, 4to, 3, "A Discourse on the
Death of Mrs, A, Wheelwright," Boston,
1764, 4to,, in two parts, 4, " A Discourse

APTHORP.

APULEIUS.

of Sacred Poetry and Music at Christ Church,
on the opening ofthe Organ," Boston, 1764,
4to. This organ was destroyed when the
church was occupied by the provincial army
inl775. 5, " An answer to Dr, Mayhew'sOb-
servations on the Character and the Conduct
of the Society for Propagating the Gospel in
Foreign parts," London, 1764, Svo. 6. " A
Review of Dr. Mayhew's Remarks on the
Answer to the Observations," &c., London,
1765, Svo. 7. " A Sermon on the General Fast,
December 13, 1776. On Occasion of the Dif
ferences between this Country and her Ame
rican Colonies," London, 1776, Svo. 8. "A
Sermon preached at the Consecration of Dr.
S. Hallifax, Lord Bishop of Gloucester,"
1781. 9. "Select Devotions for Families,"
London, 1785, 12mo. 10. " Discourses on
Prophecy," 2 vols., London, 1786, Svo. 11.
" A Sermon on the Excellence of the Liturgy
of the Church of England," . London, 1778,
Svo. He also printed Sermons preached be
fore the Lord Mayor, &c., in 1770 and 1780.
{Gentleman's Magazine, Ixxxy'i- 476.; Allen,
American Biographical Dictionary ; Biogra
phical Dictionary of the ,Living -Authors of
Great Britain and Ireland; Catalogue of
Printed Books in the British Museum, vol. v.,
1841,) J. W. J.
APULE'IUS or APPULE'IUS, as the
name is written according to the best au
thorities. The few particulars of the Iffe of
Apuleius are mainly known from his own
writings. He Uved in the second century of
our aera under the Antonines, for in his
" Apology," he speaks of Hadrian as the
Di"vus Hadrianus, an expression which im
plies that Hadrian was dead when the
" Apology " was written ; and he speaks of
Antoninus Pius in terms which imply that
Antoninus was then living. He also mentions
LoUlus Urbicus, LolUanus Avitus, and others
who lived in the time of Antoninus Pius,
He was a native of Madaura, whence he is
called Madaurensis, an inland town on the
borders of Numidia and Gaetulia, which once
belonged to the kingdom of Syphax, then to
that of Massinissa, and subsequently was co
lonised by a body of Roman soldiers. His
father held the office of Duumvir, which was
the highest magistracy in a Roman colony,
and the son was also a member of the senate
or body of Deouriones ; but Apuleius him
self, though celebrated for his acquirements
and eloquence, never held any judicial office
in his native town, according to St, Au
gustine, Bayle cannot reconcile this state
ment of Augustine with the assertion of
Apuleius, who says in his " Apology " that
he fUled his father's place with equal honour
and repute, as he hoped ; but Apuleius is re
ferring to his being one of the Decuriones,
or members of the colonial senate, and not to
the office of Duumvir, which was annual,
and for which it was a necessary qualifica
tion that a man should be a Decurio. He
208

succeeded his father as Decurio, according to
the general rule of law in that matter {Dig-
50, tit, 2. De Decurionibus et Filiis eorum)-
His father left to Apuleius and his brother a
considerable fortune, Apuleius had a hand
some person, and great natural talents.
His first school was Carthage, whence he
went to Athens, where he prosecuted his
studies, A taste for mystical, or as Apuleius
would call them, phUosophical inquiries, led
him to make extensive travels, during which
he was initiated in the mysteries of various
religious bodies.
The chief event in the life of Apuleius is
his marriage. He had returned to Africa,
and was on his road to Alexandria, when he
was detained at Oea, a maritime city of the
province ( the modern TripoU ), where a
rich widow, Pudentilla by name, invited him
to become her husband, Apuleius, though
much younger than the widow, consented,
and the marriage wais celebrated in the coun
try near Oea. PudentiUa had two sons, and
their friends pretended that the mother had
been entrapped into this marriaige by magical
arts, to the great detriment of her chil
dren, though Sieinius Pontianus, the elder of
the widow's two sons, had strongly urged
the marriage, Apuleius was accused before
Claudius Maximus, the proconsul of Africa,
and it was on this occasion that he pronounced
his "Apology," which is extant, and is the best
specimen of his Latin style. The accuser
alleged, among other things, that the woman
was sixty years of age, which he urged as
evidence that the marriage could not have
been brought about by the natural paission of
love, Apuleius shows that the widow was
not more than forty, that she had been near
fourteen years in a state of widowhood, of
which she was heartily tired, and that her
physician recommended a second marriage.
The "Apology " contains much curious matter,
and is a composition of considerable merit.
Apuleius obtained a high reputation for
eloquence among the Africans. On the peo
ple of Oea proposing to raise a, statue to the
honour of this eloquent philosopher, Apuleius
spoke against those who opposed the propo
sition. The city of Carthage also honoured
him with a statue, and he received similar
testimonials of respect from other places.
The time and circumstances of the death of
Apuleius are unknown.
Other particulars as to the life of Apu
leius, derived from his " Golden Ass," are the
following. His father's name was Theseus ;
his mother's name was Sadvia, and she was a
descendant of Plutarch, The same work is
also the authority for giving to Apuleius the
praenomen of Lucius, We further learn
from the same authority, that when he visited
Rome, he was ignorant of the Latin language,
and that he learned it without a master ; and
that he was reduced to such poverty as to be
obliged to pawn his clothes in order to raise

APULEIUS.

APULEIUS.

money to pay the fees demanded on his initi
ation into the mysteries of Osiris : he after
wards practised at Rome as an advocate, and
as he was eloquent and successful, he made
money by his new profession. The objection
that the "Ass" being a work of fiction, cannot
be supposed to furnish any authentic materials
for the life of Apuleius, is not decisive against
the facts just stated; but there are other and
solid reaisons against receiving them as part
of his biography. In the first place, Theseus
is a suspicious name for his father, who was
Duumvir in a Roman colony ; in the second,
it is absurd to suppose that the son of a
Duumvir in a Roman colony did not know
Latin; and still more absurd to suppose that
a person who learned Latin at Rome as a
foreign language, after he had attained to
years of maturity, could ever have become a
successful advocate. Apuleius writes Latin
like a man who is using his native language,
and the fact of his being familiar, to a certain
extent, with legal phraseology, is in favour of
his having been familiar with the Latin lan
guage and public business in his native town
of Madaura. As a member of the senate of
Madaura, it is impossible to admit that he
was ignorant of Latin. It is true we do
not know when he was admitted into the
senate, but the supposition of a Duumvir's
son, himself destined to be a Decurio, and
consequently qualified to fill the highest
offices in the colony, having first learned
Latin at Rome, cannot be admitted. In his
" Apology " he plainly speaks of himself as a
Latin, as contrasted with a Greek, which is
inconsistent with the opinion of his not learn
ing the language as a boy. It is no ob
jection to this that Latin might not be the
common language of Madaura, as Bayle, in
his article on Apuleius, attempts to show that
it was not. According to this argument,
Apuleius must either have spoken only
Greek as a boy, or Greek and the Punic lan
guage. That Apuleius was a most diligent student
we know from his own testimony. The ex
tent and variety of his learning are expressed
in a passage in his " Florida," in which he
enumerates among his studies, grammar and
rhetoric, to which he added at Athens, poetry,
geometry, music, dialectic, and phUosophy.
Of the Latin writers who may be classed
among the Platonists, he is the most distin
guished, and he was well versed in aU the
learning of his time.
Besides his "Apology" already mentioned,
there are extant of his numerous writings,
his " Metamorphosis," more commonly called
the " Golden Ass," in eleven books ; the
treatises on the " Doctrines of Plato," in
three books ; his treatise on the " God of So
crates," the " Florida," and the treatise " De
Mundo." 'The " Metamorphosis" is generaUy said to
be founded on the "Ass" of Lucian, who was
VOL. III.

the contemporary of ApiUeius; but this is not
probable. Another hypothesis is that the
work of one Lucius of Patrae, a writer of
uncertain age, is the groundwork of the
"Ass " of Apuleius. The fable of Cupid and
Psyche, in the fourth, fifth, and sixth books,
and the account of the initiation into the
mysteries of Osiris and Isis in the eleventh,
cannot be referred to any kno-wn source,
unless the fable' of Cupid and Psyche is
bortowed from Aristophontes, an Athenian
writer, to whom Fabius Planciades Fulgentius
iu his work intitled " Mythologica " ascribes
a very long story about Cupid and Psyche.
The design of this singular fable or romance
has been variously understood, Warbm-ton
says that the object was to commend the
Pagan religion as the only cure for vice,
aud to ridicule the Christian religion. But
though there may be some truth in the first
part of this theory, the second seems to be
untenable, as Taylor shows : latent or con
cealed ridicule of a religion which Apuleius
might have ridiculed openly as much as he
pleased, could hardly be one ofthe objects of
the author of the " Metamorphosis " ; and the
ridicule indeed is so well concealed that it is
difficult to discover it. " It is most probable,"
according to Taylor, " that the intention of
the author in this work was to show that the
man who gives himself up to a voluptuous
life becomes a beast, and that it is only by
becoming virtuous and religious, that he can
divest himself of the brutal nature and be
again a man. For this is the rose by eating
whieh Apuleius was restored to the human
and cast off the brutal form ; and like the
moly of Hermes, preserved him in future
from the dire enchantments of Circe, the
goddess of sense. This, as it appears to me,
is the only design by which our author can
be justified in composing the pleasing talcs
with which this work is replete. Indeed,
unless this is admitted to have been the de
sign of Apuleius, he cannot, in certain pas
sages, be defended from the charge of lewd
ness ; but on the supposition that these tales
were devised to show the folly and danger of
lasciviousness, and that the man who indulges
in it brutalises his nature, the details of those
circumstances throug'n which he became an
ass are not to be considered in the light of a
lascivious description, because they were not
written with a libidinous intention ; for every
work is characterised by its ultimate de
sign." Bayle observes that we may "take this
book for a continual satire on the irregu
larities of magicians, priests, debauchees, and
robbers ;" and he adds truly, that a man who
would take the trouble, and had the requisite
ability, (and that would be very considerable)
might make a very curious and instructive
commentary on the "Golden Ass," which would
contain a great deal that the commentators
have not said. The reason of the treatise
being called the " Golden Ass " is not quite
p

APULEIUS.

APULEIUS.

clear. It expresses, according to some, the
high estimate in which the work was held :
according to Warburton, " Milesian Tales "
(to which class the "Golden Ass" belongs) was
a name given to such tales, because the tellers
of them used to receive some money for their
pains from the circle that crowded round
them, a suggestion singularly ridiculous in
whatever way we view it. Besides all this
there is good reason to doubt the propriety
of the title " Aureus," The true title of the
work seems to be " Metamorphosis sive Lusus
Aslni," The treatise on the God of Socrates, " De
Deo Socratis," contains a disquisition on the
various ranks of gods and the nature of the
communication between them and man. Apu
leius says that there are "certain divine mid
dle powers, situated in the interval of the
air, between the highest aether and the earth,
which is in the lowest place, through whom
our desires and our deserts pass to the gods.
These are called by a Greek name daemons,
who, being placed between terrestrial and
celestial inhabitants, transmit prayers from
the one and gifts from the other." He says
that according to Plato " a peculiar dajmon is
allotted to every man, who is a witness and a
guardian of his conduct in life, who, without
being visible to any one, is always present,
and who is an arbitrator not only of his deeds,
but also of his thoughts," This daemon, he
adds, " sees aU things, understands all things,
and in the place of conscience dwells in the
most profound recesses of the mind ;" and if
he is attended to, as he was by Socrates, wiU
be our sure guide and protector. There are
many fine passages in this treatise.
The treatise on the doctrines of Plato,
" De Habitudine Doctrinarum Piatonis," is a
kind of epitome of the physical and ethical
system of Plato, as Apuleius understood it.
The third book of this treatise is intitled
"nepl 'Epjxriveias seu De Syllogismo Cate-
gorico," (" On Interpretation, or the Categoric
Syllogism,") and is' a useful introduction to
logic. The text of this third book in the
early editions of Apuleius is very bad : it was
first amended in the Delphin edition.
'The treatise on the universe, " De Mundo,''
is a translation of the treatise nepl K6a-pov,
whieh has been attributed to Aristotle ; but
the version is often paraphrastic, and the
treatise contains some things from Theo
phrastus, and also something of the writer's
own. The " Florida " are so called appropriately
enough, if we view them in relation to the
style, which is inflated and overloaded with
ornament after the fashion of Apuleius. They
have been often distributed into four books,
for which there is no authority. The " Flo
rida " consist of short unconnected pieces, a
circumstance which has led to the probable
supposition that they are extracts from the
orations of Apuleius.
210

Apuleius was a voluminous writer ; but
the rest of his works are lost. He translated
the " Phaedon " of Plato, and the arithmetic
of Nicomachus. He also wrote treatises
" De RepubUca," " De Musica," " De Pro-
verbiis," " MedicinaUa," (which may belongto
another Apuleius), " De Arboribus," " De Re
Rustica," and " Ludicra," a work to which
he refers in his " Apology," and others. In
his " Apology " he mentions a work of his
in Greek, intitled " Naturales Quaestlones,"
which among other things contained much
about Fishes. The Latin translation of the
dialogue intitled " Hermetis Trismegistl As-
clepius, sive De Natura Deorum Dialogus "
has also been attributed to Apuleius.
Apuleius was undoubtedly a man of abUity,
and of great acquirements. He was well
versed in aU the learning of the age and a
diligent student of phUosophy. His treatise on
" Interpretation " shows a clear acquaintance
with formal logic. He had a fertile imagina
tion, great command of words, and a lively
mode of expression ; but his style is often
disfigured by bad taste and turgid language.
The charge of magic in whieh he was in
volved through his marriage was not for
gotten, and he was in later ages considered a
magician by some Christian writers, an opinion
which would be probably confirmed by such
of his works as that on the " God of Socrates."
It appears that the " Milesian Fables " of
Apuleius (to whioh class his " Metamorpho
sis" belongs) were much admired by the
emperor Albinus, as we learn from a letter of
Septimius Severus to the Roman senate.
Severus speaks of them with contempt.
(Jul. Capitolinus, Clod. Albinus, c. 12.)
The first edition of Apuleius is that of
Sweynheym and Pannartz, Rome, 1469,
which was edited by Giovanni Andrea, bishop
of Aleria in Corsica. Oudendorp's edition of
the "Ass" appeared in Leiden in 1786, in
one volume 4to. ; the two remaining volumes,
which did not appear till 1S23, were edited
by J. Bosscha. The last edition of Apuleius
is by G. F. Hildebrand, Leipzig, 1842.
'There are French, German, Italian, Spanish,
and Danish translations of the " Ass." There
is an English translation of the " Ass " by
WiUiam AdUngton, 4to., London, 1566. The
translation of Thomas Taylor, the translator
of Aristotle and Plato, contains, besides the
" Ass," the treatise on the " God of Socrates "
and on the " Doctrines of Plato," London,
Svo., 1822, with notes. Certain passages of the
" Ass " are omitted in the body of Taylor's
translation, but placed at the end of the book
in the complete copies. The notes to Bayle's
article on Apuleius are curious ; Diction
naire Historique et Critique, &c. art. " Apulce." G.L,
APULE'IUS CE'LSUS, [Celsus, Apu
leius,] APULE'IUS, LU'CIUS BA'RBARUS.
[Apuleius Platonicus.]

APULEIUS.

APULEIUS,

APULE'IUS, L. CiECI'LIUS MINU-
TIA'NU.S, the author of a work, " De Or-
thographia," which was first published by
A. Mai, Rome, 1S23, Svo. Two other
smaller works also attributed toone Apuleius,
" De Nota Aspirationis," and " De Diph-
thongis," were published by Osann, from a
Wolfenbiittel manuscript, Darmstadt, 1826,
Svo. IMadvig has written an essay to show
that this treatise on Orthography is a forgery
of the latter part of the fifteenth century,
(Madvig, Opuscula Academica, to which
Osann replied in Jahn's Jahrbb. der Philo-
logie, 1830.) G, L.
APULE'IUS, sometimes called Apuleius
Platonicus, sometimes Lucius Apuleius
Barbaras, the author of a work on plants
which is extant. His date is uncertain, and
of his life no particulars are known. It is,
however, generally supposed that the work
is at least as late as the fourth century after
Christ, and therefore cannot belong cither
to Apuleius Celsus or Apuleius of Madaura,
to each of whom it has been attributed.
It is written in Latin, aud is called " Herba
rium," (" A Herbal,") or " De Medicami-
nibus Herbarum " (" On the Medicinal Pro
perties of Herbs"), It consists of one hundred
and twenty-eight chapters, each of which
treats of a single phuit, first mentioning
the synonymes, then giving a short descrip
tion of the plant, and lastly mentioning its
medical uses. It appears to be taken in a
gi-eat measure from Dioscorides and Pliny,
and sometimes serves to correct and illustrate
the works of both these writers. The first
edition of this work is scarce, and is des
cribed by Dibdin in his " Supplement to the
Bibliotheca Spenceriana,'' It was printed at
Rome by J, P, de Lignamine, Avithout date,
small 4t(i., in Roman characters ; and con
tains nuinerous wood-cuts, descriptive of the
several plants, which are very barbarously
executed. It is dedicated to Cardinal Gonzaga,
or in some copies to Giulio della Rovere ;
and consists of cnie hundred and seven leaves,
without numerals, signatures, or catch- words.
Dibdin conjectures the date of the printing
to be somewhere about 1480, and it certainly
must have been published in or before 1483,
as Cardinal C,onzaga died in that year. The
title, within il sort of laureated circle or wood
cut, is thus, " Incipit Herbarlvm Apvlei Pla
tonici ad Jlarcvm Agrippam," There is a
good edition in 4to, by Gabriel Humelberg,
with a copious commentary, the prefiice to
which is dated Isinae, 15.'!7, but whieh (by a
comparison of the printer's emblem) appears
to have been printed by Christopher Fros-
chovcr at Zurich, (See Roth Scholtz, Thes,
Si/mbol. ac Emblem-) It is found in several
editions ofthe works of Apuleius of Madaura,
in the Aldine collection of Latin medical
writers, \enicc, 1547, fol., and in that by
Albanus Torimis, Basel, 1528, fol. The last
and best edition is that by Ackermann in
211

his " Parabilium Medicamentorum Scrlptores
Antiqui," Nurnberg and Altdorf, 1788, Svo.
An Anglo-Saxon translation is in the Bod
leian Library at Oxford among the MSS. of
Francis Junius (Hickes, Thes- Aniiq- pt. v.
p. 72., &c.). A short treatise " On \Vclghts
and Measures," bearing the name of Apu
leius, is printed at the end of several edi
tions of the works of the younger Mesne.
(Haller, Biblioth. Bolan. ; Needham, Prole
gomena to his edition of the Geoponica ;
Schwciger, Handbuch der Classisch. Bibliogr-;
Brunet, Manuel du Libraire ; Choulant,
Handbuch der Biicherkunde fur die Aelhre
Medicin.) W A Vx
AQUiEUS, STE'PHANUS, is the Latlu
name assumed by Etienne de I'Algue, in ac
cordance with the signification of " Aiguc,"
the Gascon word for " Aqua," water. He is
stated by La Croix du Slaine to have been
the " seigneur" or lord of Beauvais in Berri,
which is disputed in a note in Rigolet de
Juvigny's edition of La Croix by Falconet,
who states that there is no such place as
Beauvais in Berri. The fact however admits
of no doubt, for the title is given him in the
privilege for his commentaries on Pliny,
which is printed at the back of the title-page.
In the same work however he styles himself
" Bituricensis," or " of Bourges." Bayle
states that in the title-page to his translation
of Caesar he is called " Etienne de TAlgue diet
Beaulnois," on which Le Clerc remarks that
this must be a misprint for Beaulvois or
Beauvois, and the observation and the remark
have been printed together in innumerable
editions and translations of Bayle. Fortu
nately there is a copy of the very edition
referred to in the British Museum, and the
name of the author is printed very legibly
" Estienne de Laigiic dit Beauuoys," The
date of his birth is unknown. He is said to
have served with distinction in the army
under Francis I., and by De la Monnoye to
have died in 1533. 'There have been some
disputes on the date, &c., of his work.s,
but in one point all who mention him are
agreed, that they are of Uttle value. 'They
conslstof— 1. " In omnes <.M'linii Secundi Na
turalis Historiae argutissimi Scriptoris libros
Stephani Aquaji Bituricensis, viri equestris,
Commentarla," Paris, 1530, folio. 'This
book, we are told by Bayle, is more consider
able for its bulk than for the knoN\ledgc it
contains. The author passes over almost all
the difficult pa.ssagcs and borrows nearly all
his remarks of any v;ilue from his predeces
sor Rhcnanus, whom he never mentions but
for the purpose of finding fault with him. 2,
" Les Commentaires de Jules Cesar trans-
latez," Paris, Ij'il, folio, and 154G, 12nio,
The latter is the edition mentioned by
Bayle and referred to above. Both the
commentary on PUny and this translation of
the commentaries of Caesar are dedicated to
Chabot, admiral of France. Some writers
p 2

AQUiEUS.
also mention a " Singulier Traite de la Pro-
priotc des Tortues, Escargots, Grenouilles
et Artichaux," published in 1530, according
to La Croix du Maine at Paris, and accord
ing to Du Verdier at Lyon : but this
" Treatise on the Properties of Tortoises,
Snails, Frogs and Artichokes" is conjectured
by De la Monnoye to be merely a portion of
the commentary on PUny. (La Croix du
Maine and Du Verdier, Bibliotheques Fran-
foises, edition of Rigolet de Juvigny, 1. 177.,
iii. 491. ; Bayle, Dictionnaire Historique et
Critique, ed. of 1820, 1. 218. &c. ; Works of
Aquacus referred to.) T. W.
AQUA'RIUS, MATTHI'AS, a writer on
the Aristotelian and scholastic philosophy,
takes his name from his birth-place, Aquara,
a castle in the kingdom of Naples near Sa
lerno. His family name is said to have been
Ivone : the preface to his " Dilucidationes iu
XII. Libros Prima) Philosophia; Aristotelis "
is entitled " Matthla; Gibonis Aquarii Praefa-
tio." tie took the habit of St. Dominic at
Naples in the convent of St. Peter the Mar
tyr, held professorships of theology and me
taphysics, and other academical offices, at
Turin, Venice, Milan, Naples and Rome suc
cessively, and died at Naples in 1591 in the
convent of St. Dominic. He founded a
convent of his order in his native place,
A quara. His works are : — 1, " Oratio de Excellentia
Sacra! Theologiae," Turin, 1569, 4to, and
Naples, 1572, 4to. ; the first oration which he
delivered as professor of theology at Turin,
2, " Lectionum in Prunam Philosophiam, ut
dici solet, Principium," Naples, 1571, and
Rome, 1575, 4to. 3. "Quaestiones eruditis-
simac in Libros Physioorum P. F. Francisci
Sylvestri Ferrariensls, cum quibusdam aliis
Quaistionlbus et Additionibus R. P. F. Mat
thias Aquarii," Rome, 1577, 4to., and Venice,
1601, 1619, and 1629, This title is taken
from a copy ofthe edition of 1577, and differs
in some respects from that given by Maz
zuchelli and Quetif. 4, " Dilucidationes in
Xll. Libros Primao PhUosophia; Aristotelis,"
Rome, 1584, 4to., comprising observations
on Aristotle's books on metaphysics. The
work is dedicated to Cardinal Santorio,
whom the author thanks for having taken
him into his family and under his patron
age. 5. " R. P. F. Matthia? Aquarii An
notationes super Quatuor Libros Senten-
tiarum Joannis Capreoli," Venice, 1589,
folio. 'This book is generally added to
the third volume of the edition of Capreolus
the Thomist doctor's comments on Peter
Lombard's Book of Sentences, published at
Venice in 1589 and 1588, the first, second,
and fourth volumes in 1589, and the third in
the preceding year, or at least bearing these
dates. As the additions of Aquarius are
printed in a different and la ger type than
the commentaries of Capreolus, and with a
distinct title-page, paging and register, they
212

AQUARIUS.
might be considered a separate book if they
were not mentioned in the title-page to the
work of Capreolus. The additions of Aqua
rius comprise the " Controversiae inter D.
Thomam et caJteros Theologos ac PhUoso-
phos " or " An Account of the Controversies
between St. Thomas Aquinas and other Theo
logians and Philosophers," which is mentioned
by MazzucheUi, on the authority of Lipenius,
as having appeared as a separate work in
1588, a statement which is probably owing
to the circumstance just stated. 6. " For-
malitates juxta Doctrinam D. Thomae,'' Na
ples, 1605 and 1623, folio, a work commenced
by Father Alphonso de Marcho of Aversa,
and completed after his death by Aquarius.
Morhof in his "Polyhistor" speaks of the
" Formalitates " as a very useful book of its
kind. These are all the works of Aquarius
which appear to be printed : some notes on the
twelve minor prophets, mentioned by Possevin
and Valle, are probably in manuscript, as well
as a number of comments on the theology of
St. Thomas Aquinas, which are mentioned
by Aquarius himself in his additions to Syl
vester. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia, i.
897, &c, ; Quetif and Echard, Scrlptores
Ordinis Pradicatorum, ii, 303, ; some of the
works of Aquarius.) T. W,
AQUAVI'VA. [Acquaviva.]
A'QUILA. There were two distinguished
engravers, brothers, of Palermo, of this name,
who settled in Rome at the end of the seven
teenth century,
Francesco Faraone Aquila, engraver and
designer, was born at Palermo, and distin
guished himself by his large etchings on
copper from many of the most celebrated
works of art at Rome. Some of his prints
were made after drawings by himself from
the works engraved, and some also from his
own designs. They have considerable merit,
but are not of the highest class.
Some of his principal works are — A set
of twenty-two plates from the stanze of
Raphael in the Vatican — " Picturae Raphaells
Urbinatis, ex aulii et Conclavibus PalatU
Vaticani, in iEreas Tabulas nunc primum om
nes deductae," &c., 1722 ; a collection of
vases, &c., from Roman buildings, designed
by various celebrated artists, in fifty-one
plates ; many plates from ancient and modern
groups and statues in Rome ; and a print of
the plague, after a design by Raphael, He
engi-aved also after Correggio, Annibal Car-
racci, Lanfranc, Maratta, Ciro Ferri, Seb.
Conca, Albano, Camassei, Pietro da Cortona,
and many other masters.
Pietro Aquila was born likewise at Paler
mo, and li"ved at Rome at the same time as his
brother. He was priest, painter, and engraver,
but is chiefly distinguished as an engraver.
He was superior to his brother, " His greatest
faults," says Strutt, " are want of efl'oct from
scattering his lights, and what by the artist
is called manner in his drawing, Tho first

AQUILA,

AQUILA,

gives a confused flat appearance to his
Jirints ; and the last presents us with a style
of his own instead of that of the painter from
which he copied ; and these faults seem never
more glaring than in his prints from Raphael,
where the chaste simplicity of outline, the
great characteristic of that wonderful mas
ter, is lost in the manner of Pietro Aquila.
It is from Annib. Carracci that he has best
succeeded ; and his prints from that master
will, I trast, be always held in great esti
mation." Pietro Aquila engraved several plates from
his own compositions, but his best work is
the Farnese Gallery, &c., after Annibal Car
racci, in twenty-five plates, with a description
in verse by O. P. Bellori. He engraved also,
together with Cesare Fantetti, in fifty-five
plates, the works of Raphael in the loggie of
the Vatic;in, called Raphael's Bible, " Imagines
Xeteris ac Novi 'Testamenti a Raphaele Sanct
Ilrbiu. in Vaticano pictaj," &c. ; adso the
battle of Constantine in the Vatican, painted
by J ulio Romano after the designs of Raphael.
He engraved likewise several plates after
Pietro da Cortona, Ciro Ferri, Lanfranc, and
Maratta ; and a aet of portraits of the Roman
emperors from ancient medals. (GandelUnl,
NutiziedegV lutagliatori ; Heineken, Diction
naire des 'Artistes, &c.) , R. N. W.
AQUILA ('AKiiAos, D7*pV, Akilas, and
DiypJ/), the author of a Greek version of the
Old 'Testament, was, according to Epiphanius,
a Greek, a native of Sinope, a city in Pontus,
and was living in the twelfth year of Hadrian
(,i.D. 128). He was a connection (irei'eeplSTjs)
of that emperor, and was appointed by him to
superintend the erection of the city iEUa
(.'apitolina on the site of Jerusalem. In this
office he was brought into frequent contact
with the disciples ofthe apostles, — who had
then returned to Jerusalem from their retreat
at Pella, whither they had withdrawn pre
vious to the destruction of the Holy City, —
and was induced, by seeing their faith and
the great miracles wrought among them, to
embrace Christianity ; and, after some time,
to request and to receive admission into the
church by baptism. But, as he still con
tinued to practise astrology, an art in which
he had made great proficiency while a hea
then, his Christian teachers remonstrated
with him for pursuing studies which were so
incompatible with his professed faith. He
attempted to justify his practices by specious
arguinents, and persisted in slighting their
Injunctions ; and they, regarding him as one
incapable of salvation, thrust him out of the
church. Excommunication only uicenscd
his haughty spirit. In rc\cnge, he went over
to the Jews as a proselyte; and was circimi-
ciscd. llo also doN'oletf himself to acquire a
most accurate knowledge of the llebrow
language, and subsequently employed it in
preparing a new Greek version of the Old
'Testament. In this undertalung he aimed
213

at subverting the authority of the Septuagint,
and endeavoured to cover the shame of his
apostacy by straining all passages relative to
the Messiah to bear such a sense as favoured
Jewish tenets.
As this passage of Epiphanius contains the
fullest account of Aquila which has been pre
served, we have given its entire substance, in
order to compare it with the testimonies of
other writers. Some of its statements, how
ever, are questionable in themselves. It is
improbable, as Eichhorn has suggested, that
the relative of the emperor, and delegate of
his authority in iElla, shoiUd adopt no more
violent mode of resenting his expulsion from
the Christian society, than by apostatising to
the despised Jews. Moreover, the charge of
apostacy, and the imputation of hoslUe mo
tives in undertaking his version, are not, all
circumstamces being considered, above the
reach of suspicion ; especially as the remains
of his work do not justify the accusation,
and as Origen and Jerome, who were almost
the only Fathers whose acquaintance av ith
HebrcAv qualified them to judge in such a
question, furnish valid testimonies to his
literal fidelity. As for the difficulty of con
ceiving how a Greek, under such circum
stances, obtained so clear an insight into the
structure of the Hebrew language as It is
evident he possessed, it iiuiy be allowed its
due weight in the scale of probabilities.
Nevertheless, there is a large preponderance
of authorities in favour of his being a natiA'c
of Slnopc, the inhabitants of which a\ ere a
colony from Jllletus, (Xenophon, Anuli- v.
9.) ; and nothing further shakes the asser
tion that he was a proselyte, except the fact
that Jerome occasionally calls him Jintmis
(omitting the word proselyte, which he else
where applies to him), and that the sanction
of his version by tho HeUenist Jews might
countenance the belief that he belonged to
them by an earlier and closer tie.
In turning now to the JcAvish authorities,
the difficulty is to elicit from them anything
like an avaUable testimony : for, besides the
ordinary perplexities incident to such an in
quiry, this question is peculiarly embarrassed
by the manner In which they have eon-
founded Onkelos, the proselyte and author
of the Chaldee paraphrase, and Akilas the
proselyte and author of a Greek version. Be
sides this, their statements are so irrocon-
cileablc with each other in other respects,
that Ave are obliged to assume the existence
of three persons at least to whom those names
belong. These discrepancies have led almost
every distinguished Avriter on this question
to form his own theory as to the persons to
Avhich each of such passages should be ap
propriated. Some, as R. Simeon, Bellar-
mine, and, recently. Landau, consider Onkelos
the author of the 'Targum, and Akilas the
author of the Greek version, the same per
son. Eichhorn, on the other hand, has even
p 3

AQUILA.

AQUILA.

denied that the Akilas of the Gemara of
Jerusalem is the Aquila of the Hexapla at
all. Under these circumstances, it will suf
fice to notice here the following passages, as
the only ones which may be reasonably taken
to refer to our AquUa, aud which appear to
be at aU compatible with ike essential facts
established by other testimonies. The " Mid-
rash Shemoth Rabba" (par. 30.) Introduces
Akilas discussing with Hadrian the reasons
which made him wish to become a Jewish
proselyte. The Gemara of Jerusalem {Kid-
dusliin, 1.) represents Akilas the proselyte to
have executed his version with the aid of R.
Aklba : the fact agreeing with the assertion of
Jerome {Comm- in Esai- viU.), and the date
suiting the commencement of Hadrian's reign.
In the Babylonian Gemara {Gittin, f 56.) we
read that Onkelos the son of Calonicus, and
nephew of Titus by his sister, caUed up Titus
from the dead by incantation, to receive his
advice on the advantage of his becoming a
convert to Judaism. In the same Gemara
{Abodah, f. 11.) it is related that Onkelos
the son of Calonymus became a Jewish pro
selyte, and how the emperor sent three seve
ral companies of Roman soldiers to take him
captive, but he converted them all to Judaism.
It may be remarked here that, as the change
of one single letter makes all the difference
in the Aramaic mode of writing the two
words, Calonicus and Calonymus may be the
same name ; that, if Titus in the preceding
extract be the Roman emperor, there is some
analogy between the relationship to him and
that to Hadrian, (the respective dates also
not being altogether incompatible,) not to in
sist that R. Jacob, when referring, in En
Jacob, to this very passage, calls him the
nephew of Hadrian ; and that the necromancy
accords with Aquila's judicial astrology.
Lastly, that ancient work Siphra mentions,
in Behar Sinai, an AkUas a proselyte who
was a native of Pontus.
From the great general accordance between
these passages and the account which Epi
phanius has given, and from the further con
currence of several less important incidental
notices of Aquila in the early Fathers, which
Hody and Montfaucon have collected, a
few main facts as to his person and historical
place appear to be established with a reason
able degree of certainty ; and although the
sum of facts so established may not amount
to more than a bare outline, yet the corres
pondence between even the legendary por
tions of the Christian and Jewish traditions
serves as a confirmation of the existence and
quality of such an histcrical personage, and
may be said to be the shadow of a real form.
'The history of the celebrated version of
the Old Testament by AquUa partakes of the
obscurity incident to that of its author ; but
the following account embraces the chief facts
as to its origin, character, and fate. Whether,
as is most probable, it was originally designed
214

for the Jews, it appears that in their contro
versies with the Christians they had found the
need of a much stricter translation than that
of the Septuagint, and it is certain that they
early sanctioned that of Aquila by their
general use. This is expressly asserted by
Origen, Augustine, and others. It is proved
by the citations from it in the Midrashim
and Gemara of Jerusalem ; by the use made
of it in the polemical writings of the early
Christians ; and by that decree (NoveUa, 146)
which Justinian issued inthe year a. d. 551,
by which he licensed its adoption in the
public service of the synagogue. Eichhorn
has even inferred from Irenaeus {Adv- Har.
Ui. 24.) that it was the received version of the
Ebionites : but, however probable such a
conclusion may be, it is not warranted by
the terms there employed. Its character is in
perfect harmony with its presumed destina
tion. The unanimous testimony of antiquity,
and the fragments themselves which have
come down to us, show it to have been distin
guished by a painfuUy scrupulous adherence
to the form of the Hebrew text. Its Uteral
fidelity tries to preserve the number of words,
to give their etymological and radical signifi
cation, and to transfer unchanged every idiom
and metaphor. But, to attain this accuracy, it
often sacrifices not only the proprieties but
even the possibilities of the Greek language
to such an extent, that its expressions are
unintelligible without the aid of the original.
It is from this characteristic slavishness, and
from the acknowledged rarity of any attain
ments in Hebrew among the Fathers, that it
has been asserted that, when they refer to
" the Hebrew" ('O 'EPpaws), they reaUy only
cite Aquila's version. This is plausible, and
perhaps true sometimes ; but it is open
to Eichhoi-n's valid objection, that they occa
sionaUy cite the Hebrew and AquUa together,
which marks a distinction between them. It
is evident too that accuracy was the principal
aim of the author : for, after he completed his
translation, he discovered that there wais still
room for a more minute fidelity than he had
yet attained, and he then undertook what
appears to have been merely a new recension
of his original work. This is chiefiy known
through the citations of Jerome, who caUs it
" the second edition of Aquila, which the Jews
call /car' aKpiSeiav," and who, in occasionally
adducing the readings of both editions,
furnishes the means of determining that the
second was only a stricter revision of his first
work. It is not altogether certain, although
generally assumed, that the first edition con
tained the whole Old Testament. The frag
ments which are extant do not contain any
part of Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, or the
Lamentations. As for the first four, there is
no proof that they have not been lost : but
Origen expressly asserts that AquUa's version
ofthe Lamentations was "not received," {oi
(peperai). Montfaucon contends that he means

AQUILA,

AQUILA,

not received into the Hexapla ; but Doder-
lein (in Eichhorn's Repertorium, vi, 206.)
doubts whether it ever existed at all. It is also
a question whether the second edition con
tained even all the Biblical books which the
first did ; but nothing more is certain, from
Jerome's references to it, than that it contained
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. The earUest
notice of this version is perhaps that in
Justin Martyr, who is supposed to cite its
rendering of Isaiah, vii. 14. {Dial. c. Tryph.
p, 3 1 0,), But Irena;us, writing about A, D. 176,
distinctly mentions it by name, {Adv. Har.
iii. 24.). This , passage affords considerable
support to the other evidence as to the period
when AquUa is said to have lived ; as the
deduction of about thirty years, to give time
for the version to be so well circulated as to
fall into the hands of Irenaeus, would fix the
date of its origin within the reign of Hadrian,
The most memorable fortune, however, at
tending this version was that Origen admitted
it into his gigantic critical work, the Hexapla,
in which it occupied the column next to that
containing the Hebrew text expressed in
Greek characters. It is doubtful whether
Origen admitted the first or the second edition
of AquUa, Montfaucon is disposed to believe
that it was the second ; but the fact is, the
fragments preserved in the Hexapla are of
such very unequal accuracy {i-Kpi^eia), have
been recovered by such piecemeal exhuma
tion, and are often so erroneously ascribed to
their authors, that it would be as easy to be
lieve that they are the remains of both recen
sions. The causes to which the loss of this
celebrated version is due were, that the Jews
became more exclusive in the use of the
parapbraises in their own idiom, and that the
Christians grew more than content with the
Septuagint and Latin versions, so that no mo
tive any longer existed to preserve his labours.
Both the single copies and that in the Hexapla
have shared a common destruction ; and
nothing now remains of it, except a number
of small fragments which have been preserved
in incidental citations, from the Hexapla
chiefly, by the early polemical and exegetical
Avriters, These were first coUected from
Catenae by Pierre Morin (not by Flam,
Nobili, as Montfaucon 's title states), and
appeared in the Sixtine edition of the Sep
tuagint, Rome, 1587, fol. ; were extracted
from that work by Driisius, Amheim, 1622,
4to. ; and then were given in a much more
complete form by B. Montfaucon, in his
edition of the Hexapla, Paris, 1714, 2 vols.
fol., which Bahrdt republished with some
omissions, Leipzig, 1769, Svo. The loss of
this inestimable version is, however, as yet
imperfectly supplied by even the best of
these editions of its fragments. A stricter
search might glean more ; and a better ac
quaintance with Hebrew than Montfaucon
possessed, and more critical discrimination in
adjudicating to AquUa the renderings which
215

are really his, would make such a collection
far more avaUable for the philological study
of the Bible. (Epiphanius, De Pond, et Mens-
cap. 14. 15. ; also his treatise Circa Veter.
Scriptura Literpretat, 'v^hich Montfaucon first
published ; J. Morin, Excrcitat. Biblica, p.
340. sq. ; Hody, De Biblior- Text Orig. p. 235.
573.; Montfaucon, .Hexopfo, Prffi/i'm. V. ; Wolff,
Biblioth. Hebr. i. 958. ; Eichhorn, Einlcil.
ins Alte Test i. 521.) J. N— n.
A'QUILA. [Arno, Archbishop.]
A'QUILA, CASPAR (his real name was
Adler, or Eagle, which he translated into the
Latin Aquila), one of the most celebrated
Protestant divines of the period of the re
formation in Germany, was born on the 7th
of August, 1488, at Augsburg, of Avhioh town
his father, Leonard Aquila, was syndious.
After having received his elementary edu
cation in his native place and in the gym
nasium of Ulm, he spent some years in Italy
for the purpose of completing his learned
education. On his return he stayed some
time in Switzerland, and in 1514 he was
appointed preacher at Bern, He resigned
this office in this same year, and went to
Leipzig, from whence he joined, in 1515, the
celebrated Franz von Sickingen, who made
Aquila his field preacher, 'The year after
this he obtained the pastorship of Jengen, a
small place near Augsburg, Here he settled,
and divided his time most conscientiously
between the discharge of his official duties
and the study of theology. In the course of
his studies he became acquainted with the
works of Luther, whose opinions he adopted.
His sei-mons at Jengen, in which he ex
pounded the new doctrines, soon attracted
the attention of his superiors, and Christopher
of Stadion, then bishop of Augsburg, ordered
him to be arrested. He was conveyed in a cart
to DiUingen like a common malefactor, thrown
into a deep dungeon, and was kept in con
finement during the whole winter of 1519-20,
He was liberated through the influence of
IsabeUa, queen of Denmark, and sister of
the emperor, Charles V., who induced the
bishop by her entreaties to restore Aquila to
liberty. He was released, but ordered to
quit DUlingen immediately : he had not even
time to put together his books and MSS,
From DUlingen AquUa went to Wittenberg,
where he formed the acquaintance of Luther,
and obtained his degree of A, JI. From
Wittenberg he again went to Franz von
Sickingen, and stayed for some time in the
knight's castle of Ebemburg, where he in
structed the sons of Franz von Sickingen,
Here he was on one occasion nearly killed in
a very extraordinary manner. The garrison
of the castle desired him to baptize a cannon
ball, and as he refused to do so, the soldiers
put him into a large mortar, and placed it on
the edge of the castle wall with the intention
of blowing him up by firing a cannon at the
mortar. Several attempts were made, but
p 4

AQUILA.

AQUILA.

the cannon did not go off. At last one of
the officers was moved by the terrible an
guish of AquUa, and dragged him out of the
mortar. From Ebemburg he is said to have
gone, in 1523, to Eisenach and from thence
to Augsburg, but this is not quite certain ;
and all we know about his movements is,
that in 1524 he was at Wittenberg, where he
taught Hebrew, was of great assistance to
Luther in his translation of the Old Testa
ment, and preached on Sundays and holidays
in the castle chapel, for which he received a
salary. During this time he formed an inti
mate friendship with Luther, who procured
for him the office of pastor at Saalfeld in
1527. The year after he was raised to the
office of ecclesiastical superintendent (arch
deacon), and was a zealous promoter of the
reformed religion. In 1530 he attended the
diet of Augsburg, though not in a public
capacity, 'When the " Interim " was pro
mulgated in 1548, AquUa was one of the first
and most vehement opponents of it. The
emperor Charles V, Avas so indignant at this
opposition that he declared him an outlaw,
and offered a large sum for his head, Aquila,
who was obliged to flee, took nothing with
him except a Hebrew psalter. Countess
Catharine of Schwarzburg offered him an
aisylum, and secretly received him in her
castle at Ruldolstadt, She protected him
until the exasperation about the " Interim "
had died away, and in 1550 she procured
him the deanery of Schmalkalden, where he
continued his exertions in favour of the
Lutheran doctrines.
After the treaty of Passau, in 1552, he was
restored to his former office of ecclesiastical
superintendent at Saalfeld, where he passed
the remainder of his Iffe in peace imtil his
death on the 12th of November, 1560.
Shortly before his death he and forty-five
Protestant divines signed a memorial which
was published (1560, 4to,) under the follow
ing title, — " SuppUcatio quorundam Theolo-
gorum, qui post Lutheri Obitum Voce aut
Scriptis exortis noviter Sectis et Corruptelis
contradixerunt, pro Christiana libera et le-
gltima Synodo, ad Johannem Fredericum II,,
Dueem Saxoniae eiusque Fratres ac alios
Principes et Status Augsburgensem Confes-
sionem amplectentes," Aquila had four sons,
David, Hoseas, Zacharias, and Johannes, all
of whom followed the profession of their
father. He is said to have given his sons
these names because at the time of their birth
he happened to be engaged in studying the
Avorks of those writers and of St, John,
When Luther Avrote to Aquila, he used to
add jocosely, " Saluta matrem prophetarum,"
Aquila wrote a considerable number of works,
all in the German language. The greater
part of them are of a controversial nature
and sermons. The most interesting among
them are — 1, " Christlich Bedenkcn auf das
Interim," 1548, and reprinted 1549, 4to. 2.
216

"Tractat wider den schnoden Teufel, der
sich itzt abermal in einen Engel des Lichtes
verkleidet hat, das ist, wider das neue Interim,"
Augsburg, 1548, 4to, This work, which drew
upon him the persecution of the emperor,
appeared under the assumed name of Carolus
Azoria. 3, " Kurze aber zu unserer Selig-
keit hijchst nijthlge Erklarung ' der gantzen
Christlichen Lehre," Augsburg, 1547, Svo.,
reprinted in 1555 and 1605, 4, " Christliche
Erklarung des Kleinen Catechlsmi, mit
schbnen Episteln und gewaltigen Spriichen
bestatiget," Augsburg, 1538, Svo, This com
mentary upon the little Lutheran catechism
consists of eleven sermons, (J, Avenarius,
Kurze Lebensbeschreibung Casparis Aquila,
Meiningen, 1718, Svo. ; J, G. Hillinger,
Lebensbeschreibung Casparis Aquila, Jena,
1731, Svo, ; Chr, Schlegel, Bericht vom Leben
und Tode C. Aquila, Leipzig, 1737, 4to. ; F,
W, Strieder, Hessische Gelehrten Geschichte,
vol, i p, 96. &o., which contains a good digest
of the three other Uves, and also a complete
list of the works of Aquila.) L, S,
A'QUILA, JU'LIUS, a Roman jurist,
who is called GaUus AquUa in the " Index
Florentinus," There are in the Digest Iato
excepts from his " Book of Answers," " Liber
Responsorum " {Dig. 26, tit, 7, s, 34., tit.
10. s. 12.), on tutors and curators. His age
is unknown. He has been assigned to the
period of Septimius Severus. He has also
been identified with the L. Julius AquUa
who -wrote " De Etrusca DiscipUna," and is
referred to by the elder PUny {Elenchus,
lib. xi.) ; and with the AquUa who was
govemor of Egypt under Septimius Severus,
and was notorious for his persecution of the
Christians. (The various authorities are re
ferred to by Zimmem, Geschichte des Rom.
Privatrechts, vol. i) G. L.
A'QUILA. [Paul.]
A'QUILA or AQUILA'NO, PIE'TRO
DELL', of the order of Minor Friars, was
born in the city of Aquila in Abruzzo, to
wards the end of the thirteenth century. In
the year 1343 he was made chaplain to Joanna,
queen of Sicily and Jerusalem, and in 1344
inquisitore di santa fede. It is related of
him by Giovanni Villani, in his History, that
while at Florence he caused to be arrested,
on his own authority, one of his debtors,
named Salvestro Baroncielli, as he was quit
ting the palace of the priors (magistrates of
Florence): that the servants of the priors
and of the captain of the people, with the
sanction of the priors, who were greatly ir
ritated by this unwarrantable assumption of
power on the part of the inquisitor, rescued
Baroncielli, and the men Avho had captured
him Avere in their turn seized, their hands
cut off, and they were then banished from
the Florentine territories for the space of
ten years : that Aquila, in consequence,
retired to Siena, excommunicated the priors
and the captain of the people, and placed the

AQUILA.

AQUILA.

city under an interdict, unless Baroncielli
Avas given up within six days. The Floren
tines appealed to the pope, and brought ac
cusations against the inquisitor ; but the
result of the dispute does not clearly appear.
Aquila was protected in this affair by Car
dinal Pietro Gomesio. In order to appease
the contending parties and remove Aquila
from his post of inquisitor, he was made
bishop of Sant' Angelo de' Lombardi on the
12th of February, 1347, from which see he
was translated to that of Trivento on the
29th of June of the same year. He wrote
" Quffistiones in Quatuor Libros Sententia-
rum," Spire, 1480, folio, published also at
Venice in 1501, and 1584, 4to. The edition
of 1584 was by Cardinal Costanzo Sarnano,
who gives him in it the appellation " II Sco-
tello," in aUusion, according to Oudin, to the
acuteness of his understanding, and whieh
has been commonly applied to him since that
time. In 1585 this work was re-pubUshed at
Paris, in Svo., and again at Venice in 1600,
in 4to., with the title " ScoteUus, seu Summa
in Quatuor Libros Sententiarum Petri de
Aquila, &c. in quo non tantum ad Scoti
Subtilitates sed etiam ad Divi Thoma;, reli-
quorumque Scholasticorum Doctrinam ster-
niturvia." This variation in the title has
led Wadding, Possevinus, and others to at
tribute to Aquila three works, viz. 1. "Sco
teUus." 2. " Compendium super Magistrum
Sententiarum." 3. " Quaestiones in Quatuor
Libros Sententiarum." Wadding and other
writers also mention a second work, entitled
" Commentaria in Libros Aristotelis." (Wad-
dingus, Scrlptores Ordinis Minorum ; Oudin,
Commentarii de Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis,
, iii. 802—804. ; MazzucheUi, Scrittori d'ltalia-) J. W. J.
A'QUILA, POMPE'O DELL'. [Aqui-
LANO, PoMPEO.l
A'QUILA PO'NTIUS. [Pontius.]
A'QUILA ROMA'NUS was the author
of a Latin treatise on Rhetorical Figures of
'Thought and Speech. Of his history we
know nothing whatever ; and even the age in
Avhlch he lived cannot be determined but
approximately and by inferences. He lived
later than the times of the Antonines, because
that was the age of Alexander Numenius, the
rhetorician upon whose work his own is
founded : and he lived before the reign of
Constantine, because that was the age of
Rufinianus, whose rhetorical treatise was
avowedly intended as a supplement to his.
Aquila's work " De Figuris Sententiarum et
Elocutionis" is not, as it has sometimes been
called, a mere translation from the Greek
Avork of Alexander, nepi Sxw''''""'- It is not
even an abridgment, although its dimensions
are much more slender than those of the
original. The two correspond in substance, but
neither in phraseology, in arrangement, nor in
the choice of illustrative examples. The Latin
Avriter selects and rc-arrangesthe principal dc-
217

finitions and observations ofthe Greek treatise,
and expresses them in a fashion of his own,
in which, through an injudicious straining
at conciseness, the best parts of the model
are often suffered to escape. The illustrations
of the Greek work, again, which are taken
from the orators ofthe author's own nation, are
almost all displaced to make room for others
taken exclusively from Cicero. Both the origi
nal and the copy are characteristic examples
of the Uttleness in thought, and the puerile
affectation of subtlety, which distinguished
the rhetorical teachers in the decline of the
empire. Aquila, however, is inferior to Alex
ander, chiefly through his greater feebleness.
The work of AquUa Romanus has been
frequently published, usually accompanying
the treatise of Rutilius Lupus, or that of Ru
finianus, or both. The most critical edition
Is that of all the three, by Ruhnken, 1 768, Svo.
re-pubUshed at Leipzig, 1831, Svo. Aquila
is also in the " Rhetores Latini" of Pithceus,
Paris, 1599, 4to. and in the improved and
annotated edition of that collection by Cap-
peronerius, Strassburg, 1756, 4to. [Alexan
der Numenius.] CWestermann, Geschichte
der Beredtsamkeit in (xriechenland und Rom,
1833—1836, L 183., ii 307,; Ruhnken,
Rutilius Lupus, p, xxiv, ; Valeslus, Emenda
tiones, lib. 1. cap. 28.) W. S.
A'QUILA, SEBASTIA'NO DELL',
[Aquilanus, Sebastianus,]
A'QUILA, SERAFI'NO DELL', one
of the most celebrated Italian poets of his
time. He was called Aquila from the city
of that name in the province of Abruzzo,
where he was born in the year 1466, His
family docs not appear to be known, Mazzu
cheUi states that some believe him to be of
the noble family of Alfieri, but suggests that
his family name may have been Cimluo, that
appellation being applied to him in some of
his poems. His studies were directed princi
pally to music and Italian poetry, in the latter
of Avhich he adopted the models of Dante and
Petrarch. His first attempt to establish him
self was made at Rome with Nestore Mal-
vezzi. He afterwards entered the service of
Cardinal Ascanio Sforza, with whom he Uved,
almost constantly, nearly six years. This
connection does not appear to have been very
satisfactory to him, and he obtained per
mission to return to his native city, whence,
in 1491, he was summoned to the court of
Ferdinand IL, then duke of Calabria, and
afterwards king of Naples, His reputation
had by this time become Avidely extended.
'To the ordinary powers of the poet he united
great skiU as an improvisatore, and much
dexterity in the use ofthe lute. His residence
at the court of Ferdinand lasted but three
years, that prince being obliged to abandon
his kingdom in 1494, on the approach of
Charles VIIL, king of France. Serafino then
spent some time at the court of Urbino, and
afterwards -at that of Francesco Gonzaga,

AQUILA.
marquis of Mantua, by whom and the
marchioness he was received with much
kindness and treated Avith great liberality.
Thence he proceeded to the court of Lodovico
Sforza, duke of Milan, but on the occupation of
the Milanese territory by the French, he went
to Rome, Avhere he was received with great
kindness by Cardinal Giovanni Borgia, and
afterwards by Cesare Borgia, called the Duke
Valentino. Through the influence of the
duke he was made Cavaliere di Grazia della
Rellgione Gerosolimitana, aud obtained a
commandery with a very good income in the
year 1499, but he did not live long to enjoy
it. He died of fever on the 10th of August,
1500. Serafino was held iu high estimation at the
time of his death. The various poems written
on the occasion were collected together by
E. F. AchiUini, and published in 1504, 8vo.,
under the title " Collettanee Greche, Latine
et Vulgari per diversi Auctori moderni nella
Morte de T ardente Seraphino Aquilano," and
his epitaph by Benedetto Aceoltl, although
justly termed by Roscoe "hyperbolical
eulogium," spoke the feeling of the time :
" Qui giace Serafin : partirti or puoi :
Sol d' aver visto il sasso che lo serra
Assai sei debitore agli occhj tuoi."
But the critics of later times have awarded
to him much more moderate praise. He was
amongst the first of those who together with
Antonio Tibaldeo exerted themselves to raise
the character of Italian poetry, which had
greatly sunk since the time of Petrarch ; and
some of his pieces evince true poetic genius,
vigour of fancy, and boldness of thought, but
this is not their prevailing character, and it is
generally asserted that he owed much of his
success to the charming manner in which he
composed extempore verses and accompanied
them on the lute.
His poems are divided into one hundred
and sixty-five sonnets, three eclogues, seven
epistles, twenty capitoli, three disperate,
twenty-seven strambotti, and nineteen barze-
lette. These were printed for the first time
at Venice in 1502, in Svo, Mazzuchelli
enumerates seventeen other editions, the latest
bearing date in 1557; and Brunet {Manuel
du Libraire) mentions an edition in 1583,
That by PhUlppo dei Giunti, Florence,
1516, Svo, is considered the most beautfful.
In addition to the above, Orlandi ( Origine
della Stampa) attributes to him: — 1, " Summa
contra Errores Gentilium," fol, 2, " De divinis
Moribus et de Beatitudine," fol, 3, " Quaes
tiones de Malo," fol, 4. " De Fidei Articulis et
de Ecclesiae Sacramentis," fol., aU as printed
in the fifteenth century. It is highly probable,
however, that Orlandi is in error. The as
sertion is not supported by any collateral
testimony, and the subjects are not such as
were likely to employ the pen of a young
and professed sonnetteer and improvisatore.
(MazzuchelU, Scrittori d' ItaUa ; 'Tiraboschi,
218

AQUILA,
Storia della Letteratura Italiana, vi, 1243, ed,
Milan, 1822, &c; Bouterwek, Geschichte der
Poesie und Beredsamkeit,i- 319 — 326.;Roscoe,
Life of Leo X- i. 51.) J, W. J,
AQUILA'NO or DELL' A'QUILA,
POMPE'O, a good fresco painter of Aquila
in the Abruzzo, of whom, however, scarcely
any thing is known. He lived in the latter
half of the sixteenth century, and spent some
time in Rome, where Orlandi saw many fine
drawings by him with the pen and in water-
colours. Orlandi praises also his frescoes at
Aquila. There is a well-finished and finely-
coloured Deposition from the Cross by Aquil
ano in the church of Santo Spirito in Sassla
at Rome : it has been engraved by De Santis,
Horatius de Santis, called also AquUano, has
engraved sixteen plates after Pompeo AquU
ano ; a seventeenth, mentioned by Bartsch,
St. George killing the Dragon, was, accord
ing to GandelUni, engraved by Pompeo him
self, (Orlandi, Abecedario Pittorica ; Gan
delUni, Notizie degV lutagliatori ; BruUiot,
Diet des Monogrammes-) R, N. W,
AQUILA'NO, [Santis, Horatius De.]
AQUILA'NUS, SEBASTIA'NUS,
AQUILETUS, or SEBASTIA'NO DELL'
A'QUILA, was a professor of medicine at
Ferrara in 1495. MazzucheUi gives evi
dence for beUeving that he died in 1513.
He wais of the school of the Galenists, and
wrote : — 1. " Quaestio de Febre sanguinea ad
Mentem Galeni," which was printed in Mar
cus Gatinaria's work, " De medendis hu
mani Corporis Malis Practica," Basle, 1537,
folio, and in other editions. 2. A letter,
" De Morbo Gallico," to Ludovicus de Gon
zaga, bishop of Mantua, which, as Astruc
shows, was probably written in 149S, and is
amongst the oldest of the works on syphilis.
It was printed at Lyon in 1506, with Gati
naria's treatise, "De Curls iEgritudinum,"
and others by Astarius and Landulphus ;
again, with the same, at Bologna, in 1517,
and at other places aud times ; and it is the
first of the essays included in Luisinus's
" Aphrodlsiacus." He endeavours in it to
show that the disease is the same as the
elephantiasis of Galen, and that there is but
one species of the disease. For treatment he
advises purging, alteratives (among which
he recommends especially a wine of viper's
flesh), and bleeding ; and he used to dress
the sores with an ointment containing one
flfteenth pai-t of mercury, but gives a caution
against using this remedy when the patient
is of weak constitution. Mazzuchelli gives
the titles of three manuscripts by Aquilanus,
commentaries on Galen, which are in the
royal library at Turin. We find also a small
essay by him, unnoticed by bibliographers,
entitled " Quajstio de Febre Sanguinis ad
Mentem Galeni," published with some trea
tises by Gatinaria and others at Lyon by
Benedict Bonyn, 1532, 4to. (Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d'ltalia; Astruc, De MorbisVenereis.)

AQUILANUS.
This Aquilanus is sometimes confounded
with a contemporary, Johannes Aquilanus,
or Giovanni dell' Aquila, who was born at
Lanciano, in the kingdom of Naples, and
was professor of medicine in 1473 at Pisa,
and from 1479 to 1506 at Padua. He died at
an advanced age at some time after 1506.
He wrote a work entitled " De Sanguinis
Missione in Pleuritide," Venice, 1520, 4to.,
and is mentioned by HaUer as the author of
some manuscript elegiac verses, " De Phle-
botomia," which are in the royal library at
Paris, and by Carrere as having written
notes to the " Conciliator Differentiarum " of
Pietro di Abano. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori
d'ltalia ; Haller, Bibliotheca Chirurgica, i.
170.; Carrere, Bibliotheque Historique de la
Midecine.) J. P.
AQUILE'IUS, SEBASTIA'NUS.
[Aquilanus, Sebastianus.]
AQUILES, JUAN DE, a Spanish sculp
tor of Valladolid of much ability. There
are several of his works in the churches of
Valladolid and other towns of Castile. Aquiles
lived in the early part of the sixteenth cen
tury. (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historica,
&c.) R. N. W.
AQUI'LIA SEVE'RA, JU'LIA. [Ela
gabalus.] AQUI'LIUS, HENRI'CUS, a native of
Arnheim in the province, formerly the
duchy of Gelders, in the Netherlands, lived
about the middle of the sixteenth century.
He is only known as the author of a few
works, one of which is of some importance
for the history of Gelders. The following
list contains all that he wrote: — 1. "Epitome
Historiae Geldriae," Cologne, 1567, Svo, It
was reprinted with notes and additions in
Peter Scriver's " Batavia Illustrata," Leiden,
1609 and 1611, 4to, 2, " Moralium Libri
Tres." 3. " Progymnasmatum de Passione
Domini Libri Tres," 4. Paraphrasis in Oratio-
nem Dominicam," and 5, A poem in elegiac
metre, entitled " Duces Geldriae," The last
four AVorks were printed in one volume,
Cologne, 1566, {Stv ertins, Athena Belgica,
p, 322, ; Andreae, Bibliotheca Belgica.) L, S,
AQUTLLIA or AQUI'LIA GENS
( patrician and plebeian), one of the most
ancient Roman gentes, for one member of it
occurs as early as the establishment of the
comniouAvealth, E, c, 509 ; and Caius AquilUus,
surnamed Tuscus, is mentioned as consul as
early as E, c, 487 On coins and in inscrip
tions the name appears almost invariably
with a double /, whereas in our MSS, and
books it is usually written with one / only.
The famUies of this gens, which are men
tioned during the time of the republic, are
the Corvl, Crassi, Flori, GaUi, and Tusci,
Under the empire we find AquilUi Avith the
cognomina JuUanus, Regulus, Sabinus, and
Severus, The foUowing AquiUli occur in
Roman history without their family names
being mentioned, 219

AQUILLIA,
Aquillius, Manius, After the death
of Attalus III., in b. c. 133, a relative of the
king, Aristonicus, refused to comply with
the will of Attalus, who had bequeathed
to the Roman people his kingdom, and
claimed the succession. The Romans carried
on war with Aristonicus for several years,
until in e.c, 129, Manius AquiUius, who
was consul in that year, brought it to a close.
He is said to have compelled some of the
Asiatic towns to surrender by poisoning their
wells. He was supported in this war by
Mithridates V. of Pontus, by whom he was
bribed to give him Phrygia. The two
following years (b. c. 128 and 127), Aquillius
remained in Asia ais proconsul to regulate
the affairs of the province. In e. c. 126, on
his return to Rome, he was prosecuted for
malversation (repetundae) by P. Lentulus ;
but by his bribery he induced the judices to
acquit him. The triumphal fasti record a
triumph of Manius Aquillius in E. c. 126, for
his achievements in Asia ; hut whether the
triumph took place before or after the accu
sation is uncertain. ( Florus, ii. 20. ; Justin,
xxxvi. 4. ; Vellelus Paterculus, ii. 4. ; Cicero,
Divinatio in Cacilium,21,, De Natura Deorum,
11. 5.; Appian, De Bello Mithrid. 12. 57,, De
Bello Civil, i, 22,)
Aquillius, Manius, probably a son
of the former, was consul in b, c, 101,
The Romans had then already suffered some
severe losses in the war against the slaves of
Sicily, who had revolted a second time under
Athenion, Aquillius commenced his oper
ations against them immediately after he had
entered on his consulship, and continued
them the year after as proconsul. He suc
ceeded at last in conquering the slaves, partly
by cutting off their supplies, and partly in a
decisive battle, in which an immense number
of them feU. After having completed the
pacification of Sicily in b. c, 99, Aquillius
retumed to Rome, where he was honoured
with an ovatio. Two years later (b, c. 98), the
charge of malversation (repetundae) was
brought against him by L, Fufius, in regard
to his conduct in the administration of
Sicily, The evidence Avhich was brought
against him would have sufficed, under
ordinary circumstances, to condemn him ;
but he was defended by the orator Marcus
Antonius, who at the close of his speech
is said to have toi-n open his cUent's tu
nic, and to have shown to the people
and the judices the scars of the ho
nourable wounds which he had received In
the war against the slaves. These proofs
of his bravery outweighed the evidence of
his guilt, and he was acquitted. For some
years Aquillius seems to have taken no
prominent part in public affairs : we hear no
more of him until the year b, c, 88, when he
was sent as proconsular legate to Asia to
restore Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, whom
Mithridates the Great had expelled from

AQUILLIA,

AQUINAS,

their dominions, to their respective kingdoms
of Bithynia and Cappadocia. After this was
accomplished, AquiUius himself took an active
part in the war against Mithridates, but he
was defeated near a place called Proto-
pachium ( irpiJoTov Tldxiov ), and soon after fell
iuto the hands of Mithridates, who treated
him with barbarous cruelty, Mithridates had
him chained and carried about on an ass,
and AquiUius himself was compelled to pro
claim to the people that he was Manius
AquilUus, The king locked him up iu a
cage like a wild beast, from which he was
released once every day for the purpose of
being scourged. At last Mithridates put
him to death at Pergamus, by pouring
molten gold down his throat, a mode of
expressing the insatiable thirst after gold,
which Aquillius had shown during his life
time, (Florus, iii 19.; Livy,jBp!'tomelib.lxix,
Ixx. and Ixxvii. ; Cicero, In Verrem, iii. 54.,
V. 1, 2., De Oratore, ii, 28. 45. 47., Brutus, 62.,
De Officiis, ii. 14., Pro Flacco, 39., Pro Lege
Manilia,5,, ProFonteio, 13.; Diodorus Siculus,
lib. xxxvi. eclog, 1, ; Appian, De Bello Mithrid.
11. 17. 19. 21. ; VeUeius Paterculus, U, 18,;
Scholia Bobiensia on Cicero pro Flacco, p, 246, ;
and Schollasta Gronovianus on Cicero pro
Lege Manil. p, 439. ed. Orelli; Fasti Trium
phales,) L, S.
AQUFLLIUS GALLUS, CAIUS.
[Gallus,] AQUIN. [Daquin,]
AQUIN, LOUIS HENRI D'. [Aquino,
Ludovicus Henricus de,]
AQUIN, PHILIPPE D', [Aquino,
Philippus de.]
AQUIN DE CHATEAU-LION, PIERRE
LOUIS, the son of a celebrated organist, was
born at Paris in 1721, He took the degree
of bachelor of medicine, but never had much
practice. His literary productions, chiefly
in poetry and criticism, were numerous, al
though of Uttle merit, and generally unsuc
cessful ; but his work called " Lettres sur les
Hommes Celebres dans les Sciences, la Lit
terature, et les Arts, sous le Regno de Louis
XV," (1752, 2 vols, 12mo,), was well enough
received to be reproduced (In 1753) with the
fresh title of "Sieele LittiSraire de Louis XV."
In 1777 he commenced a miscellaneous com
pilation called the " Almanach Litteraire, ou
Etrennes d'ApoUon," which he continued
annually for seventeen years. He died in
1796 or 1797, (Rabbe, Biographie des Con
temporains, i, 126, 127, ; Querard, La France
Litteraire, i. 78.) J. W.
AQUTNAS or D'AQUFNO, THOMAS,
" the Angelic Doctor," was the most eminent
scholastic of his age, if not the greatest teacher
ever produced by the scholastic system. His
father, Randulph or Rodolf, count of Aquino,
was son of the sister of the Emperor Fre
deric I., and therefore cousin of ITenry VI.
of Germany, Avhile by his father's side he
Avas descended from a Lombard, or Norman,
220

prince, and was likewise connected with the
royal I'amily of France. His mother, Theo
dora, was a daughter of the Count of Theate,
of the family of Carraccioli ; and her bio
graphers Ukewise ascribe to her a royal
and Norman descent, from the Tancreds of
Hauteville, the conquerors of Apulia and
Sicily. 'Whatever may be the justice of
these claims, it is certain that the family of
Aquino was among the most noble and
powerful in the south of Italy. It is agreed
too, that Thomas, through whom alone that
family now possesses any historical notoriety,
was the youngest of several children ; but
both the place and the year of his birth are
disputed ; some asserting that he was born at
Belcastro, others in the castle of Rocca Secca
in Aquino. The date is variously assigned
to A.D. 1224, 1226, and 1227, and it is
neither easy nor important to decide among
the confUcting authorities. At the age of
flve years he was sent to the monastery of
Monte Cassino, the great pubUc school of
that country, and especially frequented by
the chUdren of the nobiUty. Thence, after
six years of great promise, as is said, he was
removed to the university recently (in 1224)
established by Frederic II. at Naples, as a
rival to the more pecuUarly papal schools of
Bologna. Six other years (these periods of
his boyhood are variously distributed by his
biographers) spent there in phUosophical
exercises, under the direction of one Peter of
Hibernia, and in reUgious devotion, brought
the student to his seventeenth year ; and
then, when his parents would have inter
posed to appoint the course of his future life,
he had already and irrevocably decided for
himself. The order of St. Dominic was then
just rising into consequence. Its founder
was indeed scarcely laid in the dust ; but
the energy and talents of its doctors, the zeal
and eloquence of its preachers, the pride and
confldence of a yoimg and rapidly advancing
institution were well calculated to captivate
a young and acute, and perhaps ambitious,
enthusiatst, Aquinas, ou the persuasion, it is
said, of one John of St, Julian, embraced the
profession of a Dominican,
Then follows a tale of domestic difficulties
and disappointments. As his powerful famUy
were desirous to rescue him from the monastic
condition, the Dominicans thought it safer to
remove him from the country ; and under
their guidance he had traveUed as fair as Ac-
quapendente, on his Avay to France, when, as
he was quenching his thirst at a fountain by the
roadside, his two brothers, who were serving
in the imperial armies in 'Tuscany and had
been informed by their mother of his move
ments, intercepted his retreat and restored
him to the paternal caistle of Aquino. Two
years he spent In this conflnement, and
during that time he Avas subjected to various
temptations ; to the affectionate persuasions
of his mother and sisters, to the violent im-

AQUINAS,
portunities of his military brothers, and to
the seductions of a beautiful courtesan, whom
his brothers introduced into his chamber.
It is related that in the last, and as it would
appear the most dangerous of his solicitations,
becoming sensible of fraUty, he assumed an
impetuous resolution, snatched a burning
brand from the embers, and forcibly expelled
the tempter from his presence. He then fell
down before the mark of the Cross, which
the brand, accidentally or miraculously, had
impressed upon the floor, he redoubled his
vows of chastity and prayers for grace, and
was finally consoled in a beatific vision
by two angels. His resolution being now
sufficiently proved, his mother reluctantly
yielded and connived at his escape,
Thei» commenced the career of his glory.
He was immediately placed under the care of
Albert of Cologne, surnamed the Great, then
the most distinguished of the Dominican
doctors. In his captivity Aquinas had pro
cured the Bible, the " Book of the Sentences "
of Peter Lombard, and a. logical Treatise of
Aristotle, His mind was formed for those
studies, and it made rapid progress under the
instruction of Albert, His master presently
penetrated the secret of his genius. His
massive frame, together with his peculiar
reserve and taciturnity, having obtained for
him among his fellow-students the appellation
of " The Dumb Ox," Albert, on some occasion,
exclaimed to them : " this Dumb Ox, as you
call him, will one day make the whole world
resound with his bellowing," — a prophecy
which is carefully recorded by his biogra
phers, and which is, doubtless, one of those
many predictions which are prudently con
cealed untU they have been fulfilled.
In A, D, 1245, Albert was appointed to fill
for three years the chair of theology in the
college of St, James, assigned to the Domini
cans (thence called Jacobins) at Paris, Aqui
nas attended him thither, and from Paris
back again to Cologne ; there he remained
till A, D, 1253, and during that interval he
was ordained to the priesthood. He then
returned to Paris and opened his Lectures
on the " Book of the Sentences." On the 23d
of October, 1257, he was admitted to the
degree of doctor in divinity, and continued
to teach and preach at Paris for about three
years longer. He was greatly admired and
courted by the great as avcU as by the learned.
He was even admitted to the councils and
private society of St. Louis ; and it is related
that, while seated one day at the king's table,
he broke forth from a state of not unusual
abstraction into this abrupt exclamation :
" The argument is conclusive against the
Manichaeans." The courtiers were scamda-
lised ; but the good king was so far from
taking offence at this rusticity, that he im
mediately commanded a secretary to note
down the argument. InA. d. 1261, he was
summoned by Urban IV. to Rome, and he
221

AQUINAS.
passed some years in lecturmg there, as also
at Bologna, Pisa, Perugia, and others of the
principal cities of Italy; while we learn that,
nevertheless, in a. d. 1263, he attended a
chapter of the Dominicans held in London.
About this period he was subjected to
fresh temptations. In a. d. 1265, Pope Cle
ment IV., at the instance of Charles, king of
SicUy, brother of St. Louis, offered him the
archbishopric of Naples ; but Aquinas re
fused this dignity. Another and probably
a more congenial station was proposed to
him in the abbacy of Monte Cassino. In
that splendid seclusion, in the midst of scenes
of exquisite natural beauty, famUiar to his
earUest recollections, he might have pursued
with less disquietude and fewer distractions
his abstruse speculations. But he declined
even this elevation, and preferred the in
dependence attending the simple profession
of his order. And thus in a. d. 1269, we
observe him once more at Paris, lecturing
and preaching as before, under the royal
notice and patronage, until he returned to
Naples in a. ». 1272. 'This was the last
journey that he was permitted to accomplish.
He was still, indeed, in the vigour of his
age ; but his constitution was naturally feeble,
and it wais worn, perhaps, by too much toil.
He was suffering from ill health, when he re
ceived from Gregory X. a summons to attend
the second Council of Lyon, which was con
voked for May 1. 1274, in order to reconcile
the Greek and Latin churches, Aquinas
had already written on that subject ; besides,
obedience was the main-spring and basis of
his ecclesiastical polity ; accordingly, he re
solved to obey. About the end of January
he set out on his journey ; but he had tra
velled no further than the castle of Maganza,
the residence of his niece (or as some say,
his sister), when his disorder became more
violent. He proceeded notwithstanding ; till
presently finding that the fever increased,
and that his strength was failing, he caused
himself to be carried to a neighbouring abbey
of Cistercians, that of Fossa Nuova, in the
diocese of Terracina, He had previously
expressed to his faithful companion Reginald
his anticipation " that he should presently
write no more," On entering into the cloister
of the convent, this impression was con
firmed, and he exclaimed to the same friend,
in the words of the psalm : " 'This is my rest
for ever," (Ps. cxxxU. 14.) There he lin
gered for nearly a month, passing the time
in prayer and holy conversation. 'The monks,
with much reverence and attention, entreated
him to dictate to them am Exposition of the
Canticles of Solomon, aifter the example of
St. Bernard. He replied, " Give me first the
spirit of St. Bernard ! " However he con
sented ; and is said to have delivered with
his latest breath, the Exposition which ap
pears among his works. He received the
eucharist and the rite of extreme unction

AQUINAS.
Avith much devotion, and expired with every
demonstration of the most profound piety.
The day of his death (the 7th of March,
a, d. 1274) was marked, as ancient legends
relate, by several miraculous phaenomena, A
brilliant star, which had been suspended over
the monastery during the whole period of his
sickness, was suddenly extinguished. One
Paul of AquUa, au inquisitor at Naples, saw
and heard him in conversation with the
Apostle Paul, and then beheld them both
depart together to the regions of light and
bliss. Albert the Great was seated at dinner
at Cologne, when abruptly, and with tears in
his eyes, he rose, and informed those around
him, how by a secret intimation he had
assurance that Aquinas, the light ofthe church,
was no more. He rejoined his disciple, how
ever, at least in the Paradise of Dante, where
he .stands on his right hand : —
" Quest! che m' d a destra piO vicino
Frate e maestro fummi ; ed esso Alberto
E' di Cologna ed io Thomas d' Aquino."
The departed likewise appeared to his kins
man (germane), the Count d' Aquino, in a
vision, and placed a letter in his hands ;
whioh, when the count awoke and had pro
cured a light, he perceived to be inscribed, in
brilliant characters of more than human arti
fice and beauty, with these mysterious words :
" To-day I am become a doctor in Jeru
salem," He immediately made inquiry con
ceming the health of his relative, and learned
that he had died on the same night. This
last marvel is related with much gravity by
our own chronicler. Trivet, Many prodigies
performed by Aquinas during his life are
likewise described by Roman CathoUc writers,
who are not, however, always equally care
ful to record a reply which he had the courage
to make te Innocent IV., and which in the
historian's eye outshines the repute of many
miracles. Once, on paying his court to that
pontiff, he found much money spread out
before him. " You see," observed Innocent,
" that the church is no longer in that age in
which she said, ' Silver and gold have I none.' "
" True, holy Father," replied Aquinas, " and
therefore it is that she can now no longer
say to the sick of the palsy, ' Take up thy bed
and walk.' " It is, however, curious, that he
was canonised by John XXII., the most
rapacious of all the popes, who is said on that
occasion to have remarked, that it was not so
necessary in the case ef Aquinas, as of some
others, to be very rigid as to the proofs of his
supernatural performances, since he had other
commanding claims on the gratitude of the
church. And this was true, Aquinas possessed re
markable powers of mind, which, combined
with a deeply religious and almost mystical
spirit, and directed, with unwearied zeal, to
the interests ef the church, rendered him
her most distinguished champion. To much
penetration and perspicuity ef thought and

AQUINAS.
expression, he added a very retentive memory,
the faculty of correct Inference, and the
most minute accuracy. With an ardent love
of inquiry and great patience of pursuit, he
united views as extensive as perhaps were
compatible with the narrow range of learning
then deemed sufficient. Constantly as he
was occupied about Aristotle, there is no
reason to suppose that he had any knowledge
ef Greek. But had he lived in brighter
times he would have shone with greater
brilliamcy and probably with not less compa
rative advantage. It was his singular merit
that he embodied and cai-ried to its highest
perfection the method which he found esta
blished. The same powers in a more wisely-
instructed age would have enabled him to
perfect a wiser and more beneficial me
thod ; and, so far from smiling at the men
tion of his name and of his eighteen ponder
ous folios which load our libraries, we
ought rather te revere him as a chieftain of
other days, the illustrious guide and master
of his own generation. The weapons of
Alexander and Hannibal would gain no
triumphs now, but we do not for that reason
refuse those conquerors the glory which they
have earned. It is no inconsiderable praise
to any man that he has surpassed all his
contemporaries in that pursuit in which aU
were most ambitious to excel, and that was
the praise of Aquinas.
It may be mentioned as a proof of the
estimation in which he was held by those
contemporaries, and even by succeeding
generations, that claims were made by vari
ous cities of importance, and by Paris
with especial earnestness, for the possession
of his body. But the monks of Fossa Nuova
refused to relinquish so valuable a treasure.
At length, nearly a century afterwards. Urban
V. presented the remains (with the exception
of some fragments which were cut off and dis
tributed among other claimants) te the city
of Toulouse On their approach they were met
by the archbishops of Toulouse and Narbonne
at the head of a hundred amd fifty thousand
persons, and were deposited with much re
verence in the church of the Dominicans,
where they stUl repose.
The works ascribed to him are very nu
merous, and it is not necessary to detaU them
here. According to their subjects they may
perhaps be comprehended under the following
heads: Physical, Moral, Logical, Metaphysical,
Analytical, Exegetical. The most import
ant is the " Summa Theologias." Others,
next perhaps in value, are : "In Tres Libros
de Anima ;" " Expositio in Decem Libros
Ethicorum ;" " In Octo Libros Politicorum ;"
" Quaestiones qua; disputatae dicuntur ;"
" Summa Cathelica! Fidei centra GentUes ;"
" Remarks on the Four Books of the Sen
tences ;" amd " Commentaries en A-arious
Parts of the Old and New Testament."
In philosophy he was, like his master, a

AQUINAS.
Realist. His " Sum of Theology " is divided
into three parts : the natural, the moral, and
the sacramental. In the first are discussed
the principles of the Divine Being, — from
whom all truth, physical and moral, pro
ceeds and hangs in continuous dependence,
— his existence, his attributes, providence,
predestination, as weU as his werks, mani
fested in the creation of angels, worlds, and
man. The second considers in its first divi
sion (the prima secundaj) the nature ef man
as a system in himself, as a moral and in
tellectual agent ; and here are discussed the
various laws appointed for his guidance. In
its second division (secunda secundae) the
principles of human action are considered,
as they are manifested in particular virtues ;
and this portion ef the work, while it is cu
rious through the ingenuity with which the
ethics of Aristotle have been engrafted en
the morality of the Gospel, has been in aU
ages especially admired, and by many is stiU
admired ais an unrivalled exposition of Chris
tian morality. The third part treats on the In
carnation and the Sacraments ef the Church ;
and in such manner as to show the essential
and inseparable connection and coherence
ef the latter with the perfect Godhead and
humanity ef Christ.
The following works are mentioned by
Trivet as being, even in his time, falsely
ascribed to Aquinas : — " Lectura super Epis-
tolam ad Corinthies ab XI. Capit, usque ad
Finem ;" " Expositio super Primum De
Anima ; " " Lectura super Johannem et
super Tertium Nocturnum Psalterii ; " " Col-
latlones de Oratione Dominica et Symbelo ; "
" Collationes Dominlcales et festivaj ; " " Col-
lationes de Decem Praeceptis (quais coUegit
Frater Petrus de Adria) ; " " Lectura super
Matthaeum completa." This list has since
been increased, se that of seventy-three
compositions, vulgarly bearing the name of
Aquinas, twenty-nine are considered as
spurious, and are so distinguished in the best
editions by type or collocation. It should
be mentioned, however, that among the
works so condemned, some are extracts
from his lectures and sermons noted down
and preserved by his hearers, A complete
edition of his -wforks was pubUshed at Rome,
A, D, 1570, by command of Pope Pius V,, and
it is still considered as the most exact.
Another appeared at Venice in 1594, and a
third at Antwerp in 1612, There are se
parate editions of his " Summa Theologia! "
and of some of his other treatises. {Vita
S. Thoma Aquinatis ex pluribus Auctoribus
in Editione Operum per Cosmam Slorelles,
Anvers, 1612 ; Nicholas Trivet, Chronicon,
A, D, 1274 ; Moreri, Dictionnaire Historique,
torn, viii, ; Butler, Lives of the Saints,
vol, lii) G, W,
AQUFNO, CARLO D', was born at
Naples in the year 1654, and Avas the son
of Bartolommeo, prince of Caramanico, and
223

AQUINO.
of Barbara Stampa, a MUanese lady of the
family of the marquises ef Sencino. Carlo
entered the order of Jesuits at the age of
fifteen, became professor of rhetoric and
prefect of the studies at the coUege ef Rome,
was afterwards secretary of the same esta
blishment, and after a Ufe spent in Uterary
employment and learned ease at Rome and
TivoU died on the 11th ef May, 1737, at the
age of eighty-three. His works, which are
numerous, procured him a high reputation,
both as a Latin and Italian writer. The
earlier chiefly consist of works of polite
literature, and the later of dictionaries. His
three octavo volumes of " Carmina," pub
lished at Rome, the first in 1701 and the
last in 1703, contain many pieces which had
previously appeared in a separate shape.
The first volume is occupied with six books
ef epigrams, one book ef misceUanies, and
a serious parody on the odes attributed to
Auacreon, under the title of " Anacreon Re-
cantatus." In the first ode the poet's lyre,
instead of declining, like Anacreon's, te sing
any thing but love, refuses to celebrate aught
save reUgion ; the second, instead of asserting
the irresistibility ef woman, proclaims the
invincibility of faith. The author afterwards
pubUshed a translation of these compositions
into Italian at Rome, in 12mo,, in 1726,
under the title of " Palinodie Anacreontiche,"
by Alcone Sirio, that being the name he
had adopted as a member of the academy
of Arcadians, The second volume of the
" Carmina" commences with two books of
Heroica, one of which, on the coronation of
James the Second ef England, contauns a
passage alluding to ene of his predecessors
that might almost be deemed prophetic of his
successor :
" Willelmum, occiduo Regnum qui qujerere mundo
Per vastas non horret aquas."
The character of another which fellows, a
" GenethUacus" in honour of the birth of
King James's ill-fated sen, is singular. Sedi
tion is represented as having formed, fer the
purpose of preventing the king from having
a catholic heir, an enchanted image com
posed of the ashes of the "heretic rebels,"
who had been punished for opposing James ;
but the charm is thwarted by the counter-
influence of the image of an infant in solid
gold, which James's wife, the queen of Eng
land, presents, as it is an historical fact that
she did, to the Virgin ef Lorette. The
" Heroica" are succeeded by two books of
elegies, and one of lyrics, and the third
volume is occupied with twelve satires. The
" Orationes" of D'Aquino ( Rome, 1704, tAvo
volumes, octavo) also comprise many pieces
which had appeared separately. The most
interesting is that pronounced on occasion of
the funeral obsequies celebrated in honour of
James the Second, by command of Cardinal
Barberini, in the church of St, Laurence at

AQUINO.
Rome. The work in which this was first
printed,"Sacra Exequialia, in Funere Jacobi IL
Magnae Britanniae Regis, descripta a Carolo
de Aquino," ( Rome, 1702, small folio,) is
adorned with numerous plates ef the funeral
trophies ; it was never fer sale, and is men
tioned by Clement as very rare, but a copy
is in the British Museum. The " Misoella-
neorum Libri III." (Rome, 1725, Svo.) con
tain some very miscellaneous critical and
philological remarks on ancient and modern
authors. The " Fragmenta Historica de Belle
Hungarico " ( Rome, 1726, 12me.) is a speci
men of a work on the wars of Hungary,
begun at the recommendation of Father
Anichini, a Jesuit connected with the im-
periad court, who promised te supply ma
terials, and broken off on Anichini's death.
In 1728 was published the greatest poetical
work of D'Aquino, " Commedia di Dante
Alighieri trasportata in Verso Latino Eroico,"
a translation of the " Divina Commedia " into
the language in which it was originaUy in
tended to be written. It is said, in the Flo
rence edition of Dante's works published in
1830, to be "reputed faithful and elegant,"
but Catelacci, in the preface te his own Latin
version of the "Inferno," pubUshed in 1819,
accuses it of being a free paraphrase, too
distant both from the meaning and the expres
sion of the original. A few ef the severest
passages against the court of Rome are
omitted, but D'Aquino could not obtain free
permission te publish it in that city, in which
no edition of Dante had tUl then appeared.
It was nevertheless printed at Rome by
Bernabo Rocco, and with the sanction of the
master of the sacred palace, but bore on its
title-page the imprint ef Naples. The Latin
was accompanied with the original text, as had
also been the case with a little work of the Si-
mUes of Dante translated, which was published
as a preliminary specimen. The remainder of
D' Aquino's works are dictionaries. They
are — " Lexicon Militare," two vols, folio, 1724,
with an octavo volume of additions, 1727;
" Vocabularium Architecturae iEdUicatoria;,"
1735, 4to. ; and " Nomenclator Agriculturae,"
1736, 4to., all pubUshed at Rome. The
" Lexicon Militare" is learned, but so over
loaded with irrelevant matter that it has
been said one volume out of the three would
fully contain all that really relates to the
subject. It abounds Avith quotations from
Ariosto, Tasso, Boiardo, Pulci, and even
Petrarch; but the statement copied by Maz
zuchelli from the "Histoire Litteraire d'Eu-
rope" that these are accompanied Avith Latin
translations by D'Aquino is incorrect. The
" Vocabularium Architectura)" is favourably
noticed by Comolli, and that and the " Nomen
clator Agriculturae" appear to be compara
tively free from extraneous learning.
(Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia; Afflitto,
Scrittori del Regno di Napoli,'i. 401. &c. ; Co
rnelii, Bibliografia delV Architettura Civile, i.
224

AQUINO.
112. &c.; Dante, Opere, Florence edition of
1830, V, 812,; Dante, L'Inferno, ed, of Cate
lacci, p, xni,) T, W.
AQUFNO, LUDOVrCUS .HENRI'CUS
DE (i:»ipsn Dpn:n pnni?), or louis
HENRI D'AQUIN, the son of Philippe
D'Aquin, was a native of Avignon ; and
being born about the beginning of the seven
teenth century, while his father yet professed
the Jewish religion, he was brought up in
that faith, but together with his father became
a proselyte to Christianity, He edited " Me-
giUath Ester" (" The Book of Esther") wUh
the commentaries of Rashi (R, Solomon
Jarchi), and extracts from the Talmud
and Jalcut on the same book, with a Latin
translation as well of the commentary as of
the text, printed at Paris by Th, Blaise, a, d.
1622, 4to. In the preface to this work he
calls himself the son of Philippe d'Aquin,
who, he says, was his instructor in the He
brew language, Wolff attributes te him also
" Pirke Aboth," (" Selections of the Fathers ")
with a Latin translation, Paris, 1620 ; but
this was most probably the werk of his father,
to whom it is generally attributed, and to
whom it is also assigned by Wolff himself.
He also published the commentary of R.
Levi Gerson on the first five chapters of the
book of Job, Avith a Latin translation, to
gether with the biblical text in Hebrew and
Latin. In his preface the author complains
of the very Uttle encouragement he meets with
in Paris, and the destitute state to which he
is reduced. It was printed at Paris by Th.
Blaise, a.d, 1622, (Wolfius, Biblioth- Hebr.
i, 723,, Ui. 645. ; Bayle, Diet Hist Crit- i.
297, note F, ed, Rotterdam, 1702,) C. P. H.
AQUFNO, PHILIPPUS DE, or PHI
LIPPE D'AQUIN (IN irips n Dia^'p'Q
tN*pNT NSv'S)' ^ learned Frenchman born
at Avignon towards the end of the sixteenth
century. He was ef a Jewish family, and
had himseff attained to the dignity of a
Rabbi, at which time he was called Mor-
decai. 'WhUe yet a young man he was con
verted te Christianity and admitted into the
Catholic church at Aquino in the kingdom ef
Naples, whence he assumed his surname.
This surnaime was probably the origin of
Bayle's hearsay informatien that his family
Avas originally from Aquino. He took up
his abode in Paris, where he supported his
famUy by teaching Hebrew, some time pre
vious te the year 1610, and resided there
until his death, which, according to Le Long,
took place about the year 1650. Bayle ob
serves that the name of Aquino occurs in the
proceedings against the Mart3chal d'Ancre,
and he gives the substance of a deposition of
Aquino against the marechal and his wife.
His Averks are — 1. " Mahario Hammahara-
coth " (" Setting the Array in Order "), a
HebrcAV, Chaldee, Talmudic, and Rabbinical
dictionary, in which all the words used in
the Hebrew Scriptures, the Chaldee para-

AQUINO.
phrases, the Talmuds, and ether Rabbinical
and cabbaUstical writings, with difficult pas
sages in the writings of the Rabbis, many of
the ceremonies of the law and all the He
brew abbreviations are explained, with co
pious marginal references : it was printed at
Paris in a very elegant Hebrew type, by
Antoine Vitray, a. d. 1 620, in large folio.
2. " Philippi Aquiuini Primogeniae Voces seu
Radices breves Linguae Sanctas, cum The-
matum investiganda Ratione " (" The Original
Words or short Roots of the Holy Tongue,
with the Manner of finding the Root, of
Philip de Aquino ") ; it was printed at Paris
by Sebastian Cramoisy, A. d. 1620, in 16mo.,
and is a very rare little volume. 3. " Pirke
Aboth " (" Selections of the Fathers "),
a collection of Rabbinical proverbs and
moral sentences, printed in Hebrew with
out points, with a Latin translation by
Philippe D'Aquin on the opposite page :
it is of precisely the same form and typo
graphy as the Uttle volume above described,
and is without date or printer's name, and
therefore was most probably published with
it, although no mention of it is made in the
preface to that tract. 4. " Veterum Rab-
binerum in exponendo Pentateucho Modi
tredeclm cum octo eruditorum Rabbinorum
in Psalm. CXIX. Commeutariis, item Theo
logiae Mysticae QuaDstionibus decem et Ex-
cerptis ex Zohar aUisque Libris SententUs
quibus Orthodoxae Fidei ArtiouU quidam
contra Contumacem JudaEOrum Impietatem
adstruuntur, Lutetiae Paris, ex off. Nivel-
llana, sumpt. Seb. Cramoisy, An. 1620, in
4to." This work is a Latin translation of
the " Shalosh esre Middoth," or thirteen
modes or rules for interpreting the law of
Moses, of R. Ismael, with a translation also
of the commentaries of the eight following
celebrated Rabbis on the 119th Psalm,
namely, R. Matathias Hajizharis, R. Joseph
Aben .lachlja, R. Joseph Jahabetz, Aben
Ezra, Rashi (R. Solomon Jarchi), R. David
Klmchi, the author of the " Midrash " (vol. i.
p. 135. note) on this psalm, and the author
of the " Jalkut " (Simeon Haddarshan).
It has a long Hebrew preface by D'Aquin,
with a Latin translation on the opposite
page. 5. "Dissertation du Tabernacle et
du Camp des Israelites recueUU de plusieurs
anciens Decteurs Hebreux, a Paris, Chez
Th. Blaise, 1623 in 4to." (" A Dissertation
on the Tabernacle and Camp ef the Israelites,
collected from many ancient Hebrew Doctors
(Rabbis), printed at Paris by Th. Blaise,
1623 in 4to."). This work is net merely a
literal description of the tabernacle erected
by Moses, at God's command, iu the Wilder
ness with its various coverings, and the
priestly vestments, but is also au explanation
of their allegorical and moral signification,
with a treatise on the Urim and Thummim,
and the cases in which it was to be con
sulted under the Old Testament dispensation ;
VOL. in.

AQUINO.
also on the various sacrifices of the ancient
Jews, and the manner of performing them
from the most ancient and celebrated Rab
binical authorities, Avith a plan ef the camp
in the Wilderness, and a plate of the breast
plate of the high-priest, with its mystical
gems. A second edition of this work, revised
by the author, was printed at Paris, 1624,
4to. 6. " Interpretatio Arboris Cabbalis-
ticae cum ejusdem Figura, ex antiquis Scrip
toribus " (" An Explanation of the Cabba-
Ustic Tree, with the Figure ef the same from
the ancient Writers "), Paris, 1625, in 4to.
Wolff has given the title of this werk as
above, but we are inclined to believe it to be
in the French language, as most ef this
author's works are se. 7. " Bechinath Olam "
(" The Contemplation of the World "), This
celebrated work of R, Jedaja Happenini was
translated into French by Philippe D'Aquin,
and printed at Paris by Jean Laquehay, a, d,
1629, in Svo. It consists of the Hebrew
text, in the square letter, with the French
translation en the opposite page : it is followed
by the author's Latin translation of the
" Shalosh esre Middoth," or thirteen ways of
interpreting the law, with an ample commen
tary, 8, " Kina " (" Lamentation ") : this is
a Hebrew poem on the death of Cardinal
BeruUe, followed by a Latin translation, en
titled " Lacrymae in Obitum lUustriss, Car
dinalis de BeruUe : " it was printed at Paris
by Jean Bessin, a. d, 1629, in Svo.
Philippe D'Aquin also edUed the Hebrew
and Chaldee texts of the Parisian Polygott
{Biblia Polyglotta, cura et studio Guid. Mic
le Jay, Paris, typ. Ant. Vitre, 1628 — 45,
10 vols, folio.), but this task he is said to
have performed indifferently. The celebrated
scholar and critic Jean Morin (Joannes
Morinus) was a Hebrew pupU of Philippe
D'Aquin, which, says Rich, Simon, was no
doubt the reason why Morin so often faUs
into grammatical errors in rendering pas
sages from the Rabbis, as D'Aquin himself
was far from a proficient iu this branch of
Hebrew literature. Such is the opinion of
this learned Frenchman, who is, however,
by no means sparing of his censures. Guil-
bert Gaulmyn also, in the preface te his He
brew Lexicon, says that PhUippe D'Aquin
taught him Hebrew.
Antoine D'Aquin, whe was chief phy
sician to Louis XIV,, was the grandson of
PhlUppe D'Aquin, (Bartolocclus, Biblioth.
Mag. Rabb. iv. 347, 348. ; Wolfius, Biblioth.
Hebr. 'v. 977—979., in. 728-732. ; Le Long,
Biblioth. Sacra, ii. 612, ; Bayle, Diction.
Histor. Crit art, " D'Aquin,") CH P
AQUFNO, THOMAS DE, [Aquinas,
Thomas.] ARA'BIUS SCHOL A'STICUS, or IL-
LU'STRIUS {'ApdHios 2xo;i.a(rTi/c<is), a Greek
epigrammat c poet, of whose epigrams eight
are extant in the Greek Anthology : most of
them are written upon works of art, or por-
Q

ARABIUS.

ARAGONA.

traits. ^ Respecting the Ufe of the author, no
thing is known ; but from ene ef his epigrams
{Antholog, Planud. 39., compare 314.), which
was made fer a portrait of Longinus, the
praefect of Constantinople in the reign of
Justinian, we must infer that the poet Uved
about the same time, about a. d. 550, (Ja
cobs, Ad Antholog, Grac. xiii, 856,) L, S,
ARABSHAH. [Ahmed ibn Arabshah.]
A'RAGON, JUAN DE, a Spanish painter
who lived at Granada about 1580, when he
was employed in the monastery of St. Jerome
in that place, (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario
Historica, §-e.) R. N. W,
ARAGO'NA, TU'LLIA D', a celebrated
ItaUan poetess, was the Ulegitimate daughter
of a Ferrarese lady and of TagUavia, arch
bishop of Palermo, and afterwards cardinal,
himself an Ulegitimate descendant of the
royal house of Aragon, The year of her
birth is unknown, but was probably one of
the first ten of the sixteenth century. She
received a good education, and became re
markably accomplished ; while yet a girl she
could both write and dispute in Latin, and
she afterwards surpassed all the women of
her time in singing and music. She was very
partial to the society of authors, and her
house at Rome, where, as well as at Venice
and Ferrara, she long resided, was frequented
by most ef the distinguished men of letters of
the time, with whom she was in the habit of
exchanging cempUmentary sennets. Among
them we find the Cardinal Ippolito, son of
Giullano de' Medici, Pietro Angelio di Barga,
Francesco Maria Molza, Ercele BentivegUe,
Filippo Strozzi, Benedetto Varchi, Bernardo
Tasso, Pietro Manelli, Lattanzio Benucci,
and Girolamo Muzio, the last of whom was
the most assiduous of the long list of her
admirers. Unfortunately, in spite of the
assertion of Crescimbeni that she was no less
virtuous than beautiful, her poetical reputa
tion became her only ene, or, to use the
words of Roscoe, " TuUia, the offspring of
love, is said not te have been insensible to
his dictates." At Rome she married ; and in
a curious treatise on matrimony, fuU of the
purest Platonism, addressed to her by Muzio,
and printed in his " Operette MoraU," we
learn that she did so by his advice, in the
hope of making manifest to the world that
"necessity only had been the occasion of
her past life." On the death of her husband
she retired to Florence, under the protection of
Leonora Toledo, the duchess of that city, te
whom she dedicated a volume of her poetry,
Pietro Angelio di Barga had predicted that
she would arrive at extreme old age, but the
prophecy did not prove true. The year of
her death, like that of her birth, is unknown,
but there is reason fer supposing that it took
place either in 1560, or not long afterwards.
Her father, the cardinal, died in 1558.
The works ef TuUia, separately published,
are three ; — 1, " Rime della Slgnora TuUia di
226

Aragena e di diversi a lei," Venice, 1547,
12mo, This smaU and slender volume, which
is that dedicated te the Duchess of Florence,
contains verses addressed to TulUa by aU
of her admirers mentioned above, with the
exception of Bernardo Tasso, and Angelio
di Barga, as well as her replies to them,
2. "Dialego della Infinita di Amore," Venice,
1547, 12me, This " Dialogue on the Infinity
of Love," which is printed in the same year
by the same printers as the preceding work,
is accompanied with a preface by Muzio, whe
professes to have sent it to the press without
the consent ef its authoress. He apologises
for having changed the name of ene ofthe
three speakers introduced, from Sabina, as it
stood in the manuscript, to TuUia, which was,
he says, evidently the right name, and could
only have been suppressed from excess of
modesty. By this strange device the reader
was, we suppose, to be made to overlook that
the fulsome panegyrics on TuUia which are
put into the mouths of Varchi and Benucci,
the two other speakers, proceeded in reality
from her own pen. The diadogue is elegantly
written; the subject, which is rather a delicate
one, is more deUcately managed than in one
by Sperone Speroni, "Dialego di Amore,"
in which Tullia is introduced by him as one
of the speakers. 3. " II Meschino 6 U Gue-
rino," Venice, 1560, 4to., a romance of
chivalry, in octave verse, in thirty-six cantos,
containing not less than four thousand stanzas,
or thirty-two thousand lines. The subject is
stated by TuUia herself to be taken from a
Spanish romance ; but if the story exists in
Spanish, which is doubtful, it can only be as
a translation from an ItaUan original, which
was in TidUa's time and continues even now
one of the most popular of the language.
Among the adventures of Guerino, whose
peregrinations embrace much of the known
and unknown world, is a visit to Ireland to
the famous pm-gatory of St Patrick, whose
wonders are described at length. The generad
character of the poem is dryness and tedious-
ness, which have had their natural effect on
its reputation, in spite of the eulogiums of its
admirers, one of whom, Crescimbeni, ventures
to compare it to the Odyssey. There are in
existence, in different collections, a number of
sonnets and short pieces by Tullia, which
MazzucheUi has had the patience to enume
rate. ( Life by ZUioli in manuscript Storia
de' Poeti Italiani, quoted by Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d' Italia ; Panizzi, Essay mi Italian
Romantic Poetry, prefixed to his edition of
Boiardo and Ariosto, i. 380. ; Crescimbeni,
Istoria della volgar Poesia, i. 331. 341. ; Ros
coe, Life of Leo the Tenth, 4to. edition of
1805, iii 224. ; Speroni, Opere, i 1 — 45. ;
Mutio JustinopoUtano, Operette MoraU, p.
57. ; all the works of Tullia.) T. W.
ARAGONE'SE, LUCA SEBASTIA'NO,
commonly called SEBASTIANO ARA-
GONESE, was a painter and draughtsman of

ARAGONESE.

ARAKCHEEV.

Brescia of the latter part of the sixteenth
century, but he appears to have painted Uttle.
Lanzi mentions one painting, the Saviour be
tween two Saints, at Bresciai, marked L. S. A.,
which is supposed to be by this artist ; it is
well coloured and weU drawn. He drew
principally with the pen. He made very ela
borate drawings of one thousand six hundred
ancient medals with their reverses, and made
two hundred frames or cases (carteUoni) after
his OAVU designs. He made drawings also of
all the ancient marbles in Brescia, and copies
of aU ancient inscriptions. (Rossi, Elogi Is-
torici de' Bresciani Illustri, 1602 ; Orlandi,
Abecedario Pittorica ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica,
SfC.) R. N. W.
ARA'JA, FRANCISCO, a dramatic com
poser, was bom at Naples in 1700. His first
opera " Berenice " was performed in a palace
of the Duke ef Tuscany, near Florence. The
following year he preduced his " Amor Reg
nante " at Rome, and his " Luoio Vero " at
Venice. In 1735 he was invited to St.
Petersburg, where he went with a company
of ItaUan singers. During his stay there he
composed several Italian operas, ais well as
" Cephalus and Procris," the first opera that
had been written in the Russian language.
For the latter he was rewarded by the em
press with five hundred silver rubles. The
last work that he produced in Russia was a
musical drama in celebration of the marriage
of the Prince Peter Federowitz, Having ac
quired considerable property, he returned to
Italy In 1759, and spent the rest of his Ufe in
retirement at Bologna, (Fetis, Biographie
UniverseUe des Musiciens-) _ E, T,
ARAKCHEEV, ALEXAY ANDREE-
VICH, was born in the year 1769 in the go
vernment ef Novgorod, and was educated at
the institution for the corps of cadets in
artillery and engineering, where he gave great
attention to military studies and very Uttle to
any other. Throughout his life he never spoke
any foreign language whatever, a circumstance
which, -when related of a Russian, almost im
plies that he never held a familiar conver
sation with a foreigner. In 1785 Arakcheev
entered the army as a corporal, and after
passing through some inferior grades, he was
recommended in 1792, by General MeUssino,
to whom he had acted as adjutant, to a post
in the garrison of Gatehina, a country-seat
not far from St, Petersburg belonging to the
Grand-Duke Paul, the successor to the throne,
Arakcheev, by his strict discipUne and prompt
attention to orders, so rose in the favour ef
Paul, that after his accession to the throne, in
1796, the emperor raised him in the course
of one year to the rank of general-major,
knight of the order of St, Anne of the first
class, and of St, Alexander Nevsky, and
baron, made him commamdant of St, Peters
burg and bestowed en him in perpetuity the
estate of ,he viUage of Gruzino, in the go
vernment of Novgorod, with the property in
227

two thousand " souls" or serfs, A year after
he was dismissed the service. After five
months' disgrace he was recaUed and taken
into as much favour as ever, made a count,
and appointed chief of the artUlery in an
army under the command of Prince Alex
ander, which was ene of four intended to
act against England, Before the end of the
short reign of Paul, however, he was again
disgraced and dismissed. He remained in
private life tiU May, 1 803, when he was re
caUed to the army by the Emperor Alexander,
during the rest of whose reign he continued
te acquire mere and more importance, but ap
parently rather in the character of a faithful
and vigilant official servant than ef an influ
ential adviser. The pests which he occupied
were those of inspector-general of artUlery,
from 1803 ; minister of war, from 1808 ; and
president ofthe department of military affairs
in the Imperial Council, from 1810, The
reforms which he introduced extended to
almost every department in the army, in its
minutest relations ; but his favourite branch
of the service was the artiUery, which, by
incessant attention, he advanced to the point
of rivalling the French artillery during the
war ef 1813 and 1814, In the great war of
invasion in Russia, in 1812, Arakcheev had
the principal care of providing and supporting
the reserves ; and though from the nature of
his services they were not brilliant, they
were important in the highest degree, and re
cognised as such by the emperor, whose por
trait wais presented by himself to Arakcheev,
to be worn round his neck. After the
return ef peace Arakcheev was much em
ployed by Alexander in the details of the in
ternal government, and he had the largest
share in the development ef the jilan of the
Russian mUitai-y colonies. On the death of
the emperor in 1826, he retired from the
public service to his estate ef Gruzino,
where he resided tUl his death in the year
1834. In private life, especially in his later
years, his passion for order and discipUne
was carried te excess. As he left ne heir his
estates were, by the previsions of his own wiU,
placed at the disposed of the Emperor Niche-
las, whe presented them to the corps of cadets
at Novgorod, te which Arakcheev had been
a great benefactor during his Iffe, with the
condition that for the future it should bear
Araikcheev's name. Before his death, iu
1833, he lodged in the imperial bank the sum
of fifty thousand rubles, with the prevision
that principal and interest should be allowed
to accumulate without interruption till 1921,
when at five per cent, the whole wiU amount
to one miUion nine hundred and eighteen
thousand nine hundred and sixty rubles.
Three fourths of this sum are te be paid in
1925 to the author of the best history of the
Emperor Alexander in the Russian language,
and the remaining fourth is to be applied to
the printing and circulation of ten thousand
Q 2

ARAKCHEEV.

ARALDL

copies of the work. {Entsiklopedechesky-
Lexihon, ii. 478. &c,) T. W.
ARALDI, ALESSA'NDRO, a painter of
Parma of the beginning of the sixteenth cen
tury. He was the scholar of Giovanni Bel
lini, and died about 1528. There are several
pictures by him in the churches of Parma,
well painted in their style, the Gothic, or
what seme of the Italians call the antico-
moderno (inodern antique), (Affo, // Par-
migiano Servitore di Piazza, ^c, ; Lanzi, Storia
Pittorica, §-c.) R. N.W,
ARA'LDI, MICHE'LE, was bom at Mo
dena in 1740, He studied medicine in the
university ef that city, but devoted much of
his time to literature and mathematics, for
the pursuit of which he was naturally more
inclined. In 1768 he received his diplomas
in the several faculties of the university : in
1770 he was appointed professor of physio
logy ; in 1772 professor of anatomy, amd
seme years afterwards of pathology also. At
the same time that he held these three profes
sorships he was busily engaged in the practice
of medicine, and continued zealously his clas
sical aud mathematical studies. He was ene
of the first members of the National Institute
of Italy, and its secretary from 1804 to his
death, which happened at Milan in 1813,
Araldi was mere remarkable for the diver
sity ef his knowledge than for his discoveries
in any department of it. The only werks
which he published separately were : — 1,
" Discorso letto nella Prima Pubblica Adu-
nanza , , , , dalT Institute Italiane," Bologna,
1805. 2. "De I'Usage des Anastomoses
dans les Vaisseaux des Machines Animales,"
\ Modena, 1806, Svo,; a translation by himself
of a paper which he had pubUshed in 1785
in the eighth number ef the " Opuscoli scelti
sulle Scienze e sulle Arte," It is his chief
work, and its design is te prove that those
anastomoses in which ene vessel placed be
tween two others opens into both, (as the
anterior communicating artery, fer example,
opens into the two anterior cerebral,) are
intended to retard in some measure the fiew
of blood, and that the other anastomoses,
such as those of the terminal arterial and
venous plexuses, serve to direct and equalise
the velocity of the current. The first opinion
is improbable ; the second was generaUy ad
mitted by Araldi's predecessors. 3. " Sag
gio di un Errata di eul sembrane biseg-
nosi alcuni Libri Elementarl," Milan, 1812.
This is devoted to a criticism of the physio
logical opinions of Richerand ; and Araldi
intended, had he lived, to examine in the
same manner those of many other writers of
his time. 4. " Pensiera sulla Credulita," &c.,
Bologna, 1 809. His other essays were chiefly
published in the transactions of societies. In
the tenth volume ef the " Attl della Secieta
Italiana" there is an essay on the limits of
the law of continuity ; and in the eleventh and
fifteenth volumes, one of considerable length
228

on the force and infiuence of the heart in the
circulation, in which he confirms the estimate
which Stephen Hales made of the force of
the contraction of the heart, by comparing his
experiments with the probable velocity ofthe
bloed in the arteries near the heart, and the
estimated amount ef the resistance to be over
come in the other parts of the circulation.
In the first volume of the " Memorie delT
Istituto ItaUano" there is a paper on the psy
chological theory of Vision ; and in the
second volume, ene suggesting doubts on the
cempressibUity of liquids, especiaUy water ;
another containing an essay toAvards a new
commentary on the works of Virgil, dis
tinguished, it is said, " by copious and apposite
erudition, refinement of taste, and acumen ;"
and a third on the theory ef Sound. Araldi
wrote also the prefaces to these transactions
during aU the time that he was secretary.
In the first volume of the " Memorie della
Secieta Medica di Bologna," he published
a laborious attempt at a psychological ex
planation of the causes of Sleep. After his
death a few more of his papers were pubUshed,
including an " Elogio" of Ramazzini, which
was inserted in the " Raccolta di Elogi . . , dei
Professori . . . di Modena," and essays on the
laws of continuity, inertia, centrifugal fiarce,
and respiration, in the " Memorie deU' , , ,
Institute del Regno Lembardo-Veneto, Anni
1812 — 1813." He is said te have Avritten
several political memoips "in defence of
the fundamental principles of social order ;"
and at the end of the " Elogio" by the Mar
quis Luigi Rangoni there is a Ust of many
papers on various subjects, and of translations
ef chemical, physiological, and other works,
which he left in manuscript, {Biographic
UniverseUe, Supplement; the Marquis LiUgi
Rangoni, Elogio in the Memorie della Societd
Italiana delle Scienze, t, xix, pt, ii p, 123,) J, P.
ARAM,^ EUGENE, was born in 1704, at
RamsglU, in Yorkshire. He spent a very
short time at school, only a month, besides the
time required to teach him te read; but he
early discovered a great thirst fer learning,
which he endeavoured to gratify even while
acting as assistant to his father, a gardener.
His attention was first du-ected to the mathe
matics, but was soon drawn away to poetry,
history, and antiquities. On marrying, he
settled as a schoolmaster in his native dis
trict of Netherdale : there he taught himself
Latin by the laborious process of committmg
Lilly's Grammar to memory, and repeating
the Avhole tAvice in every week ; an exercise
which he continued, in addition to the busi
ness of his school, for several years. He
afterAvai-ds began to construe, making it a
rule never to pass a word or sentence without
thoroughly mastering its meaning, though
his progress Avas so slew, that five lines often
occupied him for the whele day. He taught
himself Greek in the same manner, and per-

ARAM.

ARAM.

severed till he had gone through the Greek
'Testament, and aU the principal poets and
historians. In 1734, he removed his school te
Knaresborough, where he remained till 1745.
In that year one Daniel Clark, a shoemaker,
taking advantage of the credit he enjoyed In
consequence of his marriage with a woman
possessed of a small fortune, obtained from his
fellow-townsmen a quantity of valuable goods,
and then suddenly disappeared, it was sup
posed in order te defraud them ; and this,
indeed, appears to have been originally his
intention. Aram being known as an intimate
friend, was suspected ef having aided him,
and, his garden being searched, part of the
property wais found concealed. He was ap
prehended, and, although discharged for want
of evidence, he thought proper to quit Knares
borough, leaving his wife behind him. Aram
proceeded te London, and thence to various
parts of England, earning his bread as a
school usher, and aU the while prosecuting
his laborious studies. He obtained a good
knowledge of heraldry and botany, and of the
Chaldee, Arabic, Welsh, and Irish languages.
His researches in etymology led him to con
ceive the idea of cempiUng a " Comparative
Lexicon of the English, Latin, Greek, He
brew, and Celtic Languages;" for which he
made extensive coUections, having compared
above three thousand words, and detected a
close similarity between them. In the midst
of his studies, and when engaged as usher
in an academy at Lynn, in Norfolk, he was
suddenly arrested on the charge of murder.
A skeleton having been dug up in February,
1759, near Knaresborough, was suspected to
be that of Daniel Clark, and Aram's wife
having often darkly intimated that her hus
band and a man naimed Houseman were privy
to the mystery of Clark's disappearance.
Houseman was apprehended. On being taken
before the coroner, he wais desired te declare
his innocence whUe holding a bone of the
supposed murdered man. He took up one
accordingly, and exclaimed, " This is no
more Dan Clark's bene than it is mine ! " in
so peculiar a manner, that he was at once
suspected of knowing at least where Clark's
bones were. On being pressed, he acknow
ledged to have been present at the murder of
Clark by Aram and a man named Terry, and
affirmed that the body had been buried in a
particular part of St. Robert's Cave, a well-
known spot near Knaresborough. On
digging there a skeleton was discovered in
the exact place indicated ; and immediately
after measures were taken for Aram's ap
prehension. He was tried at York, August 3d, 1759,
and Houseman, who Avas acquitted for the
purpose, was the principal witness against
him. Aram called ne witnesses, but deUvered
an elaborate defence, not referring so much
to the case in hand, as to the general falUbi-
1 Ity of circumstantial evidence, especially that
229

relating to the discovery of human bones, of
which he brought together a great number
of instances. He was notwithstanding found
guilty, and ordered for execution en the
Monday following, August 6th. After con
demnation he acknowledged his guilt to two
clergymen who attended him, but intimated,
as all believed, that Houseman's share in the
murder was larger than he acknowledged.
His motive he stated to have been the disco
very of a guilty commerce between Clark and
his own wife, and not, as was generally sup
posed, the desire ef obtaining the one hun
dred and sixty pounds which Clark had just
received as his wffe's portion. On the night
before his execution, Aram attempted to
commit suicide, by opening two veins in his
arm, but he was discovered before he had
bled to death, and his sentence carried iuto
effect. Before the attempt he had written a
defence of suicide, concluding with six lines
of verse, which was found by his side. He
left three sons and three daughters.
The defence on his trial proves Aram te
have been possessed of considerable literary
attainments. The style in which it is
written, though deformed by the stiffness of
the period, is exceedingly good ; and a sketch
of his life, which, at the request of some
friends, he composed in the interval between
condemnation and executien, is distinguished
by the same exceUence. This singular pro
duction bears no trace of mental distress,
but is as coolly conceived and written as
though penned at full leisure, and under the
expectation of a leng and honoured life.
The " Comparative Lexicon '' has not been
preserved, but passages from the preface,
which are extant, show that part at least
to have been both well considered and well
written. His poetry, from the few specimens
known, dees not appear te have had much
merit. All the pieces here mentioned are
contained in a " Genuine Account ef the
Trial of Eugene Aram," Londen, 1759,
written by Mr. Bristow, who had frequent
personal communication with Aram when in
prison, and who evidently took the utmost
pains to secure the accuracy of all he printed
on the subject. The " defence," he informs
us, is given with even the accidental gram
matical errors, exactly as in the MS. prepared
by Aram himself
The interest attached to the history of
Aram has been revived and increased in our
OAvn day by Hood's powerful ballad of " The
Dream of Eugene Aram the Murderer," and
Bulwer's romance of " Eugene Aram." Such
is the effect they have produced, that St.
Robert's Cave is now invariably the first ob
ject enquired for by the visiter to Knares
borough. {Biographia Britannica, edit.
Kippis, i. 230. ; Genuine Account of the Trial
of Eugene Aram, Sfc, London, 1759;
Scatcherd, Memoirs of Eugene Aram, Leeds,
1832; Annual Register for 1759 (reprinted
Q 3

ARAM,

ARAMONT,

1802), pp, 360—365, ; GenOeman's Maga
zine, for 1759, pp, 351 — 355.) J. W,
ARAMONT, GABRIEL DE LUETZ,
BARON DE, is said by Bayle and Moreri
to have been 'a gentleman of Gascony, but
by the " Biographie Universelle," on the au
thority of Poldo d'Albenas, the historian of
Nismes, te have been a citizen of Nismes. He
appears to have been born about the com
mencement of the sixteenth century, to have
resided seme time in his native province,
where, in 1526, he married, and to have been
finally driven to court by some persecution
whicli involved thc'confiscatlon of his estates.
He obtained the faveur of Francis I. and
subsequently of Henry IL, by the latter of
whom he wais sent ambassador to the Perte,
an office which he appears to have discharged,
with occasional intervals, according to the
"Biographie Universelle," from 1546 to 1553,
and according te other authorities. Von Ham
mer and Joly, the annotater to Bayle, from
1545 te 1552, His first mission was to ob
tain from the Sultan Solyman the Magnifi
cent a lean of three hundred thousand ducats
for the King of France, but iu this he failed;
his second to persuade the sultan to send a
Turkish fieet to operate en the coasts of
Italy against the emperor Charles V., in which
he sueceeded. He appears to have acquired
the faveur ef Solyman, whom he accompanied
on his expeditions into Persia. An account
of his travels into Persia, Egypt, and Pales
tine was written by his secretary Jean Ches-
neau, the manuscript ef which passed from
the collection of Baluze to the king's Ubrary
at Paris. It is mentioned in the " Biographie
Universelle " as having been pubUshed, but
it is not stated when, where, or how, and we
have not been able to find any mention of it
in Querard's " France Litteraire," or any
other authority. In 1551, when Aramont
had been to France te receive the instructions
of his court, he touched, on his return to the
East, at Malta, where the grand master of
the order of the Knights of St, John requested
him to interfere for the relief of Tripoli in
Barbary, which then belonged to the knights,
and was at that moment besieged by Slnan
Pacha and Dragut in direct contravention of
treaties entered into by the sultan, Aramont
was anxious, in all probabUity, to efface a
little of the deserved odium which attached
to the French for their alliance with the
Turks, and he set sail for Tripoli to persuade
the Turkish commanders to raise the siege
on his own authority, for which he is scA'crely
censured by Wicquefort in his treatise on
the duties of an ambassador, Sinan Pacha
and Dragut not only disregarded his inter
ference, but on his proposing fo set off to
exert his influence Avlth Solyman, which they
dreaded might prove effectual, detained him
prisoner in their camp till Tripoli was taken,
on the 15th ef August, 1551. Aramont
was se Uttle indignant at this treatment,
230

that he was present at a banquet given
in honour of the victory, a circumstance
which the partisans of the emperor took
advantage of to spread a report that the
French ambassador had assisted the Turks
to capture the town. King Henry, who
seems to have been less dissatisfied than
Wicquefort with the conduct of his repre
sentative, applied to the grand master of the
Knights of Malta te learn the truth, and re
ceived a reply completely exculpating Ara
mont, In the next year Aramont appears
te have given up his post, which had fre
quently been rendered disagreeable by the
intrigues of Monluc, his predecessor, and
others, whe kept him ignorant even of the
designs of his OAvn court. He retired to
Provence, and died in 1553, In the latter
years of his Iffe he had received the mar-
quisate of the Isles of Geld or Hieres in
Provence, the possession of which he is said
te have acquired by donation from a German,
whose release he had procured from the
prison of the Seven Towers, The statements
relating te him, which are scattered in dif
ferent works, are in general so vague and un
satisfactory that there is reason to beUeve
that whenever a Ufe ef him is written from
original documents, much wiU be found to
require rectification. {Biographic Univer
selle, edit, ef 1843, ii 138, ; Bayle, Diction
naire Historique, edit, ef 1820, U, 236-; Re
marques sur le Dictionnaire de Bayle [by Joly],
i, 134, ; Von Hammer, Geschichte des Osma-
nischen Reiches, Ui 273. 715. &c. ; Wic
quefort, L'Ambassadeur et ses Fonctions,
edit, of 1689, u, 53,) T. W.
ARANDA, DIE'GO. [Aranda, Fran
cisco.]
ARANDA DE DUERO, ANTO'NIO.
a Franciscam friar, was a Spaniard, and pro
bably born towards the close of the fifteenth
or the beginning of the sixteenth century.
In 1530 he visited the Holy Land from
motives ef devotion, and remained there
several years. After his return he became
confessor to Slaria, queen ef Hungairy and
Bohemia, and Joanna of Portugad, daughters
of Charles the Fifth, and was several times
the prefect of his order for the province
of Castile. He died in 1555 at the convent
ef St. Janies in Alcala de Henai-es,
The Avorks of Aranda are — 1, " Verdadera
Informacion de la Tieri-a Sancta segun la
Disposicion que en el Afio de MU y Qiii-
nieutos y Treynta el Padi-e A, de Aramda, &c,
la vio y passeo" ( " A true Account of the
Holy Land, according to the Condition in
which Father A. de Aranda saw it in the
year 1530"), This title is copied from an
edition printed at Alcala in 1584 : it differs
in the wording from that given by Nicolas
Antonio, who states that the first edition was
published at the same place in 1531, which is
singular, if Aranda remained, as the con
tinuator of Wadding relates, some years after

ARANDA,

ARANDA.

1530 in Palestine. The book was frequently
re-pubUshed in the course of the same century,
and we are told by Sbaralea, on the authority
of a manuscript work of Leon y Pinelo, that
one of the editions contains the addition of
lives ef Saint Amarus and Saint Mary Mag
dalen by the same author, but Leon y Pinelo
does not mention this in his printed "Bib
lioteca Oriental y Occidental." The work of
Aranda is a lively and honest description of
the Holy Land as the author saw it, amd con
tains much interesting information. In the
twentieth chapter is an amusing account of
the manner in which the annual mock-
miracle of re-Ughting the candles at the Holy
Sepulchre is performed, which Aranda says
that, although indignant, he could not refrain
from laughing at. The concluding part of
the book is dated from Beyrout in 1531, and
contains a description ef Samaria. The
whole werk deserves more attention than it
has yet met with, for it does not appear to
have ever been translated, and it is emitted
even in Professor Robinson's elaborate list of
books on Palestine. 2. " Loores del dig-
nissimo Lugar del MontS Calvario," &c.
(" Praises of Mount Calvary, in which is
related aU that our Lord said and did upon
it"), Alcala, 1551, 4te. 3. "Tratado de las
Siete Palabras que se leen en el Evangelio
haber dicho nuestra Seriera," (" A Treatise
on the Seven Words which are recorded in
the Gospel to have been spoken by the Vir
gin Mary"), Alcala, 1557, Svo. 4. It is
said by Antonio that Aranda wrote a Iffe
of Cardinal Ximenes, which was used by
Alvar Gomez in his elaborate biography of
that prelate, and quoted by him as the work
of a " Franciscanus TurrUacunensis," but in
the list of his authorities, given by Gomez
in his preface, no such book is mentioned.
( Wadding, Annales Minorum, continuati a
Josepho Maria de Ancona, xix. 28. ; Sbaralea,
Supplementum ad Scrlptores Trium Ordinum
S- Francisci, p. 70. ; N. Antonius, BibU
otheca Hispana Nova, ed. of 1788, i. 96.;
Gomecius, De Rebus gestis a Francisco
Ximenio.) T. W.
ARANDA, EMMANUEL DE, a native
of Bruges, was born there, net as stated by
Delvenne, in 1612, but aboutthe year 1614, as
appears from the inscription round his por
trait, prefixed to his werk on Algiers, which
states it to have been taken in 1656, in the
forty-second year of his age. In the year
1639 he visited Spain for the purpose of
learning the Spanish language, and on his
Avay thither passed through England. On
his return from Spain, being apprehensive of
the Algerine corsaurs who then infested the
seas, he embarked on board an English ship
in the hope of greater safety ; but owing to
the folly and cowartUce of the captain, the
vessel was, on the 22d of August, 1 640, cap
tured, not far from the entrance of the Eng
lish Channel, by three Algerine ships, one of
231

which was commanded by an EngUsh rene
gade. Aranda remained in slavery at Al
giers till March, 1642, when he and some of
his companions in misfortune were released
in exchange for some Turks whe were pri
soners at Dunkirk. After his return he ap
pears, by some Latin verses addressed to him
by his friend Otho Sperlius, to have been a
" councUlor of his cathoUc majesty, and a
prefect of mUitary justice in the district of
Bruges," and he is said by Delvenne te have
been Uving in 1671.
His principal werk is his account of his
slavery : " Relation de la Captivite et Liberte
du Sieur E. d' Aranda, jadis Esclave a Alger,"
the earUest edition of which that we have
seen is the third, pubUshed at Brussels, in
12mo., in 1662. It is a, very entertaining
volume ; the first part contains a narrative of
the personad adventures of the author, the
second a general history and description of
Algiers, and the third a series of fifty anec
dotes of occurrences that took place within
his knowledge or came to his hearing during
his captivity. It was translated into Latin, Fle
mish, and EngUsh : the English version, which
was published at London, in 12mo., in 1666,
is by John Davies ef Kidwelly, and bears
the altered title ef " The History of Algiers
and its Slavery, with many remarkable Par
ticularities of Africk." It is said in Jocher's
"Lexicon" and the " Biographie UniverseUe,"
that the original of this work was in Spanish,
but the statement appears to have originated
in seme mistake : nothing of the kind is
mentioned in the early editions of the work,
and Spanish was not the native language of
the author, nor one with which he was very
famiUar, as appears from different passages
of his book. Boucher de la Richarderie
gives a title thus, " E. de Aranda Historia
Captivitatis, Hispanic^ conscripta," the Hague,
1657, 12mo. ; and adds, on the supposition that
this is a Latin translation, that he has never
been able to discover the Spanish original.
It seems probable, however, that this entry
itself relates to a Spanish version of the
book, the title of which had been ren
dered into Latin by some previous cata
loguer from whom he borrowed it. In the
course of the seventeenth century the " Rela
tion" ran through numerous editions in
French, and several of them profess to contain
additional matter ; but one which we have
examined, pubUshed at Paris in 1665, which
is stated in the title-page to contain thirteen
additional narratives, contains not a line
more than its Brussels predecessor of 1662.
Aranda was also the author ef " Diverses
Histoires Morales et Divertissantes," published
at Leiden in 167 1. (Delvenne, Biographie du
Royaume des Pays-Bas, i. 28. ; Boucher de
la Richarderie, Bibliotheque UniverseUe des
Voyages, iv. 13. ; Aranda, Relation.) T. W.
ARANDA, FRANCISCO and JUAN
DE, two Spanish sculptors of Toledo, pro-
Q 4 :

ARANDA.

ARANDA.

bably brothers, who lived at the beginning of
the sixteenth century. They worked, toge
ther with sixteen other sculptors, upon the
tabernacle of the cathedral of Toledo in 1500,
Juan executed seme good works for the
cathedral of Jaen, — the Conception, and the
two statues of kings over the northern door,
near the chapel of the Sanctuary,
Diego de Aranda, a sculptor of Granada
of the sixteenth century, was probably the
son of one of the above-mentioned sculptors,
or at least some relation to them. (Cean
Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, Sfc.)
R, N, W.
ARANDA, JUAN DE, a Spanish writer
of whom nothing further appears to be known
than that he was born at Jaen in Andalusia,
and wrote a work entitled " Lugares com unes
de Conceptes dichos y Sentencias en diversas
Materias," which was published at Seville in
1565, in 4to., and re-printed in the same size
at Madrid in 1613, (N, Antonius, Bibliotheca
Hispana Nova, edit, of 1788, i, 636,) T, W,
ARANDA, JUAN, [Aranda, Fran-
CISCO. 1
ARANDA, DON PEDRO ABARCA Y
BOLEA, afterwards Count of, was descended
from one of the noblest famUes of Aragon
[Abarca], and was born on the 21st of
December, 1718, at Saragossa, From his
fourteenth to his twenty-eighth year he
served in the army. In 1740 he was
severely wounded in an engagement, and
left for dead on the field at Campo Santo,
near Bologna, but on the day after he was
accidentally discovered to show signs ef life
by his servant, who procured assistance which
recovered him. He retired from the army
with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and after
travelling in Italy and France, and paying a
visit te Prussia, te study the new system of
tactics, he lived fer seme time in quiet on his
estates in Aragon, During the reign of Fer
dinand VI, he obtained the pest of director
of artillery, but some sallies ef vehemence
seen brought him out of favour, and he was
sent ambassador to the court of Poland with
the view of removing him from that of Spain.
In 1759, on the accession of Charles IIL, he
repaired to Madrid, where he attracted the
attention of the king, Avho conferred on him
the rank of colonel, and the chief command
of the artillery. In 1763 we find him at the
head of the forces with which Spain attempted
the invasion of Portugal, Aranda took Al
meida, but Avas soon after checked by the
Angle- Portuguese army under the command
ef Burgoyne, Though his mUitary exploits
Avere by no means brilliant, it is said that
jealousy of his rising infiuence induced the
minister Squillace, or as the Spaniards write
the name Esquilache, to nominate him to the
captain-generalship of Valencia, by Avhich he
was removed from the eye of the king.
He remained at this post till 1766, when
he was summoned to Madrid to assist in
232

putting down the insurrection which was
occasioned by the popular discontent at the
domination ef the ItaUan ministers. He was
intrusted with large powers beth military and
civU, and had ten thousand men under his
command ; but one ef the chief measures he
adopted was that of quietly summoning the
ringleader of the malcontents, and requiring
his assistance to restore tranquillity. The
demagogue is said to have concluded an
harangue to the mob to the effect that order
must be restored, with the words " the king
wishes, Aranda desires, and I command it,"
SquUlaee was dismissed, and Aranda became
head ef the ministry, with the title of count,
under the name of President of the Council
of Castile, which was revived in his favour
and joined with that ef captain-general. His
administration was marked with vigorous
measures of reform. The restoration of the
army and navy was prosecuted with parti
cular energy, and the Prussian tactics were
introduced in the former. Great improve
ments were made in the poUce of Madrid,
which from one ef the dirtiest and most dis
orderly cities of Europe became ene ef the
cleanest and best regulated. The coinaige
was called in and renewed, A census was
taken throughout Spain, in 1768, and Coxe
says that Aranda " manfully exposed the re
sult, though it proved the rapid decline which
had taken place since the briUiant periods of
the Spanish monarchy, by the reduction of
the population from scarcely less than twenty
miUions to nine," It has been shown, how
ever, by Gonzalez, in his account of an an
cient census of the Spanish population, taken
mostly in 1594, that the number of souls
about that period was, according to the best
estimate, 8,206,791, and the number in 1768
was 9,309,804, while in 1787, when another
census was taken by Florida Blanca, it had
increased te 10,409,879, To increase the
population, Aranda encouraged the project of
Olavide to colonise the Sierra Jlorena with
emigrants from Germany, a scheme which,
when Aranda was no longer in office te pro
tect him, led to the imprisonment of Olavide
by the inquisition, [Olaatde,] In eccle
siastical affaU-s Aramda was most active, though
in this branch of reform he had to contend with
the scruples of a monarch devoted te the Ro
man Catholic chm-ch. In 1771 the power of
the papal uuntios was reduced ; about the same
time the monastic orders were reformed, the
daily precessions called Resarias Avere sup
pressed, and the privilege of sanctuary was
circumscribed Avithin narrow Umits, But the
greatest blow which Aranda was enabled to
strike at the power of Rome Avas in the sup
pression of the order of the Jesuits in 1767.
That order had been banished by Pombal
from Portugal in 1759, and from France by
Choiseul in 1764 ; but the urgent recom
mendations of the French ministry to the
Spanish te foUow the same course would pro-

ARANDA.

ARANDA.

bably have been without effect, if there had
not been reason to believe that the Jesuits
were concerned in the insurrection of Madrid
directed against SquUlaee, a circumstance
which sunk deep into the mind of the king.
Charles III. arranged the measures for their
expudsion in concert with Aranda in such
secrecy that in order that it might not be
known that the king was signing decrees,
Aranda carried -writing materials to the royal
cabinet in his pocket. Circular letters in the
king's own hand were sent to the governors
ef each province to be opened at a particular
hour en a particidar day, and each contained
orders for the expulsion of the Jesuits. On
the 31st of March, 1767, at midnight, the six
coUeges of the order in Madrid were sur
rounded with troops, the communities were
summoned together, the royal order for their
expulsion was read aloud to each, and before
morning the whole of them were en their jour
ney to the sea-coast. A simUar scene took
place the same night in aU the towns of Spain
in whieh the Jesuits had establishments, and
they were conveyed with unnecessary cruelty
to the Papal states, where the pope refused to
allow them to land. Aranda had also conceived
the project of abolishing the inquisition, or at
least ef reducing it te insignificance, and had
frequently durin g his residence in Paris, where
he spent much ef his time with the philo
sophers, announced that intention. He began
when in possessien of power to reduce the
terrors of that formidable tribunal by depriv
ing it of its privilege of confiscating to its
own use the property of the condemned ; but
his career was checked by the appearance of
an article inthe French " Encyclopedie,"then
publishing, in which his final intentions were
made known by the incautious exultation of
some of his Parisian friends. Aranda, on
reading the article remarked, " This impru
dent disclosure will raise such a ferment
against me, that my plans wUl be foiled," and
his prediction was verified. His opponent
in the ministry, Grimaldi, a countryman and
friend of Squillace's, gained the upper hand
and Avas for some time in hopes of procuring
the open disgraice of Aranda, but at last
consented to his honourable retirement in
the character of ambassador to France, an
appointment whieh he received In 1773.
In his ministry Aranda had been the con
stant antagonist ef England, with which he
regarded Spain as able to cope on terms ef
equality, and hewas in faveur ofwar on account
ofthe Falkland Islands, in 1770, when the
dismissal of Choiseul and the declaration ef
Louis XV, for peace, finally compelled the
Spanish cabinet to give way. As ambassador
to Paris during the American war, he had
ample opportunities ef gratifying this feeling
and is said to have made use of them. He
said, among other things, te Mr, Fitzherbert,
afterwards Lord St, Helen's, Avhen at Paris to
negotiate for peace : " The king my master
233

from personal as weU as political motives is
determined never to put a period to the pre
sent war till he shall have acquired Gibraltar
either by treaty or by arms," This demand
was not altogether rejected by the British
government, but after a series of negociations,
which threatened to end in a fresh rupture.
De Vergennes, the French minister, sum
moned Aranda to an interview, in whieh he
informed him that the British ultimatum was
received, and that they offered him the choice
of Gibraltar or the two Fleridas. Aranda in
profound meditation stood for half an hour
without speaking, his head resting on his
hands, and his elbows en the chimney-piece,
and at last he exclaimed, " There are mo
ments Ul which a man must offer his head
to his country. I accept the two Fleridas in
place of Gibraltar, though it is contrary to
my instructions, and I sign the peace," 'This
anecdote is related by Flassan, The Count,
though always a bitter enemy to England,
had nevertheless been throughout opposed
to the part which Spain took in this war,
on account of the dangerous example which
it set to her own colonies. Immediately
after signing the peace he addressed a secret
memoir to the king, in which he declared
it impossible that Spain could much longer
hold America on the existing terms, and
proposed the establishment of three inde
pendent monarchies of Mexico, Pern, and
Tierra Firma, the kings to be selected from
the royal famUy of Spain, and to be always
connected with it by the bonds of inter
marriage, but to owe it no other subjection
than the payment ef an annual sum in re
tum for independence. This striking me
moir was first printed by Muriel.
The Count, whUe in France, was gradually
recovering his influence over the internal
politics ef Spain, It is to this that the resig
nation of Grimaldi in 1777 is attributed, but
that influence was not sufficiently strong to
procure the nomination of Aranda as his
successor, a post which was occupied, at Gri-
maldi's own fareweU recommendation, by
the Count de Florida Blanca, Aranda re
turned from France in 1787, but continued
in some obscurity till 1792, when, on the re
tirement of Florida Blanca, he occupied for
the second time and under a different king,
Charles IV,, the pest of prime minister of
Spain. He did not hold it long. Towards
the end of the same year he was replaced by
the royal favourite Godey, but stUl retained
his post as a member ef the councU of state.
He was opposed to the war with revolutionary
France begun in 1792, and two years after
wards, in 1794, he presented a memoir to the
councU in favour of concluding peace, whieh
led to an open rapture with Godey, Both of
the actors in this scene have written an
account of it, Aranda, in a memoir which Is
abridged in Muriel's translation of Coxe's
" History ef the Bourbons in Spain," states

ARANDA,

ARANDA,

that in answer to his objections to war, Godoy
denounced him as a dangerous man and
demanded that all those whe professed such
doctrines should be brought te trial, Godoy
gives this statement a direct contradictien,
and even professes to beUeve it impossible
that the count could have made it : he
reports at length the arguments used by the
count and himseff, and states that Aranda
observed in reply to him, " that it would be
easy to answer him, but that the king had
given unequivocal marks of approbation to
his speech, and that no one would dare to
displease his majesty by contrary arguments,"
The king immediately rose te break up the
sitting, and as he passed Aranda the count
appeared to offer seme excuses, but the king
replied, in a tone loud enough to be distinctly
heard by all present, "with my father you were
always obstinate and disrespectful, but you
never went so far as to insult him in the midst
of his councU," The next morning, when a
royal messenger brought Aranda an order to
leave Madrid, it is said that he found the
count in the act ef setting off, " You see,"
he observed to the messenger, " that I had
foreseen the order of his majesty and made
haste to obey it," Godoy has been accused
ef embittering his disgrace, but he claims on
the contrary the honour of having saved him
from a persecution by the Inquisition, and of
having assigned him for his place of banish
ment the Alhambra of Granada, where he
enjoyed the full advantages of that deUghtful
residence. When the peace ef BasU between
France aud Spain, in July, 1795, so disgrace
ful to the latter power, had shoAvn the wisdom
of Aranda's advice to desist from measuring
the strength of the two countries, he obtained
permission to retire to his OAvn estates in
Aragon, where, towards the end of. 1799, his
long career was closed at the age of eighty.
He had married thirty years before and left
a widow but no children. These statements
are from Fischer ; Bourgoing in the " Bio
graphic Universelle " mentions 1794 as the
date of his death.
Aranda has the reputation of having pos
sessed much information. He is said to
have suppUed Raynal with materials for his
account of the Spanish settlements in his
" History ef the Indies ;" but it may be ob
served that Raynal's accounts have been
accused of incorrectness by his Spanish trans
lator, who was himself a personal friend of
Aranda, [Almodovar,] Though not a good
writer. Aranda is said, even by his enemy
Godoy, to have spoken with eloquence, and the
energy of some of his measures produced
lasting and beneficial effects on his country ;
but after all, in a summary of his character it
must be allowed, as has been already remsu-ked
by a French writer in the " Biographie des
Contemporains," who is copied by Muriel,
that he Avas " neither a, man ef genius nor
a great man," The main feature of his
234

character was his strength of wiU, King
Charles III, once told him that he was as
obstinate as an Aragonese mule, to which
he replied that he knew of one person still
more obstinate, and en being asked te name
him replied "his majesty," an anecdote
which it appears the king was fond of relating,
being glad perhaps of any other attribute
than that of weakness. But Aranda does
not in fact appear to have been rigidly obsti
nate : his history has several instances, besides
the memorable one ofthe cession ef Gibraltar,
in which he showed that he knew how to
bend rather than break. (Coxe, Memoirs of
the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon,
4te, edit, iU, 276, 361, &c. &c,; French
translation of Coxe by Muriel, vi 45. 60. &c. ;
Godoy, Mimoires du Prince de la Paix, tra
duits par i''Esaien3.ri, i. 185. 241. &c. ; Flas
san, Histoire de la Diplomatic Francaise, -vii.
350, &c. ; article by Fischer in Ersch und
Gruber, Allgemeine Encyclopddie, v. 94. &c.;
Gonzalez, Censo de Poblacion de las Provincias
y Partidos de la Corona de Castilla en el Siglo
XVI, Madrid, 1829, fob) T. W.
ARANDA DELL' SESSA, D', an ItaUau
monk, who Uved in the latter part of the
sixteenth century, and is mentioned Avith com
mendation by Praetorins as a writer of ma
drigals. He published " MadrigaU a Quattro
Voci," Venice, 1571. This probably is the
same collection that was reprinted at Helm
stadt in 1619, with the addition of an English
madrigal by Thomas Weelkes, (Michael
Prastorius, Syntagma Musicum, ) E. T,
ARANDAS, GASPAR, a Spanish sU-
versmith of Tarragona, who distinguished
himself by seme works he executed for the
cathedral of that place towards the close of
the seventeenth century. (Cean Bermudez,
Diccionario Historico, §-c.) R. N. W,
ARANEA, FRA FRIDERICUS AB.
[Bause, j. F.]
ARA'NTIUS, JU'LIUS C^SAR, AR AN-
ZIO, or ARANZI DET MAGGI, was born
at Bologna about the year 1530. He studied
anatomy from an early age under his uncle
Bartolomeus Maggius, and afterwards under
Vesalius. He received the degree ef doctor
of phUosophy and surgery in the university
of Bologna, in which, in 1556, he was ap
pointed professor of anatomy and medicine.
He held the office till neai- the time ef his
death in 1589.
Arantius, who is said to have been a man ef
remarkable energy in the study of anatomy,
was among the most successful and eminent of
the pupils of Vesalius ; amd his works, though
small, possess considerable interest They
are : — 1. " De Humane Foetu Opusculum,"
Rome (or Bologna), 1 564, Svo. An enlarged
edition, enriched by the results ofthe dissec
tions of several pregnant women, was published
by Arantius's pupil Laurentius Scholzius at
Basle, 1579, 12mo. It is the edition com
monly met with, and was reprinted at Venice,

ARANTIUS.

ARANTIUS.

1571, 4to., and at other times and places. 2.
" De Tumoribus secundum Locos affectos,"
Venice, 1581, 4to. 3. " Observationum
Anatomicarum Liber," Venice, 1587, 4to. ;
printed together with the book on tumours,
and in several subsequent editions with both
the preceding : the most common edition is
that of Basle, 1679. 4. " In Hippocratis
Librum de Vulneribus Capitis Commentarius
brevis," Lyon, 1580, Svo., and 1639, 12mo. ;
collected from Arantius's lectures by his pupil
Claudius Porralius. 5. " CensiUum de
Tumoribus Articuloram ;" Ne. 296 in Schol-
zius's " Consiliorum Medicinalium Liber."
He appears also to have been engaged on a
commentary on Hippocrates on the diseases
of women at the time of his death.
Arantius's work on the Foetus was one of
the first of those in which the subject was
described from actual observation. Much
that it contains was in his time novel, and the
whole is accurately and clearly written. He
describes the change which the uterus under
goes in pregnancy into a spongy, thick,
laminated tissue, fit for holding in its walls
the blood and vital spirits required for the
nutrition of the foetus. He disproves the
existence of any bodies in the human uterus
at aU similar to the cotyledons described by
the ancients and some of his immediate
predecessors, who, finding them in certain
animals, assigned them also to man. He
describes with remarkable accuracy the
origins and distribution of aU the chief
arteries and veins of the uterus, and their
anastomoses, pointing out also their great
enlargement in the pregnant state. He sup
posed that these vessels form the placenta, or
as he called it the jecur uteri, and that the
ovum or seed shoots out arteries and veins
into the substance of the placenta, to draw
nourishment from it for the foetus, as plants
shoot their roots into the ground ; and that
as the placenta draws its blood from the liver,
so do these roots their blood from it, " the liver
ofthe uterus." He disproved the imagined com
munication between the foetal and the maternal
vessels by arguments whieh might be used
even now against these who stiU hold the
error ; and described accurately the general
arrangement of the trunks of the umbiUcal
vessels and of their branches in the substance
of the placenta, and suggests some of the
purposes served by the great length ef the
human umbilical cord. He supposed that
the umbilical arteries carry the purer and
more spiritual blood to the foetal heart for its
nutrition, and the umbilical vein that fer the
nutrition of theUver; the brain he thought was
formed from the seminal substance itself. In
his account of the foetus he describes the
amnion as continued from the skin over the
cord and then arotmd the foetus ; the chorion,
as passing from the peritoneum along the
cord, and thence continued to the decidua.
He opposed the received opinion of the

urachus being an open canal in the human
foetus, and therefore denied the existence of
an allantois : the obliterated urachus he re
garded as only a ligament of the bladder.
He described very accurately the position of
the foetus, and the foramen ovale, ductus
arteriosus, and ductus venosus. Of aU these
things Arantius's descriptions were the first or
the best that up to his time had been written.
Arantius's anatomical observations are mis
cellaneous. It is hard to say what he really
discovered, because some of the descriptions
of his predecessors, like some of his own, are
not sufficiently perfect to make it certain
what they allude to. He first described (at
least with any accuracy) the inferior horn of
the lateral ventricles of the brain, the taenia
semicircularis, and its connection with the
fornix ; the extensor preprius indicis, obtura
tor externus, corace-brachialis, constrictor
vaginae, and tensor fasciae latae, muscles ; the
OS orbiculare ; and the levator palpebrae supe-
rioris, which he discovered when he was only
eighteen years old. The Uttle masses of
fibrous tissue on the aortic and pulmonary
valves, which are stUl called after him Cor
pora ArantU, had been previously described,
though obscurely, by Vidus Vidius. The
whole of Arantius's account of the muscles ef
the arm, the tongue, and the os hyoides, of
the temporal muscle and the recti abdominis,
of the internal ear, the eye and its muscles,
is excellent and would alone prove his high
merit as a descriptive anatomist.
The chapter in the " Observationes " which
relates te " the method in which the blood
passes into the left ventricle of the heart " is
very interesting ; for Arantius, independent,
he says, of the observations of Realdus
Columbus, had a distinct notion of the circu
lation of blood through the lungs. His chief
arguments for doubting, though he was not
prepared altogether to reject, the common
opinien that the blood passed through the
septum ofthe ventricles, were these: — 1.
That the time from ene diastole of the heart
to another was too shert for aU the bleed to
traverse the solid, thick, and not perforated
septum. 2. That if the thick venous blood
could pass through the septum from right to
left, he could not see what prevented the thin
ner and mere spirituous blood from passing
from the left ventricle in the opposite direc
tion ; and that, if the bloed could pass through
the septum, what hindered it from going
through the waUs of the right ventricle also ?
3. That if the greater part of the venous
blood passed through the ventricular septum
there appeared no use for se large an artery
as the pulmonary, — an artery large enough
to convey into the lungs all the bleed which
the right auricle pours into the ventricle. 4.
That the size of the left auricle, far surpassing
that of the trachea, was sufficient to receive
and convey into the left ventricle, net only
the air from the trachea, but also the bleed

ARANTIUS.

ARATOR.

brought from the right ventricle by the pul
monary veins. Such were Arantius's argu
ments for suspecting a passage of bleed from
one ventricle to the other through the lungs ;
and, imperfect as they are, they might have
established the existence of that portion of
the circulation ; but he wrote them rather as
hints for other observers than as proofs, and
himself obscured them by suggesting that the
office of part ef the mitral valve is to prevent
the air from passing from the left ventricle
into the aorta before having acquired the
form of the vital spirits, and that it is the
office of the pulmonary veins to convey those
spirits from the left ventricle to the lungs, as
well as to carry blood in the opposite direc
tion. Arantius deserves mention also for his
improvements in surgery, in which one can
plainly see the advantages he derived from
his unusually careful study of anatomy. He
pointed out that herniae, even of large size,
might be produced by a dilatation, without
any rupture, of the peritoneum — an import
ant fact which was aftei-wards, and for a long
time, forgotten. He demonstrated the differ
ences of the veins affected in external and
internal haemorroids ; and was particularly
successful in the treatment of fistula by
cutting the passages widely outwards. He
discarded the knffe and cautery, as well
as the ligature, in the treatment of polypi
ef the nose, and invented the forceps and the
operation now almost always used. He says
that he first pointed out the deformities ef
the arch of the pubes as a source of difficulty
in childbirth ; and Sprengel {Hist, de la
Midecine, iii. 418,), en the authority of Crato
a Kraftheim, states that Arantius introduced
the Caesarian operation into Italy, and prac
tised it with great success. But we doubt this
statement of Crato ; for, after speaking ef the
deformities just mentioned, fer which the
Caesarian operation is peculiarly adapted, and
after dweUing en the responsibility of the
accoucheur, who, when these deformities
exist, has to choose between deserting his
patient and running the risk of bringing into
the world a child which may die before it is
baptized, Arantius says that iu all such
cases he "thought it better to take to an
honourable flight , , , , than to incur such
serious difficulties ;" and he does net speak ef
the Caesarian operation, or recommend any
other course to the young practitioners whom
he addresses, although the observations in
which this passage occurs were written only
a year before his death, (G, A, Brambilla,
Storia delle Scoperte . . . fatti dagli Uomini
illustri Jtaliani ; Arantius, Works.) J. P.
ARA'ROS. [Aristophanes.]
ARA'TOR or ARATO'RE, a subdeacon
of the Roman church, was born about the
year 490. 'The place of his birth is net
knoAvn, but the evidence, as brought together
by Mazzuchelli, leaves the question between
236

Milan and Brescia, Ennodius, bishop of
Pavia, states that Arator was left an orphan
and adopted by Lorenzo, bishop of Milan,
whe brought him up as his own son. In his
early life he exercised the profession of a
lawyer, and was deputy from Dalmatia to
Theodoric, king ef the Ostrogoths, in Italy.
As a reward for the singular eloquence he
displayed on this and ether occasions Atha-
laric, the successor of Theodoric, conferred
upon him the post of " comes privatorum,"
or count of the domestics, and, according te
Mazzuchelli, that also of count of the private
donations. This occurred about the year
534. These and other honourable employ
ments he renounced in order to enter the
church, of which he became a subdeacon in
544. Some class him amongst the first Bene
dictine monks ; some place him in the list
of cardinals ; and Lancetti, on the authority
of Lotichius and the strength of the evidence
brought forward by Mazzuchelli, has inserted
him among the poets laureate. His death is
variously stated te have taken place in the
years 556 and 560,
He is stated to have early exercised him
self as a poet. After his adoption of the
ecclesiastical profession he wrote a poem, in
two books, caUed " Historiae Apostolicae,"
which he addressed in the first place te the
Abbot Flerianus, and afterwards to Pope
VigiUus, accompanied by two elegiac epistles.
In 544 his work was pubUcly read several
times in the church of San Pietro a' Vincoli,
and received with great applause. It is con
jectured that he may have been created poet
laureate on this occasion, but Lancetti con
fesses that he cannot find any notice of this
circumstance in the Uves ef the popes. His
verses are considered to be superior to those
of contemporary poets. The Venerable Bede
selected many of his allegories, and used
them in his commentaries on the Acts of the
Apostles, An edition of this poem is men
tioned in the catalogue of the Barberini
library as printed at Milan in 1469, Svo.
This has been since discovered to be a
typographical error, the date being 1569,
The first edition is supposed to have been
printed about 1496, The werk was printed
again by Aldus at Venice in 1 502, in vol, 2
of " A CoUection of the Antient Christian
Poets ; " at Strassburg in 1507, Svo, ; Leipzig,
1515, 4to., amd several times subsequently.
The latest and most approved edition is that
by H, J. Arntzenius, Zutphen, 1769, Svo,
It is also inserted in the collections of Gal
landius and La Blgne, Fabricius, in his
" Bibliotheca Latina," premised to give a
complete edition of the works ef Arator from
a manuscript at Cambridge, but this promise
he never carried into effect. In addition te
the title " Historiae Apostolicae " this werk
has also been caUed " Sacra Poesis," and
"Actus Apestolerum Heroicis Versibus red-
diti," An epistle in elegiac verse, addressed

ARATOR,

ARATUS.

by Arator to Parthenius, in which he re
commends his history to him in order that it
might be printed in France under his (Par-
thenius's) superintendence, was printed for
the first time in the Paris edition of 1575,
Another work by him in manuscript, en
titled " De Oblatiene et Reoitatione Versuum,"
is mentioned in Labbe, " Nova Bibl, Mst,"
th. i. Some ascribe to him a poetical des
cription of the four evangelists, but this is
most probably the same work as his history.
(Argellatl, BibUotheca Scriptorum Mediola
nensium, i. 02, ; Tiraboschi, Storia della Let
teratura Italiana, iii, 67 — 69, ; MazzucheUi,
Scrittori d'ltalia; Lancetti, Memorie intorno
ai Poeti Laureati (1839), 70 — 73.; Adelung,
Supplement to Jocher, AUgemeines Gelehrten
Lexicon-) J. W. J,
ARA'TUS ("ApaTos) of Sicyon, the son
of Clinias, was bom at Sicyon in the Pelo
ponnesus, E, c, 271, Sicyon, originally a
Doric aristocracy, had been fer some time
under the government of tyrants, as arbitrary
rulers were called by the Greeks, Clinias
in conjunction with Timecleides enjoyed this
dignity, but he and his colleague had been
elected to the office, and therefore they could
hardly be called tyrants in the Greek sense
of the tei-m. On the death of Timecleides,
Abantidas put Clinias to death, and either
murdered er exiled many of his friends.
Aratus, who at this time was seven years of
age, was saved by a sister of Abantidas, whe
was married to a brother of Clinias, and he
was secretly conveyed to Argos,
Aratus was brought up at Argos in the
manly discipUne ef the palaestra, which gave
him that bodily strength which qualified him
fer his future enterprises. In course of
time Abantidas was murdered, and succeeded
by his father Paseas. Paseas was murdered
by Nicecles, who made himself master of
Sicyon, Four months after the accession of
Nicecles te power, Aratus, who was now ap
proaching manhood, formed the bold design
of liberating his native city, which he com
municated to his fellow exiles, Nicecles,
who suspected his object, had spies at Argos,
but Aratus, though busy with his preparations,
deceived the spies by affecting to be engaged
about his pleasures. He set out with his
band from Argos to Sicyon by night. This
adventure as told by Plutarch is full of in
terest. By means ef ladders whioh they
took with them Aratus and his party scaled
the waUs and get into the city, Nicecles
escaped by secret passages, and the citizens
joyfully received their liberator (e, c, 251),
Not a single person lost his life or was
wounded in this revolution. Near six hun
dred exiles were restored to their coimtry ;
but their return was attended with great
difficulties. The emigrants took possession
or attempted to take possession of their
property, which was now in the hands of
others, and great disorders resulted. The
237

city also was threatened by Antigonus Gona
tas, king of Macedonia, In these difficulties
Aratus adopted the expedient of attaching
Sicyon, though a Doric state, to the Achaean
confederacy, though the Achaeans had never
been distinguished in the eld history of
Greece, and even then composed an insigni
ficant body. He was also aided by the
friendship of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, Ara
tus was a good judge of pictures, and the
reputation of the Sicyonian school, in which
Pamphilus had taught and ApeUes had stu
died, was still high, Aratus had already
sent Ptolemy some of the best specimens of
Sicyonian art ; and he new took the resolu
tion ef paying him a visit for the purpose of
procuring money to settle the disputes be
tween the exiles and those who had been iu
possession of their property. After a hazar
dous voyage Aratus reached Egypt, He
obtained from Ptolemy a hundred and fifty
talents, forty of which he took back with
him. Though entrusted by the Sicyonians
with absolute powers for settling the disputes,
he associated fifteen persons with himself to
aid him in this difficult business, which was
finally adjusted to the satisfaction of aU
parties. The exUes honoured him with a
bronze statue and an inscription : the inscrip
tion is preserved by Plutarch. The Ptolemy
whom Aratus visited is probably Euergetes,
who succeeded his father Philadelphus,
B. c. 247,
In the year e. c. 245, Aratus was elected
strategos or general of the Achaeans for the
first time. He invaded Locris on the north
side ef the Corinthian Gulf and ravaged Caly-
denia, but he came too late to aid the Boeo
tians in the battle fought near Chaeronaea, in
which they were defeated by the iEtoUans
with great loss, Aratus was again elected
strategos E, c, 243, in which year he suc
ceeded in taking by surprise the A crocorin-
thus or citadel of Corinth, which was held by
a Macedonian garrison ef Antigonus, and
was considered the key of the Peloponnesus,
The particulars of this bold escalade are told
by Plutarch in his usual difi'use and agree
able way, Aratus easily persuaded the Co
rinthians to join the Achaean confederation,
and he restored to them the keys of the gates,
whieh they had never had since the time ef
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great.
Lechaeum, one of the ports of Corinth, Avas
soon reduced. Megaris, Troezen, and Epi
daurus joined the confederation, Aratus
also invaded Attica and plundered Salamis ;
but he judiciously liberated without ransom
the Athenian freemen whom he took pri
soners in this expedition, and thus prepared
the way for the Athenians to revolt from the
Macedonians, The alliance with Ptolemy
was strengthened by giving him, nominally at
least, the direction of the war by land amd
by sea. The laws of the confederation did not
aUow the same person to be elected general

ARATUS.

ARATUS.

oftener than every other year, but Aratus
even when out of office possessed great in
fluence in public affairs, for the Achaeans
saw, says Plutarch, " that he valued neither
wealth, nor reputation, nor the friendship of
kings, nor the interests of his native city,
more than the prosperity ef the Achajan
body." The next design of Aratus was on Argos,
which he wished to liberate and thus to make
some return to the citizens for the hospitality
which he had experienced among them.
Argos was now under the yoke ef Aristoma-
chus, a cruel tyrant. The attempt of Aratus
faded, and in a shert time after Aristemachus
was murdered by some slaves. But Arlstip
pus stepped into his place, a still more cruel
tyrant, of whose suspicious habits Plutarch
has left a singular description, Aratus did
not give up his designs on Argos ; and he
made several unsuccessful attempts against
the tyrant's power, A battle was fought in
Argolis against Arlstippus, and the victory,
which seemed certain, was lost, either through
the excess of caution or the cowardice, as
his enemies said, of Aratus, StUl he main
tained his influence, and strengthened it by
bringing over Cleonae to the confederation
and celebrating there the Nemean games.
Arlstippus was finally defeated, and lost his
life ; but Argos was still in the hands ef
tyrants, Agias and the younger Aristemachus,
as Plutarch caUs him. About B. c. 232,
Lysiades (or Lydiadas), tyrant of Megalo
polis, resigned his power, in emulation of the
example of Aratus, and also through fear of
his designs. Megalopolis joined the con
federation and Lysiades wais elected general,
an office which he twice filled afterwards.
He and Aratus soon became jealous of one
another. Lysiades subsequently feU in battle
against the Lacedaemonians.
Plutarch has recorded an occasion ou which
Aratus showed his firmness and prudence.
The restless iEtoUans were on the borders
of Megaris, and the Achaeans were eager to
attack them, especially as Agis IV., king of
Sparta, was there with a force to aid them
and strongly urged a battle. Aratus patiently
bore all the imputations ef cowardice whioh
were heaped upon him, and resolved to adhere
to his plan. He allowed the marauders to
enter the Peloponnesus and to seize PeUene.
Then, says Plutarch, Aratus was no longer
the same, nor would he wait for aU his forces
te assem'ble. With such troops as he had he
fell en the iEtoUans in the midst of their
plundering and killed seven hundred ef them.
Plutarch has apparently placed this event
out of the chronological order in his life of
Aratus, a thing by ne means uncommon with
him. The accession ef Argos to the Achaean
league appears to have followed seen after
Lysiades had resigned his power. Aratus,
it is said, persuaded the younger Aristoma-
238

chus to bring ever Argos to the confederation,
and to imitate the example of Lysiades.
The date of this event seems to be somewhat
doubtful, Antigonus Gonatas had died in E. c. 240,
and was succeeded by his sen Demetrius II,
The Achaeans united with the .StoUans
against Demetrius, and did them good service
in their wars with the Macedonian king,
Demetrius died according to Polybius after a
reign of ten years, about the time of the
Romans first passing into lUyricum. His
death was favourable to the designs of Aratus,
and led to the resignation of their power by
the tyrants of the Peloponnesus, Lysiades,
however, as Polybius observes, resigned his
tyranny in the lifetime of Demetrius, De
metrius was succeeded by Antigonus Doson,
who, though the guardian of his nephew
Philip, assumed the royal power. About
E. c. 227, Diogenes, the Macedonian govemor,
surrendered the Piraeus, Munychia, Salamis,
and Sunium to the Athenians for fifty
talents, of which Aratus contributed twenty
himself. This success was foUowed by
the adhesion of .Slgina, Hermione, and the
largest part of Arcadia to the confederation.
The Macedonians were too busy with domes
tic affairs to attempt for the present to check
the progress ef Aratus.
Thus in the course of a few years, chiefly
through the exertions of Aratus, the Achaean
confederation attained a consistency and ac
quired a strength which enabled it to assume
an important position in Greece. The object
of Aratus was to destroy the Macedonian in
fluence in Southem Greece by getting rid of
the tyrants whom the policy of the Macedo
nians had estabUshed in the cities as the best
means of retaining their influence. The
object was weU conceived, and, as we may-
judge from the results, judiciously executed.
Aratus does net appear to have had the talents
of a great general ; but he must have been
a consummate politician. He had te unite
many scattered and discordant elements, to
oppose the power of the Macedonians under
Antigonus Gonatas and under Antigonus
Doson ; and his difficulties were increased by
the character ef the jEtoUans, who seme-
times joined fhe Achaeans and sometimes
were against them.
In B, c, 226, a war broke out between the '
Achaians and Sparta. Aristemachus, the
late tyrant of Argos, was then the general of
the confederation : Cleomenes III., king of
Sparta, commanded the Lacedaemonians, and
he had the support of Ptolemy Euergetes.
Aratus, who was opposed to the Avar, had suffi
cient influence to prevent the Achaeans from
engaging Avith Cleomenes near Pallantium in
Arcadia. In the foUowing year Aratus was
chosen general. He lost the battle of Ly-
caeum against Cleomenes, but his usual good
fortune aittended him in a sudden attack on
Mantineia, then in alliance with Cleomenes :

ARATUS.

ARATUS.

he took the city and threw into it a garrison.
Aratus was again defeated by Cleomenes
near Megalopolis, and Lysiades lost his life
here. The Achaeans accused Aratus of be
traying Lysiades, but it is by no means cer
tain that his cautious measures were not the
best, and Lysiades lost his life by imprudently
following up a sUght advantage obtained
over the enemy. The Achaeans under Ara
tus lest a third great battle at a place called
Hecatombaeon in the territory of Dymae.
Aratus was severely censured by the Achaean
congress for his conduct at Megalopolis,
and the next time that he was re-elected
strategos, he refused to act. The affairs of
the Achaeans were now in a yery dangerous
position. Cleomenes had effected his great re
volution in Sparta, which had made him un
controlled commander of the Spartan forces,
and the Achaeans were no match for the
vigour of this reforming king, whe recovered
Mantineia, Argos, and many other cities
of the Peloponnesus, and got possession of
Corinth with the exception of the Acro
corinthus. It seems that there was personal
dislike between Aratus and Cleomenes, and
Aratus may have considered Cleomenes quite
as dangerous to the confederation as their old
Macedonian enemies. Aratus was now elected
strategos in a congress at Sicyon, which was
not well attended. Cleomenes, whe wais in
Corinth, renewed the claims which he had
already made to be put at the head of the
confederation. Aratus eluded aU his pro
posals, on whieh Cleomenes invaded the ter
ritory of Sicyon and blockaded the city fer
three months, during which time Plutarch
represents Aratus as deliberating whether he
should give up the Acrocorinthus to Antigo
nus Doson, who was willing to aid the con
federation on those terms, but on no others.
Aratus made his way out of Sicyon to attend
a congress at .Slgium, in which it was re
solved to call in Antigonus, and to surrender
to him the Acrocorinthus.
Antigonus advanced to the Isthmus with a
large force, and was joined by Aratus (e. o.
224). Cleomenes, who was in possession of
the Acropolis of Corinth, retired to Argos,
hearing that a counter-revolution was in pro
gress there ; Aratus and Antigonus advanced
towards Argos, and Cleomenes feU back on
Mantineia. The Acropolis of Corinth now
surrendered to Antigonus, and the cities
which had been detached from the Achajan
league again joined it. A Macedonian gover
nor was placed in Orchomenus. Mantineia
was taken by the Achaeans with the as
sistance of Antigonus : the chief persons
were put to death, others were sold, and
the women and children were made slaves.
The place was given up to Argos, and its
name was changed into Antigeneia. Anti
gonus was now in effect the director of
the Achajan confederation, and that inde
pendence for which Aratus had been strug-
239

gling was at an end. Cleomenes in the
mean time plundered MegalepoUs, but in
B. c. 222, he was defeated by Antigonus at
SeUasia, in a decisive battle at which
Aratus was present. Antigonus advanced
upon Sparta, which he entered, but his con
duct was marked by moderation. Cleomenes
fled to Egypt, where he died ; and Antigo
nus shortly after returning to Macedonia
died also, B. c. 221. He recommended his
nephew Philip V., who succeeded him, to be
guided by the advice of Aratus.
The death of Antigonus was the signal
for new disturbances. The restless .^to
lians despised the Achaeans, who had shown
that they could only protect themselves
under the arms of the Macedonians. The
iEtoUans entered the Peloponnesus and
ravaged Patrae and Dymae on their way to
Messenia. Aratus, who was chosen strate
gos to succeed Timoxenus, was so eager to
meet the invaders that he anticipated the
commencement of his year of office by five
days, and led the Achaeans against the
.Sltolians. But he was defeated at Caphyae,
E. u. 220, and failed altogether in checking
the ravages of the jEtolians. Aratus was
charged with misconduct in the congress of
the Achaeans, but he successfully defended
himseff against his enemies and retained
his former influence. The Achaeans had
again recourse te the Macedonians, and Philip
was invited to come to their assistance.
Thus a Macedonian king was again at the
head of the confederation, and its affairs
were conducted by his orders under the
advice of Aratus. For some time matters
went on prosperously, and the young king
and Aratus acted in concert. At last ApeUes,
Megalaeus, and other courtiers of Philip con
trived to prejudice the king against Aratus,
and his alienation from his former friend was
shown by the election of Eperatus to the office
of general ofthe Achaeans (b.c. 218), though
Eperatus was incompetent and an enemy
to Aratus. This election was followed by
disorder in the public affairs, the cause of
which PhUip had discrimination enough to
see, and he was reconciled to Aratus, The
war was still continued agaunst the iEtoUans,
and with more advantage to the Achaeans.
FinaUy (e. c. 217) peace was made between
the Achaeans and .SltoUans on the terms
of each retaining what they then held.
Philip, whe saw that the Romans were fuUy
occupied by the war with Hannibal, was
desirous to take advantage of this opportunity
of annoying them.
The natural bad character of Philip,
says Plutarch, now began to show itself.
His debauchery of the wife of the younger
Aratus was an indication of his character ;
and other things followed. There were dis
turbances in Messenia, and PhUip, who went
there, contrived to excite the two factions
against one another, whieh resulted in the

ARATUS.

ARATUS.

massacre of those who were in power and
near two hundred ether men by the opposite
party. Aratus, who came after the affair was
ever, showed that he was much displeased.
He StiU retained influence enough to induce
Philip to forego his design of taking pos
session of the strong post ef Ithome, which,
added to the Acrocorinthus, was then con
sidered as equivalent to having the command
of the Peloponnesus. Aratus refused to
join Philip in an expedition into Epirus,
fearing that his own character wetdd suffer
by any association with such an unprin
cipled man. Philip again came to the
Peloponnesus after his unsuccessfiU naval
warfare against the Romans, and renewed
his designs on Messenia, which he ravaged.
Aratus now withdrew altogether from all com
munion with Philip : he felt both his domestic
wrongs and these of his country ; but he
was powerless. PhiUp Avished to get rid of
him, and, as he feared to do it openly, he ac
complished his end by causing a slew poison
to be administered to him. Such is the story
of Polybius and Plutarch ; but tales of slew
poisons are suspicious evidence. His disease
was accompanied with a spitting of bleed. He
died at JEgium E. c. 213, while he held the
office ef strategos for the seventeenth time.
It wais at first intended to bury him at
iEgium, but the Sicyonians prevailed on the
Achaeans to surrender the body te them. It
wais interred in a conspicuous place in the
city, which was called the Arateum to the
time ef Plutarch, and is also mentioned by
Pausanias. The Sicyonians honoured Aratus
as the founder and liberator of their state.
Two annual festivals in his honour were insti
tuted, one to commemorate the day on which
he released the city from the tyrant, and
the ether to commemorate the day of his
birth. As late as the time of Plutarch, in
the second century of our aera, a few trifling
ceremonies were still observed at Sicyon.
Aratus left memoirs {'TiropvljpLaTa) of his
life. Polybius informs us that he commenced
his own history where the work of Aratus
ended, about b.c. 220. He speaks in favour
able terms ef the perspicuity and veracity of
these memoirs. 'They were the chief ma
terials for Plutarch's amusing Iffe of Aratus ;
but it was no part of Plutarch's plan to pre
sent a clear and continuous narrative of the
operations ef Aratus, nor would it new be an
easy task te write a critical Ufe of Aratus
with our present materials. The order ef
the events cannot always be clearly ascer
tained, and their connection is consequently
obscured. Aratus held the office of strategos or gene
ral of the Aohaian confederation seventeen
times. His first year of office was b.c. 245,
and if he was strategos in B. c. 213, the year
of his death, he might have held it every
other year, pursuant to the law as above stated.
But as B.C. 217 appears to have been the
240

last year of his generalship, he must have
been chosen oftener than every other year.
Aratus was precisely in that position which
renders a just estimate of a man's cha
racter difficult. He rose from a private
station te great political power, and he at
tempted a great object, in which he was only
partially successful. Envy and jealousy were
ready to put the worst construction en his
actions, but his long career and the position
which he maintained to the last prove his
great abilities, and show that he enjoyed the
general confidence. Notwithstanding his fre
quent failures in the field, his resources in
difficulties and his character for integrity
maintained him in the popidar opinion. He
may not have been a great general, and he
was perhaps over cautious ; but he had often
no regular troops on which he could depend,
and in the war with Cleomenes he had to
oppose the best soldiers in Greece, The im
putations on his personal couraige are proved
te be unfounded by the whele course of his
adventurous career ; and if on the eve of an
actien he betrayed any uneasiness, he is net
the only instance ef a man of courage whose
nervous excitement has been mistaken fer fear.
Polybius (iv, 8.) in his sketch ef his character
admits that in some cases Aratus was deficient
in courage ; and he adds some curious remarks
on the different conduct ofthe same man in dif
ferent circumstances. His treatment of the
people of Mantineia has been defended by Po
lybius, whoAvrites as his apologist (ii 56, &c,)
against the misrepresentations of Phylarchus,
The executien of Aristemachus, the tyrant of
Argos, brought much odium on Aratus (Plu
tarch, Aratus, i. 44,) ; but if Polybius tells
the truth, Aristomachus was a traitor to the
Achaean cause amd deserved his fate, Poly
bius calls Aratus the founder of the Achaean
confederation, which PhUopoemen, he adds,
confirmed, and Lycortas (the father of Poly
bius) and those who acted with him, main
tained, (Plutarch, Aratus, Cleomenes ;
Polybius, Books ii iv, v, &c. There is an
unfavourable sketch of the character of
Aratus in Schlosser's Universal-Historiche
Uebersicht, vol. ii. pt. 1.) G. L.
ARA'TUS {"Aparos) of SiCYON, the
younger, was a son of Aratus the founder of
the Achaean confederation. After the de
feat of the Achaeans at Hecatombaeon, the
younger Aratus was sent to Antigonus Doson
to treat about the terms en which the Mace
donian king would help the Achaeans, Ac
cording to Plutarch, Aratus and others who
accompanied him went as hostages to Anti
gonus. Aratus was strategos or general of
the Achajans in the year b. c. 219. His ad
ministration was feeble and unsuccessful,
Plutarch {Aratus, c, 54,) teUs a strange story
ef Aratus being deprived of his reason by
drugs administered by the command of King
PhiUp ; and he adds that his conduct in con
sequence of this diseased state of his mind

ARATUS,

ARATUS,

became so extravagant, that his early death
could net be considered a calamity, but a
release from misery. The descendants of the
elder Aratus existed at Sicyon and PeUene
till the time of Plutarch, or the second cen
tury of our Ecra. (Polybius, 11. 51,, iv. 37. 60.)
G.L.
ARA'TUS CApoTos) of Soli in Cilicia,
(afterwards Pompeiopolis, according to an
other account of ']?arsus) is the author of two
extant astronomical poems, the ^atvd/xeva, or
Phaenomena, and the Aioo-rj^ueia, or Prognos-
tica. He is, after Autelycus, the second
Greek writer on astronomical subjects.
Nothing is known of him worth citing,
except that he was of the Stoic sect, a hearer
of Dionysius Heracleotes ; that his profession
was medicine ; and that he passed his days
at the court of Antigonus Gonatas, son of
Demetrius PoUorcetes, by the invitation of
that prince. Antigonus began his reign
B. c. 276, and this is the only mode of fixing
the time at whieh Aratus lived. It is net
known where he died, or when ; but Pom
ponius Mela says his tomb was at Soli. The
" Phaenomena" of Aratus consists ef nothmg
but a description of the cellooation of the
stars, and their apparent motions, risings, and
settings ; it is a bad book on the doctrine of
the sphere in elegant verse, remarkable as
being the oldest treatise of the kind. It does
not weU represent the state of the heavens in
any one place, or at any one time ; and may,
as Delambre remarks, have been inspired by
an incorrect globe, and not by a view of the
stars themselves. Cicero calls Aratus a man
ignorant of aistronomy. His werk is said
to have been drawn up, at the request of
Antigonus, from the older prose writings
of Eudoxus on the same subject, new lost.
The fifth line is memorable as having been
quoted by St, Paul (also a CUician*) in his
address to the Athenians (Acts xvii, 28,),
The "Prognostica" of Aratus (an imitation
ef Hesiod, and partly imitated by VlrgU) con
sists of astronomical predictions ef the weather,
and descriptions of its effects upon animals,
'There is no judicial astrology in either work,
nor is there any account of the moon's orbit,
though the period of nineteen years is men
tioned, 'These poenis have had many commen
tators and translators ; Petavius gives a list
of thirty-six ef the former, to which Fa
bricius atdds a few more ; Grotius says there
are nearly fifty : among them are the names of
Aristarchus, Geminus, and Eratosthenes, But
only tAVO of the commentaries have come
down to us ; ene attributed to Achilles
'Tatius [Achilles Tatius], the other to
Hipparchus [Hipparchus], Of this last, as
concerns the biography of Aratus, we have
only te s.ay that it frequently cites Aratus
and his predecessor Eudoxus together, and
• Some of tlio manuscripts support the reading
" cert.iin .also of our own poets."
VOL. Ill,

proves that the former imitated the latter
very closely in some parts, and altered for
the worse in others. But the commentary
is not that of a disciple, but of a critic and of
a justly severe one. Both commentaries are
printed in the Uranologion of Petavius.
As to the translators, Priscian and Firmicus
(according to Grotius) say that Julius Caesar
had attempted a translation : there are three
of whom remains are left, the first by Cicero
in his youth, the two others by Germanieus
Caesar and Festus Avienus. Many ef fhe edi
tions give these versions ; Grotius completed
what was lost in that of Cicero, and from this
Pingre published a French translation (with
one of Manilius, Paris, 1786). There are
several lives ef Aratus left, all anonymous ;
ene is printed by Petavius {Uranolog,) and
three mere by Buhle in his edition.
Aratus is said (mostly in the notices ef
him in Suidas and Eudocia) to have left
many other works, hymns, elegies, epigrams,
epistles, works on medicine, commentaries on
Homer, &c, A Ust of these is given by
Fabricius, Biblioth- Grac. iv, 107.
'There are many editions of Aratus, of
whioh we only mention the most remarkable.
The earliest print seems to be the translation
of Germanieus, appended to Manilius (Bo
logna, 1474). The most recent edition of
the translation of Germanieus is by Orelli,
Zurich, 1831 ; the text has been improved.
'The Latin translations were printed together
by G, Valla, Venice, 1488, 4to, The earliest
Greek is that printed by Aldus, Venice, 1499,
fol. with Julius Firmicus, ManUius, and the
versions of Aratus, and also the Greek scheUa.
The scholia are attributed to Theon in some
of the manuscripts, followed by the editors ;
but Grotius, foUowed by Fabricius, contends
that they must be the work of several, as
there are both repetitions and contradictions.
But there are scholia which are not the com
mon ones (in Buhle, vel. i), which are also
attributed to Theon. PhU. Melanchthon
printed the Greek with Latin, Wittenberg,
1521 (?), The edition of Morel, Paris,
1559, 4te, with two title pages (if we are not
to caU them two different works published In
the same year) contains, under the first, the
Greek of Aratus, the scholia, and the com
mentary of Leontius ; under the second, the
Latin versions, and the "Astronomicon" of
llyginus. The edition of Grotius (1600, 4to,)
headed " Syntagma Arateerum," contains the
Greek, the versions, and valuable notes, with
copper plates ef the constellations, copied
from some old manuscript, Dr, FeU's edition
(Oxford, 1672), "editio perquam nitida et
castigata " (Fabricius), has the Greek and
the scholia, Buhle's edition (in two vols,,
Leipzig, Svo,, 1793 and 1801), commenced by
M, G, iMiiller, contahis every thing. 'There
are also editions of J. H. Voss, Heidelberg,
1824, 8vo., with an excellent German poetical
translation ; of Buttman, Berlin, 1826, Svo. ;
R

ARATUS.

ARAUJO.

and of Bekker, Berlin, 1828, Svo. The
" Prognostica " were edited by Th. Foster,
London, 1813, Svo., with notes. (Petavius,
Uranologion ; Fabricius, Biblioth- Graca, vok
iv. ; Grotius, ed. cit. ; Delambre, Astron. Anc.)
A. De M.
ARAUJO D'AZEVE'DO, ANTO'NIO,
afterwards Count da Barca, was born at
Ponte de Lima, according to Constancio
in the " Biographie UniverseUe," in May,
1752 ; according to Mendo Trigoso, a better
authority, en the 14th ef May, 1751. He
belonged te a family which was ef neble
origin, but not in good circumstances. At
the age of eleven he was sent to Oporto, and
placed under the care of his uncle Brigadier
Antonio Luis Pereira Pinto, who was equally
conspicuous for learning and good nature,
and under whom he became a proficient in
the French, Italian, and English languages,
while at the same time he studied Latin,
and also, under Professor Lany, the language
and literature of Greece. He attended the
lectures on philosophy at Coimbra for one
year, but without matriculating. Leaving the
university at the end of that time, he re
turned to Oporto, where he pursued his
studies in history, mathematics, and his
favourite science, natural history, with such
diligence, that for several years he devoted a
part of the night to reading, though obliged
to keep the practice secret from his uncle,
who had prohibited it from anxiety for his
health. In 1779, about the same time that
the Royal Academy of Sciences was founded
by the Duke de Lafoens, at Lisbon, Araujo
assisted the Archbishop of Braga in founding
at Ponte de Lima an " Economical Society of
Friends of the PubUc Good." Araujo took
an active share in a project to render the
river Lima navigable, and another fer the
planting of mulberry trees on a large scale,
with a view of introducing the culture and
manufacture of silk ; and his correspondence
on these subjects with Correa de Serra was the
means of introducing him to the notice ofthe
founders ofthe Academy, whe placed him early
en the Ust of members. This circumstance
encouraged Araujo, who was now beginning
te think seriously what course of life he should
adopt, te seek his fortune in Lisbon, where
the Duke de Lafoens, who was delighted
with his talents, introduced him to the Queen
Donna Maria, and in 1787 he was named
ambassador ef Portugal to the Hague.
His presence at his pest dees not seem to
have been considered of urgent necessity, for
he spent tAvo years after his appointment at
Lisbon, in the study of diplomacy; and when
in 1789 he left Portugal, his first visit was to
England, to make himself acquainted with
arts and manufactures. " In England," says
his Portuguese biographer Mcndo Trigoso,
" nine months passed away with the rapidity
of nine days." He spent every Sunday after
noon alternately in the houses of Sir Joseph
242

Banks and Lord North, and improved his
knowledge of politics by listening to Pitt,
Fox, and Dr. Price. He kept a minute
journal of what he heard amd saw, particu
larly of what related to manufactures and
commerce. From London he went to Paris,
where the constituent assembly was at that
time iu the midst of its momentous proceed
ings, and became acquainted with Necker and
BaiUy, Lavoisier and Fourcrey, DeliUe and
Marmontel. After this he repaired to his
post, but fresh from Londen and Paris, he
found a residence at the Hague intolerably
dull: he attempted to enUven it by em
ploying himself in coUecting a library, by
commencing a Portuguese translation of the
odes of Horace, and by assembling around
him a select society ef Uterary men, of French
emigrants and of his countrymen. Among
others he gave an invitation, which was an
act of courage no less than of generosity,
to the most eminent Portuguese poet of his
time, Francisco Manoel de Nascimento, who
having escaped from the inquisition in Lisbon
was then Uving in poverty at Paris. Araujo
received him into his house, and settled on
him a pension ; but the poet disliked the
Hague as much as the ambassador did, was
fond of his independence, and after a few
disputes with Araujo, not only wrote but
printed seme epigrams on the new translation
of Horace, and retumed to Paris. His patron
was generous enough to continue the pension,
and take ne further; notice of the epigrams
than by refraining from publishing his trans
lation. Araujo was now summoned from Uterature
to poUtics. The Spaniards, who under the
management of Godoy had rashly engaged
in a contest with the French repubUc, in
which Portugal had assisted them, insisted,
when, after the conclusion of the treaty of
Basel with France, in 1795, they declared
war on Great Britain, that Portugal should
fellow them in their change of politics. To
avoid the dangers with which it was menaced,
Portugal submitted, and Araujo was sent to
Paris to negotiate a peace with France. He
arrived there in the summer ef 1797, and in
the month ef August, en the 10th according
to Constancio, the 17 th according to Mendo
Trigoso, or the 20th according to SchoeU and
Martens, he signed a treaty with Charles La
croix, the foreign minister of the French
Directory, by which peace was granted to
Portugad, en what were, on the whele, ad
vantageous terms. Constancio says that
Araujo encountered ne serious obstacles in his
negotiation, Mendo Trigoso speaks of in
trigues and difficulties, and SchoeU affirms
that Araujo took advantage of the want of
money, which was felt by the majority of the
executive directory, who wished to effect the
revolutien of the 18th Fructidor. That re
volution put out of the way Barbe-Mai-bois,
who was opposed to the negotiations, and

ARAUJO.

ARAUJO.

the French legislative body ratified the treaty
on the 1 2th of September; but the court of
Lisbon delayed its consent, the EngUsh min
istry having declared that it would consider
its ratification as an act ef hostility, and an
EngUsh squadron having entered the Tagus
and taken possession ef Fort St. Julian. The
evidence of the continued success of the
French, afforded by the treaty of Campo
Fermio, at length determined the Portu
guese to risk the displeasure of the British
government, and the ratification was signed
on the 1st of December, at Lisbon, more than
a month previous to which the Directory, in
dignant at the delay, had canceUed the treaty,
and ordered Araujo to quit the territory of
the repubUc. He had still, however, remained
without molestation in Paris ; and on receiv
ing the ratification, and with it a large sum
in diamonds, he was imprudent enough te
allow it to be said in public that the French
ratification was certain, as the director Barras
and two ef his colleagues had agreed to pro
cure it for a stipulated sum. So many reports
of the same kind had recently been in circu
lation, that the Directors thought proper to
affirm their innocence by an act of severity ;
and under the pretence that Araujo had for
feited his diplomatic character by remaining
in Paris after being ordered to depart, he was
sent en the 31st of December, 1797, to prison
in the Temple. He remained there some
mouths, and much was said of bringing him
to trial, but he was finally set at liberty, and
returned unmolested to the Hague. It ap
pears that he had only been empowered to
act by the Prince Regent of Portugal and
two of his cabinet, Seabra de Sylva and the
Duke de Lafoens, without the consent or
knoAvledge ofthe foreign minister Pinto; and
at the same time that he was suffering the
punishment of his imprudence at Paris, it
was proposed in the cabinet of Lisbon to
bring him to trial for Ulegal conduct. The
prince regent did not venture openly to avow
that Araujo had acted by his command, but
he bestowed on him a " commenda," or be
nefice conferred on knights of the military
orders, which much improved his fortune.
Araujo now obtained permission to leave
the Hague and travel in Germany, where he
visited Hamburg, Weimar, Dresden, Frei
burg, and Berlin ; studied mineralogy, botany,
chemistry, and the German language ; and
made the acquaintance of Klopstock, Wie-
land, Goethe, Herder, Schiller, Ketzebue,
Werner the mineralogist, Klaproth the che
mist, and AVilldenow. He is mentioned at
the time in Zach's " Astronomical Corre
spondence," with admiration fer his exten
sive knowledge of EngUsh, French, and
German literature. From Berlin he re
turned to Portugal, from whioh he had noAV
been absent more than ten years, and was
entrusted Avith a mission te effect a peace
with Bonaparte, then first consul ; but on ar-
243

riving for that purpose at L'Orient, on board
a Portuguese frigate, he was refused even
permission to land. Benap irte had previously
declared that the Portuguese should pay
with tears of blood for the insults they had
offered the French republic. On his re
turn to Portugal, Araujo found that his old
antagonist Pinte had, by the use ef the same
means as himself, sheer bribery, obtained a
treaty of peace, but a most disgraceful ene,
from Spain, which was signed en the 6th of
June, 1801, at Badajoz, and was followed by
another between France and Portugal, signed
at Madrid on the 5 9th of September. After
the peace of Am ens, Araujo was named
Portuguese ministi r at St. Petersburg, from
which he was recalled in 1803 te the cabinet
of Lisbon as secretary ef state; and on the
death of the Count de Villaverde in 1806, he
was appointed his provisional successor in two
departments of the ministry which he had
held, so that in fact Araujo was at the head
ef the Portuguese cabinet.
In this situation he occupied himseff in
promoting the internal improvements of the
country, in improvuig the navigation of the
Tagus and Lima, patronising the introduc
tion of the glass, paper, cotton, and wool ma
nufactures, and various ether measures of
the same character, which, in mere peaceful
times, might have attached honour to his
name. He procured a decree for the forma
tion of a collection of books, models of ma
chines, &c. for the royal chamber ef com
merce, and became director of the school of
engraving, which Bartelozzi, at his recom
mendation, was invited over from London to
superintend. He patronised Bretero, the
Portuguese botanist, in the publication ef his
" Phytographia Lusitana ; " in return for
which Bretero bestowed en a new genus of
plants the name Araujia. He appeared, in
the meanwhile, to have totally lost sight of
the dangers which impended over Portugal
from the ambition of Spain and the still
more dangerous and reckless ambition of
France, In 1806, Talleyrand threatened Lord
Lauderdale, in the negotiations then carry
ing en, that if peace was not agreed upon,
the French army, then at Bayonne, should
immediately march for the conquest of Por
tugal, The news had no soon reached Mr.
Fox, who was then on his death-bed, than
orders Avcre despatched te Lord St. Vincent
to sail for the Tagus, an English army of
ten thousand men intended for Sicily was
countermanded, with the view of changing
its destination for Portugal, and the En
gUsh embassy at Lisbon had orders to make
offers to the Portuguese government of un
limited pecuniary aid. Araujo insisted that
the apprehensions of the EngUsh govei-n-
ment were merely the effect of a panic terror,
and positively rejected both its mUitary and
pecuniary assistance, on the ground that it
would compromise the neutraUty of Portugal.
R 2

ARAUJO.

ARAUJO.

Souza, count de Funchal, the Portuguese
ambassador at Londen, states that he did not
dare to ask anything from the British go
vernment for fear ef being disavowed by
the ministry at home. A mere accident led
to Funchal's obtaining permission from Can
ning for the Portuguese to close their ports
against the English if it should be neces
sary ; and this permission, which he at once
sent off to Lisbon, arrived there about
two days before, on the 12th of August,
Araujo was shocked by the sudden and im
perious demand of Rayneval, the French,
and Campo-Alange, the Spanish, ambassador,
to close his ports against the English, seize all
of that nation then in Portugal, and declare
war against it in twenty days. He delayed
the order to close the ports till four EngUsh
convoys had sailed with all the British sub
jects who chose to leave the kingdom, and
then availed himself of the permission the
English cabinet had given. Araujo sup
posed that by this compliance with the
orders ef Napoleon the danger was averted ;
and it is even said that lie, one of whose
offices was that of minister of war, was ab
solutely unaware that a French invading
army had entered Portugal till the 26tli
of November, when it was close upon
Lisbon. It was to Lord Strangford, the
English ambassador, that the Portuguese
court was then indebted for the news of
-Bonaparte's declaration, that the house ef
Braganza had ceased te reign, on which the
resolution was taken to saU for Brazil. The
public indignation was se strong against
Araujo, that he was obUged to embark
under cover of night on board of the squa
dron, which a fortunate change of wind en
abled to leave the Tagus en the 29th, just in
time to escape the advanced guard of the
French, which entered Lisbon at nine o'clock
on the following morning. But fer this
change of wind, the Portuguese fleet as weU
as the capital might have fallen into the
power ef the French, while neither one ner
the other would have been in any danger from
such a force as that then under the command
of Junot, the French invader, had there been
the most ordinary preparation for defence.
Araujo took with him to Brazil his mi-
neralogical collection, which had been ar
ranged by Werner, and a printing apparatus,
which he had recently imported from Lon
don. Incredible as it may appear, there was
at the time ef his arrival no other printing
apparatus in Rio Janeiro. He had now
ample time to occupy himself in the quiet
pursuits of science, as the unpopularity
which attended the discovery of his inca
pacity for active government, compelled the
prince regent to dismiss him from his
offices, though he was still retained as a
member of the council of state. His fa
vourite study was chemistry, which he pur
sued Avith such success as te be able to
244

establish a new manufactory ef porcelain,
and found a school of chemistry and phar
macy, which had been much needed in
Brazil. He introduced the cultivation of
tea into the royal botanic garden of Alagoa
de Freitas, and cultivated in his own be
tween twelve and fourteen hundred plants,
of which he commenced a catalogue under
the title of " Hortus Araujensis." He in
troduced a machine for sawing wood, and
imported from England a Scotch alembic,
which, with his improvements, is now in
general use in the sugar-works ef Brazil.
The whole of this time, . however, he felt
deeply that he was under disgrace, and, in
the year 1810, he addressed to the prince
regent a paper in which he defended him
self against the Count de Linhares and other
calumniators, who accused him of having
acted as minister, not only with weakness
but with treachery. In reply he received
from the regent a letter of approbation, con
cluding with his promotion to the grand
cross ef the order ef Christ. The day in
which he received it, the 17th of March,
1810, he considered, according to Mende
Trigoso, the happiest of his Ufe. Four years
after, in 1814, he was named to the vacant
ministry ef Mairne and the colonies, and
in 181.5, created Count da Barca. On the
death of the Marquis de Aguiar, in January,
1817, he was entrusted with aU the three
secretaryships of state, or, in ether words, be
came not only the prime but the sele mi
nister. He died at Rio Janeiro on the 21st
of June, 1817, and wais buried at the church
ef St. Francisco de Paula in that city.
As a minister in BrazU Araujo repaired
in seme small degree the errors he had com
mitted in Portugal, and he becaime popular
from the affabiUty of his manners ; but it
is evident from the whole course of his his
tory, that he was eminently unqualified to
direct the affairs of a natien in times of
difficulty. Even as a diplomatist, the re
putation which he acquired for procuring
from the revolutionary government of France,
a treaty favourable for Portugal, was lost by
his imprudence in allowing the means of
success te become known, and so destroying
it. As a minister of pubUc instruction, he
might probably have been of much use to
Portugal in more tramquU times.
Araujo had a taste for poetry, and as
pired te the honours of a poet. Dm-ing
his residence at the Hague, he had com
menced two tragedies, which he completed
at Brazil, but neither of which, so far as we
are aware, has yet been published. It is
singular that in both cases he should have
chosen subjects which had been so suc
cessfully treated before him by Portuguese
poets, that his Avorks must necessarily sug
gest a comparison wUh the three finest
tragedies in the natlon.il drama. The first
of them was on Inez de Castre, the subject

ARAUJO.

ARBACES.

ofthe master-pieces of Ferreira and Gomes ;
the second on Osmia, a story already
dramatised by Donna Catherina de Sousa.
In a conversation at the Hague with his
friend Don Jose Maria de Sousa, since be
come well known from his magnificent
edition of the Lusiad, Araujo disputed the
opinion of Sousa, that it was impossible, in
a poetical translation, to preserve both the
spirit and the form of the original, and
a few days after presented him with a ver
sion which he had employed himself in
making, of Dryden's " Ode on St. CecUia's
Day," into Portuguese. In this translation,
a portion of which is given in Beuterwek's
" History of Portuguese Poetry," there is the
same number of verses, and the same dis
position of rhymes as in the priginal ; and if
we decline to admU the opinien ef the Por
tuguese critics, that it has equal fire and
elegance, it must still be owned that Araujo
has succeeded wonderfully well in a very
difficult undertaking. This translation, as
well as seme others by Araujo, of different
poems of Gray, including his Elegy, was
pubUshed in a small volume at Hamburg,
in 1799, by De Sousa. The most inte
resting essay in prose, by Araujo, was a
defence of Camoens against the censures
of his French translator Laharpe, Avho had
only rendered him from one language into
the ether, by the help of an interlineary
version, and was therefore iU-qualified to
discern the beauties of the original in
point ef style. This essay was read be
fore the Portuguese Academy ef Sciences.
(Mendo Trigoso, Elogio Historico in His
toria e Memorias da Academia Real das
Sciencias de Lisboa, tomo viii. part 2. 15 —
46. ; article by Constancio in Biographie
UniverseUe, edit, of 1843, U. 142—146.;
Souza, count de Funchal, As Quatro Coin-
cidencias de Datas, and Araujo, Representa-
fuo, bothin O Campeao I'ortuguez, i 151. &c.,
268. &c. ; Lulz Gon^alves des Sanctos, Me
morias para servir d Historia do Reino de
Brazil, ii. 104, 129.) T. W.
ARAUJO, FRANCISCO DE CORREA
D'. [Arauxo, Francisco de Correa d'.]
ARAUJO, PE'DRO DE, a Spanish sculp
tor, who, after the death of Henrique Cardon
in 1700, was appointed sculptor to the King
of Spain in his stead, with the salary ef one
hundred ducats per annum. (Cean Bermudez,
Diccionario Historico, Sfc-) R- N. W.
ARAUXO or ARAUJO, FRANCISCO
DE CORREA D', a Spanish Dominican
friar, descended from a neble and ancient
family, was first the organist of St. Salvador,
at Seville, then a professor in the university
of Salamanca, and finally bishop of Segovia.
He died in 1663. He was the author of
several theoretical works on music, -which
are preserved in the royal library at Lisbon.
(Forkel, Litteratur der Musik-) E. T.
A'RBACES {'ApfidKvs) Avas the founder of
245

the Median kingdom, according to the account
of Ctesias, which is preserved by Diodorus.
The account is that Sardanapalus, the king
of Assyria, had reduced his empire to the
greatest weakness by his effeminate luxury.
The troops which guarded his capital, Ninus
(Nineveh), were composed of detachments
from the different provinces, and Avere re
viewed every year. The contingent sent
from Media was commanded by Arbaces, and
that from Babylonia by Belesys, a Chaldaean
priest skiUed in the prophetic art. This
man predicted to his friend Arbaces that he
was destined te rule over the whele empire
ef Sardanapalus; and Arbaces, in his turn,
promised Belesys that, en the fuUUment of
his prediction, he would give him the satrapy
of Babylon. Other leaders of the Assyrian
forces were drawn into the conspiracy, which
ended, after a sharp struggle, in the defeat
and self-murder of Sardanapalus, and the
accession of Arbaces to the throne of Assyria.
[Belesys ; Sardanapalus.] He fixed the
seat of empire at Ecbatana, where he reigned
fer twenty-eight years, having the fame of
wisdom and moderation. The following is a
list of his successors, with the lengths assigned
to their reigns by Diodorus : Maudauces fifty
years, Sosarmus thirty, Artycas fifty, Ar-
bianes twenty-two, Artaeus forty, Artynes
twenty-two, Astibaras forty, Aspadas or As-
tyages thirty-five. Hence the whele dura
tion of the Median empire would be three
hundred and seventeen years ; and thus
reckoning backwards from the overthrow of
Astyages by Cyrus, in 559 b.c, we get 876
B. c. as the date of the accession of Arbaces.
The difficulties which beset this account,
especially when compared with that ef Hero
dotus, are noticed, for the sake of avoid
ing repetition, in subsequent articles. The
most probable solution of those difficulties
which has been yet proposed is that by Hee
ren, whe supposes that the kingdoms founded
by Arbaces and by Deieces were distinct from
each other, that each of the two dynasties
reigned over a dift'erent part of Asia, and
that the two were united under Astyages.
(Diodorus, ii. 24—34.) P. S.
A'RBACES ('Ap/3aK7)s), the satrap of
Media, was one ef the four generals of the
army with which Artaxerxes II. opposed the
attack of his brother Cyrus (e. c.401). (Xeno
phon, Anabasis, i. 7. § 12., vii. 8. § 25.) P. S.
ARBiETHION. [Aebetion.]
ARBASI'A, CE'SARE, an Italian painter
of Saluzze in Piedmont of the end of the six
teenth century. He was a painter ef great ¦
ability, and one of the founders er first mem
bers of the academy ef St. Luke at Rome,
and one ef the first instructors in it. He
painted seme excellent works at Malaga and
Cordova in fresco and in oil. For a picture
of the Incarnation, and some other works in
the cathedral of Malaga, he Avas paid three
thousand ducats. At Cordova, in 1583, he
E 3

ARE ASIA.

ARBAUD.

painted in fresco the martyrs of that place in
the sanctuary of the cathedral. Arbasia went
to Spain about 1579, and pr (bably left that
country nine years afterward i with Federigo
Zucchero, his former master, and with him
went te Rome, which may account for his
being connected with the foundation of the
academy of St. Luke ; Federigo Zucchero
was its flrst president. Lanzi mentions only
two of Arbasla's werks in Italy, — the ceiling
ofthe church ofthe Benedictines at SavigUano
and some frescoes in the town hall of Saluzzo.
In 1601 he was granted a pension by his
government. He died in 1614, and, as Ber
mudez seems to think, in Spain. This date
of his death is learned from a drawing of
Arbasia by Don Juan de Alfaro. Palomino's
accoimt of this painter is incorrect in nearly
every fact. (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario
Historico, Sfc; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, Sfc-)
R. N. W.
ARBAUD DE PORCHE'RES, FRAN
COIS D', was born at Saint Maximin in
Provence seme years before the end ef the
sixteenth century. He was sent by his
parents for education to Paris, where he be
came the pupil and friend of the peet Mal
herbe, who at his death in 1628 bequeathed
him ene half ef his library. It has been
said that D'Arbaud was rewarded by Henry
IV. with a pension of fourteen hundred
livres for a sonnet on the eyes of Gabrielle
d'Estrees, but Mazaugues, who is the prin
cipal authority for the facts of his life, treats
the whole story as apocryphal, and the
" Biographie UniverseUe," which credits it,
assigns both the sonnet and the pension to
Laugler de Porcheres, a contemporary of
D'Arbaud, a fellow-poet and fellow-acade
mician, who from the resemblance in their
names has often been confounded with him.
The appellation ef Porcheres was taken by
both from the village Porcheres near Foreal-
quier, which belonged in part to each, and the
form ef name here adopted seems the cor
rect ene, though they are often called by dff-
ferent authors Porcheres d'Arbaud, Porcheres
Laugier, &e. During a part of the regency of
Marie de Medicis, which lasted from 1610 tUl
1614, D'Arbaud held the singular official post
of " Superintendent of the Nocturnal Plea
sures" of the court, which is said by Papon to
have been at that time a very honourable office.
He afterwards experienced a want of court
faveur, but finally, through the influence of
his friend the Abbe Boisrobert, obtained from
Cardinal Richelieu a pension ef six hundred
livres and the nomination to a place in the
French Academy, established in 1635, of
which he was one of the flrst members. We
are told, however, that he subsequently left
Paris dissatisfied with tho court in general
and the cardinal in particular, Avhom Saint
Evremond in his comedy of the " Academi
cian" represents him as perpetually blaming,
that he reUred to Burgundy, married there,
24fi

and died " in a great mediocrity of fortune
in the year 1 640."
In poetry D'Arbaud was a close imitator
of his friend Malherbe. It is said by Papon
that his verses are " infinitely superior to
those of the Provenjal poets who had pre
ceded him," His published works are : — 1.
" Paraphrase des Pseaumes graduels," at the
end of which are " Poesies sur divers Sujets,"
Paris, 1633, Svo. ; and 2. "Les Pseaumes
de la Penitence de David, traduits en Fran-
9eis," Grenoble, 1651, 12mo. It may be ob
served that his brother Jean d'Arbaud is also
stated to have pubUshed a translation of the
Psalms at Grenoble, in 1651 : the publicatien
may possibly have been a joint ene, in which
Jean inserted some ef the cempositions of
his deceased brother. The poets of that
time were much in the habit of exercising
their talents en the Psalms. Some occasional
poems by D'Arbaud on public events, " the
Siege of BoeeUe," &c., wUl be found, in con
junction with those of other poets, inthe con
temporary coUections entitled "Les Muses
ralUees," "Le Pamasse Royal," and "Le
Cabinet des Muses," His best extant pieces
are an ode to Louis XIII, and one to Cardinal
Richelieu in retum for his pension. He had
written a, poem en the "Magdalen,'' which,
to judge from the praises given it by Racan,
must have been the best of his works, but it
was never printed and appears to be lest,
(PeUissen and D'Olivet, Histoire de VAca
dimie Franfaise [containing a letter by Ma
zaugues, president ef the parUament of Aix],
edit, of 1743, i, 239—242, ; Papon, Histoire
ginirale de Provence, iv, 754, &c,) T, W,
ARBAUD, JEAN D', brother of Fran-
9ois d'Arbaud, was also a poet, but had less
talent than Francois, His only work of
length was a translation ef the Psalms, pub
lished at Grenoble in 1651, and reprinted at
Marseille in 1684, Some remarks with re
gard to it occur iu the article en Francois.
(Papon, Histoire ginirale de Provence, iv. 755.)
T, W,
ARBELLES, ANDRE' D', [Andre
d'Arbelles,] ARBE'TIO, ARBE'TION, ARBTTION,
er ARBiETHION, {'ApPeTit^v, 'Ap^irlaiv, or
'Ap$ai6luv), a distinguished Roman general,
held the consulship with LolUanus in A, d,
355, during the reign of the Emperor Con
stantius, Ammianus Marcellinus says, in his
usual extravagant style, that Arbetio was a
dangerous intriguer : that like a snake whieh
suddenly darts on the passenger from its
hole, he made his Avay from the rank of a com
mon soldier to the highest military offices ;
and that without any provocation he polluted
his conscience through an insatiable desire
of mischief. On his accession to the consul
ship, Arbetio Avas maglster cquitum. This
consulate is distinguished by Iaao laws
important in ecclesiastical history, but te
which Arbetio seems te have contributed

ARBEllO.

ARBETIO.

less than the emperor. The first law was,
that ne man should man-y his sister-in-
law, nor a woman her brother-in-law, and
that the children of such a marriage should
be considered bastards ; the second law was,
that the suits of bishops should be brought
before a tribunal composed of bishops, and
not before the ordinary courts ef justice. A
shert time after entering on his consulship,
Arbetio took the field against the Alemanni
Lentienses, who lived probably in the neigh
bourhood ef the present town of Linz on the
Danube, and whe had invaded that part of
Rhaetia which was adjacent to the Lacus
Brigantinus or the Lake of Constance. The
emperor stopped at Curia, noAV Chur, the
capital of Graubundten, and Arbetio ad
vanced upon the Alemanni, by whom he was
beaten in a first engagement. In a second
he obtained a complete victory, which, hew-
ever, he principaUy owed te the skill and
courage of three tribuni militum, Seniauchus,
Bappo, and of Arintha;us, who became the
first Roman general in the reign ef Valens,
SUvanns, a Roman general, but a Frank by
origin, having excited the jealousy of Arbe
tio, Arbetio contrived his rival's appoint
ment to the command in Gaul, hoping that
he should find an opportunity of ruining him
during his absence. Fer this purpose he
preduced several letters, which had the sig
nature of Silvanus, but the contents were
forged by Arbetio, whe had erased the
original words and substituted others which
Avere calculated to compromise Silvanus and
some of his friends as traitors to the emperor.
When Constantius saw the letters, he ordered
those friends of Silvanus to be arrested,
and summoned him to justify himself. But
Arbetio contrived that the imperial com
mand should be taken to Gaul by one Apo
demus, his instrument, whe did not deliver
his message, but began by confiscating the
estates of SUvanus in Gaul. Ou these pro
ceedings Silvanus thought himself lost,
and chese the only way of saving himself
from ruin — open rebellion. This Avas what
Arbetio desired and expected. Silvanus
assumed the imperial title at Cologne, and
his forces were so considerable that Ursicinus,
Avho commanded the troops of Constantius
that were employed against the rebel, went to
Cologne under the pretext of an interview with
Silvanus, and of joining his party. Silvanus,
Avas surprised and murdered by an armed
band belonging te Ursicinus in the church
of St. Severin, where his tomb still remains.
'This happened most probably in the month
of August, 355. In 357 the Comes Verissi-
mus and one Doras accused Arbetio of a
conspiracy against the emperor. The guilt
of Arbetio is not quite evident, although it
seems that there was sufficient ground to
accuse him. However, he conducted himself
Avith so much cunning that the accusation
resulted in nothing. Dorus disappeared, and
217

Verissimus remained sUent. When Ursi
cinus was charged with not having prevented
the fall of Amida in Ma sopotamia, which had
been taken by Sapor, tl e king of Parthia, in
359, Arbetio was on; of his judges, and
Ursicinus was dismiss sd from his post. In
361 Arbetio cemman led against the Par
thians, and in the same year Constantius
sent him against Julian, who advanced into
lUyria at the head of a rebellious army.
After the death of Constantius and the
accession of JuUan in 361, Arbetio was
appointed by JuUan member of a commis
sion which was to inquire into the conduct
of several of the ministers and courtiers
of the late emperor Constantius, At the
head of the commission was SaUustius, the
praefect ef the east, but Arbetio's influence
seems te have prevaUed over that of the pre
sident as weU as the other members. The
commission, which sat at Chalcedon, acted with
great severity. After this Arbetio retired
from public Ufe. But during the rebellion
of Procoplus against the emperor Valens,
in 365, his name appears again. Procopius
tried to persuade Arbetio to join his party, but
he declined the proposition, and the rebel in
revenge ordered the house of Arbetio to be
burned and his wealth to be plundered. In
furiated by this insult, Arbetio, who was then
an old man, listened to the proposal of Valens,
who wished to have him in his camp fer the
purpose of employing him in inducing the
rebels to leave their leader, a business for
which he thought Arbetio well fitted, Ar
betio showed that with his bad qualities he
possessed some good ones, and that his love
of intrigue was not the result of timidity.
He showed his grey hairs to the troops of
the rebel Procopius whe were inclined to
defection ; he called them his children and
companions in arms, and exhorted them to
leave the rebel and to fight once more under
their old commander for their lawful em
peror. Upon this Gomoarius, one of the
principal generals ef Procopius, forsook his
master, and went over to the emperor, Am
mianus Marcellinus and Eunapius both say
that Ai-betio was then an old man. The
events of the last years of Arbetio and the
year of his death are unknown, (Ammianus
MarceUinus, xiv, 11., xv. 2. 4, 5, 8., xvi, 4.
6, 7., XX, 2„ xxi 13,, xxvi 9, ; Zoslmus,
iv, 1 — 10, ; Socrates, ii. c, 34, ; Eunapius, p,
73. ed, Bonn,) W, P.
A'RBITER, PETRO'NIUS. [Petro
nius Arbiter.]
ARBLAY, MADAME D'. [Burney.]
A'RBOGAST, ARBOGA'STES, ('Ap^o-
ydoTT]!,) was a Frank who entered the Roman
service and commanded with great success
against the Germans, especially the Alemanni,
and in Macedonia and Thessaly, dm-ing the
reign of Gratian. This emperor, after having
lost a battle against the rebel Maximus, fled
into the Provincia Lugdunensis in Gaul,
B 4

ARBOGAST.

ARBOGAST.

where he was put to death by Andragathius,
the commander of the cavalry of Maximus, in
A. D. 383. The successors of Gratian Avere
Theodosius in the eastem empire, and Valen
tinian II, in the western empire, which was dis
puted by Maximus, who assumed the purple,
and advanced upon Italy, Valentinian, a young
man without experience, being unable to stop
the progress of Maximus, who had passed the
Alps, fled to Thessalonica (a, d. 387), and
implored the assistance of Theodosius, whe
immediately took the field against Maximus.
He sent Arbogast, whe was then maglster
militum, against Victor, the son of Maximus,
on whom his father had conferred the dignity
of Cajsar and the governorship of Gaul.
Arbogast defeated him, and Victor lost his
life in the contest, the consequence of which
was that the authority ef Valentinian was re
established in a great part ef Gaul. Andra
gathius, whe then commanded the fleet of
Maximus in the Ionian Sea, hearing of Arbe-
gast's victory, in a fit of despair drowned
himself in the sea. In the following year,
A. D. 38S, Maximus was defeated near Aqui
leia by 'Theodosius, and put to death with
the reluctant consent of Theodosius. Valen
tinian now felt that Arbogast was no less
dangerous than Maximus. Arbogast con
tinued te command the Roman army in Gaul.
His eminent military talents and his general
character wen the affections of the soldiers,
who gradually ceased to obey Valentinian,
and became ready instruments in the hands
of their leader. The authority of Arbogast
was not confined to the army : he usurped
the civil administration, and conferred the
principal offices upon his adherents. Valen
tinian visited Gaul and took up his resi
dence at Vienna (Vienne in Dauphine), but
he soon felt that he was little better than the
prisoner of Arbogast. At last the unfor
tunate emperor saw that he must either ab
dicate or resort to bold measures. He sum
moned Arbogast before him, and gave him a
paper by which he was dismissed from his
employments. Arbogast impudently ex
claimed, " Theu hast net given me my au
thority and thou canst not take it from me ; "
and tearing the paper in pieces he threw it
contemptuously at the foot ef the imperial
throne. Roused by indignation, Valentinian
sprung from his seat, and snatching a sword
from one of the guards, was going to attack
his general, but the guards interfered, and
after a useless straggle, the emperor desisted
from violence. A few days after (15th of
May, 392) Valentini.in Avas found dead in
his room, and Arbogast and his adherents
gave it out that the emperor had hanged
himself [Valentinian.] The general opi
nion, hoAvever, Avas that Valentinian had been
murdered by order of Arbogast ; and this
epiuion prevailed at the court of Theodosius,
Avhem Arbogast tried in vain te convince that
Valentinian died a natural death. Theodosius,
248

however, did not yet venture to declare war
against Arbogast. He dismissed Arbogast's
ambassadors with the usual presents, but se
cretly organised a numerous army te be ready
for the contest. Although possessed ef the
imperial power, Arbogast seems te have seen
danger in the imperial name. He seated en
the throne the rhetorician Eugenius, a learned
man, who had been his private secretary,
and who then held the important office of
maglster officiorum. To induce Theodosius
to recognise Eugenius as emperor was the
principal commission ef Arbogast's ambas
sadors at Constantinople, but, as already
stated, they did net succeed, and their nego
ciations were principally checked by the
revengeful intrigues of Galla, the wffe of
Theodosius, and the sister of Valentinian.
The contest between Arbogast and Theo
dosius began in A. d. 394. The army of
Theodosius, reinforced by a strong body ef
Huns, Alani, Iberians, and Goths, advanced
from Pannonia towards the north-eastern
part of ItaUy, The army ef Eugenius, or
rather of Arbogast, consisted of the Roman
legions in Gaul, of a strong body of Romans
raised in Italy by Flavian, ence the com
mander ef the praetorians of Valentinian, and
an auxiUary body of Germans, principaUy
Franks, whose support Arbogast owed to his
great influence over all the Teutonic tribes
which were then hovering on the frontiers ef
Gaul and Italy. Arbogast led his army
towards the Julian Alps as far as the river
Frigldus, new the Wippach, and after having
ordered Flavian to forttfy the Alpine passes,
and put the Emperor Eugenius in his rear, he
waited for Theodosius. The first lieutenant
of Theodosius was Stilicho ; Gainas and Ala-
ric commanded the Goths, and Bacm-ins the
Iberians, The engagement took place en the
6th of December, a, d, 394. On the first
day Theodosius made a fruitless attack on
the troops of Flavian, who defended the
passes through which Theodosius was obUged
to descend into Italy : ten thousand of the sol
diers of Theodosius, and Bacurius, the leader
of the Iberians, fell, StlUcho anil Timasius,
who was likewise a general of Theodosius,
advised him to retreat ; but in the night the
emperor dreamed that he saw the apostles
John and Philip riding on horseback at the
head of his army, and he resolved to make
a fresh attack, Theodosius was aided by
treason and defection among the commanders
of his opponent, several of whom deserted
the ranks ef Arbogast, and went over to
Theodosius. The army of Eugenius was
routed after an obstinate struggle in which
Arbogast was successful, till a thunder storm
burst from the Alps and drove shoAvers of
dust and hail in the faces of his soldiers.
Eugenius Avas made prisoner and put to death.
Arbogast fled into the mountains, and after
having wandered about during two days
threw himself on his sword, (Zosimus, 1, Ia'.

ARBOGAST.

ARBOGAST.

pp. 243. 266. 275. &c., 278. &c., 282, &c,,
ed, Oxford, 1679 ; PhUostorgius, xi, p,
484 — 486. ed. Valeslus ; Joraandes, p. 55.
ed. Lindenbrog, Theephanes, p. 60, 61,
ed. Paris, calls Arbogast, Artabasdus, and
says that he was a native of Galatia, both of
which are mistakes, Claudian, in III. Cons.
Honorii, v, 96, &c., IV. Cons. Honorii, v.
72. &c, Claudian's description of the battle
on the Frigidus is a tasteless exaggeration,
and he surpasses the Umits even ef poetic
Ucence,) W, P.
ARBOGAST, LOUIS FRANCOIS AN
TOINE, bom at Mutzig in Alsace, in 1759.
He was first professor of mathematics in the
school of artillery at Strassburg, afterwards
rector of the university in the same city, and
he died professor of mathematics in the
central school ef the Bas-Rhin department,
at Strassburg, April S. 1803. He had pre
viously represented that department in the
legislative assembly and the national con
vention, but even in that capacity, he took
no part in politics, and confined himself to
legislative measures connected with science,
or with education and the committee of public
instructien, of which last he was one ef the
chief promoters, {Biogr. Univ. the only
authority we know of.)
In 1789, he presented to the Academy of
Sciences an " Essai sur de nouveaux prin
cipes de Calcul Differentiel et Integral, inde-
pendant de la theorie des infiniments petits,
et de ceUe des Umites." This essay was never
published, but, by the description given of it
in the " Calcul des Derivations," it seems to
have taken the same ground which Lagrange
afterwards occupied, the hint being taken
in some degree from a previous paper of
Lagrange. In 1792 he gained the prize of
the academy of St. Petersburg fer a memoir
on the arbitrary functions introduced by
partial integration. This memoir is printed,
but has become extremely scarce.
The principal work of Arbogast, and the
one which will presei-ve his name, is the
" Calcul des Derivations," 4to. Strassburg,
1800. This werk contains the first use
(though not the first suggestion) of that
method of using symbols of operation in
dependently ef symbols of quantity, which,
in its most recent developments, has been
caUed the Calculus of Operations. But it is
principally devoted te the development of
his method of derivations, a generalisation
of the derivation employed in the Differ
ential Calculus, by which the de-velopment
of any function of a polynomial is placed
on the same footing, as fo organisation, with
the development of a functien of a binomial
by 'Taylor's theorem. The work is filled
with semcAvhat repulsive details of operation,
derived from a very elegant and useful prin
ciple. The reader may form an idea of Ar
bogast's results, though derived in a different
manner, from the " Penny Cyclopaedia" (article
249

"Taylor," vol, xxiv. p. 129 — 132.), the " Dif
ferential Calculus," (Library of Useful Know
ledge, pp. 328—336.), or from Mr. West's
posthumous " Mathematical Treatises," Edin
burgh, 1838. We are decidedly of opinion
that Arbogast's method has been underrated.
See the " Penny Cyclopaedia," article, " Rever
sion of Series," vel. xix. p. 437., and also vol.
xxiv. p. 131., note; see also the "Differ
ential Calctdns," just cited, p. 602. A. De M.
ARBOGASTES. [Arbogast.]
ARBO'REO. [Arborio.]
ARBO'REUS, JOANNES, a native of
Laon in Picardy, became a doctor of the
Sorbonne, and published, in the sixteenth
century, several theological works which
once enjoyed reputation. In regard to the
events of his Ufe, Du Pin was not able to
learn any thing, except that he had founded
in the Sorbonne a perpetual mass te be said
annually fer the repose of his soul. His
published writings are the foUowing: — 1.
" Theosephiae Temi I, II. , seu Expositio
difficillimorum Locorum "Veteris et Novi
Testamenti," Paris, 1540, fol. This work
is described by Du Pin as useful for the im
mense mass of citations which it accumulates
from the Greek and Latin Fathers, in support
of the propositions laid down at the com
mencement of each chapter. 2. " Com-
mentarU in Ecclesiasten et in Canticum Can-
ticerum," Paris, 1531, 1537, fol,, and, with the
" Commentarius in Proverbia," Paris, 1553,
fol, 3. " Commentarii in Quatuor Evan-
gelistas," Paris, 1529, 1551, fol. 4. " Expla-
natlo in omnes Divi Pauli Epistolas," Paris,
1553, fol, 5, " Commentarius in Proverbia
Salomonis," Paris, 1549, fol, 6. "Commen
tarius ad Epistolas Publii Fausti Andrelini,"
Cologne, 1507, 1509, 1526, Svo., Hehnstiidt,
1662, Svo, [Andrelini,] (jyuVm, Nouvelle
Bibliotheque des Auteurs Ecctisiastiques, xvi,
40. ; Adelung, Supplement to Jocher, AUge
meines Gelehrten-Lexicon.) W, S,
ARBO'RIO, sometimes, though seldom,
written ARBO'REO, is the name of an an
cient and neble family settled for many ages
in Northern Italy, Its members claim a
descent from those Arborii of Southern Gaul
whe were the maternal ancestors of the poet
Ausonius. The more recent portion ef their
pedigree is better authenticated, and is eld
enough to satisfy a considerable genealo
gical ambition. Found in the course of the
dark ages in Burgundy, they migrated into
Piedmont, and were distinguished nobles ef
Vercelli as early as the twelfth century. In
the ages succeeding that time they were
usually styled Counts ef Gattinara, from the
principal lordship which they possessed, lying
seme miles from Vercelli. The wealth and
consequence of the family received consider
able accessions in the sixteenth century,
through Charles V.'s celebrated chanceUor,
who was its head ; and in mere recent times
it has become still more wealthy, having ex-

ARBORIO.

ARBORIO.

tensive possessions beth in Piedmont and in
Lombardy. In our own time the chiefs of
the house ef Arborio di Gattinara take title
as Marquises of Breme. Several of its mem
bers have been conspicuous enough to be here
noticed. (Moreri, Dictionnaire Historique.)
W. S.
ARBO'RIO DI GATTINA'RA,
A'NGELO ANTO'NIO, was born at
Pavia in 1658, and, being devoted to the
church from an early age, entered the order
of the Barnabites. Having shown ability in
public business, and possessing strong family
influence, he was appointed by the pope in
1706 to be bishop of Alessandria deUa
Paglia ; and in 1724 he was raised to the
archbishopric of Turin, being at the same
time made the royal almoner. He published
some sermons, and a volume ef synodical
" Decreta ;" and in virtue of these works he
is placed on the file ef Vercellese men of
letters by the authors of the " Storia della
VerceUese Letteratura." Their labours fur
nish succeeding biographers with the few de
tails new known concerning his private life.
His name, however, has found its way into
one chapter in the history of Italy, through
the share which he had in one of the most
singular political events ef his day ; namely,
the attempt made by Victor Amadeus I. in
1731 to re-possess himself of the throne of
Sardinia, which he had abdicated net long
before in favour of his son, Charles Emmanuel
III. In the secret council which the reigning
king summoned hastily to advise him, when
his father presented himself and demanded
the keys of the citadel of Turin, the Arch
bishop Gattinara was present. He spoke
boldly and firmly, when all the other coun-
seUors sat hesitatingly sUent. Denina repre
sents him as having adduced arguments of
sound policy to convince the king — doubt
less no reluctant convert . — that he ought to
refuse restitution of the crown to his father ;
and Betta, after his favourite classical fashion,
puts into the archbishop's mouth a long
harangue, in which the arguments are rhe
torically enforced and illustrated. The his
torians, however, agree iu saying that the
orator was merely the organ of ether parties,
and particularly of the Marquis d'Ormea, the
favourite minister of state. The minister
availed himself of the respect due to the pre
late's venerable age, and ef the effect to be
anticipated from his known fluency of elo
quence, fer recommending a measure which
had been already determined upon, but Avhich
Avas se far open to cavil as te malie the real
advisers reluctant to incur the responsibility
of being the first to suggest it. 'The arch
bishop died in 1743. ( Biographie Uni-
vcrsetU', Supplement ; Denina, Istoria della
Ita,lia Occidentale, lib. xvi cap. 2.; Botta,
Storia d' Italia sino al 1789, lib. xxxAdii )
W. S.
ARBO'RIO DI GATTINA'R.'V, GIO

VANNI MERCURI'NO, a younger brother
ofthe archbishop Angelo, was bom in 1685,
at Lucca, where his parents happened to be
fer a time. Entering the same religious fra
ternity with his brother, he was appointed to
succeed him as bishop of Alessandria. He
retained that see tiU his death, which hap
pened at the seat of his bishopric in 1743.
He published several orations delivered on
public occasions, and a volume ef " Consti
tutiones Synodales," {Biographic Univer
selle, Supplement.) W. S,
ARBO'RIO DI GATTINA'RA, LUIGI,
the second sen of Luigi Giuseppe, marquis
di Breme, is usually knoAvn as the Abbe di
Breme. He was bom at Turin in 1781.
Displaying an early aptitude for Uterary ac
quirements, he became one ofthe most zealous
and distinguished pupUs of the Abbe di
Caluso, then attached to the university of
Turin. His sensitive mind was deeply
affected by the death ef his mother, which
happened when he was very young ; and he
had hardly recovered from this shock, when
he wais exposed to another yet more severe,
from a disappointment in love. In the despon
dency which these events inspired, he aban
doned those scenes ef Uterature and active
Iffe in which he was best fitted to shine, and,
at the age ef twenty-two, obtaining a special
dispensation, took priest's orders. But the
position of his father at the conrt ef Eugene,
the viceroy of Italy, soon tempted him to quit
the retirement into which he had thrown
himself He was appointed almoner of the
viceroy, and afterwards governor of the
viceregal pages. " Thus recaUed," says his
friend Sismondl, " to the bosom of a brUUant
society, he distinguished himself there by his
wit, by the gentleness of his character, by his
taiste for literature, by his talent for poetry."
He appeairs te have given up aU thoughts of
rising in the church, fer which indeed his
disposition quaUfied him but indifferently.
" He was sincerely attached," says Sismondl,
" to a mild, phUosophical, enUghtened reli
gion ; but the priesthood wais Ul-suited for
him. No man had a more loving heai-t, no
man had more need ef fanuly affection." In
1807, he was made a chevalier of the Iron
Crown, and received a place in the salaried
councU ef state. On the restoration of legi
timacy in Piedmont, the abbe retained for
some time his place as governor of the pages ;
but the estabUshment was soon dissolved,
and he afterwards devoted himself uninter
ruptedly to his literary avocations, residing
principally, like his father, at ]Uilan. There
he became the friend of Silvio PelUce, ef
Counts Porro and Confalonieri, and ef those
other enlightened men who endeavoured, at
the cost of so much suffering to themselves,
to make literature the instrument of diffusing
sound and liberal opinions on the great ques
tions of social interest. The Abbe di Breme
Avns (mo of the literary contributors to the

ARBORIO.

ARBORIO.

famous Milanese journal caUed " II ConcUia-
tere," whioh, after having straggled fer a
time against all the obstacles opposed to it, was
forcibly suppressed by the Austrian govern
ment in 1820. Luigi di Breme did not live
to witness this disappointment. Flis eldest
brother, the Marquis di Sartirano, while hur
riedly conducting a physician to attend his
sick father, was drowned in the river Ti-
cine ; and another brother nartowly escaped
sharing his fate. The abbe hastened te Turin
to take charge of the marquis's orphans ; but,
falling into a sickness, which was caused or
increased by grief and alarm, he lingered fer
some months, and died in the beginning ofthe
year 1820, in the thirty-ninth year of his age.
The Aljbe di Breme is represented as
having been one of the most accomplished
men ef our time. His studies embraced not
only the literature ef Greece, Rome, and
modern Italy, but that of France, Spain,
Germany, and England. He studied ardently
likewise the Armenian language, in the hope
of recovering translations of some of those
masterpieces in Greek letters, the originals
ef which have perished. His views as to the
theory of imaginative literature were those of
the Romantic school, which he had learned in
the course of his German reading, and which
he advocated in the treatise that stands second
in the following list ef his published works.
1. Several occasional poems addressed to the
vice-queen of Italy, among which is particu
larly mentioned a canzone addressed te her
in 1811, on her return from the baths of
Abano. 2. " Discorso interne aU' Ingiustizia
di alcuni Giudizj Letterarii Italiani," Milan,
1816, 4te. 3. " Cenni Storici degli Studii e
della Vita di Tommaso Valperga di Caluso,"
Milan, 1817, Svo.; a grateful tribute to the
memory ef his distinguished instructor. 4.
" Lettera in Versi Sclolti, a Tommaso Val
perga dl Caluso," MUan, 1817, Svo. 5.
" Grand Commentaire sur un petit Article,
par un Vivant remarquable sans le savoir ; ou.
Reflections et Notes generales et particulieres
il propos d'un Article qui le concerne dans la
' 1 liographie des Hommes Vivants,' " Geneva,
1817. 'This article of half a page, upon which
the abbe (with a testiness inherited from his
fother) thus thought it worth while to write
a commentary of two hundred and twenty-
one pages, treats him very scurvily indeed.
It describes him as having been a con
temptible sycophant ef Prince Eugene and
his wife, and as having endeavoured, un
successfully, to maintain a slmUar position at
court after the restoration. Sismondi says
that the principal purpose of the pamphlet
was, to render public homage to those patrons
to whom the writer had owed so much, and
Avhom he now saAV neglected or calumniated.
0. '' Istruzione al Popolo sulla Vaccina e
suoi Vantaggi," Novara, 1818, r2me. 7.
"Novelle Letterarie," MUan, 1820; a po
lemical paper directed against articles in
251

a Florentuie periodical. 8. Contributions
to the " Concillatore." He edited also, in
1819, Pellice's "Francesca da Rimini," and
the same poet's Itadian translation of Byron's
" Manfred." {Biographic Universelle, Sup
plement, art. " Brdme ;" Sismondi, in tbe
Revue Encyclopidique, 1820, viii. 477 — 480.;
Biographie des Hommes 'Vivants, i. 475. ;
Biographie Nouvelle des Contemporains, iii.
457. ; M.aiiVi\, Annuaire Nicrologique, ii. 316. ;
Pellioo, Le Mie Prigioni, preUminary notices,
London, 1834.) W. S.
ARBO'RIO DI GATTINA'RA, LUIGI
GIUSEPPE, MARQUIS DI BRE>ME,
was born in 1754, at Paris, where his father
then resided as ambassador from the court
of Turin. In the ancient pedigree of the
house of which he became the chief, and in
the extensive possessions which belonged to
him, both in Piedmont and in Lombardy,
the Marquis di Breme possessed claims to
court faveur which were not likely to be
overlooked by the princes under whom his
early years were spent. Afterwards his
talents for public business, united with a
moderation or pliancy of opinions to which
his detractors gave a less favourable name,
recommended him stiU more strongly te the
revolutionary rulers ef Northern Italy.
After having served, while very young, as
a subaltern in the Piedmontese army, he de
voted himself to (Uplemacy, and discharged
successively, during the years which pre
ceded the revolution, several important mis
sions. In 1782, he was appointed by Victor
Amadeus III. te be extraordinary envoy at
Naples, after which he became ambassador at
Vienna; and in 1791 he represented his
sovereign at the disastrous conference of
Pilnitz. Returning to Piedmont after having
held for a short time the embassy to Madrid,
he took part but occasionally in public affairs
till the occupation of Piedmont by the French
in 1798. He was then sent to France as a
hostage, and remained there for mere than a
year. In 1805, residing at Milan, he became
personally known to Napoleon, Avho, finding
him disposed to serve the new imperial go
vernment, gave him a place in his council of
state, and appointed him commissary-general
fer the army of Italy, an office whieh he
filled with so much activity as te gain the
confidence of the viceroy Eugene. Seen
affterwards, accordingly, upon Eugene's re
commendation, he was appointed minister ef
the interior for the kingdom of Italy ; and
the concurring testimony of friends and ene
mies shows his administration to have been
honest and judicious. Even the author ef a
history of the kingdom of Italy, which the
marquis thought so unjust towards him as to
require the publication of a reply, asserts only
that he was subservient and over-zealous te
such a degree as to disgust Napoleon, Avhen,
in 1807, he and the minister came again into
personal communication. Shortly aifter that

ARBORIO.

ARBORIO.

time, Vaccari, the former secretary ef state,
was appointed to the ministry of the interior
in room of the Marquis di Breme ; whe, how-
e-ver, obtained honours of a less responsible
kind as amends fer his loss ef real power. He
received the grand cross of the order ef the
Iron Crown, and was afterwards appointed
president of Napoleon's submissive senate.
Upon the return of the King ef Sardinia to
Piedmont, in 1814, the marquis presented
himself at the court ef Turin. Supported by
his known merits as a pubUc servant, as well
as by his wealth and rank, and his relationship
to the king's adviser the Count Saint Mar-
sau, he was received into tffe royal favour,
and made treasurer of the order of Saint Mau
rice. His name appears again, but only for
a moment, in the history of the Piedmontese
revolution of 1821. 'When Victor Emma
nuel abdicated the throne, the Marquis di
Breme was one of the fifteen members whom
the regent, the Prince of Carignano, nomi
nated as a provisional junta of government ;
and in the arrangements which were imme
diately attempted fer forming a permanent
administration, the marquis was invited to
take office as minister for foreign affairs.
He declined, however, te accept the perUeus
honour, and took no part in the short and
abortive struggle which ensued. The offer,
made in such circumstances, was a proof ef
his being regarded as a man who would have
been acceptable to the party which was for
the time predominant ; and the revolutionary
leaders expressed great disappointment at the
want ef courage te which they attributed his
refusak The Marquis di Brdme had four
sons ; and, after the death of two ef these in
1820, as related in the last article, he re
tired to the country, and died at his estate
of Sartirano, in 1828.
Throughout his whole Iffe he displayed a
strong love of literary study and exertion.
Having found at Naples, during his embassy
there, a translation of Longus's Greek ro
mance of Daphnis and Chloe by Annibal
Care, he edited a smaU edition of it, printed
by Bodoni. He published also several small
treatises of his own, chiefly upon abstract
questions of social economy, amd two pam
phlets in reply to historical werks, in which
his own name had been introduced in a man
ner with which he was dissatisfied. The pam
phlets bear the following titles; — 1. "Brevi
Osservazloni d'un Piemontese interne alcune
Inezatezze di Quattro Raccenti venuti alia
luce, sopra T Attentata RiA'oluzione del Pie
monte nei 1821," Parma, 1822. 2. " Ob
servations du Marquis Arborio Gattinare de
Breme, sur quelques Articles peu exacts de
THlstoire de T Administration du Royaume
d'ltalie pendant la Domination des Frani^ais,
attribue a un nomine Ceraccini, et traduitcs
de I'ltalien," 'Turin, 1823, ninety-four pages.
{Biographie Universelle, Supplemcnl, art.
" Mr'cme;" Biographie des Hommes Mvants,

i. 474.; Biographie Nouvelle des Contempo
rains, iii. 456. ; Ceraccini, Histoire de V Ad
ministration duRoyaume d'ltalie, Paris, 1823, p,
xli, 184. ; De la Revolution Piimontaise, Paris,
1821 [Santa Rosa], p. 97.; Pricis Historique
sur les Rivolutions de Naples et de Pieinont,
Paris, 1821 [De Maistre], p, 143, ; Revue
Encyclopidique, xxi, 384,) W, S.
A RBO'RIO, MERCURI'NO, better known
as COUNT DI GATTINA'RA, exercised an
important influence upon public affairs in Ger
many at the epoch of the Protestant Reforma
tion. He was born at VerceUi in Piedmont.
in 1465. Gnicciardini's assertion that he
was a man of low birth has been repeat
edly refuted. He was a son, and became
by inheritance the head, of the noble family
of Arborio. Mercurino studied law profession
ally ; but from an early age he was immersed
in the business of the state ; and his reputa
tion as a jurisconsult was soon eclipsed by that
which he gained as a statesman and diplo
matist. His first public employment was in
the councU of the Duke ef Savoy ; and whUe
thus engaged he became known, both in his
official character and through professional
services, to Margaret of Austria, Duke Phi-
libert's wife. That princess, after her hus
band's death, en receiving from her father,
the Emperor Maximilian, possession ef her
mother's heritage, the duchy of Burgundy,
appointed Arborio, in 1507, to be president
of the parliament ef the duchy. In the
course ef the next year he was employed by
the emperor as a negociator with foreign
powers. Thenceforth he continued to be
closely connected with the imperial court ;
and the connection became more intimate
after the year 1518, when, partly in conse
quence of discontents among the Burgun-
dlan nobles, ending in an insurrection, he was
removed from his place in the administratien
of that province. The imperial favour which
he had enjoyed during the reign of Max
imilian was continued, or rather increased,
by the emperor's grandson and successor.
When Charles V., in 1520, came to Aix-la-
Chapelle to be crowned, he appointed the
Count di Gattinara to be his chancellor and a
member of his privy council ; and he alst^
commissioned him to compose and deliver the
formal address of thanks te the electors. In ne
long time the chanceUor had acquired Charles's
unlimited confidence, which he enjoyed with
out interruption during the whole remainder
of his life. He was consulted and employed ia
all the most difficult and important emergencies
ofthe emperor's active reign. In 1529 he was
the principal agent ef Charles in negoc iating the
treaty of Cambray, and in effecting arrauge-
ments with tho pope and the ether poAvers of
Italy. Indeed, it is said that there Avas only
one important tramsaction of his time in
Avhlch he had ne share ; and the nature of
this solitary exception was such as te shOAV
strikingly the independence and firmness of

ARBORIO.
his character. The transaction in question
was the treaty of Madrid, settling the terms
of the liberation ef Francis I. He net only
declined taking part in the negociation of the
treaty, but (as Guicciardini asserts) peremp
torily refused to affix his official signature to
it, aUeging that his office did not authorise
him to de acts injurious or dishonourable to
his master.
In regard te the religious questions of the
time, Gattinara's position was ene which
makes his character peculiarly interesting
to Protestant students of history. It is al
lowed, by historians of all parties, that he was
always the advocate ef lenient and conciliatory
measures towards the Reformers. There
does net seem to be direct evidence as to the
part he had in the rigorous proceedings
against Luther at the diet of Worms, Avhich
took place before he had had tune to acquire
much of Charles's confidence. But he evi
dently felt himself te be clear of all responsi
bility fer the steps which were then adopted ;
for, in the subsequent progress of the struggle,
we see him again and again referring to the
consequences of the edict ef Worms, as
proving hew little good could be dene by
severity. In direct communications with the
papal see, Ukewise, he insisted on the neces
sity of summoning a free council of the
church, and of using other means for a reform
in ecclesiastical constitution and discipline.
In short his position is perhaps rightly un
derstood, when he is ranked among those
cool spectators of the contest (then so nume
rous among the mere enlightened Catholics,
both churchmen and laics), who saw that the
time had arrived for sweeping changes, but
Avho conceived that nothing was required
beyond a compromise, leaving the founda
tions ef the church unremoved. It is not
surprising to find that » person of this cha
racter was a friend and correspondent ef
Er.ismus. The German leaders of the Re
formation, hoAvever, Avere extremely reluctant
to regard the eloquent and powerful chancel
lor as thus indifferent to the great principles
which they held. At several periods in his
life they seem to have been willing to think,
that he Avas positively favourable te their
vicAvs even upon .questions ef doctrine. Lu
ther, in one ef his letters, gees so far as to
say, that perhaps God, to help them, had
raised up this man to be Uke Naaman the
Syrian, who believed in the Lord ef Hosts,
although he went in with his master to bow
himself in the house of Rimmon.
¦N^'hatCA'cr may have been the chancellor's
tendencies, he never gave Avay to them so
far as either to diminish his faveur with his
master, or to place himself in hostility te
the court of Rome. The emperor continued
te heap honours and rewards on hun to the
last, conferring en him several other lord
ships in addition to his hereditary possessions.
Shortly before his death Pope Clement VII.
253

ARBORIO.
sought te attach him to his interests by the
strongest ties which were at his command.
Gattinara was no ecclesiastic, and had mar
ried in early youth. His wife, however, must
have been dead in 1529 ; for he then accepted a
cardinal's hat. What effect the scarlet might
have had upon his mind, there was net time
te determine. He had been in bad health
for some time, being afflicted severely with
gout, and bemg carried in a litter te his
reception in the college ef cardinals. He
exerted himself to the utmost in his public
duties notwithstanding his bodUy sufferino-s,
and set out to accompany the emperor to
the diet of Augsburg, The fatigues ef the
journey brought his disease to a crisis ; and
he died at Innsbruck in June, 1530, aged
sixty-five years.
The reputation of Gattinara as an orator
must be received upon the report of his con
temporaries. We possess hardly any ef his
writings. The oration which Guicciardini at
tributes to him (Ub, xvi) en the treaty of
Madrid, will of course be placed to the credit
of the historian. His address of thanks to
the electors of the Holy Roman Empire for
the election ef Charles has been preserved
in what seems to be a genuine form. It will
be found in the memoirs ef him by Hane and
Gerdes, cited below ; being taken from Sabi-
nus's account of the emperor's coronation, in
Schard's " Rerum Germanicarum Scrlptores "
(ii, 14.), In the memoirs there are likewise
two letters of Gattinara to Erasmus, Ade
lung gives the two foUowing titles as belong
ing te treatises of his still existing in
manuscript. 1. "Sommaire Deduction des
Querelles que la Maison d'Autriche et de
Bourgogne a contre la Maison de France
pour le Duche de Bourgogne," said to be in
the library of the cathedral at Dornick (in
Holstein). 2. " Instruction sur les Differens
Droits de la Maison de Bourgogne,"
The pubUc events of Gattinara's life, espe
cially these which bear upon the history of the
Reformation, are related and commented upon
in tAVO memoirs (the first of them very elabor
ate), both of which, however, are greatly defi
cient in personal detaUs : 1. Hane's "Memoria
Merourlni Arborei de Gattinara," first pub
lished at Kiel, 1728, 4te,, and again in his
" Historia Sacrorum a Luthero Emenda-
torum," 1729, 4to. p. 185-220. ; 2. Gerdes,
" Historia Evangelii Renovati," 1744, i. 36.
195—204. sections 19. 82, 83. (Hane and
Gerdes, above cited ; Moreri, Dictionnaire
Historique, art. " Arboreo " ; CerenelU, Bib
lioteca tjniversale, att. "Arboreo"; Adelung,
Supplement te Jocher, AUgemeines Gelehrten-
Lexicon, art. " Gattinara " ; Sandoval, His
toria del Emperador Carlos V) W. S.
ARBO'RIUS Avas the famUy name beme
successively, in the third and fourth centuries
of our aera, by two distinguished men of
Gaul, a father and his son. The merits of
neither of the two would demand much

ARBORIUS.

ARBORIUS.

notice in modern times, were it not for their
near relationship to ene of the most celebrated
literary men of their age. From his poetical
writings indeed is gathered aU the knowledge
that has reached us in regard to them.
Areorius, Cbcilius Argicius, a wealthy
native of Augustodimum (or Autun), lost his
estates in the disturbances which harassed the
country about the year 264. He then migrated
te the Gallic province of Nevempopulana,
where he took up his residence in the dis
trict now marked by the toAvn ef Bayonne.
There, after having in some measure retrieved
his fortunes, he died in extreme old age,
having more than completed his ninetieth
year. One of his daughters became the mother
of the poet Ausonius, who has affectionately
commemorated his amiable character, and
his reputation for skill in mathematics and
astrology. Among the friuts of his study of
the stars was a nativity, which he calculated
fer his poetical grandson, and which the
vanity of the boy's mother made known.
Areorius, iEMiLius Magnus, was a son
of Caecilius, and consequently the maternal
uncle of Ausonius. He was born about the
year 270, in the district to which his father
had removed after his misfortunes. He ac
quired great celebrity as a pleader, and as a
teacher of the theory and practice of elo
quence. He taught at Toulouse, afterwards
at Narbonne, and practised as a jurisconsult
both in Gaul and in Spain. Afterwards he
was called to Constantinople by the Em
peror Constantine, to undertake the tuition
of one ef his children ; and there, after
having increased both his fame and his pos
sessions, he died about the year 335, His
body was sent by the emperor to be buried
in his native country. No prose works of
his survive, to enable us to judge hew far he
deserved the commendations for oratorical
excellence which are lavished upon him by
his nephew. Nor is there any good reason
for attributing to him a Latin poem of ninety-
two Unes, in the elegiac stanza, " Ad Nym-
pham nimis cultam," which appears, under
his name, in Burmann's " Catalecta Poetarum
Latinorum," lib, ili, p, 691 — 695,, and in
Wernsdorff 's " Poetaj Latini Mineres," iii.
217 — 225. It had previously been inserted
in the elder editions of Petronius Arbiter,
among the erotic poems usuaUy annexed to
the " Satyricon." The poem is little else
than an expansion, but by no means an im
provement, of the second elegy in the first
book of Prepcrtius.
Both Arborii appear to have been Chris
tians, at least if we are to accept in their
favour the testimony of Ausonius, a testi
mony given incidentally and equivocally, and
by a witness Avho is himself not above sus
picion. (Ausonius, Parentalia, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.,
l^rofessores, 16.; Histoire Littiraire de la
France, tome i part 2. pp. 58. 97 — 99, ;
Chaufepie, Nouveau Dictionnaire Historique
254

et Critique, 1750, i. 422, ; Wernsdorff, Poeiffi
Latini Minores, iU, 139 — 141,) AV, S,
ARBRISSEL, or, as it is written by some
authors, ARBRISELLES, ROBERT D',
the founder of the singular order of Fonte-
ATaud, derived his name from the place of
his birth. He was bom about the year 1047
at Arbrissel, or as it is new called Arbresec,
a viUage near La Guerche, in the diocese of
Rennes. His parents were of the middle
class. After learning aU he could from the
provincial teachers, he went to Paris in
1074, and soon afterwards was made priest.
In 1085, SUvestre de la Guerche, bishop ef
Rennes, who was a man of no leai-ning
himself but a patron of the learned, invited
Robert te his diocese, and employed him in
its government. He made him arch-pres
byter and vicar-general. The state ef morals
at the time among both the clergy and the
laity was deplorable. For four years Robert
exerted himself with great zeal and success
to suppress the scandalous sale of benefices,
to break off the incestuous marriages which
were then common, to prevent the concubin
age of priests, and to extirpate other inveterate
vices. But in the year 1089 the bishop died,
and Robert was no longer supported by
episcopal authority. Feeling the effects of
the resentment which his former efforts had
excited, he left the diocese of Rennes and
taught theology at Angers for two years.
Becoming disgusted with the world, and
fearing that he could not work out his own
salvation amidst its corruption, he went with
one companion and buried himself in the
forest of Craon, which was towards the con
fines of Anjou and Bretagne, Here he in
vented every day some new device to crucify
his body. He gave up all deUcate food and
wine, A sackcloth covered his body, and
the bare earth was his bed. Many who
went te see him were persuaded to remain
and imitate his Iffe. In 1096, Urban II,
came to Angers to dedicate the church of
St. Nicolas, and hearing of the powerful
eloquence of Robei-t, requested him te preach
at the ceremony of the dedication. The
effect of the sermon was, that the pope ap
pointed him " apostolic preacher," and per
mitted him to exercise his priestly office
throughout the whole world ; and Reginald,
the lord of Craon, the day after the sermon,
made him a donation of a portion of the
forest of Craon, that he might found in it an
abbey. Such is the origin of the abbey of
La Roe (de Rota). For two years Robert
discharged the duties of prior of La Roe ; hut
after that time he began te think that the
commission which he had received from the
pope prevented hun from confining hunself
to one place. Abdicating his dignity, he
went about preaching, followed by numbers
of both sexes. There Avere two other fa
mous preachers who joined Robert d' Arbris
sel in his missionary labours ; and according

ARBRISSEL.
to the testimony of au ancient historian, they [
made a species of compact with Robert, that I
he should "take care of the women whom
they had converted 'by theU- jemt labours,
whUe they gave their attention to the men."
Robert seems to have possessed an eloquence
which was particulariy effective with females.
At Rouen, he is said to have entered a place
of prostitution and to have converted by one
exhortation aU the prostitutes whom he
found there. He founded several monaste
ries fer his converts. The most celebrated
was the abbey of Fontevraud in the diocese
of Poitiers, on the confines of Touraine and
Anjou. The site ef this abbey was a valley,
covered with thorns and brambles, which
was called Fontevraud or Fontevaux. The
natives called it Frontevaux. The correct
Latin title is Fens Ebraldi Here Robert at
first constructed some huts, but in a shert
time the abbey contained within one enclo
sure monasteries for men and women. They
were, however, separate buUdings. There
were three monasteries fer females ; the
principal monastery, which was for virgins,
had a church dedicated to the holy Virgin ; a
second was fer widows, who managed the
affairs of the whole foundation. It contained
separate chambers fer the sick persons of
both sexes. Even lepers were admitted.
The church of this monastery was dedicated
to Lazarus. The third monastery had a
church dedicated to the Magdalen. In this
monastery dAvelt the prostitutes whom Robert
had converted. They were kept separate
from the virgins, not only at Fontevraud, but
also in the ether monasteries ef this order.
Robert did not found any new rule for his
followers : the order ef Fontevraud adopted
the rule of St. Benedict. But he introduced
a peculiarity, the wisdom of which is doubted
even by Roman Catholic writers. The male
and female* monasteries were all governed by
one abbess. Robert had this point, that the
males should be subject te the females, so
much at heart, that on ene occaislon, when he
thought he was dying, he assembled his male
disciples and made them vow again that they
would obey the command of the " maud-ser
vants of Christ," and en his recovery he
required them te repeat the same vew in the
presence of several bishops and abbots. In
justification of this ordinance he alleged the
example ef Christ, whe recommended St.
John to the Virgin Mary, and ordered that
beloved disciple to be obedient unto her as te
his own mother. The early practices at Fonte
vraud are thus described by Baudri. The
females occupied themselves with prayer and
psalmody ; the males were of two classes,
laymen and clergy ; the laymen laboured for
the support of the foundation, and the clergy
Averc employed in the celebration of divine
service. SUence was prescribed to all at
certain tiines ; they walked with their heads
bent and their faces te the ground. Their
255

ARBRISSEL.
founder enjoined upon them poverty, and
gave them the title of "the poor of Christ."
He himself refused te be called prior or head
(dominus) ; he only kept the name of master
(maglster), which he had as a doctor of the
church. The date of the foundation of the
abbey of Fontevraud is probably the year
1101. The institution was confirmed by a
bull of Pascal IL, dated26. March, 1106; and
again by a bull of Pope CaUistus IL, dated
15. September, 1119. The singularity of
the institution soon engaged multitudes to
enter the order. Not long after the death of
Robert, the number of the reUgious of both
sexes amounted nearly to five thousand.
Fontevraud became at last the most magnifi
cent of all the female monasteries in France.
The order was suppressed at the Frencli
Revolutien. At one time it was divided
into four provinces. There were fifteen
priories in the province of France, fourteen
in the province of Aquitaine, fifteen in the
province of Auvergne, thirteen in the pro
vince of Bretagne. A description of its con
dition in modern times is given in the
" Voyage Litteraire de deux ReUgleux Bene-
dictins," 2de partie, p. 1 — 5., 4to. Paris, 1717 ;
and in the " Voyages Liturgiques " ef Mo-
leen, p. 108.
Robert continued to direct the monastery
tUI the year 1104, when he gave up the
superintendence and appointed a noble widow,
named Hersinde or Hersende de Champagne
or de Clairvaux directress (magistra). 'The
title of abbess was given first te Petronille,
who succeeded Hersinde, on the 28th of
October, 1115. Robert then resumed his
missionary Ufe, preaching against the vices
of the day, and visiting Fontevraud from time
to time. Robert, however, never subjected
himself te the abbess of his order. He died at
Orsan, a monastery ef his order in Berri, prob
ably en the 25th of February, 1117. His body
was transported to Fontevraud accenUngtehis
own request ; but his heart was left at Orsan.
In 1633, Louise de Bourbon, abbess ef Fonte
vraud, placed his remains in a magnificent
marble tomb, on which was inscribed the
epitaph which Hildebert, bishop ef Mans,
wrote in honour of Robert. Sis ef these
verses are as feUows ;
" Attrivit lorica latus. sitis arida fauces.
Dura fames stomachum, lumina cura vigil.
Indulsit rare requiem sibi, rarius cscam,
Guttura pascebat gramine, corda Deo.
Legibus est subjecta caro domina? rationis,
Et sapor unus ei, sed sapor ille Deus."
The intercourse which Robert held with the
female sex gave rise to imputations of which
Bayle has taken care to perpetuate the
memory in his maUcious and sensible article
upon the Abbey of Fontevraud. An anony
mous attack appeared during the life-time ef
Robert in a letter which is supposed to have
been written by Roscelin, whose errors were
condemned iu the council of Soissens in

ARBRISSEL.

ARBRISSEL.

1095. AU that is known ef this letter is the
mention whieh is made ef it in a letter of
Abailard to Gawri, bishop of Paris {Epis. 21.).
This anonymous attack led two men ef note,
Marbodus, bishop ef Rennes, and Geoffroi,
abbot of Vendome, to write to Robert in
harsh terms. Geoffroi tells him that he is
accused of improper connexion with the
women (Goffridi, Abbatis Vindecinensis,
Epistola, lib. iv. ep. 47., edited by Sirmond,
Paris, 1610, 8vo.). Marbodus addresses to
Robert similar reproaches, and he accuses
him also of " singularity in his conduct, and
excess ef zeal, particularly in his invectives
against bishops and priests," and he exhorts
him finaUy to be more prudent and discreet
(Marbodi, Rhedonensis Episcopi, Opera,
Epis- 6, appended to the works ef Hildebert,
edited by Beaugendre, Paris, 1708, fok).
Seme of the disciples of Robert have endea
voured to prove that these letters are not
genuine ; but they are genuine. The best
answer to the charges is conveyed by the facts
that Robert's character for piety remained
uninjured, and that the Bishop of Rennes and
the Abbot of Vendome shewed him marks
of friendship afterwards.
Robert d' Arbrissel published no works ; but
at the abbey ef Fontevraud and at other
abbeys of this order, there were preserved
in manuscript some rules fer the males and
others for the females, which Robert is said
to have prescribed for their conduct. Ac
cording to these rules, he enjoined them to
keep perpetual silence, forbidding them to
speak even by signs unless there was neces
sity. Even the ministers ef the altar were
not to enter the infirmary of the females to
administer the sacraments. The sick Avere to
be carried into the church for that purpose,
and seme died in consequence.
A life of Robert d' Arbrissel was written soon
after his death by Baudri, bishop ef Del. It
is te be found in Bolland, ad diem 25. Febru-
arii, with this title : " Baldrici, Episcopi
Dolensis, Vita B. Roberti de ArbrisselUs."
The other life, printed in the same work,
p. 608, Sec-, with the title " Secunda Vita B.
Roberti de ArbriseUis, Fundateris Ordinis
Fontebraldensis, Auctore Andrea Magno
Priere Fontebraldensi," cannot be trusted, as
it manifestly was not written by Andre, grand
prior of Fontevraud, who was a companion
of Robert in his travels. Though it is a
stupid production, it has been translated
more than once into French. (The other
authorities which should be consulted are :
Mabillon, Annales Ordinis S- Benedicli, tom.
V. pp. 314. 424. ; Mainferme, Ctypeus Nas-
ccnlis Fontebraldensis Ordinis, Saumur, 1684
— 1G92, 3 vols. Svo.; Mainferme, Disser
tationes in Epistolam contra Robertum de
Arbrissello, Saumur, 1682, Svo.; Cosnier, Fon-
tis-Ebraldi Exordium, La Fk'che, 1641, 4to.
Bayle's account in his Dictionary, article
" Fontevraud," has been attacked by several
256

authors ; see among others, the Dissertation
Apologitique pour le Bienheureux Robert d'Ar-
brisselles, Sfc, Anvers, 1701, 12mo. ; Histoire
Littiraire de la France, tem. x. p. 153 — 170. )
C. J. S,
ARBUCKLE, JAMES, a writer of verses
and miscellaneous literature, is said by Watt
to have been born in Glasgow in the year
1700 ; but ether authorities make him a
native of Ireland, where he is supposed to
have kept au academy, and te have died
in 1734, In 1719 he published "Snuff; a
Poem," Edinburgh, Svo, It is an attempt at
the mock heroic, but displays very Uttle
genius or imagination. The best Unes are,
perhaps, —
" Blest be the shade, may laurels ever bloom.
And breathing sweets exhale around his tomb.
Whose penetrating nostril taught mankind
First how, by snu^, to rouse the sleeping mind.'
In the same year he published " Epistle to
Thomas Earl of Haddington, on the death ef
Joseph Addison, Esq." London, Svo. In
1721 he pubUshed " Glotta : a Poem ; humbly
inscribed to the Right Honourable the Mar
quess of Carnarvon, by Mr. Arbuckle, student
in the University ef GlasgOAV ; " Glasgow,
Svo. : an extravagant and exaggerated descrip
tion of the Clyde. Another of his works
is called " Hibemicus's Letters, published in
the Dublin Journal," London, 1729. Some
of the verses in a collection called " The
Edinburgh MisceUany," pubUshed 1720, are
from his pen. (CampbeU, Introduction to
the History of Poetry in Scotland, p, 183, ;
Works referred to,) J, H. B.
ARBULO MARGUVETE, PEDRO, a
Spanish sculptor of the sixteenth centurj-, ef
great abUity, most probably of the tOAvn of
Santo Domingo de Calzada in Caistile. He
appears from his works te have been of the
school of Alonzo Berruguete : his design is
excellent. From the beginning of 1569 until
June, 1574, he was occupied upon the altar
and stalls of the choir of the church ef Sant'
Ascensio in the Rioja in Castile, fer which
he was paid seven thousand three htmdred
and eighty-seven ducats. He died at Briones
in 1608, (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario His
torico, &c,) R, N, W.
ARBUTHNOT or ARBUTHNET,
ALEXANDER, a poet, theologian, and ju
rist, grandson of Sir Robert Arbuthnet of
Arbuthnet in Kincardineshire N. B., is said
to have been born in 1538. He stuiUed for
seme time at Aberdeen, and afterwards went
to France, where he received instruction in
civil laAv from Cujacius, He returned to
Scotland in 1566, a licentiate ef the law, and
with the intention of devoting- himself to that
profession ; but he was afterwards induced to
take orders in the Protestant church. We
find him a member of the general assembly
Avhich sat in July, 1568. Thomas Bassan-
dyne was charged before that body with print
ing a book called " 'The Fall of the Romane

ARBUTHNOT.

ARBUTHNOT

Kirk," in which the sovereign was called the
head of the church, and with having ap
pended to an edition ef the Psalms " ane
handle song callit Welcum Fortoun." He
was directed to cancel these offensive pas
sages, and to suspend the sale ef the former
werk until it should be examined by Ar
buthnet, who was te " report te the kirk
what doctrine he finds therein," In 1568,
Arbuthnet Avas appointed principal of the
university (now called King's CoUege) of
Aberdeen, Nearly at the same time he was
chosen minister of the parishes of Logle-
Buchan, and Arbuthnet. He was elected
moderator of the assembly which met at Edin
burgh in 1573, In that and the subsequent
year, he took an active share in the efforts to
subject the bishops and all other ecclesiastical
persons to the jurisdiction and discipline of
the general assemblies. He was, however, a
moderate man in church poUtics ; and, in
the midst of the developments of the rigid
presbyterian spirit on the one side, and of
the preference for absolute episcopacy on the
other, he appears to have been in favour ef
the mixed polity which was practically the
result of these opposing elements. He has
been praised by both the Episcopalian and
the Presbyterian historians ef the Scottish
church, and even by Thomas Maitland, a
Roman Catholic In April, 1577, he was
again chosen moderator of the assembly, and
it is mentioned in the minutes, that, as he
had been absent from the previous assembly,
a committee was appointed to instruct him as
te the state ef business. The operations of
that and of several of the succeeding assem
blies were of the most vital importance to
the church, A " Book ef Discipline " was
then in preparation, for which the assembly
desired the sanction ef the king and council,
and Arbuthnet appears to have been actively
employed in connection with its preparation,
and to have conducted, on the side of the
church, several delicate negotiations with
the court. In 1583, he received a presenta
tion to one of the churches of St, Andrew's,
but he was prohibited by a " horning " or
royal warrant threatening hun with the pains
of rebeUion, from accepting the charge, or
leaving Aberdeen. His conduct in the nego
tiations of the church is said to have been
the cause ef this arbitrary measure, and it is
stated in the " Biographia Britannica," and the
other ordinary authorities, that he had given
farther offence to the court by editing Bu
chanan's " History of Scotland." This latter
supposition seems te have arisen from the cir
cumstance that the printer of the same name,
of whom a notice wUl be found below, printed
Buchanan's work. There is no reason for
supposing that Buchanan did not himself su
perintend the printing of his boek, which pro
ceeded at Edinburgh while Arbuthnet was
living in Aberdeen, Arbuthnot died en the
17th of October, 1583, before the controversy
A'OL, III.

as to his translation te St, Andrew's was ended.
The only printed work whieh he left behind
him was caUed " Orationes de Origine et Dlg-
nitate Juris," Edinburgh, 1572, 4to. No copy
of this werk is known to exist ; and it has
been searched for in vain by Scottish biblio
graphers. It was the subject of some enco
miastic verses by Thomas Maitland, printed
in the " Delitlae Poetarum Scetorum," where
there is also an elegy to Arbuthnot's me
mory by AndreAV MelviUe, in which he is
termed " Patriae lux oculusque." Several
vernacular poems, printed in " Pinkerton's
Ancient Scotish Poems," (i. 138 — 155), have,
on pretty goed evidence, been attributed to
Arbuthnet ; their titles are " The Praises of
Women;" " On Luve;" and " The Mise
ries of a Pure (Peer) Scholar." They shew
considerable harmony of versification, and a
purity of feeling not often exemplified by the
other Scottish poets of the age. Archbishop
Spotiswood, in his " History of the Church
of Scotland" (p, 335), says of Arbuthnot:
" He was greatly loved of all men, hated of
none, and in such account for his moderation
with the chief men ef these parts, that with
out his advice they could almost do nothing:
which put him in great fashrie, whereof he
did oft complain. Pleasant and jocund in
conversation, and in aU sciences expert, a
good poet, mathematician, philosopher, the-
eleque, lawyer, and in medicine skilful ; se
as in every subject he could promptly dis
course, and to good purpose," (Books re
ferred to above ; Irving, Lives of the Scotish
Poets, U. 169—180.; M'Crie, Life of Mel
ville, 'i. 114— 117. 205.281.473.; The Booke
of the Umversall Kirk of Scotland, printed for
the Bunnatyne Club ; Mackenzie, Lives of
Scots Writers, iii, 186 — 194.; Miscellany of
the Spalding Club, U. 56.) J. H. B.
ARBUTHNOT or ARBUTHNET,
ALEXANDER, one of the earliest Scottish
printers, generally confounded with Alexan
der Arbuthnot the poet. He printed, together
with Thomas Bassandyne, the first edition of
the English Bible printed in Scotland, It
has the imprint " Printed in Edinbrvgh Be
Alexander Arbuthnet, Printer to the Kingis
Maiestie, dAveUlng at ye Kirk ef feild, 1579,"
In proposals given in to the general assembly
for this werk, he styles himself " Merchant
Burges of Edinburgh," It appears to have
been commenced in 1575, and the printers
came under an obligation to charge for each
copy ne more than " 4 pound 13 shiU, 4
pennies," Scots money. The general as
sembly in their decUcation of the Bible to the
king, speak of Arbuthnot as " a man qnha
hes taken great paines and trauaile worthie
to be remembered in this behalfe," He pe
titioned the assembly to aUow him the ser
vices ef Mr. George Young, servant er pupil
of the abbot of Dunfermline, as a corrector
ef the press. In 1582, he printed the first
edition of Buchanan's " Rerum Sceticarum
8

ARBUTHNOT.

ARBUTHNOT.

Historia," folio, a very elegant specimen of
typography. He printed the acts of the
parUament ef 1584. His mark appears on a
poem which has no title-page, but which
has the colophon, " Heir endis the first part
ef the buke of the most noble and vailzeand
eonquerour Alexander, the great." The
sole existing copy of this work is in the pos
session ef Lord Panmure : it has been re
printed for the Bannatyne Club, In the
miscellany of that club is printed the inven
tory ef Arbuthnot's effects, prepared in con
nection with the administration to his estate.
It appears from this document that he died
on 1st September, 1585, (Books referred te
above; M'Crie, Life of Melville, 1.465 — 467,;
Calderwood, History of the Church of Scot
land, MS. Advocate's Library, v. 67. 108,,
viii 27, N, B, This work is in course of
being printed by the Wodrow Society.) T TI -p
ARBUTHNOT, JOHN, It is rarely that
a man attains eminence in a professional pur
suit, and yet reaches a greater distinction
among his contemporaries as an elegant
writer and a wit. Arbuthnot was one of
these exceptions to an ordinary i-ule. He
was the son of a clergyman of the episcopal
church of Scotland, and is said to have been
born at Arbuthnet near Montrose in 1675. He
was educated at Aberdeen; and there took
his degree as docter of medicine. His father
lost his church preferment through the
changes ef the revolution ; and the young
doctor had to push his way in the great
world of London, His common scholastic
acquirements, in the first instance, gave
him bread. The future companion and
correspondent of Swift and Pope, of Harley
and Bolingbroke, was for some time an ob
scure teacher of mathematics. In that day
the science of geology was built rather upon
bold speculation than systematic and patient
observation. It was an age of theories of
the earth ; and the universal deluge was one
ofthe great points of disputation. In 1697
Dr. Arbuthnot took the field against Dr.
Woodward, by the publication of " An Ex
amination of Dr, Woodward's Account of
the Deluge," &c. The tract brought him
into notice. He gradually obtained some
professional practice ; and the lucky accident
of being called in to attend Prince George ef
Denmark in a sudden illness, he happening
to be at Epsom at the same time with the
prince, led the way to court honours and
rewards. He was appointed physician in
ordinarytoQueen Anne in 1709 ; and about the
same time was elected a member ofthe London
coUege of physicians. His attendance upon
the queen probably led te his intimate asso
ciation Avlth the Tory party at court. Never
did a government more actively employ the
weapons of wit and sarcasm in the direction
of public opinion. The great party war of
the last days of Queen Anne was fought not
258

more with parliamentary thunder than with
squibs and pamphlets —
" The light artillery of the lower sky."
The ephemeral politics of the day have at
tained a permanent interest through the
talent (Usplayed in these wit-combats. On
the 10th of March, 1712, Swfft writes to
Stella, "You must buy a smaU two-penny
pamphlet called ' Law is a Bottomless Pit,'
It is very prettily written." This two-penny
pamphlet is now better known by its second
title, " The History ef John BuU," A second,
third, and fourth parts were published in the
same year. Swift again says, " I hope you
read ' John BuU.' It wais a Scotch gen
tleman, a friend of mine, that wrote it ; but
they have put it upon me." The Scotch gen
tleman was Arbuthnot. It is impossible to
read this political jeu d'esprit even new
without a lively interest. There have been
many subsequent attempts to make the quar
rels of nations inteUigible, and at the same
time ridiculous, by assimilating them to the
litigations of individuals. Never was the
humour of such a design more admirably
preserved than in Arbuthnot's delineations of
John BuU the Clothier, and Nick Frog the
Linendraper, and PhUip Baboon the suc
cessor of Lord Strutt, and Louis Baboon,
who " had acquired immense riches which
he used to squander away at back-sword,
quarter-staff, and cudgel play, in which he
took great pleasure, and chaUenged aU the
country." The summer of 1714 saw Ar
buthnet living in the sunshine ef court in
fluence, soliciting the Lord Treasurer for a
place for one, persuading Bolingbroke to
bestow a benefice en another, and enUghten-
ing Lady Masham upon the claims of his
friend Swift to be historiographer to the queen.
In a few months the death of Anne put an
end to aU these prospects of ambition. The
party was ruined ; some impeached, some
driven into exUe, all crest-faUen. Arbuth
net, ef course, lost his appointment. For
seme time his natural cheerfulness forsook
him ; but he soon foimd content in a Uttle
house in Dover-street, in exchange for his
residence at St. James'. There is bitterness
in the mode in which Arbuthnot first writes
to Swift, under the great change produced by
the death of the queen : " I have an oppor
tunity calmly and phUosophicaUy to consider
that treasure of vileness and baseness that I
always believed to be in the heart of man."
But shortly after he wrote to Pope, " This
blow has so roused Scriblerus that he has
recovered his senses, and thinks and talks
Uke ether men." Arbuthnot appears to have
taken to the project of the Scriblerus Club
with abundant heartiness ; and thus in his
misfortunes he looks ai-eund fer opportunities
to make merry with the ignorance of the
learned and the foUies of the wise : " It is
with some pleasm-e that he contemplates the

ARBUTHNOT.

ARBUTHNOT.

world StiU busy and all mankind at work fer
him." The great project in which he en
gaged with SAvfft and Pope, to write a satire
on all the abuses of human learning, would
probably, under the most favourable circum
stances, have been an abortive scheme.
Warburton thus speaks of its failure : " Po
lite letters never lost more than by the defeat
of this scheme, in which each ef this illustrious
triumvirate would have found exercise for
his o-wn pecuUar talent, besides constant em
ployment fer that they all held in common.
Fer Arbuthnot was skiUed in every thing
which related te science ; Pope was a master
in the fine arts ; and Swfft exceUed in a know
ledge of the world. Wit they had all in equal
measure ; and this so large, that no agc, perhaps,
ever preduced three men te whom nature had
more bountifuUybestowed it, or art had brought
it to higher perfection," Arbuthnot con
tributed towards this project the first book ef
the " Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus ;" and
it is from this centributlon that we may prin
cipally estimate the correctness of the praise
which Warburton has bestowed upon him.
Nothing can be more perfect than this frag
ment. Its very extravagance is the result of
profound skiU, contrasting and heightening
the pungency of the more subtle Avit Avith
which the merely ludicrous is clothed. And
yet a continuity ef such irony and burlesque
would probably have been a failure, as far as
regarded the success of a satire upon the abuses
of human learning, " Gulliver's Travels " was
intended as a portion of this satire ; yet who
enters into the companionship of Mr, Lemuel
Gulliver with any desire to find out that
beneath the surface of his inimitable narra
tives is concealed an attack upon some book
man or society of book-men? Arbuthnot
wrote to Swift: " Gulliver is in every body's
hands. Lord Scarborough, who is no in
ventor of stories, told me that he fell in com
pany with a master of a ship who told him
that he was very weU acquainted with Gul
liver ; but that the printer had mistaken, that
he lived in Wapplng, and not in Rotherhithe,
I lent the book to an old gentleman, whe
went immediately to his map to search for
Lilliput," This, after all, is higher praise
than if Arbuthnot had written to his friend
that the Royal Society was raving against his
description of Laputa,
The reputation of Arbuthnot as a wit is in
a great measure traditional. What he has
left us is admirable in its kind ; but it can
challenge ne comparison with the more
systematic labours of Swift and Pope. We
scarcely, indeed, know with certainty what
Arbuthnet did write. There is a collection
entitled " The MisceUaneous Works of the
late Dr. Arbuthnot," which was published at
Glasgow, in two voliunes, in 1751, but the
genuineness of seme ef these pieces was ex
pressly denied by Arbuthnot's son. It is
probable, from the manner in whieh he speaks
259

of himself as Seribleras, that he had a larger
share in the planning, if not in the execu
tien, ef the several parts of the memoirs
and pieces connected with them, than has
usually been assigned to him, Dr, Warton
gives certain portions to Arbuthnot, " as they
contain allusions to many remote and un
common parts of learning and science with
which we cannot imagine Pope to have been
much acquainted, and which lay out of the
reach and course of his reading," Arbuthnot
continued his medical practice almost to the
last; and he published, in 1731, " An Essay
on the Nature and Choice of Aliments," and
in 1733 " An Essay on the Effects of Au- en
Human Bodies," He died in February,
1735, leaving a sen, George, who held an
office in the Exchequer, and two daughters.
His son John died two years before himself,
Arbuthnot had many and warm friends,
whom he had wen net more by his talents
and acquirements than by his benevolent and
generous nature, llis integrity was as uni
versaUy recognised as his wit. Among the
ether works of Arbuthnot are the following ;
— 1, "Tables of the Grecian, Roman, and
Jewish Measures, Weights, and Coins, &e,,"
London, 1705, Svo., which is still a useful
work. It was republished in 1727, in 4to.
It was also translated into Latin by Daniel
Konig, and published at Utrecht in 1756,
with a preface by Reitz, 2. " An Argument
fer Divine Providence, drawn from the equal
Number of Births of both Sexes," in the
" Philosophical Transactions." There is a
list of Arbuthnot's works in Watt's Bibliotheca.
{Miscellanies by Pope, Swift, and Arbuth
not ; SAvift's Letters ; Pope's Letters.) C, K.
ARBUTHNOT, MARIOT, a British
naval commander, was born in 1711, In
1746, he attained the rank of commander,
and was appointed te the Jamaica sloop,
cruising on the heme station, with which he
took two small French privateers. On 22d
June, 1747, he wais made post-captain in the
Surprise, twenty-four-gun frigate. He Avas
afterwards removed te the Triton, in which,
in January, 1748, he captured Le Tigre, a
formidable French privateer. In 1759, he
commanded the Portland, in the fleet which
blockaded the French armament which had
been collected at Brest fer the purpose of at
tempting a descent en Britain ; and the Mar
quis de Conflans, the commander of the
armament, was in chase ef the squadron to
which Arbuthnot was attached, when HaAvke
Intercepted the French fleet, and gained the
victory of Belleisle. In 1764, Arbuthnet
was engaged in the capture ef the Havannah
by Pocock and Keppel. In 1775 (the peace
of 1763 intervening) he was appointed to the
Terrible, seventy-four, one of the guard-ships
at Portsmouth, and in 1775, he resided as a
commissioner ef the navy in HaUfax in Nova
Scotia, the only port in America in which,
owing to the war, British ships could be re-

ARBUTHNOT.

ARCADELT.

fitted and properly provisioned. On the 23d
January, 1778, he was promoted te a flag as
rear-admiral of the White, and, returning
to England, sat in 1779 on the court-martial
by which Keppel was tried. In the same
year he was promoted to the rank of vice-
admiral of the Blue, and sailed on 1st May
te take the chief command en the American
station. Soon after his arrival he was block
aded in New York by the large force under
the command of the Count d'Estaing, and he
sailed thence at the commencement of 1780
te co-operate with Sir Henry CUnton in the
reduction ef Charlestown. He paissed the
bar en the 20th March, and, the land force
having constructed and opened its batteries,
he get under weigh with seven frigates, and
passed Sullivan's Island under a heavy fire.
He hais received \ much praise for having
accomplished this operatien and anchored
under James's Island, with ne further casualty
than twenty-seven men kUled and wounded.
The fort on Sullivan's Island, and another on
Moimt Pleasant having been taken, Charles
town surrendered en the 10th May, when
several frigates and other vessels, French and
American, were captured. For this service
the admiral received the thanks ef both houses
of parliament. On the 23d January, 1780,
Arbuthnot's squadron, when lying at anchor
in Gardiner's Bay, Long Island, sustained
considerable damage from a storm ; the
CuUoden of seventy-four guns being driven
ashore and lost, the Bedford dismasted, and
the America driven to sea. On the 16th of
March he had a partial engagement off the
coast of Virginia with M. de Ternay, the
French admiral, whe it is said was incited
to attack him by the dilapidated condition ef
his squadron. It is stated that the French
Une was broken, but a thick haze coming on
left the event of the battle doubtful, and the
admiral's conduct was the subject of some
animadversion by the writers en the naval
affairs ef the time. He afterwards meditated
an attack on Rhode Island, but the French
being strongly posted, and some dispute
arising between the naval and military force,
he contented himself with blockading the
enemy's fleet in the harbour. He returned
to England in 1781, and arrived at Spithead
on 1st August. In 1787 he was made vice-
admiral of the Red, and in 1793 admiral of
the Blue, He died en 31st January, 1794,
(Schomberg, Naval Chronology ; Naval His
tory of Great Britain, a'U, 1. — 9,) J. H, B,
ARC, JEANNE D', [Jeanne d'Arc]
ARC, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE DE
SAINTE-FOL CHEVALIER D', [Arcq,]
ARCA, DALL', [Niccolo da Bologna,]
ARCADELT, JAMES, whose name Is
sometimes written Arkadelt and Archadet,
was born in Flanders towards the end of the
fifteenth or the beginning of the sixteenth
century. He was among the most eminent
of the celebrated school of musicians that
260

Flanders at that period produced. About
the year 1536 he went to Rome, where he
was appointed master of the children in the
church of San Pietro di Vaticano, a situation
which, however, he soon relinquished. In
1540 he was admitted into the college of
singers attached to the pope's chapel ; and in
1544 he became chancellor er treasurer ef
that society, an office which he retained till
1549 : after which he entered the service of
Charles of Lorraine, duke of Guise, whom
he accompanied to Paris, where, probably,
he terminated his days. Baini, who says
that " Arcadelt's m-adrigals were among the
best ef his age," also states in proof of the
estimation in which they were held, that
" publishers, induced by the profit which
they derived from his werks, preduced mamy
cempositions which they falsely ascribed to
him." Many of his masses and motets are
preserved in the archives of the pontifical
chapel. One of his madrigals, " II bianco e
dolce eigne," wiU be found in the third volume
of " Burney's History of Music," and two
others are included in the second and fourth
volumes of " Burney's Musical Extracts," in
the British Museum, (Baini, Vita di Pales
trina; Burney, History of Music-) E, T.
ARCA'DIO, ALESSANDRO, was first
physician of the province ef Monferrato
during part of the seventeenth century ; and
wrote several essays in political and moral
philosophy, as weU as some poems and werks
on medicine. The chief of them are: — 1.
"Plettro d' ApoUo," Tortona, 1628, 12mo,
2, " Centemplazieni Medicuiali sopra U Con-
tagio," Tortona, 1632, 12mo, 3, " Le Mon-
dane Pazzie," Tortona, 1654, 12mo, 4, " Tri-
turatienes supra Tres Libros Pronosticorum
Hippocratis," 5, " Centemplazieni Astro-
logiche di predire i Mali Acuti," 6, " Pan
dora officinalis," (Bonine, Biografia Me
dica Piemontese, i 369. ; HaUer, Bibliotheca
Medicina, ii, 600., gives the principal contents
of the " Centemplazieni Medicinali," but
emits the other works.) J. P.
ARCA'DIO, GIANFRANCESCO, was
born at Bistagno in Monferrato about the
middle of the sixteenth centm-y, and practised
medicine at Savona amd at Nizza della Paglia.
On the occasion of an epidemic of what he
calls malignant pleuritis, which prevaUed in
the latter place for three months, he proposed
bleeding from the foot ef the diseased side,
in a treatise entitled " De secanda Vena in
Pleuritide," Asti, 1609, A physician of the
same town named Roseo, wrote an essay
against this with the title " De secanda Vena
Antilogia," Asti, 1609, which Arcadio am-
swered in his " Discorso sopra TAntUegia
del Roseo," Asti, 1610 ; a small but learned
werk. He wrote also " Parafrasi sopra la
Medicina Santoriana," Parma, 1618, 12mo, :
and tAVO unpublished works by him, on An
timony, and on Man's natural inclination for
Art and Science, are preserved in the Turin

ARCADIO,

ARCADIUS.

library. (Bonine, Biografia Medica Piemon
tese-) J. P.
ARCA'DIUS ('Ap/ctiSios), a native ef An
tioch, a grammariam. The period when he
lived cannot be accurately fixed, but at all
events his celebrity was net earlier than a. d,
200, He is mentioned by Suidas as the
author ef the foUowing works : — nepl 'Op-
Boypafpias ; Tlepl avvTa^eoiS tSiv tov x6yov
pepuv ; and a lexicon QOvofiaaTiK6v). Of
this last Suidas speaks in terms of great
commendation. We stUl possess, under his
name, a Treatise on Accents {Tlepl Tovoiv or
Ilept UpoatpSicHv) in nineteen books. It is an
epitome of a larger work on the same sub
ject, entitled TlpoacpSia KaSoAiKTJ, by .ffilius
Herodianus, though in the arrangement Ar
cadius followed his own plan. Two manu
scripts of this work were discovered at Paris
in the seventeenth century. It was first pub
lished by E, H. Barker in 1820, and after
wards by Dindorf in his " Grammatici
Graeci," vol. i Leipzig, 1823. (Fabricius,
Biblioth. Grffica, vi 336. &c.; Barker, Epis
tola Crit- ad Boissonad-, in his edition of
Arcadius.) C. P. M,
ARCA'DIUS CHARTSIUS, AURE'
LIUS, [Charisius,]
ARCA'DIUS {'ApKoSios), Emperor of the
East, was the elder son of Theodosius I. the
Great, by his wife FlaccUla: he was born
in Spain in A. D, 383, He had a younger bro
ther, Honorius, with whom he afterwards
divided the Reman empire. The education
of the young princes was superintended by
Themistius, surnamed Euphrades, the weU
known orator, who was a pagan, but a very
tolerant man with regard to religious differ
ences. Their second instructor was Arsenius,
a priest, who was appointed at the recommend
ation of pope Damasus, and who afterwards
died in the Desert ef Seethe, in Egypt, The
instruction which the royal brothers received
was in every respect superior, as the Em
peror Theodosius had reserved to himself
the superintendence of their education. One
day 'Theodosius unexpectedly entered the
room Avhere Arcadius was receiving a lesson
from Arsenius, and finding the professor
standing Avith his head uncovered before the
young prince, who sat on a chair, with the
insignia of the rank of Ca!sar on his head
(the title of Cajsar having been conferred
upon him in his seventh year), the emperor
asked the professor how he could forget his
own dignity so much as to stand bare-headed
before a boy. Arsenius excused himself by
saying that he did not dare te sit down in the
presence of an imperial person. Theodosius
however ordered the priest to cover his head
.and te sit down, and commanded his son to
uncover his head and in future te receive
his lessens standmg. To give beth moral
and intellectual training to his children was
the object of Theodosius, Avho used to say
that his sons Avould only be fit to reign Avhen
261

they had learned to cc tnbine piety and wis
dom. At an early age Arcadius had a share
in the administratien of the empire, especially
in the department of reUgion ; and the young
prince proved by several decisions that he
had a good disposition. As an instance, he
pardoned these Arians who had burnt the
house ef Nectarius, the bishop of Constan
tinople. During the war ef Theodosius
against the usurpers Eugenius and Arbogast,
Arcadius remained at Constantinople, In
395 the title of Augustus was conferred upon
him by his father, who died in the same
year, leaving Arcadius emperor of the East,
and Honorius emperor ef the West.
It belongs to the history ef Theodosius to
point out the reasons Avhich induced him to
divide the empire. These reasons must be
looked for in circumstances ef the highest
political importance, fer however difficult it
was to govern the whole empire, Theodosius
must have been aware that even the govern
ment of haff ef it was a task that surpassed
the abiUty of either of his sons, Arcadius
was in every respect the opposite ef his
father. He was a little, ill shaped man ; he
had an ugly, swarthy face, and a weak con
stitution ; his intellect was feeble, and he
was always the tool of ethers. He cannot be
charged with wickedness ; but his good qua
Uties were few, and his flatterers could find
nothing te praise in the master ef the East,
except his beautiful handwriting. To this
we must add his great attachment to the
orthodox religion, for which he has received
abundant praise from many ecclesiastical
writers. Before his death Theodosius had appointed
Rufinus, the praefect of the East, the guardian
of Arcadius, and Stilicho the guardian of
Honorius at Rome, Rufinus is generally re
presented as a man ef the worst character,
and it is difficult to conceive why Theodosius
appointed te such a post an ambitious man,
who was detested for his rapacity, and showed
by his conduct that his personal aggrandise
ment was much dearer to him than the wel
fare of his Avard and the empire, Rufinus
intended to marry the young emperor to his
daughter ; and as he was the first man in the
empire, he had so little apprehension that his
plan could be thwarted that he went to An
tioch, after having given orders for the cele
bration of the marriage immediately aifter his
return. On the day fixed for the ceremony
a splendid procession, headed by the eunuch
Eutropius, Avho held the office of grand cham
berlain, left the imperial palace for the pur
pose of fetching the bride and conducting her
to the church, Eutropius, however, instead
of proceeding to the palace ef Rufinus, stop
ped at the palace ef Prometus, Avhere Eudexla,
the beautfful daughter of the Frank Bauto,
whe was a general in the Roman armies,
was residing fer the sake of her education.
Arcadius had shown that he was not very
s 3

ARCADIUS.

ARCADIUS.

fond of the daughter of Rufinus, and ne
sooner was Eutropius informed of it than he
secretly proposed to the young emperor to
marry Eudexla, who well deserved the praise
which the artful eunuch bestowed upon her,
and the emperor assented to the proposal.
The marriage was already concluded while
the daughter of Rufinus was still waiting for
the wedding )irocession. As Eudexla and
her relatives belonged te the party of Eu
tropius, this cunning man soon acquired
great influence, which he employed to ruin
Ruflnus. From the moment of the death of
Theodosius, Rufinus had been involved in
serious differences with StUicho, whe pre
tended that fhe late emperor had intrusted
him with the guardianship ef both his sons.
In order te give weight te his claims StUicho
put himself at the head ef that numerous
army whieh had been employed by Theo
dosius against Arbogast, and advanced to
wards the frontiers of the eastern empire.
He soon received a message from Rufinus,
by which he was informed that any further
advance would be considered by Arcadius as
a declaration of war. Stilichd, Avith seeming
modesty, stopped where he was ; but as the
army was to be divided between the two
imperial brothers, he made this partition, and
having put the Goth Gainas at the head ef
the eastern army, ordered him to advance
upon Constantinople, as if he were going to
put the army under the immediate orders of
Arcadius. When Gainas was near Con
stantinople Rufinus went out to inspect the
army ; but no sooner was he within the camp
than he was cut down by order of Gainas,
whe thus executed the secret orders which
he had received from StiUche (27th of No
vember, 395).
The successor of Rufinus was Eutropius,
whe also became consul, the first eunuch who
had ever been raised to this dignity. He
proved te be as bad as Rufinus. As to Ar
cadius, he only changed his master. Eutro
pius was likewise involved in differences with
Stilicho ; and in order to secure himself
against the open hostility of this powerful
general, he excited Alarlc to invade Italy,
an undertaking which resiUted in the down
fall of Stilicho and the government ef Ho
norius, Stilicho was declared an enemy ef
the empire, and such of his estates as were
within the limits ef the eastern empire were
confiscated by order of Eutropius (397), whose
rapacity increased with his power. In order
te secure himself and his numerous adherents,
he persuaded Arcadius to issue an edict, by
which all offences against the principal civil
and military officers were punished as ff they
were committed against the emperor. [ Cod-
.Just. Ad. Legem Juliam Majestatis, ix, tit, 8.]
'This edict was an extension ofthe Lex Julia
Majestatis, or law ef treason, and one ofthe
most tyrannical ever enacted by a Roman
emperor. In 397 Tribigildus, the chief of a
262

body of Goths, who had received lands in
Phrygia, rebeUed, and made such progress
that Arcadius, on the advice of Gainas, sent
word te the Goths that he was ready to grant
them their claims. It seems that Gainas
who from a friend had become the rival ef
the prime minister, was in secret corre
spondence with the rebeUious Goths, fer Tri-
bigUdus demanded the head of Eutropius as
a guarantee of the emperor's good faith,
Eutropius was easUy sacrificed, as the empress
Eudexla was jealous of his power. St, Chry
sostom made an unsuccessful effort to save
Eutropius, whe was a protector of the ortho
dox church ; Eutropius was exiled to Cyprus,
and put to death in 399. The principal claim
of the Phrygian Goths was to be allowed to
go back to Europe. When, pursuant te the
emperor's permission, they crossed the Bos
porus, and were in the neighbourhood of
Constantinople, the secret plans of Gainas
became manifest. He demanded for his
countrymen the free celebration of divine
service according to the Arian creed ; and as
St, Chrysostom's eloquence prevaUed over
his claims, he took up arms. But the people
ef Constantinople massacred part ofthe Goths,
and with the remaining part Gainas escaped
by sea. Pursued and defeated by the im
perial fleet, he fled beyond the Danube, where
he lost his Iffe in a battle against Uldes, the
king of the Huns, After the faU of Eufro-
pius the empress Eudoxia had the title of
Augusta conferred upon her, and ruled with
iinUmited power. She contrived the banish
ment of St. Chrysostom, who died at Comana
on his way to Pityus in Colchis (407) ; but
the prelate had so many adherents that his
banishment was not effected without a seri
ous struggle with the priests and monks
ef Constantinople, who, with their partisans,
had occupied the principal churches. Some
churches, at last, were stormed, and others
were burnt by the imperial troops, and the
rebels whe were net kiUed were driven out
of the capital, Eudoxia died at an early age,
in consequence ef a miscarriage. One Joan
nes, according to general opinion, as stated
by Zosimus (p, 315,), was the father of Theo
dosius II., the son of Eudoxia, and the suc
cessor of Arcadius.
Arcadius was firmly attached te the ortho
dox creed, and issued several edicts against
the Arians and ether heretics. All his
household officers were orthodox; and in 396
he ordered that these buildings in which the
heretics used to celebrate divine service
should be confiscated. This was the origin
ef the claims and rebellion of Gainas. Ac
cording to a tradition, which, as Agathias
states, was first mentioned by Procopius,
Arcadius, feeling his strength decline, made
his testament, and appointed Yezdegerd, king
of Persia, the guardian ef his son Theodosius,
aud regent of the Roman empire. This tra
dition is rejected by the best modern his-

ARCADIUS.

ARCiEUS.

torians. Gibbon's account of it is short and
concise ; and he calls it " a vain tradition of
the succeeding age." Tillemont's (vi 597.)
critical investigation of the fact is as careful
and sagacious as usual. Arcadius died on
the 1st of May, 408. He left three children,
Pulcheriai, Marina, and Theodosius, who suc
ceeded him ; and in 421 erected a splendid
column in Constantinople surmounted by the
statue of his father. A description and a
view of the column is given by GyUius. The
statue was thrown down by an earthquake
during the reign of Leo III., the Isaurian
(775—780), but the piUar remains. The
victories of Theodosius II. are sculptured on
it in reliefi (Zosunus, v. ed. Oxford, 1679 ;
Cedrenus, i. 574 — 586. ed. Bonn ; Socrates,
V. 10., vi. ; Theephanes, p. 63 — 69. ed. Paris;
Sozemenus, viii. ; Theodoretus, v. 32. &c. ;
Philostorgius, xi. xU. 1^8. ; GyUius, The
Antiquities of Constantinople, ed. John Ball,
p. 250—254.) W. P.
ARCiEUS, FRANCISCUS, or DE
ARCE, was born at Fresno about the year
1494. He practised medicine and surgery
with great reputation at Lerin, Fresno, and
several other towns in Spain. At Lerin he
received an annual stipend as surgeon to the
district, and was a magistrate, he says, of the
tribunal of the inquisition which was held
there. It was probably in the latter capacity
that he was sent in 1573 to invite Benedictus
Arias Montanus to come to preach in Lerin
amd its neighbourhood. That theologian
resided for four months in Arcaeus's house
studying surgery under him ; and, when he
was about to leave, persuaded him to write
some ef the results of his long experience,
which he did in two essays entitled " De
recta curandorum Vulnerum Curatiene, Libri
Duo," and " De Febrium curandorum Ratione."
These were first published with a preface
by Arias Montanus, and notes by Alva-
rus Nonuius [Alvarez], at Antwerp, 1574,
Svo. ; and afterwards at Amsterdam, 1658,
12mo. Arcaous has been caUed by some the Pare
of Spain ; and though he did not effect im
provements in surgery at aU comparable with
those which Ambrose Fare's numerous werks
did, yet he certainly possessed much of the
same power of observation and common sense
which distinguished that celebrated man, his
contemporary. This is plainly shown by his
work on wounds. Unlike nearly all the
works of that time it is short and practical :
indeed, the notes by Alvarez are added only
to make the book more suited to the age, by
shewing how exactly the practice of Arcaeus
agreed with the principles of Hippocrates,
Galen, and others, which he had been, it
seems, accused of deviating from. His only
peculiar principle in treating wounds was
to avoid the introduction of large tents, or
heating thick dressings, and to endeavour
by sutures or other means to obtain union
263

by the first intention whenever it appeared
possible. 'When this was not likely te be
accompUshed, he used to introduce a small
tent (flammula) at the most dependent part
of the wound, and endeavour te unite the
rest. He often used for dressing wounds a
compound of turpentine, gum-elemi, suet, and
lard, which is still sometimes called balsam
of Arcaeus ; and the fault ef his surgery must
have been that though he employed things
of this kind less than others before him did,
he StiU used far too many of them : his surgical
pharmacopoeia is overloaded with ointments
for purposes which none of them cotUd serve.
The best part of the work is that on in
juries of the head. It contains many well-
told cases of severe fractures recovered from,
and good general directions for their treat
ment. Arcaeus greatly simplified the means
employed, and trepanned much less frequently
than his predecessors ; se that in this, as in
other departments ef surgery, he made
important steps towards the practice usually
followed at the present time. At the end ef
the books en wounds are four chapters, " De
Morbo GaUice;" but neither they ner the
book on fevers contain any thing that is
important. Arias Montanus, in his preface, says that
Arcaeus, when he was with him, though
nearly eighty years old, had all the dexterity
and energy of a man of forty. Both this
preface and the werk itself contain interest
ing facts regarding the state ef surgery in
Spain in the sixteenth century. Arcaeus
repeatedly laments the want ef good practical
surgeons which had existed for forty years
in his district ; there were plenty, he says,
who "with the best of science joined but an
obscure experience;" and he implies that the
educated medical men of that time gave
themselves so entirely te the study of the eld
Avriters, that surgery had aU faUen into the
hands of empirics and barbers. He used,
Montanus says, continuaUy te express his
wish that his writings might not be translated
so as to come within the capacity ef these
ignorant practitioners ; but in spite of this
the boek on wounds was translated into
German (Numberg, 1614), Dutch (Rure-
mond, 1667), and English. The English
translation has the title " A most exceUent
and compendious Method of curing Woundes
in the Head, and in ether Partes of the Body,
with other Precepts ofthe same Arte, practised
and written by that famous man Franciscus
Arceus, .... and translated into English
by John Read, Chirurgion," and it was pub
Ushed Avith " An exact Cure of the Caruncle,"
and a translation by the same John Read of
John Ardem's treatise on Fistula, Londen,
1588, 4to. (Arcaeus's Works, and Preface
by Arias Montanus.) .1. P
ARCAGA'NIS, and ARCAGENTS1U.S,
two names which occur in Rhazes, amd which
evidently refer to the saime person, who was
s 4

ARCAGANIS.

ARCANO.

a medical writer. To Arcaganis is ascribed
a work on diseases, " Liber Morborum ;"
to Arcagenisius one on vomiting, " De
Vomitu," and another en chronic diseases,
" De Morbis Diuturnis." It seems probable
that both these names are a corruption ef the
Greek Archigenes [Archigenes]. (Rhazes,
Contin. lib. v. cap. 3, and cap. uit., lib. vi.
cap. I. ; Fabricius, Biblioth, Graca, tom,
xiU, p. 78, ed, vet,) W, A, G,
ARCAGNA. [Orcagna, Andrea.]
ARCA'NO, MAURO D', usually
caUed IL MAURO, was one of the most fa
mous among the burlesque poets of Italy in the
sixteenth century. Fie is supposed te have
been born about the year 1490. His first
Christian name is disputed, some caUing him
Giovanni, and others, seemingly by mistake,
Francesco. He was descended from a neble
family in Friuli, from whose castle he derives
his name of Arcane ; but his life appears to
have been spent in dependence. After having
been educated in his native province, he
emigrated te Bolognai, and thence te Rome.
There he lived almost constantly afterwards,
being successively in the service of the Duke
of Amalfi, Cardinals Grimani and Cesarini,
and ether powerful and wealthy persons of
his time. In the celebrated academy of the
VignaiuoU or Vinedressers, of which Berni
was the ruling spirit, Mauro was a distin
guished member ; and he lived in intimate
friendship with that witty poet, and with
those ether men of letters who, in the
first half of the century, formed the charac
teristic style ef burlesque poetry called
Bernesque from its inventor and most suc
cessful cultivator. Among the Bernesque
poets ef Italy, Mauro is generaUy acknow
ledged to hold the second place ; and some of
the native critics are not indisposed to prefer
his works even to those of his master Berni.
The levity ef thought, and the obscenity,
frequent or rather continual, Avhich we en
counter in the writings of the Bernesque
poets, are in some measure, perhaps, te be
accounted for by the fact that almost all of
them were effusions of youth. But, after all
allowances have been made, the character of
the words does contrast strangely with the
solid learning and talent possessed by several
of the writers, and by the serious part Avliich
some such men ( Delia Casa for example)
afterwards acted. The same features, when
Ave regard them as appearing in the person
of Berni, are alike discordant with that al
leged conversion of him to Protestantism in
later life to which attention has been di
rected by Panizzi and Hallam. The history
ef Mauro furnishes another link in the
chain which, thus oddly, binds together the
licentious poets and the religious thinkers ef
the sixteenth century in Italy. Blauro was
the bosom-friend of the unfortunate Aenius
Palearlus, who, after having survived him
for tAventy-feur years, became one of the
264

most Ulustrious victims of the papal In
quisition. The first five of the epistles of
Palearius, written when both parties were
young, are addressed to Mauro, They are
couched in a strain of warm and familiar
affection, mentioning, as ties which united
the two together, their old friendship and
the similarity of their studies. The first ef
the epistles relates an incident more affect
ing than honourable to the parties. Mauro
having recently left Rome, Palearius, who
had accompanied him out ef town, describes
himself as having found on his retum a
young female, whom he caUs Lucilla, and
who is in despair fer the departure of Mauro,
her lover : she becomes seriously iU, is visited
by a physician, and is declared by him to be
pregnant. The writer apologises for com
municating the distressing intelligence, and
exhorts his friend to bear it with his usual
firmness of resolution. This story, and a
description of his OAvn person which Mauro
gives in one of his poems, are almost the
only facts we knew in regard to his private
life or character. There is nothing but
allegorical invention (net in all its parts
easy to be understood) in the history re
lated by BeccaUni, in his usual vein ef
banter, of the marriage ef Maure to the
poetess Laura Terracina, ef the dowry of
lyrics which she brought him, and ef the
jealous fit in which he put her te death,
stabbing her with one of his oavu poems,
prohibited by the censorship. In the autumn
of 1536, Mauro, while hunting the stag, was
throAvn from his horse into a ditch and
breke one of his legs. He was carried to
Rome, fell into a fever, and died.
The works of Maure, besides a bur
lesque letter printed in two coUections of
the time, consist of twenty-one "Capitoli,"
or burlesque poems in Italian terza rima,
which will be found in the common editions
of the poems of Berni aud the Avriters of his
school. The comparative merit of produc
tions like these, resting in no smaU degree
upon delicate turns of expression, is best
estimated by critics whose native language
is that of the peet. The breadth ef the
humour, however, is not beyond being
appreciated by foreign readers ; and in the
Capitoli of Mara-o there is much that is
exceedingly diverting. The coarseness of
several of them, however, is such as to make
all minute analysis inexpedient ; and indeed
the extreme desultoriness which pervades
all the pieces woidd make the task very
difficult. The two famous CapitoU on the
" Bean " ( La Fava ), productions resembling
in tone the " Oven " ( II Forno) of Della
Casa, are inapproachable for beth reasons.
The tAVO poems " In Dishonour of Honour,"
the ironical poem " In Praise of the Friars,"
and another " In Praise of Lying," are
equally characteristic and less objectionable.
( MazzucheUi, Scrittori d' Italia ; Tiraboschi,

ARCANO.

ARCE.

Storia deUa Letteratura ItaUana, vii. 1207.
ed. 4to. 1787 — 1794; Ginguene, i/i'sto/re i/i-
tiraire d'ltalie, ix. 194 — 199,; Quadrio,
DeUa Storia e della Ragione d' ogni Poesia,
ii, 558,; Crescimbeni, Istoria della Volgar
Poesia, i. 348,, v, 113. ; Aonius Palearius, £p!s-
tolarum, lib. 1. ep. 1 — 5. ; Boccallni, liag-
guagli di Parnaso, cent, ii, Ne, 35,) W, S,
ARCA'SIO, GIOVANNI FRANCISCO,
was born at Bisagno in the province of
Acqui, on the 23d of January, 1712, He
went te the university of Turin, where, in
addition to jurisprudence, he studied with suc
cess the Latin language and antiquities. He
was admitted advocate in 1733 ; and in 1748
appointed by Charles Emmanuel III, of Sar
dinia, professor of civil law at Turin, He
discharged the duties of his office without
intermission tiU a short time before his death,
which occurred at Bisagno on the 25th of
November, 1791, Arcasio is said to have
published several werks, but the only one we
have seen is his " Commentarii Juris Civilis,"
published at Turin in 1782 — 4, in eight
volumes, Svo. This werk contains the sub
stance of his academical lectures distributed
under five heads. The first treats of statutes
and decisions en litigated points both of pub
Uc and private law ; the second ef personal
status and the rights of persons ; the third ef
rights in personam (er obligations) ; the fourth
of rights in rem (the law ef property) ; the
fifth of feudal laAV. A sixth part is an
nounced in the preface — ¦ on public law —
but omitted. The work shews only a slender
acquaintance wit'n the works of the clas
sical Roman jurists ; but it evinces a re
spectable natural talent for classification on
the part ef the author. (Sketch of Arcasio
by Baron Veruazza de Freney in the BibUo
teca Oltremontana ; Senaterls Johannis Fran
cisci ArcasU Commentarii Juris Civilis, necnon
Pralectioncs ad idem Jus pertinentes, Turin,
1782 — 1784,; Biographic Universelle,) W,W.
ARCA'THIAS. [Mithridates VL]
ARCE, DON CALEDO'NIO DE, a
Spanish sculptor, born at Burgos in 1739,
He studied under Fray Gregorio Barambio,
became a member of the academy of San
Fernando at Madrid, and in 1788 was ap
pointed esculter de camera te the kiug of
Spain, Charles IV,, of whom he executed an
equestrian statue in marble, which has been
engraved by Don J. D, Salvador Cai-mona,
In 1786 Arce published at Pamplona a work
on sculpture, " Cenversacienes sobre la Es-
cultura," He died in 1795,
Josef de Arce, a good Spanish sculptor
who in 1657 executed the eight colossal stone
statues of the four evangelists and four doc
tors, ever the balustrade ef the church of the
Sanctuary in the cathedral of Seville, There
are seme other works by him in Seville,
He was a scholar of Juan Martinez Montaues,
'There was a Spanish painter on glass of the
name of Arce, who repaired some windoAvs
265

inthe cathedral of Burgos in 1581, (Cean
Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, ^c) R. N. W,
ARCE, FRANCESCO DE. [Arcjeus,
Franciscus,] ARCEMBOLDL [Arcimboldl]
ARCE^RE, LOUIS E'TIENNE, a priest
of the Oratoire, was bom at Marseille in
1698, He was for seme time professor of
the Humanities, and about the year 1743
became perpetual secretary of the Societe
Royale d' Agriculture at RocheUe, where he
continued te reside till his death, which took
place on the 7th ef February, 1782, At the
time of his decease he was superior of the
house of his order.
His works are : — 1, " Histoire de la VlUe
de RocheUe et du Pays d'Aulnis," 2 vols,
1756 and 1757, 4to, 'The materials for this
work were collected by the Pere Jaillot, on
whose death in 1749 the charge ef the ar
rangement and preparation of the history de
volved upon Arcere, It is distinguished by
much research and great precision in the
statement of facts. It procured for the author
a pension from the province and the title ef
correspondent of the Academie des Inscrip
tions et Belles Lettres, 2, " E'loge Historique
du P, JaUlot," 1750, 4to, 3, " L'E'tat de
TAgriculture des Remains depuis le Com
mencement de la Bepublique jusqu'au Sieele
de Jules-Cesar," Paris, 1777, Svo, 4, "Jour
nal Historique au sujet de la Tentative de la
Flotte Anglaise sur les Cotes du Pays d'Aul
nis eu 1757," 4to, 5, " Memoire sur la
Necessite de dimlnuer le Nombre des Fetes,"
1763, 12me, 6. " Memoire sur la Necessite
de diminuer le Nombre et de changer le Sys
teme des Maisons Religieuses," 1755, 12mo.
7. " Journal Historique de la Prise de
Mahon." 8. " Memoire Apelogetique de la
Revolution de Corse en 1760." Many other
memoirs by him, and also some ef his poeti
cal pieces, are Inserted in the " Recueil de
TAcadcmie de la RocheUe." He gained con
siderable reputation as a poet, and carried off
the prize at the floral games at 'Toulouse in
1736, 1746, and 1748; at MarselUe in 1741,
and at Pau in 1743. He formed a coUection
in five vols, fol., of literary and critical ex
tracts from various journals from 1736 te
April 1780, entitled " Arcerlana," and which
is deposited in the library of the Oratoire at
Marseille. He was for some time occupied
in preparing for publicatien a Turkish, Latin,
and French dictionary, compiled by his uncle
Antoine Arcere ; but was obliged to abandon
the work by the failure ef his sight and his
advanced age. He bequeathed the manu
script to the Bibliotheque du Roi." (Querard.
La Fra ncc Littiraire ; Biographic Universelle.) J. W. J.
ARCESILA'US {'ApxealXaos). There were
four er five Greek artists ef this name. Dio
genes Laertius mentions a sculptor ArcesUaus,
the son of Aristodicus, who made a statue of

ARCESILAUS.

ARCESILAUS.

Diana upon which were written some verses
by Simonides. SilUg conjectures that he may
have been the contemporary of Simonides,
which would fix his time to about 500 e. c.
PUny mentions a painter ef Pares of this
name whe was one ef the first painters in
encaustic. He appears te have been contem
porary with Polygnotus of Thasos, who Uved
in the early half of the fifth century before
Christ. Athenffius mentions an ArcesUaus as one
of the masters of Apelles.
Another painter of the name of Arcesi-
laus or Arcesllas, the sen of the sculptor
Tisicrates, is noticed by Pliny. Tisicrates
was the pupil of Lysippus, and ArcesUaus
lived therefore about 300 B. c. He was pro
bably the painter of the picture ef Leosthenes
and his sons which Pausanias mentions as
painted or preserved in the Piraeus.
There was also a sculptor of this name whe
distinguished himseff at Rome in the last
years of the republic. He was the friend of
Lucius LucuUus, and his models or sketches,
says Varro, sold for more than the finished
works of other artists. An unfinished statue
of Venus Genetrix by him was placed in
the forum ef Julius Caesar ; he left also un
finished, through death, a statue of FeUcity,
which he was making for Lucullus, and for
whieh he was to receive H-s LX. mill, er
6,000,000 sesterces, upwards of 53,000/. Varro
possessed by ArcesUaus a group out of a single
piece ef marble, of some winged Cupids
playing with a Ueness ; and Octavius, a Ro
man citizen, paid him a talent fer a model in
plaster of a bowl or drinking cup. SiUlg
supposes with Hardouin that this ArcesUaus
is the Archesita, mentioned by Pliny a little
above, where he speaks of ArcesUaus, who
made some centaurs bearing away nymphs.
(Diogenes Laertius, iv. ArcesUaus, 45. ; Pau
sanias, lib. i. c. 1. ; Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv.
45., xxxvi 4. ; Athenaeus, x. 420. D. ; SUUg,
Cat Artificum.) R. N. W.
ARCESILA'US {'ApKeaiXaos). Four kings
of Cyrene bore this name.
ARCESILAUS I. was the sen of Battus
I, He succeeded his father e, c, 591, and
reigned sixteen years, (Herodotus, iv, 159,)
ARCESILAUS II, surnamed Chalepus
{XaXeTT6s) on account of his morose and ob
stinate temper, was the sen of Battus II, The
time when he ascended the throne cannot be
accurately fixed, but it was probably about
B, c, 555 or 560, Dissensions broke out
between him and his four brothers, Perseus,
Zacynthus, Aristomeden and Lycus, who all
left Cyrene and founded Barca, They at the
same time incited the subject Libyans to revolt
from the Cyrenacans, ArcesUaus marched
against the Libyans, who at first retreated
before him, but afterwards they hazarded
a battle, in which the Cyrenaeans were de
feated with the loss of seven thousand men.
At the end of a reign of about ten years Ar-
266

cesllaus was either poisoned or strangled by
Learchus, who, according to Herodotus, was
his brother, according to Plutarch, only a
faithless friend. Learchus seized upon the
kingdom, under pretence of preserving it fer
the youthful Battus, the son of ArcesUaus, but,
through the contrivance of Eryxo, the widow
of the murdered king, Learchus was assas
sinated by her brother Polyarchus. (Hero
dotus, iv. 160. ; Plutarch, De Virtut Mul.
11. p, 260. ; Polyasnus, Strateg- vul, 41, ;
Stephanus Byzant. sub. voc. BdpKij, p, 211,)
ARCESILAUS III, son of Battus III,
and Pheretime, succeeded to the throne
about B, c. 530, During the reign of his
father the kingly prerogatives had been
greatly curtailed through the constitutional
alterations introduced by Demonax of Man
tinea, ArcesUaus attempted to recover them,
but his endeavours only excited an insur
rection, which compeUed him te fly from
Cyrene, He took refuge in Samos, where he
collected an army, by means of which he
recovered his kingdom, and, unmindful ef an
oracle which had been delivered to him at
Delphi, proceeded to take a merciless revenge
on the authors of his late disasters, many ef
whom fled from their country, "When Cam-
byses made himseff master of Egypt, Arce
sUaus made a voltmtary submission to him,
partly through fear, partly in hopes that by
his assistance he might establish himself
more securely en the throne. It was prob
ably in consequence of- the indignation ex
cited by this proceeding, as well as by his
cruelty towards his revolted subjects, that
he found his position in Cyrene unsafe. He
accordingly quitted the city, leaving the go
vernment in the hands of his mother Phere
time, and took refuge with his father-in-law,
Alazir, king of Barca, Here he was assais-
sinated with Alazir by seme Barcaeans and
some fugitives from Cyrene, about E. c, 514,
Pheretime, -with the aid of an army sent to
her assistance by the satrap of Egypt, ex
acted a cruel vengeance fer the death ef her
son, (Herodotus, Ui 13, 91,, iv, 165, 167.
200 — 202. ; Polyaenus, viii, 47,)
ARCESILAUS IV. was the eighth (Pindar,
Pyth. iv, 65.) and last king of Cyrene. In
the thirty-flrst Pythiad (b, c, 466), he gained
a victory in the games, which is celebrated
by Pindar in the fourth and fifth Pythian odes,
Pindar praises his courage, abilities, eloquence,
and decision, but remonstrates with him en
his severity towards his political opponents.
He had endeavoured, by the aid of mercenary
troops, to extend the limits of his preroga
tives, and had driven into exile several who
opposed his designs. Among these was his
kinsman Damophilus, fer whom Pindar in
terceded, beseeching the king to restore the
exile to his country, and exhorting him to
adopt milder measures. This advice, how
ever, ArcesUaus dees not seem to have
foUowed, In order te provide a place of re-

ARCESILAUS.
fuge in case he should be driven to extre
mities, he founded the colony of Euesperidae
or Hesperidse (Berenice), According to the
schoUast on Pindar {in tit Pyth- iv, p, 342.
ed. Boeekh), ArcesUaus was assassinated by
the Cyrenaeans, about b. c, 431. After his
death repnbUcan institutions were estabUshed
in Cyrene, (Boeekh, Explic- ad- Find. p.
265. f. ; Schol. on Find., Pyth. iv. 467. p. 372.,
V. 33. p. 379. ; see also a werk by J. P.
Thrige, entitled Res Cyrenensium, ed. S. N.
J. Bloch, Copenhagen, 1828.) C. P. M.
ARCESILA'US or ARCE'SILAS ('Ap-
Kea-lXaos), a Greek philosopher, the founder
of the New, or, as it is called by some, the
Middle Academy. He was born at Pitane
in iEolia, b. c. 316. His father's name was
Scythes er Seuthes, and he wais the youngest
of four brothers, of whom two only were
by the same mother. On the death of his
father his eldest brother Moereas became his
guardian. His first instructor was his fellow-
citizen Autelycus, with whom he made a
journey te Sardis. His guardian wished him
to study rhetoric, and he applied himseff to
it for some time with considerable success ;
but philosophy had greater attractions for
him. His brother Pylades assisted him, un
known te Moereas, in making his way to
Athens, a service of which ArcesUaus maide
a substantial acknowledgment in his will.
He was taught music by an Athenian named
Xanthus. He first studied phUosophy under
Theophrastus, but left him and joined the
Academic school, and, with Grantor and Zeno,
was a hearer of Polemo. With Grantor he
lived en terms ef great intimacy. He like
wise studied under Hippenicus the geome
trician, and made himself acquainted with
the subtleties of the Megaric and Eretrian
schools, which he studied under Diodorus
and Menedemus. Accorduig to Numenius
(Euseb. Prap. Evang. xiv. c. 9. p. 729.) he
was not only an imitator but a disciple of
Pyrrhen. He also applied himself with
some success to poetry. Two epigrams by
him have been preserved by Diogenes
Laertius (iv. 30. 31.). Respecting the time
when he established his school, Mr. CUnton
(App. to vol. ii. p. 367. note /() has a discus
sion, and sums up the results of his investi
gations thus : — "It appears then probable
that ArcesUaus established his school after
the death of Grantor ; that from this period
he was the rival of Zeno and Epicurus, and
that Polemo and Crates, strictly speaking,
had no successors ; that the Old Academy
expired with them, and was superseded by
the school of ArcesUaus, which had been
already founded in their lifetime."
In his manner ef teaching, ArcesUaus re
vived the Socratic method. Without pro
pounding any dogmatic principles of his OAvn,
he enconraged those who asked questions of
him to state their oavu opinions, which he
then proceeded to discuss with great acute-
267

ARCESILAUS.
ness, maintaining alternately both sides of
the airgument. He is said to have possessed
considerable dialectic skill, great oratorical
talents, with a pleasing and graceful style of
speaking, remarkable felicity ef invention
and powers of persuasion, and to have shown
great ingenuity in the way in which he met
objections and adapted his arguments to the
matter in hand. He was fond of speaking in
a sententious style, and was noted for the
keenness and peintedness of his replies (by
which he had attracted notice before he was
seventeen), and for the asperity of his re
bukes. His school was much resorted to.
As a man his character was held in high
esteem. He is said to have been of an
amorous disposition, and somewhat addicted
to the pleasures of the table. He made a
liberal use of his wealth, and several in
stances ef his generosity are recorded by
Diogenes Laertius. Besides some property
at Pitane, which his brother Pylades ma
naged for him, Crantor at his death had be
queathed to him his property, amounting to
twelve talents, and he received large pre
sents from Eumenes, king of Pergamus, the
son of PhUetaerus. He lived on terms of
intimacy with Hierocles, the commander of
the garrison in Munychia and Piraeus, but re
fused to have any intercourse with Antigonus
Gonatas. GeneraUy speaking, he kept aloof
from poUtical affairs. He was, however, en
one occasion sent as ambassador to Anti
gonus, but did net succeed in accompUshing
the object of his mission. He died in his
seventy-fifth year, according to Hermippus
{Diogenes Laert iv. 44.), in consequence of
excessive drinking. He bequeathed aU his
property to his brother Pylades. Fer greater
security he made three copies of his will, of
which he deposited one copy at Eretria iu
the hands of Amphicritus, another with some
of his friends at Athens, and the third with
Thaumasias, his near kinsman. He was
never married, and left no children. Lacydes
succeeded him as president of the Academy
in B.C. 241.
ArcesUaus committed none of his phUo
sophical doctrines te writing ; and as his
example in this respect was followed by his
successor Lacydes, it would appear that the
accounts ef his doctrines which were current
among the ancients must have been derived
chiefly from tradition and the writings of his
adversaries, among whom Chrysippus holds
the chief place. They should be received
therefore with some caution. According to
Cicero {Acadeni- i 12., De Orat iii. 18. § 67.)
the result of his philosophy was a complete
scepticism, fer he denied the possibUity of
knowing any thing, not even excepting what
Socrates conceived himseff te have esta
blished, " that he knew nothing ;" and he
maintained not merely that a wise man would
never foUoAv any opinion, but also that .' e
would never assent to one ; and from Eu-

ARCESILAUS.

ARCET.

sebius {Prap. Evang. xiv. 6.) he would seem
to have taken a kind of pride in professing
that he did net know what the good and
the bad, the beautfful and the ugly, were
in themselves. The position he occupied as
the antagonist of the dogmatism ef the
Stoics probably not merely helped to modffy
his own opinions, but caused them from the
contrast to appear more sceptical than they
really were. According te Sextus Em
piricus (i 234.) he taught his mere advanced
scholars the doctrines ef Plate, of whom he
was a great admirer, and whose writings he
studied with diligence. It is not unlikely, as
Bitter {Gesch, der Philosophic, iU. 676.) re
marks, that, like many ethers, he was unable
to find in them any certain principles of
knoAvledge, and looked upon the doctrines of
Plato in the light ef ingenious conjectures.
Hence Cicero says that the chief deduction
he drew from them was, that neither the
senses nor the mind furnished the means of
arriving at the perception ' of any certain
truth. Not that he denied the existence of
truth, and of an essential difference between
it and falsehood, he denied only the pessi-
biUty of arriving at the knowledge ef it.
The utmost that could be asserted ef any
doctrine was, according to him, that it was
probable. He appears to have combated
most zealously the doctrine of the certainty
of sensuous perception, and the Stoic theory
of convincing conception {(pavTaola KaraXriTr-
TiKij). He does not seem te have appUed
himself se diligently te the refutation of the
position, that it is possible to attain to know
ledge by means ef the reason ; he contented
himself with pointing out the contradictions
existing between the various philosophical
theories that had been propounded. He,
however, restricted his scepticism to phUo
sophy and science, though his antagonists
held them to be essentially subversive of mo
rality. He held that if the laws and maxims
by which men generally regulated their con
duct afforded no certain knowledge, they
yet contained in them what was probable,
and taught that in the choice of the good and
the rejection ef the bad the wise man would
follow probabUity (Sext. Emp. adv. Math. 11.
158.), and aet according to the usual estima
tion of what is good or bad, regarding a
strictly scientific knowledge of its essence
and principles as unattainable. (Fabricius,
Biblioth. Graca, 'ni- 162-; Brucker, i/«^ P/(/-
losopli- i. 746. ; Bredeisen, De Arcesila Plii-
losopho Academ- comm. p. i. Alten. 1821 ;
Tennemann, in Ersch and Gruber's Ency
clopadie, sub. voc. " jVrkesilaos.") C. P. M.
ARCET, JEAN D', wais born at
Douazlt, in the present department of Landes
in France, on the 7th of September, 1725,
He received his early education at the col
lege of Alne, where he was distinguished
for the ardour Avith which he pursued his
various studies. His father, who was a ma-
268

gisfrate in the distriot ef Douazlt, wished, as
he was his eldest son, to educate him in such
a manner that he might fill his own position,
and for this purpose he was sent to study at
Bordeaux, It was here that a taste for
natural science was developed in young
D'Arcet, in which, when it became known to
his father, he forbade him indulging, on pain
of being disinherited. But such was his devo
tion to science that he ran the risk ef being for
ever driven from his home, rather than give
up his favourite pursuits. His father kept
his word, and without friends and without
money, D'Arcet haid recourse to teaching the
chUdren of the lower classes Latin, to enable
himseff to pursue his studies. He, however,
soon made friends, and became acquainteel
with Roux, who was then a young man.
Roux subsequently introduced him to Montes
quieu, who appointed him tutor te his sen.
In 1 742 he came to Paris with Montesquieu,
and from the position of tutor in his famUy
became his intimate friend, D'Arcet's mind
Avas simUarly constituted to that of Montes
quieu, and he is said to have assisted him in
his literary labours, more especiaUy in his
werk " De I'Esprit des Lois," Montesquieu
died in the arms ef D'Arcet, and committed
te his charge the care of his manuscripts, as
he suspected they would be made an im
proper use of by those who were interested
in misrepresenting his religious opinions.
After the death of Montesquieu, D'Arcet
devoted himseff to the study of the medical
sciences, and more particularly chemistry,
and took his degree of doctor in the faculty
of medicine in Paris in 1762. He, however,
did not practise medicine but gave up most
of his time te chemistry. He became the
friend of Reuelle, who was then professor of
chemistry in the coUege of Paris, and was
labouring to promote the doctrines ef Stahl.
RoueUe recommended him te the Comte de
Lauraguals as his assistant in applying the
principles of chemistry to the arts. Laura-
guads, although he spent much of his fortune
and time on the pm-suit of science, held a
command in the army, and war having
broken out, he was called te Germany,
whither he was foUowed by D'Arcet, Avho on
his return published an accoimt ef his expe
dition, Avith observations on various subjects
of scientific interest. Being once more in
his laboratory, D'Arcet devoted himseff te
study the maniffacture of porcelain, and
having made analyses ef the best specimens
from China, Japan, and other parts of the
Avoi-ld, he at last succeeded in producing a
porcelain equal to that from other countries.
'These analyses led him into a long course of
experiments on the properties of minerals,
and the result of his labours was published
in two Memoirs in 1766 and 1768 entitled
" Memoires sur I'Action d'un Feu cgal, violent
et continue pendant plusieurs Jours sur un
grand Nombre de 'Torres, do Pierres, et Chaux

ARCET.

ARCET.

MStalliques essayees pour la plupart telles
qu'elles sortent du Sein de la 'Terre," Paris,
Svo. These memoirs were an important contri
bution to chemistry, and detailed the result of
the most extensive series ef experiments that
had been made upon the analysis of minerals
by the agency ef heat. In 1772 he published
some further analyses of minerals, with the
title, " Experiences sur plusieurs Diamants et
Pierres Precieuses," Paris, Svo. In this werk
he first announced the perfect combustibility
of the diamond. Newton had inferred from
the refractive power of the diamond that it
was combustible ; Boyle and ethers had par
tiaUy succeeded in burning it, but D'Arcet
seems to have been the first whe perfectly
performed this interesting experiment.
D'Arcet married in 1771 a daughter ef
RoueUe, whe had died the year before. In
1774 he made a visit to the Pyrenees, and
examined the structure and mineralegical
character of these mountains. On his return
he was appointed to the chair of chemistry in
the College of France, and as an inaugural
discourse, gave an account of his labours in
the Pyrenees. This discourse was delivered
in French, and is said to have been the first
in the college in which the custom of reading
such discourses in Latin Avas breken through.
On the death ef Macquer, D'Arcet was ap
pointed director of the Sevres manufacture of
porcelain at Sevres, and elected a member of
the Academy of Sciences. He also succeeded
GiUet as inspector of the public mint, and
was Inspector of the tapestry manufacture of
the Gobelins. In this latter manufacture he
suggested several improvements as weU as in
that of porcelain. He was a member of many
ofthe committees of inquiry appointed by the
Academy of Sciences, and assisted in drawing
up the reports on Mesmerism, the State of
the Hospitals of Paris, and others, and contri
buted many memoirs to the transactions of
the Academy of Sciences. In conjunction
with LeliJivre and PeUetier he furnished
many reports to the " Journal des Mmes,"
and also contributed many articles to Roux's
" Journal de Medecine."
D'Arcet narrowly escaped the guillotine
during the reign of terror. The Duke of
Orleans had been his patron, and this was
sufficient to render him " suspect." The
order was signed for his arrest, but through
the bold defence- set up fer hun by Fourcrey,
the chemist, who was then a member of the
convention, he was saved. He died en the 12th
of February, 1801. He left behind him two
daughters and a son, who is still living, and
is well known for his writings on che
mistry In addition te the werks referred te, Que
rard gives the following : — " Ergo omnes
Humeres Corporis, turn Excrementl tum Re-
crementi ex Fermentatione preducuntur,"
Paris, 1762, Svo. " Histoire de la Maladie
de M. D'Hcrincourt," Paris, 1778, Svo.
269

" Lettre sur TAnti-Veneriend' Agironi," Paris,
1772, Svo. "Rapport sur rElectricite dans
les Maladies Nerveuses," Paris, 1782, Svo,
" Instructien sur TArt de separer le Cuivre
du Metal des Cloches," He was the in
ventor of a metadlic alloy which some
times bears his name ; it melts in boiUng
water, and has been employed in making
stereotype plates. {Pricis Historique sur la
Vie et les Travaux de Jean d'Arcet, par
Michel J. J. Dizc ; Querard, La France
Littiraire-) E. L.
ARCHA, R. ELIEZER BEN ISAAC
(KmS pHS' p Ity^'pN "-!), who is caUed by
Bartolocci EUezer Aben Archa, a Jewish
physician and rabbi of Hebron in Palestine,
of whom little is known except that he is
cited with great praise by R. Abraham ben
Samuel Gedalia iu his Commentary on the
Jalkut. De Rossi says that he is the author
of many werks which have never appeared
in print, among which are a Commentary on
the Medrash Rabba, another on the En Isreal,
besides "SheelothUteshuvoth" (" Questions
and Answers " on the Law), and Discourses.
Of the time at which he lived and Avrete we
find no record, (De Rossi, Dizion- Storic.
degl. Aut Ebr. 1, 58, ; Bartolocclus, Biblioth.
Mag. Rabb. i, 184,) C. P. H,
ARCHADE'T, [Arcadelt.]
ARCHA'GATHUS {'ApxdyaBos), an an
cient Greek physician and surgeon, who is
said by Cassius Hemina to have been the
first foreigner who endeavoured to introduce
the systematic practice ef medicine among
the Romans. He was apparently a native ef
Peloponnesus, and his father's name was
Lysanias ; he came te Rome in the con
sulship of L. iEmiUus PauUus and M. Livius
Salinator, E. c. 219, His arrival is said to
have pleased the people at first amazingly ;
the " Jus Quirltium " was bestowed upon him,
and a shop {taberna) to serve him for a sur
gery wais bought for him at the public ex
pense in one of the most frequented parts of
the city. His mode of practice, however,
was so much more severe than what the
people had before been accustomed to (being,
apparently, almost entirely surgical, and con
sisting chiefly, as far as we are told, in the
free use of the knife, and of either the actual
or potential cautery), that they soon became
disgusted Avlth him ; and whereas they had at
flrst called him " Vulnerarius," or "the Healer
of Wounds," they now changed his name to
" Camifex," er " the Executioner," They
even entertained a prejudice against the pro
fession generally, and hence perhaps arose in
some degree the lew estimation in whicli phy
sicians were for a long time held among the
Remans. Celsus mentions a plaster, " quae ad
auctorem Archagathum refertur," probably
meaning this same person, as no other phy
sician of this name (as far as the writer is
aware) is mentioned by any ancient author,
(Pliny, Hist Nat- lib, xxix. cap. 6. ed.

ARCHAGATHUS.
Tauchn. ; Celsus, De Medic Ub. v, cap, 19.
S 27. p. 242, ed. Argent.) W. A, G.
ARCHA'GATHUS, [Agathocles,]
ARCHAGILLI'SIUS, the corrupted name
of a physician quoted by Rhazes, who wrote
a work on chronic diseases, " De Morbis
Diuturnis," and who may perhaps be the
same person as Arcagenisius, that is Archi
genes. (Rhazes, Contin. lib. viii cap. 1. ;
Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca, tem. xiii. p. 79.
ed, vet) W. A. G.
ARCHDALE, JOHN, was fhe author of
a curious tract published in 1707, entitled
" A New Description of that fertile and
pleasant Province of Carolina ; with a brief
Account of its Discovery, Settling, and the
Government thereof to this time." That
province had been granted by Charles II. to
the Duke of Albemarle and a few other
noblemen, who endeavoured to settle it ; one
ostensible object ef their patent being the in
troduction of Christianity among the natives.
The colony was, however, se mismanaged
that in 1694 the governor, named Smyth,
wrote to England te state that it was impos
sible to settle the country, unless one of the
proprietors would go from England, with fuU
power fer the redress ef grievances. In this
emergency Lord Ashley was chosen ; but as
he declined the office, Archdale, who was
also a proprietor, was appointed governor.
He entered upon the government on the 17th
of August, 1695, and, by a judicious spirit of
conciliation, he seen brought the province
into a peaceable and prosperous state ; after
which he returned to England, leaving the
government in the hands of a person named
Blake, who subsequently became a proprietor.
A few years after Archdale gave up the
government the province again became dis
turbed, in a great measure owing to the jea
lousy existing between the high churchmen
and the dissenters ; and this circumstance
led te the publicatien ef his pamphlet, which
presents a singular picture of the state of the
British American colonies at the commence
ment of the eighteenth century. It is the
only authority with which we are acquainted
fer the personal history of Archdale. J. T. S.
ARCHDALE, REV, MERVYN, A, M,
is said to have been born at DubUn in
1723. From the "Introduction" and title-
page to his principal work, he appears to
have been formerly domestic chaplain to
Dr. Pococke, bishop of Ossory and Meath,
and, at the date of its publication, in the year
1786, chaplain to the Right Honourable
Francis-Pierpoint, Lord Conyngham, .and a
member of the Royal Irish Academy, Ob
serving the want ef a werk which should
occupy the same place in the antiquarian
history of Ireland as the " Menasticen An-
gllcanum " in that of England, and that what
little had been done by Ware towards what
he terms au " Irish Monasteriology " Avas a
mere outline or skeleton, Archdall, encou-
270

ARCHDALL.
raged and assisted in the flrst instance by
Dr, Pococke, laboured industriously for many-
years in coUecting materials fer supplying
the defloiency. Having done so, he was
compeUed te abridge and epitomise the ori
ginal documents ; because, if printed at length,
they would have filled at least two folio
volumes, the pubUcatlon of which would have
involved an expense far greater than the for
tune ef a private clergyman could sustain.
At length, in the year above mentioned, he
produced the fruit of his labours, in a quarto
volume ef more than eight hundred pages,
entitled " Menasticen Hibemicum ; or, a
History of the Abbeys, Priories, and other
ReUgious Houses in Ireland," and containing
also memoirs of their founders, benefactors,
and abbots or other superiors, and an account
of the disposal of their possessions after their
suppression, and of the then present state of
their ruins. The work is iUustrated with a
map of Ireland, and eighteen plates, repre
senting the habits of the several religious
and miUtary orders treated of. The arrange
ment of the book is convenient ; the counties
themselves, and the several foundations in
each county, are arranged alphabeticaUy :
there is also aji index of the names of places,
but not of the names of persons. In 1789
ArchdaU published, in seven volumes, octavo,
a revised edition of Lodge's " Peerage of
Ireland," upon which, he states in the adver
tisement, he had been occupied four years,
confining himself to genealogical inquiries,
because he confesses an almost total ignorance
of the science ef heraldry. He then de
scribed himseff as rector ef Slane, in the
county of Meath, where he died, on the 6th
ef August, 1791, at the age ef sixty-eight,
according to the " Scots' Magazine," which
agrees with the date of birth as above stated,
or in his sixty-fifth year according te the
" Gentleman's Magazine," where it is errone
ously stated that he died in Scotland. ( Works,
as above ; Scots' Magazine, lui 415.; Gentle
man's Magazine, Ixi 780.) J. T. S.
ARCHDEKIN, or ARSDEKIN, RICH
ARD, was born in the county ef Kilkeimy
about the year 1619, and admitted into the
society of Jesuits at Mechlin in 1642. At
the time that SouthweU wrote the biographies
ofthe Jesuits, in 1676, Archdekin had been
for six years professor of the classics, for five
of phUosophy, and for fourteen of moral and
Scriptural theology, partly at Louvain and
partly at AntAverp. He died at Antwerp en
the 3d of August, 1693, according to Foppens.
In the edition of Moreri pubUshed in 1759,
his Iffe is given twice, once under Archdekin,
and a second time under Arsdekin, and in
ene ai-tiele his death is stated to have taken
place in 1690, in the ether in 1696, but the
authority of Foppens, who is foUowed by
Paquot, may be considered decisive against
either date. It may be remarked that both
forms of his name are adopted by Archdekin

ARCHDEKIN.

ARCHDEKIN.

in his own title-pages, and that he had a
third, that of Mac-GiUacuddy.
The works of Archdekin are — 1. "Of
Miracles, and the new Miracles done by the
Relicks of St. Francis Xavier, in the Jesuits
CoUege at Mechlin," Louvain, 1667, Svo., in
EngUsh and Irish. This very scarce book is
supposed by the Rev. C. Andersen to be the
first ever printed in the two languages in con
junction. 2. " PraecipusB Controversise Fidei
ad facUem methodum redacta," Louvain, 1671,
Svo. At the end of this volume, which is asum-
mary of theology, is usuaUy found " Vitae et
Miraculorum Sancti Patricii Hiberniae Apos
toli Epitome cum brevi notitia Hibernia et
Prophetia S. Malachiae," a Iffe of St. Patrick,
with a short notice of Ireland and the pro
phecy of St. Malachi respecting the succession
of the popes, printed in the same year at the
same place. The " Controversiae Fidei " had
a wonderful success. A few copies of the
werk which found their way to the uni
versity of Prague were received with such
enthusiasm that some transcripts of the whele
were made for the use of the students ; and in
1678 the book was reprinted, without the
knowledge of the author, at the university
press. 'The third edition, which was printed
at Antwerp with the author's corrections and
additions, was followed by a fourth and fifth
at Cologne and Ingolstadt; and the sixth,
again at Antwerp, by a seventh again at
Cologne. We gather these particulars from
the prefaces to the eighth edition, which ap
peared at Antwerp in 1686, and in which
the title, the bulk, and the arrangement
of the werk are se altered that it would
hardly be recognised as the same. The
"Controversial Fidei" of 1671 is a small
octave ef five hundred pages. In the edition
of 1686 the title is "Theologia Tripartita
Universa," and the three volumes quarto, of
which it consists, comprise in all about eleven
hundred pages closely printed in double
columns, containing about five times the
matter of the " Controversiae." The author
alludes to the merits of his work in a style of
considerable complacency. It begins with a
" Dedicatio Viris ApestoUcis universis etiam
in Editionibus amplissimis Jacobi II., Angliae,
Hiber. &c.. Regis serenissimi," and ends with
a coUectien of the dedications to the former
editions, including a life of OUver Plunket,
the Roman Catholic archbishop of Armagh,
who was executed at London in 1681, and of
Peter Talbot, the Roman CathoUc archbishop
of Dublin, who died in imprisonment at
Dublin in 1680. In addition to these, Arch-
dekin's work contains a number of other
anecdotes connected with the history of Ire
land, introduced as examples in support of
his theological doctrines, which give the
book a value which it is otherwise far from
possessing. It has, indeed, the merit ef con
taining a short summary of the doctrines of
the church to which the author belonged,
271

but the style is not good, and the authority
of its statements has been controverted by
higher authority in the Roman Catholic
church. In 1700 it was prohibited tUl cor
rection should be made by the congregation
of the Index. The first edition which was
published with the necessary corrections ap
pears also to have been the last. It appeared
at Antwerp iu 1718, and was the thirteenth
of the whele. Southwell mentions that
Archdekin in 1676 was preparing a work to
be called " Theologia ApostoUca," but this
was probably included in the "tripartite"
collection. (Ribadeneira, Bibliotheca Scrip
torum Societatis Jesu, opus centinuatum a
SotveUe, p. 718.; Foppens, Bibliotheca Bel
gica, p. 1066. ; Ware, History of Ireland,
by Harris, ii. ; Writers of Ireland, p. 203.;
Archdekin, Controversia, Tlieologia, Sec.)
T. W.
ARCHEDA'MUS. [Archidemus.]
ARCHE'DICE ('ApxeSl/cT)), a daughter
of Hippias, the son ef Pisistratus, and ty
rant of Athens. Her father gave her in
marriage to iEautides, the son of Hippoclus,
who was tyrant of Lampsacus, with a view
to secure the interest of Hippoclus, who
had great influence at the court ef Darius
Hystaspis, if he should be obliged to quit
Athens. Archedice was buried at Lampsacus,
and her epitaph, which Aristotle describes as
the werk of Simonides, is preserved in Thu
cydides. ( Thucydides, vi. 59. ; Aristotle,
Rhetorica, i. 9.) L. S.
ARCHELA'US {'Apx^Xaos), a Greek
sculptor, the son of Apollonius, of Priene.
This name is inscribed upon the upper part
of the bas-relief of the apotheosis ef Homer
formerly in the Colonna palace at Rome, now
in the British Museum. It was found on the
Via Appia, near Albano, at a place called
Alle Frattecchie, the ancient Bovillae, where
the Emperor Claudius had a villa, and
Winckelmann supposes it to have been exe
cuted about the time of that emperor, which
is very probable, as it is undoubtedly ef the
Roman period. Other writers have supposed
it to have been produced as early as the time
ef Phidias. The figures are small, about nine
inches high : the design is very inferior,
and in parts incorrect, as, for instance, the
raised arm of Homer. Homer is seated on
a throne at the foot of Mount Parnassus,
and before him is a group of figures sacri
ficing to him ; above are Apollo and the
Muses, and on the summit ef the mount is
Jupiter, whe appears to sanction the divine
honours which are being paid to the poet.
It was purchased fer the British Museum in
1819, at the enormous price of 1,000/.
(Winckelmann, Werke, vol. vi. p. 68. sq. ;
and see " Townley Gallery" of the Library
of Entertaining Knowledge, in which there
are wood-cuts of this work.) R. N. W.
ARCHELA'US ('Apxe'Aooj ), a Greek
chorographer who, according to Diogenes

ARCHELAUS.

ARCHELAUS.

Laertius, wrote a description of the countries
Avhich had been conquered by Alexander the
Great. No fragments of this werk are ex
tant, and we are unable to form any decided
opinion as to the time at which this Ar
chelaus lived ; but the subject of his work
favours the opinion that he lived either at er
shortly after the time ef Alexander. Harpo
cration (under 'Ax6vTia-os), according to Bek
ker's reading, speaks of an Archelaus who
Avrote a work on the history of Euboea, of
which the fourth boek is there quoted ; but
whether this Archelaus is the chorographer,
or whether Ave must not read with Maussac,
Archemachus instead ef Archelaus, are points
Avhlch cannot be satisfactorily answered. Plu
tarch and Stobaeus, again, mention an Arche
laus as the author of a work on rivers, but
without giving any means of identifying him.
(Diogenes Laertius, ii. 17. ; Plutarch, De
Fluviis, 1 and 9.; Stobaeus, Florilegium, i. 15.)
L. S.
ARCHELA'US {'ApxeXaos), the author of
a Greek poem on alchemy, of whose life no
particulars are known, and whose date is
somewhat uncertain. He appears te have
been a Christian, and probably, (judglngfrom
internal evidence,) was a late writer. His
werk is entitled 'ApxeAoou ^iXotrdtpov irepl ttjs
'lepcis TexvTjs 5iA StIx""^ 'Idp-Saiv (" An Iambic
Poem by Archelaus the Philosopher, en the
Sacred Art,") and is very barbarous beth in
style and versification. It exists in MS, in
several European libraries, and was to have
been published by Leo AUatius. Seme ex
tracts are given by J, St, Bernard at the end
of his edition of PaUadius, " De Febribus,"
Leiden, 1745, Svo, ; but the whole of the
poem Avas not pubUshed till 1842, in the
second volume of Ideler's " Physici et Medici
Grasci Minores," Berlin, Svo, It differs in
length in different MSS, ; in Ideler's edition
it consists of three hundred and thirty-six
lines, (Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca, vol. xi.
p, 579, ed. Harles,) W, A, G,
ARCHELA'US {'ApxeXaos), a son of
Amyntas IL, king of Macedonia, by his
wife Gygaea, Archelaus was a half-brother
of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great,
Gyga3a had by Amyntas two ether sons,
Archideus and Menelaus. After the death
of Amyntas, Philip, dreading the competition
of his half-brothers fer the throne, put one of
them to death, and the two others, who were
threatened with the same fate, fied to Olyn-
thus. The citizens of Olynthus were moved
by pity te receive and protect the two
princes, and this protection was, according to
Justin, the reason why Philip, in b. u. 349,
made war upon Olynthus, "When the place
was taken in a. c, 347, Philip had his tAvo
half-brothers put to death. ( Justin, vii. 4.,
vUi. 3. ) L. S.
ARCHELA'US {'ApxeXdos), bishop ef
CjV.sarea iu Cappadocia, lived, according
te (Wave's conjecture, about A. d, 440. It Is
272

at all events certain that he lived after the
synod of Sidon, a. d. 383, at which the
Messalians were condemned, and before the
so-called "concilium latrocuiale" of Ephesus,
A. D. 449, in which year Thalassius, the pre
decessor ef Alypius, was bishop of Caesarea.
Archelaus wrote a refutation ef the heresies
.of the Messalians, which is referred to by
Photius. (Photius, Codex, 52.; Cave, Scrip
torum Ecclesiast. Historia Literaria, ii. 143.
ed. London.) L. S.
ARCHELA'US {'ApxeXaos), king ef Cap
padocia, a son of Archelaus IL, the high priest
ef Comanai, aud grandson of Archelaus I. In
B. c. 34, Antonius, after having expeUed Aria
rathes, king ef Cappadocia, gave this kingdom
to Archelaus, who reigned till a. d. 16. The
mother of this Archelaus is caUed Glaphyra,
and is said to have been a courtesan. Appian,
who places the expulsion of Ariarathes in
B. c. 41, calls his successor, who was ap
pointed by M. Antonius, and whom he also
calls a son of Glaphyra, Sisinna ; and he adds
that Antonius was induced to give bim Cap
padocia by the charms of Glaphyra. With
respect to the name Sisinna, we must consider
it a surname of Archelaus, unless we suppose
that Appian has made a mistake. In the
war between Octavianus and Antonius, Ar
chelaus supported Antonius with auxiliary
troops ; but notwithstanding this, after the
battle of Actium, Octavianus left Archelaus
iu the possession of his kingdom, and even
added te his dominions the maritime district
ef CiUcia and the whele of Lesser Armenia.
During the whole period ef the reign ef
Augustus, Archelaus remained in undisturbed
possession of his kingdom. His subjects,
however, seem to have had just cause of
complaint ; and they appealed to Augustus.
Tiberius, who then entertained friendly feel
ings towards Archelaus, undertook his de
fence, and succeeded in clearing him from
the charges brought against him. Subse
quently, when Tiberius was staying in Rhodes,
E. c. 6, he felt himself neglected by Archelaus ;
whereas Caius Caesar, dui-ing his stay in Asia
in A. D. 2, who was then expected to be the
successor of Augustus, received the greatest
attention from Archelaus. This sUght, or
want of attention, was never forgotten by
Tiberius ; and Avhen he became emperor he
got his mother to Avrite te Archelaus amd in
vite him to Rome, holding out to him the
hope that by personal application he might
obtain pardon fi-om the emperor for his
neglect. Archelaus accordingly went to
Rome ; but to his surprise he was accused by
Tiberius, before the senate, of matters of
which he was entirely innocent. Archelaus
was then at a A-ery advanced age : he had
been king of Cappadocia for fifty years.
The object ef 'Tiberius Avas to have hlra
condemned to death ; but, as the king was
worn out Avith old age, and appeared to he
no longer in the full possession of his under-

ARCHELAUS.
standing — an appearance, however, whieh,
according to Dion Cassius, he only assumed —
it was thought unnecessary to put him to
death. But Archelaus was obliged to re
main at Rome, where he died in a. d. 17.
He was the last king ef Cappadocia, which,
on his death, was made a Roman province.
There are coins of Archelaus en which he is
called Ktio-ttji, or the Founder, perhaps from
having founded the town ef Ela:ussa, in the
island of Elsussa, off the coast of ClUcia.
(Strabo, xii. 535. 540., xvii. 796. ; Dien Cas
sius, xlix. 32., U. 3., liv. 9., IvU. 17. ; Appian,
De Bello Civili, v. 7. ; Tacitus, Annales, 11.
42.; Plutarch, Antonius, 61.; Suetonius,
Tiberius, 8. 37., Caligula, 1. ; Josephus,
Jewish Antiq. xvi. 4. § 6. ; Eckhel, Doc
trina Num. Vet in. 201.) L. S,
ARCHELA'US {'ApxeXaos), a native ef
Cappadocia, and the chief general of Mith
ridates VI,, surnamed Eupator, in his first war
with the Romans, In b,c. 88 Archelaus and his
brother Neoptolemus were the commanders of
the forces of Mithridates, and gained a briUiant
victory over Nicomedes III. of Bithynia, the
ally of the Romans, on the river Amnias in
Paphlagonia. In b.c. 78, after his unsuc
cessful attempt upon Rhodes, Mithridates sent
Archelaus to Greece te gain over the Greek
towns by persuasion or by force. Archelaus
had a large fleet and an army ef ene hundred
and twenty thousand men. He first took
Delos, which had revolted from Athens, and
several other places ; and after having put te
death a great part of their population, he gave
the places to the Athenians. He also sent
to the Athenians the sacred treasures which
he had taken in Delos. These treasures were
conveyed to Athens by Aristlon, an Athenian,
with an escort of two thousand soldiers, with
whose assistance Aristlon set himself up as
tyrant of Athens. [Aristion.] Archelaus
also succeeded in persuading the Achaeans,
Lacedaemonians, and Boeotians to support the
cause of Mithridates against the Romans. In
Boeotia, Thespiae alone resisted ; but it was
besieged and compelled to follow the example
of the other Bceotiau towns. In the mean
time Metrophanes, another general of Mi
thridates, ravaged Euboea, Demetrias, and
Magnesia, which refused to join the king's
party ; but Metrophanes was put to flight by
Bruttius Sura, the legate of Sentius, governor
of Macedonia, whe new entered Boeotia. In
the neighbourhood of Chacronea, Bruttius
Sura fought against Archelaus and Aristion
for three successive days Avithout any de
cisive advantage being gained en either
side. But in the mean time seme Aehajan
and Lacedaemonian auxiliaries had come to
Archelaus, and Bruttius Avithdrew to Piraeus
in Attica. Archelaus arrived soon after with
his fleet and took possession ef Piraeus,
which Bruttius was obliged to quit. Not
long after this event SuUa, to whom the
Roman senate had given the command
VOL. iil

ARCHELAUS.
in the war against Mithridates, arrived 'in
Greece with a large army, and after col-
lectmg money and previsions in iEtolia and
Thessaly he marched towards Attica. On
his passage through Bojotia the Boeotians
submitted to him as readily as they had sub
mitted te ^ Archelaus. Having despatched
part of his forces to besiege Aristlon, in
Athens, Sulla marched with the main body
of his troops against Piraeus, where Arche
laus had retreated within the AvaUs, and made
the necessary preparations fer sustaining a
siege. Sulla attempted to take the place by
assault, but being repulsed with considerable
loss he withdrew to Eleusis and Megara,
where he made great preparations for the
siege ef Pirajus. The Leng WaUs which con
nected Athens with Piraeus Avere destroyed,
for the purpose of supplying materials for
the fortifications with which SuUa surroun
ded Pirajus. Archelaus in the meantime
increased his defences, and drcAv reinforce
ments from Eubcea and the other islands,
and even armed the rowers ef his fleet. In
numbers he Avas far superior to Sulla, and in
addition to the forces under his command,
fresh reinforcements from Mithridates landed
in Piraius, upon which Archelaus marched
out and drew his troops up in battle array
close by the walls. After a long fight, in
which Archelaus lost nearly two thousand
men, he retreated within Pirajus. WhUe he
Avas^ endeavouring te encourage his men
against the Romans, they hastily fled into
the town, and Archelaus found himself
shut out, as the fugitives in their fear had
closed the gates. He was pulled up the a\ aU
by a rope. As the winter of b. c. 87 — 86
Avas now approaching, SuUa took his sta
tion near Eleusis ; but hostilities were con
tinued in sallies and skirmishes. Athens
no-w began to suffer from scarcity of pro
visions. Archelaus endeavoured to give the
town relief by sending a convoy from Pira;us
to Athens ; but it was intercepted by the
Remans, who had been informed ofthe design
by some traitors in Piraeus. One of the
assaults which Sulla made by night on Piraeus
caused great constemation among the besieged.
A second attempt to carry provisions into
Athens was likewise betrayed to the Romans,
aud it failed. Sulla perceiving the condition
ef the besieged in the city, determined to
compel it to surrender by famine. In the
beginning of the spring of B. c. 86 Pirajus
Avas assaUed Avith all the military engines
that Sulla could command, but no marked
impression could be made, and Sulla at last
determined te blockade Pira;us, and thus to
wear out the garrison. As the famine in
Athens had reached a most fearful height,
Sulla rencAved his attacks upon the city,
which was carried by assaidt and delivered
up to massacre and plunder. The acropoUs,
Avhither .\ristion had fled, still held out fer
some time, but was compeUed to surrender
t

ARCHELAUS.

ARCHELAUS.

by famine, Aristion and his followers were
put to death, and immense treasures fell into
the hands of SuUa, This being accompUshed,
Sulla directed all his energies against Pirasus ;
he forced the entrance, aud Archelaus was
obliged to withdraw to the most impregnable
part ef Pirasus, which was surrounded by
the sea, and which the enemy, net having a
fleet, was unable te reach. Archelaus did
not remain long in this confinement ; he em
barked his troops and set out for Thessaly.
In the neighbourhood ef Thermopylae he
collected the scattered forces of Mithridates,
and also received some fresh reinforcements,
which were sent by the king. After having
destroyed the greater part of Piraeus by fire,
Sulla pursued Archelaus through Bccotia.
Archelaus, who was again at the head of an
army of about one hundred and twenty thou
sand men, marched into Phocis to meet the
enemy. As the ground was unfavourable,
Sulla refused te fight, and Archelaus moved
towards the coast of the Eiirlpus and pitched
his camp near Chaeronea, in an unfavourable
position, as he did not anticipate an attack
from the Romans, Sulla saw his advantage,
and compelled Archelaus to fight. Appian
and Plutarch have given particular descrip
tions of the battle. Archelaus was com
pletely defeated, and withdrew to Chalcis
with only ten thousand men whe survived
the battle, and gathered round their general.
After a short rest was given to the soldiers
Sulla followed Archelaus to the Eurlpus ; but,
as he had no fleet, Archelaus made his escape,
and with his fleet plundered the islands and
ravaged the coast. He also made a descent
on Zacynthus, but was driven away by some
Romans who were staying there, on Avhich
he returned to Chalcis, Mithridates being
informed ef the defeat of his general levied a
fresh army of eighty thousand men, whom
he sent to Archelaus, under the command of
Dorylaus or Derilaus. Thus reinforced Ar
chelaus crossed over into Bffiotia, to wipe off
the disgrace of his former defeat. Sulla was
encamped near Orchomenus, and on the ap
proach of the enemy he drew up his army
for battle. But the Romans Avere disheartened
at the sight of the enemy, whom they thought
they had already annihilated ; and the per
sonal courage of Sulla alone led them to
victory. On the first day ef the battle Ar
chelaus lost fifteen thousand men, aud aniong
them his own son, Diogenes. Sulla fearing
lest the enemy should escape during the
night te (.'lialcis took precautions to cut off
their retreat. On the following day the
camp ef Archelaus was taken by storm ; most
of the soldiers fell in the fearful slaughter
which ensued, and numbers who endeavoured
to escape were drowmed in Lake Copals.
Archelaus, after concealing himself fer three
days In the marshes, got a boat and crossed
ever to Chalcis, e.c. 85. Here he assembled
the troops of Mithridates which wore still
274

scattered in various parts of Greece. Mith
ridates, in the meantime, had hard struggles
with the Romans in Asia. The defeat at
Orchomenus made him despair, and he wrote
te Archelaus, commanding bun te conclude
the war on the best terms he could. Arche
laus solicited an interview with Sulla, who
had marched into Thessaly. The request
was granted, and the two generals met at
Dellum, in Boeotia. SuUa first attempted to
induce Archelaus to betray his master, but
the attempt was indignantly resisted. The
conditions which SuUa proposed were, — that
Archelaus should surrender his whole fieet ;
that all the Roman prisoners and deserters
should be restored ; that the Chians and other
Greeks whe had been transported te Pontus
should be set free ; that the garrisons of
Mithridates should be withdrawn from all
places in Greece ; and that the king should
pay all the expenses of the war, and confine
himself to his oavu kingdom of Pontus. Ar
chelaus immediately withdrew the garrisons
from the places required, and, with the
exception of the clause which demanded
the surrender of the fleet, he accepted
the terms, though the treaty required the
king's sanction. Messengers were accor
dingly sent to Mithridates te acquaint him
with the terms proposed by SuUa. One or
two writers state that Archelaus treacherously
gave up the fleet te SuUa, but Plutarch
expressly denies the fact. During the ces
sation of hostilities until the retum of the
messengers, Sulla, accompanied by Archelaus,
for whom he had conceived great esteem,
made an expedition against seme barbarous
tribes which had infested the province of
Macedonia, Mithridates, in reply to the
terms, refused to give up his fleet and Paph
lagonia. But Sulla would not conclude
peace on any pther terms, fer Lucullus had
in the meantime arrived with a fleet to
assist Sulla, Archelaus, who had in some
measure pledged himself that the king would
conclude peace en the terms proposed, brought
about a meeting between Mithridates and
Sulla at Dardanus, in Treas, Mithridates
was induced to yield, and after all his enor
mous exertions he was reduced to the same
position which he had occupied before the
ceininencementef the war. Mithridates soon
began to feel dissatisfied at having consented
te the conditions of peace, and to suspect
Archelaus of having made greater concessions
than were necessary. Archelaus perceiving
the change in the king's disposition deserted
to the Romans, E.c. 81, just before the out
break of the second Avar with Mithridates.
He prevailed upon thel! oinan general Murena,
Avho Avas then in Asia te conduct the war
against Mithridates, to begin hostilities at
once, and not to Avait tlU the king attacked him.
[Murena.] Further particulars about the Ufe
of Archelaus are not known. He is generally
designated as the Deserter, and from some

ARCHELAUS.

ARCHELAUS.

expressions in Strabo we must infer that he
survived his desertion for seme time, and
was honoured by the senate. (Appianus, De
Bello Mithrid- 17—64. ; Plutarch, Sulla, 11—
24. ; Livy, Epitome, lib. Ixxxi. Ixxxii. ; Vel
lelus Paterculus, ii. 25. ; Florus, iii 5. ; Oro
sius, vi. 2. ; Pausanias, i. 20. ; Dion Cassius,
Fragment. Ne. 173. ed. Reimar; Sallust,
Fragment. Histor. lib. iv. ; Strabo, xii. 562.,
xvii 796.) L. S.
ARCHELAUS {'ApxeXaos), bishop of
Cashara or Caerha in Mesopotamia. He
lived about A. D. 278, and was a man of
vehement and passionate temperament. When
the heretic Manes had escaped from his pri
son, and fled to Mesopotamia, where he ex
erted himself to disseminate his doctrines, he
found a most determined opponent in Ar
chelaus. Archelaus convened an assembly ef
Gentiles, appointed some of their own phi
losophers as judges, that he might not be
thought partial, and challenged Manes to
a solemn disputation before this aissembly.
Manes was completely defeated, and fled to
some neighbouring village, of which he en
deavoured to rouse the presbyter, whom some
call Diodorus, and others Tryphon, to support
his cause. Archelaus followed the steps of
the heretic, and silenced him a second time.
Manes again took to flight, but was caught
and taken back to his prison. [Manes.]
Archelaus afterwards wrote in the Syriac
language an account of his disputation with
Manes, and also a letter to Diodorus er Try
phon, whe had been shaken in his faith by
Manes, and had consulted Archelaus. Beth
these works subsequently acquired great re
putation, and were translated into Greek and
Latin. A considerable portion of an ancient
Latin translation ef the disputation, with the
whele of the letter to Diodorus, was edited
from a MS. in the Ambrosian Library of
Milan by H. Valeslus, and annexed to his
edition of Socrates and Sozomen. These
Latin translations with some fragments ef
the Greek ones were afterwards published
by Zaccagni in his "Collectio Monumentorum
Veterum," Rome, 1698, and by Fabricius in
his edition of Hippolytus. Photius states
that one Hegemonius wrote the disputation of
Archelaus against Manes ; and it is difficult
to say in what manner this statement is to be
reconciled with the common account. ( Cy-
rillus, CatcchcsiSfV'u; Socrates, Historia Eccle
siastica, 1, 22,; Hieronymus, X)e T7/-/.9 lUus-
tribus, 72.; Epiphanius, Hares. 66.; Photius,
Codex, 85.) L. S.
ARCHELA'US I- {' Apxefsaos), high
priest of the goddess of Comana, was a son of
Archelaus of Cappadocia, the general ef Mi
thridates the Great. He was appointed to
this priestly office in b. c. 63, by Pompey the
Great, after the conquest of Mithridates, Avhen
the sacred territory ef Comana Avas also ex
tended, Strabo and most other Avriters place
this Comana in Pontus, but Hirtius confounds

it with a town of the same name in Cappa
docia. Comana was chiefly celebrated on ac
count of its temple of Artemis Taurica, who
is also called Anaitis, Enyo or Bellona ; and
her priest was in rank the first person in the
kingdom of Pontus next te the king. He had
sovereign power ever the town of Comana
and its territory, as well as ever the numerous
hieroduU, or temple slaves, who at one time
amounted to six thousand, Ilut the priest could
not sell the slaves. The ruins of the ancient
town ef Comana in Pontus are now called Go-
manak. In e, c. 56, when Aulus Gabinius, the
proconsul ef Syria, was making preparations
against the Parthians, Archelaus, whe was
then staying in Syria, wished to take part in
the war. According to Strabo, the Roman
senate Avould net allow this ; whereupon Ar
chelaus left Syria without the knowledge of
Gabinius, and sued fer the hand of Berenice,
queen of Egypt, Dion Cassius, whe says
nothing of the senate's refusal, states that
Gabinius was induced by bribes to assist
Archelaus in his suit. The state of affairs in
Egypt was this : Ptolemy Auletes had been
deprived of his throne by the Egyptians and
expelled, and his eldest daughter, Berenice,
the sister of Cleopatra, who Avas now queen
of Egypt, desired to marry a prince of royal
descent. A Syrian ofthe name of Cybiosnctes,
a descendant of the Seleucldae, obtained her
hand, but was soon afterwards put to death
by the queen, as she did not find his conduct
suited to his station. Hereupon Archelaus,
whe pretended to be a son of Mithridates
Eupator, aspired to be her husband, and
being secretly supported by Gabinius, he
succeeded. By marrying Berenice, he be
came king of Egypt, The Remans under
took to restore Ptolemy Auletes ; and Gabi
nius, who had to execute the command of
the senate, was also induced, by the bribes of
Ptolemy, to effect his restoration. Archelaus
had scarcely enjoyed his royal dignity for a
few months when Gabinius entered Egj'pt
with an army, in E. c. 55, He defeated the
Egyptians in several engagements, and put
Archelaus and his daughter to death, after a
reign of six months. Ptolemy was restored
to the throne. According to Strabo, it was
Ptolemy who put Archelaus and his daughter
to death, M. Antonius, affterwards the trium
vir, who had been on friendly terms with
the family of Archelaus, procured him an
honorable interment. (Strabo, xii. 558., xvii,
796,; Dion Cassius, xxxix. 57, 58.; Hirtius,
De Bello Alexandrino, 66.; Appian, De Bello
Mithridat- 114.; h'lvy. Epitome, lib. ev. ; Ci
cero, Pro Rabirio Postumo, 8.; \'alerius Maxi
mus, X, 1. Externa, 6.; Plutarch, Antonius,
3.) L, S.
ARCHELA'US IL {'ApxeXaos), high
priest of Cojiana, was the sen and successor
of Archelaus I,, high priest of Comana,
When Cicero Avas proconsul of <'ilicia, in
B, c, 51, Archelaus festered the disturbances
T 2

ARCHELAUS.

ARCHELAUS.

in Cappadocia, and supported with money
and troops the party which was opposed to
King Ariobarzanes II. ; but Cicero compeUed
Archelaus to quit Cappadocia, and enabled
Ariobarzanes to maintain his authority as
king. In b, c, 47, Julius Caesar, after having
concluded the war in Egypt, deprived Ar
chelaus ef the office of high priest, and gave
it to Lycomedes, (Strabo, xii, 558,, xvii.
796 ; Cicero, Ad Familiares, xv, 4, ; Hirtius,
De Bello Alexandrine, 66. ; Appian, De Bello
Mithridat 121.) L. S.
ARCHELA'US'( 'ApxeXaos ), an Egyp
tian, under whose name the Greek An
thology contains four epigrams. From one
of these epigrams, which is written upon
Alexander the Great, it has been generally
inferred that he was a contemporai-y ef Alex
ander the Great and the first Ptolemy, Anti
gonus Carystius states that Archelaus related
wonderful stories (vrapaSo^E) in the form of
epigrams to Ptolemy, and Lebeck supposes
that this Ptolemy was Euergetes II, (b, u,
146 — 117), who was fond of investigating
curious matters. But Antigonus Carystius
himself was a contemporary of Ptolemy Phi
ladelphus (b, c, 283 — 247), and Uved until
about E, c. 230. The opinion of Archelaus
being a contemporary of Alexander Is hardly
supported by any evidence ; and the conjec
ture of Lobeck is irreconcilable with chro
nology. All difficulties will be removed, if
we suppose with Westermann that the
Ptolemy mentioned by Antigonus Carystius
is Ptolemy Philadelphus, who is likewise
known to have been fond of curious things.
This Archelaus is probably the same to whom
Athenaeus ascribes iambics, and whom the
same writer, in another passage, caUs a
Chersonesite ( XepaovT^aiTTis) ; and if so, he is
the author of a work which was in all proba
bility likewise a metrical production, namely,
the 'iSioipvrj, that is, " Descriptions ef Strange
or Curious Animals." Ancient writers often
refer to this work, and numerous statements
derived from it have been preserved. As re
gards the name Chersonesite, Schweighauser
supposes that Archelaus was a natlvx of some
place of the name of Chersenesus in Egypt ;
but he may have been a native of the Thra
cian Chersenesus, and have lived in Egypt,
which will account for his beiug called an
Egyptian, Thus as far as his epigrams and his
'lSLo(pv7} are concerned Archelaus belonged
to the class ef writers, Avho are usually called
TlapaSo(oypd<poi, and Westermann has ac
cordingly incorporated the fragments of the
'ISiocpvij in his collection ofthe napa5o|o7pa<()oi,
p. 158, &e, (Jacobs, Ad. Antholog. Grac. xlii,
p, 857.; Lebeck, Aglaopliamus, i p. 749.;
Westermann, Uapa.So^oypd(poi, sive Scrlptores
Rerum MirabUium Graci, p. xxii. &c. Avhorc
all the passages ef ancient writers relating te
Archelaus are collected.) L, S,
ARCHELA'US {'ApxeXaos), son of Herod
the Great by Malthace of Samaria. A few
276

days before his death Herod made a will in
which " he gave the kingdom to Archelaus"
(Josephus, Jewish Antiq, lib, xvii, c. 8.), and
appointed Herod Antipas tetrarch of Peraea
and GaUlee, and Philip tetrarch of Batanaia,
Gaulanitis, Trachonitis, and Paneas, By this
will he rescinded a previous wiU in which he
had appointed Herod Antipas his successor in
the kingdom, Archelaus did not assume the
title of king, because it was necessary that
the will of his father should be approved by
the Roman emperor, Augustus. To obtain
this consent Archelaus proceeded to Rome ;
but before his departure from Judaia, a
tumult arose in Jerusalem during the feast
of the Passover, in consequence of some
demands which the Jews made and Archelaus
refused to grant, and the royal guard mas
sacred about three thousand Jews ia the
temple. At Rome Archelaus found his brother
Antipas ready te oppose his claims with a
powerful party. The whole family of Herod
the Great favoured the pretensions of An-
tipais, " not out of any love te him but out of
hatred to Archelaus" (Josephus, Jewish An
tiq- lib. XA'ii. 0, 9.), Before Augustus gave
sentence upon Herod's will, fifty ef the chief
men of Jerusalem came to Rome as ambas
sadors in the name of the whole nation,
and on their arrival they were joined by
more than eight thousand Jews, who were
living at Rome. When they were admitted
to an audience with Augustus, they com
plained of the cruelty of Archelaus, who had
slain three thousand Jews in the temple, and
entreated Augustus to make Palestine a
Roman province, and annex it to Syria. But
Augustus confirmed the wUl ef Herod in the
disposition of his kingdom, except that " he
gave Archelaus half of Herod's kingdom
with the title ef ethnarch," that is, ruler of
the nation, " and he promised to make him a
king, if he showed himself worthy of that
honour" (Josephus, Jewish War, lib. ii.
u. 6.). The ethnarchy of Archelaus consisted
of Judaea Proper, Samaria, and Idumaea,
which countries yielded him a yearly revenue
of about six hundred talents.
After Archelaus had taken possession of
his ethnarchy, a young Jew of Sidon caused
some disturbance by pretending to be Alex
ander, the son of Mariamne, who had been
strangled by the order of his father Herod
the Great, and te whom the impostor bore a
strong resemblance ; but Augustus compelled
him to acknowledge that he was not the sen
of Herod, and sent him to the gadleys. Ar
chelaus violated the IMosalc law by marrying
Glaphyra, the widow of his brother Alex
ander, tliough she li.id several children by
her former marriage. Not long after this
marriage, and in the tenth year ef his ethnar-
j chate, A. D. 7, he was accused of cruelty and
I tyranny by his subjects before Augustus, and
banished by the emperor to Vienne, a town

ARCHELAUS.

ARCHELAUS.

of Dauphine. Judaea and Samaria were
annexed to Syria, and Publius Sulpicius
Quirinus was appointed governor of the pro
vince, and Copenius, a Roman knight, pro
curator of Judaea. Quirinus confiscated the
property ef Archelaus, and took the census
wiich is mentioned by Luke (ii. 2.) in
order to apportion the tribute among the
people. Archelaus rebuUt Jericho and founded a
town which he called Archelais.
Although it is clear from Josephus that
Archelaus never had the title of king, no
objection can lie against the passage of St.
Matthew (ii 22.) where it is said that
Joseph "heard that Archelaus did reign
{$aiTiXevei) in Judaea in the room of his
father Herod." That the werd " reign" is not
to be taken in its strict sense is evident from
these facts ; that another Herod, who is
called by St. Matthew (xiv. 1.) and by
St. Luke (ix. 7.) "the tetrarch," is called
by St. Mark (vi. 14.) "king," PaaiXeiis ;
and that Josephus himself, upon whose
authority it is stated that Archelaus was
made ethnarch, calls his government a
" reign" in the "Jewish War" (lib. ii c. 7.),
and elsewhere speaks of him ais the " king
who succeeded Herod." The date of the
banishment of Archelaus is variously stated.
Lardner gives as the date of this event A. d. 6
or 7. Dion Cassius (Iv. 25. 27.) mentions it
in u. c. 759 or A. d. 6. Josephus in the "An
tiquities" (lib. xvii. c. 13.) places it in the
tenth, and in the "Jewish 'War" (lib. ii. e. 7.)
in the ninth year of his ethnarchate, Te
make these statements ef Josephus agree, it
must be supposed that Archelaus reigned
nine years complete and part of a tenth, er
ten current years. From the "Antiquities"
(lib. xvii c. 13.) it appears that he was de
posed in the same year that the census of
Quirinus was held, and the census wais made
in the thirty-seventh year after the battle of
Actium (lib, xviU, c. 2.). This thirty-seventh
year ended September 1, u, c, 760 or A, d, 7.
Hence it may be inferred that Archelaus was
deposed early in the year u. c. 760, and that
the first year of his ethnarchate was u, c.
751 or B, c, 3, Some excellent remarks on
this subject are made by Mr, Greswell in
his "Disserlations upon the Harmony of the
Gospel," vel. i p. 274, &c, and vol. lii p. 363,
&c, 2nd. edit. Oxford, 1837, (Josephus, Jewish
Antiq. lib. XA'ii. ch. 8 — 13,, Ub, xviii, ch, 1,
2. ; Jewish War, lib, 1. ch, 33,, lib, 11,
ch, 1 — 8.13,; J a-hn. History of the Hebrew
Commonwealtli, English Translation, book xiv,
§ 123. ; Basnage, Histoire el la Religion des
Juifs, liv, i. ch, 2. ; CeUarius, Historia He-
roduni, printed in his Dissertationes Academica,
p. L'U7, &e. 12me., Leipzig, 1712; Noldius,
Historia Idumaa, Sec. appended to Haver-
canip's edition ef Josephus. These last three
Avriters attack a paradoxical treatise ef Har
duin, entitled De Nummis Herodiadum, 4te,
277

Leipzig ; Lardner, Credibility of the Gospel
History, part 1, book i ch, 1,) C, J, S
ARCHELA.'US {'ApxeXaos), king of
Macedonia, reigned fourteen years, from
13, c, 413 to E, c. 399. He was the son and
successor of Perdiccas II. Diodorus places
his death in the right year, but assigns to his
reign only seven years, though in another
passage he had evidently the correct chro
nology before him. The Parian marble places
the accession of Archelaus in b. c. 420,
which is seven years too early, Archelaus is
recognised by all Avriters as a son ef Per
diccas, but Plato and .Lilian call him an
illegitimate son by a slave of Alcetas, the
brother of Perdiccas, whose name, Simiche, is
preserved by .ffilian. If we admit this state
ment, we may also admit the further state
ment of Plato, that Archelaus usurped the
throne, by murdering his uncle Alcetas and
his cousin Alexander, and also his own half-
brother, the son of Perdiccas, whe was only
seven years old, and would have been the
legal successor of Perdiccas. After these
murders he married Cleopatra, the widow of
Perdiccas, This account ef Plato is indeed
censured by Athenaeus, not because of its
incorrectness, but only because Athenaeus
thought that Plato ought not to have told
the history of the usurpation of Archelaus,
out of gratitude to the king, Thucydides
characterises the reign ef Archelaus by say
ing that he fortified the Macedonian towns,
constructed straight roads, and made greater
improvements in the army than all the kings
before him. In b, c, 410 the town of Pydna
revolted, and Archelaus marched with a large
force to besiege the place. Theramenes, the
Athenian, assisted him with a part of the
Athenian fleet, but as the siege was pro
tracted, Theramenes sailed to Thrace to join
Thrasybulus, the commander of the Athenian
fleet. Archelaus, however, took the town,-and
removed the inhabitants twenty stadia from
the sea. The original place, however, seems
to have been built up again, for Diodorus
himself, whose account we have here given,
as well as Strabo and Livy, speak of Pydna
as a maritime town. Archelaus also under
took an expedition against Sirrhas and Arrha-
baius, probably the princes of EUmeia and
Lyncestis, but he appears to have been
obliged to terminate the war by bestowing
the hand of ene of his daughters upon the
prince of EUmeia. With the exception of
these two wars, the reign of Archelaus was
peaceful ; amd it was prosperous.
It was one ofthe great objects of Archelaus
to make his subjects familiar with the liter
ature and arts of the Greeks, especially of
the Athenians, and he assembled at his court
the chief poets and artists of Greece, He
induced Euripides and Agathon, the most
popular dramatists ef t'le day, to take up
their residence in Macedonia : Timotheus, a
great musician and lyric poet, was Ukewise
t 3

ARCHELAUS,

ARCHELAUS.

one of his guests. Zeuxis ef Heraclea was
engaged eu very high terms to adorn the
king's palace with the most exquisite paint
ings, which drev/ many visitors te the Mace
donian capital of Pella. Socrates too was
invited by Archelaus, but he refused to go.
The solemn festival ef the Olympia, whioh
Archelaus instituted at iEga; or Dium in
honour of the Muses, Avas likewise intended
to familiarise his people with the ennobling
solemnities of the Greek festivals, aud to
promote industry and commerce among the
Macedonians. But there are no indications
that these efforts of the king produced any
great effect ou the body of his subjects. The
influence appears to have been almost con
fined to the nobles and the court; and the
sudden aud artificial introduction ef foreign
refinement was foUoAved by demoralisation,
Diodorus states that Archelaus was acci
dentally killed while hunting by Craterus
(Crataeus or Crateuas ), but other and more
probable accounts state that he fell a victim
to a conspiracy, which was headed by Cra
taeus, Archelaus was succeeded by his sen
Orestes, (Plato, Gorgias, p. 471., Theagenes,
^.124., Alcibiades II. p. 141.; iElian, Varia
Historia, xn. 43., xiv. 17., 11. 21., xlii 4.,
viii. 9.; Athenasus, v. 217., xi. 506.; Thucy
dides, 11. 100.; Diodorus Siculus, xiii. 49., xiv.
37., xvii. 16.; Aristotle, Po/j'/i'co, v. 10., Rhe
torica, ii 23.; Gellius, xv. 20.; Plutarch,
Amutorius, 23. ; Clinton, Fasti JJellenici, ii.
276, &c. 2nd. ed. ; Thirlwall, History of Greece,
V. 157, &c.) L. S.
ARCHELA'US {'ApxeXaos), commonly
called of Miletus, though he may have
been a native ef Athens, Avas the sen of
Apollodorus or, according to others, of Mydon.
He was the first whe introduced the physical
philosophy from Ionia to Athens, from Avhich
circumstance probably he was called Phy
sicus. He was a pupil of Anaxagoras, and a
teacher of Socrates. The Physical philoso
phy terminated in him, and the Ethical was
introduced by Socrates. These few facts
about his life rest on the authority ef Diogenes
Laertius. There is the testimony of Porphyry
to the fact of Socrates having become the
pupil of Archelaus when Socrates was seven
teen years of age, and of having continued to
be his pupil for several years, which Avill fix
E.c 451 (the seventeenth year of Socrates),
:i.s one ef the years in A\'hicli Archelaus was
at Athens. Diogenes also s;i)-s that when
Socrates Avas j'Oung he visited Samos in
company Avltli Archelaus. Though various
authorities speak of Archelaus as a master of
Socrates, neither Xenop!i.)n, nor Plate, nor
Aristotle mention.s him.
ArcheUius Is said to liaA-e left Avritings, but
no fragments have been preserved, and it Is
impossible to form a true jiulgmont of his
system from the ."beauty notices contained in
Dittgcncs and other Avriters. Of his particular
opinions a few are recorded : he considered

the sun to be the largest of the heavenly
bodies ; the sea was fei-med by oozing through
the earth ; voice Avas formed by the impulse
ef the air, an opinion which is also attributed
te Anaxagoras.
His general principles show that his sys
tem resembled that ef Anaxagoras and Anaxi-
mander. He admitted two principles ef
generation or production, heat and cold ;
these two principles separate from one
another ; heat moves and cold remains at
rest. The mode in which he supposes the
earth and the air {diip) to be formed is unin
telligible as stated by Diogenes ; but the
text may be corrupt. Animals were first
formed from the earth acted on by heat, and
afterwards were continued by generation.
In some way men were separated from other
animals and formed poUtical communities.
Nous is in all animals. Plutarch states ene
of the general doctrines of Archelaus thus :
air is infinite, and its properties are conden
sation and rarefaction, from which respec
tively result fire and water.
Archelaus is also said to have taught the
ethical part ef philosophy, but we know
nothing of his opinions. 'There is attributed
to him the doctrine that the just and the bad
are net by nature but by institution {ov (pvaei
aAAa vifiij.'). As we do not knew in what sense
he used these two words {rpva-ts and vS/xos),
we cannot determine the meaning of this
dogma. A conjecture is given by Ritter as
te the sense in which Archelaus used these
terms. Ritter iu his " History of PhUosophy,"
vol. i, has collected most of the passages re
lating to Archelaus, and his remarks show
how little is known about him. (Diogenes
Laertius, Archelaus, i. ; Plutarch, De Placitis
Philosophorum, 1. 3.) G. L.
ARCHELA'US ('Apxe'Actoj), one ef the
kings ef Sparta, was the eighth in order of
the house ofthe Aglds, Aristodemus included.
llis colleague was Charilaus, with whom he
took iEgys, ene ef the provincial towns of
Laconia. According- to the chronology of
Apollodorus, he came to the throne about
E. c. 884, and reigned sixty years ; but it is
probable that the actual duration of his reign
Avas not so leng, it being usual in the chro
nology of the Spartan kings to include the
years of a minority in the length of a reign.
(Pausanias, iii. 2. 5. ; Plutarch, Lycurgus,
c. 5. ; Clinton, Fast Hellen. i. App. c. 6.)
R. W-n.
ARCHELA'US {'ApxeXaos), a son of
Thuodokiis, was appointed in B.C. 331 by
Alexander the Great on leaving Susa com
mander of the military force of three thou
sand men, Avliich was left behind for the
protection of the province of Susiina, the
administration of Avhich was given to a Per
sian named Abulites. In the division of the
Macedonian empire after the death of Alex
ander, in B. c. 323, Archelaus obtained the

ARCHELAUS.

ARCHENHOLZ.

province of Mesopotamia. (Arrian, Anabasis,
iii 16.; Q. Curtius, V. 2.; Photius, Codex, 82.)
L, S,
ARCHE'MACHUS {'Apxif^axos), a native
of Eubma, is mentioned as the author of a
work en the history ef his native island
( EvSo'iKa), of which Harpocration quotes the
fourth, or at least the third book. He is
probably the same person as the Arche
machus of Euboea who wrote a werk called
WeTojvvpiiaL, that is, "On the Change of Names
of various Things," of Avhich a fragment is
preserved in Plutarch, From this fragment
it has been inferred that Archemachus lived
after the time of Ptolemy son of Lagus ; but
the inference seems to be unwarranted. ( Cle
mens Alexandr,, Strom, i p, 141.; Athenajus,
vi, 264,; Harpocration, under 'AXSwrjaos and
KoT'iXaiov "Opos ; Strabo, X. 465.; Plutarch,
De Iside et Osiride, 27. ; Scholiast en Diony
sius Perieg. 94., on Apollonius Rhodius, iv.
262., on Pindar's Pythiaca, ili. 120.) L. S.
ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELM
VON, was born at Langenfurth, a suburb
of Danzig, on the 3d of September in the
year 1745, according te Baur, Jordens, and
the " Conversations Lexikons " or in the year
1741, according to the "Biographie Univer
selle." The latter date appears to be correct, as
the statement of the German biographers is
inconsistent with seme others made by them
selves. He received his education in the
" Kadettenhaus," or cadets' academy at Ber
lin, and in December, 175S commenced a
military career in the Prussian army, then
engaged in one of the most trying campaigns
of the Seven Years' War. In his own his
tory of that war he mentions that, in 1759,
he partook of all the hardships ef the winter
encampment near Dresden, being then at
tached to the For5ade regiment, and that
during the rest ef the war, he was generally
in the army commanded by Frederick the
Great in person. He rose to the rank ef cap
tain ; but in 1763, at the peace ef Huberts-
burg, he received his dismissal, owing it is
said to the king's having learned that he was
much addicted to gaming. The next sixteen
years of his life were spent in travelling ;
and in the course of that time he visited all
parts of Germany, Switzerland, England,
Holland, the Austrian Netherlands, France,
Italy, Denmark, Norway, and Poland. He
was in each of these countries more than
once, and in England he spent six years, be
tween 1769 and 1779. He is said by Wende-
bern, who knew him in England, to have
gained his living by gaming and SAvindling,
and in fact he had no other knoAvn means of
subsistence. A transaction in which he was
engaged with some stockjobbers is reported
to have finally couipelled hhn to leave the
country. During his travels in Italy his legAvas
broken by a fall from horseback, a circum
stance to which he aUudes in his " England
iind Italien," " Of the miserable state of
279

medicine and surgery iu that country, I am
myself," he says, " a terrible example. An
unfortunate accident compelled me to have
recourse to the most celebrated physicians
and surgeons in the greatest cities ef Italy ; I
became the victim of their ignorance ; in the
best years ef my life I was made a cripple
and an invalid." The result was an incura
ble lameness of the right foot. On his re
turn to Germany, he resided for some time
in Dresden, Leipzig, and Berlin ; and his only
foreign excursion seems to have been te Paris
in 1792, which he visited for the purpose of
studying the events that were then occurring,
to record them in a political journal. On his
return from France he established himself at
Hamburg, and resided either in that city or
its vicinity fer the remainder of his life, sub
sisting ou the produce of his pen. By this
he raised a considerable sum, but according
to his friend Ersch, he was himseff in later
life the easy dupe of swindlers, and the faci
lity with which he lent money finally left
him impoverished. He died on the 28th ef
February, 1812, in his seventy-first year, at
Oyendorf, a country-house belonging to him
near Hamburg.
Archenholz was tin attractive writer of
light reading, at a time when that quality
was rarer among his countrymen than others
of more value. He had a talent for observa
tion, and for giving the results of his observa
tion in a lucid form ; but his judgment was
far from profound. His werks are nu
merous, and as the subjects are selected with
tact, all are of some interest. He com
menced his literary career by the editorship
of a monthly periodical, " Literatur und
Volkerkunde," which was continued for nine
years, from 1782 to 1791. One series of ar
ticles which it contained on his travels, was
coUected and published at Leipzig, in a sepa
rate form, under the title ef " England und
Italien," or " England and Italy," in 2 vols.
in 1785, and in a much augmented edition,
in 5 vols, in 1787. A writer in the " All
gemeine Zeitung " accuses Archenholz of
having imported from England the practice of
making his patrons pay twice for the same
materials, once in a separate, and once in a
coUected shape. The boek enjoyed the most
unbounded popularity, has been repeatedly
reprinted, was twice translated into French,
and also appeared in English, the part en
England in a wretched anonymous trauslation
from the French in 2 vols. 12mo., at London
in 1789 ; and that on Italy, in a version by
the Rev. Joseph Trapp, in 2 vols. 12 rao., in
1791. " The description of Italy," says
Jordens, " appears in comparison with that
of England only as a sketch by the side of a
finished picture ; but it must be admitted that
country was far from offering him such in
teresting materials as England. The style,
Avliich in the description of Italy is only beau
tfful, chaste, and flowing, is, in the description
t 4

ARCHENHOLZ.

ARCHENHOLZ.

of England, strong, powerful, and elevated,
as the greater dignky of the subject requires."
Archenholz has been justly censured for
having overcharged his picture in both cases,
by painting the EngUsh too favorably, and
the Italians too much the reverse. The fail
ings which he admits that the English exhibit,
he in general attributes to " virtue's side ;" while
allowing, fer instance, that they are easier
duped than any other enlightened nation, he
ascribes the circumstance to " honesty, good
ness of heart, love of truth," and a host of
estimable qualities. With all this partiality,
however, the book is by no means such an
indiscriminate panegyric on the nation as
might be supposed from the criticisms passed
on Archenholz by some recent French
writers, who by representing the work as
" tainted from ene end to the other with a
puerile partiality for England," by no means
show their own freedom from prejudice.
Jagemann, librarian to the Duchess of Saxe-
Weimar, published a feeble reply to the ob
servations on Italy, to which Archenholz re
plied in turn. He held the same dis
paraging opinion of that country te the close
of his life, and maintained it in private con
versation, to the surprise ef his friends, Avho
thought he had painted Italy iu such dark
colours merely with the view of an artist, to
serve as a better foil to England. The " An-
nalen der Brittischen Geschichte," a periodical
work in twenty volumes,published from 1789
to 1798, is regarded as a continuation of the
" England und Italien." It is an annual re
gister of the proceedings of parliament, of
public events, and ofthe progress ef literature,
chiefly compiled from the English periodicals.
Archenholz also edited, at Hamburg, a selec
tion from the current English literature of
the time, with the view of rendering speci
mens of the language more accessible te its
German cultivators : the title ef the first se
ries of this kind was " The English Lyceum,"
3 vols. 1787 — 93, and ofthe second and last,
"the British Mercury, 17 vols, 1788—91,
In 1792, the absorbing interest which attached
to the events then passing in France, induced
him to commence the " Minerva," a general
historical journal, which proved the most
successful of his enterprises of that class, and
is still continued under the management of
Bran, It frequently sold to the extent of
three thousand copies. In this journal, Ar
chenholz had the courage to denounce the
conduct of the Austrian authorities in im
prisoning Lafayette at the time of its occur
rence, for Avhlch he received the thanks of
that general, in a letter which is printed in
Toulongeon's " Histoire de France." A
short time previous to the commencement ef
this series he had inserted in the Berlin
" llistorische 'Taschenbuch," for 1789, a his
tory of the Seven Years' V\ ar, Avhlcli met
with such general apprvival, that in 1793 it
was reprinted at Berlin, in a separate form,
280

in two volumes, and at about double its ori
ginal length, under the title of " Geschichte
des Slebenjahrlgen Kriegs in Deutsehland."
It became the most popular Avork that had
appeared in Germany for many years, is still
frequently reprinted, and is often used in
other countries as a school book for the
study of German, for which its easy style
and interesting subject peculiarly adapt it.
It has been translated into many languages,
among others into classical Latin by Rei-
chard, and into EngUsh. This, the chief
werk of Archenholz, is a pleasing book,
but has few of the higher quaUties of
history. The narrative has a lively and
equable flew, but never rises te excellence ;
the political views may be sound or jutUcious,
but are net very striking. The discourage
ment which the author had received from
Frederick, which was net confined te his dis
missal from the army, seems net te have had
the slightest effect in diminishing his admi
ration ; and the tone ef morality is somewhat
lax, as we might expect, in an historian who
had Frederick the Great for his hero. As the
subject is limited to the events in Germany
only, many of the incidents in the Seven
Years' War, which have the most lasting in
terest, the conquest of Canada, and the con
tests of the European powers in India are
whoUy excluded. In the " Historische Ka
lender fiir Damen," for 1790, edited by him
self and Wieland, Archenholz inserted a his
tory of Queen Elizabeth, so agreeably written
that it has often been declared te be more
entertaining than a novel. A French trans
lation of it by MUa, a chaplain at Berlin, wais
published at that city in 1798. A biography
of Gustavus Vasa, " Geschichte Gustav
Wasa's Konigs von Schweden," which ap
peared at Tubingen in 2 vols. Svo. in 1801,
is ef less merit, and contains little new in
formatien, though Archenholz was assisted
in its compUation by the advice of Nordens-
kield, the Swedish envoy at Hamburg. A
French translation of it by J. F. G. de Pro-
piac appeared at Paris in 1803. The " Kleine
Historische Schriften," or smaller historicad
writings of Archenholz, published at Berlin,
in 1793, and with additions, at Stuttgard, in
1803, comprise " A View of the State of the
Prussian Army before and during the Seven
Years' War," of which a separate French trans
lation by Bock was published at BerUn in
1796, — a " Life of Pope Sixtus V.," and " A
Narrative of the Conspiracy of Fiesco," nei
ther of much value — and a " History ef the
Buccaneers," written with spirit, and com
piled from all the available authorities, of
Avhich there is an English translation by
Mason, London, 1807, Svo. The remainder
ef Archenholz's works are of less conse
quence. They are : — " Die Engltinder in
Indien nach Orme," 3 vols. Leipzig, 1786 —
88, a bare trauslation of Orme's " History of
Hindostan ; " " Der Krieg in der Vendee,"

ARCHENHOLZ.

ARCHER.

Leipzig, 1794, a sketch ofthe Vendean war,
and " Miscellen zur Geschichte des Tages,"
2 vols, Gottingen, 1795, miscellanies fer the
iUustration of passing history. A " History
of Queen Christina of Sweden," attributed to
Archenholz by Meldola, in the " Biographie
Universelle" is in reality by Arckenholz, a
Finlander. It is curious that at the conclu
sion of Meldola's article a caution is given
against confounding the two writers, " as
some biographers have done." (Article by
Baur, with notes by Ersch, who was a per
sonal friend of Archenholz, in Ersch and
Gruber, Allgemeine Encyclopddie, v. 134. ;
Jordens, Le-xikon Deutschcr Dichter und Pro-
saisten, i. 60, &c., v. 710, &c.; Allgemeine
Zeitung for 1812, Nes. 77, 78.; Biographie
Universelle, edit, ef 1843, U. 57.) T. W.
ARCHER, SIR SYMON, who was, ac
cording to Dugdale, a person "naturaUy
qualified with a great affection te antiquities,
and, with ne small pains and charge, a dUi
gent gatherer and preserver of very many
choice manuscripts and other rarities," was
of an ancient family long settled at Um-
berslade, in the parish of Tanworth, War
wickshire, and, from the pedigree given
in the " Antiquities of Warwickshire,"
appears to have been born September 21st,
1581, and knighted by King James I. in
1624. Dugdale was introduced to him about
the year 1630 ; and, as shown by the corre
spondence between Archer and Dugdale, ^pub-
llshed in Hamper's work, referred to at the
close of the article, which ranges from 1735
to 1757, a long and friendly intimacy was
the result. The most important fruit of this
intimacy was the publication of Dugdale's
"Antiquities ef Warwickshire ; " a work which
appears to be first referred to in a letter from
Dugdale to Archer, dated June 3rd, 1636.
Hamper observes, in a note upon this letter,
that the collections fer this undertaking were
originally carried on with Archer for the os
tensible author ; then as a joint work ; and
finally in Dugdale's name alone ; and Dug
dale himself, in his mention ef Sir Symon,
under his paternal residence, Umberslade,
alludes to the especial use made of his col
lections, as being manifest in almost every
page of his werk. The correspondence re
ferred to above throws very little light upon
the personal history of Archer ; but in a letter,
dated March 4tli, 1640 — 1, Dugdale expresses
the pleasure he anticipated at seeing his
friend in Londen, especially as he was " a
parUament man," and expresses a wish that
there Averc many mere of his judgment and
moderation. The only Avork in which we
find a date assigned for the death of Sir
Symon Archer is Banks's " Dormant and
Extinct Baronage of England," vel. Ui. p. 21.,
Avlicrc he Is said to have died in 1688 ; but
as no remark is made upon the extraerdiuary
longevity thus indicated, the date is probably
erroneous. The great-gr.iudson ef Sir Symon
281

Archer was made a peer, by the title of
Baron Archer, but the peerage has long been
extinct. (Hamper, Life, Diary, and Cor
respondence of Sir Wiliiam Dugdale ; §-c.)
J. T. S
ARCHER, THOMAS, an EngUsh archi
tect of the school of Vanbrugh, of whom
little appears to be known beyond the
contemptuous notice bestowed on him by
Horace Walpole, in his " Anecdotes of Paint
ing," &c. " There was," says Walpole, " a
Mr. Archer, the groom-porter, who built
Hethrop and a temple at Wrest," and he adds
in a note " St, Philip's Church at Birmingham
Cliefden House, and a house at Roehampten,
(which as a specimen of his wretched taste
may be seen in the ' Vitruvius Britannicus,')
were ether werks ef the same person, but the
chef-d'oeuvre of his absurdity was the church
of St, John with four belfrys in Westminster "
— a building which was compared by ano
ther wit to an elephant lying on its back
with its four legs sprawling in the air.
The judgment of foreign critics has hard
ly been more favourable than that of Walpole.
Ticozzi may be supposed, indeed, te have
followed him entirely as he adds nothing
to his account; but Milizla, who censures
Archer as " very licentious, and ef a strange
kind of taste," justifies his opinion by seme
original remarks on the design for Cliefden.
In England the reaction in favour of the
school of Vanbrugh has reversed the de
cision of Walpole. Hutton, the historian of
Birmingham, speaks ef St. PhUip's Church
as " the pride of the place," and St. John's
at Westminster is now often referred to as a
striking and impressive specimen of church
architecture. The public opinion of Archer's
merits in his own time was probably favour
able, for it appears from the obituary notice
of him in the " Gentleman's Magazine " that
at his death " he left above 100,000/, to his
youngest nephew, H, Archer, Esq., member
for Warwick." He died on the 23d of April,
1743. St. Philip's church was begun in 1711,
and finished in 1719, and St. John's was con
secrated in 1728, (Horace Walpole, Anec
dotes of Painting in England, iv. 42, Dalla-
way's edition, iv, 70, ; Gwilt, Encyclopadih
of Architecture, p. 217. ; T'leozzi, Dizionario
degli Architetti, SfC. i. 72. ; Milizla, Memorie
degli Architetti, 11. 340., Mrs. Cresy's transla
tion, li, 291,; Gentleman's Magazine for 1743,
p, 275.) T, W.
ARCHESITAS, [Arcesilaus,]
ARCHE'STRATUS {'ApxearpaTos), a
Greek poet, a native of Syracuse, or accord
ing to the more common account, of Gela,
in Sicily, He is generally considered to have
been a contemporary of the younger Diony
sius of Syracuse, according to which opinion
he would have lived about b, c. 350. But
Bentley and Clinton have shewn that he
must have lived in the time of Alexander
the Great, or somewhat later ; for in a frag-

ARCHESTRATUS.

ARCHIADAS.

ment preserved in Athenaeus, Archestratus
speaks of Diodorus the Aspendian as n per
son still living, and this Diodorus was a
friend of the musician Stratonicus, who lived
at the court of Ptolemy, the son ef Lagus.
Archestratus visited many countries for the
purpose of acquiring an accurate knowledge
of their productions whioh could be used for
the table. On his return te Sicily he worked
up the results of his inquiries into an epico-
dldactic poem in hexameter verse, Avhich is
mentioned under various titles, such as Deip-
nologia {A^nrvoXoyLa), Opsopcela ( O^ojrod'a),
Gastrologia {Taa-TpoXoyia), Gastronomia(r(Ki-
Tpovop-ia), and Hedypathia ('HSuTrci^eta), the
last of which seems to be the most correct;
for Apuleius says that the Roman peet
Ennius made a free translation of the poem
of Archestratus, under the title " Hedypa-
thetica" or "Hedypathia," A poem ef this
kind was appropriately produced in Sicily,
for the Sicilians were fkmous for their good
living. The poem is now lost, but Athenaius
has preserved a sufficient number ef frag
ments to shoAV what it was. The author gives
his precepts and his descriptions of objects fit
for the table with all the gravity ef the ancient
gnomic poets, Hesiod and Theognis, though
the tone ef his poem occasionally shows that
he meant it as a sort of parody en these
earlier poets. He is therefore jocosely called
the " Hesiod or Theognis of gluttons." His
descriptions of animals and fish used as food
are se accurate, that even Aristotle did not
scruple to make considerable use of the work
in his " History of Animals," especially when
he treats of fishes. The poem is sometimes
jocosely likened to the " golden verses " of
Pythagoras, from which some Avriters have
inferred that Archestratus was a Pythago
rean. Besides this poem, Athenaeus (xlv. 634.)
mentions a Avork ef Archestratus en flute-
players in two books (nepl AvXtjtuv) ; but
this may be a different person from the gas
tronomic poet. The fragments ef the " He
dypathia " have been collected by Schneider
in his edition ef Aristotle's " Historia Anima
lium " (Leipzig, 1811, Svo.), vok i. p. 42. &c.,
and by Domenico Scina, / Frammenti della
Gastronomia di Archestrato raccolti e volgariz-
zati, Palermo, 1823, Svo. Compare Schweig-
hailser's Index to Athenaeus, Avhere all the
passages relating te Archestratus are col
lected ; Bentley, On the Epistles of Phalaris,
p. 62. ; Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, 11. 48. 2d
edit. A second poet of the name of Arches
tratus, Avhe lived somcAvhat later, and is
described as an elegant poet, whose talents
remained undeveloped on account of his
poverty, is mentioned by Plutarch, De
Fortuua Alexandri, il. 1. L. S.
A'RCIIIADAS or A'RCHIADES ('Ap-
XiaSas or 'Apx'aSTjs), a philosopher of the
early part of the fifth century of our icra, was
the son-in-law of Plutarch the Athenian, Avho
282

revived the Platonic phUosophy, and the
intimate friend of Proclus, who was a pupil
of Plutarch. Proclus being himself prevented
by his devotion to philosophy from taking a
part in public affairs, urged Archiadas to
supply his place by cultivating the civil
rather than the philosophical virtues, and
Archiadas did so with so much effect, that
according to Marinus his name was never
mentioned without the epithet of the most
religious (iS eiiaeSeaTaTos). Suidas relates an
anecdote ef his resignation under misfortune,
in telling his son-in-law Theagenes, who was
bewailing on some occasion the loss ef their
property, that they ought to be thankful to
the gods for having preserved their lives.
Marinus tells a singular story of the miracu
lous recovery of his daughter from illness at
the same Instant that Proclus put up prayers
for her in the temple ef iEsculaplus. His
wife Asclepigenia, the daughter of Plutarch,
is said to have been the only person who
preserA'ed in the time ef Proclus the "know
ledge of theurgic discipline." (Marinus,
Vita Procli, Gr. and Lat., ed. Boissonade,
p. 12, &c. ; Suidas, "ApxiaSar, ed. Galsferd,
1.595. ; Hr-aeker, Historia critica Philosophia,
ii 314.) T. W.
A'RCHIADAS or A'RCHIADES, the
younger, was the son of Hegias the Platonic
philosopher, who is supposed but not certainly
known to have been the son of Archiadas
the elder. Archiadas the younger is said by
Suidas te have surpassed even his father
Hegias, but he did net succeed him in the
chair ef Proclus. He was in fact mere cen-
spicuous for probity than for talent. (Suidas,
EijTreiBios, ed. Galsford, i. 1515. ; Brucker,
Historia critica Philosophia, ii. 339.) T. W.
A'RCHIAS ('Apx'tts) is a name common
to several writers, to whom are attributed
poems in the Greek Anthology. The prin
cipal of them is Archias, the friend and client
of Cicero. The only other in the list as to
whom anything specific can be asserted, even
en conjecture, is Archias ef Alexandria. It
has been supposed that he may have been
the same person Avith Archias the Gram
marian of Alexandria, mentioned by Suidas
as the teacher ef Epaphroditus (who lived
from the time of Nero te that of Nerva), and
supposed likewise, with much probability, to
have been the Archias whe is cited by Apol
lonius the sophist as an interpreter of Homer.
[Archias, Aulus Licinius.] (Suidas, 'Eira-
(ppi^iTos ; Apollonius, Lexicon Homericum,
"TSgdXXeiv ; 'Villolsln, Prolegomena ad Apollo-
nium, p. XX. ; Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graca,
ed. Harles, vi. 357.) W. S.
A'RCHIAS, AULUS LICTNIUS, the
friend and client ef Cicero, of whose history
nothing is known except Avhat may be col
lected from the notices ef him by the Roman
orator. He Avas a native of Antioch in
Syria ; and his birth is usually assigned to
about the year E. c. 118. 'This date, hoAvever,

ARCHIAS,
is merely inferred from a passage in the
beginning of Cicero's oration for Archias
(c. 3.), which there is some difficulty in ad
mitting as evidence to that effect. The
orator says that Archias came to Rome in the
year B. c. 102 ; and immediately afterwards,
speaking ef his reception by the LucuUi,
(which he clearly seems to represent as having
taken place immediately after the arrival in
Rome but net earlier), he describes him as
having been even then " praetextatus :" that is,
if we take the term literally, as having been so
young that, if he had been a Roman citizen,
he would not yet have assumed the " toga
virilis." But ff we look back te the preceding
part ef Cicero's narrative, describing the
extent of Archias' travels, the celebrity which
he had acquired, and the publie honours Avhich
had been heaped upon him, we cannot wil
lingly admit that he was still in the age of
legal boyhood. If he was reaUy no older, his
precocity ef intellect might have called forth
from Cicero more than a passing intimation
of surprise, and would merit being recorded
in the history of his life. Ugen takes the
fact UteraUy as related : Jacobs admits it
Avith a slight indication of doubt; but, among
the older critics, Manutius holds that the
term "praetextatus," (which is manifestly
figurative as applied to one who was then an
alien,) is likewise hyperbolical iu its repre
sentation ef the poet's age, and that it can
only be understood as an assertion that, ou
his first visit to Rome, he was extremely
young. Schiitz adds two or three years te
the reckoning, and speaks of Archias as
having been born about the year B. c. 121.
'The birth ef Archias was distinguished,
and his education embraced all the remark
able adA'antages furnished by his native city.
In very early youth, after having acquired
great celebrity in Antioch, he was equally
successful In travels through other parts ef
Asia, and over all Greece ; and in Southern
Italy he wis received with the highest
honours, being presented with the citizenship
at 'Tarentum, Rheglum, and Neapolis. Coming
to Rome in the fourth consulship ef Marius,
(Avhose triumphs ef the succeeding year he
afterAvards celebrated in verse,) he was
received into the household ef the LucuUi, '
and contmued, fer many years, to be attached j
te Lucius Licinius Lucullus, whom he gene- I
rally accompanied en his foreign missions in '
the service of the repubUc. All the most
eminent Romans of the time are enumerated
in the list of his friends and patrons. Not
only Avas he a cherished associate of C. Cras
sus and Hortensius the orators, andof ethers
Avho had a genuine love ef literature :
the rugged Marius himself is said te have
been able te discover merit in the poet, Avhe
sun,;;- his victories over the barbaric invaders
of Italy. Cicero refers affectionalely to his
OAvn youthful intercourse Avith Archias, as ^
having contributed, beyond all ether means, ;
283

ARCHIAS.
to the development and refinement of his
literary tastes, as weU as his improvem.ent
m oratory. In the year E. c. 89 there was
passed the Plebiscltum, commonly called
the Lex Papiria Plautia, which gave the
Roman citizenship to all citizens of con
federate cities, who at the d.ale of the enact
ment had a domicile in Italy, and should
claim enrolment Avithin sixty days. Archias
took the benefit of this law, in virttie ef
citizenship at Heraclea in Magna Grajcia,
which had been recently conferred upon him
Avhen he visited that city en his return from
one of his foreign journeys with Lucullus.
On taking his place as a Roman citizen, he
adopted, according to the usual practice in
such cases, the GentUe name of his patrons.
Twenty-eight years afterwards, Cicero en
joyed an opportunity of requiting his obliga
tions te Archias by defending his citizenship.
One Gratius or Gracchus (for the name, is
disputed) challenged the poet's right. The
accuser relied mainly, as it would seem, upon
an accidental and unavoidable emission en
the part of Archias, to procure the insertion
of his name in the roll of the Roman censors ;
and this omission gave importance to the de
fendant's inability te prove his enrolment at
Heraclea, by exhibition of the registers ef
that city, these having, as Cicero alleges,
been destroyed in the Italic war by the
burning of the place in which they were
kept. The orator, proving the facts by other
evidence, defended his friend successfully.
Cicero, perhaps, did not consider the attack
on his cUent as very formidable ; for the
facts and inferences are set forth with a
brevity almost contemptuous, and the staple
of the harangue is made up ef eloquent re
presentations of the excellence of Uterature
and of the fame conferred by it. Upon the
common assumption as to the birth ef
Archias, he was fifty-six years eld when the
oration was delivered ; but it is more likely
that he Avas several years older. The time of
his death is unknoAvn,
In regard to the werks of Archias we
possess very little knowledge, 'The account
given of him by Cicero, however, leaves
very little reason for doubting as to the prin
cipal causes ef the admiration with which he
was regarded by his Roman patrons. He
was a skilful " Improvvisatere," and not
more remarkable for the fluency and spirit
ef his extemporaneous compositions, than for
the wonderful versatUity with AA'hich he
varied his ^ methods of treating the same
theme. His high merit in this equivocal
region of poetical invention, and his accom-
pUshments as a literary companion and in
structor, m.ay readily be admitted ; but so early
after his own time as the age of Quinctilian,
he seems to have been forgotten except fer
his skill in improvisation. Indeed, there is
goed reason for hesitation in regard te the
real exceUence of his written Avorks, Those

ARCHIAS.

ARCHIAS.

which are enumerated by Cicero are entirely
lest. They are the following : — a poem on
the Cimbric War of Marius : a poem cele
brating the Mlthridatic War, conducted
successfully by the poet's patron Lucullus :
a poem on the ominous serpent which en
twined itseff about the infant Roscius : and
a poem on the Consulship ef Cicero, which
the orator mentions as having been begun
when the question of the citizenship was
tried, but as te whieh we cannot tell whether
it was continued after it had served its prob
able purpose, of flattering the vanity and thus
warming the zeal of the poet's advocate. Of
the poem en the Mlthridatic War, Cicero
gives a sort of abstract ; from which no very
favourable conjecture can be formed as to the
unity of the plan. Of the details ofthe other
poems nothing is known ; and in regard te
all of them Cicero's expressions are curiously
cold and guarded. 'The improvised verses
he praises in passing : upon the written
poems he passes ne opinion ef his own, con
tenting himself with hastUy reporting that he
had heard others commend them as equal to
these of the ancients. Even in the heat ef
the peroration, he rests the claim of Archias
to respect, not directly on his genius, but in
directly on the reputation which his genius
had acquired for him. When, indeed, we
take into account the purpose which the
orator had immediately in view, we can
not consider these circumstances as proving
positively either that the client wanted seUd
literary merit or that the advocate believed
him to want it ; but in the whole manner of
treating this part of the matter there is some
thing which is not a little calculated to sug
gest conjecture.
There are, in the Greek Anthology, thirty-
six epigrams bearing the name of Archias
(for to the thirty-flve given by Jacobs in
his second volume, from Brimck, his thir
teenth volume (p. 681. No. 105.) adds
another). Of these a large proportion do
not belong to Archias of Antioch. Indeed,
if we adopt the most sceptical view, fffteen
must be struck off the list. One, numbered
26, is attributed to Leonidas of Alexandria,
who appears to have lived in the reign ef
Nero ; two (25 and 35) are assigned te
unknown authors ; and the following twelve
belong to writers, all ef whom bore the name
ef Archias, but of whom hardly any thing can
be asserted, unless that they Avere different
persons from Archias ef Antioch. To Archias
of Byzantium belongs Epigram 33 : to Ar
chias Grammaticus (perhaps the Archias
Alexandrinus of Suidas, see Fabricius, Bib
liotheca Graca, ed. Harles, vi. 357.), 4 : to
Archias the Macedonian, 12 and 32 : to
Archias ef Mitylene, 21, 22, 24, and 31 .
and to Archias ciilled NetiJTepos or the
Younger, 20, and the Epigram in the
thirteenth volume. Our materitds for esti
mating the genius ef Licinius Archias would
284

thus be very considerably narrowed ; but
even ff it were intended to do full justice to
the whole series of the epigrams, it would
scarcely be possible te point out, ais deserving
commendation, any others than two or three
of the fifteen excluded ones, — such as the
second of the epigrams en Echo, the second
on the Horse, and that on the Calydenian
Boar, which is perhaps the most spirited of all.
Upon examining the twenty-one epigrams
which remain, and which, as appearing in
the manuscripts under the name of Archias,
without any descriptive addition, the editors
usually attribute te the friend ef Cicero, we
are not only struck by a prevailing lameness
and want of poetical excellence, but we
also detect a characteristic fault, which is
common indeed throughout the Anthology.
Of the twenty-one, all except seven have
been shown to be imitated from others still
extant. The favourite models are Leonidas
Tarentinus and Antipater Sidonius, neither ef
them epigrammatists ef high rank, and both,
but especially the latter, notorious fer their
tendency to such imitation ais that of which
they here become the victims. In some in
stances, as in the pointed epigram of " Dio
genes in Hades," there is an evident imitation
ef two preceding epigrams on the same
theme ; in ene piece, the tale of the Blackbird
and the Thrushes, even words and phrases are
copied. In another case, the chain of imita
tion becomes yet mere cempUcated : for the
four Anathematic Inscriptions of the Three
Brother-Hunters appear to have been derived
from four older epigrams, and to have been
in their turn imitated in seven others. The
task which the poet sets himseff is that of
varying ingeniously the turn of thought,
sentiment, er expression, furnished by the
model; and a certain closeness of general
resemblance te the model is studiously aimed
at, that the ingenuity of the variation may
thus be the more striking.
There are, however, no sufficient reasons for
positively attributing any one of these poems
to the object ofthe Reman orator's panegyric.
Ilgen, indeed, the most exact analyst whom
they have found, dees believe aU or most of
those to be his, which in the authoritative
manuscripts bear simply the name ef Archias :
but Jacobs, whose estimate of the genius ef
Licinius Archias is much higher than Rgen's,
declares, with justice, that, in regard te every
one of them, the question of authorship is
completely uncertain. It may be worth while,
hoAvevcr, to suggest one or tAve considerations
which deserve some weight in the argument,
although none of them gees very far towards
the conclusion. First, hardly in any case,
where the epigrams assigned to Archias re
semble ethers in the Anthology, is there
reason for thinking that our epigrams were
the originals instead of the copies. In several
instances the internal marks are quite suf
ficient to determine the question of priority

ARCHIAS.

ARCHIAS.

against the pieces with which we have te do :
and, as to the majority of them, an historical
argument fer their being the Unitations and
not the originals, is furnished by the fact
that the poems which they resemble are
those of Leonidas and Antipater, the acknow
ledged founders (at least the founder and the
earUest successful pupil) in the very peculiar
school to which they belong. We must de
cidedly accept these epigrams of Archias as
imitations, and deal with them upon that
assumption. Secondly, of the fourteen
epigrams which, as it has been seen, stand in
this predicament, all take as their models
poems written by authors who lived before
the time of Licinius Archias. This state of
the facts, while it can in no way be used for
impugning his authorship of the epigrams,
may be available to some extent fer estab
lishing it. Thirdly, that ringing of changes
upon words, which pervades our epigrams so
deeply, corresponds suspiciously with the ac
count given by Cicero of a feat of skill, for
which the extemporaneous versification of
his friend was especially famous. The
author of the epigrams, net content with
exhibiting his command ef language by imi
tating other writers, delights in imitating
himself. In the Anathematic Inscriptions
already alluded te, he repeats himseff four
times : he does so twice in epigrams on
Priapus : and two additional pairs ef seff-
repetitions might be cited, in the four epi
grams en Echo and the Horse, were it net
that some or all of these poems probably be
long te other authors. It must be owned,
however, that not only for proving Licinius
Archias to have been the author of the
pieces, but even for proving that all of them
are the works of the same peet, this circum
stance loses much ef its force by reason of
the fact, that it is common to many of the
minor poets whose writings are found in the
Greek Anthology.
All the thirty-five epigrams headed, in
Brunck's collection, by the name of Archias,
had been published before his time : twenty-
nine having appeared in the editions ef the
Anthology ef ]?lanudes, and the remainder
having been given by Reiske, one in the
" Miscellanea Llpsiensia" and five iu his
Anthology of Cephaias. In Brunck's " An
alecta," 1766, they were for the first time
collected into one series ; the text being lu
volume li pp, 92 — 101, 528,, and a few
annotations in volume ill,, " Lectiones et
Emendationes," p, 145 — 148. In Jacobs'
" Anthologia Graeca," thirteen vols, Sa-o. 1794
— 1814, the amended text of the thirty-five
epigrams is in volume U, p. 80 — 89., and an
notations, Avith an additional epigram, are in
volumes vlil. and xiii. They have Ukewise
been published, in whole or in part, separ
ately from the body of the poems of the An
thology. — 1. "Auli Licinii Archiae Epigi-am-
mata qumdam Gra;ca, cum Latina Interpre

tatione, edita Nlcodemi Frischlmi Opera et
Studio " (with Callimachus), Basle, 1589,
Svo, 2, " Archiae Epigrammata, Grsce et
Latine, D, AUsvorto Interprete," Rome, 1596,
Svo. 3, " Archiae Epigrammata Graece,
curante Christiano Saalbachio " (with Lu
cian's Epigrams), Greifswald, 1602, Svo, —
These editions must of course include these
epigrams only, which are taken from the
Planudean Antholog}'. 4, " Omnia Car
mina qiiffi sub Archiae nomine feruntur,
edidit Carolus David Ilgen," Erfurdt, 1797,
Svo, 5, " Archiae Novem Erotica Poemata
Selecta," prefixed to Schelle's " Selectae Ora
tiones Ciceronianae," Leipzig, 1797, 3 vols.,
Svo. 6, " Carmina Archiae Graece et Latine,"
in Hulsemann's edition ef Cicero's Oration
" Pro Archia Poeta," Lemge, 1800, Svo.
Seme ef the epigrams wiU also be found in
various selections from the Greek Anthology,
such ais that of Edwards,
The most copious source ef information on
the Iffe and writings of Licinius Archias, is
the elaborate and exceUent treatise of Ilgen,
cited below. With it should be studied the
annotations of Jacobs en the epigrams. There
is also Netscher's "Dissertatio de Ciceronis
Oratione pro Archia," Rotterdam, 1808, Svo,
(Ilgen, Animadversiones Historica et Critica
in Ciceronis Orationem pro Archia Poetd, in
his "Opuscula Phlleleglca," vok U, part 1.,
Erfurdt, 1797 ; Jacobs, Anthologia Graca,
vols, A-iii, 250 — 272,, xiii,, Catalogus Poet
arum Epigrammaticorum, and his article
" Archias " in Ersch and Gruber's Allge
meine Encyclopddie ; Schiitz, Summarium
Orationis pro Archia Poetd, in his edition of
Cicero's works, vel, vii, ; Cicero, Oratio
pro Archia Poetd, De Divinatione, i, 36,, Ad
Atticum, i, 16, ; Quinctilian, Institut, Orator.
X. 7.) W, S.
A'RCHIAS ("Apxlcts) of Corinth, the
founder of Syracuse, lived in the eighth cen
tury before the Christian aera. He was a
man of high birth, being certainly a Hera-
cleid ; for it is only disputed whether he was
a Bacchiad (as he is called by Maximus
Tyrius, and the scholiast te Apollonius Rho
dius), or whether the Arundellan Marble
is correct in calling him the tenth in descent
from the Argive prince Temenos, Relying
upon the power ef his kinsmen in the oli
garchical republic, he endeavoured to carry
off by force a beautiful young man named
Actaeon. The youth, defended by his family,
was slain in the scuffle ; and his father, after
having in vain demanded justice, threw him
self into the sea and perished, A pestilence
afflicted the city ; and the Corinthians Avere
Avarned by the oracle to atone for the death
of Actaeon. Upon this Archias Avent into
voluntary exile, haA-ing first, with his friend
MysccUus, consulted the oracle at Delphi.
The Pythla, besides directing both inquirers
towards the seas ef Sicily, is said te have
offered to them either riches or health, ac-

ARCHIAS.

ARCHIAS.

cording to their choice. Archias desired
riches, MysccUus preferred health ; and the
opulence and salubrity attained respectively
by the two colonies which they established,
were traced by the Greeks to the choice thus
made. Myscellus, putting himself at the
head of emigrants who belonged, like him
seff, to the Achaean race, founded the city of
Croten in Italy; Archias, however, stopping
on his w,iy, aud giving him aid. Archias then
continued his voyage to Sicily, and founded
Syracuse. His colonists were Dorians, most
of whom he had brought with him from
Corinth; although, according to Strabo, he
was joined in Southern Italy by a band be
longing to the same stock, who had seceded
from the founders of the Sicilian Megara.
The foundation of Syracuse is assigned, by
the best authorities, to the year e. c. 733.
(Diodorus Siculus, Fragmenta, lib. viii. ; Plu
tarch, Amator. Narrat. ed. Reiske, ix. 94.;
Maximus Tyrius, Dissertatio xxiv.; Suidas,
'Apx^-as ; Strabo, lib. vl. cap. 1. § 12., cap. 2.
§ 4. edit. Siebenkies ; Pausanias, v. 7.; Clin
ton, Fasti Hellenici, " Syracuse ; " MiiUer,
Dorians, book i cap. 6. § 7. ; Goller, De Situ
et Origine Syracusarum, 1818, p. 3.) W. S.
A'RCHIAS THE FUGITIVE-HUNTER
{'Apx^as ijpvyaSod^fipas), was an ItaUan Greek,
born at Thurii, and lived in the latter haff of
the fourth century before the Christian aera.
His original profession was that of an actor,
and he is said to have taught the art to
the celebrated tragedian Polus. His name
is inserted by Fabricius among those of the
Greek tragic Avriters whose works have pe
rished ; but the passage in Suidas, which ap
pears to be the only authority for the asser
tion, does not Avarrant us in believing that he
composed works ef any kind. He is repre
sented, hoAvever, as having been a hearer of
Anaximenes of Lampsacus, and as having
studied the oratorical art under Lacritus, the
person against whom one ef Demosthenes'
private orations is directed. Lacritus is con
jectured to have been an adherent of the
Macedonian faction, and to the same faction
Archias also was attached. To his unscru
pulous and bloody zeal in the cause he ewes
his place in history, and the disgraceful addi
tion which accompanies his name. Upon the
close of the unfortunate Lamian war, in the
year b. u. 322, when the humbled Athenians
had been compelled to abandon to the ven
geance ef Antipater the public men who had
been most active in the defence of the na
tional freedom, Archias Avas the agent selected
by the pitiless conqueror to hunt dOAvn the
proscribed and fugitive patriots. In the exe
cution of this bloody mission he first violated
the temple of iEacus in iEglna, tearing from
it the orators Hyperldes, Aristonicus, and
Himcrccus, and sending them to Antipater,
by Avhoni tbey Avcrc put to death. Archias,
AvIth his 'Thracian guard, next proceeded te
the temple of Neptune at Calaurea, where he
286

found Demosthenes, and endeavoured to en
tice him from the sanctuary. The taunts
with which Demosthenes received Archias
appear to indicate a low estimate of his pro
fessional skill as an actor. The guilt of the
Fugitive-Hunter did not remain unpunished.
In the abstract of the lost books of Arrian,
which is given by Photius, we read that he
died in the utmost poverty, universally de
serted and abhorred. (Plutarch, Demosthenes,
c. 28, 29, 30., Vita Decem Oratorum, 9.
" Hyperldes ;" Photius, Excerpta ex Arri-
ano ; Suidais, '^-nep'itns ; Fa'Dricius, Bibliotheca
Graca, ed. Harles, ii. 286., vi. 428.) W. S.
A'RCHIAS. [HiERo II.]
A'RCHIAS, [Ptolemy Philohietor.]
ARCHI'BIUS ("ApxiSios) is the name of
three Greek Grammarians. The first is the
father of ApoUonius, the author ef the " Ho
meric Lexicon : his name is also written
Archebulus. The second was a son ef this
Apollonius, and is said by Suidas te have
written a commentary on the epigrams of
Callimachus. The third, a son of Ptole-
maBus, was a native either of Leucas or Alex
andria in Egypt, and taught grammar at Rome
doAvn to the reign of Trajan. (Suidas,
' Att oX-Xiiv 10 s and ^ApxiSios ; VUloison, Pro
legomena ad Apollonii Lexicon, p. 2, &c.) L.S,
ARCHIDAMI'A {'ApxiSa,aeia), a Spartan
woman who, when King Pyrrhus attacked
and was nearly taking Sparta (b, c. 272J op
posed the proposal made by some of the
Spartans to send the women to Crete, and
prevented its being carried into effect. She
is called Archidamia by Plutarch {Pyrrhus,
27.), and Archidamis by Polyaiuus (viU. 49.).
R. W— n.
ARCHIDAMI'A, the grandmother of
Agis IV., king of Sparta. [^Vgis IV.]
ARCHIDAMI'A. [Aristomenes.]
ARCHIDA'JIUS {'ApxiSapLos), one ef the
most ancient Greek physicians, who was pro
bably a contemporary ef Hippocrates in the
fifth and fourth centuries b. c. Nothing is
known ef the events ef his life, but Galen
quotes a passage from Diocles of Carystus
from which it appears that Archidamus used
to prefer dry friction te the use of oil on
account of the skin being less dried up by
the former method than by the latter, an
opinion which Galen controverts at some
length. It is not, however, quite certain
whether, in these passages ef Galen, Archi
damus is quoted as a real personage or only
as a speaker (perhaps) in a work ef Diocles
named after him, or whether (as Kiihn
supposes) Diocles wrote a treatise against the
doctrine of .Archidamus, and called it by his
name. Pliny mentions a medical writer of
the name of Archidemus, Avho may perhaps
be the same person ; but the author whose
fragments on veterinary surgery are still ex
tant under the name of Archedemus pro
bably lived much later. These fragments
are contained in the " VeterinariaE Medicinse

ARCHIDAMUS.

ARCHIDAMUS.

Libri Duo," first published in Latin by John
RueUius, Paris, 1 530, fol., and afterwards in
Greek by Sim. Grynaeus, Basel, 1537, 4te.
(Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca, vol. xiii. p. 79.
ed. vet. ; C. G. Kuhn, Opusc. Academ. Med. et
Philoi, Leipzig, 1827, 2 vols. Svo. vel. ii.
p. 102, &c) W. A. G.
ARCHIDA'MUS OF iETO'LIA. [Per
seus ; Philip V. or Macedonia.]
ARCHIDA'MUS I. {'ApxiSaiios), the son
of Anaxidamus, was the thirteenth king ef
Sparta of the Preclid line, including Aris
todemus. Nothing is recorded of him, ex
cept that he passed his life in peace. He
succeeded to the throne probably about E. c.
630. (Pausanias, in. 7. 6. comp. 3. 5.)
R. W— n.
ARCHIDA'MUS IL ('Apx^a^os) was the
eighteenth king of Sparta of the Preclid
line, Aristodemus included. He ascended
the throne about b. c. 469, and reigned forty-
tAvo years. In the fourth year of his reign
Sparta and Laconia were visited with a violent
earthquake, whieh did very great damage,
and threw down the whele of the city ex
cept five houses. On this occasion his pre
sence of mind is said te have saved Sparta
from a general rising ef the slaves, whe
flocked into the city. In the hope of over
powering their masters before they should re
cover from their dismay. Archidamus, fore
seeing this, had called the citizens together by
the sound of the trumpet, as if an enemy were
at hand, and the slaves, finding their masters
armed and prepared, were obliged to retreat.
Archidamus is chiefly known from his con
nection with the Peloponnesian war, in which
he was an important actor, though he had
earnestly endeavoured te dissuade the Spar
tans from entering upon it, and pointed out
to them how formidable an enemy Athens
would prove. In this Avar he led the first
expedition into Attica, B. c. 431, and was
greatly blamed by his army for the slowness
of his operations, and the indisposition which
he showed to ravage the Athenian territory.
This policy was suggested by the belief that
the Athenians would be more likely to yield
while their country was not yet laid waste,
than after it had been ravaged and plundered.
Still, coupled with his known aversion to the
Avar, and perhaps with bis friendship for the
Athenian general Pericles, it raised a strong
suspicion against him. On finding himself
deceived in his expectation, he began in
earnest to lay waste Attica in all directions,
and after approaching within eight mUes of
the city, and vainly endeavouring to provoke
the Athenians to a regular battle, he returned
home and disbanded his army. He also com
manded the forces of the Spartans AA-hen they
invaded Attica for the second time (b. c. 430),
and made their longest stay there. In E. c.
429 he inarched against Plataja in Boeotia.
an ally of Athens. The Plataeans refused to
submit te the conditions which he proposed
287

to them, and he laid siege te the city. All
his efforts to take it proved unsuccessful, and
he was at last obliged to send some of his
troops heme, and turn his siege into a block
ade. He did not, however, await the Issue
ef it, for in the next year (b. c. 428) we find
that he again invaded Attica, for the third
and last time. He died b. c. 427, after a
reign ef forty-two years. He is described
by Thucydides as being remarkable for in
teUigence and moderation of character; and
if the speech in which he is made to express
his views about the Peloponnesian war and
the comparative resources of the belligerent
parties were really delivered by him, it amply
justifies the representations of the historian.
He left two sons and one daughter, Cynisca,
the only female, as it is recorded, who ever
gained an Olympic victory. (Pausanias, iii.
7. 9. 10. ; Diodorus, xi. 48. 63. ; Plutarch,
Cimon, 16., Agesilaus, i. ; Thucydides, 1.
80. U. Hi. ; Herodotus, vi 71. ; Clinton, Fast.
Hellen. 11. 211.) R. W— n.
ARCHIDA'MUS IIL {' ApxiSai-ios), the
son of the great Agesilaus, was the twenty-
first king of Sparta of the Proclid line, Aris
todemus included. He ascended the throne
in E. c. 361, and reigned twenty-three years.
Ten years before his accession he commanded
an expedition sent out by the Spartans
to relieve their army, Avhich had been de
feated at Leuctra. In b. c. 367, when the
Spartans were stUl suffering from the con
sequences of this defeat, he was entrusted with
the command of an army, with which he first
reduced Caryffi, a revolted town of Laconia,
and affterwards crossed the border Into Ar
cadia, then at war with Sparta, and ravaged
the country. On his return home he was
met by an army ef Argives and Arca
dians, se that a battle was inevitable. He
drew up his troops and addressed them,
exhorting them to remember the national
honour, and to transmit their country to pos
terity such as they had received it from their
ancestors. The effect of this speech, and
the concurrence of some favourable omens,
Avas so great that his troops were Avith diffi
culty kept to their ranks, so eager were they
for the combat. Their enemies scarcely
waited to receive their chai-ge ; and according
te the Spartan account, were routed AvIth
great slaughter, the Lacedaemonians net losing
a man. 'The engagement was called the
" tearless battle," and caused the greatest joy
at Sparta, where in more prosperous times,
such a A-lctory Avould have made but little
impression. In E. c. 364, Archidamus again
led an expedition into Arcadia, for the pur
pose of making a diversion in favour of the
Eleans, then in alliance with Sparta, and
whose territory the .Vrcadians were invading.
He took the town of CromnI, in which he
left a garrison, and then letumed home ; but
the Arcadian army, after ravaging Elis, ad
vanced against it, and Archidamus was again

ARCHIDAMUS.

ARCHIDAMUS.

sent into Arcadia to its relief. With a view
of drawing off the besieging army, he ravaged
the country in every direction ; but to no
purpose. He then advanced upon the town ;
and in an attempt to dislodge the enemy
from an eminence over which their lines of
circumvallation were drawn, he was led into
an unfavourable position, and driven back
with the loss of seme of his most distinguished
officers, and dangerously wounded himseff.
The Lacedaemonians were consequently glad
to accept a truce. In b. c. 362, Archidamus
distinguished himself by the gallant and suc
cessful resistance which he made against
Epaminondas, when the latter attacked
Sparta, and carried some ef the peints of the
city. The exploit which Xenophon records ef
him seems indeed almost fabulous : that with
a mere handful of men, only one hundred
and eighty, he repulsed the whole army
of Thebans ; but there is no reason te doubt
that he performed acts of desperate valour.
In the following year he succeeded to the
throne, and five years afterwards he appears to
have assisted and co-operated with Phllomelus,
the leader of the Phecians in what was caUed
the Sacred War, and who was also the chief actor
in seizing the treasures ofthe temple at Delphi.
It was reported indeed that the countenance
which Archidamus gave the Phecians in that
war was purchased by bribes, and by a share
of the plunder of Delphi ; but the interests of
Sparta and her political relations at that time
are sufficient to account for it, without any
such supposition. Ten years afterAvards,
when Philip of Maceden was on his march
against Phocis, the Spartans sent out an ex
pedition under the command of Archidamus,
probably (for there is some doubt on the sub
ject) for the purpose of aiding the Phecians.
But owing to the distrust of Phalaecus, the
Phocian commander, Archidamus was pre
vented from carrying his views into effect ;
and he returned home without having ac
complished any thing. In b. c. 338, he was
sent out on a more distant expedition to aid
the Tarentlnes against the Lucanians in Italy,
where he was slain in battle, in the same
year, and according to seme accounts en the
same day, as that of the battle of Chacronea.
He died fighting with great valour, but his
death was attributed to the anger of the gods,
because the troops which he had with him
were mostly Phocian mercenaries, Avho had
been engaged in the Sacred War. His body
Avas not honoured with the usual rites ef bu
rial, owing, as it was said, to the wrath ef
Apollo, the ged of Delphi. We may add
that this Archidamus is the supposed speaker
in the oration ef Isocrates, caUed the " Ar
chidamus," considered by some as a mere
declamation, by others as a manifesto to vin
dicate the tenacity of Sparta in asserting her
claims to Messenia. (Xenophon, Hellenica,
V. 4. 25—33., vU. 1. 33—37., 4. 19—25, 5.
10 — 14. ; Diodorus, xv. 29., xvi. 24. 63. 88.;
288

Pausanias, Ui. 10. 3., iv. 51. ; Plutarch,
Agesilaus, c 25. 33.; Cajhillus, c. 19. ; Clin
ton, Fasti Hellen. il, 214. ; ThirlwaU, History
of Greece, v. 78.) R. W— n.
ARCHIDA'MUS IV. ('Apxl5a/ios), the son
of Eudamidas I., was the twenty-fourth king
of Sparta, including Aristodemus, and of
the Preclid line. He was conquered in battle
near Mantineia by Demetrius Pollorcetes,
E. c. 296, the fourteenth year of Areus I.,
his coUeague ofthe other house. (Plutarch,
Agis, 0. 3., Demetrius, c. 35.) R. W— n.
ARCHIDA'MUS V. ('Apx"'5o^oi), the
brother of Agis IV., was the twenty-eighth
king ef Sparta, including Aristodemus, and
of the Preclid line. When his brother Agis
was put to death (b. c. 240) he made his
escape from Sparta, and fied into Messenia.
According te Plutarch {Cleomenes, c. 5.) his
restoration to Sparta was effected by the in
terference of Aratus, the general of the
Achaean league, with the view of strengthen
ing the kingly power, and making it a
match for the epheralty. Plutarch further
states that Archidamus was slain immediately
after his retum, by these who had been
parties to the death of his brother Agis,
and that it was uncertain whether Cleomenes,
the then king of the other house, was ac
cessory to his murder or not.
According to Polybius (v. 37.) Archida
mus fled from Sparta in the first instance
through fear of Cleomenes, and afterwards,
having been induced to return at his seli-
citation, and by the prospect of reconcili-
atien, was treacherously murdered by him.
Archidamus V. left sons who were alive in
E. c. 220, when Cleomenes died, but they
were passed over, and the throne was given
by the ephors to a stranger, Lycurgus, who
was not even ef the royal blood. (Clinton,
Fasti Hellcn.'-a- 218-) R. W— n.
ARCHIDE'JIUS ('ApxlSufios), or AR
CHEDA'MUS {'ApxeSaixos), was a Stoic phi
losopher of Tarsus in CUlcIa, whe lived about
B.C. 160. He was the author of two Greek
works, ene, Ilepl ^aivTJs (" On the Voice") ; an
other, nepl ^roixeioiv (" On the Elementary
Principles ef Matter "). He is supposed to be
the same person as the Archedemus whom
Plutarch {de Exsilio, p. 605.) caUs an Athe
nian, and Avho is stated by him to have gone
into Parthia, and te have founded a school
of Stoic philosophers at Babylon. (Strabo,
xiv. 674.; Diogenes Laertius, A'ii 55. 134.;
Seneca, Epist. 121. ; Fabricius, Biblioth-
Grac- Ui. 540.) - R. W— n.
ARCHI'GENES {'Apx^yivns), a celebrated
ancient physician, whose father's name was
Philippus, and who was a native of Apamea
In Syria. He was a pupil of Agathinus, the
founder of the sect- of the Episynthetici,
Avhom he is said te have cured of an attack
of delirium, brought on by want of sleep, by
fomenting his head Avlth a great quantity of
warm oil. He afterwards removed to Rome,

ARCHIGENES.

ARCHIGENES.

where he practised during the reigns of the
Emperors Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan,
a.d. 81 — 117. At Rome he appears not
only to have enjoyed a very great popular
reputation (as is proved by the fact of his
name being three times mentioned by Ju
venal to signify a great physician generally),
but also, judging from the number and variety
of his works, to have been deservedly at the
head of his profession. He is said in one
passaige by the author of the " Introductio,"
printed among Galen's works, to have be
longed to the medical sect of the Eclectici,
but in another he is reckoned as one of the
Pneumatici. According to Suidas, he died
at the age of sixty-three, according to the
Empress Eudocia, of eighty-three.
The following is a list of such of his werks
as have been mentioned byname : — l.BiSAlo
'EiriaToXiKd "Ev8eKa, (" Eleven Books of Let
ters,") quoted by Galen, among which were
probably the letters to different individuals
quoted by Aetius and Paulus .Sgineta. 2.
riepl Tuv TIeirov66Tuv T6Truv BiSXia Tpia,
{" Three Books on discovering which are the
Parts affected,") quoted by Galen, and said by
him to be the best work on the subject It
is perhaps the same treatise which is quoted
by Leo in his " Conspectus Medicinae " by
the title AmyvmaTMi', (" On Diagnosis "). 3.
Ilepl Ko(rToploi/XpT7o-€WF, (" Ou the Use of Cais-
torium,") quoted by Galen. 4. Tlepl rijy a6-
aetus rod 'EXXeSdpou, fi nepl tov 'EXXeSopt^eiv,
{" On the Exhibition of Hellebore,") which is
apparently (if the text be sound) quoted by
Galen as a distinct treatise, but which might
otherwise have been conjectured te have been
only part of a larger work, from which a long
extract on this same subject is copied by
Oribasius. 5. Ilepl tUv Sfvypiav, {" On the
Pulse,") a work often referred te by Galen,
and on Avhich he wrote a commentary in eight
books. 6. nepl Twv Kara Tevos ^apixdKwv,
(" On Medicines classed according to their
Properties,") a werk which consisted probably
of two books, and which Is very frequently
quoted by Galen. 7. Tlepl ttjs twi' UupeTwv
Snpi-eaiiireus, (" On the Symptoms of Fevers,")
a work in ten books, mentioned by Gaden,
who in the same passage speaks of an abridge
ment of it, and also of a treatise nepl Trjs
'Evvoids ToD TlvpeToi, (" On the Nature of
Fever,") which may perhaps have been merely
one of the ten books of this great work. 8.
nepl Twi' 4v Tois Nrftrois Katpav, (" On the Stages
of Disease,") a work in tAVO books, quoted by
Galen. 9. Uepl ruv Xpoviwv TlaBoyvupoviKoiv,
{•' On the Characteristic Signs of Chronic
Diseases,") quoted by Galen, and consisting
of at least two books. 10. Tlepl rav Bepanev-
TiKiivXpovluv, (" On the Treatment of Chronic
Diseases,") consisting of at least two books,
from the first of which a long extract is con
tained in Matthaei's Oribasius, and which is
several times quoted by Rhazes. 11. Svvo\fns
Ttiv Xeipovpyoupevuv, {" A Synopsis of Sur-
VOL. iu.

gicad Matters,") consisting of at least two
books, from the first of which a long extract
is quoted in Mai's Oribasius. 12. " On the
Nature of Man ; " 13. " On the Treatment
of Uterine Diseases ; " 14. " On Gout;" three
works mentioned by Wenrich in his dis
sertation "De Auctorum Graecorum Ver-
sienibus et Commentariis Syriacis, Arabicis,
Armeniacis, Persicisque," Leipzig, 1842,
Svo., as having been translated into Arabic.
15, " On Nephritis," aud 16, " On Renal
Calculi ; " two works mentioned in the cata
logue of the Royal Library at Paris as stiU
existing there in MS.
This list of the writings of Archigenes has
been increased by a late author to the num
ber of thirty-six, but it seems probable that
he has mistaken the titles of different chap
ters in his large medical, surgical, and phar
maceutical works fer so many separate trea
tises. Of aU these works (of which the titles
give at the same time some notion of their
contents, and also of the copiousness and
variety of their author's talents), none have
ever been published, nor are any still extant
(as far as the writer is aware), except the two
short treatises preserved in the library at
Paris. Numerous extracts have, however,
been preserved by Galen, Oribasius, Aetius,
and others. No great medical discovery is
connected with the name of Archigenes, but
still he appears to have been ene ef the
greatest of the ancient physicians. A full
account of his medical opinions and practice
(as far as it can be gained from the scattered
fragments that remain), is given by Le Clerc,
Hist de la Mid. ; Haller, Biblioth. Medic.
Pract tom. i p. 198. ; Sprengel, Hist de la
Mid. tome il. p. 75. ; Isensee, Gesch- der Me
dicin. There is also a dissertation by C. F.
Harless entitled " Analecta Historico-Critica
de Archigene Medico, et de Apolloniis Me
dicis, eorumque Scriptis et Fragmentis,"
Bamberg, 4te. 1816. W. A. G
ARCHIGENI'SIUS, the name ef a phy
sician, whose work on chronic diseases is
quoted by Rhazes, It seems probable that he
is the same person who is elsewhere caiUcd
by Rhaizes " Arcagenisius," and " ArchagiUi-
sius," and that all these names are only cor
ruptions of the Greek name " Archigenes."
(Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca, vol, xiii, p. 79,
ed, vet,) W, A, G,
ARCHI'LOCHUS ('ApxiA-oxos) was a
native of Pares, descended from a noble
family whe held the priesthood there. His
father was Telesicles, who in obedience to
the Delphic oracle led a colony from Pares to
Thasos, about the fifteenth or eighteenth
Olympiad, that is B, c, 720 or 708, In con-
foi-mity with this date, the ancient chronelo-
gists state that ArchUochus lived about the
twenty-third Olympiad, or b, c, 680, so that
he must have been a contemporary of the
Lydian king Gyges and his successor Ardys,
of beth of whom he makes mention in some
r

ARCHILOCHUS.

ARCHILOCHUS.

of his extant fragments. Between b. c, 710
and B, c. 700, ArchUochus quitted his native
country and migrated to Thasos, a step for
which different motives have been assigned,
though it seems most probable that he was
chiefly impeUed to it by personal disappoint
ment, Thasos, however, proved to him a
scene of agitations and trouble, and he de
scribes with much feeling the miseries which
it suffered, resulting as it would appear from
the ambitious attacks of the Thasian is
landers upon their neighbours, and the wars
in which they were consequently engaged
with them. In one of these he disgraced
himself by throwing away his shield, and his
vindication of this act is stated by Plutarch
{Instit Laconic- p, 239.) to have been the
reason why the Spartans banished him from
their city, as soon as he had arrived there.
ArchUochus left Thasos for Siris in Lower
Italy, the only city which he praises (Athen
aeus, XII. 523.), and at last retumed to Pares,
where he lost his Iffe in a war between the
Parians and Naxians, The cause of his
wanderings and restlessness is referred te
a disappointment which wounded his affec
tions and hurt his pride. He had courted
a Parian girl of the name of Neobule, to
whom. In some of his trochaic fragments,
he expresses a passionate devotion. Ly-
cambes, her father, had promised her in
marriage to the poet, but he broke his word,
and withheld his consent to their union.
ArchUochus was transported with indignation,
and he assailed the whole family, including
Neobule herself, with the most unmeasured
abuse. He accused Lycambes of perjury,
and his daughters of the most abandoned
lives. His satire upon them was written in
iambics, and according to the tradition his in
vectives and sarcasms were so severe that the
daughters ef Lycambes hanged themselves.
With the view of explaining how it happened
that the Parians tolerated such abuse of per
sons with whom the peet had wished to con
nect himself, Miiller observes "that these
iambics first appeared at a festival (of Deme-
ter er Ceres), whioh gave impunity te every
licence, and that it was regarded as a privi
lege of this kind of poetry to exaggerate at
will." But whether the charges made in this
angry effusion were true or not, the impres
sion produced by the iambics of ArchUochus,
both on his contemporaries and posterity,
and the admiration excited by them, prove
that his satires were more than mere carica
tures — that they had seme foundation in
truth, and were marked by humour and
keen playful satire. This is sufficiently
proved by the saying attributed to Gorgias,
on first hearing the Dialogues of Plato, when
he is reported to have said "that Athens
had given birth te a new ArchUochus."
P\!ito{Repub- ii 365,) himself styles him "the
very wise," and Quintilian (x, 19.) says that
he posses.sed tho greatest force of expression

and the greatest vigour and nervousness;
that his sentences were strong, brief, and
vivid ; that his faults were those of his sub
jects, and not of his genius. According to
other writers the emotion most remarkable
in his werks is that of fury, whence Horace
writes {Ars. Poet 79.)
" Archilochum proprio rabies armavit Tambo ; "
and the Emperor Hadrian {Epigr. 5.) cha
racterises his verses as "raging iambics."
Various testimonies are quoted by Liebel (p.
43.) to show the estimation in which he was
held by antiquity. Indeed ArchUochus was
considered the first Greek peet in his OAvn
peculiar Une. Horace chose him for his
model in the spirit and structure of his
Epedes, though he did not imitate him in his
subjects, as we learn from Horace himseff
{Epist i ep. 19.). The fragments of ArchUo
chus are not sufficient to enable us to form
an adequate conception of the general cha
racter of his poetry. StiU what we know of
him and of the metrical and other innovations
introduced by him, proves that he must have
possessed great inventive powers and origin-
aUty, Before his time Greek poetry had
been confined to the DactyUc Hexameter of
the Homeric Epos, and the Elegiac metre, a
derivative from it. ArchUochus invented the
Iambic Trimeter and the Trochaic Tetrameter
metres, which were in their way, says JliiUer,
as " elaborate productions ef the Greek taste
as the Parthenon, or the statue of the Olym
pian Jupiter." The former species of verse
he employed as a medium of personal sar
casm and satirical invective. Scurrilous
raiUery, indeed, had long been one ofthe pri
vileged accompaniments and characteristics
of the feasts of Demeter at Pares, and the
name of Iambics was given to thejesting and
bantering which formed a part of them. The
saune name was accordingly given to the metre
in which ArchUochus published his satires,
many of which were, in aU probability, re
cited in the first instance at the festivals of
Demeter under the protection ef reUgion,
The subjects of his trochaic verses were,
if we may judge by the extant fragments, of
a serious import, but treated in a comic tone
of playfiU and quiet satire, and some of them
were recited at banquets.
ArchUochus was also ene of the earliest
writers of Elegiac poetry, several fragments
of which are stUl extant. Their subjects are
of different kinds : some of them are plaintive,
expressing the feelings of his mind under
the pressure of external circumstances, or
sympathising with the feelings of others
under misfortune ; seme breathe a martial
spirit ; others again were of a joyous or
convivial character, fitted for being sung at
entertadnmenfs. The invention of other forms and com
binations of metre, was also ascribed to Ar
chUochus, One of these, the Epedio, in which.

ARCHILOCHUS.

ARCHIMEDES.

as in the Epedes of Horace, a shorter verse
is subjoined to a longer, was a prelude to the
strophes of the old .^elic lyric poets. An
other wais the Asynartete, a verse formed of
two metrical clauses of different kinds. The
Saturnian form of metre adopted by the older
Latin poets is also said to have been first
used by ArchUochus. Some inventions er
innovations in music, and adaptations ef it to
the recitation ef his poetry, are also ascribed
to him. But ArchUochus not only clauns
the merit of originality for his metrical inno
vations, but also for his boldness in adopting
a new style of language in his poetical wri
tings, differing entirely from the richness and
sublUnity of the old epic, and distinguished
from that of common life only by " the
Uveliness and energy with which all ideas
are expressed in it, and the graceful arrange
ment of the thoughts." As a further proof
of the versatUity of his genius, we may add
that before he left Thasos he had gained a
prize for a hymn to Demeter {Scholia on Aris
tophanes, Aves, 1762), and that he was author
of a hymn which the Olympic victors used
to sing in their triumphal precessions, when
no formal ode had been written for the occa
sion. (Pindar, Olymp. ix. 1.) From what
has been .said, it appears that ArchUochus
was a poet of ne ordinary powers of inven
tion, and that he possessed great versatUity
of talent. He marks ¦ an epoch of great im
portance in the history ef Greek poetry,
and exercised considerable influence on its
development. Judging both from the ex
tant fragments of his poetry, and what is
recorded of him by ancient critics and ethers,
we have good reason te regret the less of his
works ; " a less," says Miiller, " such as
has perhaps hardly been sustained in the
works of any other Greek poet." The ex
tant fragments ef ArchUochus are collected
in Jacobs's Anthol, Graca ; Bergk, Poeta
Lyrici Graci ; Liebel's Archilochi Reliquia ;
and Gaisford's Poet Grac- Min- (Muller,
Literature of Ancient Greece, p. 113. 135.;
Bode, Geschichte der Lyrisch- Diclitkunst, 1.
38. 47. ; Longinus, xlll. 3.; Cicero, Orator -
2. ; Herodotus, i. 12. ; Fabricius, Biblioth-
Graca, ii 107—110.; Bentley, Plmlaris,
p. 206.) R- W— n.
ARCHIME'DES {'Apx'p-llSris) the greatest
of the ancient geometers, Avas a native of
Sicily, of the state of Syracuse, and conse
quently Avas of Peloponnesian descent. The
date of his birth, derived from the statement
that he was seventy-five years eld at his
death, is B. c. 2S7. He was born about the
time that Euclid died, and Apollonius of
Perga was born about forty years later.
Whether he was of neble birth and a relation
of King Hieron IL, or Avhether he Avas ef Ioav
descent, has been a matter of discussion.
Plutarch makes him the first; Cicero the
second. It is, however, certain tliat he en
joyed, during his long Ufe, the protection
291

and friendship of Hieron and his sen Gelon.
He is said to have studied under Conon in
Egypt, and to have visited other countries.
The circumstances which are known of his
life, and which we shall presently mention,
have no connexion with one another. "When
Syracuse Avas taken by Marcellus, after the
death ef Hieron and the murder of his
grandson Hleronymus (e. c. 212), Archi
medes was kiUed by a Roman soldier, while
intent upon a problem: much to the grief, it
was said, ef Marcellus, who had given par
ticular orders to preserve him alive. He Avas
honourably buried, and the conqueror pro
tected his surviving relatives.'* On his tomb
was engraved, according te his own wish, a
sphere inscribed in a cylinder, in memory
of one of his discoveries presently men
tioned. When Cicero was qua;stor in SicUy
(b. c. 75), he discovered the tomb ef Ar
chimedes by this mark, hidden among weeds
and bushes. The life of Archimedes is said
by Eutocius to have been written by Hera
cleius er Heracleides (he writes it both ways
in different places) ; but this Ufe is lost.
The famous story of Hieron's croAvn is
sometimes wrongly told, as if Archimedes
had then made a discovery in hydro'statlcs :
the fact being that his new invention was the
mode of ascertaining the bulk of an irregular
body by means of a fluid, Hieron sus
pected that a workman who had been fur
nished with gold te make a crown, had kept
back a part and made up the Avelght with
silver : he applied to Archimedes for a mede
of detecting the cheat, " While he had the
questien on his mind," says Vitruvius, " he
happened te go to the bath, and on Irhmersing
his body he observed that a quantity of fluid
ran out ef the vessel, which it immediately
struck him must be equal in bulk te the part
of his body which displaced It. 'The instant
he had thought of this explanation, he did not
delay a moment, but leaped joyfully out ef
the bath, and ran home naked as he was, ex
claiming with a loud voice that he had found
Avhat he sought. For, as he ran, he called out
in Greek evpijKa, e'vpnua," He then con
structed two masses of geld and silver, each
equal in weight to the croAvn, and observed the
quantity ef water Avhich each displaced, Avhen
dipped into a full vessel : he then ascertained
that the croAvn in question displaced more
than its weight of gold, and less than its
weight of silver, and thus determined not
only the fact of the fraud, but the extent te
which it had been committed. From that
moment, according to Proclus, Gelon pro
fessed his readiness te believe anything that
Archimedes told him ; and Hieron, according
* Rivault says he learned from a Greek of his jic-
quaint<ance the existence of a belief that ArciiiTnedes
was the ancestor of the Sicilian martyr, St. Lucia, In
the " Penny Cyclopaedia " we have stated also that
Rivault says St. Lucia was an ancestress of the Bour
bons. This is a ludicrous error; all he says is, that
Henry IV. was born on St. Lucia's day.
U 2

ARCHIMEDES.

ARCHIMEDES.

te the same author, said the same when the
machinery of Archimedes enabled him (Hie
ron) te move, by himself, a ship which all the
Syracusans were unable te stir. It is likely
enough that on such an occasion, and with
such encouragement, Archimedes might have
uttered his celebrated saying, that he would
move the world if he could get a fixed point
on which to place his machinery.
There is no doubt that the successful re
sistance which Syracuse made against the
besieging Romans for three years was mainly
due to the contrivances of Archimedes,
Polybius, almost a contemporary writer, and
one of the best military authorities, describes
a variety of ncAV contrivances for throwing
missiles, as also for laying hold of and in
juring the Roman vessels, and states the loss
aud annoyance of the besiegers to have been
very great. Nor were his methods wholly
mechanical : Polybius mentions, as a novelty
due to Archimedes, the simple contrivance
of cutting loopholes in the walls through
which to shoot arrows and stones. But
no ancient author mentions his setting fire
to the Roman ships by burning mirrors:
this story seems to have its first rise in the
accounts of Galen and Lucian, but neither
Polybius, Livy, nor Plutarch, mentions it.
Neither Galen nor Lucian expressly says
that the ships were burned " by mirrors :" this
is the story of Zonaras and Tzetzes at a later
period, and Montucla conjectures that it is
the junction of two separate traditions, one
that Archimedes used burning mirrors, the
ether that he set fire te the Reman ships.
Nothing is more likely than that Archimedes
knew of burning mirrors, which are expressly
mentioned even by Euclid,
Putting aside the writings of Archimedes,
there would remain to him a traditionary
character as the inventor of powerful machines,
on evidence considerably better than usual,
which alone would rank him among the most
remarkable men ef antiquity. Perhaps our
greatest concern with these is to thank the
renown they procured for the preservation of
the writings of the inventor ; the list of lost
writings is trivial as compared with that
which is attached to the names of Euclid and
Apollonius. Besides the warlike imple
ments with which he defended Syracuse, and
the mirrors, which must be rejected as apo
cryphal (at least as directed against the
ships), the following inventions are attributed
to him : a sphere en which the motion of the
sun, meen, and planets, could be represented,
but whether graphically er mechanically is
not stated ; an hydraulic organ ; a polyspast,
or collection of pulleys ; a screw*, Avith which
* The inventor of the screw. Avhich is now being
applied to a steam-vessel, called his ship the " Archi
medes." 'J'liis, il intended tn imply that tlie principle
resembles what is usually called the screw (if Arclii-
jiicrlis. is a mistake; but it is not impossible that, in
right of tlie screw on which this note is written, tho
ves'.el may hjive some claim to the name: certainlv
292

he appears to have moved Hieron's ship
above mentioned ; the celebrated screw tube,
called cechlia, for raising water, which he is
said te have invented in Egypt ; a self-
nourishing lamp ; a contrivance called /ocm/ms,
consisting ef fourteen different pieces, to be
put together in various shapes, and which
has been aptly said to resemble what is called
the Chinese puzzle, but which seems to have
had some higher use, as it is said that it
was very useful for strengthening children's

memories.

The works of Archimedes are mostly pre
served in Greek, written in the Doric dialect,
which has in seme of them partially disap
peared under the hands of transcribers. The
great point of novelty about the mathematical
part of them, as compared with the writings of
Euclid, is the approach they make to the
principles of the differential calculus, of
which, had Archimedes been in possession ef
algebra, he could hardly have missed the in
vention. The mechanical writings are not
only the first ef the kind, but place Archi
medes, with respect te statics and hydro
statics, exactly in the position of Euclid with
respect to geometry ; with this difference,
however, that we are certain Archimedes is
the first discoverer of every thing, whUe we
have reason to suppose EucUd drew much
from what his predecessors had dene. It
wais nearly eighteen hun-lred years before a
single step was made in advance ef Archi
medes, on any point of theoretical mechanics.
As te the qualities of the individual, the im
pression which his writings give is that of a
power which has never been surpassed : no
one has a right to say that Newton himself,
in the place of Archimedes, could have dene
more. Those who know how difficult it is
to compare the merits of different ages and
countries, will not attempt te answer the
questien, who was the greatest mathematician
that ever lived ? — but if we were obliged to
defend a thesis on this point, we would choose
Archimedes, because we think that avc could
make out that there was, as to the matter of
his discoveries, less of previous suggestion
than in any other case.
The existing writings of Archimedes are
as follows : his principal discoveries are
named in connexion with the titles : — 1. nepl
Tr)s ^(paipas Kai KvXivSpov (two books " On
the Sphere and Cylinder"). Here he finds all
that relates te the surface and solidity of the
sphere, cone, and cylinder, and their segments.
A modern elementary work on the differential
calculus would not give more results than are
found here.
2. KvkXov MeTpT}ais (" On the Measure
ment of the Circle "). After showing that
the area of the circle Is equivalent to that of
a right-angled triangle having the circum-

Archimedes is the first who is said to have moved a
ship by a screw.

ARCHIMEDES.

ARCHIMEDES.

ference for a base, and the radius for an
altitude, Archimedes proves that the circum
ference of a circle is less than 3^ ef the
diameter and greater than 3^.
3. 'EiriireSwi/ 'lao^^oTriKaiv ^ Kevrpa, BapdJv
'EiriirtSwc (" On the Equilibrium and Centre
of Gravity of Planes "). This is the weU-
knoAvn theory of the lever extended as in
the title. The centre of gravity of a parabolic
segment is, mathematically speaking, the
most difficult acquisition ef this book.
4. nepl [^Ap.€Xvyovl<i>v'] KaivoeiSeuv Kai
'%X''ll^°-ra>v 20aipoeiS4(i>v {" On [obtuse] Co
noids and Spheroids "). Where Fabricius
gets the second word of the title he does not
say ; it is net either in Hervagius, Rivault,
or Torelli. This work is on the solids ge
nerated by the revolution of a conic section,
and again gives all that an ordinary book on
the differential calculus would undertake te
shew. It also gives the area of an eUipse in
terms of that of the circle.
5. Ilepl 'EXiKuv (" On Spirals "). The
spiral which is treated is that which has
since been called the Spiral of Archimedes,
sometimes of Conon, whe seems to have
suggested it.
6. TeTpaywvitTp.hs UapaSoXfis, (" The Quad
rature of the Parabola "). The first quadra
ture which was achieved independently ef
the circle.
7. 'Va/.tpilrris (the " Arenarius " or " Beek
on Sand "). An arithmetical speculation,
showing that on suppositions as to the size
of the universe more extensive than were
then in vogue, arithmetic was capable of ex
pressing the number of grains of sand which
would fill it. This book was written for the
information of Gelon, te whom it is ad
dressed. 8. nepl Tuv "TSari 'EfpitrrapLevoiv (" De iis
quae in Humido vehuntur," " ou Floating Bo
dies "). The above is the Greek title of a
fragment which exists ; but this work is new
only found in Latin. Rivault turned the
enunciations into Greek, for unfformlty with
the rest ef his edition : and hence Fabricius
says that these books " Graice ac Latine
extant," but this is a mistake. That Archi
medes did write such a work appears from
the testimony of Strabo, who names one pro
position which is found in these very books
(Torelli, p. xvii). We owe them to TartagUa,
¦who found them in a Latin manuscript which
is now lost, and published the two books at
different times at Venice. They contain a
sound and sufficient theory of floating bodies
founded on the equal-pressure definition of a
fluid. 9. ToreUi admits into his edition the book
of Lemmas attributed to Archimedes, which
Abraham Ecchellensis .translated from the
Arabic of Thabet ben Korrah, and which
Borelli added to the end of his edition of
Apollonius (Florence, 1661): but he dees net
consider it as genuine. A work on Biu-ning
293

Mirrors which Ant. Gongava published at
Louvain in 1548 from the Arabic, must also
be discarded.
There are one or two Arabic manuscripts
which profess to contain writings ef Archi
medes (Fabricius, Biblioth. Grac, iv. ISO,),
and there are said to be lost the following,
'Apxal,'Ecp6Stov, Uepl Zvyiiiv, MiJXaviKa (though
it is doubted whether this be net the preced
ing. No, 3,), nepl 2<liaipoiioiias, also a werk on
the inscription of a heptagon in a circle, and
one on conic sections (very doubtful), Pro
clus mentions the ^(paipoiroua, and says it de
scribes an imitation ef the celestial motions.
Archimedes was an observer of the heavens,
and his observations ef the solstices are men
tioned with praise by Ptolemy, There are
commentaries by Eutocius on the works on
the Sphere and Cylinder, on the Circle, and
on the Centre ef Gravity,
The complete editions of Archimedes are : —
1, The first Greek edition printed by Herva
gius at Basle, 1544, 4te,, edited by Thomas
Gechauff, called Venaterius. It has all
the works which are left in Greek, with such
commentaries of Eutocius as exist, also in
Greek, with a Latin version to the whele. It
is said in the preface, that the manuscripts
were brought from Constantinople into Italy,
and were carried by Regiomontanus into
Germany, who made many emendations. 2.
Rivault's edition, Paris, 1615, fol. This con
tains also the work en Fluids, All is in Latin,
except that the Greek is added to the enunci
ations throughout, and to the whole ofthe
Arenarius, The scholia are often taken from
Eutocius, but that commentator is net added
complete. An edition of Rivault, by the
Jesuit Claude Richard, said te be iu 1646, is
probably a mistake arising out of Richard's
EucUd in 1645. 3, TerelU's edition, Oxford,
1793, fol,, contains the Greek of Archimedes
and Eutocius complete, the werk on Fluids,
the book of Lemmas, and all the various
readings; and is a splendid edition. The
University of Oxford (the only learned body
which has published editions of the Greek
geometers ) purchased this edition of the
executors of Joseph ToreUi ef Verona, 4,
'The French translation ef Peyrard, Paris,
1808, 2 vols. Svo, 5. Fabricius mentions a
German translation by Chr, Sturmius, Niirn
berg, 1670, fol, 6, The German trans
lation ef Ernest NIzze, Stralsund, 1824, 4to,
The different versions of parts ef Archi
medes are very numerous, but se badly
and variously described in bibUographical
writings, that nothing but such research as
will be made under the names of their se
veral editors [ Andeeson ; Barrow; Com
mandine ; Mauroltci's ; RiGAUD ; Tak-
taclia ; Uealdi , GuLDO ; Wallis] would
enable any ene to give a correct Ust, (Fa
bricius, Biblioth. Grac, vol, iv, ; Prefaces to
Rivault, ToreUi, and Peyrard,) A, De M,
ARCHIME'LUS {'Apxipiv>sos), the author
u 3

ARCHIMELUS.

ARCHINTO.

of an epigram on a great ship buUt by
Archias of Syracuse fer Hieron IL, king of
Sicily, about e. c. 220, The epigram is given
in Athenaeus, v. 209. Brunck {Analect. ii.
64.) supposes that he was the author of an
epigram on an imitator of Euripides, which,
however, in the Vatican MS, is ascribed to
one Archimedes, a poet of whom no mention
is made elscAvhere. R. W — n.
ARCHINTO. A celebrated family of
Milan, called by Morigi " the glory of our
city of Milan," said to be descended from
the kings of Lombardy, and two of whom,
Anselmo and Manfredo Archinto, founded the
celebrated monastery of Chiaravalle in the
year 1135. Those most deserving ef notice
are the following : —
Archinto, Alberico, bom at Milan in
the year 1698, became archbishop ef Nicaea
in the year 1747, governor of Rome about
1753, and subsequently was created cardinal
with the title of S, Matteo in Merulana.
He died at Rome in 1758,
Archinto, Alessandro, sen of Christo-
foro Archinto and Maddalena Torriano, was
born at Milan at the end of the fifteenth or
beginning ef the sixteenth century. He was
created a count by the Emperor Charles V,,
and after filling several important pests in
his native city he died there in the year
1 567, He left the following works : — 1, " De
Praedestinatlene," 2. " De Beatae Mariae
Magdalenae Pudicitia ac Virginitate." 3,
" Dialogus in quo PhUlppo Patruo ac Pem-
pilio Nepete dlsserentlbus quis sit VilUcus
Iniquitatis ex XVI, Capite Lucse quam dili-
gentlsslme explicatur," 4, " Dialogus alter,
in quo eosdem in cos qui pre Salvatore Ser-
vatorem scribunt, cellequentes facit," The
whole of these are preserved in manuscript
iu the Ambrosian library at Milan, and the
first two are also in the metropolitan or
public library and in that ef the Casa
Archinta. Archinto, Alessandro, a Jesuit, son of
Orazio Archinto and Eleanera 'Tonsa, was
born at Milan in the year 1577, and died in
1645. He wrote — 1, " A Compendium of
Rhetoric," 2, " Three Books ef Precepts of
Rhetoric," 3, " A Treatise en History,"
preserved in manuscript in the library of the
Casa Archinta ; and, 4,, Several E'loges on
the Fathers of his Society, which are depo
sited in the library ef the Jesuits ef Brera at
MUan, '
Archinto, Ameeogio er Giovanni
Ambrogio. He was born at Milan lu the
latter half ef the fifteenth century, and in the
year 1518 filled the office ef decurion of his
native city. He edited the " Descrizione
del Viaggio a Jerusalemme di Santa Brasca,"
published at Milan in 1481, in 4to. ; and
also published the epistles and other works of
Pope Pius II. at Milan in 1496, foL
Archinto, Carlo, Count, one ef the
most learned and distinguished Milanese
294

noblemen of his time. He was bom on the
30th of July, 1669, He commenced his
studies under the Jesuits in the college of
Brera, and then proceeded to the university
of Ingolstadt. He afterwards travelled through
France, Germany, Holland, and Italy, and
returned to MUan in the year 1700. In
1702 he founded an academy of cavalieri,
which embraced all the scientific and noble
arts. He formed a very choice library in
his palace, which he enriched with a rare
collection ef mathematical instruments, Ar
gellatl having applied to him fer the purpose
ef procuring a proper establishment for
the printing of Muratori's celebrated work,
entitled " Scrlptores Rerum Italicarum," he
procured the association ef several noblemen,
whe formed themselves into a body called the
Secieta Palatina, from their meetings being
held in the imperial palace, and subscribed
very considerable sums for this object. The
press was known as the "iEdes Palatinae," and
Muratori's great werk was the first that issued
from it. 'The Emperor Leopold made Ar
chinto his chamberlain, and Charles IL, king
ef Spain, created him a knight of the Golden
Fleece, and Philip V. a grandee of Spain,
Argellati calls him his principal Maecenas
during his residence in MUan, He died en
the 17th ef December, 1732, He wrote
several werks beth in Latui and Italian ; one,
" Annotations on the Third, Fourth, and
Fifth Books ef the Histories of Arnuffo of
MUan," is pubUshed in tom. iv, of the " Scrlp
tores Rerum ItaUcarum," and some tables of
the sciences were published anonymously at
Venice after the author's death, under the
title " Tabulae praecipua Scientiarum et
Artium Capita digesta per Ordinem reprae-
sentantes." The others appear never to have
been printed, A fuU list of his werks,
thirty-one in number, comprising philosophi
cal, mathematicad, and theological subjects,
and also a collection of Latin poems, will be
found In ArgeUatI and MazzuchelU.
Archinto, Carlo Antonio, was born
in the first lialf of the seventeenth century,
and became an abbot in the order of the
Canons Regular ef the Lateran. He wrote
1. " Encemiastica Oratio in Laudem Alex
andri TroUi Ab. GeneraUs Lateranensls,"
Ravenna, 1647, Svo. 2. " Oratio Panegyrica
Theodoro Fantone Visitateri generali Late-
ranenslum," Svo, 3, " La Scrittura Politica,
Discorso," Lucca, 1682.
Archinto, Filippo, archbishop of Jlllan,
son of Cristoforo Archinto and Madda
lena Torriano, was born in Milan on the
3d of July, 1500, He Avas doctor of the
College of Judges (Dottore del Collegio de'
Giudici) In Milan. As one of the council of
the Emperor Charles \, many matters ef
extreme importance were confided te him,
among others the management of the cause
relating to the disputed successien to the
marquisate of Monferrato, He was four

ARCHINTO.

ARCHINTO.

times sent as legate from his native city te
Charles V. He was governor of Rome,
then apostolical vice-chamberlain, vicar of
the pope, a dignity never, before or since,
conferred upon any other than a cardinal ;
bishop of S. Sepolchro; in 1549, bishop
of Saluzzo ; and, ultimately, archbishop of
Milan. By Pope Paul IV. he was sent as
legate extraordinary to the Venetian Republic,
with the authority of legate a latere. He
died in Bergamo on the 21st of June, 1558.
His Ufe has been written by Glan Pietro
Guissano, published at Como, 1611, 4to. His
werks are 1. " Oratio de Nova Christiani
Orbis Pace habita," Rome, 1544, 4to. 2. " De
Fide et Sacramentis, Libri II.," Rome, 1545,
4to. ; published again at Ingolstadt in 1546,
4to., and at Turin, 1549, 4to. 3. " Attes-
tatio de Ordine in Urbe observari solito in
Processionibus, ui quibus Canonici Regu-
lares Menasterii S. Marias de Pace praeferun-
tur Monachis Menasterii S. Pauli ; " inserted
in the work entitled " AUegationes diver-
sorum in Causa Praccedentiae ortae in Concilio
Tridentino inter Canonicos Regulares et
Menachos Clstercienses," Cremona, 1567, fol.
He left many orations, &c. in manuscript,
which are preserved in the family library at
MUan. Archinto, Filippo, Count, son of Count
Carlo Archinto and the Countess Caterina
Aresi, was born in MUan in the year 1649.
He became a member of the Collegio de'
Nobili Giuriscensulti in MUan, was quaestor
of the Magistrati delle Rendite Straordinarie,
and royal ducal senator. In 1677 he Avas
sent hy Charles IL, king of Spain, envoy te
the Emperor Leopold, and afterwards chosen
to be prime minister to the Prince Alessan
dro Farnese, in the government of Flanders.
He was podesta of Cremona from 1692 to
1694, and died at MUan in the year 1720.
His works are : 1. " II Soglio di Salomone
eretto del Temple deUa Virtii per lo riccvi-
mente nelT Universita di Brera del Sig. Car-
dinale Luigi Omedeo," MUan, Svo. 2. " Dia
rio di tutto clo che gli 6 eccorso alia Corte
di Vienna, durante la sua Incembenza d'ln-
viato alia medesima di Carlo IL, Re di Spagna."
This journal was never printed, and fills six
volumes. 3. His letters to princes, cardinals,
and particiUarly to the Dulce of Parma and
Placentia, with the answers to them occupy
tAvelve folio volumes in manuscript, and are
in the possession of his descendants.
Archinto, Girolamo, archbishop of
Tarsus, was born at Milan about the year
1671. In 1696 he became a member of the
college of jurisconsults, but finally entered
the church, and after obtaining many dig
nities was made titular archbishop ef Tarsus,
He was sent as nuncio to the Grand Duke of
'Tuscany, and aftei-wards legate a latere to
Germany; ultimately he went as nuncio to
Frederick Augustus, king of Poland, but died
immediately en his arrival in Warsaw, on the
295

1st of October, 1721. He left behind him
an Exposition of the CouncU of Trent, which
was never printed.
Archinto, Giuseppe, a jurist, son of
Bartolommeo Archinto and Margherita Ter-
zaga, was born at Milan about the middle of
the sixteenth century. He filled several im
portant pests in the administration ef his na
tive city, and was made regal ducal senator
by PhUip IIL, king of Spain, in the year 1606.
His death took place iu the year 1610, He
published a coUection entitled " Compendium
omnium Ordinationum factaram per Sena-
tum Mediolani Annis MDXcvm, et mdxcix.
ad relationem Comitis J. Archinti ab eodem
coUectae," MUan, 4ta Two of his letters are
printed in Part II. of the " Idea del Segre-
tario" of B. Zucchi, pp. 156, 157., Venice,
1606, 4te.
Archinto, Giuseppe, cardinal and arch
bishop of Milan, son of Carlo Archinto,
Count of Tainate, and Caterina Aresi, bom
at MUan in the year 1651. After taking his
degree in law at Pavia, he embraced the
ecclesiastical state, and was appointed by
Pope Innocent XL, vice-legate of Bologna,
which office he fiUed during six years so
much to the satisfaction of the pope, that he
sent him as apostolic nuncio to Bologna. He
was afterwards appointed by succeeding pon
tiffs nuncio to the republic of Venice and to
the court of Spain. By Innocent XII. he
was made archbishop of Milan en the 18th of
May, 1699, and on the 14th of November ef
the same year cardinal, with the title of Santa
Prisca. He was appointed legate a latere
from Clement XI. in order te celebrate the
marriage between Philip V., king of. Spain,
and the Princess of Savoy at Nizza di Pre-
venza. He died on the 9th of AprU, 1712.
A medal was struck in honour ef him (see
Museum MazzuchelUanum) bearing on the
obverse his effigy, with the words " Joseph
S. R. E. Card. Archintus Arch. Med.," and
on the reverse his family arms, with the
motto " Haurietis in Gaudio. Isai. xii." He
wrote — 1. " Ccclum ex Terra, Oratio de Spl-
ritus Sancti Adventu, habita Anno 1670,"
Rome, 1670, 4to. ; 2. "Relatie Legatienis a
Latere, qua Philippum V., Hispaniarum et
Indiarum Regem, Nicaea; in Provincia cum
Sabaudiae Duels FiUa Matrimonio junxit ; "
3. " Epistola; plures cum esset Nuncius Apos
toUcus ; " 4. " Acta Visitationis Oppidi Ab-
biati Crassi per Danielem Porrum Cancella-
rium Archiepiscopalensem collecta." The
last three have not been printed.
Archinto, Ottavio, Count, was bom at
Milan towards the end of the sixteenth cen
tury. Like the other members of his famUy
he fiUed various high and important offices
In his native city. In the year 1642, PhUip
IIL, king of Spain, conferred upon him the
countship ef Barate. He died on the 13th
of June, 1056. He devoted much time and
attention to the antiquities of his native dis-
u 4

ARCHINTO.

ARCHINUS.

trict, of which he formed a very complete
collection ; aU his writings have a reference
to this subject : they are, 1. " Epilogati Rac-
conti della Antichita e Nobilta della FamigUa
Archinta, e de' suoi Privilegj ; aggiuntavi una
breve Esposizione degli Antichi Marmi, che
ne' Palagj di questa FamigUa si leggono."
MUan, 1648, fol. This work was published
anonymously. 2. " CoUectanea Antiquita
tum " (in the Palazzo ef Archinto), fol. This
work is exceedingly rare, but there is a copy
in the Imperiali library at Rome. His un
published works, eight in number, are depo
sited in the Archintean Ubrary at Milan ; of
these may be mentioned : 1. " A Description
of aU the Gems collected by himself and his
Ancestors ; " 2. " Mediolanensium FamiUa-
rum Monumenta," 3 vols, fol, ; 3, " Insignia
FamUiarum Mediolani ; " 4, " Collectanea In
scriptionum Veterum ; " 5. " Decreti Ducali e
Gridarii dai Principle del Governo del Duca
di Terranuova sino all' Anno 1654,"
(Argellati, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Mediola
nensium ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia ;
Morigi, La Nobilta di Milano, edit, 1619, pp.
152, 153, &c. ; Grosses VoUstdndiges Univer
sal-Lexicon and Supplement ; Ersch und Grii-
ber, Allgemeine Encyclopddie ; Cardella, Me
morie Storiche de' Cardinali ; Saxius, Archi-
epi-^coporum Mediolanensium Series, Ui 1009 — •
1016. and 1171—1183.; VagUauo, Somma-
rio delle Vite degli Arcivescovi di Milano, pp.
330—339., and 431—436.) J. W. J.
ARCHFNUS {'Apxivos), a native of Coele
in Attica, was one of those Athenian exiles
who, with Thrasybulus and ethers, occupied
the fortress of Phyle, and, after overthrowing
the thirty tyrants, re-estabUshed the Athenian
democracy E. c. 403. Demosthenes attributes
to Archinus the chief share in this revolution,
and he adds that he distinguished himseff on
many occasions as a statesman and general.
He is also mentioned by Dinarchus as a lead
ing politician after the re-establishment of
the democracy. Archinus co-operated with
Thrasybulus in passing the law for a general
amnesty, which was enacted after the restora
tion of the democracy ; and he proposed and
carried a law for the protection of those who
might be harassed by prosecutions contrary
to the terms of the amnesty. Archinus also
proposed and carried a measure (i|/rfij>iir^a)
for honouring those who had aided in the
restoration of the democracy : this event was
recorded in an inscription on the Metroum,
which was near the senate-house. iEschines
aUeges it as an instance of the strict in
tegrity ef Archinus, that, though on friendly
terms with Thrasybulus, he prosecuted him
in the form usual on such occasions {^ypd-
i|/OTo napav6fjLuv) for bringing forward some
measure which was contrary to law. The
pseudo-Plutarch, in the life of Lysias the
orator, states that Thrasybulus proposed to
give the citizenship of Athens to Lysias for
his services to the state, and that Archinus
296

prosecuted Thrasybulus for the illegal mode
in which Thrasybulus made his proposition :
the consequence was that Lysias did not ob
tain the citizenship, and he continued in the
rank of an Isoteles. The corrupt passage in
the pseudo-Plutarch is judiciously amended
by Taylor; and, consistently with this amend
ment, Thrasybulus must have been the person
who was prosecuted, and not Lysias, as it is
sometimes stated. It is very probable that
.Sschines and the pseudo-Plutarchrefer tothe
same event : the only difference is, that JEs-
chines has described it with less particularity.
Archinus was the person who moved
and carried the law in the archonship of
Eucleides, b. c. 403, which established the
new mede of writing in public documents ;
for that the law referred to pubUc and not to
private documents is pretty certain, as CUn
ton correctly remarks. 'The change con
sisted in adopting twenty-four instead of the
sixteen letters then in use at Athens : thus,
fer instance, before the archonship of Eu
cleides, the same letter was used on inscrip
tions both for the short e and the long e
{e and ri). Consequently the form of the
letters on inscriptions after the time of
Eucleides would be different from that of
the letters on inscriptions before that date;
and Plutarch, in his Lffe of Aristides (c. i),
uses this distinction as a proef that a certain
piibUc document to which he refers could net
relate to Aristides the Just. Suidas speaks
of this change as an adoption of the Ionic
characters. The term Attic characters was
equivalent to ancient. (Harpocration, 'Atti-
Kols Fpdpipxuri, and the note of H. Valeslus.)
Funeral orations {iiriTdtjiioi x6yoi) by Ar
chinus are mentioned by Photius {Cod- 260.)
in conjunction with those of Thucydides and
Lysias. Archinus is also mentioned in the
" Menexenus " of Plato as a man quaUfied to
pronounce funeral orations, which passage
Dionysius ef HaUcarnassus {On the Elo
quence of Demosthenes, c- 23.) has misunder
stood, fer he states that Plato says in the
" Menexenus " that he wrote that piece in
imitation of Archinus and Dion ; whereas
Plato merely speaks of Archinus or Dion as
likely to be selected to pronounce a pairticular
funeral oration. (.Slschines, De Falsa Le
gal., c. 54., Against Cteslphon, 62. 65. ; Demos
thenes, Against Timocrates, c. 34. ; Isocrates,
Against Callimachus, c. 1. ; Suidas, 'iap-ia>v it
AjipLos-) G. L.
ARCHIPPUS CApxiTiroj), a Comic peet
of Athens, was a contemporary of Ameipsias,
and consequently belonged to the old Attic
comedy. It is recorded that in B.C. 416
(Ol. 9 1 .) he gained a victory in comedy, but
further particulars are not known about him.
If we may beUeve the Scholiast on the
" Wasps " of Aristophanes, Archippus was
chiefly notorious for the coarseness amd vul
garity of his poetry, which drew upon him
the ridicule of his contemporaries. We know

ARCHIPPUS.
the titles and possess fragments of six comedies
of Archippus. The most celebrated among
them was entitled " The Fishes " {'Ix^vs), in
which he appears to have held up to ridicule
the gluttony of the Athenians, and mere
especiaUy their fondness for fish. The fishes,
which probably formed the chorus of the
play, made war upon the Athenians to avenge
their wrongs. At last, however, a treaty ef
peace was concluded ; the Athenian prisoners
were restored, but those who had been most
conspicuous as fish-eaters, such as the tragic
poet Melanthius, and some ether gluttons,
were surrendered to the fishes to be devoured.
This play must have been performed aifter
the year b. c. 403, that is, after the archonship
of Euclides (Athenajus, vu. 329.). The
names of the five remaining plays are
'Ap(piTpvci}V, 'HpaKXrjs Tap,iiiV,''Ovov ^Kia, IlAoiJ-
Tos, and 'Pivuv- The first of these seems to
have been a play sunUar to the " Amphitrao "
of Plautus, but the fragments of this as. well
as of the four other plays are scarcely suf
ficient to give us any idea of the plays them
selves. There are also about a dozen frag
ments of Archippus which are quoted without
any mention of the plays to which they
belonged. It is remarkable that four comedies,
viz. " Poetry," " Shipwreck," " The Islands,"
and " Niebus," which are usually reckoned
among the last plays of Aristophanes, are
attributed by some ofthe ancients to Archip
pus. The Greek grammarians have pre
served several words and expressions peculiar
to Archippus. (A. Meineke, Historia Cri
tica Comicor- Gracor. p. 205 — 210., where
aU the passages of the ancients referring to
Archippus are collected.) L. S.
ARCHITA, a painter of Perugia, where
he was born in 1560. There are three fres
coes by him in the church of San Sebaistiano,
outside the waUs of Rome, representing
Saints Girolaimo, Bernardo, and Carlo. He
died in 1635. (Titi, Pitture, §-c. di Roma ;
Pascoli, Vite de' Pittori, ^c) R. N. W.
ARCHON, LOUIS, or, according to
Oroux, JEAN LOUIS, was bom at Riom in
Auvergne, en the 4th of September, 1645.
At the age of fffteen he went to Paris for the
purpose of completing his education. In the
year 1670 he obtained the canonry of St.
Amable at Riom, and was subsequently ap
pointed chaplain to the king, Louis XI'V.,
through the interest of the Cardinal de Bou-
iUon. The cardinal also created fer him the
post of keeper of the ornaments of the king's
chapel. In 1678 the king appointed him to
the abbey of Saint-GUbert-Neuf-Fontaines,
iu the diocese of Clermont. He died at Riom
on the 25th of February, 1717.
He wrote " Histoire Ecclesiastique de la
ChapeUe des Reis de France, sous les trois
Races de nos Reis jusqu'au Regne de Louis
XIV." 2 vols. Paris, 1704 and 1711, 4to.
The first volume comprises the history of the
royal chapel under the kings of the first and
297

ARCHON.
second race ; the second volume that of the
chapel under the kings of the thu-d race up
to and exclusive of Louis XIV., with a Ust of
the grand almoners, first ahnoners, confessors,
and principal officers of the chapel. A third
volume was advertised to continue the history
durmg the reign of Louis XIV., but was
never pubUshed. This werk was mentioned
favourably by the joumals of the time ; but it
has been treated with much severity by later
writers. Oroux, in his preface, brings to
gether the criticisms of the Abbe Goujet and
the Abbe de Camps — the former of whom
objects te the lengthy and unnecessary di
gressions, the Ul-digested leaming, disfigure
ment of proper names, &c. ; whUe the latter
characterises the work as composed with
every possible sort of negligence — without
chronology, without dates, without order in
the narration ef facts ; authors misquoted,
and confusion everywhere. Le Long states
in 1771 that Oroux was engaged in the pre
paration of a new edition of this work ; but as
such an edition was never pubUshed, it may
be presumed that the work with which Oroux
was occupied was his own ecclesiastical his
tory. (Moreri, Le Grand Dictionnaire His
torique, edit. 1759 ; Oroux, Histoire Eccli
siastique de la Cour de France, 1777, U. 518,
519.; Richard et Giraud, Bibliotheque Sa-
crie, iii 29. ; Le Long, Bibliotheque Histo
rique de la France, edit. Fevret de Fontette,
iii- 192.) J. W. J.
ARCHY'TAS {'Apxiras) was a native of
Tarentum and the son of Mnesageras, ac
cording to seme authorities, but of Hestiaeus,
according to his biographer, Aristoxenus.
He is classed among the Pythagoraeans, and
is sometimes considered the eighth teacher
in descent from Pythagoras. His period is
fixed by the fact of his being a contemporary
of the philosopher Plate, whom he is said to
have saved from the vengeance of the younger
Dionysius, the tyrant, by a letterof which Dio
genes Laertius has preserved a copy (in. Plato).
The accession of Dionysius is fixed at E. c.
367, and he was expelled from Syracuse about
eleven years and a half later. Arehytas was
shipAvrecked and drowned on the coast of
Apulia, as Horace {Carm. 'i. 28.) states: at
least we may consider this ode of Horace
as evidence of such a tradition.
The reputation of Arehytas was very great,
and his character was irreproachable. He
was distinguished as a general, and he com
manded the forces of his native state for seven
years, though the constitution only aUowed
the same mam to be in command for one year.
Aristoxenus says that he never sustained a
defeat. Diogenes does not enumerate any writings
of Arehytas, but a long Ust of them may be
coUected from various other authorities. He
was a philosopher, a mathematician, and a
writer on music and geometry, politics, and
ethics. Simplicius attributes to him a work

ARCHYTAS.

ARCHYTAS.

on Opposites {'Avraceipieva), to which he says
that Aristotle wais indebted for what he says
on this subject in his Categories (c. 10.).
His Harmonicen is quoted by Nicomachus
in his Arithmetic. He wrote a werk on
Mind and Perception (nepl NoO ical Aia-erjtreioj) ;
and a treatise on the Nature of the Universe
(nepl TOV Uavrhs ^i;a'tos), written in the Doric
dialect, is attributed te him, but probably on
insufficient grounds. In this werk the author
distributes all things into ten classes, com
monly called Categories er Praedicaments,
which is said to be the origin of Aristotle's
division. Fragments of the werks attributed
to him " On the Good and Happy Man," and
" On Wisdom," are also extant. That he
was a man of note appears from the fact of
Aristotle having written three books on his
philosophy (Diogenes Laertius, v. Aristotle),
and also having made excerpts from his
writings. Among the mathematical problems which
Arehytas solved or attempted to solve was
the duplication of the cube, for which purpose
he attempted te find two mean proportionals
between the two right lines formed by the
section of a cylinder, as Laertius expresses
it. Eutocius, in his Commentary on the
Sphere of Archimedes (book ii. prop. 2.) has
preserved this solution of Arehytas, in which
the cylinder is employed, but in far too com
plicated a manner to allow us to imitate
Laertius, and describe it in a few words. On
this subject the reader may consult the
Penny Cyclopaedia, " Duplication of the
Cube," Among his mechanical inventions
is mentioned a wooden pigeon that could fly,
of which Gellius (x. 12.) speaks particularly.
The invention of a rattle (7rAaTa7r)), perhaps
a child's toy, is also attributed te him, A
letter ef Arehytas to Plate, and Plato's
reply, are preserved by Laertius,
Fabricius has given a list of the writings
attributed to Arehytas. The genuineness ef
the letters and of the fragments, which are
chiefly preserved in Stobaeus, is very doubtful.
The fragments ef the works " On the Goed
and Happy Man," and " On Wisdom," were
published by T, Gale in 1670, and were
given again with other things in his " Opus
cula Mythologica," Cambridge, 1671, Svo,;
Amsterdam, 1688, Svo, The fragment of
the Greek text of the werk on the " Nature
of the Universe," was published at Venice,
1561, Svo,, with a Latin version by Dem,
Pizimentius, under the title " Architae
Tar, X. Praidicamenta," This edition is
often stated as belonging to the year 1571,
but perhaps incorrectly, A complete collec
tion of the fragments was published by I, Cn,
OrelU, Leipzig, 1821, Svo. The " Political
Fragments of Arehytas, Charondas, &c,, trans
lated from the Greek by Thomas Taylor,"
was pubUshed at London, 1822, Svo. 'There
is a work by Nic. T. Rcimer intitled " Ar
ehytas, eiusque Solutio Preblematis Cubi
298

DupUcatienis," Giittingen, 1798, Svo. It
appears that Arehytas was the first who at
tempted this problem.
Three other persons of the name of Arehy
tas are enumerated by Diogenes Laertius,
One of Mitylene is called a musician or
writer on music ; a second wrote on agricul
ture, and is cited by Varro and Columella ;
a third was a writer of epigrams in the Greek
sense, and he may be the Arehytas ef Am-
phissa who is mentioned by Plutarch, Te
this list some add a fifth, an architect, who
wrote a werk en some mechanical contri
vance, the first few words ef which are cited
by Laertius. (Fabricius, Biblioth, Grac, i.
831., where most of the necessary references
are given.) G, L,
ARCIMBOLDI, A noble Milanese famUy,
originaUy from Parma, which appears to have
been settled in MUan from the early part of
the fifteenth century untU 1727, when, accord
ing to Litta, it became extinct. It gave four
archbishops te MUan. The foUowing mem
bers principally deserve notice : —
Antonello Akcimeoldi was son of
Giovanni Angelo, archbishop of MUan, be
fore that prelate became an ecclesiastic. It is
not known when he was bom, but he took
his degree of docter of laws at Pavia in the
year 1556. He was apostolical prothonotary,
abbot commentatario ofthe abbeys ef Viboldo-
ne and Carsenzage, Philip IL, king of Spain,
created him senator of Milan in 1567, and he
was enroUed among the academici aiffidati,
with the name " T Awertito." He died at
MUan in 1578, He was weU versed in the
Greek language, from which he made the
following translations : — 1, " D. BasUii
Magnl HomiUae Octo Antonello Arcimboldo '
vertente," Milan, 1569, 4te, 2, " D, BasilU
Maigni de vera et incormpta Virginitate Liber,
A, A, Interprete," MUan, 1573, 4to. 3, " S,
BasilU Magni de Gratiarum Actione Liber e
Graeco in Latinum translatus," MUan, 4to.
4, " Gregorii Nazianzeni HomiUae IV. e
Grasco in Latinum transtuUt, A, A," Ar
gellati and others attribute to him also the
translation ef seme of the works ef Saint
Chrysostome : PicinelU appears to be in error
in calling him the author of the " Cataloge
degli Eretici," as that was published under the
name of Arcimboldo, airchbishop of Milan,
Giovanni Arcimeoldi, son of Niccolo
Arcimboldi, was born at the commencement
ef the fifteenth century. He was enrolled
in the college of noble jurists in the year
1436; and, being a man of great ability, was
employed by the dukes of MUan in many im
portant missions. He was made ducal coun
sellor, president of the magistracy of the
Entrate Straordinarie, bishop of Novara in
1468, cardinal in 1473, and archbishop ef
Milan in 1484, He resigned his archbishop-*
ric in faveur ef his brother Guido Antonio,
in 1488, and died at Rome on the 2nd of
October, 1491. His works are — 1. "Sta-

ARCIMBOLDL

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tuta Plebis Gaudiani, Anno Mcdlxix." 2
" Statuta Ripariae S. JiUii Annis Mcdlxxiii.
et McDLXxxii." 3. " Statuta pro Cleri Re
formatione." 4, " HomiUae et Orationes,"
5. " De Ponderibus, Mensuris et Monetis, Libri
III," None ef these works appear to have
been printed, Ciacconio and Eggs call him
the author of a " Cataloge degli Eretici,"
printed in 1514, It is supposed, however,
that the werk here referred to was one
printed in 1554, and attributed to Giovanni
Angelo, his grandson,
Giovanni Angelo Arcimeoldi, arch
bishop of Milan, an iUegitimate son of Luigi
Arcimboldi, was born at Milan about the
year 1485, In 1508 he was enrolled in the
coUege of neble jurists, and his first employ
ment was at the court of MaximUian, duke
of MUan, whence he proceeded to Rome.
Pope Leo X. in 1514 sent him into Germany
as commissary fer the sade of indulgences in
order to raise funds fer the building of St,
Peter's at Rome ; and in 1516 he proceeded
to Denmark and Sweden on the like mission.
Christian II,, who flattered himseff that Ar
cimboldi might prove useful in reconciling
to his government the discontented Swedes,
granted him for the small sum of 1120 Rhein
gulden, permission to dispose ef his indul
gences. After a residence ef more than a
year in Denmark, during which time he had
levied considerable sums by the sale of his
indulgences, he passed into Sweden, in the
year 1518. He had completely gained the
confidence of Christian, who net only con
fided to him all his secrets relating to Sweden,
but commissioned him as papal ambassador, to
avert by some accommodation the threatened
separation of the two countries. As seen,
however, as he saw, or thought that he saw,
that it would be more to his advantage to adopt
the party of Steen Sture the Yoimger, the Swe
dish administrator, aud Christian's most power
ful enemy, he betrayed the trust reposed in
him, and revealed to Steen Sture all the king's
secrets, and went so far as to confirm the
sentence of deprivation pronounced against
Trolle, archbishop of Upsala, by the Diet
of Sweden, in violation of his duty as
papal nuntio, and contrary to the wUl of the
pope. It is supposed that he was induced to
take this last step by the artful insinuation bf
Sture, that he might himself become arch
bishop of Upsala, and thus stand next in rank
to the king, 'When the king heard of the
treachery of Archnboldi his anger knew no
bounds. He stopped all payments on account
of indulgences, suft'cred neither the messen
gers nor letters of Arcimboldi te leave the
kingdom, threw his brother AntoneUns into
prison, seized about 20,000 ducats that had
been collected by the sale of indulgences, and
every thing belonging to the two brothers, and
pressed Arcimboldi so closely that it was with
the greatest difficulty he saved himself He
arrived in Rome again in the year 1520.
299

Having contrived to regain the favour of the
pope, he was made first bishop of Novara,
about the year 1523, and archbishop of MUan
in 1550, He died on the 6th of April, 1555.
Ne entreaties ef the pope could induce
Christian to consent te an accommodation
with Arcimboldi. His brother Avas held in
confinement untU the year 1522, and resto
ration of the money and goods seized, valued
by the losers at one million ef ducats, was
peremptorily refused. Arcimboldi was the
last papal legate whe levied contributions In
the north by the sale ef indulgences ; and the
injurious consequences resulting from his
mission, added to the disgraceful manner in
which it had terminated, are supposed te have
strengthened the favourable inclination ef King
Christian for the tenets ef the Reformation,
and te have greatly facilitated their entrance
into the north, Arcimbeldi's works are — 1 ,
" Statuta Ripariae S, Julii," 2, " Ordina-
tiones pro Clero et sua Dioecesi," 1550,
fol,, reprinted by Saxius in his life of Ar
cimboldi, 3, " Catalogus Haereticorum," pub
Ushed at Milan in 1554, which was re
published by Vergerius, under the title
" Cataloge deU' Arcimboldo, Arcivescovo di
Milano ev' egli condanna e diffama per
Eretici la maggior Parte de' FigUuoli d'
Iddio, e Membri di Criste, i quali ne' lore
Scritti cercane la Riformazione della Chiesa
Cristiana: di P, Vergerie," 1554, 8 ve. This
work, which is extremely rare, has been
attributed to Antonello, his sen, and Gio
vanni, his grandfather, but erroneously.
Guido Antonio Arcimboldi was born
at MUan in the first half ef the fifteenth
century. In the year 1476 he travelled in
Palestine with the celebrated Glan Giacomo
Trivulzio, He was employed by the dukes
ef Milan en embassies to the Florentine and
Venetian republics, and te the kings of
Naples, Hungary, and Spain. In 1488 he
became archbishop of MUan by the renuncia
tion in his favour ef his brother Giovanni,
the preceding archbishop. He died on the
18th of October, 1497.
Ottaviano Arcimeoldi was bom at
Milan about the year 1471, and enrolled in
the college of noble jurists in 1491. He
enjoyed a great reputation fer learning, and
was a good Hebrew, Greek, and Latin
scholar. About the year 1 503, after filling
several high offices, he was made archbishop
of Milan, but died before he took posses
sion of his see, being then about thlrty-tAio
years ef age, ArgeUati attributes to him
six sonnets, printed amongst those ef the
Accademici 'Trasformatl of Milan, Milan,
1548, Svo. But this must be a mistake, as
the Academy de' Trasfoi-mati of Milan was
net founded until 1546, mere than forty
years after his death. They were most pro
bably the composition of Ottaviano, son of
Giovanni Angelo, who lived towards the
middle of the sixteenth century.

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ARCISZEWSKL

(Argellati, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Medio
lanensium ; Morigi, La Nobilta di Milano,
145—1 52. ; MazzuchelU, Scrittori d'ltalia ;
Saxius, Archiepiscoporum Mediolanensium
Series, in. 944 — 1008, ; Ersch und Gruber,
Allgemeine Encyclopddie, art, " Arcembold ;"
Litta, Famiglie Celebri di Italia ; Affd,
Memorie degli Scrittori Parmigiani, ii, 229
— 241,, iii 7 — 11.; Vagliano, Vite degli
Arcivescovi di Milano, 322 — 329. ; Miinter,
Danske Reformations Historie, 1 Deel. ; Pon-
toppidan. Reformations Geschichte der Ddnis-
chen Kirche, 102, &c.) J. W. J,
ARCIMBO'LDI, GIUSEPPE, an Italian
painter, born at Milan in 1533. He lived at
Prague in the service of the Emperors Ferdi
nand I., MaximUian IL, and Rudolf II, He
excelled in portrait painting, and was dis
tinguished for his capricious invention. He
painted pictures of the four seasons, which at
a distance appeared to be human flgures, but
upon a nearer approach. Spring was found to
be a group of flewers ; Summer, a group of
pulse and grain in the ear ; Autumn was
composed of fruit ; and Winter was a tree :
they have been engraved. He made many
other figures in a simUar style, as a cook
composed ef kitchen utensUs, &c. He died
at Prague in 1593. (Lomazzo, Idea del
Templo della Pittura ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica
della Italia.) R. N. W.
ARCIO'NI, DANIE'LE, an old gold
smith and clever niello worker ef Milan, ef
the fifteenth century : he is praised by Am
brogio Leone {De Nobilitate Rerum, c. 41.);
and noticed in the " Notizia d' Opere di di
segno, &c." ef Morelli, but is scarcely known
in the history of art. Duchesne {Essai sur
les Nielles) notices an arabesque design in
nieUo of a knffe-handle, marked with the
initial letters D. A., which he supposes te
have been made by Daniele Arcieni. (Lanzi,
Storia Pittorica, §-c. ; BruUiot, Dictionnaire
des Monogrammes, Sfc.) R. N. W.
ARCIS, MARC, a French sculptor of
Toulouse. He studied drawing under J. P.
Rivalz ; and in 1684 was made member of
the Royal Academy ef Paris. There are
works by him in the church of the Sorbonne,
and in the garden of Versailles. (Fiissli,
AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexicon.) R. N. W.
ARCISZEWSKI, (or as the name is in
correctly written by foreign writers, ARTIS-
JOSKY), CHRISTOPHER, a Polish noble,
was bom towards the end of the sixteenth
century. In that part ef Poland which now
constitutes the grand duchy of Posen in
Prussia. He was the son of Elias Arcis-
zewski, the owner of the town of Schmiegel,
and paster of a Socinian congregation in the
same place. He was educated at the cele
brated Socinian school of Raceu, and served
fer some time in the Polish army. He left Po
land, chiefly as it seems on account of seme
acts ef violence in which he was implicated
in consequence of a quarrel with the Roman
300

Catholic clergy. He entered the French ser
vice, and assisted at the siege of La RocheUe
in 1628-29. The Dutch West Indian Com
pany, formed in 1623, undertook the same year
an expedition against Brazik The success
of that expedition induced the Dutch to pur
sue the conquest of Brazil, and they sought
for that purpose to enUst officers of talent
and experience. The celebrated Polish
Socinian writer Wissevatius travelling in
Holland in 1629 — 1630 met wUh Arcis-
zewski, who was making preparations for
his expedition to BrazU. He tried in vain
te persuade Wissevatius te accompany him
on his voyage, representing to him that
he would have in America a fine field for
missionary labours. Wissevatius says that
Arciszewski had conformed in HoUand to
the Reformed church, but with reservations
which strongly savoured of his former creed.
Arciszewski arrived in Brazil in 1631
with the rank ef captain, and commanded,
besides his OAvn company, two others, the
whole forming a division of the force sent
en that occasion under General Pater. He
was employed in many arduous affairs, was
promoted in 1632 te the rank of major, and
returned to HoUand in order to raise new
troops and to have a consultation with the
directors of the company. His services ap
pear to have been greatly approved by the
company, fer he returned te BrazU in 1634
with a new force, the rank of colonel, and
a commission for dividing the authority with
Colonel Schuppe, who commanded the whole
ef the Dutch forces in that country. This
arrangement, destroying the tmity of the
service, threatened to produce disunion be
tween the two commanders, and to become
highly injurious te the service of the com
pany. Yet, as the Dutch historian Van Laet,
himseff a director of the company, observes,
Arciszewski acted on that occasion so ho
nestly that this apparently inevitable mis
chief was avoided. Although he had a
positive premise that he should receive orders
immediately from the delegates of the com
pany, and net from any military officer, he
voluntarily placed himself under the com
mand ef Colonel Schuppe, with whom he
acted in uninterrupted harmony against the
enemy, and with great success. 'They took the
fortress ef Parayba, te which Arciszewski
particiUarly contributed by his courage and
mUitary skill. Arciszewski was continuaUy
engaged in the interior of the counti-y, where
he firmly maintained the authority of the
Dutch by defeating the enemy and concili
ating the inhabitants, particularly the Indian
tribes, many of whom he converted into useful
alUes. One ef his most brUUant feats was
the capture ef the fortress of El Real de
Pernambuco in 1635. This place, situated
en a mountain near the river Affogados, was
ef the greatest importance for the security
of the country held by the Dutch, as it fa-

ARCISZEWSKL

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cilitated the incursions of the Spaniards
into that country. Arciszewski besieged this
place with a force not exceeding its garrison
in number. He erected several forts round
it, of which two were only at the distance of
a pistol shot, and opened from them a violent
fire on the fortress. The besieged defended
themselves with great gallantry, making con
tinual sallies, during ene ef which Arciszewski
was wounded in his arm by a musket shot.
This compelled him te keep his bed, whence
he continued te direct the operations of the
siege. The besieged having made a suc
cessful sally, drove the Dutch with great
slaughter from a redoubt which they were
constructing. Arciszewski en hearing this
jumped out ef his bed, and mounting on
horseback in his shirt, charged the enemy
and, drove them back into the fortress, which,
having received a reinforcement, he soon
afterwards obliged to capitulate. Having
recovered from his wound, he took the for
tress of Nazaret, and defeated in 1636 the
Spanish general Den Luis de Borgia with a
force inferior to that of the enemy. He thus
secured the Brazilian provinces held by the
Dutch from further molestation, and the
company determined to reward these services
by erecting in Brazil a monument to his
honour. Count Maurice of Nassau being appointed
by the company governor-general of Dutch
BrazU, came to take possessien of his com
mand in 1636.' Arciszewski joined him at
the battle of Porto Calve in 1637, where the
Spanish and Portuguese forces, commanded
by Count Bagnuolo, a veteran Italian officer,
were defeated. This victory was followed
by the capture of the fortress ef Parvacaon,
and gave a decided preponderance to the
Dutch over their enemies. The arrival of
the Count of Nassau, under whose orders
Arciszewski was placed, seems to have
wounded his feelings, as he considered him
seff entitled by his services te the supreme
command in Brazil. He had also a numerous
party amongst the directors of the company,
who were ef the same opinion, although it
was no wonder that a foreigner who had no
other claims than his services wais sacrificed
to a relative ef the statheuder. In the same
year, 1637, Arciszewski repaired to Helland,
where he was received with great distinction,
and the company caused a geld medal to
be struck in commemoration of his services.
This medal represents on one side a column,
adorned with trophies, and an escutcheon
bearing the arms of Portugal ; on its top is a
laurel wreath, with the inscription " Vic-
tricem accipe Laurum(.) Hostis Hispan(us)
Profligat(us)." It is the representation of the
trophy which had been erected in his honour
in Brazil. On the reverse the following in
scription : " Here! Generis Nobilitate, Armo-
rum et Litterarum Scientia longe prastan-
tissuno Christoph(oro) ab Artischau Arcls-
301

zewski reb(us) in BrazUia per trienni(um)
pradentis(sime) fortis(stme) felicis(sime)
gestis Societas Americana suae Gratitudinis et
ipsius Fortitudinis ac Fidei hec Monumen-
tum esse voluit. Anno a Chr(isto) nate,
cioiocxxxvii (1637). This medal, whioh is
found in many collections, has been engraved
in the " Histoire MetaUique des Pays Bas, par
Gerard Loon," Hague, 1732, and in the
cabinet of Polish medals, by Count Edward
Raczynski, Breslau, 1838.
In 1639, Arciszewski arrived fer the third
time in Brazil with eight ships and seven
companies of troops. He was also the bearer
ef a commission signed by the States General,
the statheuder, and the directors of the com
pany, by which he was appointed inspector
of the fortresses, ordnance, and all the ap
purtenances of war in Brazil, with particular
instructions to fulfil the duties of his office.
Arciszewski wais received by the Count of
Nassau and the delegates of the company
with the honours due to his office, but its
nature was such, that of necessity it interfered
with the authority of the count, who consi
dered that the real object of Arciszewki's
mission was to watch his proceedings. This
led te perpetual collisions between them, and
created universal discord among the Dutch,
mUitary as weU as civil : many took the part
of Arciszewski, and others that of the count.
At last Arciszewski wrote a letter to the
chief director of the company, complaining
of the vexations with which the count perse
cuted him, te the great injury of the com
pany's service ; and he communicated this
letter to the delegates ef the company in
Brazil, and to the count himself. This caused
a violent sensation, and the count insisted
that either Arciszewski or himself should be
dismissed from the service. The delegates,
after a vain attempt te effect a recenciliation,
dismissed Arciszewski, who immediately em
barked for Holland.
Barlaeus, whose work was written with the
avowed object of eulogising the Count of
Nassau, and was even dedicated to him, says,
after having related this circumstance : " Being
a narrator and net a judge, I de neither
accuse ner excuse Arciszewski. He was bred
to the profession of arms from his boyhood,
and well practised in it by many wars. He
united a knowledge of liberal sciences and
of history with the arts of war, and he had
much applied himself to every thing which
is requisite in a military leader. I must
add to these praises his sobriety : his glory,
which spread over all Brazil, and the favour
which he enjoyed with many." (p. 107.)
Arciszewski was weU received on his
retum to Holland, where public opinien was
divided between him and the Count ef Nas
sau. He received funds te levy new troops,
but the peace with Portugal which foUowed
the separation of that country from Spain in
1640, rendered an increase of military force

ARCISZEWSKL

ARCISZEWSKL

unnecessary to Holland. Arciszewski re
ceived flattering offers from different kings,
but he preferred to serve his own country, not
withstanding the great advantages which he
might have obtained from any of the powers
which were still engaged in the Thirty
Years' War. In a letter addressed from Hol
land to Ladislaus, the fourth king of Poland,
in answer to an invitation which Arciszewski
had received te return to his native land, and
the offer of a high military rank, he said that
he was ready to serve his country without
any regard to the rank which was to be as
signed to him. We do not know either how
long he remained in the Dutch service, or
when he returned te Poland, but he was ap
pointed in the last named country maister of
the ordnance in 1645, and the patent of his
nomination, which hais been preserved, states
that he had been invested with the rank of
an admiral in the Dutch service. The last
years of Ladislaus' reign were spent in peace,
but immediately on his death in 1648,
Arciszewski had an opportunity of display
ing his talents in the service of his own
country. He was at Leepel, the capital ef
the present Galicia, when it was besieged by
Chmielnicki with an immense number of
revolted Cossacks and peasants. The town
was defended by a wall, but it was ef little
use, because the tOAvn lying in a A'alley is
surrounded by heights, whence it may be
easily cannonaded. There were scarcely any
troops in the town ; the inhabitants were se
completely terrified that they did net even
think of defending themselves ; and the
enemy had moreover partisans in the town
who kept up a treasonable communication
with him. Arciszewski succeeded, however,
by great efforts, in inspiring the inhabitants
with so much resolution that they burned the
suburbs and armed fer defence. The traitors
were discovered and executed, and several
attacks ef the enemy were vigorously re
pelled. This induced Chmielnicki te accept
terms, and he retired en the payment ef a
sum ef money. Thus Leepel, whioh was
then perhaps the richest town in Poland, by
the extensive trade which the Armenians,
by whom it is inhabited, carried on Avith the
East, was saved from apparently inevitable
destruction. The same year we find him
among the commissioners sent by the elec
tion's diet to pacify the Cossack rebellion.
In the following year (1649) he accom
panied, as master of the ordnance, the newly
elected king, John Casimir, on his expedi
tion against Chmielnicki, which, however,
ended in the submission of the latter by a
peaceful arrangement.
Arciszewski, who was created Castellan
of Plrzemysl, bent with age and infirmities
contracted by the fatigues of a long warfare
iu various climates, retired from public ser
vice and settled in the tOAvn of Lissa, situated
in his native province. This place contained
302

at that time a celebrated Protestant academy,
and was the residence of several eminent
scholars, as, for instance, Comenius, Dr. John
Jenstene, and many ethers. It was probably
owing te this circumstance, that he fixed
his abode at Lissa, as he had on a former
occasion expressed a wish to devote the
remainder of his life to literary oecnpatiens.
He died there in 1656, and his remains,
which were placed in the vault of the Protes
tant church ef that place, were burned together
with the church in a general conflagration ef
the town, which took place during the war
with Sweden (1656—1660).
Arciszewski left the reputation ef great
disinterestedness, which is sufficiently proved
by the fact, that having commanded for
a considerable time in such a rich country
as Brazil he retumed to his native land
poorer than when he left it. He admits in
one of his letters te have ence levied a con
tribution from the Spaniards, but he adds
that he immediately distributed the money
among his troops.
Arciszewski left a treatise in Latin en
artillery, which was much esteemed in those
times, and translated into Dutch, French, and
German ; and a treatise in the same language
en the gout, te which he appears to have
been greatly subject. (The foUowing works
may be consulted : History of the Annual
Transactions of the West Indian Company,
from its beginning till the year 1636, by John
van Laet, author of many werks, and a Direc
tor ef the above-mentioned Company, Leiden,
1644, in Duteh ; Caspar Barlaeus, Rerum
per Octennium in Brasilia et alibi nuper ges
tarum sub Mauritio Nassovia Comiti, Am
sterdam, 1642 ; Bibliotheca Antitrini-tario-
rum ; Beck, Historia Socinianismi Polon.
Konlgsberg, .... and several Polish his
torians. The Tlieatrum Europceum, a kind
ef annual register, which was published
in German at Frankfort-en-the-^laine, from
the year 1617 — 1718, contains a woodcut
with the likeness ef Arciszewski, and the
plan of the fortress of Parvacaon in BrazU,
drawn by him.
Arciszewski, Elias, brother of the
above, served with distinction in the army of
his own country, and afterAvards in Denmark.
He was finally employed at the court of the
king of Poland, which is evident from the
apology of his (Socinian) creed, which he
published, 1649, where he takes the title of
" regis aulicus."
Arciszewski, Elias, father of the two
preceding, was owner ofthe toAvn of Schmie
gel and pastor ef the congregation ef that
place. He edited and wrote a preface to
the celebrated treatise of Socinus, " De J.
Christo Servatore." Ruarus and Socinus
speak Avitli great respect ef his learning
and piety. (Beck, Historia Socinianismi
Polon.) V. K,
ARCKENHOLTZ, JOHANN, was bom

ARCKENHOLTZ.

ARCKENHOLTZ.

in 1695 in Swedish Finland. About 1730,
he accompanied a Swedish nobleman of the
name of Hildebrand in his travels through
Europe, and, while at Paris, he drew up some
remarks on the relative positions of France
and Sweden, in which he endeavoured te
show that the alliance between the two coun
tries had been prejudicial to the smaUer
state, and threw out seme severe reflections
on the incapacity ef Cardinal Fleury, at that
time prime minister of France. Eight years
afterwards, when holding a situation in the
Swedish chancery at Stockholm, he gave the
manuscript of these observations te a sup
posed friend to read ; the friend communicated
them te Count GyUenborg, then the leader
of the Hat or French party in the states, new
better remembered as a peet and fabulist,
GyUenborg sent them to the French ambas
sador. Count Casteja, and the ambassador
sent them te his court, on which, much to
the surprise ef the Swedish ministry, Cardi
nal Fleury demanded satisfaction. It was
found in vain te represent that the remarks
had never been pubUshed, and that they were
not so bitter as many that had been, even in
France itseff. The cardinal still insisted
on redress, and a secret committee of the
states which was appointed to consider the
matter, finally referred the decision to the
king, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, who in a
decree on the subject, dated the 28th of
August, 1738, which bears marks of his re
luctance, sentenced Arckenholtz to be dis
missed from his office and to make a written
apology to Fleury. The cardinal returned
the letter of apology unopened, and expressed
his surprise at the lenity of the laws of Swe
den. Arckenholtz had hitherto lived in ob
scurity : this persecution naturally raised a
high opinion of his merits ; fer the next few
years he traveUed, and in 1746, Frederick,
who, as king of Sweden, had sanctioned his
punishment, appointed him, as elector of
Hesse-Cassel, to the post of librarian in
Cassel, in the place of KUohelbecker. He
held this situation for twenty years and re
turned in 1766 to Stockholm with the ap
pointment of historiographer and a pension
from the states of twelve hundred dollars on
condition of writing the life of his patron
King Frederick. This, hoAvever, he never
carried into effect, his attention being ab
sorbed in the latter part of his life by the
affairs of the invisible world, in the study of
Avhich he emulated his countryman Sweden-
berg. He died on the 14th of July 1777, in
the eighty-second year of his age.
'The principal works of Arckenholtz are —
1. The " Considerations on France and Us
Relations to Sweden," already mentioned.
By the terms ef his sentence it was to be
rigidly suppressed, but a French translation
of it Avas printed in Biisching's " Magazin
fiir die neue Historie und Geographie " (vol.
viii. p. 295.), 'The observations are written
303

with considerable liveliness ; that portion of
them which relates to Cardinal Fleury, the
writer professes te have taken from what he
heard in common conversation in France.
2. " Memoires concernant Christine Reine
de Sufide," four large volumes quarto, Am
sterdam, 1750, 1759, 1760. In the list of
subscribers we find the names of Lord
GranviUe, of Lord Chesterfield, and of
Horace 'Walpole. Considered as a biography
it is full of faults ; as a collection of materials
it is almost unrivalled for completeness.
Every subsequent historian of Christina has
made use of it as his chief storehouse of
facts. D'Alembert, Lacombe, and Catteau-
CallevIUe have been very severe en the com
piler, while Schriickh and Grauert have spoken
of him with gratitude. It appears, however,
even from the admissions of Grauert that the
work is destitute ef method, that several por
tions of it are copied without acknowledge
ment from Chanut and Puffenderf, that
Arckenholtz's quotations are frequently in
correct, and that he is often led into absurdi
ties by his wish to justify every action of
Christina's life. A portion of her writings
given at the end of the second volume was
translated into English under the title ef " The
Works of Christina, Queen ef Sweden," Lon
don, 1753, 12mo. The whole memoirs were
translated into German, mostly under the in
spection of the author, at Cassel. Arcken
holtz, who found himself aissalled by Voltaire,
D'Alembert, and the Danish historian and
dram-atist Helberg as a heavy pedant who
destroyed all the interest ef his subject,
replied in a " Repense a la Lettre de M. le
Baron de Holberg," Cassel, 1753, Svo, ; and
a "Lettre a M, G[esner] a Teccasien des
Reflexions sur Christine par M. d'Alembert,"
Cassel, 1754, Svo, According to Warmholtz
he had the advantage in the controversy.
He thought it best, however, to entrust the
materials he had collected for the history of
Gustavus Adolphus to the editorship of Mau-
villon, who compiled from them an " His
toire de Gustave Adolphe," which was printed
at Amsterdam in one volume 4to., in 1764,
and translated into German, in two volumes
octavo, at Breslau, 177.5 — 1776. Arckenholtz
himseff published at Stockholm in French a
" RecueU des Sentlmens et des Propos de
Gustave Adolphe," 1769, 12mo, The re
mainder of his writings are a sketch in
French of an historical eulogium of Frederick
of Hesse-Cassel, attached te Rechemont's
funeral oration on that prince, Cassel, 1752 ;
a short work on the same subject in German,
also at Cassel, 1752 ; an " Attempt at a
pragmatical History of Conventions and
Treaties of a Free State with neighbouring
Powers," in German, Cassel, 1753, Svo. ; some
" Letters to the Authors of the Journal En
cyclopedique on the Lapps and Finns," in
French, Frankfort, 1756, 8ve. " Extract of
a Letter from Hamburg respecting a Note

, ARCKENHOLTZ.
inserted in the Journal Encyclopedique," in
French, 1756, Svo. ; and " Some Account of
the Person and Life of Von Rusdorf," an
envoy from the Palatine te England in the
Thirty Years' War, in German, Frankfort,
1762, Svo. (Adelung, Supplement to J'ocher,
Allgem- Gelehrten-Lexicon, i. 1027 -; Biisching,
Magazin fiir die neue Historie, SfC-, viii 295.,
xiii 219., XV. 151.; Grauert, Christina und ihr
Hof- Vorrede, x. ; Warmholtz, Bibliotheca
Sueo-Gothica, viii 210. ; Arckenholtz, Mi
moires concernant Christine-) T- W
ARCO, ALONZO DEL, called SordUlo
de Pereda, because he was deaf and the scho
lar of Den Antonie de Pereda. He was bom
at Madrid in 1625. The pictures bearing
his name are very numerous and many of
them very bad, chiefly owing te the cupidity
of his wife, who allowed Arce te do very
little to them, compelling him to entrust their
execution almost entirely to scholars and assis
tants. Many of his works are well coloured,
but they are nearly all badly drawn ; he
had, however, great facUity ef execution. He
painted many portraits ; and was also much
employed as a. decorative painter, upon occa
sions of triumphal entries, funerals, canonisa
tions, &c. There are many works by him
in Madrid, at the Prado, at Alcala de He
nares, Pareja, Ballecas, A'vila, and at 'Toledo.
He died at Madrid in great poverty in 1 700 :
his wife was supported by the generosity of
the Marquis de Santiago ; his two daughters
took the veil. (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario
Historico, §-c.) R. N. W.
ARCO, GIAMBATISTA GHERARDO
D', born in 1739 at Arce, in the Italian
Tyrol, of the family ef the Counts of Arce,
studied first at Mantua, where his father was
residing, and afterwards at Parma, where he
became acquainted with Condillac, and lastly
he went te finish his education at Verona,
where he had for preceptors TorelU and
Pempei He applied himself chiefly to the
study of moral and political philosophy.
Having married a lady ef the noble house of
Canossa of Verona, he flxed his residence al
Mantua, where he became a member ef the
new Academy of Sciences, Literature, and the
Arts, which was founded in that city under
the auspices ef the Empress Maria Theresa.
In 1771 the academy proposed a question
conceming " the equilibrium which it is de
sirable te maintain between the population
and industry ef the tOAvn and the population
and industry of its rural territory, in order
to provide for their respective Avants and their
reciprocal benefit." D'Arco wrote in reply
a dissertation, entitled " DelT Armenia peli-
tico-econemica tra la Cltti e il suo Terri-
torio." Among other suggestions the author
recommended the abolition of the fidei-
commlssa and of the law of primogeni
ture. This dissertation obtained the prize,
and was greatly approved. D'Arco received
congratulatory letters from Ferdinand, duke of
304

ARCO.
Parma and Frederic IL of Prussia. He after
wards wrote several other dissertations on
questions of political economy proposed by
various academies, in which he advocated
liberal principles, and especiaUy the principle
of free trade, which, he maintained, if adopted
by all countries, would prove beneficial to all
of them. He extended the same principle to
the com trade, admitting, however, the ex
pediency of temporary restrictions which
may be required by pecuUar circumstances.
He strongly supported the right of transit
or free passage of goods from one country
to another through the territories of the in
tervening countries. The titles of D'Arco's
dissertations are as follows : — 1. " Del Di-
ritto ai Transiti." 2. "DeU' Influenza del
Commercio sopra i Talenti e s^ i Cestumi."
3. " DelT Influenza dello Spirito di Com
mercio sulT Econemia Interna dei PepoU e
sulla Prosperita degU Stati." 4. " DeU' An-
nona." 5. " DeU' Influenza del Ghetto nello
State." Ghetto is the name used in Italy to
designate the particular district of a city in
which the Jews were, and are stUl in some
instances, obliged to reside together under
particular and vexatious restrictions.
D'Arco wrote also the foUowing treatises
and memoirs : — 1. " Del Fondamente del
Diritto di punire " (" On the Grotmds of the
Right of Punishing, assumed by Society ").
2. " De' Fendamenti e Limiti della Paterna
Autorita (" On the Foundations and the
Limits of the Paternal Authority "). 3.
" Serdello," a memoir en the Mantuan trou
badour mentioned by Dante." 4. " Elogio
di Carlo Conte di Firmian." Count Firmian
was the enlightened governor of Lombardy
under the reigns of Maria Theresa and
Joseph IL 5. "Elogio di Carlo Ottavio
Conte di Celloredo." Count Celleredo was
a great promoter ef learning and the founder
of the Academy ef Mantua, 6. " Elogio di
Francesco Zannotti" Zannotti was a dis
tinguished philologist and natural philosopher
ofthe eighteenth century, and was secretary
and afterwards president ef the Institute of
Sciences of Bologna. 7. " Della Forza Ce-
mica " (" On Comic Power "). S. " DeUa
Patria primitiva delT Arti del Disegno," in
which D'Arco supports his opinion, paradox
ical adthough it may seem, that the fine arts
originated in Italy, and from thence passed
into Greece, the reverse of which appears to
be the historical fact. All D'Arco's disser
tations and memoirs were collected and pub
lished at Cremona in four vols. 4to. 1785,
including a dissertation by Dr, Scottoni of
Mantua on the question whether, in a coun
try with a fertile soil, manufactures ought to
be encouraged in preference te the produc
tions of agriculture.
The Emperor Joseph II. appointed D'Arco
political intendant or governor ef the duchy
of Mantua, In this capacity he displayed
firmness, integrity, and benevolence. He

ARCO.

ARCO.

caused poor orphan chUdren to be instructed
In agriciUture ; he supported a number of
destitute artisans during the dearth of the
Avinter of 1782, and he drained, at his own
expence, the marshes near Geite, and thus
restored salubrity to that district. III health
induced him after seme years to tender his
resignation, which being accepted, he with
drew to a country house at Geite, near Man
tua, where he died in August, 1791, He
bequeathed his collection of sculptures to the
museum ef Mantua, (Tipaldo, Biografia
degli Italiani illustri del Secolo XVIII- ; Pec-
chio, Storia delV Economia Pubblica in Italia-) A. V.
ARCO, NICCOLO' D', bora on the 3d of
December, 1 479, was the second son ef Oderic,
count of Arce in the Tyrol, which was at the
time of Niccelo's birth within the dominions
of the Venetian republic. He spent his
earliest years at the court of the Emperor
Frederic III. as a page, and left it only to
adopt the profession of arms, which, after one
campaign in Gueldres under the Count of
Furstenberg, he embraced the opportunity of
abandoning afforded by the death ef his
elder brother ; but in 1526 he took arms to
defend the Cardmal Bernardo Clesio, bishop
of Trent, from an insurrection of the vassals
of the see. The rest ef his lffe was spent at
the emperor's court, or in baroniad leisure in
his fief of Arce, er in literary leisure in dif
ferent Italian cities, Pavia and Bologna among
others, where he lived iu friendship with
gome of the most distinguished writers of his
time, Paolo Giovie, Annibal Caro, Andrea
Alciati, Molza, Fracastoro, Flaminio, and
Cardinal Adriano. In 1542 he was accused
by his cousin. Count Giulio d'Arco, of some
heavy crime, probably of disaffection te the
Emperor Charles V,, and was for a time dis
possessed of his fief, which he appears to
have finally recovered by the intercession ef
Ferdinand, king of the Romans, afterAvards
emperor. He died in 1546, a date the cor
rectness of which was doubted by Mazzu
cheUi, but has since been fully estabUshed by
BettL The Count of Arce was master of many
languages, Latin, Italian, French, German,
Greek, and Spanish, and is said to have been
able te speak the modern ones with the ease
of a native. His compositions, with the ex
ception of a few short pieces in Italian,
are all in Latin verse. They were first pub
lished at Mantua in 1546, a few months
before the author's death, by Giovanni Fruti-
ceno, under the title of " Nicolai Archil
Comitis Numeri." In an introductory letter
which is addressed to Scipio, one of the six
sens of the count, Fraticeno apologises for
publishing the poems without the consent of
the author, by saying that he thought so
highly of them when on a, visit te the count
he heard them read to console the author
during a fit of the gout, that he could net
VOL, III.

bear to think they should share the Same
fate as some of his ether productions, which
had been destroyed during the troubles
caused by the accusation of Count Giulio.
Some of the poems were reprinted by the
brothers Volpi in their edition ef the poems
of Fracastoro, published at Padua in 8ve.
in 1718 ; and nearly the whole of the edition
ef 1546 was included, with but a few ex
ceptions, in an edition of the poems ef Fra
castoro, Fumano, and Arce by the same
editors, in two volumes 4to. at Padua, in
1739. In 1762 Zaccaria Betti pubUshed the
fullest edition of them that has yet appeared,
under the title of " Numerorum Libri IV,",
the first three books of which correspond
with these ofthe Volpi edition of 1739, which
contain three books only, and the fourth con
sists of some poems which had been inserted
in the edition of 1546, but were emitted by
the Volpis, and of ethers which had hitherto
remained entirely in manuscript. Betti did
not admit into his edition seme poems of
that of 1546, which he considered too free
fer publication, and he left some others in
manuscript for the same reason.
The poems of Arco are among the best
that any modem writer has preduced in an
ancient language. This will readily be ad
mitted by those who have perused his " Naenia
de Morte Matris," a poem which may well
sustain a comparison with Cowper's lines on
the receipt of his mother's picture. Between
these two pieces there is a striking resem
blance, Arco, after mentioning that he writes
at the distance of nineteen years from his
mother's death, and that at the time of the
event he was only three years of age,
" Ilia tempestate mese nutricis alebar
Complexu in moUi, me tertia viderat EBstas
Vix bene 6rmantem gressum,"
alludes to the funeral,
" Vidi ego cum tristi procederet ordine pompa," &c,
Cowper follows the same Une of thought :
" I heard the bell toll'd on thy burial day ;
I saw the hearse that bore thee slow away," &c.
Arco relates the efforts of his nurse to quiet
his grief :
¦' — Taceas, melUte puer, puer optime, dixit,
Mater enim spirat, mors illi steva pepercit ;
Rus abiit, dixitque mihi, Cito Iseta redibo."
This is surely a finer paissage than that of
Cowper :
" Thy maidens, grieved themselves at my concern,
Oft gave me promise of thy quick return."
But the English poet has, perhaps, the supe
riority in the description of maternal cares :
" Thy nightly visits to my chamber made
That thou mightst know me safe and warmly laid.
Thy morning bounties ere I left my home," &c. ;
for which we have in Arco
" Nam mihi fingebas hisus, et grata canebas
Ad cunas, blandum invitabas voce soporem," &c
X

ARCO.
concluding with a line which shows that
children's coral was knoAvn in the Tyrol in
the fifteenth century, —
" Nectebasque meo ramosa coralia collo."
Cowper was se fend of modem Latin
poetry that it is net improbable he may have
seen that of Arco. One piece by that peet
was inserted in the collection of the " Selecta
Poemata Italorum," published in London in
1684, and afterwards re-published under the
superintendence of Pope in 1740, but it was
not the " Naenia," which is also omitted in the
more ample selection given by Gruter. (Maz
zucheUi, Scrittori d' Italia ; Notes by Betti
to MazzuchelU's lffe, reprinted as a prefix
to Archil Numerorum Libri IV. ; CoAvper's
Works, Southey's edUion, x. 65-68.) T. W.
AR9ON, JEA.N CLAUDE E'LE'O-
NORE LEMICHAUD D', a celebrated
French engineer, was born at Pontarlier in
Franche-Comte in 1733. His father, a skU
ful lawyer and author ef several pamphlets
relating to the legal privileges and customs
of the province, destined him for the church ;
but, perceiving that the youth had a decided
inclination for a military life, he gave up the
original intention and encouraged him te
apply te the study of works relating te forti-
cation and the art ef war. At twenty-one
years of age, D'Ar9on was sent te the mUi
tary school at Mezieres, where he was early
noticed fer the rapidity of his progress ; and
after having been one year in the institution,
he was admitted in the corps of military
engineers. On the completion of the pre
scribed course of study, he wais sent to Ger
many, where he served during the Seven
Years' War, and where he had several oppor
tunities of distinguishing himself, particularly
during the defence ef Cassel in 1761 aud
1762, when that city was the head-quarters
of the French army. In 1774 he was ap
pointed to make a military survey ef the
chains of the Vosges and the Jura, which he
executed to the satisfaction of the govern
ment ; and he is said to have employed, in
shading the plans of the ground, a method
possessing several advantages ever that
which had been before in use.
In that age there existed a contrariety of
opinion respecting the most advantageous
method of disposing troops in order of
battle : the great destruction caused by the
fire of artillery when directed against dense
masses ef men had graduaUy led to a dimi
nution ef the number of ranks in the line ;
but as late as the time of Folard, the batta
lions were still drawn up five deep, and that
writer in his " Commentaries " advocated a
return to the ancient practice, proposing to
increase the depth of the files to eight men,
and occasionally to triple that number. This
idea was adopted by M. De Menil Durand,
who, in his " Traite des Plesions " (1755),
endeavoured to prove that columns so formed
306

AR9ON.
would be invincible, adding, that they would
infallibly break the line of an enemy less
densely arrayed, and thus obtain a decisive
victory. The systems of these officers were
sanctioned by the authority of the Marechal
de Broglle ; but they were strongly opposed
by M. Guibert in his " Defense du Systeme
de Guerre Moderne," en the ground of the
confusion which would arise among troops
in column when under the fire of the enemy,
and the impossibility, in such a disposition,
of adequately returning a fire of musketry.
Though the arguments of M. Guibert in
favour of a slender array in the formation
of the line of battle, were supported by the
practice of Frederick the Great, the question
continued for several years to be agitated
among mUitary men, and D' Argon took a
part in the controversy en the side of the
disciples of Folard. In 1774 and 1770, he
published two pamphlets entitled " Corre-
spondance sur TArt MUitaire ; " and, at Am
sterdam, in 1779, his " Defense d'un Systeme
de Guerre Nationale," in which he repUes te
the observations of Guibert in the work
above mentioned. It deserves to be remarked
that, iu those days, battles were more fre
quently than at present decided by charges
of infantry, and that the attack in columns
gained fer the French armies many victories
during the wars of the revolutien.
But the circumstance by which M. d'Arjon
is chiefly distinguished is his proposal in
1782, for constructing a number of floating
batteries for the attack of Gibraltar on the
sea-side. The project having received the
approbation of the King of Spain, D'Arjon
was appointed, with the rank of general, to
direct the operations in all that related to the
formation and employment of the batteries ;
and he arrived before the fortress with the
Due de CriUon, when the latter assumed the
command of the tmited French and Spanish
land forces.
The batteries were commenced at Alge-
siras about the 12th of May, 1782, by striking
the topmasts and cutting down the poops of
ten ships of war, from 600 to 1400 tons
burthen : the larboard side ef each was
entirely covered with green timber to a
thickness of six or seven feet, the pieces
being fastened with iron bolts, and the whole
was covered with layers of junk and raw
hides. Over the deck also was built a shell-
proof bUndage, or roof, of strong timbers,
forming two inclined planes with a ridge along
the middle ; and above the lower deck, the
starboard side, or that which wais to be turned
from the fortress, was left open. Portrholes
were formed for guns, the number of which,
in the different batteries, varied from nine
to twenty-one ; and a large reservoir was
formed in each, from whence, by pumps,
water could be thrown over the roof and
sides so as to keep the timber constantly wet
It was imagined that the thick masses of

ARCON.

ARCON.

Airood forming the sides which were exposed
to the fire from the fortress would prevent
the vessels from being sunk, and that the
pumps would secure them against being set
on fire. The ten battering ships were te
have been moored within half gun-shot of
the walls by iron chains, and to have been
supported by ten Spanish ships of the line,
besides bomb-vessels and gun-boats. Large
boats fiUed with troops protected by mantelets
were to be in readiness ; and the mantelets
being provided with hinges were te be let
down, when the boats approached the shore,
in order to facilitate the landing of the men.
The combined fleets of France and Spain,
consisting of forty-seven sail of the line, be
sides frigates, gun-boats, and the ten batter
ing ships, came before the fortress on the
12th of September ; and on the following
morning the latter get imder weigh in order
to proceed to their stations, D'Arjon himseff
keeping a-head in a smaU boat and taking
the soundings. The garrison of the fortress,
which during the siege was commanded by
General Elliot, in the mean time, lighted the
furnaces which had been prepared for heating
shot. The two greatest ships anchored about
nine hundred yards from the ramparts ; but
from insufficiency of sail or want of skill in
the commanders, the eight others remained at
a greater distance. As soon as the ships were
moored, the firing commenced on beth sides,
the garrison discharging red-hot shot, car
casses, and sheUs. For several hours, hew-
ever, very little effect seemed to be produced
on the floating batteries, the heaviest shells
often rebounding from the roofs ; and thii-ty-
two-peunder shot made no visible impression
on the hulls of the vessels ; but, in the after
noon, a red-hot baU lodged in the side of the
Talla Piedra, and could not be extinguished.
An order was then precipitately given to wet
the powder in the magazine, and the guns, in
consequence, ceasing their fire, the ship Avas
no longer covered with smoke, so that it
became completely exposed to the artUlery
of the garrison. D' Argon, who was in the
ship, proposed to send out an anchor for the
purpose of warping her beyond the range of
the English guns, but a sufficient number ef
men could not be obtained te perform the
duty ; he then, about midnight, went te the
admirad's ship te solicit assistance, but he
could obtain none ; and during the night, or
in the following morning, all the ten ships
either blew up or were burned to the water's
edge. In his " Memoires pour servir a
I'Histoire du SiJge de Gibraltar," which he
published at Cadiz in the following year.
General D'Arjon ascribes the disaster to the
jealousy of the Spaniards ; and the fact that
the battering ships were not supported by
the rest of the fleet affords some ground for
the charge. There was, apparently, great
jealousy between the French and Spanish
officers, and considerable mismanagement in
307

the conduct of the attack, but D' Argon was
certainly mistaken in his opinion that the
battering ships were proof agamst the effects
of red-hot balls.
After residing fer some time in Spain,
D' Argon returned to France where, till the
year 1793, he appears to have lived in retire
ment at his estate, and he employed his
leisure in studies relating to the miUtary pro
fession. In 1786 he published at Paris a
pamphlet entitled " Considerations sur I'influ
ence du Genie de Vauban dans la Balance des
Forces de TE'tat ;" and in 1789, at Strassburg,
two small werks, the first of which was desig
nated " Examen detaille de TUtUite des
Places Fortes et Retranehemens," and the
other " De la Force Militaire consideree dans
ses Rapports conservateurs." In the years
1789 and 1790, the regulations respecting the
corps royale du genie being considered such
as tended to diminish the efficiency ef that
corps, memorials suggesting the adoption of
certain measures for its improvement were
addressed to the National Assembly by scA-eral
officers ; and General D'Argon published en
the subject a pamphlet entitled " Reponse
aux Memoires de M. de Montalembert sur
la Fortification perpendiculaire," Paris, 1790.
About the same time also he proposed, in
order to increase the strength of fortresses,
the construction of lunettes (a species of
redoubts) having in their interior casemated
buildings, by the fire from which the werks
might be vigorously defended ; and in 1792
he published a pamphlet on the method of
attacking the outworks of fortresses by a
sudden assault.
Having joined the revolutionary party,
D'Argon was appointed te make a military
survey ef Mount St. Bernard ; but his fidelity
being suspected, the appointment was can
celled and he remained at St. Germain ; where
for a time he lived in retirement. In the
year 1794 the invasion ef Holland being pro
jected, D'Argon commanded in the Nether
lands a division of the French army, with
which he took several places, and among
others Breda after a siege of three days ;
but it does net appear that he was afterwards
employed in the field. In the same year he
wrote a pamphlet on the attack and defence
ef fortresses ; and in 1795, his principal
work, entitled " Considerations Militaires et
Politiques sur les Fortifications," which con
tains a recapitulation of aU that he had pre
viously written on the subject, was published
at the expense of the French government.
He was admitted a member of the Institute,
and also ofthe Conservative Senate, in 1799.
He died at Auteuil, July 1. 1800, in the
sixty-seventh year of his age. (Drinkwater,
Account of the Siege of Gibraltar ; D'Argon,
Mimoires pour servir a VHistoire du Siege de
Gibraltar ; Bioqraphie Universelle,) J. N.
ARCONA'tl, PADRE, bom at Saraano
about 1610, was of the order of Franciscan
X 2

ARCONATL

ARCOS.

friars. He was esteemed a skilful musician,
and wrote a large number of masses, motets,
and other compositions for the service of the
church, which are chiefly to be found in the
monastery ef S. Francesco at Bologna. He
succeeded Guido Montalbani as maestro di
capella of that institution in 1653, and died
in 1657. (Fetis, Biographie Universelle des
Musiciens-) E. T.
ARCOS, DON RODRFGO PONZ DE
LEON, DUKE OF, was born towards the
end of the sixteenth century of an old and
noble Spanish family. He filled several im
portant offices, among others that of captain-
general ef the kingdom ef Valencia, whence
he was removed by King PhUip IV. to the
postof viceroy and captain-general of the king
dom of Naples in 1646, as successor to Den
Juan Enriquez, admiral ef Castile. Enriquez
had resigned because he would not oppress
the Neapolitans with fresh taixes and exac
tions, especiaUy the new house-tax on Naples,
which, being contrary te the old privileges
and usages of that city, was resisted by the
people. The Duke ef Arces, in his govern
ment of Valencia, had acquired a character
for stem determination. He arrived at
Naples in February, 1646, and found the
country iu a very e.xclted state, owing to
the heavy taxes and other burthens, rendered
still mere galling by the vexatious manner
in which they Avere levied, the old system of
general mlsgovernment, the numerous ban
ditti who infested the provinces, and the in
creasing poverty of the population. At the
same time the court ef Spain was urgent in
its demands upon Naples, SicUy, and its other
possessions in Italy, for remittances of money
and suppUes of men and provisions to enable
Spain to carry on its wars against France,
Portugal, and the revolted Catalonlans.
The Duke of Arces, perceiving the diffi
culty ef imposing new taxes, thought it best
te enforce the payment of the large arrears
ef these already existing, and he appointed
a Junta or commission te perambulate the
provinces for that purpose. The Junta per
formed their duty in a harsh manner. To
the innumerable complaints which reached
Naples the viceroy turned a deaf ear. One
of his officials, to Whom it was represented
that in many places it was impossible to
collect money, that the poor country people
had not even a bed to Ue upon, is said te
have replied that " they had at least
wives and daughters, by whose means
they might raise the money," — an ej^-
pression which, whether true or not, went
round the coimtry, and added to the general
exasperation. In the mean time Cardinal
Mazarin, whe governed France during the
minority of Louis XIV., and whe Avas watch
ing every opportunity for humbling the power
of Spain, prepared an expedition agamst its
ItaUan possessions. A French fleet sailed
from Toulon in May, 1646, Avith troops under
308

the command of Prince Thomas of Savoy,
and attacked the Spanish garrisons on that
strip of land caUed " State dei Presidj," on
the coast of Tuscany, which was a dependency
of the A-iceroyalty of Naples. The French
took Talamone and Santo Stefano, at the
foot of Mount Argentaro, and laid siege to
Orbetello, the chief town of the district.
The Duke ef Arces sent reinforcements,
partly by sea and partly by land through the
Papal territory, and a Spanish fleet having
soon after appeared off the coast, the French
in July raised the siege ef Orbetello, and re
turned te France. In the following Septem
ber, however, the French fleet sailed again
out of Toulon, and easUy took Piombino, the
chief tOAvn of a principality belonging to the
family of Ludovisi, under the protection of
Spain. The French then laid siege te Porto
Longone, a strong fortress in the island ef
Elba, which was part ef the same principaUty,
but was garrisoned by Spanish troops. After
a brave resistance, Longone capitulated at
the end of October, and the French, having
thus obtained a settlement on the ItaUan
coast, sent a squadron te cruise off the coast
of Naples, and even into the Bay, to insult
and threaten the capital. They reckoned
probably on some demonstration in their
faveur from the remains of the old Angevin
party among the barons, in which they were
disappointed, fer the general feeling was not
favourable to the French. The Duke of
Arcos exerted himself in repairing and pro
visioning the forts on the coast, and coUected
troops for the defence of the kingdom. The
ships of war that were in the harbour were
hastily manned, and sent out to encounter
the French, when the Spanish admiral-ship
took fire and blew up with the loss ef four
hundred men. The French squadron, after
capturing some smaU craft, almost within
cannon shot of the forts of Naples, sailed out
of the Bay. The viceroy, being hard pressed
for money to provide for the defence ef the
kingdom, assembled the " Piazze " or " Seggi "
ef the city of Naples, which were meetings of
the representatives of the town, convoked in
their various districts, five ef the Piazze con
sisting of deputies of the nobility and ene of
the deputies of the people. These bodies,
which had in some measure succeeded te the
old parliaments, had the power of granting
extraordinary suppUes to the crown, which
Avere called " donativi " or gifts. On this
occasion the Piazze voted ene miUion of
ducats ; and te raise this sum it was resolved
te lay a duty on the fruit and vegetables
brought into the market, the principal food
of the Neapolitans. The edict announcing
the new duty was published in January, 1647.
The experiment had been tried forty years
before, under the viceregal administration of
the Count of Benavente, v;hen it occasioned
a popular outbreak, and the duty had been
soon after repealed. The people began to

ARCOS.

ARCOS.

cry out against the new tax, and as the
summer drew near, their discontent was
StiU more apparent. The duke again
assembled the Piazze to deliberate about
abolishing the obnoxious duty, and providing
for the exigences of the state. WhUe they
were deliberating the insurrection broke out.
The revolution of Naples of 1647—1648,
which is commonly associated with the name
of Masaniello, consists of three distinct phases
or periods. The first was a popular outbreak
against the excise duties, which lasted a few
days, during which MasanieUo figured as
the leader. Then came a hollow truce, fol
lowed by a second revolt against the vice
regal government, which lasted seme months.
The last period was that in which the Nea-
poUtan insurgents renounced their allegiance
to the Spanish king, proclaimed a republic,
and chose first Gennaro Annese and after
wards the Duke ef Guise for their leaders.
One. of the first instigators of the insurrec
tion was a certain Giulio Genoine, who was
aissisted by two others, Domenico Perrone
and Giuseppe Palombo. These three men
employed a Carmelite monk called Fra
Savino to diffuse their principles among the
lowest class. Era Savino met with a young
fisherman called Tommaso AnieUo, or vul
garly MasanieUo, a comely youth of great
natural abilities, who was very popular among
these of his own caUing, and who bore a
grudge to the excise-officers for having
roughly used amd imprisoned his wffe because
she had been detected in smuggling some
flour into the town. The friar gave AnieUo
twenty carlins to distribute among his friends
to provide themselves with canes fer a cus
tomary mock flght which used te take place
about the middle ef July. Before the ap
pointed day an affray broke out m the great
market-place on the 7th of July between
some sellers ef green figs and ether fruit and
the excise-officers. As the tumult rose high,
the Elect of the people, Andrea Nauclerie,
ran to the spot to restore order, but in vain ;
and one of the countrymen in a rage upset a
basket of figs and began trampling on them,
exclaiming that he would rather destroy his
property than pay the abhorred duty. A
parcel of lads, Masanlello's friends, crowded
round to pick up the figs, and being driven
away by the birri or policemen, they began
to use their canes, and to pick up stones,
with which they assailed the birri, and the
Elect of the people was glad to escape and
ran te the viceroy's palace. The people in
the market-place took the part of the lads,
and cried out that they Aveuld net pay the
gabella or duty. At this moment Masaniello
stood forth and cried out, " Away Avith the
gabella 1 I will settle this business! Come
along with me ! " The mob then shouted, " No
moregabeUa! Masaniello forever! Long live
the king ! " The police Avere driven away,
the toll-house was destroyed, and the mob, fol-
809

lowing MasanieUo, proceeded to the viceroy's
palace to demand the abolition of the duty.
The Duke of Arcos seeing the vast multitude
became alarmed, and after giving them some
sort of half promise made his escape into the
castle. Masaniello now became the ruler of
Naples. He obliged the viceroy to come to
terms, to abolish many duties, and to ac
knowledge him as captain ef the people.
[Masaniello.] On the 16th ef the same
month Masaniello was murdered by some of
his own party, directed by the traitor Genoine,
who wished to make his peace with the vice
roy ; but it appears that the viceroy was not
privy to the assassination. The leader being
thus out of the way, the Duke of Arcos rode
through the streets and was saluted with ac
clamations by the fickle people. The terms
which he had made with MasanieUo re
mained in force, all the duties on previsions
were given up, and the people continued
under arms. But having once obtained re
dress of what appeared te be real grievances,
the people went on increasing in their de
mands. Bread new rose in price, and this
gave rise te loud complaints. The silk-
weavers went in a body to the viceroy's
palace, to demand that no silk should be
woven outside of the town. A number of
women threatened to set fire to the Monte di
Pieta, because the governors of that institu
tion had ceased to advance money on pledges
during the anarchy. The students ef the
university demanded that the customary fees
on obtaining degrees should be abolished.
Even the beggars, whe, by an eld bequest of
Queen Joanna, were in the habit of receiving
certain sums of money and other assistance
en certain days at the gate of the convent of
S. Martino, new objected to the distance, amd
requested that the customary distributions
should be transferred te a place within the
town. As the monks would not comply, the
beggars, armed with sticks, spits, and pikes,
went te aissault the convent, but finding the
monks prepared for defence they scampered
back down the hiU te their oavu haunts.
The viceroy endeavoured to humour the
various deputations that waited upon him
with continually increasing demands. He
referred the petition of the silk-weavers to
the civil court , but the weavers objected to
the president Fabrizio Cinnaimo, because his
house having been burned by the people
during Masanlello's insurrection, they con
sidered him ais likely to be biassed against the
popular cause. Genoino, whom the viceroy
had appointed to a judicial office as a reward
of his secret services, had adso become the
object ef the popular hatred. On the 21st of
August a body of insurgents went to the
court of justice at La Vicaria with the inten
tion of seizing Cinnamo and Genoine, but
finding them gone, they ran to the viceregal
palace to demand their persons. Being dis
appointed they began hostiUtles, and formed
X 3

ARCOS.

ARCOS.

a Une of posts te blockade the palace and the
adjoining castle, in which the viceroy was again
obliged te seek shelter. Murders were com
mitted in the streets, and houses were plun
dered and burned. The unfortunate Cinnamo
having fallen into the hands of the insurgents
was put to a cruel death. The leaders of the
people perceiving the necessity of some sort
of discipline, offered the supreme command
to General Don Francesco Toraldo, prince
of Massa, who was obliged te accept the
perilous office, as his wife was detained as a
hostage by the people. He appo'mted Onofrio
di Sio, an old officer, for his lieutenant, and
these two men endeavoured te manage mat
ters so as to bring about a recenciliation
between the contending parties. The castle
of Sant' Elme beiug in want of ammunition,
they contrived te introduce secretly into it a
supply ef gunpowder. They then intimated
to the popular leaders how difficult it would
be for them te take the castles, and afterwards
to resist the whole power of Spain. The in
surgents had not yet renounced allegiance to
King Philip, but professed to have risen only
against the viceroy. A popular parliament
er assembly of delegates being convened in
the church of St. Augustine, it was agreed to
lay before the viceroy, through the mediation
of Cardinal Filomarino, fifty-eight demands
on the part of the people, which Avere con
ceded by the Duke of Arces upon his oath,
on the 7th of September, in the church of
Santa Barbara, before the Cardinal, General
Toraldo, the Elect Arpaja, and other officers
of the people. The only demand which the
viceroy refused was to give up the castle of
Sant' Elmo te the people.
Peace being again restored, the viceroy
ordered all foreigners to leave the country,
and shipped off for Sardinia Giulio Genoino
and two of his nephews, who could not have
remained in safety at Naples. This man,
the chief promoter of the insurrection, was
Avell received at Cagliari by the Spanish
viceroy of Sardinia ; but after a time, as he
wished te proceed te Spain, he was sent to
Mahon, where he died.
The news of the second insurrection
having reached Madrid, a fleet was hastily
sent from the ports of Spain under Don
Juan ef Austria, the Ulegitimate sen of
Philip IV., whe received full authority to
settle the affairs of Naples, as generalissimo
and plenipotentiary of the king. The fleet
anchored in the Bay of Naples at the be
ginning of October, being saluted by all the
forts, including that of the Carmine, Avhich
remained in the hands of the people. Ge
neral Toraldo, having gone en beard te com
pliment Don Juan in the name of the city,
the generalissimo replied that he should not
land nor held any communication with the
popular delegates, unless the people first laid
down their arms. The Prince ef Massa
exerted himself to persuade the people to
310

consent to this condition, but he could only
get their consent to restore the ordnance
belonging to the king. To this both the
viceroy and Don Juan refused to listen, and
they prepared for coercive measures. The
Duke of Arcos contrived to entice a number
of the popular leaders into the Castle Nuove,
under pretence of a conference, and then
arrested them and gave them up to trial be
fore a Junta appointed for the purpose, by
which they were condemned and immediately
hanged, except Arpaja the Elect of the
people, who had been substituted for Nau
clerie, and whe was transported to Oran on
the Barbary coast. On the 4th of October,
three thousand Spanish soldiers landed from
the fleet, and the garrisons marching out of
the Castles at the same time, they drove the
insurgents before them and recovered pos
session of a great part of the town. But the
people made a stubborn resistance in the in
tricate narrow streets and massive buildings
ef the old city, whither the Spanish soldiers
could not penetrate. The higher class ef
citizens were by this time sick of the in
surrection, and the provincial nobility armed
their tenants to scour the country and pre
vent the insurgents receiving provisions.
The people suspecting the Prince of Massa
ef betraying them, which his lieutenamt cer
tainly had done, cut off his head, and sent
his heart to his wife. The last words of the
unfortunate nobleman were, " I die fer my
king." Gennaro Annese, a gunsmith, who
had assumed the command of the Fort del
Carmine, Avas saluted by acclamation cap
tain-general of the people. Soon after, the
royal insignia were puUed down, and the re
public Avas proclaimed. On the 17th of
October, a manffesto was issued in the name
ef the Neapolitan people, exposing the bad
faith of the Spaniards, their infraction of the
conditions sworn te by the A-iceroy, and their
cruelty, and inviting the pope, the emperor,
and all kings and republics, to aiid the
Neapolitans. This manifesto is inserted in
Lunig's collection. A certain Luigi del
Ferro, who had been liberated from prison
by the people, showed a letter from the Mar
quis ef Fontenay, the French ambassaidor at
Rome, which promised support of arms, men,
and money. In the following November, the
Duke ef Guise repaired from Rome to Na
ples, and put himseff at the head of the
insurgents. [Annese, Gennaro.]
Den Juan of Austria, seeing that the in
surrection became more serious and had
spread to the provinces, thought that the re
moval of the Duke of Arcos might be of
seme use. The duke, having assembled the
councU of state, professed himself wiUing to
retire and leave Don Juan at the head ef
the government untU fm-ther orders from
Spain. This being approved of by the
majority of the councU, the duke left Naples
on the 26th of January, 1648, after two

ARCOS.
years of a most unfortunate administration.
He used to say that he haid paid the penalty
of the faults of his predecessors. He re
tumed to Spain in disgrace, and his name
does not appear in history afterwards.
The insurrection lasted till the foUowing
April (1648), when th« Count d'Onate, whe
had been sent from Spain as viceroy, suc
ceeded in taking prisoner the Duke ef Guise,
and, being aissisted by Annese himself, sub
dued the insurgents and restored the kingly
authority over Naples. (Parrino, Teatro
Eroico e Politico dei Vicere di Napoli ; Giau
none, Storia Civile del Regno di Napoli;
Bottai, Storia d' Italia ; Orleff, Mimoires
Historiques sur le Royaume de Naples-) A.V.
ARCQ, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE DE
SAINTE-FOI, CHEVALIER D', was an
illegitimate son of the Count of Toulouse,
whe was an illegitimate son of Louis XIV.
He supported the character both of a man of
letters and of a man ef pleasure, and died in
1779, at Tulle, in exUe, but none of his bio
graphers inform us on what account he was
exiled. The Abbe Sabatier de Castres speaks
of his writings in the highest terms, and
Grimm with the greatest contempt ; the
judgment of the latter, who calls him a cold
and clumsy writer, appears to be that of
posterity. Sabatier, howei»r, gives him one
praise, which was at all events uncommon
foreneofhis contemporaries — that of havi ng
not only respected religion in his writings,
but defended it with zeal against those who
attacked it. The works ef D'Arcq are : —
1. "Lettres d'Osman," 3 vols. 1753, 12mo.,
the supposed letters of a Turk in Paris, a
poer imitation of Montesquieu's " Persian
Letters." 2. "Le Roman du Jour," 2 vols.
1754, 12mo. 3. " Le Palais du Silence,"
1754, 12mo. 4. "Mes Leisirs eu Pensees
Diverses," 1755, 12mo., a collection of vague
philosophical remarks thrown into alpha
betical order. 5. " La Noblesse Militaire,"
1756, 12mo. This boek, which is anony
mous, is a reply to one by the Abbe Coyer,
entitled " La Noblesse Commergante," in
whioh the abbe endeavoured to shew the
advantages that would result ff the French
nobiUty engaged in commerce. 6. " His
toire Generale des Guerres," 2 vols. 4to.,
vel. i 1756, vel. ii 1758, the commencement
of a great undertaking, a general history ef
wars, for which the leaming and the talents
of the writer were altogether inadequate ; it
wais therefore relinquished, when carried no
farther than the history of Great Armenia,
ef Paphlagonia, &c. 7. " Histoire du Com
merce et de la Navigation des Anciens et
des Modernes," 2 vols. 1758, 12mo. This
werk was also stopped short by the author's
want of support or discovery of his own
incompetence. The two volumes published
contain his account of the commerce of the
ancients only, in which, from want of ma
terials, he speaks less of commerce than of
311

ARCQ.
politics in general, and his observations are
as usual vague and valueless. The whole of
D'Arcq's works -were pubUshed at Paris,
though the " Palais du Silence " bears in its
title-page the date of Amsterdam, and the
" Roman du Jour" that of London. (Saba
tier de Castres, Les Trois Siecles de la Lit
tirature Fran^oise, edit, of 1774, i. 51. ;
Grimm and Diderot, Correspondance Lit
tiraire, edit, of 1829, i. 9. 456., ii 25. 93. ;
D'Arcq, Mes Loisirs-) T. W.
ARCTI'NUS {'ApKT'ivos) of Miletus, one
of the earliest epic poets of Greece, and ene
of those who contributed to what is usually
called the epic cycle. From the little which
we know about him, it is probable that as a
poet he Avas not inferior te Homer. Accord
ing te Artemon of Clazomenae, a contem
porary ef Pericles, Arctinus was a pupU of
Homer, and was, accordingly, one generation
younger. Suidas states that his father's name
was 'Teles, and that he was a descendant of
Nantes. Hieronymus places him in the first
Olympiad (about e. c. 776), and others in the
fourth Olympiad (about E. c. 760), though
some authorities of little weight place him as
late as the eighteenth Olympiad (e. c. 708),
and others have erroneously inferred, from a
passage of Dionysius of HaUcarnassus, that
he lived before Homer. He is the earliest
Greek poet whose name is a genuine proper
name, and not a mere generic one, like these
of all his real or fictitious predecessors.
Concerning his life nothing is known, but he
is mentioned as the author of tAve or three
epic poems, aU of which belonged to the epic
cycle. They are new lost, with the excep
tion of short summaries of their contents in
the " Chrestemathia " of Proclus, aud a few
fragments. These poems are — 1. "The jE-
thiopis " {AlBio^ais), which, in the epic cycle,
followed immediately after the " Iliad," of
which it was a continuation. It consisted ef
five books ; it opened with the arrival of the
Amazons, under their queen, Penthesilea, to
the assistance of the Trojans, aud carried the
story down to the dispute about the armour
of Achilles. The poem had its name from
the circumstance that the second book con
tained an account of Memnon and his .Ethio
pians, and of his defeat by Achilles. In the
remaining four books the ^Ethiopians pro
bably did not appear, so that the name of
the whole poem was, strictly speaking, appli
cable to a part only. In seme MSS. of the
" Iliad," the last Une is somewhat altered, and
another is added te it, —
Sis o'ly' xfj,ifiiiF6v rei^ou "E»TOfBff, ^Afle h' 'A/mc^^v
A^9j6S 3-y^aTrg f-ttyaiX-fiTO^as otv^^ofoi/oio,
and these lines may have formed the be-
gmning ef the " iEthiepis," and intimated
to the reader where he had to look for
a continuation of the story. In the epic
cycle the " jEthiopis " was followed by the
" Little Iliad " ('lAiii pmpd) of Lesches,
X 4

ARCTINUS.

ARCUDL

and after it came the second epic of Arcti
nus, called, 2. " The Destruction ef Trey "
{'IXiov Tlepa-ts), which consisted of two books,
and began with the deliberation as te what
was to be done with the wooden horse. It
ended with the departure of the Greeks from
Troy, under the anger of Athena, for the
outrage which Ajax had committed on Cas
sandra, who had taken refuge in the temple
ef the goddess. A scholiast on the " Iliad "
(xv. 515.) has preserved eight lines ef this
poem. Aristotle and Pausanias speak of the
" Little Iliad " of Lesches as having also con
tained an account of the destnictien ef Troy,
but this differed widely from the werk of
Arctinus. Proclus, in his abstract of the
"Little Iliad" of Lesches has passed over
that part containing the destruction of Troy,
probably because he did not wish to repeat
the same story. Respecting a third epic
poem, the " 'Titanomachia " {Tiravop-axia),
the ancients themselves were uncertain whe
ther to attribute it to Arctinus or Eumelus of,
Corinth (Athenaeus, vii. 277., i 22.); but it
is more commonly ascribed to Eumelus.
[Eumelus.] The fragments of Arctinus are
collected in Diintzer, Die Fragmente der Epls
chen Poesie der Griechen, 2. 16, &c. 21, &c. ;
Nachtrag, 16.; and in Diibner, Homeri Car
minum et Cycll Epici Reliquia, Paris, 1837.
(C. W. Miiller, De Cycle Gracorum Epico,
1829; Welcker Der Epische Cyclus, 211,
&c. ; K. O. Miiller, History of the Literature
of Ancient Greece, i- 65, &c.) L. S,
ARCU'DI, ALESSANDRO TOMMA'SO,
the descendant of a family which had origi
nally been settled in Corfu, was born in 1655
at Galatina in the province ef Lecce in the
kingdom of Naples, In 1672 he entered the
order of St. Dominic, for which it appears that
his lively and fiery temperament but Ul quali
fied him, " The quarrels in which he plunged,"
says Afilitto, " aud his sharp, satirical wri
tings, placed his superiors under the neces
sity of confining him in the Uttle convent of
Andrano, an obscure village, at whieh he died
in 1718 at sixty-three years ef age," Afflitto
gives a list of his writings, the most im
portant of which appear to be — 1, "Anatomia
degl' Ipecrlti " or " The Anatomy of Hy
pocrites," Venice, 1699, 4te,, a tedious attack
on the vice referred to, written in a very
incorrect style and stuffed with commonplace
quotations, the title- page of Avhioh bears the
pseudonyrae ef " Candide Malasorte Ussare,"
but towards the end of the volume the name of
the author is revealed by some complimentary
sonnets ; 2, " Galatina Letterata," Genoa,
1709, Svo., a very incorrect account ef the
literary men whe had been born at or con
nected Avith Galatina, which was severely cen
sured by different writers and unsuccessfully
defended by its author, under the feigned name
of Francesco Saverio "Volante in " Le Due Ga-
latine dffese, 11 Libro e la Patria." 3. " II Ata-
nasio Magno," Lecce, 1714, 4te, a life of St.
312

Athanasius, to whom the author modestly eoffl-
pares himseff as a great man labouring under
persecution. Arcudi left seme Avrltlngs in
verse which show, according to Afflitto, that
he wrote poetry stiff worse than prose. (Af
flitto, Scrittori del Regno di Napoli, i- 422 —
426. ; Arcudi, Anatomia degV Ipocriti-) T. W.
ARCU'DIUS or ARKOU'DIOS
{'ApKoiSios), PETER, was bom in Corfu
probably about 1570, but was taken at the age
of ten to Rome, and received his education
in the Greek college there. After having
been ordained as priest and received the
degree ef doctor in philosophy and theology,
he was sent in 1591 by Pope Gregory XIV,
to Poland, with the view, it is said, of
effecting a reconciUation of the Russians
with the Reman church. The Russians
alluded to were probably those of the Rus
sian provinces under the dominion of Po
land, net the Muscovites, to whom the term
has of late years been generaUy appUed.
In the dedication of one of his works to
King Slgismund III. of Poland, Arcudius
returns him thanks fer haAnng received him
with kindness, and assigned him funds for
his maintenance. " Supported," he adds,
" by your regal authority, I have gene over
Poland, Lithuania, Russia, and even Mus
covy, and spen^ twenty years in propaga
ting with great labour the orthodox religion,
partly in bringing back and partly in keep
ing the Russians to obedience to the holy
see." He proceeds to eulogise the deter
mination of Slgismund, in refusing, in oppo
sition to aU his nobiUty, to sanction con
cessions to the reUgion of the schismatic
Cossacks, perhaps the very act that mere
than any other has contributed to effect the
faU of Poland and the rise ef the Russian
empire. The twenty years that Arcudius
spent in the Slavonic kingdoms, from 1591
to 1611, are some ofthe most interesting in
their history, comprising the invasion of
Russia by Poland in behaff of the false
Demetrius, and the check given to the
Protestant religion in Pelaind by the zeal of
Slgismund. On his return to Italy, Arcudius
attached himseff te Cardinal Scipio Berghese,
the nephew of Pope Paul V., but either dis
satisfied with his patron, as some assert, or
with patronage altogether, which is said by
others, he spent the latter years of his lffe in
learned ease, in the Greek college at Rome.
About three years before his death, he was
thrown down while wadking in the street by a
horse laden with wine, and received se much
injury, that he was afterAvards unable to
make use ef his legs. After this he used to
have himself carried every day to the Ubrary
of the college, which he never left tiU after
sunset. The date of his death is flxed by
Niceron to some period between 1633 and
1637, probably not leng before the latter.
The works of Arcudius are in Greek and
Latin. 'They are : — 1. " Libri VII. de Con-

ARCUDIUS.

ARCUDIUS.

oordia Ecclesiae Occidentalis et Orientalis in
Septem Sacramentorum Administratione,"
the first edition ef which wais printed at
Rome, at what date is not known, but others
appeared at Paris in 1619, 1626, and 1672.
That ef 1626 is a large folio of mere than
six hundred pages, closely printed in double
columns. This is the beek which is dedi
cated to King Slgismund of Poland. The
tone adopted in it towards the Protest
ants is extremely violent : their opinions
respecting the sacraments are stigmatised
in the dedication as the opinions " hominis
impudenter insanientis." The position as
sumed by the author that the eastern and
western churches coincide in their view
of the sacraments is supported by an im
posing array of learning ; but the werk is
said to be defective both in style and ar
rangement as well as in moderation. 2.
" Utrum detur Purgatorium et an illud
sit per Ignem," Rome, 1622, 4to., a dis
cussion of the questien whether purgatory
exists, and whether its purgations are
effected by fire, which was also the subject ef
his last composition ; 3. nepl tov KaBapTTjplov
Tlvphs KOTO BapXadfi, Rome, 1637, 4to.,
Greek and Latin, under the editorship of
Pantaleon Ligaridies, a Chian or Sciete, who
then taught the Greek language at the
Greek college of Rome. An elegy on the
author by the editor is the authority for the
statement that Arcudius died before 1637.
In addition to these original works, Arcu
dius collected, translated, and edited under
the title of " Opuscula Aurea Theologica
quorundam clarissimorum Virorum pos-
teriorum Grapcerum," Rome, 1639, 4te.,
several short treatises by Veccus, Palama, Bes
sarion, Demetrius Cydonius, and Planudes ;
and he also translated some of the Greek
liturgical books. The most conspicuous of
these is the " Menologium," or Calendar of
Saints, drawn up by order of the Emperor
Basil, a translation of six months of which by
Arcudius was published at Rome in folio in
1659, and reprinted in Ughelli's " ItaUa
Sacra" in 1664. This translation forms
the basis, as far as it goes, of that given
by Joseph Simon Assemanni in the " Me
nologium Gra;coram," published in three
volumes folio at Urbino, in 1727, but it
is stated in the preface that the errors of
Arcudius's translation or rather paraphrase
were so numerous and so glaring, that but
for the authority of UgheUi, it would have
been considered absurd to attribute the
authorship of such a work to such a scholar.
Several CathoUc critics, among others Alla
tius and Renaudot, have censured the zeal
of Arcudius against the Greek and Protestant
churches as carried te an absurd and per
nicious extent. (Lee AUatius, Apes Urbana,
Rome, 1633, p. 216., edition ef Fabricius,
Hamburg, 1711, p. 306. ; Fabricius, Bib
Uotheca Graca, edUion of Harles, xi. 448. ;
313

Niceron, Mimoires des Hommes Illustres, xl
56 — 61. ; Menologium Gracorum, Urbino,
1727, preface ; semeof the works ef Arcudius.)
T. W.
ARCULF. [Adomnan.]
ARCU'SSIADE CAPRE, CHARLES D",
seigneur of Esparren, Pallieres, and Le
Revest in Provence, was descended from
Eliseo Arcussia, count of Capri in the
kingdom of Naples, who was general ef the
gaUeys to the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa.
One of the ancestors of Charles named
Francesco espoused the party of Queen
Joanna of Naples, and died in her cause in
a naval battle in Provence, as a recompense
for which the queen bestowed estates in that
country on his unborn chUd, who proved
to be a sen, and became the founder ef the
French branch ef the family.
Charles appears to have been bora about
154S. He visited the principal courts ef
Italy and that of France ; but after his mar
riage with Marguerite Forbine de Jauson,
which took place in 1573 according to Arte-
feuil, in 1572 according to Weiss, he retired
to his estate at Esparren, where he divided
his time between study and falconry, to both
of which he was much attached. In 1596 he
was elected first consul of Aix and Procu
rator ef the Country (Procurateur du pays),
an office which placed him at the head of the
administration of the province, and it was at
his house that the deputies of the states of
Provence assembled in 1597, to draw up a
protest against the intention of the Duke of
Guise to transfer the assembly of the states
to MarseUle. The business connected with
this affair occasioned D' Arcussia to remain
some time at Aix, and he spent his leisure in
drawing up a treatise en falconry, which was
first published in that city in 1598 in Svo.,
and afterwards ran through numerous edi
tions. Weiss, in the " Biogi-aphie Universelle,"
after stating that Bouche, the historian of
Provence, places the death of D' Arcussia in
1579, which is evidently a mistake, adds his
own conjecture that he died in 1617; but
the prefatory epistle to D'Arcussia's " Lettres
de Phileierax a Philofalce," published in
1626 shows that he was then living ; and
there is an advertisement to the reader by
himself prefixed to the " Discours de
Chasse," pubUshed in 1627. From the
epistle before the letters, we learn that he
had had twenty-two children, fifteen of
whom were sons, and four of whom had died
knights of St. John of Jerusalem.
D'Arcussia's work en falconry was at first
a small book, but was gradually enlarged to
a thick quarto ; which, as it is rare and ap
pears never to have been accurately examined
hitherto, it may be well to describe with
some minuteness from a copy in the British
Museum. In the title-page it is called " La
Fauconnerie de Charles d' Arcussia de
Capre, Seigneur d'Esparron, de PalliCrcs ct

ARCUSSIA.

ARCUSSIA.

du Revest en Provence, divisee en Dix
Parties," and stated to be published at Paris
by Jean Heuze in 1627. The ten parts are
enumerated ou the back ef the title-page.
According tc this list, the first is en the
knowledge and nature ef birds, &c. ; the
second, of their diseases with the remedies ;
the third, of the ways of using them ; the
fourth, of their anatomy ; the fifth, of hawks
and hawking. This fifth part extends te
page 328,, and is followed by a poem on
falconry, and a general index, from which it
clearly appears that these five parts in some
previous edition (probably, from the date
ofthe dedication, in que pubUshed in 1621)
formed the Avhole of the work, and that what
follows was subsequently added and con
nected with the earlier portion by a new title-
page, with the list at the back of it. Ac
cording te that list, the sixth part contains
" The King's Falconry as it was in 1615 ;"
and the seventh, " The Conference ef the
Falconers." Both of these are, in fact, in
cluded in one tract, entitled "La Faucon
nerie du Roy avec la Conference des Faucon-
niers," bearing date Paris, 1626, printed in
a totally different type from the first five
parts, and separately paged. In the dedi
cation, which is dated by D' Arcussia from
Esparren en the 25th of May, 1625, he men
tions that he wrote the treatise by the ex
press command of the king, Louis XIII.
The " Conference of Falconers " consists of
sixteen dialogues, on subjects of sport, the
general tone of which strongly reminds the
reader of the " Complete Angler " of Izaak
Walton, who may have taken the hint of the
form of his work from D' Arcussia, The eighth
part, according te the list, is a dialogue on the
chase, and the ninth, " The last Resolutions
of the Falconers, with a Recital of the History
of Queen Joanna, falsely accused by the In
vaders of the Neapolitan State." Beth ef these
are also in one tract, the " Discours de
Chasse," Paris, 1627, separately paged,
which chiefiy consists of twelve additional
dialogues of falconers, in the manner of the
former. The tenth and last part is the
" Letters of Phileierax te Philofalce : " this,
which in the running title is called the sixth
instead of the tenth part, is printed in the
same type as the first five, and paged in con
tinuation of them. It is prefaced by an
epistle signed by " J. D, P, Docteur en The
ologie," who, if the Gascons have the same
propensity te commit bulls as the Irish,
must certainly have been a Gascon, He states
that he procured the letters surreptitiously
from their writer the Seigneur d'Esparron,
and that as he knows that the author would
not like them to appear under his name, he
has entitled them the " Letters ef Phileierax,"
He takes the opportunity ef giving at the
same time a genealogical history ef D'Arcus
sia's family, and some biographical par
ticulars relating to D' Arcussia himself,
314

This seems to be the most complete shape
in which the werk hais appeared. From
the fourth edition, published in 1605 at
Paris, also by Jean Heuze, a copy of which
formerly belonging te Isaac Casaubon is in
the British Museum, it appears that it then
extended to four parts only ; and a treatise
en hawking, " De TAuteurserie," by P. de
Gommer, published also at Paris by Heuze,
in the same year, is appended, instead of the
fifth. Weiss must therefore be wrong in
stating that the edition of Aix in 1598, and
that of Paris in 1604, contain five books.
He mentions ene of Rouen in 1647 as being
the most complete ; but Brunet, who says
nothing of that edition, speaks of ene of
Rouen, dated 1643 and 1644, as merely a
copy ef that of 1627. Bnmet mentions also
that an edition of Paris in 1608 generaUy
contains the " Auteurserie " of Gommer,
which seems to show that Weiss is also
incorrect in speaking ef that edition as
containing five books by D' Arcussia.
The " Fauconnerie," like the " Complete
Angler," is interesting even to those who feel
nothing but indifference for its subject, from
the liveliness with which it is written, and the
numerous anecdotes with which it is inter
spersed. Asa boek of ornithology it is by no
means destitute of merit, as the author was a
good observer, as well as learned in what had
been written before him, learned in fact to a
degree which is sometimes an incumbrance,
as he quotes, not only orators, poets, and
philosophers, but rabbis and fathers of the
church, both in and out of season. An ana
lysis of his work is given at some length by
Lallemant in his "Bibliotheque Historique
et Critique des Auteurs qui ont traite de la
Chasse." (LaUemant, Bibliotheque, Sfc-, pre
fixed to Le Verrier de la Couterie, L'E'cole
de la Chasse, i. cxvU.. — cxxv. ; article by
Weiss in Biographie Universelle, edit, of
1843, ii. 166 ; Brimet, Manuel du Libraire,
edit, of 1842, i. 14 5. ; Papon, Histoire Gini
rale de Provence, iv. 412. ; Artefeuil, His
toire de la Noblesse de Provence, i. 51.) T.W.
ARCY, PATRICK D", born in Galway,
September 27, 1725, of a goed famUy. His
parents were ef Jacobite and Roman Catholic
principles, and sent him to Paris, in 1739, to
an uncle. He was placed, as it happened, in
the house in which lived M. Clairaut, father
ofthe celebrated mathematician ef that name,
whose pupil he became, and the two beys
were companions. The progress ef young
D'Arcy in mathematics, at the age of seven
teen, was extraordinary ; it is represented as
little short of that of Clairaut [Clairaut],
which is unique. He left his studies for the
army, and after serving two campaigns, was
ordered te join seme troops destined for the
assistance ef Prince Chairles Edwaird, in
1746. Count Fitzjames wais their com
mander, and D'Arcy Avas his aid-de-camp.
The whole force was captured at sea

ARCY.

ARCY.

by Admiral Knowles, and D'Arcy, though
amenable to English laAV, had the good for
tune te be treated as a French officer. In
1747* he was released, and in 1749 became
a member of the academy of sciences, to
which he had presented two able memoirs on
mechanics. In 1750 he wrote in favour of a
principle which he called the conservation of
action, against the principle of least actien ef
Maupertuis. He then devoted himself for a
time to electricity, and, iu conjunction with
M. Rei, constructed an electrometer. In
1750 he began to write on artUlery, and col
lected his results in a work which he pub
lished in 1760. He made many experiments
on the force of powder, using the ballistic
pendulum in which the gun and net the
object fired at is the pendulum, as weU as
the common one. He was dissatisfied with
the common law of resistance, but his experi
ments did not give him confidence in any
other, and, not leading to any result, they
were lost. On examining Hutton's Dic
tionary, as the werk ef an authority in mat
ters of gunnery, we find it stated that D'Arcy's
experiments and results are improvements on
those ef Robins, but in so vague a manner,
that we are satisfied Hutton was copying
Condorcet : we conclude that these experi
ments had not been examined in England.
The breaking out of war called him again
to his profession, and after being present, as
colonel, at the battle of Rosbach, in 1757, he
was employed in the preparations which were
then made for an invasion ef Britain. After
the peace, in 1765, he made many experi
ments on the duration ef vision, and gave a
memoir on the subject. He also gave several
other memoirs. He had by this time risen high
in the army. In 1777 he married a niece
who had been educated under his eye. He
died October 18, 1779, of cholera.
He was once in London (no doubt, though
Condorcet does net say it, as a prisoner on the
occasion above-mentioned), and was well re
ceived, and treated as a man who did honour
to his country, but his position prevented his
being elected at the Royal Society, though
the general feeling protected him against the
law. The position of an Irish cathoUc in
that day, before the penal laws Avere repealed,
seems to have been, if we may trust M. Con
dorcet, (from whose eloge the preceding is
taken almost verbatim,) considered a perfect
excuse to public opinien in England, fer bear
ing arms against the English government.
Condorcet adds, that D'Arcy was thoroughly
British in all his sentiments, and looked upon
every success ef the British arms with pride.
But he refused the most tempting offers from
a relatien in Ireland, to induce him to settle
under a government ivhich he considered as
headed by a usurper, ais weU as unjust to
* Probably sooner ; March 2ft, 1746, a vessel was
ordered to carry back Count Fitzjames and others, on
parole. 315

these of his way of thinking in reUgious
matters. ( Condercet's E'loge ; it is stated in
the Biogr- Univ. that Condorcet was the ob
ject of most violent aud unjust hatred on the
part of D'Arcy ; this eloge is written with a
degree of panegyric, accompanied by close
statement of the grounds of it, which, under
such circumstances, is exceedingly remark
able, whether we regard it as the reality or
the affectation ef generosity.) A. De M.
ARDABU'RIUS {'ApSaSoipios), the name
of two successive generals of the eastern em
pire during the fifth century. They stood to
each ether in the relation ef grandfather and
grandson, the one being the father, the other
the son of Aspar. [Aspar.] The elder
Ardaburins, who is said to have been of
'Teutonic birth, is fer the first time men
tioned as commander of the imperial forces
in the war with Persia, a.d, 422, He entered
the enemy's territory through Armenia, and
while in the course ef ravaging the neigh
bouring districts, encountered the Persian
commander, Narseus, Narseus shut him
self up in Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and chal
lenging Ardaburins to name a day and place
for a battle, the latter answered that the
Roman commanders were not wont to fight
whenever their enemies requested them, but
to trust in Providence for a favourable junc
ture. The Romans afterwards besieged the
Persians in Nisibis, erecting wooden towers
against the walls. The siege was raised by
the approach of the Persian king at the head
of a large body of his own subjects and of
Saracen aUies, and the imperial troops re
treated, burning their wooden towers. So
crates and the other annalists relate many
marA-els in connection with this event, and
among others that the troops of the Persian
monarch, to the number of upwards of a hun
dred thousand, being seized with a panic,
threw themselves into the Euphrates. In
A. D. 425 Ardabm-ius was sent by Theodosius
the "Younger to Italy, with his sen Aspar,
to assist in suppressing John, the usurper of
the westem empire. Ardaburins commanded
the infantry, Aspar the cavalry. Procopius
says that the Ardaburins who went en this
expedition was the son of Aspar ; and the
circumstance that the name of the latter is
that which is principaUy connected with the
expedition, would seem to justify the state
ment; but Aspar, whe was kiUed in the year
471, was not Ukely to have a son command
ing an army in 425. The fleet which con
veyed Ardaburins was dispersed by a storm,
and he was carried a prisoner to Ravenna;
while Aspar, who had seized Aquileia, was
waiting for his co-operation. Ardaburins, in
his captivity, however, succeeded in gaining
over a body of the troops, and procured the
gates of Ravenna to be opened to Aspar, who
approached by paths supposed te be impass
able through the morasses of the Po.
It is probably Ardaburius the Younger

ARDABURIUS.

ARDEMANS.

who is stated by Evagrius (Ub. i. c. 13.) to
have, by direction of the Emperor Leo, at
tended the body of S. Simeon Stylites to
Antioch. He was engaged in the conspiracies
of his father against that emperor, and was
put te death with him in 47 1. (Socrates, Hist.
Eccles. p. 182-183, Frankfurt, 1588; Phi
lostorgius, apud Phetium, lib. xii tit, 11, 12,;
Procopius, Hist Vandalica, apud Grotius,
Hist Gothorum, Amsterdam, 1655, p. 10.
21.; Theephanes, Chronographia apud Corpus
Script Hist Byz- 131—133, 179—182.;
Gibbon, Decline and Fall, c. 32, 33.) J, H, B.
ARDELL, JAMES MAC. [Mac Ae-
DELL, James.]
ARDEMA'NIO, GIU'LIO CE'SARE,
was maestro di capella and organist of the
churches of S, Maria della Scala and Santa
Fedele at Milan, as well as court musician.
He died there in the year 1650, Of his cem
positions, there were printed at Milan in 1616
and 1628, a collection of motets and other
pieces fer the service of the church. (Pici
nelU, Ateneo dei Letterati Milanesi-) E. T.
ARDEMANS, DON TEODO'RO,
a painter and architect, born at Madrid iu
1664. His father was a soldier in the neble
body guard, in which Ardemans served also
for a short time, but his love fer the arts led
him to place himself with Claudio Coello to
learn painting. He commenced at the same
time to study mathematics and architecture.
In 1688 er 1689, when only in his twenty-
fifth year, he contended at Granada against
Bocanegra, then painter to the king of Spain,
for the place ef chief master (maestro mayor)
to the cathedral of Granada. They were
ordered to paint each other's portraits, and
Ardemans, who was the first to begin, in less
than one hour painted a very masterly Uke-
ness ef Bocanegrai, which so discouraged the
latter that he deferred his trial to another
day, but not appearing upon the day fixed,
Ardemans obtained the appointment. This
defeat is said to have caused the death of
Bocanegra. Ardemans remained a few years in Gra
nada practising beth painting and civU and
hydraulic architecture. In 1694 he was ap
pointed maestro mayor of the cathedral of
Toledo ; and in 1700 he received a simUar
appointment at Madrid ; and again, in 1702,
from PhiUp V., over the alcazar ef Madrid
and other palaces in the neighbourhood, with
the salary of four hundred ducats per annum.
In 1704, after the death of Ruiz, the king
appointed Ardemans his cabinet painter. He
died at Madrid in 1726,
His pictures are scarce, says Bermudez,
because he appUed himself chiefly to archi
tecture; but this writer praises a fresco by
Ardemans, both fer its architecture and other
parts, which he painted on the ceiling of the
sacristy of the chapel ef the third order of
Franciscans at Madrid,
Ardemans designed the decorations at the
316

celebration ef the funerals of the Dauphin of
France in 1711, and of the Queen Maria
Louisa ef Savoy in 1715, at the convent of
the Incamation at Madrid. He designed also
in 1719 the principal part ef the palace and
gardens, the collegiate church, and the great
altar of San Ildefonse ; and in 1722 the
church of San MiUan at Madrid.
Ardemans is known also as an architec
tural and scientific writer. In 1719 he pub
lished at Madrid a work entitled " Declaraeion
y Extension sobre las Ordenanzas de Madrid,
que escribio Juan de Torija y de las che se
practicaban en Toledo y SevUla, cen algunas
Advertencias ales Alarffes;" and in 1724 a
book entitled " Fluencias de la Tierra y Curse
subterraneo de las Aguas." In 1723 he wrote
an eulogium upon Antonio Palomino, which
was inserted at the beginning ef the second
volume of Palomino's work on the arts.
(Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, Sfc.)
R, N. W.
ARDEN, EDWARD, descended from a
very ancient and honourable family seated
at Parkhall in Warwickshire, was born in
1531. He succeeded his grandifather Thomas
Arden in the family estate in 1563. Thomas
Arden, his grandfather, was squire for the
body to Henry VII. ; and he was the sen ef
Walter Arden, who married Eleanor, daugh
ter of John Hampden, of Buckinghamshire.
The younger brother ef Walter Arden was
the great-grandfather of Mary Arden, the
mother of WUliam Shakspere ; amd thus there
was a famUy connection between the great
poet of the days of EUzabeth and the staunch
opposer of the claims of Charles I. to tax the
people without consent ef parUament, Edward
Arden married Mary, the daughter of Sir
George Throckmorton, At the Reformation
he held to the old forms of reUgion, but this
did not prevent him filUng the office of
sheriff ef Warwickshire in the year 1568.
The Earl of Leicester was Arden's neighbour.
He was an enemy of the Throckmortens (Sir
John and Sir Nicholas), and Arden, whe
appears to have been a man of high spirit,
net only partook ef the general tUsUke of his
wife's famUy te that nobleman, but openly
quarreUed with Leicester, caUed him an up
start, and, as it would appeau-, publicly re
flected upon his connection with the Countess
of Essex, One of Edward Arden's daughters
was married to John Somerville, a yoimg
gentleman ef family and fortune in Warwick
shire, a Roman Catholic, of violent temper.
In Whitsuntide, 1583, SomerviUe and his Avife
Avere at Jlr, Arden's, and Hugh Hall, A rden's
priest, appears to have persuaded Somerville
te attempt the death ef Queen Elizabeth, as
an incorrigible heretic, as one who was daily
growing worse, and Avhom it would be a ser
vice te the cause of true religion to destroy.
Somerville appears to have brooded upon
this after his return home till he became so
melancholy that his wife wrote to Hall te

ARDEN.

ARDEN.

come and converse with him. Hall did not
come, but he wrote te SomervUle a long letter
te incite him te prosecute his plan for the
destruction of EUzabeth ; and this letter
seems to have produced the effect intended,
for Somerville immediately set out for Lon
don ; but when he got to Warwick he attacked
seme Protestants with his swerd, and was
seized. SomerviUe's wife, after his depar
ture, had found Hall's letter, and took it to
her father Arden, whe threw it into the fire.
On the 30th of October, 1583, SomerviUe
was committed to the Tower on a charge ef
high treason, and having on his apprehension
said something ef his father-in-law and
mother-in-law, orders were sent into War
wickshire for their apprehension. On the
4th of November, HaU was committed to the
Tower, and on the 7th Arden. On the 16th
Mary, Arden's wife, Margaret, SomerviUe's
wffe, and Elizabeth, SomerviUe's sister, were
committed. On the 23d Arden was tor
tured in the Tower, and on the following
day Hugh HaU also. On the 16th of De
cember Edward Arden, Mary his wife, John
SomervUle, and Hugh Hall, were tried for
high treason in Guildhall ; they were all found
guilty on the confession extorted from HaU,
and were all sentenced te death. On the
19th December Arden and Somerville were
removed from the Tower to Newgate. Here
Somerville was strangled, by his own
hands, as it was given out, but by others whe
were afraid ef what he might say, as was
suspected. On the 20th December, 1583,
Arden was executed in Smithfield. He as
serted that SomerviUe was murdered, that he
himself was innocent, and that he wais te
be executed, not for conspiring against the
queen, but for his firmness in maintaining
and asserting his religion as a Roman Catho
lic. He excited general commiseration. His
head was set on Londen Bridge, his quarters
on the city gates. SomerviUe's head was
also set on London Bridge, but his body
was interred in Moerfields. Mrs. Arden
wais pardoned, but the queen gave away
her husband's estate to Edward Darcy. Hall,
the priest, was also pardoned, and it was
said that Leicester tried te induce Chancellor
Hatton to banish him, but without success.
HoUinshed, Stew, and others speak of
Arden as a traitor justly convicted, but Cam
den says, " The woful end ef this gentleman,
Avho was draAvn in by the cunning ef the
priest, and cast by his evidence, was generally
imputed to Leicester's malice. Certain it is
that he had incurred Leicester's heavy dis
pleasure, and net without cause, fer he had
rashly opposed him in all he could, reproached
him as an adulterer, and defamed him as a new
upstart." The account which Dugdale gives
of him is as feUows: — "Which Edward,
though a gentleman not inferior to the rest of
his ancestors in these virtues wherewith they
were adorned, had the hard hap to come to
317

an untimely death in 27 Eliz,, the charge
laid against him being no less than high
treason against the queen, as privy to seme
foul intentions that Master SomerviUe, his
son-in-law (a Roman Catholic), had towards
her person : For which he was prosecuted
with so great rigour and violence, by the
Earl of Leicester's means, whom he had irri
tated in some particulars (as I have credibly
heard), partly in disdaining to wear his
livery, which many in this country, of his
rank, thought, in these days, no small honour
to them ; but chiefly for gaUing him by cer
tain harsh expressions, touching his private
accesses to the Countess of Essex before she
Avas his wffe ; that through the testimony ef
one HaU, a priest, he was found guilty of the
fact, and lost his life in Smithfleld," (Camden,
History of Elizabeth, Queen of England;
Biographia Britannica; Dugdale, Antiqui
ties of Warwickshire.)
Robert Arden, the son of Edward, was
a lawyer, and is said to have succeeded in re
covering from Darcy by lawsuits the greater
part ef his father's estates, C, K,
ARDEN, JOHN, [Ardebn, John.]
ARDEN, RICHARD PEPPER, LORD
ALVANLEY, was the second son of John
Arden, Esquire, a gentleman ef good family
and estate in Cheshire. He was born in the
year 1745 at the parish of Bredbury in
Stockport. He received his early education
at the grammar school in Manchester, and in
1763 was admitted a gentleman-commoner of
Trinity College, Cambridge. Although he
did net attain the highest academical honours,
he maintained a respectable character at the
university, having been seventh wrangler,
and subsequently a fellow ef his college.
He was admitted a member of the Society
of the Middle Temple in the year 1762,
and was called to the bar in 1769. After
having spent two years as a pupil to an
equity draftsman, he commenced practice
in the Court ef Chancery and joined the
northern circuit. Seen after he was called to
the bar, his family connections procured for
him the honorary appointment of recorder of
Macclesfield. His forensic business was never
large ; and he was certainly not sufficiently
distinguished by his professional reputation
or by his practice in the courts to be noticed
as a probable candidate fer the high judicial
offices which it was subsequently his fortune
to fiU. At the commencement of his pro
fessional life, however, he became the asso
ciate and friend of Mr. Pitt ; and his intimacy
with that statesman in the first instance, and,
at a later period, the services which he
rendered to his party in parUament, were un
doubtedly the efficient causes of his success.
In 1776 he was appointed a judge on the
South Wales circuit in conjunction with Mr.
Justice Barrington; and in 1780 he became
king's counsel and a bencher of the Middle
Temple, ^\'hen Mr. Fox and Mr. Burke

ARDEN.

ARDEN.

with other members of the Whig party,
seceded from the administration in 1782, upon
the death of the Marquis ef Rockingham,
Mr. Arden was appointed solicitor-general,
and in the latter part of the same year he
first came into parliament, as member fer
Newtown in the Isle ef Wight. In April,
1 783, when the coalition between Lord North
and Mr. Fox was formed, he resigned his
office of solicitor-general, and became one
of the most constant and strenuous supporters
of Mr. Pitt in his opposition te that ministry.
Upon the rejection ef Mr. Fox's India Bill,
the coalition ministry was breken up, and
Mr. Pitt being again placed at the head ef
the government, Mr. Arden was re-appointed
solicitor-general. This occurred in December,
1783 ; and in March of the following year
he became attorney-generad, and chief justice
of Chester upon the removal of Mr. Kenyon
te the Rolls. At the new parliament which
was called in May, 1784, he sat for the
borough ef Aldborough iu Yorkshire. He
retained the office of attorney-general for
four years, and when Lord Kenyon was ap
pointed lord chief justice of the King's Bench,
m the summer of 1788, Mr. Arden, by reason
of the customary privilege ef an attorney-
general, was entitled te the vacant office of
master of the rolls. His pretensions to this
promotion were, however, vehemently op
posed by Lord Thurlow, whe, though he was
at an earUer period the friend and patron ef
Mr. Arden, and was personally indebted to
him for zealous aid in defending in parlia
ment the gift of a tellershlp ef the exchequer
te Lord Thurlow by the king, Avas uoav at
variance with the premier, and disposed to
thwart every measure as well as every ap
pointment which originated with Mr. Pitt,
Notwithstanding this opposition Mr. Arden
recelAred the appointment of master of the
rolls, though it became necessary to appeal
to the king upon the subject, whose decision
compelled Lord Thurlow to submit. The
lord chancellor, however, never overcame
the ill-humour occasioned by this transaction,
and during the few years that he retained
the great seal, treated the master of the rolls
with marked dislike, and on several public
occasions spoke of him with his characteristic
rudeness. On receiving this promotion Mr.
Arden was knighted, and was again returned
to parliament for Aldborough. In the new
House of Commons, which assembled in No
vember, 1790, he sat as one ef the members
for Hastings.
Shortly after the close of Easter term, ISOl,
Lord Eldon haA'ing relinquished the office of
lord chief justice of the Court ef Common
Pleais, Sir Richard Pepper Arden was ap
pointed to succeed him, and Avas created a
peer by the title of Baron Alvanley of Al
vanley in the county palatine of Chester.
He presided in the Court of Common Pleas
less than three years. He was suddenly
318

seized with an inflammation of the bowels,
and died on the 19 th of March, 1804, after
an illness ef a few days.
Lord Alvanley married in 1784 a daughter
of Richard Wilbrabam Beetle, Esq., and sister
of Lord Skelmersdale. By this lady he had
tAVO sons and three daughters, whe all sur
vived him.
Lord Alvanley was popular and amiable
in his manners, and much beloved in society.
Asa member of parUament he was assiduously
devoted to his early friend, Mr. Pitt, and to
his party ; he was a frequent speadicr, and
appears to have always enjoyed the attention
of the house ; but his reported speeches,
though discreet and sensible, and occasionaUy
humorous, display no eloquence ner any re
markable talent. As attorney-general he
conducted the duties of his office with pro
priety and moderation ; and although he was
a warm partisan, and held the office during a
period of much party excitement, he is entitled
to the praise of having in no instance used
his official authority for party purposes ; the
only informations filed by him being those
which prosecuted Lord George Gordon, in
1787, fer Ubels upon the administration of the
law and upon the queen of France. His
judicial decisions, both in the RoUs Court
and in the Court of Common Pleas, are re
spected by the profession at the present day ;
but with his contemporaries, his frequent
jeceseness en the bench, and his habitual dis
regard ef judicial dignity in his personad
demeanour, materially injured his reputation
as a judge. {Law Magazine, xix. 20. ; Deds-
ley. Annual Register, 1804.) D, J.
ARDENE, ESPRIT-JEAN DE ROME
D', a French poet and misceUaneous writer,
was bom at Marseille on the 3d of March, 1684.
He studied at Nancy, and affterwards lived
with his parents in a retired spot neair Lyen,
where he is said to have so far affected a
pastoral simplicity as te engi-ave his earliest
Uterary attempts on the bark of trees. Soon
after the year 1711, when he was married,
he visited Paris, and attached himself to the
brUUant literary circle of Racine, Fontenelle,
Dauchet, Dubos, &c. He died on the 27th
of March, 174S. He is described as having
been reserved and diffident to strangers, but
full of lively wit in company where he was
at ease. His works are — "Le NouvelUste,"
a comedy in three acts, in verse. " Recueil
dc Fables Nouvelles," in verse, 12mo. 1747.
His " GSuvres Posthumes," consisting ef
fables, odes, and misceUaneous essays, were
published at Marseille in 1767, 4 vols. 12mo.
{Nouveau Dictionnaire Historique, voce
" Rome " ; Querard, La France Littiraire ;
Bioq. Universelle.) J. H. B.
ARDENE, JEAN PAUL DE ROME
D', was bom at Marseille in 1689. He was
distinguished in early life for his poetical
poAvers, and obtained several prizes fer his
poetry from the academy of the province in

ARDENE.

ARDENNE.

which he lived. He was educated for the
church, and became a preacher of the Oratory,
and was appointed superior of the college of
his congregation. His health, however, was
deUcate, and feeling unable to discharge his
pubUc duties, he retired to his chateau d'Ar-
dene, near Sisteron, where he spent a quiet
lffe, dividing his attention between the study
of plants, and a benevolent devotion to the
interests of the poer around him. He had a
garden where he cultivated with much care
a large coUectien of curious and interesting
plants. He died on the 5th of December,
1769. He published several works on plants
which display more devotion to their culture
and uses than to their botanical characters.
His first work, published at Paris in 1746,
was on the genus Ranunculus, and entitled
" Traite des Renoncules avec des Observa
tions Physiques et des Remarques pour
TAgriculture et Ie Jardinage," Svo. In this
werk there is Uttle with regard to the
botanical characters ef the plants spoken of,
but there is much valuable information on
their culture. In 1761 he published at
Avignon, a work of simUar character to the
last, on the hyacinth and plants related to
them, entitled " Traite sur la Connolssance
et la Culture des Jacintes," 12me. He also
treated the tulips and carnations in the same
manner, in the following works ; " Traite des
Tulipes," Avignon, 1760, 12mo., " Traite des
QSillets," Avignon, 1767, 12mo. In 1759,
he published a work in two volumes duo
decimo for the use of clergymen amd medical
men, with the title, " Lettres interessantes
pour les Medeoins de Profession, utiles aux
Ecclesiastiques," Avignon. His last work
has the title " Annee Champetre," and was
published at Paris in three volumes, 12mo.,
in 1769. This work is regarded as one of
the best of the kind that hais been published.
It is principally devoted te horticultural sub
jects. The management of the kitchen gar
den, the planting, pruning, and manuring of
fruit trees, the production of varieties of fruit
by artificial fecundation, the introduction of
new plants for ornament or use into the gar
den, and the use and relative value of various
kinds of manures, are some of the principal
topics discussed. The subject of this notice
was the brother ef Esprit Jean Rome d'Ar-
dene, and published an edition of his works
after his death. (HaUer, Bibliotheca Botanica ;
Biographie Universelle.) E. L.
ARDENNE, RE'MACLE D', or RE-
MA'CLUS ARDUENNA, who also adopted
the Latin surname Florenas, from Florennes,
a small town in the principality of Liege,
where he was born about the year 1480. He
went early to Paris ; and in the year 1512 pre
ceeded te London, where he is supposed to have
em ployed himself in teaching. The assertion
that he taught in St. Paul's school, founded in
that year by Dean Colet, does net appear te be
supported by any evidence. He returned to
319

Paris at the end of 1512," or beginning of the
following year, and having become known to
Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, govemor ef
the Lew Countries, was, aboutthe year 1517,
sent fer by her to Mechlin amd made secre
tary to her privy councU. He fiUed this post
until his death, which took place on the 13th
of May, 1524. He is interred in a chapel of
the parish of St, Pierre at Mechlin. Brunet
calls him secretary to Charles V. He wrote:
— 1. " Epigrammaton Libri Tres," Paris,
1507, 4te. 'This edition has been assigned to
the Cologne press, but the majority of opin
ions appears to be in faveur of Paris. 2.
" Remacli Arduenne Florenatis Palamedes,"
printed by Gilles de Gourment, Paris, 1512,
4to. The dedication is addressed to Petrus
Gryphus, and dated from Londen, January,
1512. Brunet mentions an edition under the
title " Palamedes PaUicta Cemedia " as printed
by Pinson, at London, in fol., in 1512, but it
does not appear in any list ef Pinson's pro
ductions : PaUicta is apparently a misprint for
Palliata ; and it is most probable that Pinson's
is the first edition ef the work. The " Pala
medes " is a dramatic composition in five acts,
preceded by an argument and a prologue. This
is followed by a second part, comprising the
mysteries of the Ufe ef our Saviour, in verse,
and an elegy on the Assumption of the Vir
gin Mary ; the whele concluding with a
panegyric on the Duchess of Burgundy. 3.
" Remacli Arduenne Florenatis Amorum
Libri," printed by Jean Petit and J. B. As-
censius, Paris, 1513, 4to. This and the
epigrams were likewise printed by GUles de
Gourmont in 4te. without date. Remade is
classed among the best poets of his time and
country, with the qualification, however, that
the best did net surpass mediocrity. (Paquot,
Mimoires pour servir a VHistoire Littiraire
des Pays Bas, ii. 459 — 461.; Peerlkamp,
Vita Belgarum qui Latina Carmina compo-
suerunt, p. 27, 28., Brussels, 1822.; Brunet,
Manuel du Libraire, art. " Palamedes.") J. W. J.
ARDE'NTE, ALESSA'NDRO, an Italian
historical and portrait painter ef Faenza, of
the sixteenth century. He is sometimes
called a native of Pisa, and sometimes of
Lucca ; but on a picture of Saint Antonio
Abate, in the church of San Paelino at Lucca,
there is the inscription, " Alexander Arden-
tius Faventinus, 1565," which states clearly
that he was of Faenza, though he may have
Uved some time at Lucca. He resided chiefly
at Turin, where he was court-painter to
Carlo Immanuele, duke of Savoy ; and after
his death, in 1595, the duke pensioned his
widow and family. Ardente was an excel
lent portrait- painter ; he drew and composed
in the style of the Roman school. At the
Mente della Pieta at Turin, there is au ex
cellent " Conversion of St, Paul " by him ;
there is also an " Epiphany " at Moncalieri|
near Turin ; and there are several of his

ARDENTE.

ARDERN.

works in and about Lucca. Lanzi mentions
a " Baptism of Christ " in San Giovanni of
that place, which is remarkable for the ori
ginality of its treatment. (Lanzi, Storia
Pittorica, §-c.) R. N. W.
ARDERN, JOHN, or ARDEN, JO
HANNES DE ARDERNE, was a surgeon
of great reputation in the fourteenth century.
He says that he lived and practised at New
ark from the breaking out of a plague in 1 349
te 1370, when he removed to London ; and
his patients appear to have been both numer
ous and of high rank. He has left a work
on medicine and surgery, ef which there are
several more or less complete manuscript
copies, variously illustrated with painted
figures of patients, in the library ofthe British
Museum, and elsewhere. A trauslation of the
most remarkable part of this werk was pub
lished by John Read, a surgeon, in 1 588. It
bears the title " A Treatise ofthe Fistulai, and
of Impostumes causing Fistulaes, and of the
Office pertaining te the Chirurgion, with cer
taine ether things. By M. John Arden ; "
and was published, together with the same
John Read's translation of Arcaeus's "Treatise
on Wounds." In the library of the British
Museum there is also a manuscript transla
tion ef all Ardern's writings, which was made
about 1580. On one of its first pages is
written, " Here beginneth the translacon ef
Arden his Latin practises and counsayles
conceming the helping ef all diseases.
Translated by me, E. H."
Ardern was the first English surgeon who
deserves te be particularly mentioned in the
history of the art. He appears from his
writings to have been a man ef observation
and experience, and some dexterity in oper
ating ; and he relates his caises briefiy and
honestly. He had, indeed, the usual con
fidence in a multitude of inert medicines, and
in methods of treatment, which could act
upon the imagination alone ; but he intro
duced from the ancient writers and Invented
many improvements in English surgery, and
it was long before a better English work
upon the subject was composed. Among
the improvements which he invented. Dr.
Freind, who seems te have carefuUy examined
all his werks, enumerates the employment of
enemata, in the administration of which Ar
dern used with great success an instrument
of his own invention. For the treatment of
fistula, of which his immediate predecessors
knew nothing, Ardern relates the operations
by incision and by ligature employed by
Paulus iEgineta and Celsus, and describes
some new instruments which he himself em
ployed. He adopted either er beth ef the
operations according to the nature of the case,
and his success appears to have been very
great; a fact, however, which is the less re
markable when it is considered that in those
times fistula must, from the Avant of skilful
surgery, have been a much more frequent
320

disease in persons ef healthy constitution
than it is new.
Ardern is often mentioned as one of those
who has described the venereal disease be
fore its supposed origin at the end ef the fif
teenth century. But the description which
he gives of the diseases ef these parts which
are affected in primary syphilis, is far toe
obscure for any safe deduction regarding the
history of that affection. He expresses no
suspicion of their originating in the ordinary
mede of syphilitic infection, neither is there
any evidence that they did so ; indeed, those
which most nearly resemble syphilitic aiffec-
tiens he refers to the irritation of calculi, or
merely to depraved humours. (Freind, His
tory of Physick, p. 325. ; Ardern, MSS. in
the Library of the British Museum.) J. P.
ARDERNE, JAMES, D.D., an EngUsh
ecclesiastic ef the seventeenth century. He
was descended of an old famUy in Cheshire,
where he was bom. He was matriculated at
Cambridge in 1653, and entered Christ's
CoUege ; but he became, in 1673, a feUow-
cemmoner of Brazen-nose CoUege, Oxford,
" partly," says Wood, " for the convers
ation of the divines and ethers in this uni
versity.'' He was minister of St. Botolph's,
Aldgate, in Londen, amd chaplain in ordi
nary to Charles IL, whe bestowed en him
the deanery of Chester, in which he was ui-
staUed in July, 1682. He died en the ISth
of September, 1691, bequeathing his books
and the greater part of his property te main
tain a public library in the cathedral of
Chester, fer the use of the city and clergy.
He wrote " Directions concerning Matter
and Style of Sermons," 1671, 12me. ; " Con-
jeetura circa 'ETiii'oyu^i' D. Clementis Romani.
Cui subjiciuntur Castigationes in Epiphanium
et Petavium de Eucharistia, de Ccelibatu Cle
ricorum, et de Orationibus pro Vita functis,"
London, 1683, 4to. ; and a few sermons ap
plicable to temporary and local matters.
(Weed, Fasti Oxonienses, ed. BUss, part ii
338.) J. H. B.
ARDESHTR. [Ardshir; Artaxerxes.]
A R D I C E S, an ancient designer or
draughtsman of Corinth, whe, with 'Telepha-
nes of Sicyon, according to Pliny, wais the
first among the Greeks to practise outline
drawing, or, as Pliny terms it, Hnear painting
(pictura linearis). These drawings are
what were termed by the Greeks mono
grams, and what we term outlines ; such as
we find upon the ancient Greek vases, or
such as the outline drawings of Flaxman.
Ardices, if he lived at all, lived before the
Trojan War, fer at that time the Grecian
women were skilful embroiderers of the
human figure, and oiitline draAving must
have been common (Homer, //. iii. 126.).
Bottiger has remarked that this name is
not Greek. (PUny, Hist Nat xxxv. 5. ;
Bottiger, Ideen zur Archdologie der Malerei.)
R. N. W.

ARDITL

ARDOINO.

ARDTTI, ANDRE'A, an Italian sculp
tor of Florence of the early part of the four
teenth century, and the author ef the silver
head of San Zanobi, in whieh a part of the
head of that saint was deposited when his
body was discovered, in the year 1330, in the
vaults of Santa Reparata. 'This head is of
the natural size, and is still carried in pro
cession. Vasari, in his account ef Agostino
Agnolo of Siena, speaks of it as a werk of
great celebrity in its time, but he attributes it
to Maestro Clone, the father of Orcagna ; an
error which has been pointed out by Cicog
nara. The work itself bears the following
inscription in enamel : — " Andreas Arditi de
Flerentia me fecit." (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori,
§-c.; Cicognara, Storia della Scultura.) R. N. W.
ARDIZON, JAMES, latinised JACOBUS
DE ARDIZO'NE, a civilian, and Avriter en
feudal law, of the fourteenth century. He is
known as the author of " Summa Feudorum."
There are several old editions of this work, and
it has been printed in the " Tractatus Trac-
tatuum," tom. x. part 1. p. 225 — 263. In the
title the a-uthor calls himself Veronensis ; and
in the first chapter, in which he makes some
remarks on the extent ef his oavu labours,
mixed up with appropriate passages from the
Corpus Juris, he calls himself " De Brollo."
" A quo," he continues, " eriginem sumpsi,"
He tells us that he studied law with great
diligence at Bologna, first under Azen, a
professor of that science, and at his death
under UgoUnus, an ecclesiastic. His work
belongs to that class ef juridical treatises
which are new seldom used, as they only
contain the matter ef the " Censuetudines
Feudorum," in new words, and seldom give
any documentary or practical information on
the working of the feudal system. ( Work
referred to above.) J. H. B.
ARDIZZO'NI, FABRTZIO, practised as a
physician at Genoa, during the middle ef the
seventeenth century, and published two works.
The first, on the Plague, was published at
Genoa in 1667, with the title "Rlcordi in
terne al Preservarsi e Curarsi della Pesta,"
4to, The second work was on the compo
sition and effects of the mineral waters of
Corsena, entitled "Ravivamente ; osia, Dis
corso dimestrativo sopra TEssenza, Gaose ed
Effetti delT Aequo Minerali singelarmente
del Monte di C^orsena, State della Republica
di Lucca," Genoa, 1680, 4to. This work
treats en the subject ef bathing generally,
and en the effects of thermal springs on health,
but the kuoAvledge of analytical chemistry Avas
tee little advanced to render the remarks on
the composition of mineral waters of much
value, (Mazzuchelli, tS'cr/^^or/ f/'/to//c(.) E, L,
ARDOIN, [Arduin.]
ARDOTNO, SA'NTES, called in Latin
ARDOYNUS and ARD0YN18, was born
at Pesaro in lt;ily, and practised medicine at
Venice during the middle of the fifteenth cen-
AOL. III.

tury. He published a work on poisons at
Venice in 1492, entitled, " Opus de Venenis
in quo naturalis primum Historia Venenorum
omnium, &c." folio. ScA'eral editions ef this
work were subsequently published at Basle
and ether places, 'The best is that by Fer
dinand Penzetti, whe has added a treatise ef
his own on the same subject, Tavo ether
works are attributed te Ardoino, one " De
Odoratione," and another " De Prollfica-
tione," MazzucheUi suspects that neither of
these works were ever printed, 'Temmasini
also mentions a book " Contra Sterilitatem,"
published in 1412, but this seems to be the
same as the werk " De Prolificatione," ( Maz
zuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia; Biographie Mi-
dicale,) E, L,
ARDO'NO, R, BENJAMIN (jO^n "T
liniND), a German Rabbi, the author ef a
work called " MItzveth Nashim" (" 'The
Precepts of Women "), It is in the Judaeo-
Germanie dialect, and treats ef three special
observances, ordained fer the HebrcAv women
at the time ef their monthly impurity.
This book has been frequently printed, and
is of great authority among the Jews, It
was printed at Venice, A, m, 5312 (a. d,
1552), which edition is in R. Oppenheimer's
library, new in the Bodleian at Oxford ; also
at Salonichi, a, m. 5362 (a, d, 1602), and at
Basle the same year by Joseph ben Ellezer ;
these editions are iu 4to, It Avas printed at
Dessau, a, m, 5452 (a, d, 1692), It was
translated into Italian by R. Jacob ben
Elehanan Alpron, and printed at Venice by
Giov, Lamherti, A. M. 5412 (a, d. 1652) in
4te. with a dealcation by R. Isaac the Levite,
te Luba, the wife of R. Moses de Spilemberg.
Julius Morosini in his work called Via della
Fede, gives an account ef this work, but calls
the author Aderno. (Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr.
1. 245., Ui. 149., iv. 797. ; Bartolocclus,
Biblioth. Mag. Rabb. i. 672. ; .Buxtorfius,
Synagoga Judaica, p. 656.) C, P, H,
ARDOYNIS or ARDOYNUS, [Ardoino,
Santes,] ARDSHTR BA'BEGAN, or the son
of Babeg, a celebrated king of Persia, who
reigned about the middle ef the third century
of the Christian aera, was the founder of the
dynasty commonly caUed the Sassanlda;, being
on the mother's side a descendant of Sassan, of
the ancient dynasty. His father Babeg, ac
cording to the Persian historians, was a des
cendant of the ancient kings ef the Kaianian
dynasty, and about A. d, 206 he held an
inferior office under Peri, the governor of
Darabjird er Darabgird. At this period
Ardshir, though quite a youth, had so dis
tinguished himself for talent and courage,
that he attracted the governor's attention.
Peri sent for him, and appointed him to an
honourable situation near his own person,
and se satisfied he was with Ardshir's abUi
ties and fidelity, that whenever any cause
prevented his attending to the duties of

ARDSHIR.

ARDSHIR.

government, he committed the charge to his
young favourite, who gained so much credit
by his conduct en these occasions, that when
Peri died he was recommended as his suc
cessor. At the same time Ardavan (Artabanus),
the weak monarch of Persia at that period,
and the last ef his race, probably jealous of
Ardshir's rising fame, bestowed the governor
ship of Darabgird on another. This step
in all probability gave the first impulse te
Ardshir's ambition ; and ultimately cost Ar
davan both his crown and his life. Accord
ing te the Chronicle ef 'Tabari Ardshir thus
made good his claim to the Persian throne : —
"The Grecian Alexander treacherously slew
my ancestor Dara ( Darius), and bestowed
his kingdom en those who had been his
slaves. The blood ef Dara flows in my veins,
and I will yet gain possession ef his king
dom. I will exterminate from the land the
minions of the Greek invader, and rescue
the regions ef Irak from the Arabs." Ardshir
having thus assured himself that he was the
lawful heir te the throne ef Persia, pro
ceeded to put his designs in execution. His
first step was to seize and put to death the
governor appointed by Ardavan in the town
of Darabgird, in the province of Ears, ef
which he thereby became master. His father
Babeg, however, wais partial te Ardshir's
eldest brother Shahpur, and proclaimed him
ruler ef that province. Soon after Babeg
died, and Shahpur advancing with an army
against his brother, was deserted by his
troops on the field of battle, and thenceforth
gave up the contest. After having settled
Fars, Ardshir advanced against Kerman,
whioh he subdued. He afterwards made
himself master of Irak and Isfahan before
Ardavan, the reigning prince, took the field
against him. Ardavan remained in the
mountainous regions about Hamadan and
Kerman Shah till he was compelled by the
success ef Ardshir, either te oppose his fur
ther progress or to abandon the throne. He
resolved to put all to the hazard ef a single
battle. The armies met in the plain ef Hur-
niaz, where a desperate battle was fought, in
which Ardavan lest his life. The victorious
Ardshir was hailed on the field Avith the
proud title of Shiihan Shah, or King of Kings,
a title ever since assumed by the sovereigns
ef Persia. Ardshir immediately took advan
tage of the impression produced by this great
victory, not only in subduing the remaunder
of the Persian empire, but in extending its
limits so as to equal, if not surpass, what It
had been previous to the invasion of Alex
ander. According to the " Tarikhi Tabari,"
the eldest and best history ef that period, the
first thirty years of Ardshir's reign Avere
passed in war and conquest. He first con
quered the dismembered provinces on the
west, extending from Georgia along the Eu
phrates as far as the Persian Gulf. On the
322

north-east he successively defeated and re
duced under his power a number ef petty
princes that had sprung up after the death of
Alexander, such as those of Kh'arizm, Herat
(Aria), and Bokhara ( Bactria). Lastly, he
extended his victorious arms over the law
less tribes who dwelt te the eaist and south
east as far as the banks of the Indus. But
the fame of Ardshir rests not on his con
quests, but on the more rare qualities by
which he retained them. To every province
ef his vast empire he appointed as rulers
men of acknowledged abilities and integrity,
whe furnished him with daily reports ef what
passed within their particular departments ;
and his knowledge on these peints extended
even to the private actions ef his subjects,
who, aware of his extraordinary information,
regarded him with that mixed love and awe
which it was the object of his mle to inspire.
The last fourteen years ef Ardshir's long
reign were passed In profound peace ; his
fame had extended far and wide ; and the
greatest monarchs of the east and west
courted his friendship, by sending to his
court the most magnificent presents and
splendid embassies. It is difficult to ascer
tain the precise period of Ardshir's death, as
the oriental historians have no precise aera to
which we can refer, previous to the time of
Mohammed. They merely mention the num
ber of years each king reigned, and not
unfrequently a portion of one reign may be
included in that ef the preceding. In the
reign ef Ardshir, however, we begin for the
first time te receive some faint collateral
light from the historians ef the west, to
whom Ardshir became known as Artaxerxes,
or as Agathias more correctly has it " Artax-
ares" ( 'Apra^dpris). Herodian states that in
the fom-teenth year of the reign of Alexander
Severus, about a. d. 236, intelligence was
brought from the east, that " Artaxerxes,
king of the Persians, had defeated the Par
thians and slain Artabanus, who was be
fore called the Great King, and enjoyed the
double tiai-a." We may here observe In pass
ing that Ardshir is acknowledged king of the
Persians, and it is very probable that he bad
fer seA'cral years previous reigned over the
kingdom of Fars or Persia Proper. Again
we may safely infer that Herodian's in
formation is inaccurate. He ought to have
said that Artaxerxes, and not Artabanus, was
first styled the Great King, and in possession
of the double crown, which would be in ac
cordance Avith all the eastern historians. It
is a curious fact that the eastern historians
make no allusion Avhatever to the war of
Ardshir with the Romans. Gibbon seems
to discredit a flaming oration, stUl extant,
( Herodian, boek vi, ) delivered by Alex
ander Severus to his soldiers, but in reality,
like some of Napoleon's bulletins, intended to
impose upon the Roman senate, setting forth
an immense victory which he had gained

ARDSHIR,

ARDSHIR,

over the Persian monarch ; and from the
total silence of oriental historians on that
subject, we are incUned to agree with him,
particularly as the Romans had ultimately
the worst of it. Gibbon states, "we are
incUned te suspect that all this blaze ef
imaginary glory was designed te conceal
some real disgrace," We would further sug
gest, that there was neither glory nor dis
grace in the case — that the hosts ef Rome
never came in contact with these of Ardshir,
or at best, that they merely encountered
some ef Ardshir's governors on the westem
frontiers of the empire, and were driven
back so easily that the circumstance de-
serA'cd not a place iu the annals of Persia.
According to Sir John Malcolm, Ardshir
died, or resigned his crown to his son Shah
pur, about A. D. 260, It is strange, however,
that Sir John, whose narrative is founded on
oriental authorities, should have made the
reign of this monarch only fourteen years.
All the oriental historians whom we have
seen, and they are very numerous, agree in
making his reign extend ever a space of
from forty to forty-four years. Perhaps the
best authority is the Chronicle ef Tabari,
where it is stated that " Ardshir reigned
forty -four years, thirty of which were spent
iu Avar and conquest, and the remaining
fourteen in promoting the arts of peace and
the diffusion ef justice,"
The Persian historians consider Ardshir
as one ef the wisest and most valiant princes
that ever reigned ever that country. In
fact his life affords the best evidence of bis
extraordinary abilities. He raised himself
from a lew situation to be the sovereign ef a
great nation. His countrymen deem him the
restorer of that splendid empire created of
yere by Cyras and lost by the last Darius. This
empire he found at the outset of his career
shattered into many fragments ; In the course
of thirty years he succeeded in re-establishing
it into one compact whole, bounded by the
Euphrates, the Indian Ocean, the Indus, and
the Oxus. Many ef his maxims are still pre
served by Persian writers, and they display
both goodness and Avlsdom, He was Avont
to observe " that when a king is just, his sub
jects must love him and continue obedient,"
and by acting en this maxim he was enabled
to secure his numerous conquests. He used
also to say that " kings should never use the
sword where the cane would answer," — a
flue lesson to despotic monarchs, whom it
was meant to teach that they should never
take away life when the offence would admit
of a less punishment. He was wont to say
that there were four qualities essential for the
sovereign of a great empire, which, Ave may
observe, he himself possessed in a high de
gree — true and innate magnanimity ef soul ;
real goodness of disposition ; firmness suffi
cient to repress all who went out ef their
proper sphere ; and fixed principles of con-
323

duet, which prevented these whe served him
from ever entertaining apprehensions respect
ing their property, their honour, or their
lives. Such is the character given of this
monarch by the historians of his own coun
try. It may be entertaining to contrast
with this the account given of him and his
sen by Agathias, the self-conceited Byzan
tine historian. He says, boek iv. cap. 23. :
" ^'erily the first two sovereigns who ruled
over Persia after the overthrew of the Par
thians (I mean Artaxares and Sapores) were
most atrocious villains and abounding in
iniquity. One ef them slew his own master,
and forcibly and tyrannically seized the
crown ; the other was the author of the most
unheard-of atrocities." It is needless te say
which is the better authority, the Persian
historians er the bigoted Greek who viewed
every nation but his own as barbarous. The
poet Firdausi has given us the testament of
Ardshir in the form of a dying charge te his
son. The conclusion of it is worthy ef the
wisest monarch that ever lived. He says,
"Remember, my son, it is the prosperity
er adversity of the ruler that forms the
happiness or misery ef his subjects ; and
the fate of the nation depends on the con
duct ef the individual who fills the throne.
The world is exposed to constant vicissitudes ;
learn therefore te meet the frowns of fortune
with courage and fortitude, and te receive
her smiles with moderation and wisdom. To
sum up all, may your administration be such
as to bring at a future day the blessings
of those whom Ged has consigned to our
paternal care, on your memory and mine."
(Sir John IMalcolm, History of Persia ;
Tarikhi Tabari, I^ers. MS,; Gibbon, De
cline and Fall of the lioman Empire ; Hero
dian, lib. vi c. 6., Oxford, 1678; Agathias,
ed. Bonn, 1828.) D. F.-
ARDSHTR-DARA'ZDUST. [Ar
taxerxes Longimanus.]
ARDUENNA, UEMACLUS. [Aedenne,
Rehacle.] ARDUIN, or ARDOIN, king of Italy,
called also ARDWIG, was, according to some,
a descendant of King Berengarius II., but
according to ether and mere probable ac
counts was the descendant of a Norman ad
venturer called Roger, who, in the early part
of the tenth century, had acquired by mar
riage the county ef Oirade in Piedmont.
Roger left two sons ; one, Arduin, surnamed
Glabrio, became Count ef Susa, which country
had been devastated by the Saracens, and
Avhich he restored and re-peopled. This
Arduin, whe is mentioned in the " Chronicle
of Novalesa," died about 975. Roger's other
son, Odde, or Dodo, became Marquis ef
Eperedia, uoav Ivrea, and was the father of
Arduin, king ef Italy. When the Emperor
Othe IIL, the last of the imperial line of
Saxony, died near Rome, in January, 1002,
leaving no issue, Henry, duke of Bavaria,
Y 2

ARDUIN.

ARDUIN

Avho was of a colla'-.eral branch of the same
house, aspired to the croAvn ef Germany, and
having obtained the votes of a part of the
electors, was hastily crowned at Mainz ; but
the Archbishop of Cologne and the states of
Suabia and Lorraine having protested against
his election, Henry, after a shert contest,
contrived to conciliate his opponents by sub
mitting to undergo a second election, when
he Avas crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle by the
title of Henry IL, king of Germany. Many
of the Italian feudatories, seeing the line of
Saxony extinct, assembled at Pavia, and re
solved to elect one of their own countrymen
as king of Italy, and thus to separate the
Italian crown from that of Germany, as it
was before the coronation of Otho I, Their
choice fell upon Arduin, whe was crowned
in the church of St. Michael by the Bishop of
Pavia, the 15th of February, 1002. Arduin
was knoAvn as a man of courage and abilities,
but his temper was violent ; and he is re
ported to have killed In some quarrel, a few
years before his election, Peter, bishop ef
Vercelli, for which deed Pope Sylvester II.
denounced him as an outlaw, and gave his
property to the church of Vercelli. How
ever, the affair seems to have been hushed
up, as we find Arduin possessed of the mar
quisate of Ivrea, when his brother feudatories
selected him for their king.
Amulfus, archbishop of Milan, was absent
at the time of Arduln's election, having been
seut the year before by Otho III. on a mis
sion to Constantinople to bring over his in
tended bride, Helena, a Byzantine princess.
On his return to Italy, Arnulfus strongly
disapproved ef Arduln's election, especially
as It had been effected without his partici
pation. It being an ancient prerogative of the
metropolitan of Milan to preside in the diet
for the election of a new king, and to crown
the king elect. Arnulfus then entered into
correspondence with Henry of Germany, and
neither he nor the city of MUan, of which
the archbishop was lord, would acknoAvledge
Arduin. Other Italian prelates and lords
followed the example of Arnulfus, although
several of them professed all the while alle
giance to Arduin. It is said that Arduin
contributed to raise this feeling against him
by his haughtiness and violence, and that on
one occasion he laid violent hands upon the
Bishop of Brescia, and thrCAV him en the
ground. It ought to be observed, hoAvever,
in explanation of these repeated quarrels ef
Arduin Avitli bishops, that many of the bishops
of tliose times wrrp militant prelates .and
feudal lords, and likely to make as much use
of tlie SAVord as of the crosier,
Henry being uoav secure of his German
throne, turned his attention to Italy, ;iud sent
Otho, duke of Carinthia, Avilh troops to attack
Arduin, who marched to meet him at the
defile of Chiusa, in the valley of the Adige
above Verona, Avhere Otho was defeated,
321

But in 1004 Henry came himself with a large
force, and finding the defile of the Adige
too well guarded, he struck across the moun
tains, descended by the valley ef the Brenta,
and advanced towards Verona. Theudaldus,
count of Mantua and Ferrara, and his son
Boniface, the father of the famous Countess
Matilda, declared themselves for Henry ;
their example was followed by others, and
Henry made his entrance into Verona soon
after the Easter festivals. The Archbishop of
Ravenna, as well as the Archbishop of Mlhan,
acknowledged Henry; and Arduin, forsaken by
most of his followers, withdrew into the strong
country of Piedmont, where he had friends
and family connections. Henry proceeded
without opposition through Brescia and Ber
gamo te Pavia, where he was solemnly crowned
by the Archbishop of Milan, on the 14th of
May, by the title ef Henry I., king of Italy,
bis predecessor, Henry I. of Germany, not
having worn the Italian crown. In the
afternoon ef the day ef the coronation an
affray, originating in drunkenness, took place
between the German soldiers and the people
of Pavia ; and it is hinted by the chroniclers
that seme of Arduln's partisans took an ac
tive part in the tumult. The Bishop of Co
logne endeavoured in vain te restore order,
and was obliged to fly for his own safety.
The fighting lasted the whole night : at last
the Germans, in order te dislodge their anta
gonists from the windows and roofs of the
buildings, from whence they kept up a con
tinual discharge of all kinds of missiles, set
fire to some houses ; the fire spread rapidly,
and a great part of Pavia was burned, Henry
took refuge in the convent of St, Peter, styled
" in ccelo aureo," from whence, when the
tumult had subsided, he set out on his retum
te Germany, Arduin then came out of the
highlands, and returned to PaA'ia, where he
was received with open arms. He continued,
fer years, to be acknoAvledged as king of
Italy by a part ef the country ; but Milan, Ra
venna, Piacenza, Cremona, and all Eastern
Lombardy, acknowledged Henry. There is
an act of donation to the see of Pavia, made
by Count Otho, son of Arduin, and dated the
seventh year of the reign " of his most serene,
most pious, and most dread father and lord,"
It was during this leng contest about the
crown of Italy that several commercial towns,
such as Pisa, Lucca, and Genoa, beg.an to
govern themselves as independent munici
palities, professing, however, a nominal alle
giance to ene or the other ef the Iato rlv.U
kings. About the year 1011 or 1012, Arduin
appears, by the account of the chronicler
Arnulfus, to have Avaged au active Avar against
those toAvns of Lombardy Avhich Avere for
Henry, Arduin took A'ercelU, demolished
some miner places, and besieged Novara aad
Como, but Avas not able to attempt anything
against 51 ilan. It was theu that the seeds were
sown ef the rivalry between Milan and Pavia,

ARDUIN.

ARDUIN.

each of these cities claiming the rank of
capital of Lombardy, which rivalry breke
out afterwards in frequent wars. Arduin,
however, does not seem to have had his per
manent residence at Pavia, for we find him
residing at one time in the episcopal palace
of Bobbie, in the Ligurian Apennines.
Pope Benedict VIIL, who succeeded Ser
gius IV. A. D. 1012, being opposed by the
antipope, Gregory, who had a strong party
in Rome, was obliged te leave that city, and
he went to Germany to seek the support of
Henry, Avho, on his part, wished to be croAvned
emperor at Rome. In the autumn of the
following year, 1013, Henry and his wife
Cunegund repaired to Italy, accompanied by
a large force, and celebrated the Christmas
festivals at Pavia, Avhich town opened its
gates to them, Arduin having retired into
his hereditary territories, Avhere he defended
himself bravely in the castle of Sparrene, on
the river Oreo, near Ivrea, against the forces
of Henry. Henry himself went on to Rome,
whither Pope Benedict had preceded him,
and Avhere he was crowned emperor in Fe
bruary, 1014, by the title of Henry I. The
emperor and his consort returned to Germany
after the Easter festivals, and this Avas the
signal for Arduin to take the field again.
The chronicler Ditmarus of Merseburg says
that Arduin had sent envoys te Henry off'er-
ing te renounce the crown of Italy if Henry
would guarantee to him certain territories for
himseff and his heirs, whieh Henry refused
to do. Arduin took Vercelli again, and the
bishop of that town was obliged to run
away. Arduin was supported by some ef the
great feudatories, several of whom were out
lawed as rebels by Henry. 'The war seems
to have been one ef devastation, and to have
affected also the people ef Pavia, as the
bishop and clergy of that city appealed to the
emperor for his protection. In the year
1015, Arnulfus, archbishop of Milan, at the
head of a strong force of the partisans of the
emperor, besieged Arduin in the town of
Asti, according to seme, but according te
other accounts which appear more probable,
he drove him away from the town ef Ver
celli. Arduin, finding himself forsaken by
most of his followers, and being Avern out by
bodily Infirmities, retired into the monastery
of St, Benigno, called ef Fructuaria, lately
erected, partly by his own donations, in a
forest betAveen the rivers Oreo and IMaloue,
in the diocese of Ivrea, where having placed
the royal insignia en the altar, and assumed
the garb of a monk, he lingered for a few
months, and died in the following October,
1015. Henry was then universally acknow
ledged king of Italy.
'The troubled reign of Arduin, Avhich lasted
about thirteen years, is remarkable as being
the last attempt made by the Italians to have
a. native king. The inveterate dissensions
and jealousies between the various provinces,
325

towns, lords, and prelates, and that personal
ambition and consequent insubordination
which have been designated as characteristic
of the Italians of the middle ages, prevented
the consolidation of the kingly poAver in the
person of Arduin, who, on his part, had not
all the qualities requisite for such an arduous
office. It ought te be observed that the
records of this period are scanty and obscure.
(Sigonius, De Regno Italia ; Bossi, Storia
cV Italia ; Cibrario, Storia della Monorchia di
Savola ; VerrI, Storia di Milano ; Muratori,
Annali d'ltalia.) A. V.
A R D U I'N I, PI E'T R O, was born at
Verona. In 1759 he published a work en
titled " Animadversionum Betanicarura Spe
cimen," Padua, 4te. This was the first part,
a second part having been published at Ve
nice five years after. This work was u de
scription of the new and rare plants growing
in the botanic garden of Padua, as well as
of many of the wild plants growing in the
neighbourhood of Padua, The first part was
illustrated with tAvelve copper plates of the
new plants, and the second with twenty. The
plates were good, and many plants are here
described fer the first tune, as Salvia sere-
tina. Salvia syriaca, Sagina apetala, Alyssum
orientale, Salix purpurea, &c. Subsequent
to the publicatien of this werk, he was made
professor ef agriculture and rural economy
at Padua. In 1766 he published a Avork on
the culture and use of different plants which
are employed in domestic and rural economy,
under the title, " Memoria di Osservazione e
d' Esperienze sopra la Celtura e gli Usi di
varie Piante che servir pessono all 'Econo
mia," Padua, 4te. In this werk he has
treated of the vegetable kingdom, only as it
contributed to the wants of man in the pur
poses of agriculture. Several articles ef his
also on this subject occur in the sixth volume
ef the " Opuscula Sclentifica." Linnaeus com
memorated him in the name of the genus
Arduinia, (Haller, Bibliotheca Botanica ;
BIscheff, Lehrbuch der Botanik.) E. L.
ARDUTNO, MAESTRO, a Venetian
artist of the fourteenth century. He ap
pears te have been architect and sculptor.
There is in the monastery del Carmine, at
Venice, a Madonna and child inscribed with
his name, and he Is said also lo have laid the
foundation and commenced the building of
San Petrenie at Bologna. Masini, in his
" Bologna Perlustrata," mentions an Arduino
ef that place, beadle ef the college of philo
sophy and medicine, in 1515, Avhe was pain
ter, engraver in wood, and skUled in the
knowledge of herbs. (Orlandi, Abecedario
Pitlorico ; Cicognara, Storia della Scultura.) R, N, W,
ARDWIG. [Arduin.]
ARDYS {'ApSvs), king of Lydia, A^-as the
successor of his father Gyges. His reign
commenced E. c. fiSO, If we admit that of
Gyges to have commenced e, c, 718, and it
Y 3

ARDYS.

AREIUS.

lasted forty-nine years. Ardys was suc
ceeded by his son Sadyattes, 'The events of
the reign of Ardys are his capture of P iene,
ene of the states of the Ionian confederation,
his invasion of the Milesian territory, and
the inroad ef the Cimmerians, who, being
driven from their homes by the Nomadic
Scythians, made their way into Asia Minor,
and took Sardis, except the Acropolis,
Pausanias (iv, 24,) makes Aristomenes the
Messenian here a contemporary ef Ardys,
whioh is consistent enough with the period
here assigned to Ardys. (Herodotus, 1, 15,
&c.) G. L.
ARE HIN FRODE. [Ari hin Erode.]
ABECHIS. [Arigisus.]
ARE'GIO, PA'BLO DE, a Spanish
painter of great merit of the beginning of the
sixteenth century. He painted, in 1506, to
gether with Francisco Neapoli, the deers of
the great altar of the cathedral ef Valencia.
Each deor contains six pictures, three upon
the inside and three en the out. The subjects
are from the Ufe of the Virgin ; they are
executed in the style of Lionardo Da Vinci,
and the design, style, and expression of the
figures are admirable. Aregio was paid three
thousand ducats for these works. (Cean Ber
mudez, Diccionario Historico, ^c.) R. N. W,
ARE'GON {'Apr^ywv), a Corinthian painter
of uncertain period, who, together with Clean
thes ef Corinth, executed some works in the
temple of Diana Alpheionla, at the mouth of
the Alpheus in Ells, Aregen painted Diana
riding upon a griffin. From the nature of the
works alluded te of these artists it is impro
bable that the Cleanthes spoken of is the
same as the Cleanthes who, according to
Pliny, is said to have been the inventor of
the monogram or outline drawing. [Clean
thes.] (Strabo, vU. 343. ; Pliny, Hist Nat
xxxv. 5.) R. N. W.
AREGONDA. [Clotaire L]
AREIUS {"Apeios) occurs several times as
the name of one or more ancient medical
writers, for it is impossible to say whether
all the passages refer to the same individual.
The person of this name who was very inti
mate with Lecanius Bassus and Dioscorides,
and to whom the latter dedicates his work on
Materia Medica, has been supposed by some
critics te have been the Stoic philosopher of
Alexandria, Avho was a favourite of Augustus.
'This conjecture, however, has been refuted
by Fabricius, who considers that Dioscorides
more probably meant the same individual
who Is several times called by G alen a foUoAver
of Asclepiades, and whose medical formute
are frequently quoted. Galen also quotes the
prescriptions of a native of Tarsus of this
name, Avhe may perhaps be the same person;
as also the Lecanius Arelus mentioned by
Andromachus, Avhe must have lived about
the same time, that is, in the first century
after Christ, A person of this name is men
tioned by Soranus as havmg given an. account
326

of Hippocrates, in which he had inserted his
genealogy. Whether this be still the same
individual is uncertain, though there seem to
be ne difficulties in the supposition, (Fabri
cius, Biblioth. Graca, tem. iv. p. 675, ed.
Harles ; tom, xin, p. 84. ed. vet.) W, A. G.
AREIUS. [Arius.]
ARELLANO, GILLES (or ^GIDIUS)
RAMIREZ DE, a Spaniard of noble birth,
lived in the early part of the seventeenth
century. He is understood to have been a
member of the noble family of Arellano,
counts of AguUar, He attained high reputa
tion fer his erudition in Spanish history and
antiquities ; and his library graduaUy acquired
a valuable collection ef original ancient docu
ments, and of copies of others, obtained with
great trouble and at heavy expense. Possess
ing many claims to respect, in his own person
and in the dignity of his famUy, he received
public distinctions toe numerous to be
specified. He became a knight of Sant' lago,
primarius professor ef laws at Salamanca,
and a counsellor, not only in the Inquisition,
but in more than ene of the supreme courts
of the kingdom. The Uterary work by which
his name has been preserved, wais a genea
logical history of the family te which he is
believed te have belonged. It is entitled
" Memorial en justification de la grandeza
Antigua de los Condes de Agnilar," Madrid,
fol,, ne date. It was composed fer the purpose
of being presented te Philip III. of Spain, in
support of the claim ef Filipo Ramirez de
Arellano, count ef Agnilar, to rank as a
grandee of Castile. The work is com
mended by mere recent Spanish historians
as a model in its kind, and as having fur
nished very valuable materials for succeeding
writers, both in genealogy and in local an
tiquities. Don Gilles de Arellano is said
likewise to have written a law treatise on the
title of the Digest of Justinian, " De Pri-
vilegiis Creditomm." (N, Antonius, Biblio
theca Hispana Nova, ii 314., edit. 1672 ; De
Franckenau, BibUotheca Hispanica Historico-
Genealogico-Hcraldica, 1724, p. 3, ; Struve,
Bibliotheca Historica, vol, A-i, part i, p, 399,,
edit. 1782 — 1804.) W. S,
ARELLA'NO, JUAN DE, a Spanish
painter, born at Santorcaz in 1614, He first
studied at Alcala de Henares, and afterwards
Avith Juan de Sells at Madrid ; but finding
that even in his thirty-sixth year he had
made little progress in drawing, he took te
copying the floAver pieces of Mai-io, and at
the same time studying nature ; and such
was his application in this branch of art that
he eventually surpassed every Spanish painter
in the same line, and his pictures were sold
for very high prices. He died at Madrid in
1676, (Oean Bermudez, Diccionario His
torico, SfC-) R. N, W,
ARELLA'NO, PIERFRANCESCO,
PE'TRUS FRANCISCUS ARELLA'NUS,
was born at AgUano in Piedmont about the

ARELLANO.

AREMBERG.

middle of the sixteenth century. He prac
tised and taught medicine at Asti, where he
enjoyed a great reputation, net only as a phy
sician, but also as a theologian and phUoso
pher. He died when he was fifty years eld,
and it is wonderful, says Rossotto, hew a man,
so occupied as he Avas in the treatment of the
sick, could transcribe, much more compose, so
many books as he did, A part only of these
books was printed, namely, 1. "Trattato di
Peste," Asti, 1598, 4to. 2, " Awertimento so
pra la Cura deUa Centagione," Asti, 1 599, Svo,
3. " Theses variae de 'Trinitate," Asti, 1604,
4, " Carmen ad . . . Paulum V. in Tur
carum .Adventu centra Caesaream Majestatem,
&c," Asti, 1605, 4te. 5. " Praxis Arellana
super Trlbus Instrumentis totius Medicinae,
victus inquam Ratione, Sanguinis Jlissiene, et
Pharmacorum Administratione," Turin, 1610,
Svo. His numerous manuscripts on theology,
natural philosophy, &c. Avere preserved by
his nephew's son Carlo Antonio Arellano.
( Bonine, Biografia Medica Piemontese-) J. P.
AllE'LLIUS, a Roman painter ef ability,
who lived a little before the time of Augustus,
and obtained a notoriety for his pictures ef
goddesses, all ef Avhlch were painted from
loose Avonien, his companions. His pictures,
therefore, says Pliny, " formed a gallery of
harlots' portraits." (PUny, Hist Nat- xxxv.
37.) R. N. W.
ARE:\IBERG or AREMBERGH (a ter
ritory lying partly in the Westphalian domi
nions ef Prussia, partly in Hanover, and
partly in Belgium), Cou-nts and Dukes
OF. The earliest possessors of Aremberg
were of the famUy of the counts of Hostad.
In 1298 the heiress of Aremberg, Mechtllde,
married Eugelbrecht II., count of the Marck.
Aremberg fell to the share ef their third son,
Everhard, and continued in the family till
1547. Avhen MechtUde, heiress ef Aremberg,
married Johan von Eigne, in whose succes
sors the territories have continued. On the
death of her husband In 1568, the AvIdow ob
tained the erection of the county into a ducal
principality, Avlth a seat in the diet for her
self and afterwards for her son, Avho, by her
contract of marriage, was bound te bear the
title and arms of the house of .Vrcmberg.
She Avas succeeded by her son Karl, who
added to his dominions the lordship of En-
ghieii, and obtained the rank ef a grandee of
Spain in right of his Avife, .\nna of Croy,
through whom he acquired the dukedom of
Aarschot, and other considerable accessions ef
territory. He succeeded his father in the
confidence ef Philip IL, w.is made a knight
of the Golden Fleece, an admiral ef the
Spanish fieet, and treasurer of the Spanish
Netherlauds. In 1587 he Avas provisionally
appointed to succeed as governor of the
Netherlands, in the ctise ef the death of
Count Mansfeld. He died in 11316. His
successors were successi\ely PhiUpp-K.arl
(who died In 1640), and PhiUpp Fi-.anz (whe
327

died in 1674). The territory coming through
these in linear succession, fell, by the death
of the latter, to his brother, Karl Eugen,
who was first a canon of Cologne and after
wards captain-general ef Hainault, and a
knight ef the Gelden Fleece. He died in
1681. His two sens, Philipp Karl Franz, who
was his successor, and Alexander Joseph,
were killed in battle ; the former at the battle
of Salenkemen in Hungary in 1691, where
he performed brUliant services against the
Turks, the latter in 1683, also in the war
with the Turks in Hungary. His widow,
Maria Henrietta, marchioness of Grana iu
her OAvn right, Avas celebrated for her mas
culine courage and firmness. Left a young
widow and the guardian of her children, she
refused to acknowledge the claims of the
Duke of Anjou to the Spanish crown, and
being thus. In the course ef the War ef the
Successien compelled to leave the family
possessions, she lived in poverty at Cologne
till the battle ef Ramllies made an opening
for her return, (ilereri, voc. " Aremberg,"
and -* Eigne ; " Anselme, Histoire Ginialo-
gique, vu. 165 — 171., vin. 39 — 42. ; Ersch
and Gruber, Allgem. Encyclop,) J. H. B.
AREMBERG, AUGUSTE MARIA
RAYMOND, PRINCE OF, was a younger
son of Karl Leopold, and brother and suc
cessor of Ludvic Engelbert of Aremberg.
He was born at Brussels in 1753. Before
succeeding to his patrimonial honours, he
enjoyed in France the title of Compte de
la JIarck, from his having succeeded through
his maternal ancestors te a German re
giment in the service of France. His
mother, who was heiress of the Marck, had
brought considerable territorial possessions
into the family, and this portion ef It pro
bably fell te the younger sen, because it could
not be held by the elder, Avho was bUnd.
In 1778 he served with his regiment in In
dia. On his return to France in 1784, he
was seriously wounded in a duel, in which
he killed his antagonist. He adopted the
doctrines of the revolutien, amd procured
himself to be elected a member of the States
General in 1789, as representative of the
portion of the paternal territory Avhich lay
in French Flanders, He sat in the minority
ef the nobles whe continued in the general
sittings of the estates, and remained ais a
member of the National Assembly, When
the revolutionary movement extended to the
Netherlands, he went thither to support it.
He soon saw danger, however, to his family
possessions in the storm he had assisted to
raise. He was deprived of the command of
his regiment, probably because he a\ as an
aristocrat ; and losing, at least within the
soU of France, all privileges ef high birth,
he gradually became disgusted with the prin
ciples of the revolution. He had been a
follower of Mirabcau in the National As
sembly, and became the agent through
Y 4

AREMBERG,

AREMBERG,

Avhom his chief offered to betray their
common party to the court. He was ene
of Mirabeau's executors, after whose death
he took refuge in his paternal territories.
The approach of the French army suggested
te him the imprudence ef trusting te such a
retreat, and he sought and obtained protec
tion from the Emperor of Austria. He held
the rank of major-general in the imperial
army, and was trusted with seme diplomatic
services, but received ne active military em
ployment. It is said that he afterwards
offered his services to Napoleon, and that
they were declined. On the restoration of
the Bourbons, he returned te Brussels, and
received the rank of lieutenant-general from
the King ef the Netherlands. He attached
himself to the Belgian kingdom at the dis
ruption of the Netherlands in 1830, He died
at Brussels in September, 1833, He had
collected a mass of memoirs, and some amus
ing anecdotes are told ef his having employed
men of letters to reduce them into order,
who were successively driven from the task
by his parsimony and vanity, {Biog, Uni
verselle, Suppl-) J. H. B.
AREMBERG, CHARLES, ef the order
of St. Francis. Feller says the name
Charles was assumed according to custom
en his entering the order, that his chris
tened name was Antoine or Antonius, that
he held the title of Count of Seneghem, and
that he was the son ef Karl von Ligne, duke
of Aremberg, He is said to have joined his
order on the 4th of March, 1616, at the age
of twenty-three, and thus appears te have
been born in the year 1593. He died in
1669, He wrote " Flores Seraphici, sive
Icones, in quibus continentur Vitae et Gesta
illustrium Ordinis Fratrum Minorum S,
Francisci Capiicinorum, qui ab Anno 1525,
usque ad Annum 1612 in eodem Ordine,
Miraculls, ac Vitae Sanctimonia, floruerunt,"
printed at Cologne in two vols, folio, 1640 —
1641, with plates; also " Clypeus Seraphieus,
sive Scutum Veritatis in Defensionem An-
nallum Fratrum Minorum Capiicinorum,"
printed at Cologne, in 1643. The titles of
these works are not to be found iu the cata
logues of the great public libraries, and the
bibliographical writers do not mention the
books as if they had seen them. Clement,
whose version of the title-pages is given
above, as the most full and apparently au
thentic, says they are very rare, and admits
that he takes his account of them at second
hand. It appears that the second work is a
vindication of the veracity ef the first, Avhich
the continuator ef Wadding's History refers
te once or twice with little respect. (Cle
ment, Bibliothiique Curieuse ; Ancona, An
nales Minorum, xix. 406. 416. ; Nouveau
Dictionnaire Historique, Suppl-; Feller, Diet.
Hislorique ; Jocher, Allgem. Gelehrten-Lexi
con ; Biog. Universelle.) J, H. B.
AREMBERG, JOUAN VON EIGNE,
328

COUNT, a general in the service of Spain,
in the War of Independence in the Nether
lands. His patrimonial title was Baron of
Barbangon, which he possessed together with
La Bussiere, Gouy, and Heemskirk ; and he
obtained the title by which he is known in
history, by marrying the heiress ef the house
of Aremberg, The emperor, Charles V,, be
stowed en him the order of the Gelden Fleece
in 1546, and MaximUian II, granted him a
diploma as a prince ef the German empire.
He was chosen by PhiUp II, govemor ef
Friesland and Overyssel, and the Duchess ef
Parma, the regent, is said te have relied en
him as likely to be active in suppressing the
progress ef Lutheranism, When the views
of the Prince of Orange and his friends
began to assume a hostile appearance, Arem
berg early showed himself disposed te sup
port the Spanish authority, and he had a
personal dispute with Count Egment on the
subject ef the remonstrance transmitted to
Spain in 1563 against the administration of
Cardinal Granvell, On the signing ef the
covenant by the associated lords iu 1566, he
offered his aid to the king. When France,
in 1567, requested assistance from Spain
against the Hugonots, Alba sent Count
Aremberg to that country, at the head
ef two thousand foot and twelve hundred
horse. Such a force could, at that junc
ture, be ill spared by the Spanish party,
but it appears that Alba's object was, by
sending against the Protestants of France
a hostile force raised in the Netherlands
and commanded by ;> man connected with
these provinces, te familiarise the Hugonots
with the feeling that the Protestants of the
Netherlands were their enemies rather than
their friends. On the breaking out of hos
tilities with the Prince of Orange, at the
commencement ef the year 1568, great re
liance was placed in Aremberg by Alba,
as one whe knew the nature ef the country
aud the people, yet was a steady friend of
Spain. He did net long survive the com
mencement of the war. The Princes Lewis
and Adolphus of Nassau had entered Fries
land, where Aremberg was governor, and
taken the town of Dam. Aremberg being
sent against them, retook the tOAvn, and drove
his opponents into nearly impregnable swamps
at some distance from it. The Spanish part
of his army, looking en the Dutch with
contempt, urged Aremberg to make a charge
en their position, Avhich it is said his cooler
judgment and his knoAvledge of the character
of the men te be attacked, Avould have
prompted hun to aA-oid, if he had net feared
the charge of pusillanimity. 'This affair,
called the Battle of Groningen, occurred on
the 4th of May, 1568. Aremberg died of
Avounds received in single combat with Prince
Adolphus of Nassau, Avho was left dead on
the spot Avhere the two commanders met.
There is a portrait ef Aremberg in the

AREMBERG.

AREMBERG.

ordinary editions of Strada : it represents a
man of mild and thoughtful character.
(Strada, De Bello Belgico, dec. i. lib. i. iii.
vii. ; Le Clerc, Histoire des Provinces Unies,
liv. ii. ; Ersch and Gruber, Allgem- En
cyclop-) J. H. B,
AREMBERG, KARL LEOPOLD VON
LIGNE, DUKE OF, son and successor ef
Leopold Philip, was governor of Hainault,
and a field-marshal in the Austrian service,
and distinguished himself in the Seven Years'
War, In the campaign ef 1757, he com
manded a detachment ef the forces which
advanced en Dresden immediately before the
battle of Prague, After the battle of Kolin,
in which Frederic had been defeated, he ha
rassed the retreating army of the Hereditary
Prinoe of Prussia at the head of twenty
thousand men, and took the town of Gabel in
the face of the Prussian army. In the fol
lowing year he led the right wing in the suc
cessful attack made by Daun on Frederic's
forces in Hochkirchen. In 1759, in an attack
on the Prussian camp, he was defeated by
Wunscli, A\ho took tAvelve hundred prisoners.
He was married to Louise Margarethe of the
Marck, avIio brought considerable territorial
additions te the house of Aremberg. (Ersch
und Gruber, Allgem. Encyclop- ; Lord Dover,
Life of Frederic II-, 39, 63, 143, 180,) J, H, B,
AREMBERG, LEOPOLD PHILIP
KARL JOSEPH VON LIGNE, DUKE
OF, Avas born at Mens in 1690, Heearly ex
hibited the hereditary attachment ef his family
to the house ef Austria ; and, joining the im
perial army in the ^^'ar ef the Spanish Succes
sion, was wounded at the battle of Malplaquet
in 1 709, He held the rank of major-general in
the Austrian service in the war with the Turks
in Himgary in 1716, He was wounded in
the face at the siege of Temeswar, and as
commander of the right wing of the infantry,
contributed greatly to the success of Eugene's
army at the great battle fought under the
Avails of Belgrade in 1717, He was appointed
grand baUift' (if Hainault, and afterwards, in
1719, made governor of Mons, He obtained
the order of the Gelden Fleece, and in 1725
Avas appointed honorary member ef the new
Council of Regency of Flanders. After the
peace ef trtrecht he Avas in the habit of
A-islting Paris, and he became popular among
the literary circles of France, He Avas a
patron ef men of letters, and rendered him
self remarkable for acts of kindness and
generosity to the peet Jean Baptiste Rousseau,
Avhich are said te have been ill requited.
He was one of the men ef rank whe paid
homage to Voltaire, from Avliom he Avas
honoured by a visit at his residence at En-
gliien. The recurrence of hostilities betAveen
Austria and France in 1733 broke for a time
the duke's connection Avitli his friends ofthe
latter country, and he served under his old
commander. Prince Eugene, in the operations
against the Duke ef Bei-Avick on the Rhine.
329

In 1737 h« was raised to the rank of field-
marshal, and made commander-in-chief of
the imperial forces in Flanders. He served
Maria Theresa in the War of the Austrian
Succession, and, commanding her forces in
Flanders, joined the army of Marshal Stair
in its progress along the Rhine In 1743, and
was wounded at the battle ef Dettingen. He
was afterwards chosen governor of Hainault.
He died at his castle ef Heverle near Lou
vain, on the 4th March, 1754. He had been
married on 29th March, 1711, to Maria
Louisa, daughter of Nicolas PignatelU, duke
of Bisaccia in Naples. (Moreri, voc. "Ligne;"
Anselme, Histoire Ginialogique, vlli. 42. ;
Biog. Universelle, Suppl. ; Ersch and Gruber,
Allgem. Encyclop.) J. H. B.
AREMBERG, LUDVIC ENGELBERT
VON LIGNE, DUKE OF, sen and succes
sor ef Karl Leopold, was born eu the 3d of
August, 1750. At the age of twenty-four,
and just after his marriage, he was ren
dered totally blind for life by an accident
incurred in shooting, and lived the life of
a recluse at his estate at Enghien, He is
chiefly remarkable for having had honours
heaped on him by Napoleon, Avhose policy it
was to attach to his empire the heads ef the
neble houses in the smaller states ef Europe.
In 1806 he Avas appointed a member of the
conservative senate, and Avas invested with
several of the titular honours of the empire.
On the fall of Napoleon he retired to Brus
sels, Avhere he died in 1820, He was suc
ceeded by his younger brother, Auguste
Maria Raymond, {Biog. Universelle, Suppl.)
J, H, B.
ARE'NA, ANTOINE D', a jurist, but
chleflj' known as one of the earliest writers
of Blacaronic verses, was bom at SouUers, in
the diocese of Toulon, in France, near the
end of the fifteenth or at the commencement
ef the sixteenth century. He studied civil
law at Avignon, He is said by the French
biographical authorities to have published
several tracts on jurisprudence, distinguished
for their barbarous latinity ; but the writer
ef this notice has net succeeded in finding
the titles ef any of his juridical Avorks in the
bibliographical collections er the catalogues
of the principal libraries. It is probable
that he may sometimes be confounded with
Jacobus Arena, As he was judge ef St.
Remi, near Aries, he must haie been at
least nominally a laAvyer; and there is a
characteristic iUustration of his studies in
the dedication to his Macaronic poem on
Charles V., Avhere he endeavours to create
a joke by referring te a passage in the
" Extravagantes," which the editor ef the
edition referred te beloAv shows is not to be
found in that collection, but is in the De
cretals, 'The Avork here referred to was first
published in black letter af Avignon, in
1536, the year in Avhich the event it com
memorates, the invasion of Provence by

ARENA.

ARENA.

Charles V., occurred. Arena was then living
at the town of Aix ; and having been an eye
witness of the invasion, he is referred to by
Bouche, in his " Histoire de Provence," as
giving a very accurate detail ef the principal
events of the invasion. The first edition of
this book is very rare : Bouche mentions his
having seen two copies, and having heard of
only a third being extant. There is an edi
tion printed at Lyon, in 1760, by an editor
whe confesses his Inability to obtain a copy
of that of 1536, and whe prints from one
bearing date in 1670, and having the mys
tical imprint " Stampatus in stampatura stam-
patorum." The title of the edition of 1760
is " Meygra Entreprisa CatoUqui Impera-
toris, quando de Anno Domini MDXXXVI.
veniebat per Prevensam bene corrossatus iu
postam prendere Fransam cum Villis de
Provensa ; propter gressas et menutas gentes
rejohire : per Antonium Arenam Bastifausta."
There is a dedication to the vice-chancellor
ef Provence, which is a not unsuccessful
caricature ef the fulsome dedications of the
day. The principle on which the Macaronic
poem is composed is the adaptation of French,
Italian, German, or provincial words to the
inflexions, syntax, and prosody of the Latin.
The grammatical form of the modern lan
guages does net appear to be used, except in
the occasional introduction of the articles.
The effect of bombast appears to be aimed at
by the partial introduction of passages from
classical poetry, famUiar to the ear by their
frequent use : —
" Sum Dominus mundi ; gladii est mihi cessa potestas,
Atque meis regitur legibus omnis homo.
Parcere subjectis, gentes frenare superbas
Sura solitus, Reges atque tuare males.
Non possera vobis tantas recitare menassas,
Quantas euro furia babilha lingua refert.
Nunc pro veraiho Ie mondus cregneret ipsum,
Atque bonetatas quisque gitaret ei ;
Et silli prestarent de tola parte secorsum,
Sensa denariis cum sQa bursa foret."
Of another ef Arena's werks which is
very rare, the felloAving account, a mix
ture apparently ef title-page and address,
is copied from Clement : — " Antonius de
Arena, Provengalis de bragardissima Villa
de Seleriis : ad sues compagnones studiantes,
qui sunt de persona friantes, bassas dansas
in galantl stile bisognantes : et de noA'O per
ipsum correctas, et sollter augmentatas, cum
guerra Romana totum ad lengum sine require,
et cum guerra Neapolltana, et cum revolta
Genucusi et guerra AvenlonensI : et epistola
ad falotisslmam garsam pre passando tempus
alagramentum mandat. Leges dansandl sunt
hie, quas fecit Arena, Bragardisanus, atque
falotus homo," Printed at Lyon, 1529, and
1533, 12nie. There are other tAvo editions of
this work slightly different in the title ; the
one printed at Paris, 1575, the other without
date, (Ersch and Gruber, Allgem. Encyc. ;
Jiicher, Allgem. Gelehrten-Lexicon, Suppl. ;
Moreri, JJiciion. Jlislor. ; Clement, Biblio
theque Curieuse ; Woi-ks referred to,) J. H, B.
330

ARE'NA, BARTOLOMME'O, was born
at the town of Isola Ressa in Corsica, pro
bably about 1760, and was by profession an
advocate. His first conspicuous appearance
in public life was in 1789, when on his re
turn to Corsica from Paris, te which he had
been paying a visit, he made himself particu
larly active in organising the Cersican na
tional guard. In 1790 he was chosen secre
tary te the assembly ef Cersican electors met
at Orezza, of which General Paoli, then not
long returned from England, was president,
and Pozzo di Borgo and Joseph Bonaparte
were members, while Napoleon was present
as a spectator. It is said to have been
against the will of Paoli, who had been his
friend, but to whom his violent epinions were
not acceptable, that Arena wais next year
elected one of the members for Corsica of
the Legislative Assembly of France. He
took an active part in promoting seme ofthe
most violent measures of the Revolution, and
was secretary to the assembly on the memo
rable loth of August. He seen became the
declared enemy of Paoli, and excited sus
picions at Paris of the intentions of that
general at a time when it has since been
ascertained that Paoli, however disgusted at
the conduct of the republicans, had taken
no step against the government of France.
The partisans of PaoU expressed their in
dignation at Arena's conduct by burning his
house at Isola Rossa, and destroying his large
and beautiful garden in open day. Arena
repeated his denunciations mere A-ehemently
in 1793, when the indignation ef Paoli at the
executien of Louis XVI. could hai-dly be con
cealed, and the general was in consequence
summoned to the bar of the National Con
vention, to which he replied by inviting the
English to Corsica, Arena, whe in a printed
letter had boasted that it was he who had
denounced Paoli to the National CoiiA-entien,
the executive council and the popular so
cieties of France, Avas, on the 27th ef May,
1793, declared infamous by the National
Assembly of Corsica at Corte, and banished
the island. He had already, in 1792, shown
some military talent Avhile accompanying the
unsuccessful French expedition against Sar
dinia, of which the National ConA-ention had
appointed him superintendent, and he now, in
conjunction with Casabianca, held out Calvi
against the English, whe were under the
command of Nelson. Ou the 10th of Au
gust, 1794, Calvi surrendered on condition
that the garrison shoiUd be sent to France,
Avliere Arena warmly declaimed against the
apathy of the French at the loss of Corsica.
On the evacuation ef the island by the
English he returned, and in 1798 Avas chosen
meinber of the CouncU of Five Hundred by
the electors of Golo, after a severe contest
and a succession of riots, ending in a double
return, whieh was finally decided in his
favour. He continued a member of the

ARENA.

ARENA.

Council of Five Hundred till its forcible
dissolution en the 18th Brumalre by Na
poleon. None ef the members exhibited
greater energy in opposition to that military
revolution than Arena, whe was reported and
currently believed at the time to have rushed
at Napoleon with a dagger, and exclaimed,
that if Corsica had preduced a Caesar, it
should also have a Brutus. Arena denied
the charge of attempting assassination, in a
letter to the joumals in the following month ;
and he repeated the denial in a letter te the
Italian journals in May, 1815, having been
deprived of the opportunity of making his
contradictien sufficiently public during the
whole interval of Napoleon's power between.
The consequence of his opposition to the
revolution of 'the 18th Brumaire was, that
with thirty-six other repnbUcan members he
was condemned to deportation to French
Guiana ; but public opinion was against the
execution of the sentence, and Arena was
finally allowed to retire to Leghorn, where
he spent the remainder of his life in quiet.
He was accustomed to resort te a favourite
coffee-house, where he might constantly be
heard maintaining his eld repnbUcan opinions,
and was always prophesying the establish
ment of a European democratic comnion-
wealth. His death is stated in the " Biogra
phie Universelle " te have taken place in
1829, but Renucci, in his " History of Cor
sica," gives the 19th of April, 1832, as the
date of the event. Though he had many
opportunities ef enriching himself during the
revolutionary times in France, he closed his
career in honourable poverty. (Renucci,
Storia di Corsica, Bastia, 1833, i. 227. 290,
&c., ii. 13. 151, &c. ; Biographie des
Hommes Vivants, 1. 103. ; Biographie Uni
verselle, edit, ef 1843, ii. 173.) T. W.
ARE'NA, GIUSEPPE, a NeapoUtan mu
sician, born at the beginning ef the eighteenth
century, was the author of several success -
ful operas ; aniong them " Achille in Scire,"
produced at Rome in 1738 ; " Tigrane," at
Venice In 1741 ; " Alessandro in Persia," at
Londen in 1741; and " Farnace," at Rome
in 1742. (Gerber, Lexicon der Tonk'unstler,) E. T.
ARE'NA, GIUSEPPE, brother of Bar
tolommeo, was a native of Corsica. At the
age ef tAventy-one years he was appointed
chef de bataillon, on the first organisation of
the national guard. He served in the cam
paign of Italy, during which he attained the
rank of adjutant-general, and distinguished
himself at the siege of 'Toulon in 1793. In
the year 1796 he was elected deputy to the
council of five hundred from the department
of Golo. He afterwards became chief of
brigade of the gendarmerie, but resigned this
post on the revolution of the ISth Brumalre,
in order to avoid serving under the orders of
Napoleon. On the 9th ef November, 1800,
he was arrested at the opera ou the charge ef
331

being concerned with Ceracchi, Topine-Le-
brun, Demerville, and Diana, in a plot to
assassinate the first consul on that night, and
delivered over te the criminal tribunal ef
Paris. The process was much delayed by
the want ef direct evidence ef his criminality,
and it is supposed that he would have been
acquitted, but fer the attempt made by the
explosion ofthe infernal machine en the
24th of December following. This second
attempt, however, hastened the proceedings,
and led to his condemnation on the 9th of
January, 1801. He was executed on the
30th ef the same month. The whole process
has been printed under the title " Proces
instruit par le Tribunal Criminel du De
partement de la Seine contre Demerville,
Ceracchi, Arena et autres, prevenus de
Conspiration contre la Personne du Premier
Consul Bonaparte," Paris, 1801, Svo. {En
cyclopedic des Geris du Monde; Rabbe,
Biographie des Contemporains; Arnault,
Biographie des Contemporains ; Biographie
Moderne,) J, W, J.
ARE'NA or HARENA, JACOBUS
DE, a civilian, who lived about the end ef
the thirteenth and the beginning of the four
teenth centuries. It is not known in what
country he was born : seme of the ordinary
authorities say he was a native ef Parma,
ethers that he was a Belgian. He is said to
have taught civil law at Padua in the year
1300. He wrote several treatises on branches
of the civil law, which are in the collections
ef the werks of the miner civilians. These
which have come under the notice of the
present writer are — 1. " De Praeceptis Judi-
cum," Tractatus Tractatuum, tem. iii. p. 11. f.
34.; consisting ef twenty-three sections, and
containing remarks on practice in relation to
jurisdiction, the forms of judgments, appeals,
&c, 2, " De Cessione Actlonum," ib. f, 74. ;
consisting of eighty-six sections, and, like the
other, relating to practice. 3. " De Excus-
sionibus Bonorum," ib. i. 141.; consisting ef
thirty-six sections, and treating of execution
against the property ef a debtor. This tract
is also contained in the collection published
at Amsterdam in 1669, called " Benvenuti
Stracehae aliorumque Jurisconsultorum de
Jlercatura, Cambiis, &c.," and in the " Trac
tatus de Fldejussorlbus " (1607) ef Hippo
lytus Marcilius. 4. " De Sequestratlonibus,"
Tr. Tract, ut sup., f. 143.; consisting of
tAventy-sit sections, relating, like the pre
ceding werk, to the practice of debtor and
creditor. This also is in the collections ef
Straccha and Marcilius. 5. " De Expensis
in Judicio factis," 2>. Tract, ut sup,, f 394.;
consisting of tAventy-six sections. In the
title of this tract the author is called " Par-
mensis," and " V. I. D. Doctor of Civil and
Canon Law." 6. " De Pesitlonibus," Tr.
Tract- iv. f 3. ; consisting ef forty-four sec
tions. This is also a work of practice, and
professes, in the preface, to have been sug-

ARENA.

AREND,

gested by the demand for such a book for the
use ef professional lawyers. It might be
called an essay on pleading, 7, " De Cem-
missariis," t4, vUi. p. i. f 191.; consisting of
fifty-three sections, and relating to testaments
and their execution. 8. " Solennis Tractatus de
Quaestionibus," ib.xi.\i.i. f. 291,; consisting
of fifteen sections, and relating to the forms
of administering the torture. 9. " De Ban-
nitis," ib. f. 355.; consisting ef fifty sections,
relating to the punishment of banishment,
and incidentally to that of transportation.
(Jocher, Allgem. Gelehrten-Lexicon ; Works
referred to above.) J. H, B,
ARENAS. [Egas, Anequin de.]
AREND, BALTHASAR, was the sen of
Caius Arend, or more correctly Arents, a
distinguished divine ; he was born at Neudorf,
in the duchy of Holstein, about 1640. After
having studied divinity at Jena, Leipzig, and
several other German universities, as well as
at Copenhagen, he became minister at Del
menhorst, in the present duchy of Oldenburg,
where he lived from 1668 till 1675, when he
was appointed minister at Berdum in Ost-
friesland. He died there in 1687. He is
sometimes called " Gllickstadiensls," from
¦which, however, we must not conclude that
he was born at Gluckstadt, where his father
was minister from 1654 till 1678. He wrote
several works on divinity, of which the prin
cipal are : — 1. " Geistlicher Krieg, das Him-
melreich mit Gewalt zu sturmen," Gluck
stadt, 1671, 12mo. 2. " Geistlicher Friede
mit Gett," Gluckstadt, 1671, 12mo. ; these
are two sermons. He published some other
sermons, the most remarkable ef which is :
— 3. "Des Leibes und der Seelen Zustand
nach dem Tode," Gliickstadt, 1776, 4to. This
is a funeral sermon en the death of Anton
Giinther, the last count of Oldenburg. 4,
"Disputatio Historico - Theologica de Re
surrectione Christi, adversus Haereticos et
Hostes alios," Strassburg, 1664, 4to, He left
three MSS. in German, two of which treat of
the history and geography of Ostfriesland,
and the third, "Exilium Mortis" er "Der
Todes-Vertreiber," is a collection of two
thousand three hundred religious and moral
sentences, in two volumes in 4to, These
MSS, are in the archives of Aurich, the
capital of Otsfriesland. Arend is the editor of
J. V, Andreas, Vox Libera {de Statu Ec
clesia Lutherana Corruptissimo), &c, Gliick
stadt, 1667, 12me. (MoUerus, Cimbria Li
terata, vol, 1, p. 20.) W. P.
ABEND, or more correctly ARENTS,
CAIUS or KAY, was born on the 1st ef
December, 1614, at Ifanrove, a royal castle
in Holstein, of which his father George,
prffitor of the King ef Denmark, was the
governor. In 1633 he went to the iiuivcr-
sity of Rostock, where he studied divinity
under the celebrated Laureinberg, and ouly
ene year after entering the university, he gave
private lectures on logic and metaphysics.
332

In 1636 he went to Gothaborg In Sweden, as
instructor to the children of a wealthy mer
chant, and in 1639 he married Maria Braua,
the daughter of an alderman ef that city. In
he same year he was appointed minister at
Hendorf in Holstein ; in 1654 he became
dean at Gluckstadt, and in 1661 minister of
the royal chapel of that town, which office
he held till 1678, when he was appointed
minister at Meldorf, and superintendent of
the church in the district of Ditmarschen.
He died at Meldorf on the 14th ef March,
1 691. He was the father of Balthasar Arend,
the divine, and John George Arend, a phy
sician. Cains Arend was an orthodox, and very
laborious divine, and endured many hard
ships and moral suff'erings during the Thirty
Years' War. In 1643 his house was burned
by the Swedes ; he was robbed of all his
property, and narrowly escaped assassination.
His symbol was " Geduld frisst den Teufel "
(Patience devours the devil). Jloller gives
a complete catalogue of his theological pro
ductions, most of which are sermons, the
principal of which are: — 1. " Uebung des
Kleinen Catechism!, in Fragen und AntAvort
vor die Kinder," Gluckstadt, 1648, 12mo. ;
2. "Der Herrscher des Lebens und Todes,"
Gluckstadt, 1653, 4to. ; 3. "Der XCI.
Psalm," Gluckstadt, 1663, 12mo. ; 4. "Gold-
hauns ChristUcher und von Gott gesegneter
Ehefrauen," Gliickstadt, 1666, 12mo. ; 5.
"Drei Schone Amaranthen auf den Sarg
Dr. Christiani von Stocken," Gluckstadt,
1 685, 4to. All these are sermons. A short
time before his death, he ordered that the
text of his funeral sermon should be Job, xix.
25 — 27., and he wrote his meditations en
this text, which were afterwards published
by the Rev. Henry Hahn, together with his
funeral sermon upon Arend. MoUer mentions
scA'eral other Arends, who wrote on divinity,
but they are only important for the ecclesias
tical history of the duchies of Schleswig and
Holstein. (MoUerus, Cimbria Literata, i- 20
— 21.) W. P.
ARENDS, JAN, a Dutch pamter, bora
at Dordrecht in 1 738. His father was a sur
geon, and he was the brother ef the poet
Roelof Arends. He first learned painting
of J. Ponse at Dordrecht, and afterwards
studied some time at Amsterdam. After his
return home he commenced as a painter of
aU subjects, but subsequently almost confined
himself te marine pieces. From Dordrecht
he went to Middelburg, Avhere he lived seme
years, and he was chiefly occupied in malt
ing drawings ef country houses, some of
AvhIch he etched himself, others have been
engraved bv French artists. He died in
1805 at Dordrecht. (Van Eynden and Van
der Wllllgen, Vaderland.sche Schilderkunst,
\r. ; Nagler, A'eias AUgemeines KUnstier
Lexicon-) R. N. "\\'.
ARENSBECK, PEDER DIERK, a

ARENSBECK.

AHESL

Swedish scholar, and a native ef Nerike, was
probably born in the beginning of the seven
teenth century. After having completed his
studies of the classical and oriental languages
in the universities of Sweden, h'e visited
several foreign universities at the expense of
Queen Christina. After his return te his
native country he was appointed professor of
classical and oriental languages in the gym
nasium at Strengnas. In 1656 he became
minister at St. Catherine's at Stockholm,
where he died in 1673.
A ncAv Swedish translation ef the Bible
having become necessary, bishop John Mat-
thill engaged Arensbeck te co-operate in this
undertaking, and Arensbeck accepted the pro
posal. An account ef the principles which
Arensbeck obserA-ed in translating is given
in his little work, " Specimen Conciliatienis
Linguarum ex nativis earundem Proprieta
tibus, in Textus aliquot Saoros ad veram et
convenientem Linguae SuecicacVersionem De-
ductum, et Censuran literatorum Exhibitum,"
Strengnas, 1648, 4to. This work is net in
the library of the British Museum. ( Adelung,
in his Supplement to Jocher's AUgemeines
Gelehrten-Lexicon, refers to Faut, Historia
Lileratnra Graece in Suecia-) W. P.
ARENTS. [Arend.]
AREPOL.'SAMUEL. [Aeipol, Samuel.]
A'RESAS ('Ape'o-as), a Lucanian, pro
bably of Croten, who succeeded Tydas as
the head of the Pythagorean school ef phi
losophy. Beyond this fact nothing is known
of him. He wrote a werk on the nature of
man (nepl ^vaeios ' AvBpdiirov), of which a frag
ment is preserved in Stobaeus. From this
fragment it appears, that Aresas considered
the soul of man to consist ef three parts,
reason, passion, and propensities. ( lambli
chus, De Vita Pythagora, c. 36.; Stobaeus,
Ecloga Physica, 1. 847. ed. Heeren.) L. S.
ARE'SI, PA'OLO, an Italian ecclesiastic,
possessed for a considerable time no mean
reputation, as a writer on practical theology.
His father, a noble MUanese, having been
appointed podesta ef Cremona, he was born
in that city about the year 1574. In early
youth he entered the order ef Theatine
Clerks Regular, and assumed thenceforth the
name of Paolo instead of that ef Cesare,
Avhich he had received in baptism. His pre
cocious learning gained for him, before he
had completed his twenty-fourth year, a
lectureship In philosophy and theology at
Naples ; and he afterwards taught theology
at Rome, devoting special attention te hemi-
letics. He was not less successful in the
practice of sacred eloquence than in teaching
its theory. His fame as a preacher spread
all over Italy, although he laboured under
natural Impediments which might have alto
gether stepped the career of any one less en
thusiastic and resolute. In 1620, when he
was confessor at Turin to the Princess Isa-
belle of Savoy, he Avas appointed by Pope
333

Paul V. te the bishopric of Torfona. He
held that see for twenty-four years, ending
with his death in 1644 ; and during that long
period he distinguished himself highly, not
only fer his activity in the literature of his
profession and for his patronage of literary men,
but for the earnestness and zeal with which
he performed the ordinary duties of his
office. He was a voluminous Avriter, beth in
Latin and in Italian, and left a large number
ef manuscripts unpubUshed. The felloAving
are his publishedLatin works: — 1 . "In Libres
Aristotelis de Generatione et De Corruptiene,"
Milan, 1617, 4to. 2. " De Aquaj Transfor-
matiene in Sacriflcio Missae," 'Tortona, 1622,
Antwerp, 162S, Svo. 3. "Censtitutio Syno-
dali.s," 'Tortona, 162.3, 4to. 4. "De Cantlci
Canticoram Sensu, Velitatio Bina," MUan,
1640, 4te, 5, " Velitationes Sex in Apocalyp-
sim," MUan, 1647, fok His works in ItaUan are
greatly more voluminous ; and of those in the
following list there is hardly any, which did
not pass through several editions in the
course ef the seventeenth century. An
enumeration of editions, with fuller details
as to the contents of each work, will be
found in MazzucheUi: — ^ 1, "Arte di pre-
dicar Bene," Venice, 1611, 4to.; his first
publicatien, containing the matter of his
lectures on hemiletics at Rome, 2. " Im-
prese Sacre, cen Triplicati Discorsi illustrate
ed arricchite," the author's largest and most
esteemed work. The substance of it was
twice published at Verona, 1613 and 1615,
in one volume 4te. Afterwards it was re
written and enlarged to seven volumes 4to.,
which were published as follows: — vols. i.
and ii. at Milan, 1621, 1625, at Tortona
and A'enlce, 1629; vols, in,, iv., and v., at
Tortona, 1630; vel. vi, at Tortona, 1634;
vol. vii, at Tortona, 1635. To the first
book of the first volume the author made an
addition, caUed " La Penna Raffilata," Milan,
1626, fok; and, as a supplement to the Avhole
work, he published an eighth volume ef a
polemical cast, entitled " Retroguardia in
DIf'esa di Se Stesso, con un Trattato delT
Arte e Scienza Impresistiea," Genoa, 1640,
4to, There is a Latin translation of a great
part of the " Sacre Imprese," published at
Frankfurt in 1700, 1701, and 1702, in three
volumes folio. 3. " Delia Tribolazione e suoi
Rlmedj," Tortona, 1624, 2 vols., 4to, 4,
" Panegirlci Fatti in Diverse Occasionl,"
seventeen in number, collected into one
volume, Jlllan, 1644, Svo, 5, " Gulda deU'
Anima Orante, o sia Prattica delT Orazione
Mentale," Tortona, 1623. (Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d' Italia; GhUini, Teatro d' Huomini
Letterati, 1647, 1. 18-.'.; UghelU, ft(/„( Sacra,
in Episcopis Derthonensibus.) W. S.
^ ARESON, JON, the last Roman Catholic
bishop in Iceland, was born in 1484 at Grita
in the district of Eyafiord. Harboe in his
" History of the Reformation in Iceland,"
gives a genealogical table drawn up by

ARESON.

ARESON.

Areson himself, in which he traces his
descent downward from Adam, from whom
he makes himseff the eighty-fifth. He lost his
father early, and had to support his mother
by daily labour, though his maternal uncle,
EInar Isleifsson, Avas abbot of the neighbour
ing monastery of Munkathveraa. In his
extreme poverty he was often on the point ef
becoming a sheep-stealer, and was only pre
vented by the remonstrances of his mother.
His uncle had him taught te read and write
and to " sing In Latin," but his education
never extended se far as te understand that
language, whieh was, it appears, at that
period a most unusual accomplishment for
the priests of Iceland, though, of course, the
service was in Latin. 'When about the age
of twenty he took holy orders, and was ap
pointed priest of Helgastad in Reikiadal. He
was taken under the patronage ef Bishop Gott-
skalk of Holum, a fierce and warUke prelate,
and twice sent by him en missions to Norway,
by his conduct in which he appears te have
acquired such reputation among his col
leagues, that after the death of Gottskalk he
was chosen by them first " Dispensator,"
then " Officialis, " and finally, in 1522, when
the canons of Trondhiem or Drentheim con
ceded to the clergy of Holum the power of
electing a successor to Gottskalk, was raised
to the bishopric. The nine preceding bishops
had all been foreigners, and it was a hundred
and eighty-sixyears since the diocese had been
governed by an Icelander. The elevation ef
Areson, however, excited discontent, and one
priest, of the name of Bedvar, entered a pro
test against his election on the ground of his
ignorance of Latin, to which Areson, who was
the best Icelandic poet ef his time, replied in
Icelandic verse. A mere formidable oppo
sition was that of Ogmund, bishop of Skal-
holt, the other Icelandic diocese, who on
seme pretence that it was te himself that
the canons ef Drentheim had conceded the
privilege of filling up the vacant see, marched
against his newly-elected colleague at the
head of three hundred armed men. Areson
took refuge ou board a German ship in the
port of Kolbeinsaar, which, setting sail, was
driven by a storm to the coast ef Greenland,
During his absence Ogmund called together
the clergy of Holum and forced them te elect
a nominee of his own, which they did una
nimously with the exception of ene, who, by
Ogmund's orders, was tern from the altar
of the cathedral, to which he had fled fer
refuge, and dragged fer several miles at a
horse's tail. The cause was finally heard
before Archbishop Olaus and the canons ef
Drentheim, when Ogmund brought forward
a charge against Aresen of having decamped
from his diocese with the treasures of the
see, and employed them for his OAvn behoof:
but Areson, who had returned to Holum Im
mediately after Ogmund left it, brought
ample proof that he had bm-ied the treasures,
334

before his departure, in the cathedral, as the
only way ef securing them from the rapacity
of the Bishop ef SkalheU. The violence of
Ogmund was universally condemned, 'The
canons, though unwilling at first te sanction
the precedent of a bishop without Latin, con
firmed the election ef Aresen as a sort of
recompense for the persecution he had suf
fered, and in 1524 he was consecrated bishop
of Holum, The next years of his life were
occupied Avlth quarrels of his own with seme
of the leading men of Iceland, in which he
was ne less violent than his episcopal adver
sary had been, and in fact such a course of
action seems to have been at that time the
ordinary one for an Icelandic bishop. A
mere trying period was approaching. Oddiir
Gottskalksson, the sen ef the predecessor and
patron of Areson, but a very different cha
racter from his father, had while in Denmark
heard of the doctrines of Luther, had gone
and studied at Wittenberg, and had returned
a concealed Reformer to Iceland, where he
converted Oddur Elolfsson, whe began trans
lating the New Testament into Icelandic.
The Reformers worked for some time in
secret, as Areson and Ogmund were difficult
men to deal Avith ; but the same doctrines had
made their way to the ruling country, and in
1540, royal letters arrived from Frederick
III. of Denmark, commanding the adoption
of dift'erent measures preparatory to the in
troduction ef Lutheranism. Aresen adopted
a daring tone of opposition in the " Althing"
or annual public assembly of the Icelanders.
He drew up a document in reply to the royal
letter, in which the Althing denied the au
thority ef the king te aet as their religious
head, though they acknowledged his civil
power. At first many of the clergy were
wilUng te sign this, but ultimately they all
refused ; the only signatures attached to it
were these ef Areson and man)' of the lead
ing laymen, the Bishop of Skalholt, Glssur
Einarsson, successor of Ogmund, being already
a Lutheran, and appointed for that very rea
son. The king invited Areson and Einars
son to Copenhagen te consult en the subject
ef the changes to be introduced in religion,
but the Bishop of Holum found an excuse,
aud sent deputies, who were compelled
when at Copenhagen to swear ebedience to
the king in religious matters. Areson was
again invited aud again excused himseff, and
fer some years the same kind of coquetting
went on between the king and the bishop,
each unwilling appai-ently to talce a decisive
step, and the bishop of com-se very unwiUing
to put himself in the king's power. The in
fluence of Areson was very great in the island,
and was much supported by that of his chil
dren, of whom he had six, most ef whom
Avere intermarried in the leading families.
At his first appointment to his cure in Rei
kiadal he had taken a mistress, Helga, the
daughter of Sigurd, who remained with

ARESON.

ARESON.

him np te his death. One of their chil
dren. Are, was noted for his knowledge of
German and Latin and of jurisprudence, was
highly popular, and was " Lagman " or chief
judicial officer of the island from 1530 te
1541. At length, in 1548, on the death ef
Gissur Einarsson, whose power and popu
larity Areson appears to have been fearful of
coping with, the storm which had been long
collecting burst. The king again summoned
Aresen te Copenhagen ; the bishop sent no
excuse or reply of any kind, but made an
armed incursion into the Protestant diocese
of SkalheU, te which Martin Einarsson, a
Reformer, who had spent nine years in Eng
land, from the age of nine to that of eighteen,
had been appointed. In 1549, the king, in
return fer his continued contumacy, declared
him an outlaw, and he replied by sending
two of his sons. Are the Lagman and Biorn,
en another expedition against Skalholt, fi-om
which they returned with Bishop Martin
their prisoner. Areson treated his episcopal
captive with much indignity, employing him
for some days te beat stockfish. He then
took him with him to the tOAvn ef Skalholt
and made use of him to enforce its surrender.
There he re-consecrated the cathedral, which
he assumed to have been desecrated by Pro
testant service, and ordered the body of
Gissur Einarsson to be taken up from its
grave and thrown out of consecrated ground.
'While he was carrying on these proceed
ings, he sent a letter to the King of Denmark
couched in a very loyal strain, and endea
vouring to give a favourable impression of
his acts. He is reported at the same time to
have sent messengers te the Emperor of Ger
many and the King of England to offer them
the possessien ef Iceland, on condition of
their pledging themselves to maintain the
Reman Catholic faith in it ; but there was
then so much intercourse between England
and Iceland, that it is difficult te believe that
Areson could have been ignorant that Ed
ward VI. was in favour of the Reformation.
Before an answer could arrive from either
the fate of Iceland was decided at the battle
of Saudafell, in which Areson and his sens,
who were at the head of a force of about
ninety men, and had been ravaging the es
tates of a landholder of the name of Dade
Gudmundssen,were attacked by Gudmundssen
and the royal party, consisting of from sixty
te eighty men. Gudmundssen having offered
pardon te his opponents on condition of their
returning to their allegiance, took advantage
of the opportunity afforded by the delibera
tion of seme of them on his offer te attack
the remainder, whom he routed and drove
into a churchyard. Areson and his sons re
tired into the church and shut the doors, and
when they were burst open, the bishop was
found en his knees before the altar in a
priest's habit. No person was slain iu the
encounter, though many were wounded.
335

Areson and his sons were taken fo Skalholt,
where they were brought to trial and con
demned, refusing to answer to the accusation.
Legally, they ought to have been reserved
to the next Althing er annual meeting, but
their captors were apprehensive of a rescue ;
amd while deliberating on what course they
should adept, an old priest observed that " the
axe and the ground would keep them in the
safest custody." As Martin Einarsson, whe had
been released by the result of the battle, im
mediately assented, that opinion prevaUed, and
the prisoners were ordered te prepare fer death.
Are the Lagman was offered his llfeif he would
promise not to attempt to revenge the day, but
he refused ; and Areson, on receiving a similar
offer, replied, " My sons followed me, and
I will follow them." The bishop and his two
sons were accordingly beheaded on the 7th of
November, 1550. The peasantry some time
after beset Christian Skrivere, who had
been one of the most active agents in their
death, and killed him with his son and twelve
ef his servants, one ef whom had been the
executioner, at the village of Kirklubolum.
Sixteen of the murderers of Christian fled to
England, where it is said they were received
and protected by Queen Mary ; the remainder
were net pursued with much activity by the
King ef Denmark, whe apparently considered
that the captors of Areson would have dene
better to keep him prisoner till they should
receive his orders. After his death Pro
testantism was easily established.
Areson is considered the best Icelandic
poet of his time. He has also the honour of
being the first Introducer of the art of print
ing into his native island. About 1528 he
invited thither from Sweden John Matthia;,
a priest, to assist him as a Latin secretary ;
and he also employed him as a printer, ilat-
thlae being well skilled in that art, which
finally turned out the most effectual means
of promoting the spread of Protestantism in
Iceland. In 1530, Aresen caused to be
printed at Bredebelstad a " Manuale Paste-
rum," the existence of which is only known
from its being matter of record, all copies of
the book having disappeared. A poem en
titled " Pinslargratr," er " Lamentation for
the Passion," and a paraphrase of the 51st
Psalm by Areson are inserted in Thor-
laksson's " Visabok," published in 1612. Va
rious poems by him relating to the different
occurrences of his life are given in Harboe's
" History ofthe Reformation in Iceland," but
it must be owned that it is difficult for a
foreign reader te perceive in them any traces
of the poetical genius attributed to the author
by Icelandic critics. (Harboe, Afhandling
om Reformationen i Island in Skrifter som
udi det Kiobenhavnske Selskab af Lardoms oq
Videnshabers Elskere ere fremlagte og oplaste,
V. 221, &c., vii 1, &c. ; Finnus Johannaji,
or Finn Jonsson, Historia Ecclesiastica Is-
landia, ii. 644 — 724.) T. W.

ARESTL

ARETiEUS.

ARESTI, FLORIA'NO, organist of the
metropolitan church of Bologna, was born
there towards the end ef the seventeenth
century. He produced the following operas:
— " Crisippe," at Ferrara in 1710; " In-
ganno si vince," at Bologna in 1710; " Enig
ma disciolta," at Bologna in 1710; "Cos-
tanza in cimente celia Crudelta," at Venice
in 1712 ; " II Trionfo di Pallade in Arcadia,"
at Bologna in 1716. He died in 1719, (Fan-
tuzzl, Scrittori Bolognesi.) E, T.
ARETiE'US {'ApeToios), ene of the
most valuable of the ancient Greek phy
sicians Avhose works are still extant, is
generally supposed to have been a native of
Cappadocia. Nothing is known of the events
of his life, nor have we any direct testimony
respecting his date, on which point there has
been an extraordinary difference of opinien
among modern critics, for, whUe Vossius
thinks that he was a very ancient writer and
lived leng before the period of the Reman
emperors, ethers have supposed that he
wrote as late as the fourth er fifth century
after Christ. It can, however, be proved
indirectly, but with tolerable certainty, that
beth these conjectures are unfounded, and
that Aretaeus probably lived in the first er
second century affter Christ. Vossius founds
his opinion en the fact of Aretaeus having
used the Ionic dialect in his writings ; but
this Is by no means sufficient to prove his
point, as Arrian Avrote his " Indica" in the
same dialect in the second century after
Christ. Besides, it is only necessary te ex
amine the sense ef his werks, as well as their
language, in order te see that there is abun
dant internal evidence te prove that Aretaeus
must have written after the beginning ef the
Christian asra. He not only refers te the
famous antidote ef Mithridates, but also to
the Theriaca Andremachi (which he calls
by the names ^ 5:' exi^viSv, and i] Sid
67]p'acv), the inventor of which lived In the
reign of the Emperor Nero, A. d. 54 — 68.
From his never mentioning Galen, it seems
probable that he lived before him, that is,
before the middle of the second century after
Christ ; and though it seems very strange
that Galen, who has quoted so many insig
nificant physicians, should not once mention
Aret^^us, aud therefore it may be argued
that the works of Aretaeus were not extant
in Galen's time, yet it is equally strange
( although nndeu'btedly true ), that many
ether ancient physicians passed ever the
writings of Aretaeus, as if apparently uu-
knoAvn te them. In fact beth his works aud
his personal history seem to have lain in
singular obscurity in ancient times, insomuch
that he is only alluded te by three ancient
writers — the author of a work ascribed
to Dioscorides, Aetius, and Paulus iEgineta.
'Though no particulars of llis life are known,
it has been observed that, from his mention
ing Falernlan and other Italian Avines, he
336

seems to have either travelled, er te have
lived in a country that enjoyed a free com
municatien with Italy and Rome. It has
been much disputed te which medical sect
(if to any) Aretffius belonged. Le Clerc,
Wigan, HaUer, and ethers suppose that he
belonged to the Pneumatici; and indeed it
is impossible to overlook the traces ef the
doctrines of this sect that are found in his
works. Petit, Osterhausen, and Ackermann,
however, think that the passages brought
forward in support of this opinion are not
sufficiently conclusive to prove the point,
Sprengel takes a middle course, and tries
to reconcUe the two opinions by supposing
that he was brought up in the principles ef
the Pneumatici, and afterwards embraced
those of the Eclectici. Perhaps, however, he
may more properly be said te have belonged
te no sect, or, in other words, to have been
an Eclectic (as Hecker says) in the highest
sense ef the term, meaning, net a person whe
ranked himself among the "Eclectici," but
one who foUowed implicitly the doctrines ef
no particular school, but chese from different
sects whatever opinions he thought most
agreeable te truth. With respect te his use
of the Ionic dialect, it can hardly be sup
posed that this was quite natural to him ;
probably it was rather adopted in imitation
ef the style ef the Father of JMedicine, in the
same way as Arrian is supposed to have
imitated Ctesias in his " Indica," mentioned
above ; and as a few years ago a medical
treatise was published at Athens by a modern
Greek, written in the Ionic diadect from the
same motives. His style has been very much
admired, particularly for the graphic liveU-
ness of his descriptions ; and his chapter on
Kavaos, or " Brain-Fever," has been made the
subject of one of Sir Henry Hafford's elegant
Essays. Aretaeus appears te have Avi-itten some
medical works en Fevers, Surgery, Pharmacy,
and the Diseases ef Women, which are no
longer extant. His only remaining work
consists of eight books : two nepl AlruSv Kai
SijAielwi' 'O^eiov HaBaiv (" On the Causes and
Symptoms of Acute Affections"); two nsp!
AiTtcHv KO,l ^>j,iie,'au' Xpoviiov UadiSv (" On the
Causes and Symptoms of Chronic Affec
tions"); two Ilepl Qepa-Keias '0|e'Qjj/ Tladiav
(" On the Cure of Acute Aft'ectlons") ; and
two nepl ©epaTrelas Xpoviaiv TlaBiaif (" On the
Cure of Chronic Afl'ectlons"). The arrange
ment of the work is very inconvenient, as
the description of the different diseases is
separated from the treatment ; seme of the
chapters are lest, and the text is still in rather
an unsatisfactory state .
The following sketch of the contents of
the valuable work ef Aretaeus, and ef his
practice, is by the late learned Dr. Becker of
Berlin. " Aretaeus regarded a knowledge of the
structiu-e and functions of the body as a

ARETjEUS.

ARETiEUS.

necessary step towards the study of disease ;
his anatomical remarks, however, betray
sufficiently the imperfect state of this sci
ence in his time. He concurred with the
Pneumatic physicians and the Stoic philoso
phers, in believing the heart to be ' the prin
ciple of life and strength,' and the seat of
the souk He gave a full account of the dis
tribution of the vena portarum, and regarded
all veins as having their origin in the liver ;
he also was aware of the numerous commu
nications which exist in various parts of the
venous system, which led him te refute the
notion that particular veins in the arm are
connected with particular internal organs,
and the consequences which were drawn
from this notion as to blood-letting. Are
taeus looked upon the liver as the organ des
tined to prepare the bleed, and the spleen as
fitted to purify that fluid. He regarded both
the stomach and colon as organs of digestion,
and bestowed much attention en the morbid
affections of the latter organ. He knew that
the kidneys had a glandular structure. He
stated the nerves to be the organs ef sensation
and motion. The fact that injuries ef the
head are apt te produce paralytic affections
on the opposite side did not escape his ob
servation, and, in order to account fer it, he
stated that the nervous fibres in the brain
form a decussation ia the shape ef the Greek
letter X, whilst the nerves arising from the
spinal marrow proceed directly to the organ
for which they are designed. Notwithstand
ing these curious remarks en the functions of
the nervous system, Aretaeus evidently did
net make any clear distinction between the
nervous and tendinous parts ; the latter are
undoubtetUy alluded to, when he says that,
besides the nerves proceeding from the brailn,
there are others which pass from one bene te an
other, and are the principal sources of motion.
" 'The descriptions which Aretaeus has
given of the diseases te which the human
economy is subject are accurate delineations,
evidently taken from nature, and distin
guished by a peculiar liveliness, elegance,
and conciseness of diction. He is thought to
have excelled all ancient authors, not even
excepting Hippocrates, in the art of describ
ing diseases, and may stiU be regarded as a
model in this species ef literature. His ac
count of epilepsy, tetanus, acute and chronic
headaches, haemoptysis, and causus, or burn
ing fever, are peculiarly happy specimens ef
his manner of writing.
" In the treatment of diseases, Aretaeus
regarded experience as the best guide {ayaB^/i
SiSdiTKaXos ri Trelpn), and he repeatedly refers
to the necessity of foUowing the hints which
nature gives to the physician. His methods
of treatment seem te have been energetic
where it appeared necessary, but always sim
ple ; and he was averse te that farrago of
medicines, to the use of which some of his
contemporaries were addicted.
VOL. ni.

" He frequently employed emetics, purga
tives, and clysters ; and he was aware that
emetics not only evacuate the contents ef the
stomach and intestines, but derive a great
part of their efficacy from the shock which
the act of vomiting produces in those parts.
He was fond of blood-letting in chronic as
well as acute diseases, but cautions with re
gard te the quantity ef blood which he took
away : he advises the bloed to be stopped
before fainting supervenes ; and recommends
not to take away too much blood at one bleed
ing in apoplexy. He also mentions the prac
tice ef opening a vein en the back ef the
hand ; and he practised the operation ef
arteriotomy. He employed cupping-glasses
and leeches ; and he is the first author whe
mentions blistering with cantharides : as he
recommends this practice as preferable to
other rubefacients, without mentioning it as
having been formerly in use, it appears pro
bable that we are indebted te him for this
most important remedy ; nor had the ten
dency which it sometimes has to injure the
functions of the urinary organs escaped his
observation ; he enjoins, therefore, milk to
be drank in large quantities before the blister
is applied. " Scarcely any internal medicines were
employed by Aretaeus in the treatment of
acute diseases ; but he paid strict attention to
diet and regimen : among his dietetical pre
scriptions, those en the use of the different
kinds ef milk deserve to be mentioned. In
treating chronic diseases he mere frequently
had recourse to the aid of medicines ; we
find him prescribing diuretics, sudorifics, and
several of the compound stimulating prepara
tions which were in vogue in his time. One
of the substances he most frequently resorted
to is castoreum, which he regarded as very
efficacious in various affections of the nervous
system." {Penny Cyclopadia of the Society
for the Diff'usion of Useful Knowledge, ii. 302.,
" Aretaeus,") The work of Aretaeus was published fer
the first time at Venice, 1552, 4to,, in a
Latin translation made by J, P, Crassus
from a very corrupt and mutilated MS,,
with the title " Aretaei Libri Septem nunc
primum e tenebris eruti et in Latinum
Sermonem cenversi a J, P, Crasso," It is
often bound up with the same editor's
translation of Rufus Ephesius " De Appel
lationibus Partium Corporis Humani," which
was published in the same place, size, and
date. The first Greek edition of Aretaeus
is that by J. Goupyl, Paris, 1554, Svo,, which
is more complete than the preceding Latin
edition ; it is very beautifully prmted, and is
said by Choulant to be very scarce. It Is
often "bound up with Geupyl's Greek edition
ef " Rufus Ephesius," pubUshed in the same
place, size, and date. A Latin translation
executed from this edition (and, as it is sup
posed, by Goupyl himself), was published in
z

ARETiEUS.

ARETiEUS.

the same year at Paris, Svo., and has been
several times reprinted. An edition in Greek
and Latin was pubUshed at Vienna (Augusta
Vindelicorum) in 1603, fok, edited by G.
Henisch, which is a handsomely printed book,
but is net well spoken ef in any ether respect.
In 1723 a very splendid edition was published
at the Clarendon press at Oxford, in folio,
the intrinsic critical merits of which are
equal to its handsome appearance. It was
edited by J. Wigan, who corrected the text,
made a new Latin version, prefixed some
learned and valuable dissertations, and added
some critical notes and emendations. There
is also a good Index Rerum, and a very
complete Index Verborum by Maittaire.
Choulant considers this edition to be scarce,
as only three hundred copies were printed ;
in England, however, it is not unfrequently
te be met with, and at a moderate price. In
1731, Boerhaave published a Greek and Latin
edition in folio, at Leiden. Great part of
the work had been printed off in 1719, and
therefore no use was made of Wigan's text
and translation ; it contains, however, Petit's
Commentary, (part only of which had been
previously published at Londen, 1726, 4to.,)
TrlUer's Conjectures and Emendations ; and
some short notes by Jes. Scaliger. The last
edition ef the Greek text of Aretaeus is that
whieh forms the twenty-fourth volume
of Kiihn's Collection ef Greek Medical
Writers, Leipzig, 1828. It contains Wigan's
text, Latin translation, dissertations, and
notes ; TrlUer's and Petit's commentaries ;
Maittaire's index ; Ackermann's " Historia
Literaria," extracted from Harles' edition
of Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ; " and
an appendix of various readings. Dr. Erme
rins, of Middelburg in Zeeland, mentions In
the preface to his edition ef Hippocrates,
" De Rat. Vict, in Morb. Acut." Leiden,
1841, Svo., that he has fer some time been
preparing a new edition of Aretaeus, which
(judging from the works that he has already
edited) is likely to be superior te any ef the
existing editions. A Latin translation of
Aretaeus is inserted in H. Stephens' " Me-
dicae Artis Principes," Paris, fol., 1567, and
also forms one ef the volumes of Haller's
Collection of Latin Medical Writers, published
at Lausanne, 1771, Svo. His works were
translated into EngUsh by John Moffatt,
London, Svo. [1785 er 1786], and the first
four books by T. F. Reynolds, London, Svo.,
1837. There is also a French translation by
Reynaud, Paris, 1834, Svo, : an Italian one
by F, Puccinotti, Firenze, 1836, Svo. ; and
a German ene by F, O, Dewez, Vienna, 1790,
1 802, Svo, Several other works on the sub
ject of Aretaeus and his writings are men
tioned by Choulant in his " Handbuch der
Biicherkunde fur die Aeltere Medicin," Leip
zig, 1841, Svo.
A further account of the anatomical and
therapeutical opinions of Aretaeus may be
338

found in Le Clerc, Hist de la Med, ; Wigan,
Dissertations in his edition of Aretaeus ;
Haller, Bibliotheca Botanica, Anatomica,
Chirurgica, and Medicina Practica ; Sprengel,
Hist de la Mid. ; Isensee, Geschichte der
Medicin. W. A. G
ARETjE'US, DANIEL, a German sculp
tor of Cervey in Westphalia, who worked
in 1455, according to Weinwich (Kunstens-
Historie i Danmark), at the court ef Den
mark. Aretaeus is supposed to have been
the artist of the se called Oldenburg horn.
(Nagler, Neues AUgemeines K-iinstler Lexicon.) R, N. W.
ARETA'PHILA {'AperacjiiXa), a woman
ef Cyrene, whe lived about the year e. c. 85.
Plutarch, in his treatise on the virtues of
women, gives a minute accoimt of her, and
says that she was worthy to be placed by the
side ef the greatest heroines of antiquity. She
was a daughter of iEglator and married to
Phaedimus. Her beauty was as great as her
virtue, and she was, at the same time, a
woman of considerable knowledge ; but the
most prominent feature in her character was
patriotism. Nlcocrates, whe at the time had
set himself up as tyrant ef Cyrene, murdered
the husband of Aretaphila, and then com
pelled her to become his wife. Although
the tyrant did every thing to win her affec
tions, she could never forget the murder of
Phaedimus and the ferocious atrocities which
the tyrant committed upon her feUow-
citizens, and she resolved te deUver her
country from its oppressor by poisoning
him. She endeavoured, in the meantime, to
form a conspiracy, that the men ef Cyrene
might be ready to act, as soon as Nlcocrates
should be got rid of; but her scheme was be
trayed and reached the ears of Calbia, the
tyrant's mother, Aretaphila was tried and
tortured, but nothing could get a confession
from her, and the manner in which she de
fended herself was so satisfactory, that Nlco
crates was deceived, and acquitted her, though
he refused in future to Uve with her, A
shert time afterwards, however, he returned
to her, and again endeavoured to win her
faveur. She did net resist, but kept her ob
ject steadily in view, and as she considered a
personal misfortune much less than a public
calaimity, she introduced her daughter, a
very beautiful girl, to Leander, the tyrant's
brother, and a voluptuous youth, who pre
vailed on Nlcocrates to allow him to marry
her, Aretaphila, her daughter, and her
friends, noAv exerted all their influence with
Leander ; they endeavoured to reuse his love
of liberty, and te excite his fear of his brother.
The consequence was that Leander had his
brother assassinated by ene of his slaves ; but
instead of restoring Cyrene te freedom, he
began to act himseff as tyrant, Aretaphila
did not venture to oppose him openly, but
continued to secure his esteem amd con
fidence. At last she found am opportunity ef

ARETAPHILA.

ARETAS.

inducing an African chief of the name of
Anabus, to make war upon Cyrene, and
when the city was apparently in great danger
she contrived to bring about an interview
between Leander and Anabus, at which the
former appeared unarmed and without any
attendants, except Aretaphilai. Leander was
made prisoner according to the plan of Are-
taphUa, and delivered up to the Cyrenaeans.
His grandmother Calbia was burned alive, and
he himseff was sewed up in a sack, and thrown
into the sea. From this moment Aretaphila,
aUhough the Cyrenaeans wished her to join
her fellow-citizens in the government ef the
republic, withdrew to private life, and spent
her last years in retirement with her friends.
(Plutarch, De MulierumVirtutibus, p. 255, &c.
ed. Frankfurt.) L. S.
A'RETAS ('Aperas), the name of several
kings ef Arabia, who occur in ancient
history during the period from about B. c.
170 to A. D. 40. The following are those
who are known in history.
Aretas L lived about E. c. 170, and was
a contemporary of Jason, the high-priest of
the Jews, but nothing further is known of
him. (2 Maccab. v. 8.)
Aretas IL, a contemporary of Alexander
Jannajus, king of Judaea, (b. c. 106 — 79).
When Gaza was besieged by Alexander,
Aretas assisted the inhabitants. He is prob
ably the same Aretas against whom Antiochus
XII. of Syria, surnamed Dionysus, made war,
about B. c. 90. Antiochus at first gained
some advantages, but as he was endeavouring
to profit by them, he was slain. After the
death of Antiochus, Aretas reigned over
Coele-Syria, being called to the government
by the party who were in possession ef Da
mascus, and whe hated Ptolemaus Mennaeus.
Hereupon Aretas made an expedition against
Judaea, and defeated Alexander Jannaeus in a
battle near a place called Adida, but a treaty
wais concluded between the two kings, and
Aretas withdrew from Judaea. There are
seme coins of Damascus, en which we read
the name ef a Kmg Aretas, who is surnamed
Philellen {^iXeXXr/v), a circumstance which
strongly favours the opinion that the coins
refer to Aretas II. and net to Aretas IIL, the
contemporary of St. Paul. (Josephus, Jewish
Antiq. xiii. 13. § 3., 15. § 1, 2. ; Eckhel,
Doctr. Num. Vet iii. 330.)
About the time when Pompey made him
self master ef Syria, b. c. 65, we again meet
with an Aretas, king of Arabia, but whether
he is the same as the conqueror of Antiochus
XIL, or his successor, is uncertain. If he
was the same, we must suppose that he did
not remain long in possession of Coele-Syria,
but was compelled to withdraw from it. Dion
Cassius relates that Syria previous to be
coming a Roman province suffered much
from his hostUity, and that he continued his
hostUe operations against that country even
after he had been beaten by the Syrians with
339

the assistance of the Romans. The events
to which Dion Cassius thus briefly alludes are
related at some length by Josephus. During
the disputes between Arlstobulus II. and
Hyrcanus in Judaea, Hyrcanus, en the advice
of Antipater, the Idumaean, fled to Aretas, and
persuaded him to invade Judaea, E. c. 65.
Aretas came with an army of fifty thousand
men, defeated Arlstobulus, and then laid
siege to Jerusalem, whither Aristobulus
withdrew. But after some time Aristobulus
purchased with four hundred talents the
assistance of Scaurus, one of the legates ef
Cneius Pompeius, whe was then in Armenia,
Scaurus compelled Aretas to raise the siege,
and returned te Damascus. Aristobulus,
however, continued the war against Aretas
and defeated his army at a place called
Papyron. [Aristobulus IL] According to
Plutarch, Pompey himself marched against
Aretas to besiege him in his capital Petra,
after he had made himseff master of Judaea,
whereas, according to Dion Cassius, he made
his campaign against the Arabian king and
defeated him before he entered Syria and
Palestine. The latter statement seems to be
correct, as it agrees with the accounts of
Appian and Josephus. But Dien Cassius
appears to be mistaken in stating that
Pompey completely conquered Aretas, for,
according te Josephus, who must have had
good information about these occurrences,
the war against Aretas was not concluded
when Pompey left Syria to return to Rome,
and his legate Scaurus, who remained behind
in Syria, marched against Petra. But as he
was unable to reach that town, he ravaged
the country, which at length induced Aretas
to purchase a peace for three hundred talents.
This success of Scaurus is commemorated by
two extant coins, on one of which is the head
of Pompey: Aretas is represented en his
knees (Rasche, Lexic. Rei Numaria). The
coins commemorate the curule aedileship of
Scaurus, b. c. 58, and therefore Aretas must
have paid the three hundred talents before that
year. The Arabs however appear to have still
made their hostile incursions into Syria, and
the successors of Scaurus were obliged to
continue the war against the Arabs. (Jose
phus, Jewish Antiq. xiv. 1. § 4, &o., 5. § 1.,
Jewish War, i. 6. § 2. ; Dien Cassius, xxxvii.
15.; Appian, De Bello Mithrid. 106., Syriaca,
50. ; Plutarch, Pompeius, 39. 41.)
Aretas III. was a contemporary of
Augustus and Tiberius, and father-in-law of
Herod Antipas of Judaea. Josephus states
that the name Aretas was assumed afterwards,
and that his real name was .^neas. The
name Aretas, however, is the ene by which
the kings ef Arabia are best known. He was
the successor of Obodas, and is first men
tioned in the reign of Augustus in connexion
with iElius Gallus, who was kiniUy received by
him en his expedition against some tribes of
Arabia in b. c. 24. Herod Antipas lived fer a
z 2

ARETAS.

ARETE.

time happy with the daughter of Aretas, but
on one occasion while at Rome, he formed
an incestuous connexion with Herodias, his
brother's wife, and promised her to dismiss
his lawful wife. The daughter of Aretas,
who was secretly informed of this design,
contrived te get to her father in Arabia
without her husband being aware that she
knew what was going on, Aretas, who was
already involved in some dispute with Herod
Antipas about the boundary ofthe two king
doms, took this opportunity fer declaring war
against him. Armies were raised en both
sides, and placed under the command ef able
generals, Herod being defeated in a great
battle through the treachery of some de
serters, appUed for assistance to the Emperor
Tiberius, who immediately sent orders to
ViteUius, the govemor ef Syria, to punish
Aretas aud to bring him te Rome alive or
dead, ViteUius accordingly prepared to lead
an army into Arabia, but while he was stay
ing at Jerusalem for the purpose of attending
the celebration of a festival, he received
the news of the death of Tiberius (a, d, 37),
whereupon he stopped his proceedings
against Aretas, and withdrew to Antioch, In
the Second Epistle of the Apostle Paul to the
Corinthians we find it stated, that about the
time of Paul's conversion, Aretas had posses
sion of Damascus and kept a garrison there.
This Aretas is undoubtedly the same as the
father-in-law of Herod Antipas, but how he
had got possessien ef Damascus is net stated.
It is not improbable that after the first great
battle against Herod, he may have become
master ef a part of Syria, if not before that
event ; at any rate it is not very likely that
he should have deferred avenging the wrongs
of his daughter for so many years as would
appear from the account of Josephus. The
time ef his death is unknown. (Josephus,
Jewish Antiq. xvi. 9. § 4., xviii. 5. § 1.3.;
Strabo, xvi. 781. ; St, Paul, 2 Corinth, xl,
32, &c. ; Acts ofthe Apostles, ix. 19, &c.) L. S,
ARE'TE {'Ap-fjT-n) of Cyrene, a daugh
ter and disciple of the elder Arlstippus,
the founder of the Cyrenaic school of philo
sophy; she consequently lived about e, c,
350, She was the mother of the younger
Arlstippus, who Avas Indebted to her for his
philosophical education, whence he is called
the Mother-taught {'NltiTpoSlSaKTos). Arete
is said to have been accustomed by her
father not te allow herself te be guided
by ambition, and there still exists a letter,
which is professedly written by Arlstippus
te his daughter Arete, in which the same
precept is inculcated. New Diogenes Laer
tius, in enumerating the writings of Arls
tippus, mentions also a letter of his to Arete ;
but that which is extant is certainly a forgery.
iElian, in a very corrupt passage of his
" History of Animals," calls Arete a sister
of Arlstippus, a statement which is opposed
340

to all ether authorities. (Diogenes Laer
tius, ii, 72. 84, 86,; iElian, Historia Animal.
iii. 40.; Wolf, Fragmenta et Elogia Mulierum
Gracarum, p. 283, &c. ; J. Eck, De Arete
Philosopha, Leipzig, 1775, Svo.) L. S.
ARE'TE. [Dion.]
A'RETHAS {'ApeBas), archbishop of
CiESAREA in Cappadocia, probably about
the year of our Lord 914. He compiled a
Commentary in Greek, upon the Apocalypse
ef St. John, from various authors. He has
drawn largely from the commentary of An
dreas, who was bishop of Caesarea about a. d.
500. The commentary of Arethas was first
published in the original Greek at Verona,
fol. 1 532, at the end of an edition of the works
of QScumenius. A Latin translation wais pub
lished at Paris, Svo., 1547, and at Basle, Svo.,
1554, 1583, and in the " Bibliotheca Patrum"
ef Lyen, tem. ix., and elsewhere. Morell
appended the Commentary in Greek, with a
Latin translation, te an edition of the works
of fficumenius, which he published at Paris,
fob, 1631, but the Greek is a mere reprint of
the edition of Verona, and the Latin trans
lation is also a reprint of the one which was
published at Paris in 1547. The royal
library of Paris contains a good manuscript
copy ef this commentary. Arethas, when
presbyter of Caesarea, probably wrote the
oration on " The Translation of Saint Eii-
thymius, the patriarch of Constantinople,"
who died a. d. 911. The Oration is printed
in Latin in Lipeman {De Vitis Sanctorum),
tom. ill. He also wrote the discourse on
the Martyrs, Gurias, Samenas, and Abibus,
which is printed in Latin in Lipeman, tom.
ill., and begins with the words " Quomodo
vester animus se habet, sacer grex." Other
fragments may be found in the places in
dicated by Fabricius. ( Fabricius, BiblioHieca
Graca, viii 696 — 698, &c. ed. Hai-les ;
Oudinus, Commentarius de Scriptoribus Ec
clesiasticis, il. 426.) C. J. S.
ARETHON. [Alpheus.]
A'RETIN, JOHANN ADAM CHRIS
TOPH JOSEPH, BARON VON, was the
eldest ef three Bavarian brothers, who,
through their position rather than their
talents, have attained in our oavu day some
literary note in Germany. Johann Adam,
here named, wais the eldest ; Johann Chris
toph was the youngest ; and the middle bro
ther, Johann Georg (bom in 1771), published
a work so recently as 1837, and is probably
still alive.
Baron Johann Adam Von Aretin was born
at Ingolstadt, on the 24th of August, 1769.
Possessing hereditary rank, and having dis
tinguished himself during his youthful studies,
especially in jurisprudence, he speedily found
promotion in the service ef the Bavarian
government. He was employed beth in the
administrative department and in diplomacy ;
but the most distinguished posts he held were
not conferred upon him tiU the later years of

ARETIN.

ARETIN.

his Ufe, when his political views are described
as having tended somewhat towards abso
lutism. In 1816 he was appoiated chamber
lain to the King ef Bavaria; and in 1817 he
was sent as the representative ef his court
to the Germanic Diet at Frankfurt, in which
he continued te sit during the remainder of
his life. His favourite studies were history
and the fine arts. In 1819 he became an
active member of the commission established
at Frankfurt, for publishing the ancient his
torical monuments of Germany, His private
collection of engravings was very valuable ;
and he formed likewise an interesting gallery
of paintings, designed for Ulustrating the
history of the art. He died of apoplexy, at
his estate of Heidenburg, on the 16th of Au
gust, 1822. His pubUshed werks were the
following: — 1. " Magazin der Bildenden
Kiinste," vol, i, Munich, 1791, Svo. 2.
" Handbuch der Philesophie des Lebens,"
Munich, 1793, Svo. 3. " Catalogue des
E.stampes gravees par Daniel Chodowiecky,"
Munich, (and a pirated edition at Augsburg),
1796, Svo. 4. " Sammlung der Baierischeu
Staatsvertrage," Munich, 1801, Svo, He was
the founder, and tiU 1817, the editor, ef the
" Balerisches Regierungsblatt ; " and he con
tributed some papers to other periodicals,
(Meusel, Das Gelehrte Teutschland, vols, xi,
xvii, ; Mahul, Annuaire Nicrologique, 1823;
Biographie Universelle, Suppliment-) W, S,
A'RE'TIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH
ANTON MARIA, BARON VON, vvas
the most distinguished ef the three Bavarian
brothers. [Aretin, Johann Adam.] 'The
" Biographie Universelle " gives his Christian
names as Johann Christoph Frederick ; but
the names above written are these assigned
to him by Meusel and Kayser, He was born
at Ingolstadt in 1772 or 1773, and was edu
cated successively there, at Heidelberg, and
at Gottingen, In early youth he was enticed
into the mysteries ef the Illurainati ; and he
is said to have ahvays displayed an eccen
tricity and a tendency to imaginative excite
ment and to extreme epinions, conformable
to this first step iu his career. Named an
aulic counsellor in 1793, he was actively en
gaged in public life ever after. In 1799, as
a member ef the Bavarian states-general, he
signalised himself by his efforts for the
abolition of feudal burdens. Two er three
years afterwards he became chief conservator
of the Royal-Central-Ceurt-LIbrary at Mu
nich ; in 1804 he was named vice-president
ofthe Munich academy ef sciences ; and in
1807 he was made secretary of the first class
(the philosophical and philological) in that
ticademy. In 1811 the King of Bavaria,
compelled by Napoleon te punish Baron
Johann Christoph fer a political pamphlet
which he had published in 1809, deprived
him of his offices, but allowed him to retain
his other honours. 'The baron was then sent
in a judicial character to Neuburg on the
341

Danube, where he received seme promotion
but was not recalled to court till 1814. ' In
1819, under the Bavarian constitutien of the
preceding year, he took his seat as a member
of the second legislative chamber. Here he
took up a position apparently inconsistent with
the character just mentioned as assigned to
him ; fer he became a leader ef the moderate
party, which stood between the absolutists
and the extreme liberals. His opinions, how
ever, must soon have recovered their natural
and usual tendency to the popular side ; fer,
five years later, he commenced the publicatien
of his " Principles of Constitutional Mo
narchy,'' a werk whose character is suffi
ciently indicated by the fact that it was
continued and revised by Carl Von Rotteck.
Von Aretin was a member of the commis
sion for German historical antiquities, in
which his brother Johann Adam took an ac
tive part. He died on the 24th of December,
1824. He left a very large number of printed
works, most ef them small in size, but
ranging over a variety of topics, whioh is in
itself enough to make us doubt their solidity
or profoundness. However, the " Introduc
tion to Mnemonics," the only work of his
which can here be described from actual
examination, does indeed display no small
leaning te the vague and mystical, but it
presents (besides the sketch ef a new
theory ef artificial memory, for which the
writer takes credit as original), a very
curious and minute history ef the literature
ef the subject, evincing a large stock of
recondite and miscellaneous reading. But
the writer of the baron's life In the " Bio
graphic Universelle " asserts roundly that he
published, as entirely his own, books in which
all that is good and useful had been provided
fer him by literary men paid for amassing
his materials. The list ef his works given
by Kayser amounts (if we include papers in
periodicals) to upAvards ef fifty articles, the
publicatien of which extends from 1802 to
the year ef the author's death. The folloAv-
ing are some ef these Avhich are most im
portant or characteristic : — 1 . " Beitrage zur
Geschichte der Literatur," 9 vols. 1803-7,
chiefly from eld German materials in public
libraries. 2. " Beitrage zur Literaturge-
schichte der WUnschelruthe," (" Contribu
tions te the Literary History of the Divining-
Rod"), Munich, 1807, Svo. 3. "Geschichte
der Juden in Baiern," 1803, Svo. 4. " Lite-
rarisches Handbuch der Baierischeu Ge
schichte," A'ol. 1. Munich, 1810, Leipzig, 1819,
Svo. 5. " Jahrbucher der Gerechtlgkelts-
pflege in Baiern," Neuburg, 1811 — 18, 2 vols.
Svo. 6. " Systematische Anleitung zur
Theorie und Praxis der Mnemonik," Sulz-
bach, 1810, Svo., the largest of several books
by the author, en Artificial Memory. 7.
" Staatsrecht der Constitutienellen Monarchic,
ein Handbuch fiir Geschaftsmanner, stu-
7, 3

ARETIN.

ARETINO.

direnden JiingUnge, und gebildete Burger,"
begun by Von Aretin, and continued by Karl
Von Rotteck, Altenburg, 1824-27, 2 vols. 8vo.;
again, with additions and corrections by Von
Rotteck, Leipzig, 1838-40, 3 vols. Svo. The
contributions of Johann Christoph Von Aretin
te literary and historical periodicals were
very numerous. In particular, he was co-
editor (with Babe, the dramatic poet) of the
" Aurora, eine Zeitschrift aus dem Siidlichen
Deutsehland," Munich, 1804-6, 4te.; and he
was the founder, editor, and principal writer
of the "AUemannia, fur Recht und Wahr-
heit," which, after forty-tAve numbers ef it
had appeared, in 1815 and 1816, Sulzbach,
Svo., was suppressed by the government.
(Meusel, Das Gelehrte Teutschland, vols. ix.
xi xiii xvii. ; Kayser, VoUstdndiges Biicher-
Lexicon, vok i. and Supplement; Biographie
des Hommes Vivants ; Biographic Universelle,
Suppliment) W. S.
ARETI'NO, A'NGELO, is one of the
many eminent Italians, who are usually known
by the addition of the words " Aretine " er
" d'Arezzo " to their Christian names. The
addition intimates that the person was con
nected with Arezzo in Tuscany, by birth er
citizenship, or (in some cases) merely by
descent or official appointment.
Angelo Aretine was a celebrated juris
consult of the fifteenth century. His family
name was Gambiglioni ; and his common
name in the Latin law-books is Angelus
De Gambellienibus (er GambigUenibus) De
Arretio. He was born at Arezzo; but the
precise date of his birth is net known. He
studied law in the schools ef Perugia and
Padua, and afterwards at Bologna, where he
took a doctor's degree in 1422. He next
held in succession several judicial offices, in
Perugia, in Rome, and in Citta di CasteUo :
but in a similar place which he subsequently
held at Norcia in Umbria, he was charged
(unjustly, according to PapadopeU) with gress
misconduct, was imprisoned fer a year, and
would have been executed but for the inter
cession of eminent lawyers. The accusations
which had been brought against bim appear,
whether true er false, to have in no degree
injured his reputation. Upon obtaining his re
lease he was appointed, with a pubUc salary,
to lecture on the Institutes at Ferrara ; thence
he was called to Bologna, Avhere he became a
lecturer on the same boek in 1438 ; and in
1445 he returned to his former office at Fer
rara, where he is understood to have spent
the remainder of his life. He died and was
buried there, the date, however, being un
certain, though it must have been later than
1450. Angelo is described as having been
remarkable for his bodUy activity, and for his
love of gymnastic exercises. It is said that
he Avas in the habit of walking with his
students beyond the walls of the city, and of
there chaUenging them to run races; and
that upon ene occasion, when the professor
342

had outstripped all his young competitors,
and was still at full speed to maintain his
vantage-ground, he was brought suddenly to
a stop by encountering in his path one of his
patrons. Prince Ercele D'Este. His principal
werks enjoyed very great popularity tiU the
end of the sixteenth century, and are still,
especially the first in the list, rather common
in good law libraries. 1. " Tractatus De
Maleficiis," 1472, fol., the place of printing
not named ; Paris, 1476, fol. ; Venice, 1483,
fek; Milan, 1487, fok; Lyon, 1555, Svo.;
Venice, 1555, 4te., 1558, 8vo., 1573, 4to.,
1584, Svo., 1598, Svo. ; Cologne, 1599, 4to.
2. " Commentarii in Quatuor Institutionum
Justiniani Libres," Spire, 1480, fol. ; Venice,
1484, fek; Pavia, 1500, fok; Venice, 1503,
Svo.; Lyen, 1548, 1550, fok; Venice, 1568,
fok; Lyon, 1570, fol.; Venice, 1585, 1604,
1609, fok; the Commentaries on the first
book separately, 1480, fol. ; MUan, 1483, fol.;
Venice, 1492, fek; the Commentaries on the
first and second books, Blilan, 1481, fol. 3.
" Tractatus de Testamentis " Venice, 1486,
and in Ziletti's " Tractatus Tractatuum" (or
"Oceanus Juris"), Venice, 1584, fok, tom.
viU. part 1. 4. "ConsUia, seu Responsa,"
Venice, 1576, 1577, fok 5. " Commentarii
ad TittUum Pandectarum De Re judicata ;
item Interpretatio ad Titulum de AppeUa-
tienibus," Venice, 1579, fok 6. A"Repe-
titio," or Lesson, on the title of the Pandects
" De acquirenda vel amittenda Ha!reditate,"
published by Limpius in his " Repetitiones iu
varias Juris CivUis Leges," Venice, 1608,
iii. 453. (MazzucheUi, Scrittori d' Italia ;
Papadopoli, Historia Gymnasii Patavini, ii.
20. ; Panziroli, De Claris Legum Interpretibus,
lib. U. cap. 102. ; Savigny, Geschichte des
RSmischen Rechts im Mittelalter, vi. 414. ;
Lipenius, Bibliotheca Realis Juridica.) W. S.
ARETI'NO, BENEDETTO. [Accolti,
Benedetto.] ARETI'NO, BERNARDO. [Accolti,
Bernardo.] ARETI'NO, BUONAGUTDA, or BO-
NAGUFDA DE ARRETIO, an Italian
jurisconsult of the thirteenth century, is
classed by Savigny among those glossators
after Accursius, who took up the practical
view ef legal science, and who are hence
somewhat more useful than those classed as
theoretical. Buonaguida himself mentions
Arezzo as his birth-place, and has been
proved te have at one time taught the canon
laAV in that town. In the pontificate of
Innocent IV., which closed in 1254, he prac
tised as an advocate. His writings (ef which
the bibliography may be learned from
Savigny) relate partly te the canon law,
partly to forms of process. The foUowing
have been printed : — 1. " Gemma seu Mar
garita," a treatise of a very miscellaneous
character, in the "Tractatus plurUnorum
Doctorum," Lyon, 1519, 4to. 2. "De Dis-
pensationibus," in Ziletti's " Tractatus Trao-

ARETINO.

ARETINO.

tatuum," tom. xiv. part 1. (Savigny, Ge
schichte des RSmischen Rechts im Mittelalter,
iil. 588., V, 446 — 448. ; PanziroU, De Claris
Legum Interpretibus, Ub. iii. cap. 11. ; Maz
zuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia.) W. S.
ARETFNO, CARLO, one of the most
distinguished among those learned men of
the fteenth century, whom Cosmo de' Medici
did himself honour by patronising, was born
at Arezzo about the year 1399. His real
naune was Cairlo Marsuppini, and his family
was noble. His father, Gregorio Marsuppini,
a doctor of laws, was at one time the govei-nor
of Genoa for Chairles VI. of France, then its
sovereign ; but in 1431 he became a citizen
of Florence. Before that time his son Carlo
had risen to eminence. He received instruc
tion from those two teachers of the classical
tongues who, each in his own department,
were the most famous in Italy. He learned
Latin under John of Ravenna, and Greek
under Manuel Chrysoloras. Carlo, like many
other scholars ef his day, owed his earliest
success in lffe te the wann-hearted but ec
centric Niccolo Niccoli, who introduced him
to Cosmo de' Medici, and continued to be his
zealous and attached friend. We first hear
of Carlo Aretine as a lecturer en rhetoric
(or, in other words, on classical literature )
in the city of Florence; and he must have
been thus employed about his thirtieth year,
since he taught there at the same time with
Filelfo, who quitted Florence in 1433. This
quarrelsome and erratic scholar regarded
Carlo with peculiar animosity, as his own
successful rival in public favour, and as an
adherent of the Medici, whom he considered
as his persecutors.
Carlo taught in Florence for a good many
years. He is said, indeed, to have been ap
pointed, in 1441, ene ef the apostolic secre
taries : but in his case, as in that of similar
appointments bestowed by the popes on other
literary men of the age, the office was in all
likelihood merely honorary, and did net call
for any abandonment of his duties ais a
teacher. Seen afterwards he received abun
dant proof of the esteem in which he wais held
by the Florentines ; for he was appointed te
one of the most honourable offices in the
state, in which, tee, while Leonardo Aretine
wais his predecessor, his successor was Peggie
BraccioUni. The office was that of chancellor
tothe republic, which, in 1444, became vacant
by the death of Leonardo. Carle Aretine
held this place till his death, which happened
nine years after his appointment; and during
that time he sustained with high credit the
character for scholarship and talent Avhich
he had previously acquired; AvhUe he net
only was the cherished friend of those men
of letters who Avere gathered around his
patron Cosme, but may be believed (since we
do not read amy thing te the contrary) te have
taken little part in these fiery quarrels by
Avhich the Itadiain scholars of that age brought
343

discredit on themselves and en the cause of
leaming. Pope Nicholas V., a competent
judge of literary merit, addressed to the re
pubUc of Florence a request that they would
engage their chancellor in a translation of
Homer. Poggio regarded him with peculiar
affection, delighted in his society, and intro
duced him as an interlocutor in his " Dialogues
en the Misery ef Princes," and " On Hypo
crisy," in the dialogue on the question " Whe
ther an Old Man ought to Marry," and in the
" Historia Disceptativa Convivalis." For the
public duties of his chanceUorship, likewise,
Carlo is acknowledged to have possessed emi
nent qualifications ; but it is asserted (and the
assertion is supported, to some extent, by the
small number of his written works), that he
wanted readiness in composition. In Greek,
it is said, he spoke more readily than in
Latin : in the latter language he exhibited,
upon one occasion, an awkward want of
faciUty. In 1452, on a visit ef the Emperor
Frederic III. to Florence, Carlo was ap
pointed te address him. The oration which
he pronounced on the emperor's reception,
and which he had been allowed two days to
prepare, was delivered well and received ap
plause; but afterwards Frederic's secretary,
the celebrated iEneas Silvius Piccolomini,
presented te the Florentine magistracy, in
his master's name, some requests, te which it
was the duty of their spokesman to make an
extemporaneous reply. Carle, taken by sur
prise, remained abashed and silent : aU hints
and entreaties failed in recalUng his self-pos
session ; and the priors, in despair, turned to
Giannozzo Manetti, another of their learned
officials, who delivered the required harangue
with the utmost readiness. Manetti's bio
grapher and friend, in relating this incident
with an aUowable triumph, says that Cosmo
de' Medici, whe had recommended Carlo
as the orator, felt heartUy ashamed of his
protege's faUure, and was convinced ef the
superior merit of his substitute. He might
have added, however, that ff Manetti's speech
was as miserable a composition as those spe
cimens ef his eloquence which have been
published, the praise of fluency must have
been its only merit.
Carlo Aretine died in AprU, 1453, aged
about fifty-four years. He received a splen
did pubUc funeral. He was buried, like his
friend and predecessor Leonardo, in the nave
of Santa Croce ; and, as on the occasion of
that celebrated man's obsequies, (but even
less appropriately than then,) a part of the
ceremonial was the crowning ef the dead man
with the poetic laurel, the oration being pro
nounced by one ef Carlo's most eminent
pupUs, the meritorious Matteo Palmieri, He
left a son of his own name, who attained some
literary reputation, and has sometimes been
confounded with his father.
Carlo Arctino was universaUy aUowed to
be one of the best classical scholars of his
z 4

ARETINO.

ARETINO

time, beth in Greek and in Latin, But he
hardly showed his learning or talent unless
by his teaching, and by the discharge ef the
duties of his chancellorship, which, indeed,
in those days, afforded no inconsiderable
opportunities for the display of erudition.
Tie appears to have written unwillingly and
with difficulty ; and the catalogue of his
known works, given by Mazzuchelli, is net
only meagre in the number of its articles, but
unpromising in their titles. None ef them
have been printed except the foUowing : — 1.
A translation of the " Batrachomyomachia "
into Latin hexameters, first published at Par
ma, 1492, 4te, ; and again, with the original
and an Italian version by the Abbe LavagneU,
Venice, 1744, 4to. 2, Afew short Latin poems,
A collection of such, the longest of which
is an " Eulogium in Leonardum Aretinum,"
wiU be found in the " Carmina Illustrium
Poetarum Italorum," vi267 — 287,, Florence,
1720, Svo, These verses are the lucubrations
ef a man possessing good taste and good feel
ing, and familiar with the stores ef classical
imagery ; but they are exceedingly deficient
beth in spirit and in imagination, (Mazzu
chelU, Scrittori d' Italia ; Niceron, Memoires,
xxv, 294 — 298.; Naldi, Vita Manetti, in
Muratori's Scrlptores Rerum Italicarum, xx,
577,) W, S,
ARETTNO, FRANCESCO. [Accolti,
Francesco,] ARETFNO, GIOVANNI, or JOANNES
TORTE'LLIUS ARRETI'NUS,was one of
those meritorious Italians of the fifteenth
century, whose classical learning, although
highly creditable fer the times, was eclipsed
by that ef more active and original com
petitors. His family name was Tortelli. He
is said to have travelled into Greece for the
purpose of improving his acquaintance with
the ancient language ; and, iu his own
country, he applied diligently to Latin phi
lology and antiquities. Having stuiUed
theology at Padua, he took orders, and be-
-.ame arch-priest in the cathedral of his
native town, Arezzo. In 1445 he removed
to Rome, where he was patronised by
Eugenius IV., and became secretary of
Nicholas V. That enlightened and accom
plished pontiff gave a proof, still more de
cisive, of the estimation in which he held
Tortelli, by appointing him te take charge ef
the library, which it was one of his favourite
schemes te found in the Vatican. Tortelli died
in or before the year 1466. In phUelogy,
which was his favourite study, his reputation
was considerable. Although he took little part
in the literary quarrels ef his day, he found
it impossible to avoid a misunderstanding
with the irritable Filelfo, who, after having
warmly praised his erudition, both Greek
and Latin, retracted all his commendations,
and, in a letter written after Tortelli's death,
proclaimed him to be a mere pretender. His
werks are the following : — 1. " Commeuta-
814

riorum Grammaticorum de Orthegraphia Dic
tionum e Graicis Tractarum Opus," Venice,
1471, fol. ; Vicenza, 1479, fol. ; Venice, by
Lichtenstein (a very beautiful edition), 1484,
fol. ; Venice, 1495, fol. This work is ela
borate and industrious rather than skilful.
The first part is a short treatise on the
alphabet ; the second, filling nearly the
whole volume, is a dictionary, devoted prin
cipally te orthography and etymology, but
containing likewise many historical and
geographical explanations. The work is
dedicated te the author's patron Pope
Nicholas V. 2. A Latin life of St. Athanasius,
printed with the " Opuscula Athanasii,"
Paris, 1520 ; in WiceTs " Hagiologitun ; " and
in the third volume of Lippemanni's " Vitae
Sanctormn," 1551—1560. 3. A Latin Ufe
of St. Zenobius, archbishop of Florence, in
the " Vitae Sanctorum " of Surius ; and au
abstract in the " Acta Sanctorum," 25th May.
(Niceron, Mimoires, xxv. 298 — 303. ; Tira
boschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana,
1787—1794., -vi. 142. 785. 832. ; Bayle, Dic
tionnaire-) W. S.
ARETTNO, GIOVANNI APPOLO'NI,
one of the numerous contributors to the
vocal harmony of the various Italian schools
of the sixteenth century, published at Venice,
in 1 607, a Set of Madrigals. (Gerber, Lexicon
der TonkUn&tler.) E. T.
ARETTNO, LEONARDO, whose famUy
name ef Brani is usuaUy superseded by the
appellation derived from his birth-place,
stood in the first rank among those Ulustrious
men of letters, whe adorned Italy in the
earUer haff of the fffteenth century. Indeed,
excepting Poggio Braecielini, no literary
Italian ef his age deserves to be remembered
with higher honour than he. He was alike
admirable fer scholarship and for talent.
His temper was keen, but usuaUy quite under
command; and his conduct in general was
marked by great kindUness, as weU as by
prudence and moderation.
Leonardo Bruni was born at Arezzo, about
the year 1369, of a family which is repre
sented as having been respectable, but far
from rich. When he was about fifteen years
old, an incident occurred to him, which is
a paraiUel to Cowley's youthful reading ef
Spenser in his mother's parlour. A band
ef French soldiers took Arezzo by storm,
pillaged it, amd carried off many of the in
habitants as prisoners. Among these was
Leonardo, who was taken to the castle of
Quarata, and there for a considerable time
kept in close confinement. In his chamber
(as he teUs us) there was a portrait of
Petrarch, the contemplation of which formed
the only employment ef the boy's weai-y
hours. The image of the immortal poet and
scholar dwelt ever afterwards on the sus
ceptible fancy of the young Tuscan ; and
the character ef the age, an age of rapidly
advancing erudition, but not of original

ARETINO.
invention, concurred with constitutional ten
dencies in Leonardo's own mind, in making
Petrarch's classical researches rather than
his lyrical inspiration the model to be imi
tated. After his release, his studies were
resumed in his native town, and his success
in them soon procured him powerful friends
and patrons. John of Ravenna was one of
his Latin teachers ; another was Celuccio
Salutato, who treated him less like a pupil
than a sen. His study of the law, under
taken from the necessity ef earning a liveli
hood, and steadily continued for four years,
was interrupted in 1399 by the arrival of
Manuel Chrysoloras at Florence. Under
him, for two years, Leonardo prosecuted
the study of the Greek language with his
characteristic ardour and Avith the greatest
success. The law was then resumed ; but,
practised with reluctance, it was soon aban
doned, through the aid ef Leonardo's friend
Poggio, whe, although ten or eleven years
his junior, had outstripped him in worldly
success, having already obtained a place at
Rome in the papal service.
Recommended successfuUy by Poggio te
Innocent VIL, Leonardo went to Rome in
March, 1405 ; and, a month after his arrival,
having sustained with applause a compara
tive trial ef tadent, instituted between him
and Jacopo da Scarperia [Angelo, Ja
copo di], he was appointed secretary of
papal correspondence. The time was one of
hazard and difficulty, for the pope, even mere
than fer ether Italian princes ; and the two
Tuscan friends had their full share ef the
misfortunes and dangers which beset their
master, Leonardo's letters te Celuccio give
an animated and most interesting account of
the intestine anarchy which theu prevailed in
Rome ; and, among other incidents, he relates
hew, having incautiously crossed the river
while an insurrection raged in the city, he
narrowly escaped with his life from the hands
of the revolters. He accompanied Innocent
in his flight to Viterbo, served him faithfully
during the time of trouble which succeeded,
and was rewarded for his services by the
offer of a bishopric, which he could not be
persuaded te accept. Indeed he had not taken
orders, and remained steady to his purpose
of not doing se. Continuing in the papal
service after the accession of Gregory XII,,
he received from that pontiff two benefices,
the provostship of Fiesole and a canonry at
Florence, beth of Avliich, however, Avlth the
pope's consent, he transferred to the sou ef
his deceased patron Celuccio Salutato. The
generosity and gratitude exhibited in this
affaur should be taken into account by us, if
Ave feel tempted to give ear to the insinu
ations of these contemporaries of Leonardo
who called his rigid economy by the name of
avarice. He accompanied Gregory in all his
wanderings, and retained his pest in the
papal establishment both under Alexander V,
345

ARETINO.
and after the election of the unlucky John
XXIII. Indeed he preferred the service
even of this pope to that ef the Florentines,
who, in November, 1410, appointed him to
be their chancellor. He resided at Florence,
however, for a short time after his appoint
ment ; and, after a visit to Rome, returning
to Tuscany, he took up his residence fer a
while in his native town. There, in the
beginning of 1412, being now above forty
years of age, he married a young Florentine
lady ef good family. In a letter to Poggio
he gives a humorous description of the
festivities held at his wedding, dilating with
a comic affectation of horror upon the sums
of money squandered both on the entertain
ment and on the dress of the bride and
other females. Not long after his marriage,
he returned te Rome. Continuing in the ser
vice of the pope, he was treated with great
distinction, and employed in many difficult and
important transactions, especially missions to
several parts ef Italy. Leonardo had too
much shrewdness and observation not te be
fuUy aware ofthe imprudence of his master ;
and, indeed, throughout the whole term of
his service in the papal court, his letters
show him to have entertained but little hope
of seeing peace restored to Italy or to the
church, by any of these successive pontiffs
whose servant he became. However, like
his friend Poggio, he remained faithful to
John XXIII, se leng as it was possible to
do him efficient service. He crossed the
Alps by the Tyrol in the beginning ef the
winter of 1414 — 1415, arriving at Constance
in December, after a dreary journey, of
which he sent a spirited account to Niccolo
Niccoli At length, Leonardo's constitu
tional prudence overcame his attachment to
the Ul-advised pope : he made his escape
from Constance on foot (before his master
had taken the same step), and, returning to
his native country, arrived at Florence in
March, 1415,
At this point begins the last stage in
Leonardo's history. Thenceforth he was a
burgher and servant of the Florentine re
pubUc. In 1416, through the patronage of
Cosmo de' Medici, he received the right of
citizenship, with an immunity from taxation,
and a pension te descend to his chUdren.
He was now able to devote himself undis
turbed to his favourite studies ; and his cor
respondence about this time is both charac
teristic and highly Interesting. In answering
a letter in Avhich Peggie (stlU at Constance)
described, Avith noble enthusiasm, the heroism
with Avhich Jerome ef Prague encountered
his martyrdom, he Avarns his friend anxiously
to be cautious in dealing with such themes.
In ether letters, of a more satisfactory cast,
he exults Avith Poggio ever his discovery of
ancient manuscripts, among which ene of the
most prized Avas the first complete copy of
QuinctiUan.

ARETINO.

ARETINO.

Another incident related in the letters
is not only less pleasing in itself, but dis
creditable to the Florentine morality of the
time. Niccolo Niccoli was the friend and
patron of Leonardo, of Peggie, ef every Tus
can scholar who was worthy ef patronage
and friendship, and himself a valuable con
tributor to the improvement of classical learn
ing. He was a man ef warm but irregular
affections, and of a temper painfully unequal.
His younger brother Giovanni having taken
into his house as his mistress a low ad
venturess named Benvenuta, Niccolo saw
her, was tempted by her beauty, and enticed
her away from his brother. This miscon
duct of Niccolo led to an estrangement not
only with his own family but with Leonardo
and his ether friends ; and matters were seen
brought to a crisis by the insolence of his
paramour, who publicly slandered the Avffe
of Jacopo, another ef Niccolo's brothers.
Giovanni and Jacopo with the rest of the
brothers took the law into their own hands.
Forcibly entering Niccelo's apartments, they
seized Benvenuta before his eyes, dragged
her into the street, and there, amidst the
shouts of an applauding mob, inflicted upon
her a chastisement which would have been
less indecent ff administered to a truant
school-boy, Niccolo was inconsolable for
the affront ; and Leonardo, half angry and
half amused, refrained from visiting him, as
he says, because he could net have dene se
without saying something which would have
been offensive, Niccolo sent a. common ac
quaintance to say he was surprised that his
friend had not come to comfort him. " Sur
prised ! " answered Leonardo : " Why should
he be se ? What has happened te vex him ?
Nothing but that his brothers have punished
his ceokmaid." The answer was duly re
ported by the messenger ; and Niccolo's whole
wrath was turned against the sarcastic com
mentator on his misfortune. He wrote and
circulated a libel on his eld friend, Leonardo,
whose temper, when once aroused, was both
obstinate and violent, answered the pasqui
nade by another : the quarrel became more
and more bitter : all the attempts of friends
to effect a reconcUiation were in vain; and,
for a year or more, two men of talent and
character made themselves the laughing
stock ef all their acquaintances, Poggio had
at length the merit of bringing about a good
understanding ; and Niccolo and Leonardo
were dear friends till the death ofthe former,
which took place seventeen years after their
reconciliation. About the year 1419 Leonardo was strongly
pressed by Martin V,, the new pope, te take
service again at Rome, He steadily de
clined the oft'er ; but his biographers give
him credit for having, by his decision and
temper, prevailed on the pope to abandon
a grudge he had taken up against the Flo
rentines, en account of a foolish song which
346

the boys sang in the streets while he was
obliged to take refuge in Florence, Leo
nardo's dexterity may have temporarily ap
peased Martin ; but the pontiff's subsequent
conduct showed that the petty offence was
never forgiven. Meanwhile Leonardo, ho
noured by his fellow-citlzensfer his genius and
learning, liked for the amenity of his maimers,
patronised by Cosmo de' Medici, and a de
cided adherent of his party in the state, was
compelled (much against his wiU, if his own
account may be believed) te sacrifice to the
public service seme part of his literary lei
sure. In 1427 he was sent to Rome as the
envoy of the Florentines, whe had submitted
te the arbitration of Pope Martin their dis
putes with FiUppo-Maria Viscontl, duke of
Milan. Very soon after his return from
that mission, he was appointed to the honour
able office of chancellor ef Florence, which
he continued te held tiU his death. He was
either twice or three times nominated a
member of the " Balia,'' that anomalous and
dangerous commission of government, which
was a principal instrument of the ambition
of the Medici. Once likewise he wais elected
ene ef the " Priors of the Guilds," or chief
ordinary magistrates of the city ; and just
before his death his friends seem to have
formed the intention of intrusting te him the
perilous office of " Gonfaloniere of Justice."
Upon this latter portion of Leonardo's lffe his
correspondence throws Uttle light ; and, di
vided between pubUc business en the ene hand,
and study and composition on the other, it
passed without being diversified by any very
striking incident. One pleasing anecdote is
related. Giannozzo Manetti, a promising
young man of letters, maintaining a philo
sophical argument in a society where the
chancellor was present, received applause,
at which Leonardo took offence. Losing
temper, he administered to the aspirant an in
jurious rebuke, which was very submissively
received. The old man's heart smote him,
and he could not sleep aU night. At break
of day, he, the celebrated scholar and ene of
the first ministers of the state, went alone to
Manetti's lodging, and humbly asked for
giveness. Seen afterwards he procured for
Manetti an appointment as envoy to Genoa.
Leonardo died suddenly, on the 9th of
March, 1444, aged seventy-four or seventy-
five years. He left to his son Donate a very
considerable fortune, amassed through these
habits of economy which he had been taught
by the painful experience ef early poverty.
WhUe his body lay upon the bier, the ma
nuscript ef the dead man's " History of Flo
rence " was placed upon his breast ; and his
head was croAA-ned with laurel, in token of
poetic fame as well as of historical talent and
classic erudition. This ceremony was per
formed by Giannozzo Manetti, Avho pro
nounced on the occasion an oration stUl ex
tant, and utterly unworthy of the admirable

ARETINO.

ARETINO.

scholar whose memory it attempted to cele
brate. Poggio paid a mere fitting tribute to
his friend in an oration (never pronounced)
which he afterwards composed, and which is
remarkable for its simpUclty, judgment, and
goed feeling.
Leonardo is one ef the six honoured men of
genius, whose ashes repose aimidst the gloom
of the Florentine church of Santa Croce :
and his monument stiU bears its famous
though affected inscription, said to have been
composed by his successor Carle Aretine :
" Postquam Leonardus § vit& migravit,
Historia luget, Eloquentia muta est :
Ferturque Musas tum Grajcas tum Latinas
Lachrymas tenere uon potuisse."
Leonardo's real importance in the history
of modern letters, and the interest belonging
to his character and to his connection with
the events of his time, have concurred in at
tracting the notice of very many writers to
his lffe and his works. Critical notices of
his writings are scattered through most books
treating ef the renovation of learning in Eu
rope. The fullest biography of him is a
memoir by the Abbe Mehus, prefixed to his
edition of Leonardo's Epistles. The memoir
is minute even te tedleusness.
The admirable activity ef this remarkable
man's intellect, and the versatUity with which
he passed from one kind of study to another,
may be estimated even from a glance at the
catalogue ef his works. MazzuchelU's list
(which is considerably fuller and more exact
than that given by Mehus) contains eighty
articles ; embracing twenty-six werks which
have been printed, several of them very leng,
and fifty -four, longer or shorter, which stUl
exist in manuscript.
His writings in the modern tongue are few
and unimportant. His few Italian poems are
unfavourably criticised even by his country
men, usually no niggardly bestowers of praise
upon the early monuments ef their literature ;
and the justice of the censure will readily be
acquiesced in by these who have attempted
to peruse the Canzone " On Felicity " given
by Crescimbeni, a composition which (to
say nothing of its ruggedness and obscurity
in diction) is merely a dry, prosaic argument
on a vexed question in ethics. His memoirs
of Dante and Petrarch are pronounced to be
hardly less worthless. He even attempted
composition in classical Greek : but the ut
most praise ever bestowed on his historical
essay in that language, is, that, if considered
as the production of one who writes in a
foreign tongue, it is "not very inelegant."
Almost aU his werks are in Latin : and, wri
ting in the first half of the fifteenth century,
when classical taste was just emerging from
the scholastic barbarism, he could not have
been expected to attaiin amything like polished
or even pure Latinity. He is sometimes in
correct in idiom : stUl oftener his diction is
barbarous. But he is universally admitted
347

te have been ene of the leaders in the pro
gress towards a higher standard in classical
compositien ; and seme ef his learned coun
trymen have been net indisposed to consider
him as contesting the palm even with Gaspa-
rinus of Bergamo. His translations from
Greek into Latin exhibit not only his defects
in style, but also other imperfections, arising
from the little progress as yet made in the
study of classical philology and antiquities.
They can receive ne higher praise than that
of having been among the best translations
produced in that age.
As an original writer Leonardo evinces
very much literary genius. He possesses
genuine eloquence. He writes with clearness,
animation, and dramatic strength ; although,
especially in his oratorical compositions,
he is not free from an inclination to wordi
ness. He always speaks like a man of the
world, interested in characters and events,
observing facts accurately, reasoning from
them with good sense and sagacity. His
" History of his oavu Times " is an excellent
specimen of these quaUties : his "Letters,"
especially the earlier ones, are still better.
Indeed his correspondence is ene of the most
interesting books in the history of literature.
We see him now relating to his friends the
agitating occurrences of the times, now dis
cussing antiquarian or philological questions
in a manner curiously instructive as te the
progress which erudition was then making.
Sometimes he advises his friends affection
ately or respectfully ; sometimes he expresses
his opinien upon kind advices which had
been given to him, or combats, keenly and
sarcastically, unfriendly censures upon his
conduct or his writings.
The following is a classiSed catalogue of
those works of his which have been printed.
I. Historical works. — 1. " De BeUe Italico
adversus Gothos gesto Libri Quatuor," Fo
ligno, 1470, fob; Venice, 1471, fol.; Beau
vais, 1507, 4te. ; Basle (with Procopius and
ether historians of the Goths), 1531, fol. ;
Paris, 1534, Svo. ; Basle, 1576 ; Lyon, 1594;
an Italian translation, Florence, 1525, and
Venice, 1528, Svo., 1542, Svo. and 1548 ; a
French translation, 1667. 2. "De Bello Punico
Libri Duo," 1490, fol. ; Brescia, 1498, fol. ;
Paris, 1512; Augsburg, 1537, 4to. ; two
Italian translations of the first book, 'Venice
(in an edition ef Livy), 1485, fol., and Ve
nice, 1544, 1545, 1563, Svo. 3. " Cemmenta-
rierum Rerum Graecarum Liber," Lyon, 1539,
4to. ; Leipzig, 1546, Svo. ; Strassburg, 1610,
fok (with the " Historiae Florentinae " and
" De Suis Temporibus ") : by Gronovius, in
the " Thesaurus Graecarum Antiquitatum," vi.
3387 — 3418. 4. " Historiarum Florentinamm
Libri Duodecim," Strassburg, 1610, fol.
(with the books " Rerum Graecarum " and
" De Suis Temporibus ") ; an ItaUan trans
lation by Donate AcciajuoU, 1473, 1476,
1485, 1492, 1561. 5. "Rerum suo Tempore

ARETINO.

ARETINO.

in Italia gestarum Commentarius," Venice,
1475, 1485, 4to. ; Florence, 1488, 4to. ;
Lyen, 1539, 4te. ; Strassburg, 1610, fol.
(with the " Historiae Florentina; " and " Re
rum Graecarum Liber ") ; by Menschen in
his " Ceremonialia Electionis et Coronationis
Pontificis Romani," Frankfurt, 1732, 4to. ;
in Muratori's " Rerum Italicarum Scrlptores,"
xix. 911—942.
Leonardo's " History of the Punic War "
is pronounced by those who have had an
opportunity of reading it, te be, notwith
standing the author's denial, Uttle mere
than a translation from Polybius. The
" Greek History " is avowedly a compilation,
made from the Greek Avorks then accessible
to the writer, and intended to convey to his
Florentine fellow-citizens a picture of the
vicissitudes occurring successively in the an
cient republics of Athens, Lacedaemon, and
Thebes, during a period of about fifty years
ending with the death of Epaminondas.
There have been many disputes as te the
amount ef originality belonging to the " His
tory ef the Gothic War in Italy." It has
been roundly asserted (by Gibbon and ethers)
to be a mere translation of Procopius. Leo
nardo himself, in two letters written before
the work had come into circulation, claims
credit for it as an original werk. He avows
indeed that his materials are derived from an
ancient authority (which he dees net specify);
but he says that he has disposed the materials
in such a way as to make him properly an
author, not a translator, using them as Livy
used Polybius er Valerius Antias, er as he
himseff, if he had been an actual observer of
the facts, would have used his own scattered
notices and memoranda. In his dedication
he is totally silent as to his obUgatiens to
ether writers ; and his procemium owns only
in general terms, that he has derived his in
formation " from the commentaries ef the
Greeks." Here doubtless, as in the preceding
case, he was chargeable with great want of
candour : but a minute comparison of his his
tory with the supposed original is sufficient to
satisfy us, that the view of his position given
in the letters is substantially correct. His in
formation is derived exclusively from Proco
pius ; but he does net translate him through
out, ner (though his Avork is far shorter) can
he even be fairly accused of having merely
abridged him. Many sentences, indeed, are
literal versions from the Greek. His work,
likewise, and the part ef Procopius which
treats of the Gothic war in Italy, begin and
end exactly at the same point ef the history.
But he usually throws the materials into a
foi-iu Avhioh may be said to make them really
his own. Sometimes he gives a rapid sum
mary ef events which the old historian of the
Goths relates minutely : sometimes, seizing
a hint from his original, he Avorks it up into
an animated scene or group : often he sub
stitutes, with great judgment and skill, a ge-
348

neralised view of a character or a principle
for the confused mass of detaUs which lay
before him. Leonardo's division of his four
books does not correspond with that of Pro
copius except in ene instance ; and he omits
altogether the episodical account of the Per
sian war.
IL Oratorical works, — 1, " Imperateris
HeliogabaU Oratio Protreptica sive Horta-
teria, ad Meretrices," Venice, Aldus, 1516,
1519, Svo. (with the "Historiae Augustae
Scrlptores "). In a letter to Niccoli, speak
ing ef this book, he complains of seme duU
friends who could net be brought to perceive
that it was written in jest. 2. " Adversus Hy -
pocritas Libellus," in the " Fasciculus Rerum
expetendarum et fugiendarum," Cologne,
1535, fok (in Brown's edition, London, 1690,
fol., i. 307 — 310.) ; and (with Peggie's
treatise on the same theme, which had been
Leonardo's model) Lyon, 1679 ; London,
1691 ; again in 1699. 'This oration, ad
dressed as an exhortation to reUgious hypo
crites, both in the church and among the
laity, is exceedingly spirited: but in peinted
ness ef sarcasm, and in characteristic force ef
delineation, it cannot be compared with the
satire ef Poggio, 3, " Oratio in Funere
Nannis (Joannis) Stroza;," in Baluze's
" Miscellanea," ui 226 — 248,
III. Dialogues and other Dissertations. —
1. " Introductorius De Moribus Dialogus,"
Louvain, 1475, fok; Paris, 1497, 4to., 1512,
1516; Leipzig, 1509, 4te.; Lyon, 1551, Svo.;
Jena, 1607, 12mo. 2. " De Studiis et Literis,"
Padua, 1483, 4te. ; Leipzig, 1501, 4te. ;
Strassburg, 1521, Svo.; Paris, 1642, Svo.;
with Grotius, " De Studiis bene instltuendis,"
Amsterdam, Elzevir, 1645, 12me. ; by Cre-
nius, in his " Variorum Auctorum CensiUa,"
Rotterdam, 1692, 4to. 3. " Dialogi Due De
Disputatlenum Exercitationisque StutUorum
Usu," Basle, 1536, Svo., 1538; Paris, 1642,
Svo. IV. — " Epistolm-um Libri Octo,'' 1472,
fol. ; 1495, fol. (both probably printed at
Brescia) ; Venice, 1495, fek ; Leipzig, 1499,
4to. ; with omissions and additions, Augsbiu-g,
1521; Basle, 1535, 1538, Svo.; edited by
Fabricius, Hambm-g, 1724, Svo. (with Peggie's
funeral oration) ; and lastly, edited by the
Abbi' Mehus, Florence, 1741, 2 vols., Svo.,
with a Ninth and Tenth Book of Letters never
before printed, an elaborate memoir of the
author's lffe and writings, and the funeral
orations of Manetti and Poggio. This edition,
though the best, is very incorrectly printed.
V. MisceUaneous Latin works. — 1. "Decru-
deli Amoris Exitu Gulscardi et Sigismundae,''
(a translation of Boccaccio's novel, Giornata
IV., nov. i), Tours, 1467, 4to.; in the Epis
tles of iEneas Silvius Piccolomini ; in Manni's
" Illiistrazioni del Decamerone ;" one edition in
1 490, 4to., without note of place, and six others
very old, but without dates, one of them
printed at Mentz by Fust and Schceffer. 2.

ARETINO.

ARETINO.

" De Calphurnia et Gurgulione Opusculum,"
Sorten, 1478, fok 3. " Poliscense Cemedia,"
(according to MazzucheUi), or " Cemedia
Graccus et Poliscene," (according te Panzer),
Strassburg, undated, fol. ; Leipzig, 1500, 4te.,
1510, 8vo., 1514, 4to.
VL Werks in ItaUan. — 1. "LeVite di
Dante e del Petrarca," Perugia, 1671, 12me. ;
Florence, 1672, 12mo. ; in Volpe's edition of
Dante, 1727, Svo. ; the Life of Dante sepa
rately, Lyon, 1551, 1552, 1571, Venice (with
Dante's works), 1741, 8ve., and 1757, 4to.;
the Lffe of Petrarch separately in Tomma-
sini's "Petraroha Redivivus," 1650.
VII. Translations from Greek into Latin. —
1. Translations from Aristotle : "Qiicenomica
cum Commentariis," 4to., undated, probably
1471 ; Venice, 1508, 1550 ; Siena, 1508, 4to. ;
Leipzig, 1510, fol. ; and with ether trans
lations as below : " Politicorum Libri
Octo," Florence, 1478, fok ; Venice, 1500,
fok (with the commentary attributed to Aqui
nas) ; Venice (with other translations from
Aristotle), 1504, 1508; Venice, 1552, fek;
Paris, Stephens, 1505, 1511, 1514, 1515,
1517, fob; Leipzig, 1516, fek; Basle, 1538;
Venice, 1568, 1595, fol. : " Ethicorum
Libri Decern," Florence, 1478, fol. ; Oxford,
1479, 4to. (Ames, Typographical Antiquities) ;
Paris, 1497, fek ; Paris, Stephens, 1504, 1506,
1510, 1511, fok; Paris, 1516; Paris, 1526,
1527, 1542, fok ; Venice, 1508, fok 2. Trans
lations from Xenophon : " Tyrannus [Hiero]
et Apologia pro Secrate," Bologna, 1502, fol.
3. Translations from the Greek orators :
" iEschinis et Demesthenis De Corenii Ora
tiones," Venice, 1485, 1497; Basle (in Cicero's
works), 1528, 1540, fol. 4. Translations from
Plutarch : " Vitae Marci Antonii, Pyrrhi,
Pauli .SlmiUi, Graccherum, Serterli, Catonis
Uticensis, et Demesthenis," Rome, (with
translations from Plutarch by other writers),
1470, fok; Venice, 1502, fok; Basle, 1535,
1542, fol. 5. Translation from Saint BasU :
" De Llberalibus Studiis Liber," Milan,
1474, 4to. ; Brescia, 1485 ; Bologna, 1497,
fok; Modena, 1500, 4to.; Strassburg, 1507,
4te. ; Paris, 1508, 4to. ; Florence, 1516, Svo.;
Paris, 1 543, Svo. ; Rome (with the Greek
text), 1594, 12mo.
VIIL — The Greek treatise, Uepl TloXirelas
iXopevTlvaiv, is announced as having been
published some years ago, with a German
translation and introduction : " Ueber die
Staatsverfassung der Florentlner, herans-
gegeben, ubersetzt, und mit einer Einleitung
versehen, von K. F. Neumann," Frankfurt,
1822, Svo.
For a catalogue of Leonardo's unprinted
works the reader must consult Mazzuchelli.
They comprehend antiquarian treatises, phi
lological commentaries, histories and biogra
phies, essays on ethics and on education, a
large number of orations, the libel on Niccoli,
and a surprising number and variety of trans
lations from the Greek writers. The trans -
349

lations are from Homer (the Odyssey),
Plato, Demosthenes, .Slschines, Lysias, and
Isocrates, Plutarch, Ptolemy, and (unless
Leonardo be here mistaken fer Francesco
Accolti) the pseudo- Phalaris. (Mehus, Vita
Leonardi Bruni, above referred te ; Leo
nardo's own Epistola and De Suis Tem
poribus ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia, art.
" Brani ;" Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura
Italiana ; Corniani, Secoli della Letteratura
Italiana; Blount, Censura Celebriorum Au-
thorum ; Baillet, Jugemens des Savans, ed.
1722, ii 213., ill. 15. ; Shepherd, Life of
Poggio BraccioUni ; Meiners, Lebensbeschrei-
bungen beriihmter Planner, " Ambrogio Tra-
versari") W. S.
ARETTNO, PIE'TRO, was one of the
most notorious men of letters who lived in
the sixteenth century. The admirers ef his
literary talents called him " the Divine."
The poUtical position he was supposed to
hold was indicated by his ether title "the
Scourge of Princes." Beth titles were, Uke
the life of the man, thoroughly deceptive.
He was a person of much natural genius, of
very little learning, of ne industry, and al
most utterly destitute of moral principle. The
favourable circumstances in his history are
chiefly to be gathered from his own corre
spondence, the unfavourable ones from bit
ter Ubels on him written by his enemies.
Consequently, many events of his life rest in
considerable doubt ; and, although much of
the obscurity might be dispelled, the limits
and purpose of this memoir forbid the at
tempt. Pietro was born at Arezzo in 1492, and Is
believed to have been the natural sen of a
gentleman, named Luigi Bacci 'Till his
twentieth year he lived poer and neglected,
working for some time as a bookbinder In
Perugia, picking up such fragments of edu
cation as he could, and distinguishing him
self by one or two acts ef audacious disre
spect for the religion of his country. For
about fifteen years after this period he was a
wanderer through Italy, serving the great in
capacities of a very subordinate kind, and
repeatedly involving himself In disgrace by
misconduct, but still contriving to impress
all who knew hlra Avith a very high opinion
of his natural endowments. After having
acquired the patronage of the papal court, he
lost it in 1523 by writing obscene sonnets, to
accompany the equally obscene engravings
made by Marcantonio from drawings of
Giulio Romano. An attempt to recover the
favour of his Reman patrons was defeated by
a low amour, in the course of Avhich he was
dangerously wounded by a rival ; and the
same incident was indirectly the cause ef em
broiling him Avlth Berni, II Mauro (Arcane),
and seme other poets of the Bernesque
school, whe were thenceforth, through life,
his determined enemies and unscrupulous
maligners. Through all these mishaps, hoAv-

ARETINO.

ARETINO.

ever, Pietro was able te acquire and retain
the patronage, net only of some of the Medici,
but of Francis I. of France.
In March, 1527, he took up his abode at Ve
nice. There, with no interval of absence ex
ceeding a few weeks, he resided tiU his death,
which took place in that city in 1557, when he
had completed his sixty-fifth year. These last
thirty years of his life were spent in what he
himself desired to describe as literary labour,
but ef which the greater part was quite un
worthy ef sq honourable an appeUatlen. He
did indeed compose and publish a few works
properly literary, but the composition of
these was one ef his least important employ
ments ; and so idle and debauched a person
can hardly be supposed te have been in
fluenced in writing them, by any higher
motive than this, that the acquisition of a
certain amount of literary reputation was
necessary fer effecting the great end which
he kept steadily in view. He did, indeed,
likewise associate with literary men and
artists : in fact, inteUectual society had real
charms for him ; and it is plain that in such
society he was eminently qualified to shine.
He acquired and retained the friendship, er
seeming friendship, ef most of these men of
genius who adorned Italy in his time ; his
list of literary friends including such names
as that of Bernardo Tasso, while Titian was
his constant companion, and Michel Angelo
his frequent correspondent. But all these
pursuits and companionships, although em
braced perhaps in seme degree from genuine
liking, were most assiduously cultivated for
their bearing on ether objects, and to these
they were skiffuUy made subservient.
The great aim of Pietro's lffe at Venice
was the acquisition of wealth : wealth he de
sired ardently, net that he might hoard it,
but because without it he could not purchase
sensual gratifications. His method of earn
ing money was ene which the vocabulary of
modem times might enable us te describe by
a very plain and undignified term. He was a
writer of begging letters. This was exactly
the fact : there was nothing to elevate it ex
cept the rank of the parties to whom the
mendicant addressed himseff, and the sin
gular success with which his applications
were crowned. Among Pietro's benefactors
were many nobles and statesmen : but his
favourite correspondents were persons higher
still. He established a correspondence, not
only with every reigning prince iu Italy, but
with the emperor of Germany, the king ef
France, the kings or royal families of Poland,
Portugal, Spain, and England. He received
gifts or pensions from most of these iUustrious
persons, as well as from Sultan Selj'man and
Barbarossa the pirate. From the gains thus
procured he supported himself during the
thirty years ef his residence in Venice, not
merely in comfort, but in the profuse luxury
of a debauchee. 350

His letters, which he published in six suc
cessive volumes, explain distinctly how this
improbable result was brought about. The
machinery was so cumbrous, that it is here
quite impossible to expose all its internal
mysteries ; but the principal parts of the
moving power may be easUy exhibited. We
mistake Pietro's position entirely ff we ac
cept, as in any sense UteraUy trae, his
favourite title of " Scourge ef Princes." He
wished to be considered capable of becoming
their scourge, but in addressing them he was
their abject flatterer. He never went farther
in his endeavours to 'extort favours, than
insinuating that his praise of other princes
would imply dispraise of those whom he ad
dressed; and that his praise must be earned
by liberality, the first of kingly virtues. The
point most difficult te be understood is, hew
he was able to make his royal patrons believe
that it was worth while to purchase either his
praise or his silence. Even this point could
be in no smaU degree elucidated by an expo
sition of the relatien in which Pietro steed te
the Uterary world ef his time ; but that rela
tion was so complicated that its details can
not be entered into. The principle, however,
upon which he acted, was abundantly plaiin ;
and it is not unfairly described, when it is
caUed a system ef deliberate imposture. It
consisted in diffusing, in all accessible quar
ters, and by every conceivable artifice, an
exaggerated opinien of his Uterary powers,
both as a panegyrist and a satirist. He
did contrive to make himseff estimated, in
both capacities, infinitely beyond the worth
of any thing which he ever reaUy performed.
The means by which this effect was pro
duced are interesting and curious in the
extreme, as illustrations of human character,
whether we regard the acter in the plot, or
those upon whom he worked. But these
means must be learned by such readers as
have the patience to study Pietro's letters
fer the purpose.
Very seldom did any unpleasant coUision
mar the animal repose of his lffe in Venice.
He was too cautious, or rather toe timid, to
risk any thing of the sort. He attempted
again amd again, and in seme cases success
fuUy, to conciliate even his literary foes ;
but, after aU, these men could only vUffy his
moral character, and he understood his oavu
position too well te feel any serious uneasi
ness en that score. With persons of higher
rank and greater power he never took liber
ties unless when he believed he might do so
Avith impunity ; and ff he foimd that this ex
pectation Avas groundless, he lost no time in
making submissions. '^^Tien he libeUed Pope
Clement A'lL, the pope was besieged in the
Castel Sant' Angelo ; and he was able to be
on terms of such favour Avith Julius IIL that
he was admitted to an interview, and had,
soon afterwards, the impudence to ask for a
cardinal's hat, on the refiisal of which he

ARETINO.

ARETINO.

pasquinaded the pope and his family. He
slandered the exUed Pietro Strozzi ; but he
lay hid in his house for weeks on leaming
that Pietro had threatened te cut his throat.
His most unlucky encounter was with Har-
veU, the English ambassador at Venice, whe,
on learning that Pietro had charged him
with misappropriating a gift sent by Henry
VIIL, waylaid the libeller, and made his ser
vants beat him soundly.
Into the recesses of Pietro's private lffe
there is no temptation to penetrate. His
house was the constant scene of gross de
bauchery. In the whole history of his do
mestic relations, there is hardly any point
upon which the mind can dwell without dis
gust, except the grief he felt for the death of
one of his many mistresses, and the instinctive
affection with which he regarded his three
natural chUdren. His death is attributed to
a fall from his chair in the midst of a fit of
laughter ; and it is commonly added (but
this part of the story is tmtrue), that his un
lucky mirth was caused by hearing an account
of wanton freaks played by his sisters. It is
said, likewise, that, after having received ex
treme unction, he gravely addressed to those
whe stood by his bedside a request (couched
in an extemporaneous verse,) " that now when
he was eUed, they would take care the rats
should not eat him." He was buried in the
Venetian church of San Luca.
The best and most systematic account of
Pietro's Ufe and writings is the elaborate and
accurate memoir by MazzucheUi, " La Vita
di Pietro Aretine," first published in 1741,
and again with great additions and improve
ments, at Brescia, in 1763, Svo. But in
cidental notices of Pietro's lffe, with a few
speculations on seme ef his compositions, lie
scattered through many modern books.
Those who would become acquainted with
the bibliography of his werks (almost aU of
which are extremely rare), must seek it from
MazzuchelU. The foUowing abstract may
be sufficient to convey a general notion of
their nature.
His prose works fall into several classes :
— 1. The infamous Dialogues ; as te which
it is enough to say, that they are miserable
things, even in their own miserable class. 2.
The Theological works, embracing para
phrases and commentaries en the Vulgate,
(written by a man who knew little or no
Latin), and lives ofthe saints. These works
were neglected even in their own time ; and
it is net easy to understand the author's rea
sons for engaging in the composition of them.
Some writers have gravely asserted that they
were written in his old age, and were fruits
of repentance : the fact is quite otherwise ;
these and his most obscene works went on
harmoniously together. 3. Five comedies :
" II Marescalco," " La Cortigiana," " L'lpo-
crito," " La Talanta," " II FUesofo." These
are by far the best of Pietro's writings. In-
351

deed they are among the most interesting
dramatic compositions which the literature of
modem Italy has to show. Faulty in plot,
and bad in morality (though not so bad as
many contemporary productions of their
class), they are admirable for their frequent
Uveliness and truth to nature in dialogue,
and fer the infinite spirit, faithfulness, and
originaUty, with which they pourtray cha
racters and manners. The " Cortigiana"
is a group of sketches from lffe, which, in
many peints, reminds us of Ben Jonson
himseff. 4. " The Letters." The publica
tien of these in successive volumes, during
the author's lffe, showed, by the falling off in
the number of editions, that his fame was
beginning to wane. All the six volumes
were pubUshed together at Paris, 1609,6 vols.
Svo. Some are to be found in various col
lections, and a large number iu the " Lettere
Pittoriche," Rome, 1757 — 1768. The letters
are almost every where vicious in style,
anticipating (as it has been truly remarked)
the bad taste of Italian poetry in the seven
teenth century. But it would be possible to
cuU from them a large mass of sayings, some
times false in taste or judgment, but always
original and striking, and sometimes very
felicitous in expression as weU as in thought.
The best parts ef the letters are the criticisms
on art, for which Pietro had a very fine sen
sibility. The literary criticisms are exceed
ingly poor.
The works in verse are the following :
— 1. Three occasional Lyrics. 2. The
licentious Sonnets. 3. Three unfinished
Poems, or rather three fragments ef poems,
of Chivalry — the " Marfisa," the " Tears of
Angelica," and the " Oriandino," the last of
which is burlesque. 4. Several Encomiastic
Poems. 5. " La Passione di Gesu, con due
Canzone, Tuna aUa Vergine, Taltra al Re
Christianissimo." 6. " L'Horazia," a five
act tragedy in blank verse, which Ginguene
analyses minutely and praises very highly.
7. A volume of Pasquinades, in verse, ex
changed between Pietro and the MUanese peet
Albicante. 8. Miscellaneous Poems ; some
ef which were printed separately, while a
good many others are inserted in various
coUections of Italian poetry, such as Deme-
nichi's first book, Arrivabene's third book,
and the current editions of Berni and the
poets of his school. (MazzuchelU, Vita di
Pietro Aretino, second edition ; Pietro Are
tine, Lettere ; Fontanini (with Zeno's notes),
Biblioteca d'Eloquenza Italiana, 1753, i. 197
— 216. ; Crescimbeni, Storia della Volgar
Poesia, U. 407. 437., iv. 44—48. ; TU-abos-
chi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, 1789 
1794, vii 157. 1050—1056.; Ginguene, .ff/s-
toire Littiraire d'ltalie, vi. 128  143. 242 
273. ; Bayle, Dictionnaire Historique ; Gaddi,
De Scriptoribus non Ecclesiasticis, 1648 ;
Carpentariana, p. 34 — 36.; Menagiana,PaT'is,
1715, U. 108. 178. 194., iv. 59—66., 303.;

ARETINO.

ARETINO.

Hallam, Introduciilm to the Literature of Eu
rope, first edition, i 601., U. 266. 401.)
W. S.
ARETTNO, RANU'CCIO or RI-
NU'CCIO, a classical scholar of minor
reputation in the fifteenth century, can be
traced from 1430 till about 1455. Laurentius
Valla mentions Ranucciowith praise as having
taught him Greek ; and Pope Nicholas V.
named him one ef his apostolic secretaries.
His only known publications are two trans
lations from the Greek into Latin : 1. "iEsopi
Vita et Fabulae," MUan, 1480, 4to,, Venice,
1491, 4to. 2. "Bruti et Hippocratis Coi
Medici Epistete," in the " Epistolae Laconi-
cae variorum Auctorum," Basle, 1554, 16mo.
( Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia ; Fabricius,
Bibliotheca Graca-) W. S.
ARETTNO, SCIPIO'NE. [Lampadius,
Jacob.] ARETI'NO, SPINELLO, ene ofthe most
distinguished Italian painters of the fourteenth
century, Avas the sen of Luca SpineUi, whe,
when the Ghibelines were expeUed from
Florence, settled at Arezzo, where, as his
surname implies, Spinello was born, about
the year 1316. Vasari says that he died,
aged ninety-two, about the year 1400, but
this is shown to be an error by a record in
the town-hall of Siena (printed by Rumohr
in his " ItaUenische Forsehungen "), according
to which Spinello received payment fer some
works executed in that building as late as
1408. Spinello studied painting, for which
he showed great ability at a very early age,
under Jacopo del Casentino, whom, however,
he surpassed even in his eighteenth year.
His first great work was te paint in fresco
the church of San Niccolo, erected by Dar-
dane AcciajuoU, at Arezzo, for the ceunoil to
be held there by the pope Engene IV. The
subjects ef the frescoes were from the life ef
San Niccolo ; but there is not a vestige of
the church now remaining. The colouring
and drawing of the figures is praised by
Vasari, in whose time these werks were de
stroyed by fire. Spinello acquired so great a
reputation by these works that he was invited
by Barone Capelli, a Florentine citizen, to
Florence to paint the principal chapel of
Santa Maria Maggiere with subjects from
the lffe of the 'Virgin and Sant' Antonio
Abate. He executed many other works in
several Florentine churches, after the com
pletion of Avhlch he was recalled te Arezzo
by the authorities of that place to paint some
werks in the eld cathedral there, Avhich is
also now destroyed. He painted UkeAvise
several works in many other churches of
Arezzo, of which some still remain. He
then painted for the Abbot Don Jacopo some
frescoes in the monastery of San Miniate in
Monte, near Florence, which stiU remain in
a good state ef preservation ; and for the
same abbot others in the monastery of San
Bernardo at Arezzo, which are destroyed.
352

In the church of San Stefano, a part of the
old cathedral of Arezzo, Spinello painted a
Madonna and ChUd, whioh were se much
prized by the people of Arezzo, on account
of the character and expression, that when
that church was pulled down the fresco was
cut out of the wall and removed te a small
church in the town, which was afterwards
caUed the Madonna del Duomo, after the
picture. For the same abbot, Don Jacopo, already
mentioned, Spinello, in 1385, painted, in dis
temper, seme clever works in the principal
chapel of the monastery of Mente Olivete,
near Florence. He afterwards executed some
works in Florence, and painted six pictures of
the series of frescoes illustrating the Ufe of San
Ranieri in the Campe Santo at Pisa, which are
described and highly praised by Vasari both
for invention and execution, who calls them
Spinello's best werks, but Uttle new remains
ef them ; there are, however, engravings ef
them, by Lasinio, in the " Pitture a Fresco
del Campo Santo di Pisa." After painting
seme other works in Pisa and in Florence he
returned again to Arezzo in his seventy-
seventh year, about 1393, where he painted,
fer the brothers ef Sant' Agnolo, Jlichael and
the Fallen Angels on the wall ofthe principal
altar of their church. In this painting he
made Satan so hideous that the prince of
darkness is said to have appeared te SpineUe
in a dream, and asked him where he had
ever seen him so ugly as he had had the im
pudence to paint him. The apparition is
reported, says Vasari, to have given the
painter such a shock that he died very shortly
afterwards. This latter part of tbe story,
however, is contradicted by the fact that he
was employed seme years afterwards in the
town-hall of Siena, The picture and Satan
in question are engraved by Lasinio in his
collection of old Florentine paintings.
The above works, says Vasari, show that
SpineUe was as good a draughtsman as Giotto,
and a better painter ; yet 'S'asari says he
drew much better than he painted. He was
also excellent beth in the quality and iu the
variety of his expression. It is remarkable
that Vasari has net noticed what are now
considered the principal works of Spinello, —
the History of Pope Alexander III. in the
town-hall of Siena, which he Avas still work
ing upon in 1408, the year probably of his
death. These works are described by Von
Rumohr in his " Italian Researches. "
SpineUe was, according te '^^asari, buried
in the church ef Sant' Agostino at Arezzo,
and the folloAvlng inscription, he says, in the
first edition of his work, was placed by his
sons to his memory : — " Spinello Aretine
Patri opt. Pictorique suae iEtatis nebiliss.
cujus Opera et ipsi et Patria; niaxlmo Orna-
mento fuerunt, pil FUU non sine Lachrymis
poss." There is ne such inscription now in
that church. SpineUe left two sons, Ferzere

ARETINO.

ARETIUS.

and Parri. Forzore was a jcAveUer at Flo
rence, and distinguished himself by his skill
and taste in niello-work ; Parri was a dis
tinguished painter. [Spinelli, Parri.]
Baglione mentions an Andrea Aretino,
in the " Lffe ef Biagio Betti," who was of the
school of Volterra and Michael Angelo ; he
lived in Rome at the beginning of the seA-en-
teenth century. (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, ^c- ;
and the notes to Schern's German Translation ;
Rumohr, ItaUenische Forsehungen, vok ii. ;
Baglione, Vite de' Pittori, Sfc.) R. N. W.
ARETTNUS, PAULUS, an Italian mu
sician, who Uved in the latter part of the six
teenth century, is only known by his follow
ing published works: — 1. "Responsoria
Hebdomadae Sanctae, &c." Venice, 1567 ; 2.
" Sacra Responsoria, &c." Venice, 1574.
Fetis thinks it probable that the name Arc
tinus was assumed, and derived from his birth
place Arezzo. (Fetis, Biographie Universelle
des Musiciens-) E. T.
ARE'TIUS, BE'NEDICT, was a native
of Berne, and is known both as a botanist
and theologian. In 1548 he was appointed
professor of logic at Marburg, but in the
following year he returned to Beme, where
he was appointed principal in the gymnasium.
In 1563 he was appointed professor of lan
guages in his native city, and subsequently
wais made professor of theology. He died on
the 22def April, 1574.
Aretius was acquainted with Conrad Gess-
ner ; he is frequently alluded to in the works
of the latter, and is supposed to have ren
dered him great assistance. He also cor
responded with most ef the botanists who
lived in his day. The werk on which his
reputation as a botanist rests, is a description
of the mountains Stockhorn and Niesen, en
titled " Descriptio Steccherni et Nessi Mon
tium in Bernatlum Helvetlorum Ditione et
nascentlum in eis Stirpium." This werk was
pubUshed at Zurich in 1 56 1 , in a foUe edition ef
the works of Valerius Cordus, and Gesner's
*' Hortus Gerraaniae." It contains an account of
excursions iu the mountains, and shert descrip
tions of the plants that were found. The
plants are referred te under their Swiss names,
and many of them are difficult to identify.
According to Sprengel, about forty plants
were here described for the first time : amongst
them may be recognised the Orchis odoratis-
simus. Primula auricula, Viola biflora, Eryn-
gium alpinum, Trolenis eurepaeus, &c. There
is no record of Aretius having practised
physic ; but at the time in which he lived
it was not uncommon for the preacher to
combine the characters of the man of science
and the phj sician. In this capacity he pro
bably edited an old medical work entitled
" Opus Physicum et Medicum de Gradibus
et Compositlonibus Medicamentorum," Zu
rich, 1 572. Another of his works on natural
science was en the history and occurrence of
comets, which was published at Berne in
VOL. III.

1556, with the title " Brevis Cometarum
Explicatio Physicum Ordinem et Exempla
Historiarum prajcipua complectens. Cum
Epistola ad Dryandrum," 4to.
Aretius embraced the reformed religion,
and adopted the principles of Calvin. He
wrote a work in defence of the persecution
of Valentinus GentUis fer holding heretical
views with regard te the doctrine of the
Trinity. The work was published at Geneva
in 1567, with the title " Valentini GentUis
justo Capitis supplicio Bernae affect! brevis
Historia," Svo. This Avork Avas translated
into the English, according to the translator,
" for the use of Dr. Sherlock," whom he sup
posed te held the same heretical doctrines
ascribed to Gentilis.
Aretius published several theological works
on controversial, doctrinal, and practical
divinity. One of the most extensive of these
works, and one which passed through many
editions, was his theological problems, en
titled " Preblemata Theologica Continentia
praecipuos nostrae Religionis Locos, brevi et
dilucida ratione explicates," Lausanne, fol.
The first and second parts were published in
1574, the third in 1576. His lectures en the
Lord's Supper, " Lectiones VII. de Cajna
Domini," Avent through several editions; they
Avere originally published at Lausanne in
1578. He also wrote a commentary on the
New Testament, with the title " Commen
tarii in Libros Novi Testamenti," Morsee,
1580, fol. This work was republished se
veral times. He also wrote a commentary
on the books of Moses, " Commentarii
Breves in Mesis Pentateuchum," Berne, 1602,
Svo. This, with the preceding theological
works, and seme others, were published after
the death of the author. He also wrote the
following works: " Commentarii Absolutis-
sirai in Pindari, Olympia, Pythia, Nemea,
Isthmia," Geneva, 1589, 4to, " De Sacramentis
in Genere," Leipzig, 1615, 4to, " Examen
Theolegicum brevi et perspicua Methode
Censcriptum," Lausanne, 1572, " Censura
Conclusionum quod Baptismus non successerlt
Circumcisieni contra Paedo-baptistas," Ge
neva, 1567, " Sermones III, de Cosna De-
mini," Lausanne, 1578, Svo, " Duo Lem
mata de Lectione et Interpretatione," Berne,
1572, " Targum in XII. Prephetas Minores.''
These last four works are mentioned by
Senners, but Adelung says he has never seen
them. One of his earliest pubUcations was a
paper entitled " De formandis Studiis Opus
culum ; " it was published in the " Tempe
Helvetica," for 1561, a work containing a
collection of papers by various authors on
theological, philological, critical, and histori
cal subjects. (Sprengel, Hist Rei Herbaria;
Melchior Adam, Vita Theolog. German. ; Ade
lung, Supplement to Jocher, Allgem. Gelehrten-
Lexicon ; HaUer, Biblioth- Bot) E L
ARE'TIUS, CLAU'DIUS MA'RIUs!
[Arezzo, Claudio Mario] A A

ARETUSL

AREUS.

ARETU'SI, CE'SARE, commonly called
CESARE MODENESE, and sometimes
CESARE DI PELLEGRINO ARETUSI,
appears te have been born at Modena about
the middle of the sixteenth century, and
was made a citizen of Bologna. He was
an exceUent portrait painter, and a good
colourist, but was deficient in invention and
composition ; he was also an excellent copy
ist, and imitated well the style of any master.
He made a copy fer the cathedral of San
Giovanni at Parma of the celebrated " Nette "
of Correggio, new in the Dresden gallery,
which is so exact, in the opinion of Mengs,
that it replaces the original. The success of
this copy procured for Aretusi the commis
sion to repaint the frescoes of Correggio in
the tribune ef that cathedral, which he did
with equal success. The old tribune of that
church was destroyed to make place fer a
new one, and with it the original works of
Correggio, but they were carefully repeated
by Aretusi in the year 1587 in the new tri
bune. According to Malvasia, the copies or
cartoons from which Aretusi worked, and
whioh are still preserved at Capo di Monte
at Naples, were made by Annibal amd Agostino
Carracci; a document, however, pnblished
by Affo renders this statement very doubtful.
Aretusi is called by some writers a native
of Bologna, and by ethers a Modenese.
Which he was is uncertain ; but he appears
te have first made himself known as a painter
at Bologna, and te have studied chiefly the
werks of B. Ramenghi, called "Bagnacavalle."
Aretusi was invited, on account of his skUl
as a portrait painter, to Parma by the Duke
Rannuccio, whe appointed him one of his
court painters. He died at Parma about
1612. Tiraboschi conjectured that he wais
the son of Pellegrino Munari degli Aretusi,
commonly called Pellegrino da Modena ; but
if the date and reported circumstances ef the
death of Pellegrino are true, he cannot have
been the father of Aretusi. [Munari, Pel
legrino.] There are several good pictures in Bo
logna which were painted by Aretusi and
Gio. Battista Fierini together. They were
composed by Fierini and executed by Aretusi,
who coloured in the Venetian style, and
imitated the light and shade of Correggio.
He made many copies after Correggio, some
of whieh have passed for originals. Some
writers mention an Alessandro Aretusi, also
of Modena, as a good colourist. (Malvasia,
Felsina Pittricc; Affo. II Parmigiano Ser
vitore di Piazza ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, ^c-)
R. N. W.
AREUS I. {'Apevs, "Apevs), was the tAventy-
sixth king ef Sparta, including Aristodemus,
and of the Ag'id house. He was the sen of
Acretatus, who died before him, and he suc
ceeded his grandfather, Cleomenes IL, in
B. c. 309.
The first notice of him is under the year
354

B. c. 280, when he commanded an expedition
of the Spartans against the iEtoUans, in
which he was repulsed with considerable loss
of lffe, the jEtolians having surprised his
troops when disorganised and dispersed.
This loss was not retrieved, the other states
of Greece being unwilling te join in an at
tempt which, though ostensibly made on
behalf of the common interests of Greece,
was supposed by them to be meant for the
aggrandisement of Sparta alone.
In B. c. 272, Sparta was attacked by King
Pyrrhus at the instigation ef Cleomenes the
uncle of Areus, whe was disappointed of the
succession to the throne, and appUed to
Pyrrhus to assist him in gaining it. Areus
was then absent on an expedition to Crete,
but he immediately retumed to the relief of
Sparta, and assisted in repeUing Pyrrhus,
who was soon afterwards kiUed at Argos.
In B.C. 267 the Spartans ordered Areus to
co-operate with the forces of Ptolemy Phi
ladelphus in saving Athens from the attack
of Antigonus Gonatas. Areus accordingly
marched to Athens, but being unwilling
to peril the forces of Sparta iu defence
of another city, he retumed without doing
any service. He was slain at Corinth in
the next year but one (b. c, 265) in a
battle against the Macedonians, after a reign
of forty-four years, Areus L was con
temporary with Onias I., the high priest of
the Jews, and was the king to whom the
Jews sent the embassy recorded in Macca
bees, i. xii 20, He and his son Acretatus
are said to have introduced luxurious and
effeminate practices into the pubUc meals
(Phiditia) at Sparta. (Diodorus, xx. 29. ;
Justin, xxiv. 1 . ; Pausanias, iii. 6. ; Plutarch,
Pyrrhus, 26 — 29., Agis,3- ; Athenajus, iv. 142.)
R. W— n.
AREUS II. {^Apevs,''Apevs), the grandson of
Areus I., wais the posthumous son of Acretatus,
born probably in b. c. 264. He died at the
age of eight years, and was succeeded by
his great uncle, Leonidas II. (Plutarch, Agis,
3- ; Pausanias, iii. 6. ; CUnton, Fasti Hellen.
ii 215.) R. W— n.
ARE'VALO. [Cano de Arevalo.]
ARE'VALO, JUAN DE, a Spanish
sculptor employed with ethers in 1537 in the
cathedral ef Toledo. (Cean Bermudez, Dic
cionario Historico, &'C-) R. N. W.
AREZZO, BE'TRICO D', one of the
oldest ef the Italian poets, is conjectured to
have lived about the beginning of the four
teenth century. Of his life nothing is known :
of his verses the following are in print : —
1. Two " BaUate," with the "Canzoni di
Dante, &c." Venice, 1518, Svo. 2. " Rime,"
at the end ef Giusto de' Centi's " Bella
Mane," Verona, 1750, Svo. According to
some writers, Betrice belonged te Reggie ;
but the preponderating authorities pronounce
him to have been a native of Arezzo. Cres
cimbeni gives a sonnet by hun from a Vatican

AREZZO.

AREZZO.

ihanuscript. (Crescimbeni, Storia della Vol
gar Poesia, Ui 123.; MazzucheUi, Scrittori
d' Italia.) W. S.
AREZZO, CLA'UDIO MARIO, called
by the Latinised form of his name Aretius, a
patrician of Syracuse, imperial historian to
Charles V., lived about the middle of the
sixteenth century. He was a man of great
learning ; aud he is said to have been a
soldier, and to have followed the armies of
Charles V. in Italy and Germany, with much
reputation ; but his rank is not stated. He
is also said to have subsequently returned te
his native country, drawn thither by his love
for poetry, and to have attained te high
honours, and lived te a great age, and that
by the aid of his favourite pursuit he escaped
many dangers, and a miserable death. What
these dangers and this death may have been
we are not told. According to Ortelani he
died in Spain. His works are: — 1. " Ma
rius Aretius Patritlus Syracusanus, &c.
Quae hec Volumine continentur ; Dialogus, in
quo pro Caesare Jura Mediolani, Burgundiae,
ac Neapolis leguntur, Glades ad 'Ticinum
et Rex liberatus. Menoeci Dominus quare
Caesari studet, dueUum Caesaris, Siculorum,
Hispanorumque Tumultus, primus ejus in
Hispaniam adcessus, Philippi FUU Natalis.
Dialogus, ubi Hispaniae Descriptio cum re-
centieribus Nominibus. Dialogus, que Vir-
gilli versus, &o. Acidis et Galatheae Cennu-
bium. Summi Pontificis LIberatio. Elegiae
tres de Caesare. Epigrammata nonnuUa,"
Augsburg, 1530, Svo. This edition appears
to have been unknown to Mongitore, Mazzu
chelli, Clement, and Ortolani. A copy is in the
British Museum ; and it is also described by
Audiffredi in his Catalogue ef the Casanatta
Library. 2. " Cheregraphia, sive de situ
Siciliae libellus," Palermo, 1537, 4te.; printed
also at Messina in 1542, 4to. ; at Basil, 1544,
Svo. ; inserted by Francesco Benanni, duke
of Montalbano, in vol. ii. of the " Antiche
Siracuse," Palermo, 1717, fok, and afterwards
in a more correct form, and with annotations
by Giovanni Batista Carusio, in the first vo
lume ef his " Bibliotheca Historica Regni
Siciliae," Palermo, 1720, fek, and in vel. i. of
Graevius's " Thesaurus Antiquitatum SicUiae,"
Leiden, 1723, fol. Ortolani speaks in very
favourable terms of this work, as displaying
great intellect and extensive erudition ; and
Filippo Cluverio states that he frequently
consulted it, and found it extremely exact.
An edition professing to comprise aU the
above-mentioned works and one er tAve
ethers, was published at Basil in 1544, Svo.,
under the title " CI. MarU Aretii Libri
aliquot lectu non minus jucundi quam utiles :
quorum Seriem versa Pagina videbis : omnia
non ante visa." This beek, however, con
tains ne more than the descriptions of Sicily
and Spain ; the dialogue respecting the verses
of Virgil, "Europae Descriptio cum recentio-
ribus Nominibus et Observationes quoedam
355

Latinae," and the three elegies conceming
Caesar ; after which follows an apology
stating that all the rest of the werks of Arez
zo promised iu the table of contents had been
intercepted by some rogue, and never came
to hand, but that efforts should be made to
procure them for future publicatien. The
" Description of Spain," was published with
the " Description ef Sicily," Lyon, 1552,
12mo,, and afterwards inserted by Schottus
in tem. i. of his " Flispania Illustrata," Frank
fort, 1603, fok, a translation in Italian ap
peared at Wittenberg in 1612, Svo, 3. Os
servazloni della Lingua Siciliana e Canzoni
nei proprio Idioma," Messina, 1543, 4te,
This was an attempt te restore the Sicilian
dialect to the rank it formerly held in the
vernacular poetry of Italy. (Mongitore, Bib
liotheca Sicula ; MazzucheUi, Scrittori d'
Italia; Ortolani, Biografia degli Uomini illustri
della Sicilia, iv.) J. W, J.
AREZZO, FRANCESCO D', a friar of
the Observantine branch of the Franciscans,
was born in 1553, and died in 1616. He
held several offices, in particular that of
confessor te Ferdinand I,, grand-duke ef Tus
cany. He was an eloquent preacher, and left
several printed works, all of a theological
character, which are enumerated by Mazzu
chelli. The following are the only ones that
seem to have gone through more than one
edition : — 1. " Summa Theologiae Speculativae
et Moralis, ac Commentaria Scholastica in
Tertium et Quartum Sententiarum Librum
Joannis Duns Scoti," Venice, parts i. and ii.
1581,1613, 1616 ; part Ili 1618 ; part iv.l619.
2. " Criminale Canenicum," "Venice, 1617,
Perugia, 1669, Svo. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori
d'ltalia; Wadding, Annales Minorum, xix.
418.) W. S.
AREZZO, FRANCESCO MARIA.
[Casini, Francesco Maria.]
AREZZO, GORELLO D', was a notary
at Arezzo In the latter half of the fourteenth
century. His real name was Gorelle (that
is, in the diminutive form, Gregorio) de'
SInlgardi, and his profession gives te his name
the prefix " Ser." The few facts known as
te his life are collected by Muratori from his
own very curious metrical chronicle, which,
composed in terza rima, relates the vicissi
tudes ef the author's native town from 1310
to 1384. The "Cronaea di Ser Gerello " is
published in the " Rerum Italicarum Scrip-
tores," vol. XV. p. 814 — 886. It contains
eighteen long chapters, and, though obscure
and sometimes unintelligible in its diction,
and most infelicitous in its poetical emulation
of Dante, is an exceedingly valuable monu
ment for the history ef the writer's times.
(Muratori, Scrlptores, xv. 809 — 811.; Tira
boschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, v.
593. ed. 4to. 1787— 1794.) W.S,
AREZZO, GUITTO'NE D', was one ef
the founders ef Italian poetry. The date ef
his birth is not exactly knoAAU ; but the ac-
A A 2

AREZZO.

AREZZO.

tive period of his life belonged to the latter
half ef the thirteenth century, and he died in
1294. It is disputed whether he was born at
Arezzo ; but he was certainly a citizen of the
town, and his father Viva di Michele was
chamberlain of the community. The name
of the family is unknown ; but it was neble,
and probably rich, for Guittene founded in
Florence the Camaldelese monastery Degli
A.ngeli, within whose walls, had he lived
long enough te see the building completed,
he designed to spend his old age. He is
commonly called " Fra Guittene," that is,
" Brother Guittene ; " but he Avas neither
monk nor friar. He derived the title from
his being a zealous and distinguished member
of that singular order ef religious knights
called familiarly the " Frati Gaudenti ; " which,
established to join in the crusade against the
Alblgenses, became a mere society ef men ef
the world, into which no admission could be
had by any except nobles, but from which
at length even females of noble birth were
not excluded. The facts which have now
been mentioned may be said to embrace every
thing that is new known in regard to the life
of this old peet.
Lyrics by Fra Guittene are to be found in
several collections of old Italian poetry.
Thirty-one of his sonnets, two ballate, and
two canzoni, form the eighth book of the
" Rime di diversi Antichi Autori Tescani,"
Florence, Glunta, 1527, Svo. ; Venice, 1532,
Svo. ; and they make the tenth book in the
augmented edition ef the same collection,
Venice, 1731, 1740, Svo. Some ef these
poems, with ethers by the same author, are in
the " Antichi Poeti" of Leo AUatius, Naples,
1661, Svo. A sonnet, previously unpublished,
is given by the poet's fellew-tOAvnsman Redi,
in the notes to his " Bacco in Toscana ; " two
of his sonnets are in Gobbi's " Raccolta de'
Rimatori d'ogni Secolo ; " two sonnets are
given by Crescimbeni as specimens ; and
several of his poems are in the first volume
of the " Rime Oneste de' migliori Poeti
Antichi e Moderni," Bergamo, 1750, 12me.
He left likewise letters in prose, of which a
collection was published by Bottari, " Lettere
di Fra Guittene d'Arezzo, cen le Note, &c."
Rome, 1745, 4to.
Beth the poems and the letters are cited in
the dictionary " DeUa Crusca " as authorities
for Italian style. In prose, indeed. Era
Guittene had the honour of being one ef the
earliest writers to recognise the capabilities
of the modern language. In his poetical
writings, his principal merit consisted in his
being, if not the inventor of the Italian son
net, at least the poet who subjected It to
these laws by which his successors continued
to hold it as bound. The merit of his own
compositions ceased to be ranked very high,
even within a foAV years after his death.
Dante, introducinghis name into the "Purga
torio " (cantos xxiv. and xxvi), censures his
356

love poems fer the very fault whieh in mosJ
ef them strikes modem readers so unplea
santly, namely, the artificial cast and want of
reality in the passion which they profess to
depict. Petrarch, who perhaps felt a secret
sympathy with the old poet in this very par
ticular, speaks ef him less disparagingly, and
places his name with these of Dante and
CIno da Pistoja. (Crescimbeni, Storia della
Volgar Poesia, i. 17., ii. 264. ; Tiraboschi,
Storia della Letteratura Italiana, 1787 — 1794,
iv. 414. ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia ; Redi,
Annotazioni al Bacco in Toscano, passim ;
Ginguene, Histoire Littiraire d'ltalie, 1. 418
. — 422. ; Corniani, Secoli della Letteratura
Italiana, ed. Milan, 1832, i. 40 — 42.) W. S.
AREZZO, PA'OLO D', whose real name
was SCIPIO'NE BURA'LI D'AREZZO, was
born of distinguished parents at Atri, near
Gaeta, inthe year 1511. Having studied law
and taken a doctor's degree at Bologna, he
practised as an advocate at Naples with brUli
ant success, and in 1 550 was named by Charles
V. a member of his CoUateral CouncU for the
kingdom ef Naples. Soon afterwards, how
ever, he became tired ef the world, and, in
1557, retired into a monastery, entering the
order ef Theatine Clerks Regular, and as
suming the name of Paolo, instead ef his
baptismal name Seipione. His talents and
services were not forgotten after his retire
ment ; for, in 1562, PhUip II. appointed him
archbishop ef Brindisi. He refused te ac
cept the office, and several other offers of
bishoprics were rejected with equal steadiness.
In 1564, though net tUl he had been com
manded by the pope, he undertook a mission
to Spain, te remonstrate in the name of the
city of Naples against Philip's renewed at
tempt to introduce the Spanish inquisition
into his ItaUan dominions. In this honourable
remonstrance, (one ef the fcAv instances ef in
dependent spirit exhibited by the NeapeUtans
after they fell under the Spanish yoke).
Father Paolo's mission was completely suc
cessful. Upon his return from Spain he was
called to Rome, and was there occupied in
ecclesiastical employments of various sorts
till 1568, when he was appointed bishop ef
Piacenza. In 1570 he was created a cardinal ;
and in 1576, on the earnest petition ef the
citizens, the pope compelled him to accept
the archbishopric of Naples. This high
office, however, he did not leng enjoy, dying
in 1578, at the age of sixty-seven years. He
was buried in the Theatine church of San
Paolo in Naples ; but, in ebedience te the
injunction of his will, no inscription was
placed upon his grave. His last will, and a
Latin letter (containing his reasons for de
clining the see of Brindisi), are printed in a
life of him written by Bagatta, a brother of
his order, Verona, 1698, 4te. (the second
memoir that had been pubUshed). The con
stitutions of a synod he held at Piacenza
were also published, Piacenza, 1570, 4to.

AREZZO.

AREZZO.

(Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia ; Ughclli, Ita
lia Sacra, tom. ii. a,nd vi. ; Oldoini, Athenaum
Romanum, 1676, 4te. pp. 521—523.) W. S.
AREZZO, TOMMA'SO, cardinal,
was descended from an illustrious family of
Palermo, and bom at Orbitello, a city ef
Tuscany, on the 17th of December, 1756.
His father sent him to Rome for his educa
tion, and he was placed in the Nazarene
college, then under the direction of the
fethers Scolopj. He studied rhetoric under
Francesco Fasso ; philosophy under the cele
brated Giuseppe Beccaria; and theology un
der J. B. MoUnelU. In 1777, he entered the
ecclesiastical college, and applied himself
with great diligence to the study ef canon
and civil law. He was early promoted to
ecclesiastical dignities, and te the charge ef
referendary of both signatures. Pope Pius
VI. appointed him vice legate of Bologna ;
thence he preceeded as governor te Fermo,
afterwards to Perousa, and subsequently to
Macerata. In all these employments he net
only gained the approbation of the pope, but
the affection of the people placed under his
government, and at the earnest desire of
the city of Perousa, he was sent there a.
second time as apostolic delegate. He was
recalled te Rome in the year 1801, conse
crated archbishop, in partibus, of Seleucia, in
Syria, and sent on an extraordinary mission
to the court of Russiau The object of this
mission was no less than the reunion ef the
Greek church ; and Arezzo had conducted
his negociation with the Emperor Paul I.
with every prospect of success, when the
death of this prince, and the different views
entertained by his successor, Alexamder, put
an end to the negotiation.
On the termination of his mission to St.
Petersburg, he went as legate to Dresden,
where he remained until summoned to Ber
lin by the Emperor Napoleon, about the year
1807. In the course of a long conference the
emperor endeavoured to make him enter into
his views, and sent him te Rome with in
structions not at all consistent with the in
terests of the papal see. Arezzo, however,
on his arrival in Rome communicated all that
he had learned from Napoleon to the Pope
Pius VIL, and on the occupation of Rome by
the French troops, and the deportation of the
pope in 1808, he was made pro-governor ef
Rome by the pontiff. He discharged the
duties of his dangerous office until the month
of September, 1808, when he was arrested
with several others, and imprisoned, first at
Florence, aud afterwards at Novara. After
much earnest solicitation he obtained his
liberty, and took up his residence at Florence,
where he was- again arrested and conveyed
to the fortress of Bastia in Corsica. From
this prison he contrived to escape in the
month of December, 1813, disguised as a
Sillier, and after traversing all Corsica, he
embarked at Saint Bonfface fer Cagliari, the
357

capital of Sardinia, where he arrived in safety,
and was received with great kindness by the
king, Victor Amadeus. This prince was
desirous of presenting, him with the then
A'acant bishopric of Novara, but this he re
fused as he had previously refused the arch
bishopric of Palermo, oflered to him by the
king of the Two Sicilies.
Shortly after the escape of Arezzo, the pope
retumed to Rome, whither Arezzo hastened
from Geneva, and was immediately named
pro-commissary of the Holy Inquisition, and
member of the Congregation of Reform.
On the Sth of March, 1816, Pius VIL
created him cardinal ; and in October ef the
same year nominated him te be apostolical
legaite of the city and province of Ferrara.
He held this charge until the month of Oc
tober, 1830, when he was made vice-chan
cellor of the church by Pius VIIL, and
bishop of Sabina on the 29th of May in the
same year. He died en the 3d of February,
1833. Arezzo is said te have written some me
moirs containing much interesting matter re
lating to the ecclesiastical history of his time ;
aud his letters are described as remarkable
for their intrinsic excellence, and the elegant
simplicity of their style ; but none of his
writings have been printed. He was the
founder of the academy DegU Ariostei, at
Ferrara, and re-established the college ef Je
suits founded at Ferrara by Saint Ignatius.
(Henrlon, Annuaire Biographique ; Bio
graphie Universelle, Suppl. ; Arnault, Biogra
phie des Contemporains.) J. W. J.
ARFE, ARPHE or DARPHE, the name
of several Spanish artists, and of some of the
most distinguished sUversmiths ef Spain.
Henrique de Arfe, a silversmith, by
birth a German, the father ef Antonio and
the grandfather of Juan de Arfe, went to
Spain in the beginning of the sixteenth cen
tury, and settled at Leen. He commenced
in 1506 the silver tabernacle ofthe cathedral
of Leon. In 1513 he made ene also for the
cathedral of Cordova. In 1517 he went to
Toledo and commenced a tabernacle, likewise
ef silver, fer the cathedral of that place.
This tabernacle, which he completed in
1524, is hexagonal, is a Gothic design, and
is ornamented with two hundred and sixty
small statues, besides bas-reliefs and other
ornaments; in 1599 it was gilded by Fran
cisco Merino : it weighs five thousand two
hundred and ninety-two ounces and three
eighths. Arfe made also a small tabernacle for
the Benedictine monastery of Sahagun ; but
they were all equally rich in ornament. He
made likcAvise many crucifixes, censers, and
other similar things, used in the ceremonies
of the Roman Catholic church, in which he
displayed great taste in design, beth as an
architect and as a sculptor,
Antonio de Arfe, the son ef Henrique,
had also great taste in design, and distin-
A A 3

ARFE.
guished himself by simUar works te those of
his father ; he us(;d, however, the Greek and
Reman styles of architecture instead of the
Gothic, which, with Juan Alvarez and others,
he was the first to apply in the embellish
ment ef Averks of this class. He made in
1544 the tabernacle of the cathedral ef
Santiago, and another for the parochial
church ef Santa Maria de Medina de Rio-
seco. Juan de Arfe v Villafane, the son
of Antonio, was born at Leen in 1535.
After he had studied drawing and his art,
under his father at Leon, he went to Sala
manca and studied anatomy under Cosmo de
Medina, professor of anatomy in the uni
versity of that place.
After the death of his father about 1560,
Juan Avent to Valladolid, principal seat of
the fine arts in Spain at that time. In 1564
he commenced a tabernacle for the cathedral
ef Avila, for which he was paid at the rate
ef twelve ducats for every marco er eight
ounces ef silver used. He completed the
work in 1571, and it is one of the most
beautiful tabernacles in Spain ; its weight
was two thousand two hundred and twenty-
two ounces and a half After this work
Arfe obtained by competition the order te
make the silver tabernacle for the cathedral
of Seville, which he completed In 1587, and
it is the largest, most costly, and elaborate in
Spain. Arfe himself published a descrip
tion of it, which he dedicated to the chapter
of the cathedral, and of which Cean Ber
mudez has inserted a copy in his " Dic
tionary ef Spanish Artists." In 1668 a few
alterations were made in it by Juan de
Segura, and its whole weight was then
seA'cnteen thousand three hundred and ninety-
seven ounces and three quarters ; its height
was four yards (varas). Arfe made at the
same time a tabernacle for the cathedral ef
Burgos ; he finished it in 1588. In 1590
he completed another for the cathedral of
Valladolid ; and he made also about the
same time, assisted by his son-in-laAv Lesmes
Fernandez del Moral, one fer the cathedral
ef Osmas, which, though comparatively
small, was superior in style and executien te
the others. After this Arfe came with his
son-in-law to Madrid, where they made to
gether a tabernacle for the church of St.
Martin. He was then appointed by PhUlp II.
assayer (ensayador) of the mint of Segovia.
He executed many works fer the same king,
fer the new monastery of the Escurial ; and
after the death of Philip II. he Avas as much
employed by his successor Philip III.
'The time ef Arfe's death is not exactly
knOAvn, but it Avas about the beginning of the
seventeenth century. He Avas also an engraver
and writer. He cngraA'cd In lead the por
trait of Alonso de ErelUa in the first edition
of his "Araucana;" and the plates ef the
" Caballero Determlnado," translated by Her-
358

ARFE.
nando de Acuiia from the French poem of
M. Olivier, and printed at Salamanca iu
1573. As a writer he is known by the two
following works, which show that he "was as
well acquainted with the theory as with the
practice of his profession : — " Quilatador de
Ore, Plata y Piedras," printed at Valladolid
m 1572 ; and " "V'aria Commensuracion para
la Escultnra y Arquitcctura," printed at
Seville in 1585.
During the recent civil wars in Spain, altar
plate, and much ef this species of church
property was melted down, and probably
some ef the works of the Arfe famUy have
suffered the same fate.
There was an engraver of the name of
Antonio de Arfe, who was probably of
this family, and as Cean Bermudez con
jectures, the son of Juan de Arfe y Villa-
fane. (Ponz, Viage de Espana, See., Cean
Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, &c.) R. N. W.
ARFEVILLE, NICOLAS D'. [Nicolas
d'Arfeville.] ARFIAN, ANTO'NIO DE, a Spanish oil
and fresco painter ef SevUle, of the sixteenth
century. He painted at fii-st serges in dis
temper, for the decoration ef houses, in
which there was at that time a great traffic
with America. This kind of painting gave
great facility ef hand, and it was then the
common advice of the Spanish painters to
beginners, to practise themselves in serge-
painting before they commenced oil-painting.
Arfian, after he had practised this style fer
seme time, entered the school of Luis de
Vargas, and shortly acquired a goed reputa
tion at Seville, both fer drawing and colour
ing. He painted an exceUent altar-piece in
oil, together with Antonio Ruiz, in 1551, for
the old sanctuary of the cathedral of SevUle.
Arfian was the first in Seville whe painted
back-grounds, either figures er in perspec
tive, to bas-reliefs ; which he did so as te give
them the appearance of having been executed
in the same material as the rest of the werk.
He was also the best fresco painter at Seville,
in the style of Alessandro and Julie, until the
return of his master, "N'argas, from Italy.
Antonio's son, Alonso Arfian, was also a
painter. (Cean Bermudez, Diccionario His
torico, &c.) R. N. W.
ARG.EUS (^Apyaios), king ef Mace
donia, was the son of Perdiccas I., whom he
succeeded. He reigned thirty-eight years
according to Eusebius, and thirty-four ac
cording to Dexippus. (Herodotus, viii 139.;
Ciintan, Fasti Hellen-) G. L.
ARGiErS. [Amyntas IL]
ARC AIZ, GREGO'RIO DE, was a
Spanish monk ef the Benedictine order, who
lived in the seventeenth century. He took
the voAvs in the inonastery of "the Holy
Saviour " at Oiia, and afterAvards removed te
the monastery of " the ^'irgin the Mother ef
God " at Nagera or Naxara (Monasterium

ARGAIZ.

ARGALL.

Naxarense), a town in Old Castile. The
most remarkable work which Argaiz wrote
was a history of the Spanish church, which
he entitled, " Poblacion Eclesiastiea de Es
pana, y Noticia de sus primeras Honras
hallada en los Escritos de S. Gregorio Obispo
de Granaida, y en el Chronicon de Hauberto
Menge de S. Benito." He published ene
volume of this work at Madrid, in the year
1667 ; a second in 1668, and two other
volumes from ether sources in 1669, all in
folio. He pretended to derive his history
chiefly from some manuscript writings of St.
Gregorio, bishop of Granada, aud from a
manuscript chronicle of Hauberto, a. Bene
dictine monk, and he dedicated his work to
" the supreme and sovereign majesty of
God," but he was seen convicted of having
forged the manuscripts en which he founded
his history. It is one of the pious frauds
which ecclesiaistics have in past times thoug'nt
justifiable. In 1675 Argaiz pubUshed a de
fence ef his work, entitled " Instrnccion His
torica Apologetica para Religieses, Eclesias-
tices, y Seglares," Madrid, fol. His other
works are: — 1. "Corona Real de Espana
fundada en el Credlto de los Mucrtos y
Vida de S. Hieroteo Obispo de Athenas y
Segovia," fok Madrid, 1668, in which Argaiz
endeavours te prove that Hierotheus, the pre
ceptor of Dionysius the Areopagite, and that
Dionysius himself were Spaniards. 2. " So-
ledad Laureada per S. Benito y sus Hijos en
las Iglesias de Espana," tAvo vols. fol. Madrid,
1675. 3. "Vidas de S. Benito y S. Isidro
de Madrid," fok Madrid, 1671, 4, "La
Perla de Catalufia, Historia de N. Seuora de
Menserrate," fek Madrid, 1677, Antonius
mentions another work by Argaiz, which he
says was ready fer publication at the time
that he wrote his " Bibliotheca Nova," but
was not yet published. The title, according
to Antonius, is " Theatro Menastlco y Obispos
de Espana," and the work consisted of eight
volumes. (N. Antonius, Bibliotheca His
pana Nova-) C. J. S,
ARGALL, JOHN, was the third son ef
Thomas Argall, and his wffe Margaret,
daughter ef John Talkarne, of the county of
CornwaU, He was bora in London, and
entered a student ef Christ Church, Oxford,
tOAvards the latter end of the reign of Queen
Mary, He took the degree of Master of Arts
in 1565, Afterwards he took holy orders,
and obtained the living of Halesworth, in
Suffolk, He died suddenly at table during a
feast at Cheston, a mile distant from Hales-
Avorth, and he was buried at Halesworth,
October 8. 1606, He had a reputation as a
" noted disputant " during his residence at
the university, and he was a great actor ef
plays at Christ Church, particularly Avhen
the queen was entertained there in 1566,
" So much was he devoted to his studies, that,
being withal unmindftd of the things of this
world, he lived and died Uke a phUosopher,"
359

Argall wrote two tracts, 1 , " De vera Psni-
tentia," Svo., London, 1604, 2. "Introductie
ad Artem Dialectlcam," Svo., Londen, 1605.
In this last treatise, which Wood caUs " very
facete and pleasant," he says ef himseff that
" whereas Ged had raised many of his com
panions and contemporaries to high dignities
in the church,  yet he, an unworthy
and poer eld man, was still detained in the
chains of poverty for his great and innumer
able sins, that he might repent with the pro
digal sen, and at length, by God's faveur,
obtain salvation." ( Weed, Athena Oxoni
enses, vel. 1. col. 331.) C. J. S.
ARGALL, RICHARD, a poet in the
reign of king James I. No particulars of
his life are known. He wrote the following
poems : — 1. " The Song of Songs, which was
Solomon's, metaphrased in EngUsh Heroics,
by way of Dialogue," 4to., London, 1621.
2. " The Bride's Ornaments ; Poetical Essays
upon a divine subject," in two books, 4te.,
Londen, 1621. 3. "Funeral Elegy, conse
crated to the memory of his ever honoured
lord John King, late bishop of London, &c.,"
1621. This bishop of London was his patron.
Argall also wrote a book of " Meditations ef
Knowledge, Zeal, Temperance, Bounty, and
Joy," and another containing " Meditations
of Prudence, Obedience, Meekness, God's
Word, and Prayer." Argall had intended to
print these two books at the same time with
his poetical works, but the publication Avas
prevented by the death of his patron, the
bishop of London. It is not knoAvn whether
they were ever published. ( Weed, Athena
Oxonienses, vol. i col. 331.) C. J. S.
ARGAND, AIME', was the inventor of
the kind of lamp which commonly bears his
name, although for some time he was par
tially deprived of the credit due to him hy
the substitution ef another. He was a native
of Geneva, but is said to have been in Eng
land when, about the year 1782, he produced
the first lamp en his improved principle, the
main feature ef which is that the Avick, and
consequently the flame also, is in the form
of a hollow cylinder, and that a current of
adr is allowed to pass up the centre ef the
cylinder, so as to admit a free supply of
oxygen to the interior as well as the exterior
ofthe flame. This arrangement obviates the
difficulties attending the production of a large
flame either by the use of a single large wick
er a series ef small ones arranged In a straight
line, neither of which will produce equally
perfect combustion or equal brilliancy ef
light ; and also, by occasioning the complete
combustion of the oil by which the flame is
fed, it prevents the emission of smoke. From
a paper on the Argand lamp in the " Penny
Magazine," it appears that the lamp did not
satisfy the expectations ef its ingenious in
ventor until the accidental discovery, by his
younger brother, ef the glass chimney, which,
by confining the air immediately surrounding
A A 4

ARGAND.

ARGANTHONIUS.

the burner, occasions an upward current out
side as well as inside the cylindrical flame,
and thereby causes the flame te rise high
above the wick, aud to yield the greatest
possible amount of light. Shortly after Ar
gand contrived his lamp, his Invention ap
pears te have become known te Ambrelse
Benaventure Lange, of Paris, distiller to the
king, who claiimed the perfecting of the dis
covery by the use of the glass chimney for
himself, and obtained a very favourable re
port upon the improved lamp from the
Academy of Sciences, in which he was stated
te be the inventor. Hearing this, Argand
went te Paris to contest his claim ; but after
much contention, finding his opponent very
determined In his pretensions, he consented
te share the profits ef the invention with
him, and, accordingly, on the 5th of January,
1787, letters patent were granted to Argand
and Lange, giving them the exclusive right
to make and sell the new lamps in France
for fifteen years. The statement made on
obtaining this joint patent gave the credit of
the invention to Argand, stating that he
communicated his first trials te the chemist
Macquer in August, 1783, and that he sub
sequently perfected the lamp by the addition
ofthe glass chimney while in England, The
superiority of the new lamps soon brought
them into such general use, that in 1789 the
tinmen of Paris endeavoured te overthrow
the patent, and for this purpose published an
abusive memoir, in which it was contended
that as Argand and Lange had se long dis
puted the credit ef the Invention, it eould
not belong to either ef them ; a course of
reasoning whioh led Argand, in a printed
reply, to allude to the long-pending dispute
between Newton and Leibnitz respecting the
differential calculus, in which case he pleads
that no such conclusion was drawn, Argand
was, however, seen deprived ef advantage
from his patent by the abolition of all ex
clusive privileges which took place during
the Revolution, and he also lost for a time
the honour of his invention, the lamps being
called after a person of the name of Quinquet,
Avho introduced seme modifications ef form,
Argand retired to England, where chagrin
so preyed upon him that he at length returned
to his native country Avith broken health,
and died there en the 24th of October, 1803.
In the brief memoir in the " Biographie
Universelle," Argand is styled « physician
and chemist, and is said te have invented
some useful processes for the Improvement ef
wines. It is also related there that he be
came melancholy and visionary tOAvards the
close of his life, devoting himself to the
occult sciences, ond seeking to obtain from
the bones and dust of the sepulchre the
means of pi-olonging life. {Biographie Uni
verselle, Supplement, vol.!.; Penntf Maqazine.
ill. 120.) " J. 'T. S.
A R G A N T H O' N I U S {^ApyavBJivios), a
360

king of Tartessus in Spain, whe reigned
about the middle of the sixth century before
Christ, Herodotus relates that when the
Phocaeans in their distant voyages came
to Tartessus, Argantbenius received the
strangers kindly, and requested them te settle
in his dominions, an offer which they did
net accept. When their town Phocaea was
threatened by Harpagus, the general ef Cyrus,
Argantbenius gave them money for the pur
pose of fortifying their town against the
enemy. He is said te have reigned eighty,
and to have lived ene hundred and twenty,
er, according te Auacreon, one hundred
and fifty years, Herodotus adds that his
death took place previous te the time when
the town of AlaUa in Corsica was founded by
the Phocaeans, (Herodotus, i, 163. 165.;
Cicero, De Senectute, 19. ; Pliny, Hist. Natur.
vii. 49.; Lucian, Macrob. 10.; Valerius
Maximus, viii 13. ext. 4.; Strabo, Ui. 151.)L. S.
A'RGELI, CE'SARE, archbishop of Avig
non, was born at Bologna in the year 1577.
Fie is frequently called Cesare Argell Pal-
troni, from his mother's surname, which he
assumed. He took his degree of doctor in
both laws on the 27th ef June, 1598. Under
the pontificate ef Gregory XV. he was made
judge ef appeals in Rome, and in 1624 CoUa-
terale of Campidoglie. These employments
he exchanged for that of auditor-general in
Avignon, and, after filUng various ether im
portant posts, was made archbishop ef Avig
non by Pope Innocent X,, in the year 1647.
In the following year he died from the effects
of a severe fall.
He wrote — 1. " De Legitime Contradic-
tore ad L. Final. C, de Edict, Div. Adrian.
tellend." published at Venice in 1611, again
in 1616, 1618, and 1651, fok, and at Avignon,
1641, fek 2, " De acquirenda Possessione ex
Remedie d. 1, Final. C. de Edict. D, Adrian.
tellend. et de Termino Incontinentias," &c.,
Venice, 1655, fok; Lyen, 1655, fol, (AU-
dosi, Dottori Bolognesi di Legge Canonica e
Civile, 64, ; Orlandi, A'otizie degli Scrittori
Bolognesi; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia-) J, W, J,
ARGELL A'TL FILIPPO. was born at
Bologna in the year 1685. His early studies
Avere superintended by Bonaventm-a Rossi,
and he Avas afterwards placed under the care
of the Jesuits. In the year 1705 he visited
Florence and other cities in Italy, and in
1706 Avas about te proceed te France, Avhen
the death ef an uncle recalled him to his
native city. He had previously contemplated
the publication ef some important works, and
noAv proposed to carry his design Into effect.
He turned his attention, in the first instance,
toAvards an edition ef the published and un
published Avorksof Ulysses Aldrovandus, and
for this purpose procured the co-operation of
some of the professors of Bologna for the
different branches of natural history, and had

ARGELLATL

ARGELLATL

made further progress in the necessary ar
rangements when the successive deaths of
those whe were to co-operate with him in the
editorship forced him to abandon the project.
He appears to have devoted himself from the
first to literature ; and the history of his life
is little more than an account of his literary
labours, er rather a list of his publications.
The notice of him given by Mazzuchelli Avas
furnished to that writer by himself, and has
been copied by Fantuzzi and all subsequent
Avriters. In 1715 he published "Raccolta
delle Rime del Sig. Carlantonio Bedori," in
4to., which he dedicated to Count Angiolo
Sacco, the author of the life of Bedori, pre
fixed to the work. His next and most im
portant undertaking was the part he took in
the great coUectien of Muratori, entitled
" Rerum Italicarum Scriptores." He had
been informed by Muratori, who was en
gaged in collecting materials for his work,
that he could not carry his plan into effect,
not being able to find any printing office
competent to the undertaking. ArgeUati
consequently proceeded to Milan, and ex
plained te Count Carle Archinto, his patron,
the design ef the work and the difficulty with
which Muratori had te contend. The Count
was greatly pleased with the undertaking,
and, in order to raise the necessary funds,
formed a society of Milanese noblemen under
the name ef " Secieta Palatina," each of whom
subscribed a considerable sum. By these
means Argellati was speedily enabled to form
a most complete printing establishment, the
first production of which was the collection
in question, in tAventy-five volumes folio. He
appears to have taken an active part in the
preparation of this werk, furnishing notices
and coUecting manuscripts, and en the pub
licatien ofthe first volume in 1723, dedicated
to the Emperor Charles ^'I., that monarch
assigned him a pension of three hundred
ducats, with the honorary title of his Secre
tary. He also published the " Effemeridi "
of Eustachio Manfredi, at Bologna, in 1726,
two vols. 4to. ; the " Lettere critiche e poe-
tiche di P. F. BettazzonI," MUan, 1733, 4to.;
two works by the celebrated Orsi, viz., " De
Absolutione Capitalium Criminura," Milan,
17:!0, 4to., and " De Invocatione Spirltus
Sancti," Milan, 1731, 4to. In 1732 he com
menced the re-publicatlon ef the works ef
Sigonius, in six volumes folio, which he
printed " in iEdibus Palatinis," that is, at
the press of the Secieta Palatina : the last
volume appeared in 1 738. The first volume
was dedicated to the Emperor Charles "\'I.,
Avho in return added another annual three
hundred ducats te the pension previously
granted to the editor. He re-publlshed with
the Abbe Biacca, at Milan, In 1730, in fob,
the " Medaglie Imperatorie " of Mezzabarba,
AvIth the addition ef others from the Farnese
Museum, and various notices drawn from the
manuscripts ef the author ; also the treatise
361

" De Antiquis Mediolani jEdificiis " ef P.
GrazioU, 1736, folio ; the first edition ef the
" Neutenianismo per le Dame," by the Count
Francesco Algarotti, 1737, 4te. ; the " Lettere
Polemiche " of Bacchini, 1738, 4to. ; the
" Thesaurus Novus Veterum Inscriptionum "
of Muratori, 1 739, fol. ; the " Storia di Trine "
of G. A. Irice, 1745, 4to. ; the " Rime " of F.
Lorenzini, 1746, Svo. ; "De Antiquis Eccle
siae Ritibus," by Martene; several collections
ef poetry and other works. To what extent
Argellati was concerned in the publication ef
the works mentioned above is not clear.
Fantuzzi states that " he showed great zeal
fer the honour of Italy in thus publishing the
works of her litterati, te which, perhaps, he
may have been further stimulated by the
traffic in books with which he occupied him
self ; " and in the " Giornale de' Letterati,"
quoted by Fantuzzi, he is distinctly called
" Mercatante Librare." He appears also to
have been the director of the press of the
Palatine Society, the founder of which. Carlo
Archinto, he calls his Mecaenas. It is, there
fore, not easy to say whether his connection
with many of these works was as whele or
joint editor or as publisher.
In addition to these re-publicatlons, Ar
gellati Avas the author of the following werks :
— 1. "Bibliotheca Scriptorum Mediolanen
sium ; seu. Acta et Elegia Virorum omnigena
Eruditione illustrium, &c. ; Praemlttitur J. A.
Saxii Historia Typographica Medlelanensis,"
two vols., Milan, 1745, fol. The authorship
of this work was attributed to G. A. Irico by
the " Giornale de' Letterati," and Argellati
was accused of plagiarism. In a letter, how
ever, published by him September 22d, 1746,
he denies the charge, and Fantuzzi states that
the "Acta Llpsiensia," quoted by the journalist
as an authority for the accusation, makes no
mention of any such plagiarism. 2. " De
Monetis Italiae variorum illustrium Virorum
Dissertationes P. Argellati collegit, recensuit,
auxit, neo non Indicibus exemavit," six
vols., Milan, 1750 — 59, 4te. In this werk
are contained, 3, " Numorum Series tam Auri
quam Argenti et JEt'is, qui in officina mone-
taria Mediolanensi cusi fuere ab anno 1348
ad 1750; "aud, 4. " Additiones ad Numos
variarum Italiae Urbium, una cum eorumdem
Fei-mis et ExpUcatlonlbus, 5, " Animadver
siones in Opera Caroli Sigonii," published in
the edition of Sigonius mentioned above, 6,
The dedicatory epistles to all the volumes of
the " Scrlptores Rerum Italicarum." 7, 'The
lives ef all the poets whose works are inserted
in the " Corpus omnium vetemm Poetarum
Latinorum, cum \'ersiene Italica," thirty-
five vols,, Milan, 1731 — 65, 4to,, edited by
him in conjunction with J, R, Malatesta, 8,
"Rimario ; ossIa, Raccolta di Rime sdrucciole,"
Milan, 1753, 4to, 9, " Risposta deU' Amice
aUa Lettera di » » » _" Milan, 1730, This
Avas a reply to an anonymous publication,
entitled " Lettera ad un Amice," which ap-

ARGELLATL

ARGELLATL

peared at Florence in 1730, directed against
the " Cronaea de' tre ViUani," comprised in
vols. xiii. and xiv. of Muratori's collection.
10. " Biblioteca degli Velgarlzzatori, osia
Notizia delT Opere Volgarlzzate d' Autori che
scrissero in Lingua morte prima del Secolo
XV. Opera postuma, celle Addizioni e Corre-
zieni di Angelo Teedero Villa," five tom.,
Milan, 1767, 4to. In the preparation of this
work Argellati was assisted by Paiteni and
A. M, Blscioni
Argellati died at Milan on the 25th of
January, 1755, He was not a man of genius,
but his labours were highly serviceable to the
cause of Italian literature : they display great
intelligence. Indefatigable industry, very con
siderable reading, aud much bibliographical
knowledge. He was a member of several
academies : of the Affidati of Pavia ; the
Adunanza degli Arcadi ef Rome, with the
name of Dloneo Termeenie ; the Gelati ef
Bologna, and of the Secieta Colembaria ef
Florence. The only additional fact recorded of
him is that in 1717, being ene ofthe tribunes
of the people, he delivered a discourse te his
successors upon the various points concern
ing them, which gave so much satisfaction
that it was ordered to be inscribed among
their acts, (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia ;
Fantuzzi, Notizie degli Scrittori Bolognesi;
Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani Illustri del
Secolo XVIII, vU, 387—390, ; Lombardi,
Storia della Letteratura Italiana nei Secolo
XVIII, in. 107—109.) J, W. J,
ARGELLA'TI, FRANCESCO, son of
FUippe Argellati, was born at Bologna on
the Sth of May, 1712, He studied under
the Jesuits, and, after going through his
course of philosophy, applied himseff te law,
and took his doctor's degree on the 3d of
May, 1736. He paid much attention to for
tification, and obtained a patent as royal
engineer dated 9th November, 1740. In
addition to his scientific pursuits, he was well
versed in polite literature. His death took
place at Bologna, February 13. 1754,
His works are: — 1. "Pratica del Foro
Veneto," &c., Venice, 1737, 4to. 2. "DeUa
Situazlene del Paradise terrestre. Opera di
Mon. Uezio [Huet] tradotta in Volgare,"
1737, Svo, 3, " Saggio d' una nuova Filo-
sofia, eve s' insegna TArte di far Denari,''
Venice, 1740, Svo, 4, " Storia della Nascita
delle Scienze e Belle Lettere, celia Serie degli
Uomini illustri che T hanno accresclute," &c,,
Florence, 1743, Svo. It was intended that this
work should extend te tAvelve volumes, but
no mere than the first was published. 5.
" Storia del Sagrifizio della Santa Messa,"
Sec-, Venice, 1743, Svo., and Florence, 1744,
Svo. 6. " De praeclarls Jurisconsultis Be-
noniensibus Oratio, &c. Accedit Epistola
Philippi Argelati ad Franciscum Flliiira,"
1749, fol. 7. " II Decaimereiie," two vols.,
Bologna, 1751, Svo, This work consists of
a hundred tales of var' ous kinds distributed
362

into ten days, in the same manner as the
"Decameron" of Boccaccie. 8. "Novissimo
Sistema di Filosofia alia Cappuccina, a van-
taggio di chi non pud intertenersi in lunghe
Applicazioni a questo Studio," Modena, 1753,
Svo, 9, In 1744 he published at Florence
" Epistola Viris emditis Graecarum, Latina-
rumque Litteraram Amateribus," in which
he declared his intention of publishing a col
lection of all the works, edited and inedited,
of Leo Allatius. This project, however, he
did not carry into effect. In 1738 he pre
pared a model explanatory of a new system
ef military architecture, by which he pro
fessed te render a besieged place altogether,
or te a great extent, bomb proof. He left in
manuscript, 10. "La Vita dl Giovanni Gastene
ultimo Gran Duca di Toscana della FamigUa
Medici," preserved in the library of the In
stitute ef Bologna. 11, " Vita di Suer Maria
Maddalena di Gesii del Terz' Ordine dl San
Francesco," (Fantuzzi, Notizie degli Scrittori
Bolognesi; Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani
IUustri del Secolo XVIII,, viii 200. ; Mazzu
chelli, Scrittori d' Italia; Lombardi, Storia
della Letteratura Italiana nei Secolo XVIII,,
iU, 109,) J. W, J,
ARGENS, JEAN-BAPTISTE DE
BOYER, MARQUIS D', was bom at Aix
in ProA'ence, on the 24th of June, 1704,
His father was procureur-general to the par
liament of Aix, The parents of D'Argens
wished him te fellow the profession ef the
law, but he refused, and entered the army at
the age ef fifteen. From this period he led
a lffe ef profligacy, A connection which he
fomied with an actress, whom he calls Sylvia
in his Memoirs, induced him to leave the
army ; and he was on his road from France
to Spain, where he intended to marry the
actress, when he was arrested, at the request
of a friend of his family, and brought back
to France. Being sent to Constamtinople he
wais attached to the French embassy ; but he
entered into new intrigues, which nearly
cost him his lffe. Returning to France, he
took to the profession of the law to please
his family, but fresh amours made bim quit
it and enter the army again in 1733. At the
siege of Kehl in 1734, he was slightly
wounded ; but some time after the siege of Phi-
lipsburg on the Rhine, he was so seriously
disiibled by a fall from a horse that he was
obUged te leave the service. Disinherited'
by his father, he went to HoUand, and
gained his Uveliheod by his pen. Here he
wrote his " Lettres Juives," amd his "Lettres
Chinoises," and the " Lettres Cabalistlques."
In December, 1741, he arrived at Berlin, with
a recommendation to Frederick IL, king of
Prussiai, whose offers induced him to fix his
abode in the Prussian capital. Frederick
m.ade him chamberlain, and co-director of the
academy, and gave him a salary ef six thou
sand livros. D'Argens soon became one of
the most intimate of Frederick's associates j

ARGENS.

ARGENS.

his conversation was remarkable for a certain
bonhommie and vivacity which rendered it very
agreeable, and he never forgot the king in
the friend. On account of his agreeable dis
position and manners Frederick called him
" le divin marquis," and addressed to him
numerous poetic epistles. But Frederick was
fend of playing him practical jokes, and he
used to rally D'Argens most unmercifuUy on
the hypochondriac humours to which he gave
way. At the age of nearly sixty D'Argens mar
ried an actress named Mademoiselle Cecheis,
without Frederick's knowledge, a step which
the king never entirely forgave. At the end of
the seven years, D'Argens left Berlin te pay a
visit to his famUy in Provence, and on his
road he was met by an ordonnance apparently
issued by the " bishop " of Aix, in which he
was specially noticed and excommunicated
for .blasphemy aud impiety. This publica
tion gave him the greatest uneasiness, till he
discovered that the title " bishop " was erro
neously attached to the signature instead of
" archbishop," and thus he perceived that
Frederick had been playing him one of his
practical jokes. On his return to Berlin, he
had to endure more severe sarcasms than
ever, in consequence ef which a coolness
arose between him and Frederick. Though
he had agreed with the king, on entering
his service, that he should be at liberty to
retire at a certain age, and he had passed the
stipulated period, still he could not venture
te apply fer his dismissal, but solicited leave
of absence, and with great difficulty obtained
it, for six months (1769). Towards the end of
the appointed time hewas returning, when he
was taken very ill at Bourg en Bresse. His
wffe was so occupied in attendance upon him,
that she forgot to write to Frederick to ex
plain the cause of his prolonged absence, and
Frederick, concluding that the marquis had
given him the slip, struck out his name from
the pension list. D'Argens, irritated at this
return for his long services, went back im
mediately te Provence, and lived about two
years at Eguilles en a small estate whieh his
brother, the President ef EguiUes, had given
him, although he had been disinherited by his
father. D'Argens died at Toulon January 11.
1771, of indigestion. When Frederick heard
of his death, he ordered a marble monument
te be erected to his memory at EguiUes. It is
said that D'Argens asked for the sacrament
in his last sickness ; that he often read the Gos
pel, and was admitted as a penitent by a certain
brotherhood. He left an adopted daughter.
D'Argens was master of several languages ;
had some knowledge of chemistry and ana
tomy, and painted pretty well. His works
are very numerous, and some of them very
licentious, but the principal are as follows: —
1. " Discours del'Emperenr JuUen centre les
Chretiens," a new edition with notes by ^'ol-
taii-c, Svo. 1768. 2. " Ocellus Lucanus," 12mo.
3. " Timee de Locres," 12mo. 'These three
363

are good translations, and were published with
the Greek text. 4. " Bibliotheque Critique, ou
Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire Ancienne et
Moderne," Svo. Berlin, 1746. 5. " Correspond
ance entre Frederic II. et le Marquis d'Argens,
avec les E'pitres du Rei au Marquis," Svo.
Paris, 1799, 2 vols. 6. " Critique du Sieele,"
12mo. La Haye, 1746, 1755, 2 vols. 7.
" Lettres Cabalistlques," Svo. La Haye, 6
vols, ; 12me, 1769, 7 vols, 8, " Lettres Chi
noises," Svo. La Haye, 1739, 1742, 6 vols;
12mo, 1755, 1779, 8 vols. 9. "Lettres
Juives," Svo, La Haye, 1738, 1742, 6 vols. ;
12me. Paris, 1754, 1766, 1777, 8 vols, 10.
" Lettres et Memoires," London (Rouen),
1737, Paris, 1748. A new edition of this
work, Avith a notice ef the life and werks
of the author, was published by Penchet,
Svo. Paris, 1807. The " Memoires " are
very licentious. 11. "Memoires secrets de
la Republique des Lettres," 12mo., 1744, 7
vols. A new edition, which was almost a
new work, was published with this title,
" Histoire de TEsprit Humain, ou Memoires
secrets et universels de la Republique des
Lettres," Svo. Beriin, 1765 — 1768, 14 vols.
12. " Philesophie du lion Sens, eu Reflexions
philosophiques sur Tlncertitude des Con
noissances Humaines," 12mo. La Haye,
1746, 2 vols. ; 12me. 1768, 3 vols. The
other werks of D'Argens are enumerated by
Querard. A collection ef seme of his works
was published with this title, " Q5uvres, con-
tenant les Lettres Juives, Chinoises, Cabalis
tlques, et la PhUosophic du Bon Sens," 12mo.,
1768, 24 vols. D'Argens was ene ef the
authors ef the " Nouvelle Bibliotheque, ou
Histoire Litteraire des principaux E'crlts,
Sec." (Querard, La France Littiraire ; T.
Campbell, Frederick the Great, &c., 11. 261 — .
268, London, 1842, Svo., 2d edition. This
werk contains some anecdotes about D'Ar
gens ; Thiebault, Mes Souvenirs de Vingt
Ans de Sijour a Berlin, v. 321., &c., Paris,
1804, Svo.) C. J. S.
ARGE'NSOLA, BARTHOLOM'E LEO
NARDO Y, the younger brother of Liiper-
cie de Argensola, was born at Barbastro, in
Aragon, in 1564. Hewas of Italian descent,
and his paternal grandfather, a member of
the ancient famUy ef Leonardo ef Ravenna,
was the first ef the race Avhe settled in
Spain. Through his mother, by whose sur
name he is most generaUy known, he was
connected with the highest nobility of Catalo
nia. He was educated with his brother at the
universities of Huesca and Saragossa, at the
latter of which he took the degree of doctor
of laws. In 1588, by the influence ef his
brother, he obtained the rectory ef Villa-
hermosa from the duke ef that name, and
afterwards the place ef chaplain to the ex-
empress Maria of Austria. He accompanied
Lupercie te Naples, though he held ne ap-.
pointment in the government. On the death
ef his brother in 1613, he applied for his

ARGENSOLA.

ARGENSOLA.

office of " Coronista del Reyno de Aragon,"
but without success, though backed by the
influence of the viceroy of Naples, the Count
de Lemos. Pope Paul V., however, promoted
him to a canonry of Saragossa, and in 1616,
on the death of the coronista Llorente, his
successful competitor, he obtained the post he
wished for, te which, two years after, the
king added that of his "coronista mayor,"
which had been held In conjunction with the
same office by his brother Lupercie. He
spent the rest of his life chiefly at Saragossa,
dividing his time between the duties of his
canonry and those of his secular station, to
which Avas added for a time the care ef the
education of the young Duke of Villahermesa.
After a long martyrdom to the gout, he died
at Saragossa en the 26th February, 1631, at
the age of sixty-seven.
The principal works of Bartholeme de
Argensola are — 1, "Conquista de las Islas
Melueas," Madrid, 1609, fol,, a Avork written
by desire of the Count de Lemos, the
constant patron of the Argensolas. The
length ef the book laid the author open
te the charge ef prolixity, of which he took
no notice, though his brother Lupercio
thought it necessary to append a formal de
fence by way of preface te the werk. Some
of the statements advanced border so closely
en the marvellous, that the French translator
of Byron's " Voyage " ventured to class Ar-
gensola's as " a fabulous history ;" but on
this score also he has been warmly defended
by a countryman, indignant at such an in
sinuation against so grave a writer. 2, " Pri
mera Parte de los Anales de Aragon," con
tinued from Zurita, Saragossa, 1630, fol.
This was written in his character of coro
nista ; but, although the deputies ef Aragon
had shown themselves anxious fer its com
position, they Avere se lukewarm as te its
publicatien, that the author was about to have
it printed at his own expense, when their
tardy orders te that effect were at last given.
Like his three predecessors (his brother being
one), Barthelome de Argensola tried his
hand en the annals of the movements in
Aragon in 1591, but, like them, he could net
succeed in producing a satisfactory account
of events so recent, and many of the actors
in which were among the number ef his
patrons, the deputies. His labours, there
fore, in common with those of all who had
touched the subject, remained in MS. 3.
" Regia de Perfeccion," a translation from
the werk of an English friar, very popular in
its day. Translations by him from the Greek
ef seme of Lucian's Dialogues are also given
at the end ef Pellicer's Memoir, as avcU as
a Latin correspondence, chiefly Avith Justus
Lipsius, in which his brother Lupercie took
p;irt. His " Rimas," which almost alone
preserve his name, published Avith these ef
Lupercie, by his nephew, seen after his death,
are noticed in the Ufe ef his brother. It may
364

be added here that Barthelome de Argensola
has been praised even mere enthusiastically,
if possible, than Lupercie, and that VUlegas
is contented with nothing less than styling
him "the PhtEnix of Castilian Poetry."
(PeUicer, Ensayo de una Bibliotheca de Tra-
ductores E-^panoles, Sfc-, p. 288. ; N. Antonius,
Bibliotheca Hispana Nova, i. 196. ; Uztarrez
and Donner, Progresses de la Historia en el
Reyno de Aragon, p. 288.; Sedano, Parnaso
Espanol, v. p. 8. ; Poesias Escogidas de Fer
nando de Herrera, ^c, Madrid, 1822, p.
159—164.) J. W.
ARGE'NSOLA, LUPE'RCIO LEO
NARDO Y, the eldest son ef Don Juan
Leonardo and his wffe Donna Aldenza de
Argensola, was bom at Barbastro, in the year
1563. He received his education partly at the
university of Huesca, and afterwards at that of
Saragossa. In 1 585 he became secretary to the
Duke de VUlahermosa, and repaired te Ma
drid, where he distinguished himseff as a mem
ber ef the " Academia Imltatoria," instituted
for the literary imitation of the Italians. In
1587 he married Donna Mariana Barbara de
Albion, the widow of an officer. About this
time, or perhaps before, he preduced three
tragedies, entitled " Fills," " Isabela," and
" Alejandra," which were performed at the
theatres ef Madrid and Saragossa with extra
ordinary success. Cervantes, who speaks of
them in Den Quixote in the highest terms,
insinuates that the three plays produced
more money te the actors than any thirty of
their degenerate successors. But Lupercio
seems seen te have withdrawn his attention
from the drama. He obtained the post ef
secretary te the ex-empress Maria of Austria,
and in 1594 that of gentleman ef the chamber
to her son the Archduke Albert. PhUlp
III. on his accession to the throne deter
mined te found the office of " coronista mayor
de la corona de Aragon" (chief chronicler
ofthe crown of Aragon), and en the 15th of
January, 1599, Lupercie de Argensola re
ceived the appointment, with which was
joined a seat in the supreme councU of Ara
gon, which consisted of seven members only.
He occupied himself in Avriting the annals
of the kingdom, but his labours have net
been preserved. In 1608 he became also
" coronista del reyne," an office of older
foundation than his own, and in the gfft ef
the deputies ef Aragon, not of the king. It
became vacant on this occasion in conse
quence of the dissatisfaction of the deputies
with their eld chronicler, Martel, who failed
in pleasing them, as his predecessor had also
done, with his account of the movements of
Aragon in 1591, consequent en the flight of
Antonio Perez ; movements In which Lupercio
de Argensola himself had had some share.
Advantage Avas taken ef the absence of
Martel to revive against him an eld law
which required the coronista to reside in the
kingdom, and he was displaced without cere-

ARGENSOLA.

ARGENSOLA.

mony to make way for Argensola. In 1610
the viceroy of Naples, Count de Lemos, ap
pointed Lupercio his " secretary of state and
war " for the viceroyalty. In order to attend
to the duties of this new office, he procured
leave of absence for three years from the
deputies of Aragon. At Naples he was more
conspicuous as a man of letters than a states
man, and he prevailed en the viceroy to
establish the famous academy of the Oziesi,
of which he was himself one of the most
distinguished members. In 1613, shortly
after his leave of absence had been renewed,
he was seized with an illness which seen
proved fatal. His funeral was celebrated
(29th March) by the Oziosi with great pomp,
and his death was announced to the deputies
of Aragon by the hand of the viceroy himself.
Two of Lupercio de Argensola's tragedies,
the " Isabela " and the " Alejandra," were
printed fer the first time in the " Parnaso
Espaiiol," vel. vi. Whatever was their ori
ginal success, the publication of them has
convinced modern critics, notwithstanding
the praises ef Cervantes, that Lupercie's
genius for tragedy was not great. They are
written in verse ef every variety ef measure,
appropriate or not, and the smoothness of
the versification is their highest nierit. The
author depends fer his tragic interest mere
on the development of physical suffering
than of passion or pathos. Thus, in each play,
though a great number of characters are
introduced, the majority are slaughtered
without remorse ; and in one the heroine is
introduced lamenting over the severed head
and limbs of her lover, whe has just been
executed. The personages also sometimes
speak with strange coarseness, especially as
proceeding from a writer whose perfect
" gravity " is dwelt upon by his admirers as
a great poetical merit. Lupercio's historical
works are not now extant, with the exception
of a short " Summary of the History of
Aragon," written to be prefixed to a map.
What he wrote of the " Anales de Aragon "
exists only in the shape of fragments in
private collections ; and the " Informacion
de los Sucesos del Reyno de Aragon en los
Alios de 1590 et 1591," although once about
to be printed, never appeared. He made
collections for a history of the Emperor
Charles V., but did not complete the work.
In 1598 he published a " Funeral Sermon on
PhUip II.," which he had taken down from
the lips of D. Aguilon de Terrenes.
It is on his lyric poems that the reputation
of Lupercio de Argensola rests. 'W'hlle at
Naples he destroyed all these within his
reach, se that what we now have are only
the pieces which happened to be in the hands
of friends. They were collected and pub
lished, with the poems of his equally-celebrated
brother Bartholeme [Argensola, Bartho-
LOME Leonardo y] by Den Gabriel Leonardo
y Albion, son of Lupercio, under the title of
365

"Rimas de Lupercio y del Docter Bartho--
lome Leonardo de Argensola," Saragossa,
1634, 4to. The "two Argensolas" have
been usuaUy placed in the first rank ef the
poets of Spain ; but, although they still have
many admirers, modern critics have in some
degree questioned their right te so prominent
a position, notwithstanding the praises la
vished on them by their contemporary. Lope
de Vega, whe calls them " the Horaces of
Spaun." They are wanting especially in vi
gour, a deficiency which is made up, as it best
may be, by smoothness, facility, and correct
ness. In this last particular they so excel, that
Lope de Vega observed that they seemed to
have come from Aragon te teach the Cas
tilians the CastUian language. Their satires
are considered their best productions, al
though their never-failing "gravedad" leads
them to wound the vices they attack rather
by the weight of their weapon than the keen
ness of its edge. (PelUcer, Ensayo de una
Bibliotheca de Traductores Espanoles, SfC- p. 1 —
49. ; N. Antonius, Bibliotheca Hispana Nova,
ii. 73.; Sedano, Parnaso Espanol, vi. 23 —
28., and Critical Index, xiii — xxv.; Uztarrez
and Dormer, Progresses de la Historia en el
Reyno de Aragon, 188 — 192.; Poesias escogi
das de Fernando de Herrera, ^c, Madrid,
1822, p. 159—164. ; Cervantes, Don Quixote,
book iv, chap, 21, ; Latassa, Biblioteca Nueva
de los Escritores Aragoneses, ii. 143 — 156.) J. W.
ARGENSON, MARC RENE' DE
VOVER DE PAULMY D'. [Voyer.]
ARGE'NTA, JACOPO, a painter of Fer
rara, who in the year 1561, was appointed a
painter to the ducal court at Turin ; but
none of his works are known. (Lanzi, Storia
Pittorica, Sec) R. N. W.
ARGENTAL, CHARLES AUGUSTIN
DE FERRIOL, COUNT, was born at
Paris en the 20th ef December, 1700. He
was intended originally for the army, but,
in compliance with the wishes ef his family,
he accepted the post ef counsellor of the
parliament of Paris. After exercising his
office for a period of forty years, he aban
doned it in order to become minister to the
Duke of Parma, in France. His death took
place on the Sth of January, 1788, en
which day he addressed some verses to ene
of his oldest female friends. All that Ar-
gental produced avowedly was seme verses
which do not appear to possess any great
merit. Among his papers, however, were
found several fragments, written and altered
in his own handwriting, of a romance, pub
lished by his aunt, the celebrated Madame
de Tencin, entitled " Anecdotes de la Cour
d'Edouard." This circumstance has led to
the suspicion that he was also concerned in
the authorship of the " Comte de Comminge,"
likewise pubUshed by his aunt. The best
proef ef his literary abUity, however, will be
found in the correspondence between him-

ARGENTAL.

ARGENTERIUS.

self and Voltaire, by which it appears that
the latter consulted him about many ef his
works. Marmontel, in his " Memoirs,"
speaks of him harshly : he calls him " Tame
damnee " of Voltaire, and maintains that he
could neither form nor express an opinion.
(La Harpe, E'loge d'Argental in the Journal
de Paris, 1788, 69 — 71.; Dictionnaire de la
Conversation et de la Lecture ; Feller, Dic
tionnaire Historique.) J. W. J.
ARGENTE'RIUS, JOHANNES,
ARGENTERIO, or ARGENTIER, was
born in 1513 at Castel Nuove, near Chieri,
in Piedmont, where his father was a poor
schoolmaster. He studied philosophy and
medicine in the university of Turin, and
after receiving the degree of doctor there, he
went, in 1538, te Lyen, where his eldest
brother, Bartelomceus, was practising as a
physician. After five years' residence at
Lyon, Argenterius Avent to Antwerp, where
he lectured on medicine, and, having gained
a very high reputation, was invited by the
cardinal Vincentius Lauras, afterwards bishop
of Mondevi, to accompany him to Italy. In
Italy he was made professor of medicine,
successively, at Naples, Pisa, and Rome; and
in 1559 Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy,
being desirous of re-establishing the uni
versity of Mondovi, first made Argenterius
professor of medicine in it, and then asso
ciated with him in ether professorships seme
of the most learned men of the day. Seme
years afterwards, when the university es
tablishment was transferred from Mondovi to
Turin, Argenterius became professor in the
latter city, and he died there in 1572.
Sprengel places Argenterius foremost
among these who prepared the way fer the
revolution in medicine, which Paracelsus
wrought He did this by the boldness with
which he threw discredit on the school of
Galen, rather than by substituting truth fer
its errors. He weakened old foundations,
but laid no safe new ones ; and among the
peculiarities of his doctrines, which Sprengel
mentions, these alone appear to have made
a step towards truth in which he argued
against the existence of the multiplicity of
spirits, imagined by the writers of the Galenic
school te be the chief agents in the functions
of the living body, and in which he main
tained that memory and ether mental powers
have net each a separate locality assigned to
them in the brain. Fer these epinions he
argued very ingeniously ; but he neither
proved them nor adduced any new facts in
their support. . His works afford a good ex
ample of the style of his time, in the com
bination which they present ef subtlety in
argument with indifference to facts ; they
differ from those of his contemporaries,
chiefly in the energy and scepticism Avith
which they are Avritten ; but, except to
show how one wrong system may overthroAV
another, they are now valueless. Of Argen-
366

terius's skill in practice there are various and
contradictory accounts, which Bonine has
collected and compared. It is not possible to
draw a safe conclusion from them ; but there
is certainly no evidence in his writings that
he deserved the title " Great Physician,"
which is said te have been given him when
he practised at Lyen and Antwerp.
Argenterius's nuinerous works were edited
by his only son, Hercules Argenterius, at
Venice, in 1592, in three volumes folio, and
in 1606 in two volumes folio. Other more
complete and correct editions were also pub
lished, each in one large folio volume, at
Hanover in 1610, and at Frankfort in 1616.
The Frankfort edition includes the following,
te most of which we have added, from Haller
and Mazzuchelli, the dates ef tlieir previous
publicatien in separate forms : those to which
ne dates are added were first printed by
Hercules Argenterius after his father's death.
1. "In Claudii Galeni Pergameni Artem
Medicinalem Commentarii Tres,"Paris, 1553,
1578, Svo., Mondovi, 1556, 1558, fek 2. "In
Libros I. II. III. IV. Aphorismorum Hippo
cratis Commentarii" These alone occupy
one thousand four hundred and twenty closely
printed folio columns. 3. " De Merbi Gene-
ribus Liber." 4. " De Morborum Differentiis
Liber." 5. " De Causis Morborum Libri
Tres," 6, "De Generibus et Differentiis
Symptomatum Liber," 7 " De Causis Symp-
tomatum Liber," 8. De Temporibus Mor
borum Liber," 9. " De Signis Libri Quatuor."
10. "De Officiis Medici Libri Duo." This
and the seven precetUng were edited at
Florence in 1550 and 1556, folio, and at
Lyen, 1558, Svo. 11. "De Urinis Liber LTnus,"
Lyon, 1591, Leipzig, 1682, Svo, 12, "De
Semne et VigiUis Libri Duo," Florence, 1556,
Lyon, 1560, 4te, 13, " De Consultandi
Ratione Liber Unus," Florence, 1551, Paris,
1557, Svo. 14. " De Febribus Liber Unus,"
1 5, " In Librum Galeni de Febribus Com
mentarius," 16, " De Vi purgantium Medi
camentorum Tractatie," 17, " De Calldi
Significatienibus et Calido native," Florence,
1556 and 1566, 4to. ; Paris, 1568, 4to. Besides
these, Argenterius is said te have also Avritten
" De Erroribus Veterum Medicorum," Flo
rence, folio, 1553.
Bartoloji.eus, the eldest brother ef Jo
hannes Argenterius, was also born at, Castel
Nuove, About the year 1538 he established
himself as a physician at Lyon, He is said to
have collected many things from the works
ef Galen, Avhich were published at Florence.
He acquired considerable wealth, with Avhich
he purchased a lai-ge property in his native
country, and some of his descendants became
distinguished aniong the nobility of Piedmont.
Another brother, Jacoeus, was a physician
.and reader ef phUosophy in the university ef
Turin. He wrote a work called "Porta
tecum, Rimedii piil veri et approvati 
centra la Peste," which, together with sundry

ARGENTERIUS.

ARGENTL

notes upon contagion and other -questions,
were published, with translations of two
French medical works, by Giovanni Michele
Crotti, at Turin, in 1598. {IlaWer, Biblio
theca Medicina, t. ii. ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori
d'ltalia ; Sprengel, Histoire de la Midecine,
t. iii.; Bonino, Biografia Medica Piemontese.)
It is necessary to distinguish from the
members of this family, Petrus de Argen-
teria, or De Aege.nteeia, one ofthe reno
vators of surgery, which he taught in the
early part of the fourteenth century at Paris
and MontpeUier. He is frequently men
tioned by Guy de Chauliac, whe transcribed
several prescriptions from what he called
" Cartularium Magistri Petri," and has given
accounts ef several of Argenteria's methods
in surgical practice. ( Bonino, Biografia
Medica Piemontese,) J. P.
ARGENTI or ARIE'NTI, AGOS-
TTNO, a Ferrarese of noble birth, was ene
of the minor poets of Italy about the middle
of the sixteenth century. He was a lawyer
by profession, and died in 1576. Argenti
was one of the earliest writers of pastoral
dramas in the modern Italian language, pub
lishing a work of that kind in versi sclolti,
entitled " Lo Sfertunato," Venice, 1568, 4to.
He published likewise a treatise of local in
terest, called " Cavallerie di Ferrara." (Maz
zuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia; Crescimbeni,
Storia della Volgar Poesia, v. 132. ; 'Tira
boschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, 4to,,
1787— 1794, vU. 1317.) W.S.
ARGENTI er ARIE'NTI, BORSO, a
brother ef Agostino, left the legal profes
sion to become an ecclesiastic, and died in
1594. He composed poems, some of which
were criticised severely by Annibale Caro.
A specimen of them is in the " Rime Scelte
de' Poeti Ferraresi." He published likewise
a prose comedy, which is said to have en
joyed reputation : " La Prigione," Ferrara,
1580, Svo., Venice, 1587, 12me. (Mazzu
cheUi, Scrittori d' Italia.) W. S.
ARGENTI, GIOVANNI, a Jesuit of
some eminence, was born at Modena about
the year 1561. He was first a teacher in
several ItaUan colleges ; after which, as pro
vincial, sub-provincial, or visiter, he super
intended the affairs of the order in various
parts of Europe, standing, likewise, though
unsuccessfully, a contest for the office of
general. He died in 1629, being then rector
of the college at Modena. He was actively
engaged in the disputes of the Jesuits with
adversaries ef various kinds ; and their
writers speak with high respect, beth of his
character and talents, and of the value of his
services as a champion ef the cause. His
few published writings bear upon the history
of the order during his own times : — 1.
" Epistola ad Sigismundum, Poloniae ao
Svecia3 Regem, de Statu Societatis Jesu in
Provinciis Poloniae ac Lithuaniae," Cracow,
1615, 4to. ; Ingolstadt, 1616, 4te. ; Cologne,
367

1616, 4to. ; and (with the two following
works), Cracow, 1620, Svo. 2. " Prescrlptio
Societatis Jesu ex Regno Bohemias, Me-
ravias, .Silesia!, et Ungariae," published as
above. 3. " Duae Actlenes, quas Auctor
in Transylvania in Generali omnium Or
dinum Conventu habuit," 1605, 1607, and
as above. (Tiraboschi, BibUoteca Modenese,
i. 101 — 103. ; Ribadeneira, Alegambe, aud
Southwell, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis
Jesu, 1676, p. 402 — 405. ; MazzucheUi, Scrit
tori d' Italia.) W. S.
ARGENTIER. [Argenterius.]
ARGENTILL, CARLO, was one ofthe
predecessors of Palestrina as maestro di
capella at St. Peter's in Rome, and, pro
bably, Animuccia was his immediate suc
cessor. Burney says that seme of his com
positions, transcribed in 1543, are preserved
in the library of the Vatican. He is men
tioned by Adami in terms of high com
mendation. (Adami, Osservazione per ben
regolare il Core ; Burney, History of Music )
F T
ARGENTI'NI, STE'FANO, or'ac-
cording to ethers, FILIPPI'NI, was boi-n at
Rimini in the year 1 600. He was a monk,
bachelor of theology and maestro di capella
in the church of San Stefano at Venice, where
he printed a mass for three voc, in 1638, and
also some of the Psalms, set to music. (Ger
ber, Lexicon der Tonkiinstler,) E. T.
ARGENTO, GAETANO, was born at
Cosenza, the capital ef Calabria Citeriere, in
the year 1662, He was endowed by nature
with an excellent understanding and a very
powerful memory : he consequently made
rapid progress with his studies. At the age
ef twenty years he went to Naples for the
purpose of rendering assistance to a relation
who was in prison : this event determined
him to remain at Naples and apply himself
to the study ef the law. His skill and repu
tation as a jurist, and also for general learning,
was very great, and in 1709 he was appointed
to be reggente of the supreme collateral
council, at that time the highest legal dignity.
On the 2Sth of May, 1714, the Emperor
Charles VI, conferred upon him the dignity
ef vice-prethonetary ef the kingdom and
president of the royal council, with the title
of duke. He died ef apoplexy en the 31st of
^!ay, 1730. His conduct as a judge was
characterised by great zeal and integrity.
His werks are : — 1. " Relazione deUe Feste
celebrate in Cosenza nelle Nozze di Carlo II."
Cosenza, 1680, Svo. published anonymously.
2. "De Re Beneficlaria Dissertationes Tres,"
Naples, 1707, 4to. These dissertations were
written in faveur of an edict issued by the
Emperor Charles VL, providing that eccle
siastical benefices should be conferred only
upon natives. They gave great displeasure
to the court of Rome, and were soon pro
scribed. He left behind him a great number
of " censulte," one only ef which has been

ARGENTO.

ARGENTRE.

published. He is stated to have rendered
great assistance te Giaunone in the pre
paration ef his " History ef Naples." (Gius
tiniani, Memorie Istoriche degli Scrittori
LegaU del Regno di Napoli ; Biografia degli
Uomini Illustri del Regno di Napoli, iii. ; Ti
paldo, Biografia degli Italiani Illustri del Se
colo XVIII-, iv. 388 — 389. ; Spiritl, ilffimsrt'e
degli Scrittori Cosentini, 174 — 177.) J. W. J.
ARGENTON, COMTESSE D'. [Or
leans, Due d',]
ARGENTRE', BERTRAND D', presi
dent ef the parliament ef Rennes, a learned
jurist and indifferent historian, was bom at
Vitro in Brittany in the year 1519, His family
had been one of the most considerable in
Brittany from the year 1060, and his father
was grand senechal of Rennes, Bertrand
applied himself in the first instance to the
study ef polite literature and history. About
the year 1540 he had completed a work en
titled " De Origine ac Rebus gestis Arme-
ricae Britanniae Regum, Ducum et Princlpum
ab Excessu Cenani Meriadoci ad Francisci
usque postremi Duels et Annae ejus Filiae
Tempera, cujus Matrimonio in Francorum
Reglam Ducatus concessit," This history
was never printed, and is now in the Bib
liotheque du Roi, into which it passed from
that ef M. Colbert. On the completion of
this work he devoted himself to the study of
jurisprudence, and became one ef the most
learned jurists of his age. In the year 1547
his father resigned his office ef senechal ef
Rennes in his favour, and this circumstance
led him te pay particular attention to the
customary laAv of Brittany, upon which his
decisions must be greimded : his knowledge
and skill in this respect became unrivaUed,
and in 1579 hewas made one ofthe commis
sioners appointed for the reformation of this
law. His position as a feudal lord naturally
inclined him to faveur the system, and se
strongly was he imbued with its principles
that he opposed with all the weight of his
learning and influence the strenuous efforts
of Charles Dumoulln te introduce general
laws and abridge all customs, declaring his
astonishment that It should ever have occurred
to Dumoulln te assert that seignorial rights
are odious servitudes which must be restricted.
In the revision of the customary law, there
fore, he did all in his poAver te strengthen
and enlarge the power ef the lord at the ex
pense ef the vassal ; and would have gene
still farther, even to the exclusion of the col
lateral branches of the feudal tenant from the
inheritance in favour of the lord, but fer the
resistance of the other commissioners.
The object of this commission being ac
complished, the States of Brittany requested
him to write a history of the province. By
the aid of memoirs of Pierre le Baud, his
maternal grand uncle, which he had inherited,
and his own long experience, he completed
his task in the space of three years ; and this,
368

his second history, was printed at Rennes iu
the year 1582. The work bere marks ef its
hasty production, and he revised and re
printed it at Paris in 1588. In his official
capacity he was obliged to take many pro
ceedings against the members of the Ligne
in the following year, 1589 ; this brought
upon him much ill feeling, and was the source
of so much annoyance and vexatien as to
hasten his death, which took place on the
13th of February, 1590. His principal werks
are — 1. " Histoire de Bretagne, &c.," Rennes,
1582, fok, and Paris, 1588, fol. The edition
ef 1582 was denounced by La Guesle, the
procureur-general of-the parliament of Paris,
who considered that the manner in which the
author had spoken ef the rights and ancient
independence of Brittany was calculated to
have a mischievous tendency in the then
circumstances of the kingdom. It was ac
cordingly suppressed, Charles d'Argentre,
the son of Bertrand, published an enlarged
and altered edition at Paris in 1605, 1612,
and 1618, fok, and it appeared again at
Rennes in 1668, fek An abridgment was
published at Paris in 1685, in 12me, This
history is a close copy of that ef Picrte le
Baud, only extended to a later period. It is
little mere than a dry record of events, is
net always correct nor weU arranged, and the
style is heavy, 2, " Commentaire sur les
Quatre Premiers Titres de TAncienne Cou
tume," Rennes, 1568, 4to, 3, " Advis et
Consultation sur le Partage des Nobles et
I'lnterpretation de I'Assise du Comte Geof
frey," Rennes, 1570, 4to, 4, " Commentaire
sur le Titre des Appropriances, Prescrip
tions, &c,," Rennes, 1576, fol, 5, " Com
mentaire sur le Titre des Donations de
TAncienne Coutume," Paris, 1584, fol, 6.
" Aitiologia, sive Ratiocinatie de refor-
mandi Causis," Paris, 1584, 4to., and 1613,
fol. ; and Nantes, 1620, 4to. 7. " De Lau-
dimiis Tractatus," Paris, 1605, 4to. AU the
above treatises and commentaries, with others
on marriage, bastardy, succession, &c. not
printed in the author's Ufetime, were pub
lished in a collected form by his son under
the title " Commentarii in Patrias Britonum
Leges, in lucem editi Cura et Studio Caroli
d'Argentre," Paris, 160S, also in 1614 and
1621, fok 8, " Genealogies des plus An
ciennes Families de Bretagne." This work
appears not to have been printed. A lffe of
Argentre was pubUshed by Miorcec de Ker-
danet, at Rennes, in 1820, Svo. (Morice and
Taillaudier, Histoire Ecclesiastique et Civile
de Bretagne, edit. Guingamp, 1835., i. Pref.
p. xvii. — xxv. ; La Croix du Maine and
Du \'erdier, Bibliotheques Francoises, edit.
Rigoley de Juvigny ; Moreri, Grand Dic
tionnaire Historique, edit. 1759 ; Miorcec de
Kerdanet, Notices sur les Thiologlens et His
toricus de Bretagne, 98 — 101. ; Le Bas, Dic
tionnaire Encyclopidique de la France, 1840.)
J. W. J.

ARGENTRE.

ARGENTRE.

ARGENTRE', CHARLES DU PLES
SIS D', bishop ef TuUe, son of Alexis du
Plessis, seigneur d'Argentre, dean of the
E'tats de la Noblesse of Brittany, was born
at Du Plessis near Vitre, on the 16th of
May, 1673. He studied phUosophy at the
CoUege de Beauvais at Paris. In 1693,
in which year he finished his course of
theology at the Sorbonne, he joined the order
of the Friars Minors : he was admitted into
the society of the Sorbonne in 1698, and
took his doctor's degree in 1700. On the
24th of November the king, Louis XIV.,
nominated him to the abbey of Sainte Croix
de Guingamps, ef the order of St. Augustin,
and Charles duke de la Tremeuille nomi
nated him te the deanery ef Laval, en the
23d of January, 1702. In 1705 he was one
of the deputies of the second order from the
province of Tours, to the general assembly
of the clergy of France. Oliver Jegou de
QuervilUo, bishop of Treguier, appointed
him te be his vicar-general on the 7th of
January, 1707, and in 1709 he was made
almoner to the king. He was the first on
whom the king conferred this office gratui
tously. He was consecrated bishop of Tulle
on the 10th of Jtme, 1725. The same year
he was present at the general assembly ef
the clergy of France as deputy ef the first
order from the province ef Bourges. He
subsequently retired te his diocese, where he
continued te discharge his episcopal duties
with great zeal until his death, which took
place en the 27th of October, 1740. His
principal works are — 1. " Analyse de la
Fei, avec un Traite de TEssence et des
Marques qui distinguent la visritable E'glise
de Jesus Christ," 2 vol. Lyen, 1698, 12me.
This is an answer te Jurieu's " Analyse de
la Foi." 2. " Apologie de TAmeur qui nous
fait desirer vcritablemcnt de pesscder Dieu
seul, par le Motif de trouver notre Bonheur
dans sa Connolssance et son Amour ; avec
des Remarques sur les Principes et les
Maximes que M. de Cambrai (Fenelon)
etabllt sur TAmeur de Dieu, &c.," Amster
dam, 1698, Svo. This was published anony
mously. 3. " Elementa Theologica, &c., cum
Appendice de Auterifate Ecclesiae in con-
demnandls haereticis et perversis quibuscum-
que Scriptis," Paris, 1702, 4to. 4. "Ap
pendix Posterior, &c." (to the above work),
Paris, 1705, 4te. 5. " Lexicon philesophicum,"
La Haye, 1706, 4te. 6, "De Supernatura-
litate seu de propria Ratione, qua Res super-
naturales a Rebus naturalibus differunt,
Notiones quaedam Theolegicac," Paris, 4te,
7, " Martini Grandlni Opera,'' 6 vols., Paris,
1710 — 1712, 4to. This is an edition ef the
theology of Grandln, edited by Argentre,
and with which he published some ef his
own works, 8, " De Numine Dei, ut Reram
omnium Effectoris, &c,," Paris, 1720, 4to,
9, " Animadversiones in Analysim Holdeni,"
Paris, 10, " CoUectio Effecterum Divinae

Scripturan, quibus Mysteria Fidei Catholicae
et Dogmata expUcantur, Sec-, Paris; 1725,
4to, 11, "Collectio Judiciorum de nevis
Erroribus, qui ab Initio Duodecimi Saeculi
usque ad Annum 1713 in Ecclesia proscripti
sunt et netati, &c., cum Notis et Observa
tionibus," 3 vols, Paris, 1725 — 1736, fol.
reprinted in 1755. 12. " Theses phUose-
phicas et theologicae, &c,," 12me. 13, " Re
marques sur la Traduction de TE'criture
Sainte par M, de Saci," Paris, 4to. 14. " Ex
plication des Sacremens de TE'gUse, &c,,"
3 vols, TuUe, 1734, ]2mo. In addition to
the above he wrote many funeral orations,
pastoral instructions, theological disserta
tions, sermons, &c. At the time ef his
death he had prepared for publicatien a
werk ef considerable extent, entitled " Theo
logia de Divinis Litteris expressa ; " it was
never printed however, and is new lest. (Du
Mabaret, Vie d' Argentri, in the Mimoires
de Trevoux, 1743, p. 223—235. ; Lambert,
Histoire Littiraire du Regne de Louis XIV-,
i.l99 — 201. ; Moreri, Dictionnaire Historique,
edit, 1759 ; Richard and Giraud, Biblio
theque Sacrie-) J, W, J.
ARGENVILLE, [Dezallier.]
ARGHU'N KHAN, the sen of Abaka
Khan, the fourth of the Persian monarchs
of the race of Jenghis Khan, He succeeded
his uncle Nikudar in September, A. d. 1284,
and occupied the Persian throne fer about
six years and a half. His immediate pre
decessor, Nikudar, had during his brief reign
rendered himself notorious for his cruel treat
ment and persecution of all his subjects who
did not embrace the Moslem faith, more par
ticularly of the Jews and Christians. Arghtin,
en the ether hand, seems to have been very
liberal on the score of religion. He favoured
no sect in particular, but least of all the
Moslems ; and it argues much iu favour of
his character that the orthodox historians of
his country have no crime whereof to accuse
him, except his conferring the highest offices
of the state upon those who were not of the
true faith. One ef Arghiin's first acts, after
he ascended the throne, was te investigate
the circumstances connected with his father's
death, which had taken place a few years
before. Shams-ud-din, who had been Abaka's
prime minister, was strongly suspected ef
having poisone.d his sovereign and benefactor ;
and the high favour In Avhich he stood with
Nlkiidar, whe usurped his brother's throne
to the exclusion of Arghun, the rightful heir,
renders the suspicion very probable. Niku
dar had, previously to his brother's death,
embraced the Moslem faith, and had become
a paragon ef sanctity. Abaka Avas something
between a Christian and a Pagan, but cer
tainly no Moslem. Hence it was easy for
Nikudar te form a strong party in his own
favour, including, ef course, the orthodox
Shams-ud-din ; and the rest may be easily
imagined, Arghun directed a court ef his
B B

ARGHUN,

ARGHUN.

most distinguished nobles to examine the
charges brought against the ex-minister.
The result was that he was found guilty, and
condemned to suffer death. During Arghun's
reign the empire was well managed by his
minister, Sa'd-ud-daula, a member of the
Jewish persuasion, who owed his elevation,
in the first place, to his skill as a physician.
This person had previously lived at Baghdad ;
and from having freely associated with men
of all countries, he became highly skilled in
many languages, particularly the Persian,
Arabic, and Turkish, He had also obtained
considerable insight into the state of the re
venues of that province, and into the nume
rous embezzlements and malversations by
which the government was defrauded of its
rights. When he became prime minister he
introduced numerous reforms and improve
ments ; hence it is not to be wondered at
that he should have raised against him a host
of enemies who ultimately succeeded in ef
fecting his ruin. But notwithstanding the
antipathies of an adverse creed, the Moslem
historians are compelled te acknowledge that
Sa'd-ud-daula, the fortunate Israelite, ad
ministered the government with a success
which raised the empire to a pitch ef almost
unexampled prosperity aud splendour. The
whele of Argbiiu's reign passed in compara
tive tranquillity, fer which he was mainly
indebted te the wisdom of his chief coun
sellor. His own hardships terminated when
he ascended the throne, on the death of his
uncle, during whose reign his life had been in
perpetual danger. But these events belong
more to the reign ef Nlkiidar, ef which we
have an interesting account in the curious
narrative of Marco Polo, the Venetian.
Shortly after Arghiin's death, Marco, with
his father and uncle, arrived at the court of
the Persian monarch on their way home
from the dominions ef the Great Kublai
Khan, from whom they had letters ef strong
recommendation addressed to Arghun. The
strangers were hospitably received and mu
nificently entertained by Kai Khatu, Ar
ghiin's brother and successor. During their
stay in Persia, Marco had every opportunity
ef obtaining his information from those who
were actors in the scenes which he describes.
His narrative also agrees exactly with that
of the native historians ; and one expression
which he uses strongly tends to confirm what
has been stated respecting Abaka's death. We
quote from the curious edition of Marco
Polo published, in old French and Latin,
by the French Societe de Geographic, 4te.
Paris, 1824. Arghun, at the time ef his
father's death, was go\-ernor of Khorasan,
and had succeeded m defeating a tribe of
Tartars Avhen the mournful Intelligence
reached him. According te Marco Polo,
" 11 ne demere grament que 11 at novelle
comment Abaga son pere estoit mort ; il en
ait grant ire, &c." Again, the Latin has,
370

" Quando ergo Argon vicit preUum istud,
ipse non stetit multum quod habuit nova
quod pater snus erat mertuus, de quo habuit
magnam iram et magnam melancoliam "
(" He had net leng to wait when he received
intelligence that his father had died ; at
which he was exceedingly wroth and much
grieved "). New it is presumed that his anger
must have been owing to something he had
learned respecting the manner of his father's
death, and his grief owing of course to the
event itself Arghun died in March, 1291
(the Moslem historians add), " to the great
relief of every friend of Islam, and te the
equal mortification ef all that were hostile to
the law of the true prophet." He was suc
ceeded by his brother Kai Khatu, as already
mentioned, his own sons, four in number,
being then under age. Of these, the first,
Ghazan Khan, and the third, Uljaitu Khan,
attained, at succeeding periods, the sove
reignty of Persia, (Malcolm, History of Per
sia ; Price, Mahommedan History, en the
authority of the Habib-ns-siyar ; Recueil de
Voyages et de Mimoires publii par la Sociite
de Geographie, tome premier, 4te, Paris,
1824.) D, F.
ARGILLA'TA, PE'TRUS DE, AR-
GELLATA, or PIETRO DELLA CER-
LATA, was professor of logic, astrology,
and medicine, at Bologna, about the begin
ning ef the fifteenth century. He taught the
medical doctrines ef Avicenna, and was re
garded as ene of the most learned anatomists
and surgeons of his time. He tUed in 1423,
and his statue was placed in the amatomical
theatre ef Bologna.
The only werk which ArgiUata left was
published with the title " Chirurgiae Libri
Sex," Venice, 1480, 1492, 1497, &c. foUo; and
Haller says there are manuscripts of it in the
Berne library, dated 1442, and in the King's
library at Paris, dated 1488, Much ef it is
taken from the writings of Avicenna and Guy
de Chauliac ; but it contains many cases and
observations by the author himself, whe, in
several respects, improved the sm-gical practice
of his time. He goes oyer the whele field of
surgery, and BrambUla and Haller mention
the following points, in which he either im
proved surgery, or observed important facts :
— he disapproved ef the use ef sutures iu
wounds of nerves and tendons, though he
employed them frequently in ether wounds,
and he urged that they ought te be inserted
in the skin alone : he blamed the employment
of caustics in the treatment ef cancer, and
improved the method of removing cancerous
breasts ; he described a case of a penetrating
wound ef the arm, in which motion was
destroyed, but not sensation ; he advised the
Incision of the whole length ef fistulae in ano,
and the extraction of sequestra in cases of
necrosis ; and he recorded several instances
ef recovery from severe wounds of the head,
aud ether parts, which had occurred in his

ARGILLATA.
OAvn practice. ( MazzucheUi, Scrittori d'
Italia ; Brambilla, Storia delle Scoperte . - . .
fatte dagli Italiani, t. i ; HaUer, Bibliotheca
Chirurgica, i 165.)
It is necessary te distinguish from the pre
ceding, Petrus De Arelate, or De Arge-
LATA, a surgeon ef an earUer period, at Avig
non, but of whom nothing more is known,
than that he is referred to by Guyde Chauliac,
with whom he was contemporary. J. P.
ARGIS, BOUCHER D'. [Boucher.]
A'RGOLI, ANDRE'A, was bom at Tag-
liacozze in the kingdom of Naples about 1568.
He studied medicine and astronomy ; and aU
that is known of him is, that he was obliged
to leave his country by the efforts of those
who were hostile to him, some say for his
talents, ethers fer his astrology ; that he
retired te Venice, the senate ef which made
him professor ef mathematics at Padua ; and
that he died at Padua later than 1650. The as
tronomical ephemerides which he published,
extending as far as the year 1700, gave an
extent and permanence to his reputation
whieh his other writings would not have
obtained alone. Delambre {Astr. Mod. vol.
ii. p. 514.) has bestowed three pages upon
Argell, who, it appears, was not well in
formed on what had been done in his own
time, and is aptly described as " ene of these
laborious men who wrote leng works for the
use ef astronomers, and particularly of those
who were also astrologers." His opinien
that logarithms only facilitated easy opera
tions, but made complicated ones mere diffi
cult, is better worth preserving for its sin
gularity than any one ef his writings fer its
utility, Argell published : — "Tabulae Primi
MobUis," Rome, 1610; " Secunderum Mobi-
lium Tabulae," Padua, 1634 ; " Pandesium
Sphaericum," Padua, 1644; " De Diebus Cri-
ticis," Padua, 1652; with various smaller
works and second editions (all in 4to.), a
list ef which is in Lalande's " Bibliographie
Astronemique," but is not worth insertion.
The Ephemerides were pubUshed as fellows ;
from 1621 to 1640, at Rome in 1621; from
1631 to 1680, at Padua in 1638; from 1648
to 1700, at Rome in 1647. Those from 1661
to 1700 were reprinted at Leiden as late as
1677. (Weidler, /?/s<. Astron.; Moreri, Diet
Hist ; Delambre, Astr. Mod. ; Lalande, Bib-
liog. Astron.) A. De M,
A'RGOLI, GIOVANNI, a sen of Andrea,
born at Tagliacozzo about 1609, acquired in
early youth considerable celebrity as a poet ;
but his fame, founded on the precocity of his
genius rather than the merit of his works,
Avas ef no long duration. His first volume
of verses, " Della Bambace e Seta, Idyllio ;
Trasfermazioni Pasterali," Rome, 1624,
12 me,, was published when he was but
fifteen years old. Not leng afterwards,
shutting himself up in a roem to which no
one Avas admitted, he laboured fer seven
months in emulating the showy and affected
371

ARGOLL
manner of Marini, then at the height of his
ephemeral popularity. At the end ef the
voluntary confinement, the young versifier,
whose age was then seventeen, had pro
duced a mythological poem in twelve cantos,
" L'Endimiene," Temi, 1626, 4te. The
" Endymion," a successful imitation of the
fashionable model, was received with great
applause, which its detractors sought te damp
by insisting (ne very likely supposition) that
the poem must have been written by the
youth's father. With the pubUcatlon of this
werk Giovanni's desire of poetical fame
seems te have become extinct. In the sub
sequent course of his life he continued to
write verses, beth in Latin and Italian ; but
he published nothing of the sort except two
occasional pieces in Latin, one of which,
indeed, was only a- translation, by Argell
himself and a friend, from a Greek poem
ef Lee AUatius.
In 1632 Giovanni accompanied his father
te Padua, where he engaged in legal studies
and took a doctor's degree. After a time,
however, he abandoned this pursuit for lite
rature, attaching himseff particularly te the
study of the classical languages ; and in
these he attained such reputation as to be
appointed te a professorship in Bologna.
Again, with characteristic fickleness, he re
sumed the study ef law, and held succes
sively several judicial offices in the states of
the church. He is supposed to have died
about the year 1660, After his first abandon
ment of the law, he gave proof ef his know
ledge ef classical antiquities, in which his
labours have been considered te possess some
merit. His writings ef this kind are the
foUowing: — 1. " De Laplde Sepulchrali
Veterum Epistola," published in the first
volume of the collection entitled " De
Quaesitis per Epistolas a claris Viris Re
sponsa Fertunll LIcetl," Bologna, 1640, 4to.
2, An elaborate series of notes te the trea
tises of Onuphrius Panvinlus " De Ludis
Circenslbus " and " De Triumphis." 'These
notes appeared in the edition of the treatises
pubUshed at Padua, 1642, fol. ; again in the
Paduan edition of 1681, fol. ; and afterwards
the notes to the first treatise (but not, as the
biographical books usually assert, the notes
to the second) were selected to accompany
Panvinlus In the " Thesaurus Antiquita
tum Romanarum " of Gricvius, a-oI. Ix. 3.
" Epistola ad Jacobum Philippum Tema-
slniim, De Templo Dlanae Nemorensls."
This petty essay, dated 1637, will be found
in Tommasini's treatise " De Denariis," in
serted in the " Thesaurus Antiquitatum
Romanarum," vol. xii Argell left in manu
script a large number ef works, among which
were some Italian poems, a good many Latin
ones, classical biographies, and antiquarian
and critical commentaries, (Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d' Italia ; Baillet, Enfans Cilibres,
No. 64. ; Papadopoli, Historia Gymnasii Pa-
B E 2

ARGOLL

ARGONNE.

tavini, ii. 140. ; Toppi, Biblioteca Napolitana,
p. 114. ; Crescimbeni, Storia della Volgar
Poesia, v. 159. ; Niceron, Mimoires, xxxix.
332—334.) W. S.
ARGONNE, NOEL or BONAVEN
TURE D', was born at Paris in the year
1640. His father was a goldsmith. D'Ar-
genne practised as an advocate till the age of
twenty-eight, when he entered a Carthusian
monastery at Rouen, and changed his name ef
Noel to that of Benaventure. He died at the
Carthusian monastery in Gaillon, which is
near Rouen, on the 2Sth ef January, 1704,
aged sixty-four.
D'Argonne's works are : — 1. "Traite de
la Lecture des Peres de I'E'gUse, ou Methode
pour les lire utilement," in two parts, 12me.,
Paris, 1668. A second edition, with numerous
additions, and consisting of four parts, was
published in 1702, Paris, 12me., by Pellestre
of Rouen, who died in 1710. This is a very
learned and valuable werk. 2. " Melanges
d'Histeire et de Litterature,'' pubUshed under
the name ef Vigneul-Marville, in three
volumes. The first edition was published
in 1699, and apparently at Rouen. Other
editions were published at Rouen in 1700,
2 vols.; 1701, 3 vols. 12mo. : a fourth edition
at Paris, 1725, 3 vols. 12mo. was edited after
the death ofD'Argonne hythe Abbe Banier.
The last volume of this edition was by
Banier ; and the first two volumes compre
hended the three volumes of D'Argonne's
work. These " Melanges " form the fifth
and sixth volumes of a coUection of Ana,
published at Amsterdam in 1789, Svo. They
are entitled " Vigneul-MarvlUlana" - in this
collection. This werk of D'Argonne is very
learned, and full of literary anecdotes and
criticisms. It is highly praised by Bayle in
his letters, as superior to most other miscel
lanies ef its nature, such as the Menagiana.
It contains a very severe criticism on the
" Caracteres " of La Bruyere, the justice of
whioh is denied by his admirers. It has been
questioned whether D'Argonne, as a monk,
could have been the author of a werk which
contains so many anecdotes, but he owed
his knowledge ef them to the connexion
which he continued to keep up by letters
with the men of wit and learning whom he
had known before he became a Carthusian.
Bayle was the first to indicate who was the real
author disguised under the name ef Vigneul-
Marville. 3. " L'Education, Maximes, et
Reflexions de M. de Moncade, avec un Dis
cours du Sel dans les Ouvrages d'Esprlt,"
12mo. 1691. (Chaufepie, Nouveau Diction
naire Historique et Critique; Lettres Choisies
de M. Bayle, Rotterdam, 1714, 8vo.; Preface
to the 'Vignenl-Marvilllana; Querard, La
France Littiraire- As these authorities
differ among themselves and also from the
Biographie Universelle in the dates which
they assign to the life and the editions of
D'Argonne's works, we have felloAved none
372

implicitly, but by comparing them have
endeavoured to arrive at the truth. The
authority of Querard has been followed for
the works of D'Argonne.) C. J. S.
ARGO'TE, JERO'NIMO CONTADO'R
DE, was born in the city ef Cellares en the
Sth of July, 1676. At the age of twelve
years he entered the order of the Theatines,
and applied himself with great diligence to
scholastic studies. Having made himseff
master of the Latin, Greek, French, and
Italian languages, he turned his attention to
sacred and profane history. He was ene ef
the first members of the royal academy of
Portuguese history, and delivered several
discourses before the society upon the fables
introduced into history, which he attributed
to ignorance, evil design, poetry, and paint
ing. John "V., king of Portugal, selected him
from the members ef the academy te write
the history of the archbishopric of Braga, a
task which he performed in a very satis
factory manner, although Majansius laments
that the author had not been a Uttle mere
accurate and careful in the antiquarian por
tion ef his history. He died in the year
1749. His principal werks are, — 1. " Dis-
sertayao da Vinda de St. lago a Hespanha,"
printed in the " CoUec^ao des Documentos e
Memorias da Academia Real Portugueza,"
for the year 1722. 2. " Contas de sens
Estudes Academicos," printed in vols. iv. v.
vi. and xi. of the above collection, 1724 —
1732. 3. " De Antiquitatibus CouA-entus
Bracaraugustani Libri Quatuor Vemaculo
Latinoque Sermone Conscripti," printed in
the volume for the year 1728 of the above-
named coUection : a second edition, with the
addition of a fifth book, wais published at
Lisbon iu 1738, iu 4to. 4. " Memorias para
a Historia Ecclesiastica de Braga, Primas dais
Espanhas," 3 tem., Lisbon, 1732 — 1744, 4to.
5. " Sermao da Payxao pregado no Convento
de Nessa Senhora da Divina Providencia,"
Lisbon, 1717, 4to., and 1735, 4to. This
werk was published under the name of Padre
Gaetano Maldenade da Gama," 6, " Regras
da Lingua Portugueza, Espelho da Lingua
Latina, &c.," Lisbon, 1721, Svo, : an enlarged
and improved edition was published at
Lisbon in 1725, Svo, 7, " Vida e Milagres
de Sao Gaetano Thiene, fimdador dos Cle-
riges Regulares," Lisbon, 1722, 4to. : Argote
published a supplement to this work at
Lisbon in 1743, 4to. 8, "Parecer Anatomico,
Historico, Critico, &c.," Lisbon, 1742, 4to.
9. He translated from the Italian, under the
assumed name ef Padre Jeze GentU, " Vida
da Ven, Madre Rosa Jlaria Serio, &c,," Lis
bon, 1744, 4to, (Bai-bosa Machado, Bib-
llotlieca Lusitana, ii. 493, 494. ; Summario da
BibUotheca Lusitana, 11.218,219.; Majan
sius, Specimen Bibliotheca Hispano-Majan-
siana, S(c., 163, 164.) J. W. J.
ARGOU, GABRIEL, a native ef Viva
rais, and avecat in the parliament ef Paris.

ARGOU.

ARGOU.

He took the oath of avecat on the 24th ef
November, 1664. His name appears on the
Ust of avocats in 1701, and disappears from
it in 1710. He must have died in the in
terval. Little is known of his private his
tory. The continuators ef Moreri mention
that he lived on terms of intimacy with the
literary men of his time, and particularly
Avith the Abbe Fleury. It is said that an
impediment in his speech prevented Argon
from distinguishing himself as an eral pleader,
but that his grpat legal acquirements obtained
fer him the confidence ef the Chancellor
Pentchartrain. Argou published — 1. " Memoires touchant
le Comte de Neufchatel, oil Ton veit ce
qui s'est passe entre Madame la Duchesse de
Longueville et Madame la Duchesse de Ne
mours," Paris, 1674, 4to. 2. " Memoire pour
M. le Due de Luxembourg touchant la Ques
tien de TExtinction de la Pairee de PIney
pretendue par MM. les Dues et Pairs," Paris,
4to. (without date, re-printed at Lyon in
1710, in the "Recueil des Factums.") 3.
" Institution au Droit Fran9ais. Par M. A r-
gou, Avecat en Parlement," Paris, 1692,
1699, 1710, 1719, 1730, 1740, 1746, 1753,
1762, 1771, 1787 : aU these editions are in
tAVO vols. 12me.
The Institutions ef French law alone have
an abiding interest : the number ef editions
through which the work passed previous te
the French revolution show the estimation in
which it was held as a manuak A brief
history of French law, by Fleury *, is pre
fixed. The Institutions are distributed into
four books : the first treats of persons (des
personnes) ; the second ef things (des
choses); the third of obligatiens (des obU
gatiens); and the fourth of various miscel
laneous topics, under the title, " Des Acces-
soires et des Suites des Obligatiens." The
name ef the author does not appear on the
title-page of the two editions published during
his life (Fleury is named in the preface as
author of the historical sketch) ; neither does
it appear on the title-page of the edition of
1710, though it is mentioned in the privilege
granted to the printer, whieh bears date the
14th of AprU, 1703. Te the edition of 1810
are attached a number of valuable notes.
These annotations are anonymous, but the au
thors were known to have been Messrs.Breton-
nier and Barbier, two eminent lawyers, the one
distinguished by his knowledge of the law of
" les pays du droit ccrit," the other well
known as a pleader at the Chatelet, and pro
foundly versed in the "coiitume de Paris."
The edition of 1719 is a mere re-print of that
of 1710, with the solitary addition of the
author's name on the title-page. The etU-
* A tr.anslation of this sketch into English, dedicated
to Lord Milsintown, was published in London in 1724,
with the title *' The History of the Origine of the
French Laws. Translated from the I--rench by J. 13.,
Esq." [John Beaver.]
373

tien of 1730 has some additional notes, pro
bably by M. Barbier: M. Bretonnier had
been dead fer some time. The editions of
1740 and 1746 are re-prints ef that of 1730,
with the addition of an alphabetical index.
The edition ef 1753, by M. Boucher d'Argis,
Avecat au Parlement, has both additions and
retrenchments, made for the purpose of assi-
mUating the Institutions te the actual state of
the law. The editions of 1762 and 1771 are
mere re-prints of the edition of Boucher
d'Argis. The edition of 1787 we have net
seen, nor does Camus, from whom we have
learned its existence, give any account of it.
We have been induced te notice so much in
detaU the bibliography of this work en ac
count ef its having been the most popular,
and, indeed, with the exception of the AVorks
of CoquiUe (1642) and Claude Serre (1753),
the only elementary manual of French law
previous to the Revolutien. It is still not
destitute of a practical interest fer these whe
have occasion te study the laws ef our
colonies of St. Lucia and Lower Canada,
which are based upon the eld French law :
the foundation of the civil law of our other
French colony, Mauritius, is the Cede Na
poleon. (Boucher d'Argis, in his Preface to
the edition of the Institution au Droit Fran
qais of 1753 ; Camus and Dupin, Profession
d'Avocat; Adelung, Supplement to Jocher,
AUgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon,) W. W.
ARGUES. [Desaegues.]
ARGUELLES. [Canga-Arguel-
LES.] ARGUIJO, JUAN DE, a Spanish peet,
was born at Seville in the latter haff of the
sixteenth century, and died before the year
1630. His love for poetry was so great that
he expended nearly the whole of his patri
mony in the support and encouragement of
the professors of this art, whe repaid his
munificence by their praises. It is not to be
presumed, however, that his liberality was
indiscriminating, or the compliments he
received flattery. It is asserted that no
Spanish poet ever received so many eulogies
as Arguijo. Lope de Vega, who dedicated
several of his pieces to him, was aimong the
number ef his eulogists. His verses upon
him in the " Laurel de Apolo " commence
thus : —
" Aqui Don Juan de Arguijo
Del sacro Apolo y de las Musas hijo," &c.
Unfortunately his compositions are scat
tered in different works. The principal of
them, a cancien written on the death ef a
friend, is inserted in the " Pamase Espanol,"
ix. 140 — 154. His style is natural, pure, and
elegant, and the cancien above-mentioned is
described as a perfect model for that species
of writing. Bouterwek has inserted ene of his
sonnets in his history. He also wrote in verse
" Relacien de las Fiestas que hizo en Sevilla
Den Melcher de la Alcazar en Obsequio do
BB <\

ARGUIJO.

ARGYROPYLUS.

la inmaculada Conoepcien." {Parnaso Es
panol, por Lopez de Sedano, ix. ; Arana de
Varfiora, Hijos de Sevilla ; Bouterwek, Ges
chichte der Poesie und Beredsamheit, iii. 428.)
J. W. J,
ARGYLL, DUKES, MARQUISES,
and EARLS OF. [Campeell.]
ARGYROPY'LUS or ARGYROPU'LUS,
JOANNES, a learned Greek who Uved in
the middle of the fifteenth century. Much
has been said by his biographers respecting
the period at which he first went to Italy,
but it is not clear whether it was in 1434 or
some years later. It appears that he was
retained by Palla Strozzi when at Padua, for
the purpose of reading Greek and the natural
philosophy of Aristotle with him. Facciolati
states that in 1442 he was chosen rector of
the university ef Padua; and in 1444 he
took part in conferring the doctor's degree
en Francesco della Rovere, afterwards Pope
Sixtus IV. He appears te have been held
in high estimation by Cosimo, Pietro, and
Lorenzo de' Medici, the last of whom he
had assisted to educate. By either Pietro or
Lorenzo he was invited te Florence, and
made Greek professor in the university ef
that city. Niccolo Vallorl asserts that he was
indebted to Pietro for this appointment, but
Roscoe gives the credit ef it to Lorenzo. It
is supposed that this event took place iu the
year 1456. He remained at Florence teach
ing Greek and the Aristotelian philosophy
fifteen years. In the year 1471 he quitted
Florence, and in that year, er according
te some, in 1473, proceeded to Rome,
where he became professor of Greek as at
Florence, and continued until his death,
which took place some time after the year
1489, in the seventieth year of his age. His
death is said to have been caused by fever,
brought en by the immoderate use of melons.
All authors agree that he possessed great
learning and abUity. During his residence
in Italy he acquired a perfect knowledge of
the Latin language ; but he entertained a
strange prejudice against all Latin authors,
and asserted that Cicero kncAv nothing of Greek
or philosophy. His principal works are his
translations of Aristotle into Latin, viz. — 1.
" Prajdicamenta." 2. " De Interpretatione."
3. " Analyticorum Posteriorum Libri II."
4. " Physicae Auscultatienls Libri VIII," 5,
" De Ccelo Libri IV." 6. " De Anima Libri
III." 7, " Metaphysicorum Libri XII."
8. " Ethicorum ad Nicomachum Libri X."
9. " Politicorum Libri VIII," The several
editions of Aristotle's Avorks in which these
versions have been printed are enumerated
by Fabricius and Hoffmann, Opinions appear
to have dilfered as te the merit of these
translations. According to Boernerus, they
were considered by some rather elegant than
faithful; by others, more faithful than elegant;
and by others again neither faithful nor elegant,
10." Expositio Ethicorum Aristotelis." This
374

is an original work, and was published by
Donate AcciajuoU at Florence, in 1487, in
fol. He also translated some ef the HomUies
of St, Basil into Latin, which are printed in
the old editions ef that saint's werks. His
unpubUshed werks are dispersed among
different libraries, as in that of Madrid, the
royal library ef Paris, Sec, a complete list of
which wUl be found iu the authorities quoted
below. (Hodius, De Gracis Illustribus
Lingua Graca Literarumque Humaniorum
Instauratoribus, 187 — 210,; Boernerus, De
Doctis Hominibus Gracis Litterarum Gra
carum in Italia Instauratoribus, 137 — 151,;
Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana,
vl, 509 — 518.; Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graca,
edit. Harles, xi. 460, 461. ; Hoffmann, Lexi
con Bibliographicum Scriptorum Gracorum,
art. " Aristotle ;" Roscoe, Life of Lorenzo
de' Medici; Vallorl, Vita di Lorenzo de'
Medici,) J, W. J,
A'RGYRUS, ISAAC {'liradKvs''Apyvpos),
a Greek monk, was a distinguished astro
nomer. According to his own statement in
his printed work cited below, he was bom at
Constantinople, either in 1322 or 1323. We
know nothing about his lffe. In 1373 he
wrote Kavibv nairxaA."os, or " Computus Grae
corum de Selennitate Paschatls celebranda,"
which he dedicated to Andronicus, despot of
iEnus, en the Hebrus, in Thrace. The Latin
title was given te it by Christopher Christ-
mann, professor of Logic at Heidelberg, who
published the work in 1611, 4te. : he added a
Latin translation and a commentary. This
little werk, which is divided into six chap
ters, gives rules fer calciUating the period of
the Easter ef the Greeks. Several years be
fore it was pubUshed by Christmann, who had
used a Heidelberg MS., the sixth chapter ef
it (" De Canenis Incertltudine ") was sepa
rately published by Joseph Scaliger, together
with the " Canon Paschalis Hippolyti," in
1595, and afterwards in Scaliger's "De
Emendatione Tempemm," Lyon, 1598. Pe
tavius published a second edition of the
whole work, with a new Latin translation, in
the third volume ef his " Uranologium,"
Paris, 1630, which was reprinted at Ant
werp (Amsterdam), in 1703, fol. Beth
Scaliger and Petavius used a MS. ef the
royal library of Paris. The third volume of
the " Uranologium " contains another " Com
putus," which Ukewise treats on caJculations
of time, amd which is attributed te the
same Isaac Argyrus. Besides these werks,
Isaac Argyrus Avrote several ethers, chiefly
on astronomy and geometry, the greater part
of which are in MS. scattered through the
principal libraries ef Europe ; some ethers
treat on divinity and miscellaneous matters.
'The principal are — 1. " De reducendo Cal-
culo Astronomicerum Canonum Ptelema»i ab
Annis iEgyptiacis et ab Alexandriac Meridi-
ano ad Annos Romanes et ad Meridianum
Censtantinopelees," in the imperial library

ARGYRUS.

ARL

at Vienna. 2. " Apparatus AstrolabU," in
the Vatican library. 3. " De reducendis
Triangulis non Rectis ad Rectos," in the
Bodleian and in the former Ceislin library at
Paris. 4. " Methodus Geodaesiae," in the
Ubrary of the Escuriak 5. " Methodus Me
llor Solarium et Lunarium Cyclorum," in the
library at Leiden, a legacy of Joseph Sca-
Uger. 6. " Carmina de Duodecim Ventis. "
7. " Encomium Martyris Demetrii." The
Bodleian contains besides: — 8. " De Re
gimlne Novitioram Liber." 9. "De Mo-
nastica Politia." 10. " De Virtutibus et
Vitus." These three MSS. belong, perhaps,
to some ether Isaac Argyrus. According to
the authors of the " Appendix " to Cave,
{Hist Eccles, Liter, p. 75.), the works
which have been cited above do not aU belong
to the same author : their opinion is that
there were two Isaac Argyri, who were beth
mathematicians and contemporaries, and one
of whom they suppose to be the author of
the " Computus " flrst published by Christ
mann, while the other would be the author
of that other " Computus " flrst published by
Joseph Scaliger with the " Canon Paschalis
Hippolyti," and perhaps also ofthe werks on
divinity and on the Twelve Winds. Gerhard
Vossius, in his work "De Universa Mathesios
Natura et Constitutione," p. 127, 128., says
that Isaac Argyrus lived in the eleventh cen
tury. Saxius {Onomasticon, vel. 11. p. 382.)
finds fault with this opinion, but Vossius quotes
Clavius and Blancanus. However, in another
place {De Historicis Gracis, p, 493,), Vossius
says that Isaac Argyrus lived in the fifteenth
century, before and after the capture of Con
stantinople, and that he translated part of the
works ef Aristotle. It is very likely that
there were more than one Isaac Argyrus,
(Fabricius, Biblioth, Graca, iv. 155,, xl,
126, &c. ; Commentary of Christmann to the
Computus of Isaac Argyrus,) W, P,
ARI or ARA or ARE HIN FRODI,
or the Learned, the earliest historian of Ice
land, or at all events the oldest whose writings
have come down to us, was born in Iceland
in the year 1068, His father's name was
Thergil, his mother's Valgerda, He was
brought up by his grandfather GeUer Thor-
gillsen till his seventh year, when, on his
grandfather's death, he was sent for educa
tion to HaU Therarinssen hin MUldi, or the
Liberad, the most learned and benevolent
layman in the island, to whom Teit, the sen
of Isleif, bishop of Iceland, was also sent for
the benefit of his superintendence. Ari re
mained at Haukadal, at the residence of Hall,
till the death of his instructor in 1090, at the
age of ninety-four, and from his conversation
collected much of the information which he
afterwards embodied in his histories. It has
been asserted that after the death of Hall,
Ari went to Germany in company with
Sa;mund Sigfusson, also called Hin Frodi,
the author of the ¦ Edda which goes by the
375

name of the Edda of Saemund ; but Finn
Jonsson, the learned bishop of Skalholt, has
shown, by a comparison of dates, that these
two celebrated Icelanders could net have
been in Germany together, and it is doubtful
if Ari visited Germany at aU. In the time
ef Gissur, the second bishop of Iceland, Ari
took priest's orders, and afterwards married
and had a family. He died on the 9th of
November, in the year 1148, at the age of
eighty. The whele ef the writings ef Ari are not
preserved. Snorro Sturlason in the preface
to his " Heimskringla " refers to a work by
him en the kings of Norway, from Odin to
Magnus Olafssen, of which no trace remains,
except in the work ef Sturlason himseff, who
appears to have made copious use of it. The
" Landnamabok " and the " Islendinga-Bok,"
which are still extant, are sufficient to attest
the value of the labours of Ari. The " Land
namabok " is a history of the colonisation ef
Iceland. It was commenced by Ari, con
tinued by Kolskeg, Brand, Styrmir hin
Frodi, and Sturle Therdsson, and completed
by Haco Erlendisson. A Latin epitome of
its contents appeared in Arngrim Jonsson's
" Specimen Islandiae ; " the first complete
edition, in Icelandic only, was published at
Skalholt in 1 688, in quarto, by Bishop Therd
Therlakssen, and the best, in Icelandic, with
a Latin translation, by Johann Finssen, at
Copenhagen, in 1774, in a handsome quarto
volume. Owing to the attention paid to
matters of genealogy the beek is net of the
most entertaining character, but the inferma-
tien it affords is of the higher interest from its
perfect authenticity. The " Islendinga-Bok "
or " Beek of the Icelanders " is a small trea
tise of ten chapters and a preface only, in
which Ari speaks ef the first occupation ef
Iceland, the names of the earliest colonists,
the laws they established, their expeditions
te Greenland, the first introduction ef Chris
tianity into Iceland, and the names of >the
earliest bishops. All that he states is told
with the utmost simpUcity amd plainness, and
he shows a spirit of historical research aud
criticism scarcely to be expected in that age.
Finding, for instance, that he could net ob
tain a fixed date for many events in the early
history of Iceland, owing te the uncertainty
of the exact period of its first settlement,
which the traditions of the North would not
enable him te fix, Ari did not neglect to avail
himself of the circumstance, that according
te tradition the colonisation took place in the
same year that the sens of Regner Lodbrek
slew Saint Edmund, the English king, in
revenge for the death of their father, and
finding In the English written annals the
death of Saint Edmund placed in the year
870, he assumed that date as the ground
work of his Icelandic chronology. The
first edition ef the work was published,
in Icelandic only, by Bishop Therlakssen
B B 4

ARL

ARIADNE.

at Skalholt in 1688; an edition of it was
commenced, but never completed, by Chris
tian Worm, when at Oxford in 1696, and
copies of it are extant, some with that date
and others with that ef 1716 ; in 1733 Bus-
SEBus published another at Copenhagen in
quarte, with a Latin translation, a life of Ari,
and a glossary, under the title of " Schedae,
seu Libellus de Islandia, Islendinga-Bok dic
tus." It also forms part of the collection
entitled " Islendlnga Sogur," published at
Copenhagen in 1829, by the Northern Anti
quarian Society, of the whele of which the
same society has published a Danish and a
Latin translation. A history ef the intro
duction of Christianity into Iceland entitled
" Kristni-Saga " has a!se been attributed te
Ari, but in an edition of the work published
at Copenhagen in 1773 by Luxdorph and
ethers this opinien is discountenanced. We
observe that it is repeated in the " Antiqui
tates Americanae," published in 1837 by the
Northern Antiquarian Society, but without
any reference to fresh evidence in its faveur.
This may, however, be contained in a work
which we have not had an opportunity of
consulting, entitled " De Ai-io Multiscio,"
written by Werlauff, the principal librarian
of the royal library at Copenhagen, and pub
lished at that city in 1808. The " Kristni-
Saga " is a work ef great Interest and value.
(Worm, Lexicon over Danske, Norske og
Islandske larde Mand, i. 37., ili. 26. ; Finn
Jonsson or Finnus Johannasi, Historia Eccle
siastica Islandia, i. 193, &c. ; Dahlmann,
Forsehungen auf dem Gebiete der Geschichte,
i. 345 — 356, &c. ; Sibbern, Bibliotheca His
torica Dano-Norvegica, p, 74, ; Antiquitates
Americana, p, 206, &c,) T. W,
A R I A'D N E or A R I A'D N A {'ApidSvn),
the elder daughter ef the Emperor Leo I.,
Thrax, and the empress Verina, was born
before the accession ef her father, Avhich
took place in a. d. 457 ; her younger sister,
Leentia, whe afterwards married Marcianus,
the son of Anthemius, emperor ef the West,
was born after the accession ef Leo. In 468
Ariadne was given in marriage to Tras-
calisseus, as Theephanes calls him, or Aric-
mesius according te Evagrius, a noble Isaurian,
who on this occasion assumed the name of
Zeno, and was created a Reman patrician.
In 469 the emperor appointed him maglster
militum, and commander of the guards,
Zeno was a widower, and it seems that the
emperor made him his son-in-law fer the
purpose of being supported by him and his
numerous adherents in Isauria in his differ
ences with Aspar, to whom Lee owed his
crown, but who had become dangerous by
his great power. Ariadne and Zeno had a
son, Lee the younger, Avho in 473 was
chosen by his grandfather to succeed him on
the throne. In the following year, 474, Leo
died; his infant grandson Avas proclaimed
emperor, and pelgqed under the regency of
376

his father Zeno, but he died in the same
year. A rumour spread abroad that Zeno
had poisoned his son, but this opinion is
groundless, nor are there any facts known
from which we may conclude that Ariadne
participated in such a crime, as has been
pretended. It appears, however, that Ariadne
encouraged her husband te assume the pur
ple after the death of their son. A shert time
after his accession Zeno became the victim
ef the intrigues of his mother-in-law, the
empress-dowager Verina, whe caused a revolt,
in consequence ef which her brother Ba-
siliscus was proclaimed emperor (475).
Zeno, then at Chalcedon, fled to Syria;
Ariadne escaped from Constantinople, and
crossing the Bosporus in a storm, joined her
husband, whose cause she defended with great
activity. BasUiscus being unable to maintain
himself on the throne, was deposed by the peo
ple, and Zeno was recalled. Fer some time
Verina succeeded in maintaining her former
power, but she had to straggle with the empe
ror, and the patrician lUus, who had great in
fluence over Zeno. At last Verina was arrested
and imprisoned in some castle in Asia, She
wrote to her daughter, the empress, to con
trive her delivery. According to Theephanes,
Ariadne begged Zeno to restore her mother
to Uberty, but the emperor sent her te lUns,
Avithout whose permission he did net venture
to act. Ariadne addressed herseff to Ulus,
and entreated him en behaff of her mother
with tears, but in vain. The haughty minister
answered, that he believed she intended to
put another man on the throne of her hus
band. Ariadne indignantly left Bins and
went te Zeno, to whom she reported the
insult which she had received. " Am I to
remain in thy palace, er is lUus?" cried she.
" Theu," answered the emperor, " ff thou
canst get rid ef Illus : I give thee my per
mission te try it." A plot was formed to
murder Illus, whe fled from Constantinople.
Joraandes gives a different account. He says
that Illus having excited Zeno's jealousy
against his wife, the emperor gave orders to
put her to death secretly. The officer, whe was
charged with the execution, communicated
the secret to ene ef the maids of the empress,
adding that Ariadne was to be put to death
the following night. Ariadne being in
formed ef this, made her maid sleep in her
bed, and fled to Acacius, bishop of Constanti
nople. On the following morning the bishop
went to the emperor, who had retired to his
private apai-tments, a prey to remorse, for he
believed that the crime had been perpetrated.
Acacius eaisily contrived a recenciliation, and
Ariadne now resolved en the death of Illus.
One Spaniclus (according to Theephanes)
was charged with the murder, but Illus,
although severely wounded, escaped and
caused a revolt in Asia. He was afterwards
taken prisoner and beheaded. Evagrius says
that Zeno determined on the death of Illus,

ARIADNE.

ARIiEUS.

but he does not even mention the name of
Ariadne. Zeno died in 491. There are conflicting
accounts by Cedrenus, Zonaras, and others,
of his death. It is said that he was beheaded
in his bed, whilst asleep; that having died
suddenly in a state of drunkenness, Ariadne
ordered him to be interred ais quickly as
possible ; and that, being insensible during a
fit of apoplexy, Ariadne ordered him to be
buried alive. All these statements are at
least very improbable, if compared with the
statements of Theephanes, Evagrius, and
Theodorus Lector, who either simply mention
the death of Zeno, or add that he died in a
fit of apoplexy.
Anastaslus I., the successor ef Zeno, owed
his accession to Ariadne, whom he married
seen afterwards. There is no ground ef
suspecting her ef having lived in adulterous
intercourse with Anastaslus previous to their
marriage. It seems that Ariadne exercised
great influence ever Anastaslus, which, dur
ing the differences between Anastaslus and
Vitalianus, became rather pernicious to the
emperor, if it is true that he followed her
advice ; yet she blamed very severely the
pusUlauimous conduct of the emperor during
the reUgious and civil troubles which partly
caused the rebelUon of Vitalianus, and partly
were the consequence of it. According to
Theephanes, Ariadne died in the twenty-fffth
year ef the reign of Anastaslus, that is in
515, Anastaslus having been crowned in the
month of AprU, 49 1 , The general impression
which we receive from those facts in the life
of Ariadne which may be considered as true,
is that she was an affectionate, active, and
highly-gifted woman who on many occasions
showed mere character than the emperors.
She accompanied her husband Zeno in his
exile, though nothing prevented her from
playing an important part at Constantinople ;
and she tried every means in her power to
release her mother from captivity, though
Verina intended Zeno's ruin, '\'erina died in
her prison, and Ariadne was not satisfied till
she had obtained the emperor's permission to
carry the body to Constantinople, where it
was buried. 'The history of the time is far
from being clear for want ef sufficient au
thorities ; the contemporary histories ef
Malchus and Candidus are lest, except a
few fragments in Suidas and in Photius;
and nothing is extant ef the history of Eus
tathius Syrus, to whom Evagrius refers
(in, 26, 27,), ( Cedrenus, ed, Paris, p, 346 —
351.; Zonaras, ed, Paris, vok lip, 51 — 55
(xiv. 1 — 3.); Evagrius, U. 15., Ui 3, 26, 27,
29.; Theephanes, ed. Paris, p, 96, 103. 104.
107, &c., 136. 139.; Theodorus Lector, ed.
Reading, 1, excerpt, 20 — 37,, ii, excerpt, 6,;
Joraandes, De Regnorum Successione, ed,
Lindenbrog, p, 58—61,) W, P.
ARI.S;US or ARIDiEUS {'Aptaios or
'Api5o7os), one of the generals and friends of
377

Cyrus the younger, in whose army he com
manded the barbarians at the battle of Cu-
naxa, B. c. 401, against Artaxerxes II. sur
named Mnemon. After the death of Cyras,
Clearchus, one of the Greek commanders in
the army of Cyrus, who feU in battle, pro
posed to place Ariaeus en the throne of
Persia, and was supported in his proposal by
several others, especially by Meno, the Thes
sallan, who was a personal friend of Ariaeus.
But Ariaeus declared to these who informed
him of this plan, that there were many Per
sians of higher claims than himself, who
would not tolerate him on the throne ; and
he declined the offer. But at the same time
he declared his intention not to forsake the
Greek army, but to accompany them on their
retreat ; and both parties bound themselves
by mutual oaths to be faithful to one another.
They had not advanced far, when the bro
thers and relatives of Ariaeus appeared in the
camp to inform him that the king was ready
te pardon every thing that had occurred, if
Ariaeus would desert the Greeks. This com
munication seems te have made some im
pression upon him, for from that moment the
Greeks began to suspect him, and henceforth
they kept as much as possible away from him
and his barbarians. On seme occasions, how
ever, when the two parties came in contact,
open violence was resorted to by the soldiers
of each. These things increased the hostile
feelings on both sides ; and when at last the
retreating army had come to the banks of
the Zabatus (the lesser Zab), Ariaeus aided
the treacherous scheme of Tissaphernes, in
consequence ef which several ef the Greek
officers fell into the hands of Tissaphernes,
and were either put te death er sent to Persia.
Ariaeus now openly declared that the army
ought te surrender their arms to Artaxerxes
as their lawful master. Such a demand was
treated with contempt by the Greeks, who
continued their march, and the barbarians
under Ariaeus retumed. About four years
later, in b. c. 396, we again find Ariaeus as
satrap (of Larissa ?), and employed by Ti-
thraustes in putting to death Tissaphernes by
the command of King Artaxerxes. In the
year following, b. c. 395, he was at Sardis,
where he appears te have revolted from
Artaxerxes, and received Spithridates and
the Paphlagonians, who had deserted the
service of Agesilaus, and taken with them
the treasures of the camp. (Xenophen,
Anabasis, i 8. 5 5., U. 1. § 4., 2. $ 1. 2. 8,
&c., 4. § 1. 2. 9., 5. § 28. 38, &c. ; Diodorus,
xiv. 22. SO.; Plutarch, Artaxerxes, 11. 18.,
Agesilaus, 11. ; Xenophon, Hellenica. iv.
1. ^ 27. ; Pelyffinus, vii. 16.) L. S,
ARIALDUS wais a deacon of the church
ef Milan, said to have been of the family of
Alciati. He made himself conspicueiis in the
schism concerning discipline which broke
out in that church in the latter half of the
eleventh century. It was the practice in the

ARIALDUS.

ARIALDUS.

province ef Lombardy, which was spiritually
subject te the Archbishop ef MUan, to grant
priests' orders to married men who had
married only one wife, she being a spinster
and net a widow, aud priests so ordained
continued to cohabit with their Avives after
ordination. If a priest became a widower,
he was not allowed to marry again, under
pain ef being interdicted the exercise of his
clerical functions. Such was likewise the
practice ef the eastern church long before its
separation from Rome, and such it has con
tinued to this day. In the west, celibacy
beiug more in honour, especially after the
introduction of the monastic orders, its en
forcement upon the secular clergy was at
tempted by a succession of popes and councUs,
but the attempt met with a strong and last
ing opposition in several countries, and the
obligation of clerical celibacy was not uni
versaUy acknowledged untU the latter part
of the eleventh century, when the deter
mined will of Gregory VII. surmounted all
obstacles, established it as a canon ef the
church, and enforced its observance by
meaus both of the spiritual and temporal
powers. Wide de Velate was made Archbishop of
Milan after the death of the famous Herlbert,
A. D. 1045. Wide was a worldly man, fond
of eaise, and net very strict in matters of dis
cipline. The church of Milan, like most
other churches of that age, was very cor
rupt. Simony wais openly and commonly
practised. Independently of the priests who
were legally married, many others kept con
cubines, and some zealous men, indignant at
the abuse, thought that the strict enforce
ment of universal celibacy among the clergy
was the only cure for the evU, whilst other
considerations ef ecclesiastical polity con
tributed te make clerical celibacy appear
desirable. But in their declamations against
the licentiousness ef the clergy, they and
the historians and canonists who came affter
them, have often confounded the married
priests with those who kept concubines, and
have stigmatised all of them as concubinarians
and fornicators, and thus they have dis
figured the historical facts. Among those
who first raised their voice against the cor
ruptions of the clergy was Anselmo da
Baggie, a canon ef the church of Milan, and
a man of learning and piety. The citizens
or popular party, who were frequently at
variance with the nobles, seemed disposed to
listen to charges against the clergy, a body
connected with and supported by the nobUity.
The Archbishop Wido, anxious to avoid
popular tumults, contrived to remove An
selmo from Milan by having him appointed
Bishop ef Lucca. But the deacon Arialdus,
whe is said to have been intimate with An
selmo, took up the question concerning the
clergy, and seen became a principal in it.
He found an associate in Landuffus, a man of
378

noble birth and a ready speaker. A third
person is mentioned, named Nazarius, a
wealthy banker who supplied the two others
with money to carry on their agitation. It
was in the year 1056 that Arialdus and
Landulfus began publicly to harangue the
people of Milan, and te descant en the licen
tious lives of the clergy. The chronicler
AmtUfus gives the substance of seme ef
their speeches. They declared that for a
long time past the Saviour was net known in
the city of Milan ; they told their townsmen
that they were blind men led by the blind,
that the sins of fornication and simony were
common among the ministers of the altar,
and that the people ought to abstain from the
communion of such men, and keep away
from their churches, which they had trans
formed into stables. Landuffus openly en
couraged the multitude to fall upon the
priests, to hunt them out, drive them away,
get rid of them by any means, and confiscate
their property. Arialdus, on a day of fes
tival, entered a church at the head of a mob,
while the priests were officiating, chased
them about, and seized those who could not
escape. He then published a resolution bind
ing all priests and deacons te separate from
their wives and Ua'C in celibacy, and he com
pelled all whom he caught to sign the paper.
The mob, in the mean time, was plundering
the houses of the clergy and puUing down
some of them. The archbishop convoked
a provincial synod at Fentamete in the dis
trict of Novara, before which Arialdus and
Landuffus were summoned te appear amd
state their charges against the clergy, and as
they tUd not obey the summons, they were
both excommunicated by the synod, a.d.
1057. Upon this Arialdus repaired to Rome,
where Pope Stephen X. was then holding a
council. Beth Arialdus and a deputation
from the clergy of MUan appeared before
the councU. 'The spokesman of the deputa
tion acknowledged that there was much rea
son and soundness in the doctrine supported
by Arialdus, but he complained of his manner,
of his intemperate and factious zeal, which
was exciting a schism in the church. Ari
aldus having replied, the pope imposed
sUence, and, saying little about the grounds
of the quarrel, he pronounced the sen
tence ef excommunicafion against Arialdus
and Landuffus to be null. He then ap
pointed Anselmo, bishop of Lucca, and Car
dinal Hildebrand (afterwards Gregory VII.)
as legates to Milan, to investigate the matter
in dispute, and he ordered Arialdus te go
with them. The legates were not well
received at Milan, Having investigated the
conduct of the clergy, they returned to Rome
to malte theirreport, leaving at Milan Arialdus
and Landulfus, whom they encouraged to
persevere in their work of exposing and de
nouncing the guilty. It seems that the two
reformers succeeded in making converts

ARIALDUS.

ARIALDUS.

even among the clergy, and that several
priests who had purchased Uvings, resigned
them, and that others separated themselves
from their wives or dismissed their concu
bines. An attempt is said to have been made
to kiu Landuffus, who however escaped.
In 1059 Nicholas IL, then pope, sent as
legates to Milan the learned Petrus Da-
mianus and Bishop Anselmo. A tumult
broke out seen after their arrival, the legates
were threatened, and Landulfus himseff was
so frightened, that he made a vow to become
a monk, which, however, he did not fulfil.
Damianus in his werk " Contra Clericorum
Intemperantlam " exhibits the difficulties of
his position. " The fat bulls of the church
of Lodi beset me, bellowing out, ' We have
the sanction of the council of Tribur, which
allows clergymen to haA'e wives ;' te which I
replied, ' that the authority ef the alleged
ceuncU was of no avail if it disagreed from
the decretals of the Reman pontiffs.' " And
in one of his letters te Hildebrand, Damianus
states a new difficulty which had arisen in
his way. Damianus having claimed pre
cedence of the Archbishop of Milan en
public occasions, had given offence, not only
to the whole clergy, but to the people also,
who did not Uke te see the humiliation of
their ancient see. " A loud murmur," says
Damianus, " ran through the multitude, im
porting that the Ambrosian church must not
be subjected to the laws of Rome ; that the
Reman pontiff has no right to judge er in
terfere with the metropolitan see of Milan."
It was one of the objects of the mission of
Damianus to enforce the supremacy of Rome,
and he has reported in his works the prin
cipal arguments of which he made use fer
that object. It seems that the clergy re
mained silent, ff net convinced, and Da
mianus proceeded to expedite the affairs
of discipline. As the whele clergy, in
cluding the archbishop, were gnUty of
simony, it being an old received custom
at Milan to give and receive fees for ordi
nations and preferments, Damianus obtained
from the heads of the clergy their written
promise te desist from the practice in future,
and contented himseff with awarding them
certain canonical penances for past trans
gressions. Much was said on this occasion
against simony, but Uttle about the married
priests ; only the archbishop in his declara
tion premised to endeavour, as much ais in
him lay, to make all priests and deacons
give up the company of their wives and con
cubines. Seen after, the Archbishop Wido
repaired te the council held at Rome in
April, 1059, and although Arialdus, whe
was also there, complained of the con
tinuance ef the irregularities ef the clergy,
Wido was well received by Pope Nicholas,
who invested him with the pallium amd the
pastoral ring. By a canon of that council,
priests and deacons keeping concubines were
379

declared to be suspended from their func
tions. In 1061, after the death of Nicholas, An
selme, bishop ef Lucca, was made pope by
the name of Alexander IL One of his first
acts was te write a pastoral letter to his
townsmen, the clergy and people of MUan,
full of kind sentiments, but expressing his
confident hope that clerical chastity would be
permanently honoured, and the opposite vice
be cast off among other heresies. Previous
to this the agitation against the clergy had
somewhat subsided, as Arialdus was de
prived of the active support of Landulfus,
who became afiiicted with a disorder of the
chest, by which he lest his voice. At this
juncture, a brother of Landuffus named
Erlembaldus, happening to return home from
a pilgrimage te Palestine, Arialdus fixed upon
him as a fit champion, and urged him to
gird en his sword, " like a new Matathias to
fight fer the goed cause." Erlembaldus hesi
tated a whUe to meddle with clerical dis
putes, and then resolved te ge to Rome and
abide by the decision of the pope. Arialdus
went with him. Alexander II. received
them affectionately, and having assembled
a consistory, in which Cardinal Hildebrand
took the lead, he appointed Erlembaldus
gonfaloniere or standard-bearer of the Ro
man and universal church, and delivered to
him the standard ef St. Peter, commanding
him to unfurl it against the enemies ef the
church whenever it should be necessary to
resort to force. This mUitary appointment
by the pope in a foreign country is defended
by PuricelU, a MUanese canonist of the
seventeenth century, whe has written the
Ufe ef Erlembaldus, en the plea that the
pontiff has an indirect sovereignty ever all
Christendom, whenever the exercise of it is
required fer spiritual goed; and he quotes
St. Bernard and Bellarmine in support of
his propositien.
On arriving at MUan, Arialdus and Erlem
baldus began to exercise their mission, being
supported by a large party among the people.
They separated by force the priests and
deacons from their wives and concubines,
and they scourged many with whips studded
with nails, according to Amulfus. The priests
had also their partisans, and frequent en
counters took place, and confusion raged in
the city. This Avas in 1062. In the foUow
ing year Pope Alexander wrote two more
letters, one te the clergy and the other to the
people of Milan, forbidding the faithful to
attend the service ef mass when performed by
cencubinarian or simeniacal priests, declaring
the latter te have lest their benefices if
they persisted in their guilty course, and
enjoining the heads of the clergy to en
force these decisions. The clergy, however,
being ill-disposed to obey, Arialdus proposed
a conference. The archdeacon Guibert, a
canon, and another clergyman, came forward

ARIALDUS.

ARIALDUS.

te argue with Arialdus and Landulfus, whe
appears again on the stage en this occasion.
The archdeacon quoted the passages of St.
Paul and Ambrose which appeared favourable
to the married priests : the concubinarians,
with whom they were confounded by their
antagonists, could not be defended. The
conference terminated after the manner ef
controversial conferences in general, by each
party returning home more convinced ef the
justice of its respective opinion. Arialdus
complained that there was hardly a clerical
man who would join him, and that he was
only supported by laymen. Both he and
Erlembaldus were in frequent correspondence
Avith Rome, and especially with Cardinal
Hildebrand, and also with Peter Damianus,
from whom there Is a letter dated 1064, and
inscribed " to the holy brothers Rudelfus, Vi
talis, Arialdus, Erlembaldus, and the ethers
whe are fighting with an invincible faith
fer the cause of Jesus Christ," in which Dami
anus laments that the heresies of the Nice-
la'ites and Simoniacs show still a bold front
at Milan, and exhorts his brethren in the
Lord to continue the good fight, without
counting numbers, against the enemies ef
the discipline ef the church. And after
stating the principles of that discipline, as he
understood them, he adds: " It has ever been
an occurrence familiar to the church of Milan
to have persons who followed opposite doc
trines. Such were Auxentlus aud Ambrose,
Avho were contemporaries." PuricelU warmly
refutes the slur cast by Damianus upon the
orthodoxy of Ambrose. Auxentlus was the
Arian bishop ef Milan in Ambrose's time.
In 1066 Arialdus wrote to the pope com
plaining that the clergy of Milan and the
archbishop himself persisted in their eld
simonlacal practices, and that many ef the
priests did net observe celibacy. Erlembaldus
went himself to Rome with the letter. Mean
time an affray took place at MUan between
Arialdus and his party, and the archbishop
and his guards, en account ef some priests of
Monza ef the party of Arialdus, who were
confined by order of the archbishop. Seen
after Erlembaldus returned from Rome with
a papal bull of excommunication against
Archbishop Wido, who communicated the
fact to the astounded congregation from his
place in the cathedral on 'W'hitsunday morn
ing, holding the bull in his hand, and telUng
the assembled multitude that this sentence ef
their common degradation and ruin was the
result of the intrigues ef these men who stood
before them, pointing te Arialdus and Erlem
baldus, whe had taken a conspicuous place
opposite the archbishop ; that out ef respect
for Ambrose, the church ef Milan had never
before been subject to Rome, and that those who
conspired te strip that ancient see ef its inde
pendence deserved to be cast out ef the land
of the living. Cries of " death to them 1"
resounded from various parts of the church.
380

The scene that followed is variously related,
but all agree in saying that the party of Ari
aldus laid violent hands upon the archbishop,
stripped him of bis robes, beat him, and that
it was with difficulty that he escaped with his
lffe. Arialdus appears also to have been
attacked by the opposite party and roughly
used. A day er two after the archbishop
laid an interdict upon the whole diocese of
MUan, as long as Arialdus remained in it :
church service was discontinued everywhere.
The people, horror-struck, took the part of
their archbishop. Arialdus and Erlembaldus
thought it prudent to leave in the night, and
they repaired te Legnano, which was a
domain of Erlembaldus. But as they were
surrounded by enemies, Arialdus asked a
country priest of his acquaintance to conceal
him in his church. The priest betrayed him
to the emissaries ef the archbishop. Arialdus
was arrested, tied en a horse, and carried to
the castle of Arena on the Lake Maggiere,
and brought before a niece of the archbishop
called Oliva, who ordered him to be taken to
a desert island on the lake, ene of the new
beautiful Borromeo islands, and gave secret
instructions te the guards to kill him. The
manner of his death is variously reported.
It is said that he wais offered his lffe ff he
would retract what he had said against the
archbishop, te which Arialdus replied that
he would net save his lffe by a Ue. It is
added that the guards hesitated te murder
him, when two priests er deacons ef his
enemies were sent in a beat by Oliva to see
that he wais put te death, and they killed him
after cruelly mutilating him. His body was
thrown into the lake. This happened on the
eve ef St. Peter's day, 28th June, 1066.
Unusual signs and prodigies, it is said, caused
the body to be found uncorrupted ten months
after, Avhen Erlembaldus, at the head of an
armed multitude, carried the body to Milan,
where it was solemnly interred. Erlembaldus
continued te agitate Milan for years after.
The Archbishop Wido, worn out with age and
anxiety, resigned ; and a new schism broke
out concerning the election of his successor.
At last Erlembaldus was kiUed in an affray,
A. D. 1076. The priest Liprandus, who had
joined Erlembaldus, was seized and had his
nose and ears cut off. The chronicler Lan
dulfus the yoimger, Avho wais the nephew ef
Liprandus, transcribes a consolatory er rather
congratulatory letter of Pope Gregory XII.
to Liprandus, felicitating him upon his hav
ing suffered bodily mutUatien for the sake
of religion. Arialdus was inserted in the
catalogue of martyrs by Pope Alexander IL,
and he is registered by the Bollandists
among the saints of the month of June.
His disciple Andreas, who afterwards became
a monk of Vallombrosa, Avrote a life of his
master, which was inserted by Purlcelli in
his work : " De SS. Martyribus Arialdo Al-
clato ct Erlembaldo Cotta," Milan, 1657.

ARIALDUS.

ARIARATHES,

The result of the contest was that the see
of Milan became subject to that of Rome,
like the other sees of Italy, and its discipline
was made uniform with that of the rest.
Nothing further is said about the married
priests, a class which became gradually ex
tinct, as no mere married men were ordained.
(Verri, Storia di Milano ; Cibrario, Storia
della Monarchia di Savola ; Muratori, Annali
d' Italia; Bossi, Storia d' Italia, and the
chroniclers and biographers quoted in the
course ef this article.) A. V.
ARIAMNES {'Apidpws), a king of Cap
padocia, was the son of Datames, and the
father of Arlarathes I. of Cappadocia. He
reigned fifty years.
Ariamnes il, king of Cappadocia, suc
ceeded his father, Ariarathes II. ; and he
aisseciated with him in the government his
son, Ariarathes IIL, whe succeeded him.
(Diodorus, xxxi, Eclog- 3.) G. L.
ARIARA'THES( ' ApiapdBns), the name
ef nine kings of Cappadocia, who traced their
descent from Anaphas, one of the seven Per
sian chiefs who slew the Magi in e. c, 521.
Several werks, such as " L'Art de Verifier
les Dates," tom. ii p. 461 — 469., the "Bio
graphie Universelle," and Eckhel in his "Doc
trina Numorum Vetemm," vok iii. p. 196 — 198.
give a list of ten kings of Cappadocia of the
name ef Ariarathes. They divide our Ari
arathes I. into two. This seems to be a mis
take arising from a mistranslation of a pass
age from Diodorus, preserved by Photius in
his Bibliotheca, Cod. 244. p. 382. ed. Bekker.
The prefix " Aria " shows that the name
Ariarathes is Persian, and it occurs in the
form ef " Ario " in other names, such as
Arlemardus, Ariobarzanes. The same ele
ment Ar occurs in the word " Aril," which
is the ancient name of the Medes, and in
the name Aria, which was a province ef
the ancient Ariana. This word " Aria " is
Identical with the Sanscrit " Arya," the name
for the foUoAvers ef Brahma, and signifies
" honourable." Another form, " Arta," which
contains the same element "Ar," appears
in the names Artabanus, Artaxerxes. (See
the articles, " Aria," " Arianai," Penny Cyclo
padia.) Frohlich assigns the extant coins
which bear the name ef Ariarathes to Aria
rathes IV. V. VI. VII. and X., which cor
respond to IIL IV. V. VI. and IX., as here
given. C. J. S.
ARIARATHES L, the eldest son of
Ariamnes I., succeeded his father in the
government ef Cappadocia. He had a brother
named Holophernes, " whom he loved ex
ceedingly, and whom he advanced to the
highest offices." Holophernes assisted the
Persian king Ochus in recovering Egypt,
B. c, 350, and died leaving two sens, ene ef
whom was named Ariarathes, and whom
Ariarathes I, adopted as his son, not having
any legitimate offspring of his own. During
the expedition of Alexander the Great,
381

Ariarathes I. remained faithful to the Per
sians, but as Cappadocia was net of sufficient
importance te arrest his attention, Alexander
left Ariarathes unmolested in his kingdom.
But upon the death of Alexander, when the
partition of his conquests was made, Per
diccas assigned Cappadocia to Eumenes.
Ariarathes refused to cede his power to
Eumenes ; Perdiccas led a powerful army
against him, and Ariarathes prepared fer
a vigorous defence. He had thirty thou
sand infantry, and five thousand horse, but
he was defeated, taken prisoner, and crucified
together with most of his relations. Ari
arathes died at the age of eighty-two, E. c.
322, and consequently he was born B, c. 404,
( In the extract from Diodorus, preserved by
Photius, BibUotheca, Cod, 244, p. 382. ed,
Bekker, it is said that Ariarathes died in
battle. This extract from Diodorus is printed
by Dindorf, in his edition of Diodorus, vol. ii,
pars 2. p. 37. The mistake is probably
committed by Photius, as Diodorus himself,
in his Bibliotheca, xviu, 16,, states that Ari
arathes was crucified. Such is also the
statement of Lucian, ilfacroS,, c, 13,, of Ar
rian, ^/mt/PAof/wm, Cod. 92. p. 69. ed. Bekker,
of Appian, De Bellis Mithridaticis, c. 8. The
account of Justin, xlll. 6., is erroneous.) C J S
ARIARA'THES IL, sen of Holo
phernes, whom Ariarathes I. had adopted as
his son, fled te Armenia after the death ef
Ariarathes I. But after the death of Eu-.
menes, whioh occurred early in b.c, 315, he
returned te Cappadocia with an army which
was given him by Ardoates, king of Armenia,
slew Amyntas, the Macedonian general, drove
out the Macedonians from the country, and
recovered the kingdom. He left it to Ariamnes
IL, the eldest of his three sens, ( Diodorus,
Apud Photium, Bibliotheca, Cod, 244, p. 382,
ed, Bekker,) C, J. S.
ARIARA'THES IIL, son of Ariamnes IL,
married Stratonice, a daughter of Antiochus
IL, king ef Syria. Ariamnes associated his
sen during his lifetime in the government
of Cappadocia, and after his father's death
Ariarathes continued to reign alone till e. c,
220. (Diodorus, Apud Photium, Bibliotheca,
Cod. 224. p. 382, ed. Bekker. The state
ment ef Diodorus that Ariarathes III. married
Stratonice, which seems to have been doubted
by Wesseling in his note upon the passage,
is conflrmed by the Armenian copy of the
" Chronicon " of Eusebius ; Eusebii Pamphili
Chronicorum Libri Duo, Milan, 1818, 4to.,
Ub. i. c. 40. p. 185., where Ariarathes is
cadled Arathes. ) C. J, S,
ARIARATHES IV,, son of Ariarathes
III, and Stratonice, was a child at his acces
sion in B. c. 220, This date is given upon the
authority of Polybius (iv, 2,), The previous
reigns occupied the space of ninety-five years,
dating from the accession of Arlarathes II,
after the death of Eumenes, B,c. 315, In

ARIARATHES.

ARIARATHES.

B.C. 192, Ariarathes married Antiochis the
daughter ef Antiochus IIL, king of Syria.
In consequence of this aUiance he aided An
tiochus in his war against the Romans, and
in B.C. 188, fearing the consequences of this
step, he sent an embassy to Cn. Manlius,
who was then in Asia. Cn. Manlius pre
mised to leave him unmolested if he paid
the sum of six hundred talents ; but as the
daughter ef Ariarathes was at that time
betrothed to Eumenes, he was admitted to
an alliance with the Remans upon more
favourable terms. In b. c. 183 — 179, he was
au aUy of Eumenes II. in his war against
Pharnaces I. After the death of Antiochus
IV., which occurred towards the close of
E. c. 164, an embassy was sent to Ariarathes
from Rome, of which the details are given
by Polybius (xxxi. 12, 13.). The date of
the embassy may therefore be fixed at b. c.
163. Ariarathes reigned about fifty-eight
years, E.c. 220 — 163, both inclusive. An
tiochis fer a long time was barren. She
therefore had recourse te artifice, and per
suaded her husband that she had borne him
two sons, who were named Ariarathes aud
Holophernes. But in course ef time she had
two daughters and a son, who was named Mi
thridates, but afterwards became Ariarathes
V. She then informed her husband of the
fraud which she had practised upon him,
and contrived to have the elder ef the sup
posititious children sent te Rome, and the
younger to Ionia. (Diodorus, Apud Pho
tium, BibUotheca, Cod. 224. p. 383. ed.
Bekker ; Justin, xxix. i. ; Polybius, iv. 2.
xxii. 24., xxxi. 12, 13. ; Appian, De Bellis
Syriacis, c. 5. ; Livy, xxxviii. 37.) C. J, S,
ARIARA'THES V,, called Mithridates at
first, and surnamed Philopator because ef his
affection for his father, succeeded his father
Ariarathes IV,, in the winter ef B, c, 163,
His father returned the son's affection, and
wished to cede the kingdom to him during
his own Iffetime, but he could net prevail
upon his sen to accept it, Ariarathes V. is
highly eulogised by Diodorus. He was ac
quainted with Greek literature, and " applied
himself to philosophy ; from which Cappa
docia, which before was unknown to the
Greeks, became a place of residence te the
learned." Ins. c. 162, Ariarathes sent an
embassy to Rome, soon after his accession, to
renew the alliance which his father had made
with the Remans. Demetrius Soter, king of
Syria, proposed his sister iu marriage to
Ariarathes, who refused it from fear that the
Romans would not approve ef the connexion.
Demetrius, offended at the rejection ef this
alliance, supplied troops to Holophernes, the
supposititious son of Ariarathes IV., and
brought him forward as a claimant to the
throne. Ariarathes was driven from his
kingdom, and fled to Rome in the summer of
B, c, 158. The Romans restored to him his
kingdom, but according to Appian {De Bellis
382

Syriacis, c. 47.) they appointed Ariarathes
and Holophernes to reign together. This
fact is also implied by Polybius (xxxU, 20,).
But Polybius (xxxUi, 1 2,) speaks of Ariarathes
as sele king about B, o, 154 ; therefore, the
reign of Holophernes could net have lasted
long, Ariarathes assisted Attalus II, in his
war against Prusias in b. c, 154, and Deme
trius, his son, commanded the forces sent for
that purpose, Ariarathes joined the consul
P. Licinius Crassus in the war against
Aristonicus of Pergamus. He feU in that
war, B.C. 130, in the thirty-third current year
ef his reign. As a reward for his services in
this war, the Remans added Lycaonia and
CUicia to the dominions of his descendants,
Ariarathes left six sons, but Laodice their
mother, to keep the administratien of affairs
in her own hands, poisoned flve of them ; one
of them, a chUd (parvulus), was rescued by
his relatives, and as his mother was kUled by
her subjects, he succeeded to the throue with
the title of Ariarathes VI. (Polybius, iii. 5,,
xxxi, 14, 15,, xxxii. 5. ; Diodorus, Apud
Photium, Bibliotheca, Cod. 244. p. 383, ed.
Bekker ; Justin, xxxv. i, xxxvU. i,, xxxviU.
2. According to Livy (xUi. 19.), an Aria
rathes was educated at Rome, who was pro
bably Ariarathes, the supposititious sen of
Ariarathes IV.) C. J. S.
ARIARA'THES VL, the youngest son of
Ariarathes V., was a minor at his accession,
E. c. 130. He married Laodice, the sister of
Mithridates Eupator, king ef Pontus ; but
Mithridates caused him to be assassinated by
Gordius b.c. 96. His widow then married
Nicomedes, king ef Bithynia, whe took pos
sessien of Cappadocia. But Mithridates
sent an army under pretext of maintaining
the rights of the children ef Ariarathes VI. ,
expelled the troops ef Nicomedes out of
Cappadocia, and established en the throne
Ariarathes VIL, a son of Ariarathes VL
(Memnon, Apud Photium, Bibliotheca, Cod.
224. p. 230. ed. Bekker ; Justm, xxxvU. 1.,
xxxviii. 1.) C. J. S.
ARIARA'THES VIL, son of Ariarathes
VI. A few months after establishing him on the
throne, Mithridates intimated to him that he
meant to send Gordius back to Cappadocia,
It was a pretext to enable him to seize the
power himseff. He expected what would
happen — that Ariarathes would resist the
return of his father's murderer. Ariarathes
raised au army te prevent the design, and
Mithridates also marched a force against him.
He invited Arlarathes to am interview, and
in the presence of both the armies assaissi-
nated him. He placed on the throne of
Cappadocia his own son, whe wais eight years
old ; he gave him the name of Arlarathes,
and intrusted the government of affairs to
Gordius. The Cappadocians revolted and
brought in from Asia a second son of Aria
rathes VL, and placed him on the throne.
(Justin, xxxvlU. 1.) C. J. S.

ARIARATHES.

ARIAS.

ARIARA'THES VIIL, a younger son of
Ariarathes VI. Soon after his accession to
the throne, he was attacked by Mithridates
and driven out of Cappadocia. He died,
shortly after his expulsion, from grief. Mith
ridates then replaced his own son on the
throne. By the death of Ariarathes VIII.
the royal family of Cappadocia became ex
tinct. Nicomedes, however, pretended that
Ariarathes VI. had left three sons instead of
two, and he sent a young man to Rome,
as the third son, to ask of the senate his
father's throne. Laodice also went te Rome
te support his pretensions, and deposed that
she had borne those sens to Ariarathes VL
Mithridates, en his side, deputed Gordius to
maintain before the senate that the boy te
whom he had given the kingdom ef Cap
padocia, was a descendant of that Ariarathes
who had faUen in the war against Aris
tonicus. The senate decreed that neither
ofthe two pretenders te the throne should
possess it, but that Cappadocia should be
an independent country. But, as the Cap
padocians preferred having a king, the senate
allowed them to elect from themselves
whomever they pleaised, and they chose
Ariobarzanes, b. c. 93. (Justin, xxxviii.
1, 2. ; Strabo, xll. p. 540.) C. J. S.
ARIARA'THES IX. is called the brother
of Ariobarzanes III. by Cicero {Epist ad
Fam- XV. 2.). He was therefore a son ef
Ariobarzanes II. He sueceeded Ariobar
zanes III. as king of Cappadocia after the
battle of Philippi in b. c. 42. He was de
posed and put te death by Antony in b. c.
36, after he had reigned about six years.
Antony then gave the kingdom ef Cap
padocia te Archelaus, the sen of Glaphyra.
Thus, according te the statement of Strabo
(xll. p. 540.) the family of Ariobarzanes be
came extinct in the third generation. The
first generation consisted of Ariobarzanes I.,
the second ef Ariobarzanes IL, the third of
Ariobarzanes III., and his brother Ariarathes
IX. Clinton, however, considers this Ariara
thes IX. te be the son of Ariobarzanes III.,
whom he calls Ariobarzanes II. , rather than
the brother mentioned by Cicero, because of
the statement of Strabo, but we conceive him
to be mistaken. The Ariarathes of whom
Cicero speaks as being at Rome in B. c. 45
{Epist ad. Att. xiii. 2.) was then, not, as
Clinton supposes, sen of Ariobarzanes I., but
Ariarathes IX., son of Ariobarzanes II.
(Appian, De Bellis Civilibus, v. 7. ; Dion
Cassius, xlix. 24. and 32. ; Valerius Maxi
mus, ix. 15. 2. : respecting all these kings
ef Cappadocia, see Clinton, Fasti Hellenici,
vel. iii. appendix, c. 9. ; and Eckhel, Doctrina
Numorum Veterum, iil. 195 — 202,, where other
authorities are indicated,) C, J, S,
A'RIAS BARBO'SA, [Barbosa,]
A'RIAS FERNANDEZ, ANTONIO,
a Spanish painter of the seventeenth century,
born at Madrid. He studied under Pedro de
383

las Cuevas, and at the age of fourteen had
made such progress in his art as te be
entrusted to paint the pictures ef the great
altar in the monastery ef the Carmelites at
Toledo, by which he acquired a great repu
tation. At the age ef twenty-five he was
considered ene of the best painters at Madrid.
Arias was selected by the Duke Olivares to
paint the series of portraits ef Spanish
kings, which were placed in the old palace
in the chamber de las comedlas. He ex
celled in colour and chiaroscuro, wais a
man of great accompUshments and exceUent
character ; had good connections, and yet he
died in extreme poverty in an hospital of
Madrid in 1784. He left a daughter whe
acquired a reputation by her paintings.
Cean Bermudez mentions a sculptor of the
name ef Arias ; Don Josef Arias, who
was born in Madrid in 1743, and died in
Mexico in 1788, Hewas a member ofthe
academy ef S, Fernando ef Madrid, and was
sent te Mexico to assume the direction ef the
academy ef the arts, which had been esta
bUshed there by the Spanish government,
(Cean Bermudez, Diccionario Historico, Sfc)
R. N. W.
A'RIAS, FRANCISCO, a Spanish Jesuit,
was born at Seville, a. d. 1533, and received
his theological education at Alcala de Henares.
In his twenty-eighth year, when he had
already been a priest some time, he joined
the society of the Jesuits. For four years
he was professor of moral theology in their
college at Trlgueros, of which, as well as of
that at Cadiz, he was rector. Subsequently
he spent ten years at Valencia ; after which
he returned to Seville, and then, in the year
1593, was obliged to go to Rome on business
concerning his order. On his return to Se
ville, he resided there until his death in
1605, in the seventy-second year of his age.
He enjoyed the reputation ef great piety and
learning, and was an intimate friend of
J. de AvUa, the apostle of Andalusia. His
works, all of which are of a devotional cast,
and are written in Spanish, are : — " Del
Aprovechiamento esplrltual," in two parts,
Valencia, 1588, 4to.; and "Libro de la Inii-
tacien de Christe," in two parts, SeviUe, 1599,
4to. Both works are translated into Latin,
and, either whoUy or in part, into French,
Italian, and other modern languages. It may
be doubted whether another work of his,
" De la Fealdad y Gravedad del Pecado," was
ever printed in the original. Antonio says
he has merely seen that title in the catalogue
ef the writings of the Jesuits ; and Riba
deneira is not explicit on this point. It has,
however, been published in an Italian and in
a French version. (N. Antonius, Biblioth.
Hisp. Nova, 1. 403. ; Ribadeneira, Catal.
Scriptor. Soc, Jesu (1613), p. 59.) J. N — n.
A'R,IAS, JOSEPH, a Portuguese Jew,
who lived at Amsterdam during the latter
part of the seventeenth century. He trans-

ARIAS.

ARIAS.

lated from the Greek into Spanish the two
books ef Josephus against Aplon, which con
tain a defence ef his natien and its antiquity.
The translation was printed at Amsterdam
A.D. 1687. In the title the anther calls him
self captain. (De Rossi. Dizion. Storic. degli
Autor. Ebr. 1. 53.) C. P. H.
A'RIAS MONTA'NUS, BENEDICTUS,
(in Spanish, Benito Arias Montano), ene of
the most eminent Biblical scholars of the
sixteenth century, was born in 1527 at
Frexenal de la Sierra, a village of Estrema-
dura, close te the frontier of Andalusiai,
which belonged, in civil matters, to Badajoz,
but, as te spiritual jurisdiction, to the arch
bishopric ef SeviUe. Cypriano de Valera
maintains that he took the designation Mon
tano from the hilly site ef his native place ;
but PelUcer y Saforcada explicitly denies this,
and states that his father also was called
Benito Arias Montane. As Arias sometimes
called himself Hispalensls, It has been doubted
whether he was not a native ef SevUle ; but
Valera accounts for his adopting that epithet,
on the grounds that he received his early
education there, and that Frexenal belonged
(in ene respect) to the territory of Seville.
His family are said to 'have been noble ; but
they were in reduced circumstances, and his
father was a notary. He was sent in his
early youth te Seville, and lodged with ene
ef his father's friends while he went through
his courses ef grammar, philosophy, and rhe
toric. On the death of his father (about
1544), Cristoval de Valtodano, canon of
Badajoz, became his patron, and enabled him
to continue his education. Tie then went to
the university ef Alcala, where he devoted
himself to the study ef theology under
Andres de la Cuesta ; and to that ef Oriental
languages under Hernando Diaz, who left a
Chaldee grammar in manuscript. In 1551
he was croAvned poet laureate. Seen after
he was ordained priest ; and subsequently
received the habit of Santiago in the convent
of San M-arco at Leon, becoming a clerical
knight of that order. In 1562, Martin Perez
Ayala, bishop of Segovia, and a knight of San
tiago, selected Arias to attend him, as a theolo
gical coadjutor, at the last convocation of the
council ef Trent, where his learning excited
general admiration. On his return to Spain he
retired from the turmoil ef the world to the
hermitage ef Nuestra Seiiora de les Angeles,
which was en a rock near Aracena in Anda
lusia, and devoted himself to Biblical studies.
From this retirement, however, he was called
by Philip IL, in the year 1568, and appointed
to superintend the publication ofthe celebrated
Polyglott Bible which was about te be printed
at Antwerp at the expense of that prince.
He accordingly went to Flanders, with letters
of recommendation te the Duke ef Alba, and
spent the next four years of his life in the
executien of that very laborious trust. The
Polyglott was finished iu 1572, and Arias
384

had the honour of presenting a copy of it in
person te Pope Gregory XIII. During his
residence at Antwerp he was also appointed
president of that commission which the Duke
of Alba, in compliance Avith the resolutions
of the council of Trent, had ordered to
examine all printed books in the Netherlands,
and to mark their objectionable passages.
From Rome he returned to Spain in 1573,
when PhUip rewarded his services by eccle
siastical benefices te the amount ef two thou
sand ducats, by the lay commandery of Pelai
Perez of the order of Santiago, and by ap
pointing him one of his chaplains. But
neither this court favour, nor the fact that
the Polyglott had received the approbation of
the Pope and of the faculties of Louvain and
Paris, preserved Arias from the suspicion of
heresy ; and he whe had presided over a
commission for detecting every escUlatien en
either side of what the Romish church con
stituted the central truth, was now made in
his own person to experience the nameless
terrors of such an inquiry. Considerable
obscurity hangs over the particulars of this
famous charge of heresy. The fullest ac
count of it appears to be that contained in
the " Carta y Discurse de Luis de Estrada
sobre la Aprebacion de la BibUa Regia y sus
Verslones " (being a letter addressed to Arias
himself, written about 1574), accompanied
with the illustrations of PelUcer y Saforcada
(in the " Biblioteca Espafiola " of R. de Cas
tre). The accusation itself, which was eon-
fined to this Polyglott, Imputed te Arias such
a leaning to Judaism as wais incompatible
with the orthodox faith ; and it was based
generaUy on the charges that he had aUowed
the original texts a superior importance to
the Septuagint and Vulgate versions (therein,
as it was contended, departing from the
standard established in the Polyglott of
Ximenes), that he had published the later
Jewish Targums, with Latin translations
(although he had deslgnedlj mutUated them),
and that he had made frequent appeals to
Rabbinical authorities in his " Jewish An
tiquities," whieh foi-m part of the appendix
to the Polyglott His accuser was Leen de
Castre, professor of Oriental languages at
Salaimanca ; and he was so zealous an an
tagonist that he brought charges of heresy
against him before the Inquisitions of Rome
and of Spain at the same time. That given
in to the Holy Office at Rome excited Pedro
Chacon, who resided at the papal court, to
Avrite an energetic defence of Arias, which
dees not appear to have been published.
Antonie alone asserts that Arias was more
than once compelled te appear at Rome to
defend his cause in person. Before the In
quisition of Spain the accuser lodged three
Informations, one in Latin, and the ether two
in Spanish, The Latin one was printed,
together Avith the reply which Arias made to
it, in that edition of Uie Hebrew Bible with

ARIAS.

ARIAS.

the version of Pagninus, as emended by Arias,
which appeared at Orleans, 1609, fok A manu
script copy of a Avork also which Ariais com
posed in his own justification, in the Spanish
language, fell into the hands of the English at
the siege of Calais, and was deposited in the
Bodleian library. Many Protestant writers
confidently aissert that the Jesuits were the
secret instigators of this vexatious persecution.
It is certain that a letter of Arias to Philip II.
is extant (ef which a Latin version is given
in the " Hispanla Orientalis " of Colomesius),
the whole object of which is earnestly to
warn the king against the dangerous con
sequences of suffering that order to obtain
any influence whatever in the Netherlands.
This letter is dated as early as 1571, and
speaks of his convictions on this subject as
being of fifteen years' standing. After stating
that the letter is entrusted to one who knew
nothing ef its contents, the writer adds :
" Fer I am aware how many spies they have
everywhere to pick up aU that happens either
in their own concerns or in those of other
people, and what destructive and what covert
enmities they practise against all persons of
less elevated rank who meddle in amy offen
sive way with 'their affairs." Here is suffi
cient testimony to his long settled unfavour
able opinion of the Jesuits, and to his
cognisance, as well as his apprehension, of
their secret machinations. All this, ac
cording te the watchful and revengeful policy
which Arias has ascribed to them, Avould
shew that the Jesuits might not have lacked
means to detect his hostility te them, nay,
perhaps to read this very private letter te the
king ; and that they had some motive fer
secretly fomenting this fearful attack on one
of the most learned and blameless men of his
country. On the other hand, however, it is
te be admitted that there were some elements
in the position of Leon de Castro which
would enable any ene, who desired to acquit
the Jesuits of all participation in this affair,
to show that he might have been influenced
by personal motives iu his animosity. First,
he was a warm champion of the opinion that
the JcAvs had AvilfuUy coiTupted the Hebrew
text ef the Old Testament, amd consequently
that the Septuagint, and especially the Vul
gate, alone contained the unadulterated Scrlp-
tm-es. He Avas therefore quite consistent
with himself when he complained, to use the
words ef PeUicer y Saforcada, that Arias had
not corrected the Hebrew so as to make it
agree with these versions and with the Fathers.
Again, as he was an eminent oriental scholar,
he may have conceived an ungovernable
jeadousy of the greater attainments and fame
of Arias. Lastly, he may have regarded
himself as a person defrauded ef his due
honour, when the superintendence of this
famous Polyglott was net entrusted to him,
but to his junior. However all these doubtful
points may be hereafter determined, it is
VOL. III.

certain that this harassing inquisition was net
concluded until the year 15S0 ; during which
interval, hoAvever, the accused enjoyed his
personal liberty. The exact nature of the
ultimate verdict has net transpired. The
character of the tribunal, the rank of the
parties concerned in the result, and the im
portance of the theological question involved
in the decision, explain why neither party
obtained a triumphant victory. Arias at
least appears to have received a kind ef ac
quittal, as he retired, after the decision, to
his reck at Aracena. Here he rebuilt the
church of Aracena out of the revenue of his
benefices, and did a great deal te render his
retreat a little garden. In fact, he laid out
such a sum in improA'ements that P. V. de
Guevara, te whom it belonged, granted him
the property ef the place ; and Arias be
queathed it to the king. PhUip ence more
summoned him from his seclusion to arrange
the library ef the Escurial, and to teach the
oriental languages there. From these charges
he at length withdrew to SevUle, and died
there, as prior ef the convent of Santiago, in
1598, aged seventy-one years. He left his
Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic MSS. te the
Escurial, and his printed books to the library
of his order in Seville. There appears to be
but ene voice as to the gentleness, upright
ness, and piety ef his moral character. He
carried his abstemiousness se far as to take
feed but once in twenty-four hours, and to
live without the use of wine or meat. He
is said to have possessed an intimate ac
quaintance with ten languages, to some of
which his residence abroad afforded him
access. His general scholarship, and espe
ciaUy his attainments in the Syro-Arabiau
languages, are, when estimated according to
the age in which he lived, ef a very high
character ; and his diligence was unwearied.
Besides the general labours of Arias in
editing the Polyglott Bible, the following
are the most important Avorks by him which
appeared before amd after his death. * They
almost all relate to the Bible, but may be
distinguished into three classes : commen
taries on biblical books, treatises on biblical
subjects, and miscellanies. Among the
former are his " Commentaria in XII. Pre
phetas," Antwerp, 1571, fol. ; " Elucidatlones
in IV. Evangelia," Antwerp, 1575, 4te. ; " De
Optimo Imperio, sive in Librum Josue Com-
* In a certain sense one niight consider the Polyglott
itself as one of his works. However, as it is certain
that Plantin (.ind not Philip 11.) origin<lted the design,
and as several scholars sliared, although subordinately,
in the editorship, as well as in the authorship of the
various treatises which form the apparatus to the
work, it may be better to enumerate here only those
portions which he expressly contributed. It deserves
to be mentioned to his honour that the well-known
attempt to change the reading of Genesis iii. 15. (with
out the sanction of a sfng/c Hebrew manuscript) to make
it conform to the Vulgate, in order to introduce the
virgin Mary there — an attempt, too, which was marred
by a misprint, and at last produced a word which does
not exist in Hebrew — is not ascribed to Arias, but to
his coadjutor Guy le Febvre de la Boderie.
c c

ARIAS.

ARIBERT.

mentarius," Antwerp, 1583, 4to. ; "In Acta
Apestolerum Elucidatlones ; " " In omnia
SS. Apostelerum Scripta ; " " In D. Joannis
Apocalypsin Significatienes ; " together, Ant
werp, 1588, 4te. ; "De Varia Republica, sive
Commentarius in Librum Judicum," Antwerp,
1592, 4te. ; " Commentaria in Esaiae Sermones,"
Antwerp, 1599, 4to. ; "Commentaria in XXX.
prieres Psalmos," Antwerp, 1605, 4to. Among
the treatises on biblical subjects are several
essays on the geography and ether antiqui
ties of the Bible, which originally formed a
part of the apparatus te the Polyglott, but
which have been printed separately under
the title " Antiquitates Judaicae," Antwerp,
1693, 4to., and have been incorporated in aU
three editions of the " Critici Sacri ; " " Liber
Generationis et Regeneratienis Adam, sive
de Historia Generis humani, Operis magni
Pars prima, id est, Anima," Antwerp, 1593,
4to. The remaining divisions ef this work
were te have been entitled " Corpus " and
" Vestes," Fragments of its continuation were
found among his MSS., and a portion appeared
under the title " Naturae Historia, prima in
magni Operis Corpore Pars," Antwerp, 1601,
4to. Among the raiscellanies are, "Benja-
mini Tudelensis Itinerarium . , , , B. Aria
Montane Interprete," Antwerp, 1575, Svo,;
"Aforlsmos Sacades de la Historia de C.
Tacite," Barcelona, 1614, Svo, Nicolas An
tonio supplies a fuller list of his published
werks, and enumerates several which only ex
isted in MS. Richard Simon, of the Oratory,
remarks that a large portion of his works
contained in our first class have been put
into the " Index Librorum Expurgandorum,"
ou the score of several passages there marked ;
but he adds, " This is not the place to inquire
whether the Roman inquisitor has unjustly
tarnished the name of Arias by extravagant
censures, as has often happened te this class
of censors, who have net even spared the
excellent commentary en Joshua by A, Ma-
sius , . . . without this conduct hurting either
the book, or the person of its illustrious
author." (Rodriguez de Castro, Biblioteca Es
pafiola, i 649^668, ; N. Antonius, Bibliotheca
Hispana Nova, 1, 207 — 210, ; Colomesius,
Hispanla Orientalis, p, 241 — 249, ; Rosen
miiller, Handbuch fur die Litteratur der Biblis-
clien Kritik, iii, 296 — 313, ; Simon, Critique de
la Bibliotheque de Dupin, 11, 213 — 220,) J. N— n.
ARIASPES, [Artaxerxes Mnemon.]
ARIBERT I,, king of the Longobards,
was the son of Guntwald, brother of Theu
delinda of Boloaria, who accompanied his
sister to Italy when she went to be mar
ried to Antheric, king of the Longobards,
A, D, 589. Guntwald settled in Italy, married
a wealthy Longobard woman, and was
made Duke of Asti, He was kiUed in the
latter part of the reign of AgUulfus, Thcu-
dellnda's second husband, being struck by
an arrow from an unknown hand : it is
386

hinted by seme that this was in consequence
of his aspiring to the crown. His son
Arlbert was elected king of the Longobards
after the death of Rodoald, sen of Rothar,
A. D, 653. The reign of Arlbert, which lasted
nine years, was a period of tranquillity, at
least for Northern Italy ; fer, in the south,
the Longobards of Beneventum were often
at variance with the Byzantine governors of
Apulia. Aribert belonged to the Catholic
or Nicene communion, whilst many of the
Longobards stUl professed Arianism, which
was the creed ef the three immediate pre
decessors of Aribert. The Italian or subject
population foUowed the Nicene faith. There
were, therefore, two sets of bishops and
clergy, one Arian and the other Catholic.
" In the time of King Rothar," says Paulus
Diaconus, " almost every town in the king
dom had two bishops, ene Catholic and the
other Arian. In the town of Ticinum
(Pavia) they show te this day the spot where
the Arian bishop, who resided in the Basi
lica of S. Eusebius, had his baptistery, whilst
another bishop presided over the Catholic
church." The Arian clergy do not appear
to have molested the CathoUcs in the exercise
of their religion. King Rothar, one of the
ablest princes of the Longobards, was an
Arian ; but he is stated te have shown a
strict Impartiality towards both communions,
by allowing his subjects to foUew which they
thought proper, for which he is censured by
the historian Giannone, as " having afforded,
by his pernicious example, an additional
argument te those wicked politicians who
contend that a sovereign ought not to in
terfere with the religion ef his subjects, nor
oblige them to profess that which he believes
te be true," "Whether Giannone spoke his
undisguised sentiments in the above sentence
may be a matter of doubt ; but the passage
exhibits the prevalent feeling of his time
and country. Under King Aribert and his
descendants of the Boioarian Une, the con
version ef the Longobards to the Nicene
creed rapidly spread, untU hardly any Arians
remained in the latter part of the seventh
century. Already in the reign ef Aribert
we find the Catholic clergy resorting to
active measures te put down Arianism.
John, bishop of Bergomum, is reported te
have expelled the Arians from his toAvn, amd
to have converted the whole population of
Farra to the Catholic faith ; and both he and
John Bonus, archbishop ef Milam, are said
fo have strenuously attacked amd depressed
Arianism, King Aribert bnUt a splendid church out
side of the western gate of Pavia, which he
dedicated to the Saviour, Many years after,
the Empress Adelaide, wife of Otho I., buUt
a monastery annexed to the church, and
gave it to the order of S. Benedict, which
continued to exist tUl the French revolu
tionary invasion. Aribert died at Pavia,

ARIBERT.

ARICL

A. D. 661, and was buried in the church which
he had built, as appears by an inscription in
honour of his grandson King Cunibert,
which is given by Muratori Aribert left
two sons, Bertharit and Gundabert, between
whom he divided the kingdom. Gundabert
fixed his residence at Pavia, and Bertharit
at Milan. Dissensions broke out between
them, of which Grimoald, duke of Beventum,
soon availed himseff. Under the pretence of
giving assistance to Gundabert, he marched
with troops to Pavia, and there treacher
ously murdered Gundabert at their first
interview, A. D, 662, Bertharit ran away
from Milan, and Grimoald was proclaimed
king of the Longobards, (Muratori, Annali
d' Italia ; Sigonius, De Regno Italia ; Gian
none, Storia Civile del Regno di Napoli.) A, V,
ARIBERT IL, king ef the Longobards,
son of Ragumbert and grandson of Gunda
bert, sueceeded his father a, d, 701, The
events of his reign are given under An-
SPRAND. Aribert IL restored to the see ef
Rome certain "patrimonia" or possessions
or estates, situated in the vaUeys of the
Cottian Alps, which were given by former
emperors to the bishops of Rome, but which
had been occupied by the Longobards at the
time of the invasion. Aribert sent to Pope
John VII. the Act ef Donation written iu
golden letters. These domains in the Cot
tian Alps are mentioned among the earliest
possessions of the see of Rome, and their
history has given rise te much controversy.
Baronius has assumed that the whole pro
vince ef the Cottian Alps was given to the
Reman see ; but Muratori maintains that
these " patrimonia," which is the werd used
on the occasion, were allodial property,
and consisted of houses, lands, and fees,
and not ef towns, castles, or princely juris
diction. The see of Rome had, by gifts of
the early Christian emperors, many such
possessions in Sicily, Tuscany, and other
parts ef Italy. (Muratori, Antiquitates Italica,
Dissert 69,, and Annali d' Italia, A, d, 707.) A.V.
ARI'CI, CE'SARE, born at Brescia in
1782, studied in his native tOAvn, and followed
the profession ef the law. Under Napoleon's
kingdom of Italy he was employed in the
judicial courts ofthe department of the Mella,
of which Brescia was the head town. He also
applied himself to poeti-y, and published, in
1808, a didactic poem, in four cantos, en the
cultivation of the olive-tree, " La Celti-
vazlene degli Ulivi," an important branch of
Italian agriculture. In 1810 he was ap
pointed professor of history and literature in
the Lyceum of Brescia, and, in 1812, he was
made a member of the Italian institute of
sciences, literature, and the arts. In 1824,
in consequence ef the reform of the public
estabUshments of education, the chair ef
history being suppressed in the Lyceums, he
387

was made professor ef Latin phUolegy, which
chair he retained till his death, which oc
curred in 1836, He wrote also a small de
scriptive poem on coral, " I CoraUl ; " but
the work fer which he is best known is
" La Pasterizia," published in 1814, a poem in
six books, in blank verse, in which he de
scribes the rearing and breeding of the sheep,
and all the particulars concerning that branch
of industry, and the nature and habits ef the
various races. Competent judges, such as
Giordani and Foscolo, have greatly praised
this work of Arici as one of the finest
specimens of Italian didactic poetry, Arici
began an epic poem, entitled " La Gerusa-
lemme Distrutta," which, however, he did not
finish. He also wrote " L' Origine delle Fonti "
(" On the Formation of Water Springs"),
" II Sirmione," " II Camposante," and other
smaU poems, (Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani
Illustri; Levati, Saggio sulla Storia della
Letteratura Italiana ; Giordani, Opere.) A.V,
ARICO'NA, LOW BEN MEIR
(T-KO p 3'''? Njnnx "l), a PoUsh rabbi ef
Lithuania (Wolff calls hun Rabbinus Sittelen-
sis in Lithuania), who lived at the conclusion
ef the seventeenth century. He wrote some
learned observations on the commentaries ef
Rashi (R. Solomon Jarchi) and Elijah MIz-
rachl (Orientalis), which were published by
his brother, R, Levi Hlrsh ben Meir, in the
work which he edited, entitled " Chiddushe
Meliarshe " (" New Thoughts er Ideas from
R, Samuel Eidels "), printed at Hanau, A. si,
5476 (a,d, 1716), (Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr.
iii 135,) C. P. H,
ARID^US, [Arious ; AnBHiDiEus,]
ARIENTI. Mazzuchelli mentions tAvo
Bolegnese physicians of this name : one,
Tommaso Arienti, was professor ef medicine
and surgery at Bologna from 1380 to 1390,
when he Avas murdered with his wife and
child by ene ef his servants. He left a
manuscript, entitled " Praxis omnium Mor
borum cum Medicinis cujusque Generis,"
which is referred to by Petrus de ArgiUata,
The other, Cecco degli Arienti, died iu 1508,
at the age of ninety, and is mentioned
as the author of a work entitled "Libro
d' Annotazioni sopra le Virtii delT Aequo e
dei Bagni deUa Porella." (Mazzuchelli, Scrit
tori d' ItaUa.) J. P.
ARIENTL [Argentl]
'A'RIF AL-HARWT (MAULA'NA), a
Persian peet whe lived about the commence
ment ef the fffteenth century of our aera.
It appears from an index to a large collection
of extracts from Persian poets in our posses
sion, that there have been ne fewer than six
poets of the name ef 'Arif, besides Al-harAA-i,
viz., 'Arifof Ispahan, two in number, 'Arif
of Ral, 'Arif ef 'Tabriz, 'Arff of Kum, and
'Arif ef Lahore ; but none of these is noticed
by Daidatshah, ner have we ever heard ef
their names, nor of their works anywhere
except in the present collection. Daulatshah's
c c 2

ARIF.

ARIGISUS.

account of 'Arif Al-harwi is very brief andnn-
satisfactory. He gives neither the time ef the
poet's birth ner that of his death. He merely
states that 'Arif was a man of fine genius and
composed many excellent pieces addressed te
the kings and princes and eminent men ef his
time. His works consist ef ten letters en the
Sufi Doctrines, Miscellaneous Poetical Com
positions, Odes and Fragments ; all ef them,
according to Daulatshah, sweet and excellent.
'Arff had died when Daulatshah wrote his
celebrated biographical werk ; and as that
work proceeds in chronological order, we
are led to infer the period at which the poet
lived, from the lives ef those immediately
preceding aud following him. We are net
aware that there is any copy of 'Arff's werks
in Europe. (Daulatshah, Lives of the Per
sian Poets.) D. F.
ARIGTSUS L, caUed also ARECHIS, a
relative of Gisulfus, Longobard duke of
Friuli, was appointed by King Agilulfus to
be Duke of Beneventum after the death
of Zoto, A. D. 591. Arigisus governed the
duchy of Beneventum for fifty years, during
whioh he greatly extended its boundaries, by
taking from the eastem emperors part of
ApuUa as far as the port of Sipontum eu
the Adriatic. The Longobards of Bene
ventum made also predatory incursions into
Lucania and the country of the Bruttii, the
modern Calabria, and took and plundered the
toAvn ef Croten, carrying away a number ef
persons into slavery, many ef whom were
afterwards ransomed, chiefiy through the
benevolent exertions of Gregory I. The
Longobards of Beneventum were stiU partly
heathens and partly Arians, and it was only
affter the middle ef the seventh century that
they were converted te Catholicism by the
ministry of Barbatus, bishop of Beneventum.
Paulus Diaconus transcribes a letter from
Pope Gregory I. to Duke Arigisus, in which
the pope calls him his sincere and glorious
son, and requests him to send him some large
timber for the churches ef St. Peter and
St. Paul at Rome. From the style of this
letter it would appear that Arigisus professed
the CathoUc or Nicene faith. Arigisus, in
conjunction with Ariulfus, duke of Spoletum,
attacked the duchy ef Naples, which paid
allegiance to the eastern emperors, and at
tempted to seize the town, but the Exarch
ef Ravenna sent assistance to Naples under a
new duke, called Maurentius, an active and
vigilant officer, who strengthened the forti
fications of the town and kept a strict watch,
and the Longobards were obliged to desist
from their attempt. Ariulfus, a violent and
turbulent man, who gave much trouble to
Pope Gregory by his predatory incursions in
Central Italy, and Avho had been the chief
promoter of the attack upon Naples, died
about A. D. 603. Many years after Radeald and
Grimoadd, sons of Gisulfus, the late duke of
Friuli, being on bad terms with their uncle
388

Grasulfus, who was the reigning duke, escaped
by sea to Sipontum, and sought the protection
of Arigisus, whe received them as if they
had been his own children, and on his death
bed he recommended them to the assembled
chiefs and the officers of his household, as
being more fit for the cares ef gevemment
than his own son A'io or Aye, whe had given
signs of mental weakness. Aio succeeded
his father Arigisus, a. d. 641, but in the
foUowing year a party of marauding Slavi
having landed at Sipontum, A'io went to fight
them, and was kiUed, when Radeald and
Grimoald were elected joint dukes of Bene
ventum, agreeably to the wish manifested
by Arigisus. ( Paulus Diaconus, De Gestis
Langobardorum; Giannone, Storia Civile del
Regno di Napoli; Muratori, .^nno// d' Italia.) A.V.
ARIGI'SUS IL, called also ARECHIS,
was appointed by King Desiderius, whose
daughter Adelbergahe had married, to succeed
Lultprand as Duke of Beneventum, a.d. 758.
It is said by some that Lultprand, conjointly
with his neighbour the Duke of Spoletum, had
opposed the election of Desiderius, and had en
tered into correspondence with Pepin, king of
the Franks. Desiderius having ence established
his authority ever North Italy, marched his
troops into the duchy of Spoletum, defeated
and took prisoner the duke, and then entered
the territory of Beneventum, when Lultprand
ran away te the Byzantines of Apulia, and
Desiderius appointed Arigisus in his place.
Others say that Arigisus was appointed duke
after the death ef Lultprand.
Arigisus restored to the see ef Rome the
estates " censl," and other property which it
had formerly possessed in the territories ef
his duchy by gffts ef the Christian emperors
and ether pious personages, but which were
seized by the Longobards, either at the time
of their first invasion orin their successive
conquests. These possessions are often men
tioned in the letters of the popes of the eighth
century by the names of " patrimonia Beati
Petri," and "justitlao Beati Petri." Aribert
II. and ether kings of the Longobards had
already restored to the see of Rome property
of a similar nature situated in the Cottiam
Alps and ether parts of North Italy; but
they could not weU enforce the same resti
tution in the duchies of Spoletum or Bene
ventum, without the active interference of
the respective dukes. It is mentioned that
some of the property had been originaUy
bequeathed for the purpose of keeping a
number of lamps perpetually burning before
the altar of St. Peter .at Rome.
Arigisus II. appears to have been an able
and equitable prince. He was pai-tial to men
of learning, and he treated with considerate
and affectionate kindness Paulus Diaconus,
when he sought an asylum at his court after
escaping from the islands of Tremiti, whither
he had been banished by Charlemagne.

ARIGISUS.

ARIGISUS.

Arigisus published a " Capitulare," or series
of laws both on civil and criminal matters,
which bear testimony to his sound judgment
and sense of justice. Among others is a law
against the slave trade, which was carried
on surreptitiously by kidnapping people and
selling them to the Byzantines, who took
them to the markets of the east. Another
law of Arigisus is against these women who
assumed the garments ef nuns as a cloak to
licentiousness, remaining in their own houses
and in the midst of the world and aU its
pleasures, Arigisus embellished the town
of Beneventum: he completed the splendid
church of S. Sophia, begun by the Duke
Gisulfus II. : he fortified Salernum with strong
walls and towers, and built princely mansions
both at Beneventum and Salernum.
When Charlemagne conquered and took
prisoner at Pavia Desiderius, the last of the
Longobard kings, and assumed the crown of
the kingdom of the Longobards, A. D. 774,
Arigisus, ais well as Hildebrand, duke of
Spoletum, refused to submit to the Prankish
conqueror. They, as weU ais the duke ef
Friuli, still corresponded with Adelgisus,
son of Desiderius, who had taken refuge at
the Byzantine court. Charlemagne feU upon
the Duke of Friuli, took him prisoner, and
beheaded him. The Duke ef Spoletum,
alarmed, made his submission, but Charles
being obliged to go to Germany to subdue
the revolted Saxons, could effect nothing
against Arigisus, who, having assembled the
counts, bishops, and other leading men of his
duchy, assumed, with their approbation, the
title of Prince of Beneventum, and was
solemnly crowned as such. He struck
coins in his name, and had his images put
in the churches. With Arigisus II. begins
the first dynasty of the Princes ef Be
neventum, which lasted fer mere than a
century, till a. d. 891, when it was over
thrown by the Byzantines. The principality
of Beneventum in the time of Arigisus in
cluded by far the greater part of the present
kingdom ef Naples. It extended on the west
as fiir as the Llris, which separated it from
the duchies ef Rome and ef Gaeta ; it was
bounded on the south by the duchy of Naples,
which extended along the coast from Cumae
to Amalfi, and which, as well as the duchy
of Gaeta, paid aUegiance to the eastern em
perors. 'To the eastward the territory of
Beneventum extended over Lucania and part
of the Bruttii, as fiir as Consentia, the By
zantines retaining possession of the extremity
of the peninsula, with Rhegium, Croten, and
other maritime places, which were dependent
on the patrician who administered Sicily.
The Longobards occupied all Apulia as
far as Tarentum and Brundisium, but Hy-
druntum and the extreme lapygian peninsula
belonged to the Byzantine emperor. North
wards the principality of Beneventum ex
tended along the coast ef the Adriatic as far
389

as Teati and the river Atemus, which divided
it from the territory of the Duchy ef Spole
tum. This vast extent of territory was
divided into counties and gastaldiae : the
dignity of count was for life, and was given
as a reward for military services, but the
office of gastaldus, which was of a judicial
and fiscal nature, was held during pleasure.
Counts of Capua, Sera, Aqulnum, Cempsa,
and others begin to be mentioned about this
epoch. Arigisus II. had several quarrels with his
neighbours of the duchy of Naples. Upon
one occasion he attacked Cumas, but was
repulsed with considerable loss. Another
time he laid siege te Amalfi, which, being
relieved by the Neapolitans, he was obliged
te raise the siege, Arigisus afterwards, when
threatened by Charlemagne, made peace with
the Neapolitans, and Camillus Peregrinius
has preserved the text of the conventien con
cluded between Arigisus and the " Judge " or
chief magistrate ef Naples, which determined
the possession or tenure ef certain rich border
lands near Nola, and also made stipulations
concerning runaway serfs en both sides.
In 786 Charlemagne retumed to Italy
with a large force, and in the spring ef the
following year he invaded the territory of
Beneventum, and advanced as far as Capua.
Arigisus having provided for the defence of
Beneventum, repaired to Salernum, which he
considered safer en account of its maritime
situation, as the Franks had then no fleet
on the sea. But seeing the Prankish army
devastating Campania, devouring everything
like locusts, according to the expression of
the chroniclers, he sent a deputation ef
bishops to Charlemagne to sue for terms,
offering to pay him allegiance, and to give
his own children as hostages. Charles, after
some difficulty, consented te leave Arigisus
in possession of his territories, en condition
of his paying a large sum ef money and
giving his son Grimoald as hostage, which
being dene, Charles returned to France.
But Arigisus meantime had sent ambas
sadors to Constantine Porphyrogennetus,
emperor ef Constantinople, to propose an
alliance against the Franks, offering te do
allegiance te him as patrician, and to cut his
beard and live after the Byzantine fashion,
on condition of the duchy ef Naples being
given up te him. Constantme dispatched
two legates by way of Naples to Invest Ari
gisus with the insignia of the patrician
dignity, and to negotiate a treaty with him,
promising to send troops to his assistance,
but demanding as hostage Remuald, another
sen ef Arigisus. The legates were received
at Naples with great honour, but the nego
tiation was cut short by the death, first of
Remuald and soon after ef Arigisus him
self, whe died In August, 787. PaiUus Dia
conus, in gratitude te his hospitable bene
factor, wrote his epitaph in elegiac verse, in
c c 3

ARIGISUS.

ARIMINO

which he praises his high and good qualities
with evident feeling, after which, weary of
the world, he retired te Mente Casino and
became a monk. Adelberga, the Avife of
Arigisus, survived her husband, and her sen
Grimwald or Grimoald being allowed by
Charlemagne to return te Beneventum, suc
ceeded his father In the principality. (Gian
none, Storia Civile del Regno til Napoli ;
Camillus Peregrinius, Historia Princlpum
Langobardorum ; Fatteschi, Memorie Istorico-
Diplomatiche dei Duclii di Spoleto-) A- V.
ARIGNO'TE. [Pythagoras.]
ARIGO'NI, GIOVANNI GIACOMO,
a musical composer and member of the
Academia Filensera ( in which he received
the appellation ef " II Affettuoso " ), lived at
the commencement of the seventeenth cen
tury, and published at Venice a set of madri
gals fer two and three voices. A copy ef his
"Concertl da Camera," Venice, 1635, which
was in the Royal Library at Copenhagen,
perished in the fire which destroyed the
entire collection in 1794. (Gerber, Lexicon
der Tonkiinstler.) E. T.
ARIGO'NI or ARRIGO'NI, ONO'RIO,
Avas born at Venice in the year 1668. He
was celebrated in his time fer a collection ef
coins, formed by himself, and which he des
cribed in a work In four volumes In folio,
entitled " Numismata quaedam cujuscunque
Formae et Metalli Musaci Honorii Arlgonii
Veneti, ad usum Juventutis Rei Nummariae
studiosae," Trevigi, 1741, 1759. The fourth
volume is extremely rare. (Moschini, Della
Letteratura Veneziana del Secolo XVIII, U.
86. ; Lombardi, Storia della Letteratura Ita
liana nei Secolo XVIII. iv. 63. ; Mazzu
chelli, Scrittori d' Italia.) J. W. J.
ARIMINO, GREGO'RIUS DE, or GRE
GORIO DA RIMINI, so caUed from his
birth-place, the city ef Rimini in Italy.
Quadrle says that hewas ofthe faraUy ofthe
Torterici He was born towards the end of
the thirteenth century, and became a monk
of the order ef the Augustlns, of which he
was made general at Montpellier in the
month ef May, 1357. He was one ef the
most subtle ef the scholastic philosophers of
his age, and taught in the university ef Paris
with great applause ; according to Quadrio
and others at the same time as Duns Scotus,
about the year 1307. He obtained the title of
"docter authentlcus." In the year 1351 he
was principal professor of the convent of his
order at Rimini. He died at Vienna In the year
1358. He is represented by most writers as
a man of great learning and piety ; and
Cardinal Norls asserts that of all the eld
scholastic philosophers he Avas most deeply
versed in the Avorks of St. Augustin. The
subtle character ef his mind led him to attach
himself more to the Nomltuillsts than te the
sect of the Realists. His Avorks are: — 1.
" Lectura Primi Libri Sententiarum (ef Pe
trus Lombardus)," Paris, 1482, fol. ; again
390 I

in 1485, fok, aud 1487, fol. 2. " Super
Secundum Sententiaram," Milan, 1494, fol.
The two books together Avere published un
der the title " Commentarius in Lib. I. et II.
Sententiarum," Valentia, 1500, fol. ; and by
Paulus de Genezano, Venice, 1503, fol., and
1518, fol. 3. " Liber de Usuris," Rimini,
1 622. 4. " Liber de Impraestantiis Veneto
rum et Usuris," Rimini, 1522, and again in
1622, 4to. 5. " Commentaria in Epistolas
S. Pauli et S. Jacobi Canonicam et Liber
de Usuris," Rimini, 1522, fok His unpub
lished works are : — 1. " Lectura in III. et
IV. (ef the Sentences of Petrus Lombardus).
2. Tractatus de Conceptione B. V. Mariae,"
preserved in the Ambrosian library at MUan.
3. " Sermones de Tempore." 4. " Sermones
de Sanctis." 5. " Quasstiones Metaphysi-
cales." 6. " Tractatus de Cenditionibus Fle-
rentlnorum." 7. " Tractatus de Intensione
et Remissione Formarum." 8. " Carmina
Italica et Latina." With respect to his Italian
poetry it appears te be doubtful whether any
ef his compositions remain. (Osslnger, Bib-
liotlieca Augustiniana, art. " Arimine ;" Bayle,
Dictionnaire Historique et Critique, art. " Ri
mini ;" Fabricius, Bibliotheca Latina Media
et Infima SStatis, edit, JMansi ; Quadrio,
Della Storia e della Ragione d' ogni Poesia,
U, 170.) J, W. J.
ARIMNA, an ancient Greek painter of un
certain age and country, mentioned by Varro,
together with Mycon and Diores, as having
been anterior to Apelles, He says that Apelles,
Protogenes, and ether great painters, are net
to be blamed for not following the style of
Mycon, Diores, Arimna, and others who pre
ceded them, ("Varro, De Lingua Latina, viii,
in princip. or p. 129, ed, BIpont,) R, N, W,
ARINGHI, PA'OLO, a native of Rome,
and a priest of the congregation of the Ora
tory, died in 1676, His printed werks are
the following : — 1, " Roma Subterranea
Nevissima," &c,, Rome, 1651, 2 vols, fob,
with many engravings of early Christian
monuments ; Cologne, 1659, and Paris, 1659,
2 vols, fol. This work is in substance a
Latin translation ef the Italian treatise, in
whioh Bosie described his interesting re
searches in the Roman catacombs, and which,
after his death, was completed and published
by Severano ; but Arlnghi incorporates with
his original the results of niamy important
discoveries since made by others, and adds
something, though not much, of his own.
The antiquau-ian vaUue of his text hais been
in a great measure destroyed by the mere
learned and skilful Avork in Avhich the same
monuments are illustrated by Bottari. [Bo-
sio ; Bottari.] 2. " Monumenta Infellci-
tatls, sive Mortes Peccatorum pessimae,"
Romo, 1664, 2 vols, fol, " 3. " 'Triumphus
Poenitentia', sive Selectae Poenitentium
Mortes," Romo, 1670, fol, (MazzucheUi,
Scrittori d' Italia ; RosteU, Beschreibung der
Stadt Rom, i. 356, 1830.) "W, S.

ARIOALD.

ARIOALD.

ARIOALD, caUed by some CAROALD,
was the Lsngobard duke of Turin in the
reign ef King Adaloald, whose sister Gun-
dabcrga he had married. When Adaloald, by
his violent conduct, which is attributed to
insanity, roused against him the leaders of
the Longobard people, Arloald was proclaimed
king by a considerable party, a.d. 625. But
another portion ofthe Longobards maintained
their aUegiance to Adaloald, whe wais sup
ported by Pope Honorius I. and by the By
zantine exarch of Ravenna. Adaloald had
been brought up by his mother, Theudelinda,
in the Nicene or Catholic faith. Arloald
belonged to the Arian communion, which
wais still that of a great number of the Longo
bards ; for the conversion of that people to
the Nicene creed, which began under Theu
deUnda and her husband, Agilulfus, was
gradual and sIoav, and did not become uni
versal till half a century later. In the con
test for the crown between Adaloald and
Arloald, the Catholic clergy appear to have
been divided, for there is a letter from Pope
Honorius I. te Isaac, exarch of Ravenna, in
which Honorius strongly censures the bishops
of the towns north of the Po fer forsaking
the legitimate and orthodox King Adaloald,
and using their influence te induce the people
to acknowledge the usurper, Arioald. It is
clear that Honorius is speaking of the Catholic
bishops, and not of the Arian bishops, with
whom he had no communion. He requests
the exarch to support the rightful king ; and,
after having restored him to his authority, to
send to Rome the refractory bishops, in order
that they may be punished according te their
deserts. Isaac made a demonstration in
favour of Adaloald, but without success.
Adaloald himseff died soon after, it was said
of poison, and Arioald was acknowledged
king ; and the exarch renewed with him the
peace er truce agreed upon under Agilulfus
between the eastem empire and the kingdom
of the Longobards.
The chroniclers have recorded few political
events of the reign of Arioald, which appears
to have been a period of peace. lenas, a
contemporary monk, who wrote the lives of
several abbots of Bobbie, of which monastery
lonas was an inmate, mentions two facts
which are characteristic ef the tunes. A
monk of Bobbio, named Biddulf, was sent by
the abbot upon business to Pavia, where
meeting Arioald in public, the monk did not
give the customary greeting te the king,
upon which Arioald observed to one of his
attendants : " Here is one of those monks ef
Columbanus, who do not vouchsafe te salute
us." The king was the first te salute the
monk ; on which Biddulf, noticing the king's
condescension, said that he should have
greeted him first, if Arioald had been
orthodox in matters of faith. Arloald having
complained to those around him of the monk's
temerity, one of the king's attendants pro-
391

posed to give him a sound beating in secret,
which was done accordingly, and the monk,
though sadly bruised, says the chronicler,
miraculously recovered, and returned to
his monastery safe and sound. The other
circumstance related by lenais shows the
character of Arioald in a favourable light.
About the year 627 Attala, abbot of Bobbie
and successor ef Columbanus, the founder ef
the monastery, died, and the monks elected
Bertulf fer their abbot. The Bishop of
Tortona however interfered, claiming juris
diction over the monastery, and he applied
to King Arioald te support his claims. Ber
tulf and the monks on their part appealed to
the king in support ef their exemption from
episcopal jurisdiction. This questien of
ecclesiastical discipUne was first raised about
the beginning ef the seventh century, when
Pope Gregory I., in a councU held in the
Lateran in April, 601, passed several regu
lations in faveur ef Monte Casino and other
monasteries, exempting them from the epis
copal jurisdiction, giving the monks the right
of electing their abbots, administering their
temporalities, and regulating their own dis
cipline without interference from the bishop.
This exemption was afterwards particularly
claimed by those monasteries which were
situated, Uke Bobbio, in a remote district at
a distance from the episcopal residence. On
the present occasion King Arioald replied to
beth the applicants that the matter in ques
tien feU under the cognizance ef the ecclesi
astical authorities and councils, and that he
on his side could not think of favouring
either party. The monks then asked his
leave to appeal to Rome, which Arioald
granted, upon which .Bertulf himself pre
ceeded to Rome with lonas, the chronicler.
Pope Honorius acceded to their demand,
and granted of his OAvn authority to the
monastery ef Bobbio exemption from epis
copal jurisdiction. Instances of a simUar
privUege granted by Rome became rapidly
extended during that and the following cen
turies. Gundabergai, the wffe of Arioald, who had
been brought up by her mother Theudelinda
in the Catholic faith, is represented as a
handsome princess, kind and charitable, and
universally liked. It happened that a young
Longobard of distinction called Adaluff being
at court, was accidentally noticed by the
queen for his comely appearance. Adaluff
either overheard her remark or was apprized
ef it, upon which he presumed to make un
lawful proposals to the queen. Gundaberga,
incensed at his presumption, rebuked him
sharply, and even spat on his face, a mark of
utter contempt not unusual among northern
people in their rude state. Adaluff, afraid
ef his life ff the king should hear ef the oc
currence, hastened te Arioald and told him
that Gundaberga had had secret interviews
with Taso, duke of Friuli, and that a con-
c c 4

ARIOALD.

ARIOALD.

spiracy was hatched between them te poison
Arioald and put Taso in his place. The
Duke of Friuli, one of the most powerful
ef the Longobard dukes, had always shown
himseff disaffected towards Arioald, who
from prudential motives avoided coming te
an open rupture with him, especially as Taso
was closely connected with Clotarlus IL, king
ef the Franks, Avhese dominions extended
over Helvetia, Rhaetia, aud Boloaria nearly to
the borders ef Friuli, Arioald, however, im
prisoned his wife Gundaberga in the castle
of Lomello, where she remained about three
years, at the end ef which messengers came
from Clotarlus, some say from his son Dago-
bert, for there is some uncertainty about dates,
to remonstrate with Arioald concerning his
treatment ef Gundaberga, whe, by her mother's
side, was connected with the royal house of
the Merovingians. Arioald having explained
the reason of Gundaberga's imprisonment,
one of the messengers advised him to resort
to the "judgment ef God," er single combat
between a champion of the queen and her
accuser. This being assented to by Arioald,
a champion was seen found, and the duel took
place, in which Adalulf was killed, Gunda
berga was restored to her royal residence and
all her honours. The story is related by
Fredegarius, a contemporary Frankish or Bur -
gundian chronicler, but Paulus Diaconus, who
lived leng after, in relating the same tale,
makes Gundaberga the wife ef King Rodoald,
the son of Rothar, He has probably con
founded Arioald with Rodoald. We have
the testimony of lonas and Fredegarius that
Gundaberga was the wife ef Arioald, after
whose death she married Rothar, and could
net therefore have been the wife of Rothar's
sen. About the year 635 Taso, duke ef Friuli,
was treacherously put to death by the Exarch
of Ravenna, at the suggestion, it is said, of
Arioald, whe wished to get rid of a trouble
some vassak The fact is related in two ways,
Fredegarius says that Arioald offered te
deduct ene third of the annual tribute, styled
a present, which, as a condition ef the truce,
was paid by the exarch to the Longobard
king, ff the exarch would manage to kiU
Taso, The exarch accordingly invited Taso
to a conference under pretence of concerting
measures to make a joint attack upon Arioald,
Taso having preceeded to Ravenna with an
armed escort, the exarch went out to meet
him, and induced him te come into the town
with his personal attendants only, leaving the
armed men outside of the walls, out of regard
for the dignity of the emperor, the sovereign
of Ravenna, Taso went in confidently, when
the gates being shut, he and his attendants
were overpowered and murdered by the
soldiers of the exarch, Paulus Diaconus
says that it was the patrician Gregory, Avho
Avas probably an elBcer of the exarch, that
enticed Taso and his brother Caee into the
392

town of Opitergium, near the borders of
Friuli, under pretence of adopting Taso for
his sen. The two brothers went into the
town with seme personal attendants, when
being assailed by the soldiers of the patrician,
they defended themselves bravely untU they
feU dead, when Gregory had the head of
Taso brought to him and cut off its beard,
which was the ceremony attendant upon
adoption. Grasuff, uncle ef Taso, succeeded
him as Duke of Friuli, and Grimoald and
Radeald, younger brothers of Taso, left their
country and went te Beneventum, where they
were kindly received by their kinsman Duke
Arigisus, who treated them as his oavu sons.
About the year 636, according to Mura
tori's calculations, Arioald died, and seen
after his widow Gundaberga gave her hand
te Rothar, duke of Brixia, who was acknow
ledged by the Longobards as their king.
(Paulus Diaconus, De Gestis Langobardorum;
Muratori, Annali d' Italia ; Sigonius, De Regno
ItaUa.) A. V.
ARIOBARZA'NES {'ApioSapCdvns), the
name ef three kings ef Cappadocia. Clinton
{Fasti Hellenici, voL Ui Appendix, c. 9,) con
siders that there were only two kings of
Cappadocia ef this name, but coins and in
scriptions prove that there were three, (Eck
hel, Doctrina Numorum Veterum, Ui 199 —
200,) C, J. S.
ARIOBARZA'NES L {' AptoSapCiv-ns), kmg
ef Cappadocia, is surnamed en coins Philo-
ROMiEus {^iXopca/xaios), " a lever of the Re
mans," He was a Cappadocian by birth, and
was elected king by his fellow-countrymen
about B. c, 93, Mithridates expeUed him from
his kingdom soon after his accession, and Ari
arathes fied to Rome, but he was restored by
SuUa, B. c. 92. He was a second time expelled
by Mithridates about b,c, 90, and restored by
M', AquilUus about B, c. 89, He was a third
time expelled by Mithridates in b. c. 88, the
year in which the Mlthridatic war began ; and
in B, c, 84, when peace was concluded between
the Romans and Mithridates, Ariobarzanes
was restored to his kingdom. In E, c, 66,
Mithridates aigadn took possession ef the
kingdom ; but Ariobarzanes Avas re-established
by Cn. Pompey, and resigned the kingdom to
his sen, probably ui b. c, 63, after a reign of
about thirty years (b, c, 93 — 63), From a
Greek inscription on a stone, inserted by Eck
hel in his " Doctrina Numorum A'eterum," vol.
lii, p, 199,, it appears that his wife's name was
Athenais, and that she Avas surnamed Philes-
terges, " lover of her children," and that he
wais the father of Ariobarzanes Philopator,
that is, Ariobarzanes II, (Plutarch, Sulla,
c, 5,; Appian, De Bellis Mithridaticis, cc. 15.
60. 105., De Bellis Civilibus, 1. 103.; "Vale
rius Maximus, v. 7. §2.; Cicero, Pro Leqe
Manilla, cc. 2. 5.) C. J. S.
ARIOBARZA'NES IL, king of Cappado
cia, son of Ariobarzanes I. and Athenais, suc
ceeded his father B. c. 63. He is surnamed

ARIOBARZANES.
Philopator ("I'lAoiraTQjp), in a legend en a coin
which is inserted by Eckhel in his " Doctrina
Numorum Veterum," vol. iii. p. 199. He re
stored at his own expense the Odeum at Athens,
after it had been injured during the siege of
that city by Sulla. He died by a violent
death, as may be inferred from Cicero {Epist
ad Fam. xv. 2.). His death certainly oc
curred before E. c. 51, as his son was then on
the throne (Cicero, Epist. ad Fam. xv. 4.).
In an inscription on a stone printed by Eck
hel, p. 200., his wffe is called Athenais, and his
son is called Ariobarzanes Eusebes PhUoro-
majus. This is the Ariobarzanes of whom
Cicero speaks in one of his orations {De Prov.
Consul, c. 4.). C. J. S.
ARIOBARZA'NES IIL, king of Cappa
docia, son ef Ariobarzanes II. and Athenais,
is called by Cicero {Epist ad Fam. xv. 2.), and
also en a coin, Eusebes and PHiLOROM.ffi:us
{E'vireS^fs, ^iXopdpaios). He was king of Cap
padocia in b.c, 51, as Cicero calls him king in
a letter of that date {Epist ad Fam. xv. 4.).
Cicero, who was then proconsul in Cilicia, pro
tected him against seme conspiracy which had
been formed against him, and strengthened
his authority. In the civil war, Ariobarzanes
aided Pompey against Caesar ; but Caesar
forgave him, and even added a part of Ar
menia to the dominions ef Ariobarzanes,
He also defended him against Pharnaces IL,
king of Pontus, He was put te death by
Cassius in b, u, 42, en the ground of form
ing a conspiracy against him. He conse
quently reigned about nine years, E. c. 51 —
42. (Dion Cassius, xli. 63,, xlii, 48,, xlvii.
33. ; Appian, De Bellis Civilibus, ii. 71.,
where he is called by mistake Ariarathes, iv.
63, ; Cicero, Epist. ad Att, v, 20,, Epist. ad
Fam. ii, 17, ; Plutarch, Cicero, c. 36,; Caesar,
Bellum Civile, iii 4, ; Hirtius, Bellum Alex-
aridrinum, cc. 34. 66.) C. J. S.
ARIOBARZA'NES Q ApioSapCdvns), the
name ef three kings ef Pontus. The kings
of Pontus derived their descent from one of
the seven Persian chiefs whe slew Smerdis,
the Magian usurper, in e. c. 521, The word
" Ario " often occurs as a component part of
Persian names, [Ariarathes,] C, J, S,
ARIOBARZA'NES I., king of Pontus,
was betrayed by his sen and successor, Mith
ridates I., to the king of Persia. (Xenophon,
Cyropadia,y'-iu.. 8, 4,; Aristotle, Polit. v, S. 15.
ed, Schneider ; Frtlret, Acadimie des Inscrip
tions, tom, xix, p. 76,) C, J. S,
ARIOBARZA'NES IL, king of Pontus,
succeeded his father Mithridates I. in b, c.
363, and reigned tAventy-six years, till B, c,
337, He held a place of command under the
Persian king, Artaxerxes II. , in B, c, 368,
five years before his father's death. Diodorus
calls him " satrap of Phrygia," and Nepos
{Datames, c. 2.) describes him as "praefect ef
Lydia, Ionia, and all Phrygia." But as he
roA-oltcd from Artaxerxes II. in B. c. 362,
it is probable that he theu established au
393

ARIOBARZANES.
«
independent kingdom. Demosthenes, in a
speech delivered in b.c. 352 {In Aristocratem,
p. 666.), speaks of Ariobarzanes and his three
sons as having just been made Athenian citi
zens. In another speech delivered b. c. 351
{Pro Rhodiorum Libertate, p. 193.), he says
that the Athenians sent Tunotheus to aid
Ariobarzanes, but that Timotheus seeing that
Ariobarzanes had openly revolted from the
Persian king refused te aid him. (Xenophon,
Hellenic, vii. 1.; Diodorus, xv. 90., xvi. 90. ;
Clinton, Fasti Hellen. vol. iii. Appendix, c. 8.)
C J S
ARIOBARZA'NES IIL, king of Po'ntusJ
was the son ef Mithridates III. and grandson
of Mithridates IL He succeeded his father
in B. c. 266. Ariobarzanes and his father
Mithridates III. formed an alliance with the
Gauls, whe had been brought into Asia
twelve years before the death of Mithri
dates, and with their assistance drove out an
Egyptian force whioh had been sent by
Ptolemy PhUadelphus. But towards the
end ef his life Ariobarzanes incurred the
hostUity of the Gauls, and after his death
they made an incursion into his sen's terri-
torj'. Ariobarzanes died about E. c. 240, after
a reign ef twenty-five years, leaving a sen,
Mithridates lY,, in minority. (Memnon, Apud
Photium, Cod. 224. pp. 227, 228, ed. Bekker ;
Stephanus Byzant. "AyKvpa ; Clinton, Fa.iti
Hellen. vol. ill. Appendix, c. 8.) C. J. S.
ARTON {'Apitav), one of the earUest
Greek poets and musicians. His history is
mixed up with fable. He is caUed a. son of
Cycleus, or of Poseidon, and the nymph
Oncaca. He was, however, a native of Me-
thymna in Lesbos ; and from his connexion
with Periander, the son ef Cypselus and
tyrant ef Corinth, it must be inferred that
he lived about b. c. 700. Herodotus calls him
the inventor of dlthyrambic poetry, and ofthe
name dithyramb itseff. Suidas states that he
introduced in his dithyrambs the tragic style,
which shews that they were of a gloomy
character, and referred to the sufferings and
dangers ef Dionysus ( Bacchus). He also
wrote procemia {-Kpooipia), that is, hymns to
the gods, which served as introductions te
festivals. All his productions have perished.
jElian indeed, in his " History ef Animals,"
hais preserved tAve smaU poems, the one an
inscription upon the monument at Ta-nanim,
and the ether a hymn to Poseidon ; but, as
both presuppose the truth of the story of
Arien having been saved by a dolphin, and
as the latter in particular is mere verbose
than rich in ideas, the genuineness of these
two poems is doubtful. All that has come
down to us respecting the life ef Arien is
the beautiful story related by Herodotus, who
calls him the greatest cithara player of his
time. The story runs thus. After h-aving
spent the greater part of his life with Peri
ander at Corinth, Arion asked permission to
sail te Italy and SicUy, and after being richly

ARION.

ARIOSTL

rcAvarded in those countries, he embarked at
Tarentum in a Corinthian vessel to return
to Corinth. During his voyage the sailors
formed the plan ef killing Arien, in order to
obtain his money. Arion offered to give up
all he had to save his life, but the sailors
were inexorable, and Arion could only obtain
permission te put on his complete dress,
and sing one song to his cithara. Having
finished his song, he threw himself into the
sea, when he was taken up by a dolphin, and
carried to the promontory of Taenarum, the
most southern point of Peloponnesus. From
thence Arion travelled to Corinth and told
Periander all that had happened. In the
meantime the vessel arrived at Corinth, and
Periander, who disbelieved Arion's story, and
had put him in confinement, sent for the
sailors, and asked them what had become of
him. They replied that they had left him
well and safe at Tarentum, but the poet
suddenly came forward in the dress in which
he had leaped overboard, and the sailors
were compelled to confess their guilt. Near
the temple of Poseidon, en Mount Taenarum,
there was in the time of Herodotus and Pau
sanias a small bronze monument representing
Arien seated on the dolphin. It was beUeved
te have been dedicated there either by Arion
himself, whe was also said to have written
the epigram upon it, or by Periander. K. O.
MiiUer thinks that this monument repre
sented Taras sitting on a dolphin, just as he
appears on the coins of Tarentum, and it is
not improbable that this monument gave rise
te the story of Arien. ( Herodotus, i 23. 24. ;
Suidas, 'Api'wi'; Scholiast on Pindar's Olymp.
xUi. 25.; A. Gellius, xvi. 19.; iElian, Hist
Animal, xll. 45.; Pausanias, ili. 25. § 5.; Ovid,
Fasti, 11. 91, &c. ; Hyginus,jFa6M/. 194. ; Miil
ler, History ofthe Literature of Ancient Greece,
i. 204, &c. ; Cramer, Anecdota, ill. 352. ;
Servius, Ad Virg. Georg. 1. 12., Eclog. vlli
55.) L. S.
ARIOSTI, ATTI'LIO, a dramatic com
poser of some celebrity, was a native of
Bologna. He was intended by his family for
the priesthood, and in compliance with their
wishes became a Dominican friar. But his
heart was devoted to music, his time was
spent in its cultivation, and at length he was
freed by a papal dispensation from the
rules of his order, and left to follow his
favourite pursuit as he chose. His bent was
towards dramatic composition, and in 1696
he set te music Apostolo Zeno's " Dafne,"
which was performed in his native city.
Tavo years afterAvards he entered the service ef
the Electress ef Brandenburg, and his ballet
" La Festa d' Imenee," and his opera of " Atls "
Avere produced at Berlin during the short
period that he remained there. " To a por
tion of the latter," says Hawkins, " Ariesti
adapted a composition called ' Sinfonia In-
fernale,' the modulation of which was so
singular, and withal se masterly, that the
394

audience were alternately affected with terror
and pity in exact correspondence with the
sentiments of the part and the design of the
representation." During his residence at
Berlin, Ariosti became acquainted with Han
del, then a youth, and the friendship thus
early formed was unimpaired in after Ufe
when they met as rivals. On his return to
Italy he composed " Nebuchadonasar," an
oratorio, fer Venice ; and his opera, " La piu
gleriosa Fatica d' Ercele," for Bologna. He
quitted Italy again for Vienna, when, in 1708,
he brought out the opera of " Amor tra
Nemici." Hew leng he remained in the Aus
trian capital is unknoAvn, but on the 12th July,
1716, the "London Courant" announced his
performance of a solo on the viol d'amour
at the Italian opera house, on the sixth re
presentation of Handel's " Amadigi." During
this, his first visit te England, Ariosti appears
only to have attracted attention as a skifful
performer on am instrument little knoAvn
there. In 1720 a plan wais formed in London
for patronising Italian operas, and enlisting
in their composition and performance the
choicest musical talent of Europe. For this
purpose the sum of fifty thousand pounds
was raised by subscription, George I. contri
buting ene thousand ; and the associated sub
scribers gave the estabUshment the title of
the Royal Academy of Music. A lyric poet
was engaged, the best singers that Europe
could supply were brought to London, and
three eminent composers were enUsted in
the service of the Academy. Bonencini, as
he himself states, was invited from Rome,
Ariosti from Germany, and Handel, who at
this time resided with the Duke of Chandos
at Cannons, was not only included in the ar
rangement, but was commissioned te engage
the principal singers. The following year,
Handel having returned from his mission,
the libretto of " Muzio Scevola " was divided
between these three composers ; the first act
having been assigned te Ariosti, the second
to Bonencini, and the third te Handel. This
allotment has been supposed to have been
intended as a trial of strength between the
rival artists, but there is no just ground for
thus regarding it. The engagement of each
was certain, net conditional ; and although
an opera so constructed would of necessity
chaUenge a comparison ef the relative powers
ef its composers, and occasion seme contests
aniong their several partisans, they respec
tively continued to occupy their stations, and
in turn te produce operas fer the saime theatre,
several years after the appearance ef " Muzio
Scevola." Arlosti's " Ciro " was the first
ucAV opera after the run of " Muzio Scevola,"
and its songs were printed by Walsh. Te
this succeeded the " Floridamte " of Handel,
and then the " Crispe " of Bonencini. In
1723 Handel's " Otho " was foUowed by the
" Coriolano " ef Ariosti ; then came Bonon-
cmi's " Erminia," the " Flavio " of Handel,

ARIOSTL

ARIOSTL

and, in 1724, the " Vespasiane " of Ariosti
This successive occupation of the Italian opera
stage by the three rivals continued till 1727,
when Bonencini having preduced his " As-
tyanax " and Ariesti his " Lucie Vero," they
relinquished their engagements, and left
Handel in undisputed possession of the field. |
Of the various operas which Ariosti wrote,
" Coriolano " was the most popular. " The
prison scene," says Flawkins, "is wrought
up to the highest degree of perfection that
music is capable of, and is said to have draAvn :
tears from the audience at every representa
tion." This was supposed to have been
parodied by Gay in the " Beggar's Opera," j
and to have been aUuded to in this sentence
from his introduction : " I have introduced
the similes that are in all your celebrated
operas ; and besides I have a prison scene,
which the ladies always reckon charmingly
pathetic." Bonencini, after ceasing to write fer the
stage, found, for a time, patronage and sup
port among his titled admirers, especially
from the Marlborough family. Ariosti was
less fortunate. He Issued proposals for pub
lishing a collection of cantatas, and a set ef
lessons fer the viol d'amour, but with little
success. No reputation is more transient
than that of a composer for the Italian opera,
and the three rivals, whose contending claims
for supremacy for several years agitated the
fashionable world, were in turn destmed to
encounter its neglect. Ariosti, soon after
this disappointment te his hopes, quitted
England, and of his future fate nothing is
recorded. " Ariosti," says Dr. Burney, " seems to
have been a perfectly good harmonist, who
had treasured up much excellent music in
his head, but had little invention. I cau
sometimes trace CoreUi in his werks, but, as
for his immediate cotemporaries, there ap
pear, on a general reading, se many claiiliants
for the favourite passages of the day, that it
is difficult to assign them te the right owners :
Handel, Bonencini, and Ariosti all adopted
the same divisions in songs of executien."
In proof of this assertion, Burney has sub
joined the " Aria d' agillta," sung by Sene-
sine in " Vespasiane," in which the alleged
community of style and passage is sufficiently
conspicuous. That Bonencini and Ariesti should have
been invited to England as joint composers
with Handel to the Italian opera at a time
when the latter was residing in London, and
had given seme evidence ef his power as a
dramatic writer, may seem te argue a need
less predigaUty of expenditure en the part of
its noble directors; and that there should
have been enlisted on the side of his com
petitors a formidable array ef partisans may
also appear to Indicate a strange want of abi
lity to estimate the real capacity and merit of
the three rivals. But it must be remembered
395

that the werks which have immortalised
Tiandel had net, at this period, been caUcd
into existence. He is now known, pre-emi
nently, as a choral writer ; his name is asso
ciated with whatever is grand and majestic
in his art. He was then known and estimated
solely as a composer of operas fer the ItaUan
stage, forming his style upon Italian models,
governed and restricted by the rules which
then regulated the lyric drama of that country,
and venturing upon no demonstration of that
power which he afterwards so copiously dis
played. The Italian operas of his time were
little else than a successien of songs, "in
number, weight, and measure " chiefly con
structed in accordance with the fashion of the
time and the powers of his singers. The
varied employment ef music on the stage
which Purcell had attempted was regarded
as a heresy by his foreign contemporaries
and immediate successors. The libretto ef
every Italian opera was a chapter from
Greek or Roman history or mythology, dra
matised according te a prescribed form, and
the composer was confined to one and the
same mode of exercising his talents. This
will serve to account for the temporary stand
which Ariosti and Bonencini were enabled
to make against a composer whe afterwards
proved himself, in another department ef his
art, se immeasurably their superior. It is
true that in Handel's operas his genius occa
sionally blazes out, that the vigeur of his
mind and the extent of his resources are dis
closed, that we feel the spirit and strength of
the " giant Handel ;" but these indications ef
power are, nevertheless, rare, and a com
parison of his operas with those of his rivals
will show a pervading sameness of style and
of phrase sufficient te account fer their having
shared with him, for a time, the favour of
the London pubUc. 'That such a division of
opinien existed has not only appeared from
the facts already stated, but is admitted by
the author ef " The Lifeef Handel " (1760).
" A number of great persons," he remarks,
" had been instrumental in bringing over
Ariosti and Bonencini, and they were un
willing te abandon men ef such ability in
their profession. The contest ran high en
both sides. And those whe really preferred
them to Handel thought it was an act of
injustice te discard them, and rightly in
terested themselves warmly on their side."
The operas ef Handel, Ariesti, and Bonen
cini are now almost equally unknown, and
are found only in the libraries of collectors.
(Gerber, Lexicon der Tonkiinstler ; Hawkins,
History ofMnsie ; Burney, History of Music ;
Life of Handel; Libretti del Teatro Real,
1720—173(1.) E. T.
ARIOSTO, ALESSANDRO, a native ef
Bologna, entered the order of St. Francis,
and was sent In 1476 on a mission te the
Blaronites of Mount Lebanon, with the title
ef apostolic commissioner. He remained

ARIOSTO.

ARIOSTO.

three years in Syria. He is the author of
a description of Palestine : " Topographia
Terrae Premissionis, ad Illustrissimum Prlnci-
pem Borsium Mutlnae Regiique Dueem, Mar-
chionem Estensem, et Redigii Comitem."
The work is quoted by Mazzuchelli as being
in MS. in the archives of the convent of the
Nunziata at Bologna. Le Long in his " Bib
liotheca Sacra " erroneously ascribed this
work te the Professor Francesco Ariosto, and
said that a copy of it existed in the Bodleian
library, Ne. 3422, Father Alessandro Ariosto
also wrote : — ¦ " De Sacra Peregrinatione ad
S. Catharinam Montis Sinai, deque Maure-
rum Moribus, Institutls, Opibiis, Presbyterive
Joannis Regis Indorum," which is mentioned
by Mazzuchelli as existing in MS. in the library
of S, Dominic at Ferrara, and being addressed
by the author te the Archpriest Lodovico Ari
osto of Ferrara. There is also a letter from
him to Pope Sixtus IV., dated from the con
vent of Canobin en Mount Lebanon, August,
1476, in which he asks the pope for seme
pecuniary assistance for the patriarch of An
tioch. The patriarch also wrote to the pope
on the same occasion, and his letter was
translated from the Arabic into Latin by
Father Alessandro, After his return to Italy
Father Alessandro was employed by Pope
Sixtus in several ecclesiastical affairs in the
province of Romagna. The date of his death
is net known. His " Manuad for Confessors "
has been printed : " Enchiridion seu Inter
rogatorium Confessorum pro Animarum
curanda Salute," Venice, 1513, reprinted at
Paris in 1520, at Lyon in 1528, and at
Brescia in 1529. He also wrote several
works en the institutions of the Minor Friars
of St. Francis, the titles of which are reported
by Mazzuchelli ; but these werks do not ap
pear to have been printed. (Mazzuchelli,
Scrittori d'ltalia.) A. V,
ARIOSTO, FRANCESCO, of Ferrara,
a grand uncle ef the poet Lodovico, was pro
fessor of phUosophy and civil law in the uni
versity of Ferrara in the second half of the
fifteenth century, and was also employed by
the Dukes Berso and Ercele I. in several
public offices and diplomatic missions. He
died in 1492, and was buried in the church
of S, Francesco of Ferrara, His grand
nephew, Lodovico Ariosto, wrote and placed
a Latin inscription ever his tomb, Avhich is
given by Mazzuchelli, Francesco was the
author of a work on the spring ef petroleum
at Monte Gibblo near Sassuole in the Mo
denese territory : " Francisci Ariosti de Oleo
Montis ZIbinll, seu Petroleo Agri Mutinensls
Libellus, e Manuscriptis Membranis edltus
ab Oligere Jacoboeo," Copenhagen, 1690.
The Avoi-k was ro-publlshed by B. Ramazzini,
with some additions by the editor, Modena,
1698. (Mazzuchelli, Scr/Hori i/'/ta/i'a.) A.V,
ARIOSTO, GABRIELLO, a younger
brother of the celebrated Lodovico Ariosto,
is often mentioned in the biographies ef his
396

brother, as well as by his brother himself in
his verses. He was a cripple from infamcy
both in his hands and feet. Late in life
he began te write poetry, and he left a
volume of Latin poems, which were pub
lished at Ferrara after his death. Giraldi
and Garefalo number him among the good
Latin poets ef his age. In one of these
compositions he expresses his gratitude to his
brother fer having first taught him the rudi
ments of poetry. He completed the comedy
of " La Scolastica," which Lodovico had left
unfinished. His son Orazio Ariosto became
a priest and a canon ef the cathedral of Fer
rara, Orazio was intimate with Torquato
Tasso, and wrote the " Argomenti " er ex
planatory title-pieces in verse to each of the
cantos of the " Gerusalemme," He wrote
in defence ef his uncle's great poem : " Difese
delT ' Orlando Furioso ' delT Ariosto contre
alcuni Lueghi del Dialego delT Epica Poesia
di Camille Pellegrino," Ferrara, 1585, He
began a poem in ottava rima, entitled
"L' Affeo," which he left unfinished. He
also wrote comedies, and seme minor poems
which have net been published, (Mazzu
chelli, Scrittori d' Italia; Baruffaldi, jun..
La Vita di M. Lodovico Ariosto.) A. V,
ARIOSTO, LODOVI'CO, was bom at
Reggio, near Modena, in September, 1474. He
was the sen ef Niccolo degli Ariosti, whe was
employed in several important offices, first by
Borse d'Este, duke ef Ferrara, and afterwards
by Duke Ercele I., who succeeded Berso.
The family of Ariosti er Areosti was ancient
and noble, and had intermarried with several
princely famUies of Italy, among ethers with
the house ef Este, Niccolo Ariesti was miU
tary governor of the fortress of Reggio when
his wife Darla Maleguzzi brought into the
world her eldest sen Lodovico, In 1479
Niccolo Ariesti having retired from the com
mand of Reggio, went to live at Ferrara in
his paternal house ; and in 1486 he was
chosen " Judge of the Twelve," or in other
words, president ef the communal councU of
Ferrara. Young Lodovico having received
his grammatical education in the public
schools ef Ferrara, applied himself, according
te his father's wish, to the study ef law in
the university of that city. He began his
com-se of laAV about the year 1489 under
Giovanni Sadeletto, a celebrated professor ef
that time. Some have asserted that he went
to study at Padua, but this is disproved by
Barotti and Baruffaldi with cogent argu
ments ; they quote a decree ef Duke Ercole,
issued in 1485, forbidding his subjects to
study at a foreign university. The course of
law at Ferrara lasted five years ; but it was
much against the IncUnation of Ariosto that
he attended the lectures during this period,
as he says in his Sixth Satire, his mind being
engrossed by poetry and romance, fer which
he had shoAvn from his infancy a decided
taste. When a boy he had written an Italian

ARIOSTO.
drama on the subject of Pyramus and Thisbe,
taken from Ovid's " Metamorphoses," a book
which had been lately printed in Italy, and
of which Ariosto afterwards made much use
in his great poem. It appears that at an
early age he delighted in dramatic perform
ances, and that he and his brothers and sis
ters used te rehearse the " Thisbe," and other
shert dramas, during the absence of their
parents from heme. Duke Ercole was very
partial to dramatic entertainments, and had
plays performed at his court, at which Ariosto
and his father were present.
In 1494, Ariosto, then twenty years of age,
having finished his course, his father wished
him to devote himseff to the profession ef the
law, but he found a determined opposition on
the part of his son, and after many fruitless
altercations, the father listened te the ex
postulations of his friends, and especially of
his cousin Pandolfo Ariosti, an intimate
companion of Lodovico, who mentions him
repeatedly in his verses. Owing to the per
suasions of Pandolfo and other relatives and
friends, Lodovico was allowed by his father
to apply himself te literature and poetry.
He had already written in 1493 a fine Italian
elegy en the death of Eleanor of Aragon,
wffe ef Duke Ercele, Aboiit 1495, Gregorio
da Spoleti, a celebrated scholar of that time,
opened a private school at Ferrara, which
was attended by Ariosto fer three or four
years, where he stucUed assiduously the Latin
classics, and especiaUy Horace and Catullus,
Plautus and Terentius. In 1499, Gregorio
was called to Milan by the dowager-duchess,
Isabella of Aragon, te undertake the education
of her infant sen Francesco Sforza, and his
departure from Ferrara was greatly regretted
by Ariosto. Seen after the French invaded
the duchy of Milan, and took the usurper
Lodovico Sforza prisoner ; IsabeUa was
obliged to take refuge with her relatives at
Naples, who were soon after expeUed from
that kingdom, and little Francesco with his
preceptor were taken to France. In his
Sixth Satire, Ariosto pathetically recaUs the
whele ef that catastrophe. In the year 1500,
Ariosto lost his father, by whom he was
appointed executor, and he found himself
involved in domestic cares, and employed in
the management of his paternal property, aU
things, ais he says himself, uncongenial to his
wayward imaginative turn of mind. He had
four brothers, two or three net yet ef age,
and two unmarried sisters at heme, besides
his mother. The landed property of the
family was scattered in various parts of the
territories ef Ferrara and Reggie, and Ariosto
was obUged to repair to Reggio, in the neigh
bourhood of which the Maleguzzi, his
maternal relatives, had a pleasant country
residence called II Mauriziano. It was about
this time that Ariosto wrote Latin odes,
elegies and other short poems in praise ef
several women whom he caUs by the ficti-
397

ARIOSTO.
tious names of Lydia, PhyUis, and JuUa.
Lydia appears to have been a lady of Reggio
with whom he became acquainted during his
residence in or near that town. Ariosto
was greatly inclined to the amatory passion
both by nature and by the example of his
favourite authors, both Latin and ItaUan.
That he was also of a changeable dispositien
he teUs us in his " Carmina," b. xi, : —
" Hoc olim ingenio vitales hansimus auras,
Multa cito ut placeant, displicitura brevi,
Non in amore modo mens ha}c, sed in omnibus impar.
Ipsa sibi longa non retinenda mora."
In 1503 he had returned to Ferrara, and
had a son by a lady caUed Maria, whe ap
pears to have been a governess in his house.
This sen, called Giovanni Battista, being
afterwards legitimated, became a captain in
the service of the house of Este, inherited
some of his father's property, and died in
1569. It was toward the end of 1503 that Ariosto
entered the service of Cardinal Ippolito
d' Este, a younger son of Duke Ercele, a
wealthy and haughty dignitary of the church,
and a great pluralist, being possessed ef several
sees and abbacies in Italy and Hungary, the
revenues ef which were more than sufficient to
support the princely style in which he lived.
It was Cardinal Ippolito whe, the year before,
1302, had escorted from Rome te Ferrara the
famous Lucrezia Borgia, daughter of Pope
AlexanderVL, and bride efhisbrother Affonso,
The cardinal was, however, a man ef abilities
both as a statesman and a military man : he
had studied mathematics, drawing, and music,
and he professed te appreciate the value ef
learning in general, and of learned men, ef
whom he had several at his court, such as
CeUe Calcagnini, Guido Sllvestri (called Pos
tumo), Andrea Marene, and others. In what
capacity Ariosto was reckoned among the
gentlemen of the household ef the cardinal
is not stated ; probably the capacity was net
definite. The great noblemen and princes
ef the church at that time, besides keeping a
crowd ef salaried menials, had a numerous
retinue, caUed a court, of men of gentle birth er
of liberal professions, who danced attendance
upon them, lived wholly er in part at their
palace, received certain small emoluments, and
were employed by them occasionaUy in varie us
services when required. They were distin
guished as "familiares" and "commensales," of
whom the latter had daily access to their
master's table, Ariosto appears to have been
numbered among the " famUIares" only. The
cardinal, however, soon found out that
Ariosto had practical abUities, and that he
was net a mere versifier and romance-
dreamer ; and he accordingly employed him
often as a trusty messenger and confidential
agent to the various Italian courts. Ariosto
In his satires complains that the cardinal gave
him little rest, but kept him continuaUy
galloping on horseback over motmtains and

ARIOSTO.

ARIOSTO.

valleys all through Italy, and that from being
a poet by nature and inclination, he had be
come a courier or muleteer. 'The cardinal
himself was frequently on the move, and
Ariosto often accompanied him in his travels.
In January, 1505 Duke Ercele died, and was
succeeded by his eldest son Alfonso I.
Ariosto was present at the funeral ef the
duke, the pomp of which he seems to have
borne in mind when he described the
funeral ef Brandimarte in the forty-third
canto ef his great poem. In the same year,
1505, Ferrara and other parts of Italy were
visited by violent shocks of an earthquake,
which did much damage, then by a bad
harvest and famine, and lastly by an epi
demic, which carried off many people. The
court left Ferrara and retired partly te Reg
gio and partly to Revlgo. It was about this
time that Ariosto began his great poem, the
" Orlando Furioso," which he continued, with
various interruptions, for ten years. In 1506
a conspiracy was discovered against Duke
Alfonso, at the head ef which were his two
brothers, Ferrante and Giulio. Giulio, an
illegitimate son of Ercole, had been crueUy
used by Cardinal Ippolito, who had his eyes
seared because Giulio was his favoured
rival in the good graces of a lady, and it
appears that Alfonso had not taken any
notice of the cruel deed. The conspirators
against Alfonso's life were condemned te
death, but the duke commuted the sentence
of his two brothers into perpetual imprison
ment. Ariosto wrote an eclogue, entitled
" Tlrsi e Melibeo," detailing the story ef this
domestic tragedy, but disguising the actors
under fictitious names. This remarkable
composition, which proves that Ariosto was
well acquainted with the intimate aiffairs of
the court ef Ferrara, remained inedited for
centuries, until Baruffaldi was shewn a copy
of it, and he transcribed the beginning ef the
eclogue in his life of Ariosto. 'The whele
eclogue has been pubUshed by Molini in
his " Poesie varie di Lodovico Ariosto,"
Florence, 1824.
In 1507 Cardinal Ippolito dispatched
Ariosto te Mantua to congratulate his sister
Isabella, wife of Francesco II. Gonzaga,
marquis ef Mantua, on her being delivered
of a child. A letter ef Isabella given by
Baruffaldi in the appendix to his life of
Ariosto shows her regard fer the messenger,
and her satisfaction at the manner in which
he acquitted himself of his commission.
In 1508, the League ef Cambrai was formed
betAveen Pope JuUus IL, the Emperor Slaxl-
miliau I., Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand
the Catholic, king of Aragon and of the Two
Sicilies, all united against the republic of
Venice. The war did not break out till the
following year, 1509, when Alfonso I., duke
of Ferrara, joined the league and was ap
pointed by Pope Julius gonfaloniere or
captain-general of the holy see. He sent
398

his brother. Cardinal Ippolito, with several
thousand men to join the camp of the
emperor, who was besieging Padua. Ariosto
during this time was actively employed by
the cardinal in keeping up a frequent corres
pondence with him from Ferrara, and was
also sent by him en a mission te Rome, to
solicit assistance from Pope Julius, as appears
by a letter quoted by Tiraboschi in the third
boek of vel. vii. of his " History of Italiain
Literature." But previous te his joumey te
Rome, Ariosto had been present at some
engagement en the banks ef the Po. The
Venetians ascended the river in their vessels,
and were threatening Ferrara. Ariosto de
plores in pathetic strains, in the thirty-sixth
canto ef his " Orlando Furioso," the devas
tations committed by the Slavonian irregulars
in the service ef Venice upon that fine coun
try. The campaign terminated with the
destruction of the Venetian flotiUa by the
artillery of Cardinal Ippolito at the battle ef
Pelesella in December, 1509. In the foUow
ing year Pope Julius IL made peace with
the Venetians, talked of driving all foreigners
out of Italy, and required Duke Affonso of
Ferrara to separate himself from his aUies.
The duke refused te break off his solemn
engagements, upon which the pope resorted
te the usual process of excommunicating him
in August, 1510, and ordered his troops to
invade the state of Ferrara. Alfonso then
thought ef sending Ariosto to deprecate the
wrath ef the pontiff. Ariosto hastened te
Rome, where it is not certain whether he
could obtain an audience ; but it is certain
that Julius threatened to have him throAvn
into the Tiber, and might have effected his
threat, had not Ariosto contrived to escape
hastily from Rome. This is mentioned both
by his son Virginio and his brother GabrieUo.
The war continued between Julius, sup
ported by Swiss mercenaries and the A'ene-
tians on one side, and Duke Affonso and the
French on the other. Cardinal Ippolito was
summoned to Rome by the pope, but he
found some excuse, amd retired to Reggio,
whither Ariosto followed him. The cardinal
afterwards went te Parma, and there is a letter
from Ariosto te him from Reggio, informing
him of some incursions ofthe pontiflcal troops
into the territory of Reggio. Soon after, the
cardinal, in order to avoid further troubles,
set off fer his see of Agram in Hungary.
Ariosto returned from Reggio te Ferrara,
where he had leism-e to continue the com
position ef his poem. There is a letter from
Ariosto, dated November, 1511, to Cardinal
Giovanni de' Jlcdici, who was then legate at
Bologna, and whom he had known intimately
at Florence and at Urbino, in Avhich letter
Ariosto asks for a papal dispensation in order
to enjoy the revenues of certain ecclesiastical
benefices, assigned to him probably through
his patron Cardinal Ippolito. Ariosto had
net taken clerical orders, though he wore a

ARIOSTO.

ARIOSTO.

clerical dress, being in the service of a cardi
nal. In 1513 Pope Julius died, and Cardinal
Giovanni de' Medici was elected his successor
by the name of Leo X. On this occasion Ariosto
went again te Rome, probably in company
with the duke's envoys, to congratulate the
ncAv pontiff, but with cheerful expectations
of his own, reckoning upon the favour ef an
old acquaintance, whe it appears had formerly
made flattering promises te him. Leo re
ceived him most graciously ; he stooped
from his pontifical chair, took him by the
hand, and saluted him on both cheeks.
Ariosto was elated with hope, but he was
disappointed; and after two months' resi
dence at Rome, he retraced his steps home
wards with empty hands. Lee was net
frientUy towards the Duke of Ferrara, he was
beset with applications, and Ariosto was not
a person of sufficient importance, ner of suf
ficient address and courtly pliancy, te obtain
the preference. On his way to Ferrara
Ariosto stopped several months at Florence,
where he met with Alessandra Benucci, the
widow of Tito Strozzi, a gentleman ef Ferrara
who had been in the service of Duke Alfonso.
This lady fixed his wandering affections, and
was married to him secretly several years
later. Ariosto had already two natural sons,
Gie. Battista, already mentioned, and another
called Virginio, whose mother was a country
girl of the neighbourhood of Ferrara.
On his return te Ferrara at the end of
1513, Ariosto resumed his place in the ser
vice of Cardinal Ippolito, who en one occasion
sent him te Urbino, when he feU sei-iously
ill on the road. In the years 1514 and 1515,
besides working at his poem, he completed
two comedies, " La Cassaria " and " I Suppe-
siti," which were performed at Ferrara. In
1515 he began printing the "Orlando Fu
rioso," which was completed and published
in April, 1516. The poem in this edition as
well as in the second edition ef Ferrara of
1521, both which are become extremely
scarce, was divided into forty cantos ; but the
author having subsequently made numerous
corrections and additions, distributed the
whole poem into forty-six cantos in the
edition of 1532, which is the third and last
published under his own care and revision.
Ariosto took the subject of his poem from
the traditional stories current during the
middle ages of the wars between Charle
magne and the Saracens, in which some truth
was intermixed with much exaggeration.
The old French story-tellers and romance-
writers had confounded Charlemagne and
his unsuccessful expedition against the Moors
of Spain Avith the mere momentous wars of
his predecessors, Charles Martel and Pepin,
against the Moors or Saracens, who had in
vaded the south of France ; and, by a farther
anachronism, they mixed up with their stories
wondrous tales of paladins, knight-errants,
and giants taken from the traditions of Ar-
399

morican or British origin, concerning Arthur
and the Round Table. Likewise the heathen
Saxons, Danes, and Normans were con
founded with the Saracens by the common
name ef pagans, as being all enemies to the
Christians. The celebrity of Charlemagne
caused him te be singled out as the champion
and representative ef all Christendom. Spu
rious genealogies were invented, in which
Charlemagne and his paladins were made to
descend from Constantine, and that emperor
from Hector. Those who wish te investigate
the origin of the numerous legends from
which the romances and romantic poems of
the middle ages are derived, may consult
Dr. Ferrario's werk " Storia ed Analisi degli
antichi Romanzi di CavaUeria," Milan, 1829 ;
and Panizzi's " Essay on the Romantic Narra
tive Poetry ef the Italians," which is prefixed
to his edition ef Bejardo's poem, London,
1830. Two Italian poets of considerable merit,
Pulci and Bojardo, wrote, not long before
Ariosto, narrative poems on the subject of
the real or supposed wars of Charlemagne
against the Saracens, in which they took fer
their champion Orlando or Roland, one ef
Charlemagne's paladins, who, according to
tradition, fell at the defeat of Roncesvalles.
Pulci in his " Mergante Maggiere" retained
in the web ef his poetical fiction a thread of
historical truth, by narrating the expedition
of Charlemagne into Spain, and the defeat
ef his army at Roncesvalles, in which Roland
was killed. The " Mergante Maggiere" was
printed at Florence in 1481. Bojardo, in
adopting fer the theme of his poem the wars
of Charlemagne, placed the scene principally
in France and under the walls of Paris, which
he represents as threatened by a double Sa
racen invasion, one from Spain and the other
from Africa. Bojardo chose Orlando for his
here, but he created a new action in his poem,
by making Orlando fall in love with Angelica,
a pagan lady of exceeding beauty. The
Orlando of Pulci and ef the older romantic
legends was a spotless Christian knight, loyal,
chaste and brave, whe fought and died in
defence of Christendom. Bojardo made him
fall in love and forget his loyalty, and thus
depressed his moral character, but by so
doing he added to the general narrative of
war and chivalry, another subject, that ef love,
as a leading action of his poem, which he ac
cordingly entitled the " Orlando Innamerate."
[Bojardo, Matteo Maria.] Bojardodiedln
1 494, leaving his poem unfinished, and Ariosto
took up some ef the threads of. the narrative
and wove them into a web of his own. He
adopted the tale of Orlando's love for Angelica,
but he made Angelica fall in love with
a handsome though obscure squire called
Medore, in consequence of which Orlando
became doAvnright mad with jealousy, and
performed a thousand wUd pranks, the narra
tion of which forms one of the main subjects

ARIOSTO.

ARIOSTO.

of the poem. Ariosto styled his poem " Or
lando Furioso." At the same time the other
actien of the poem, namely the narrative of
the war between Charlemagne and the Sara
cens is continued by Arlosto's following up
Bejardo's traces, and he concludes it by the
expulsion of the Saracens from France, and
the fall of their great champion Rodemonte,
whose death, like that of 'Turnus in Virgil,
concludes the poem. The poet has interwoven
with these two a third subject, which had also
been introduced by Bojardo In his " Orlamdo
Innamerate." This is the loves of Rugglero,
a young Saracen knight, born ef Christian
parents, and Bradamante, a Christian damsel,
the sister of Rlnaldo ef Montauban, another
Christian champion, and a rival of Orlando
in chivalry, whose adventures figure conspi
cuously in the poems of Pulci and Bojardo,
as well as in that of Ariosto, Besides these
various subjects and distinct actions of the
poem, Arleste has interwoven with his nar
rative other, and some leng, episodes of
knights and damsels, and their strange ad
ventures, descriptions of heroic, mournful or
absurd and ludicrous events, ef giants and
sorcerers, enchanted palaces and gardens,
flying horses and other monsters, together
Avith pathetic tales of unrequited er betrayed
love, of constancy and self-devotedness, of
beauty and knight-errantry. All these con
stitute a sort ef enchanted world, created
by the maigic of the peet, whe has sketched
the creatures ef his imagination with features
and attributes se well fitted te their supposed
nature as to remove the impression of the
improbability ef their reaUty. In reading the
" Orlando Furioso" the reader finds himseff
bewildered as in a maze ; he loses, among se
many incidents, the thread ef his recollection ;
which is no wonder, as the peet himself at
times seems entangled in his own web, and
perplexed with his multffarieus engagements,
and is obliged te break off in the midst of a
story to resume another narrative Avhich he
had left unfinished. It is, however, most
attractive reading ; we wander en from tale
to tale, delighted with our entertainer, and
heedless ofthe ultimate object of our journey.
Ariosto has been justly called the prince
of romantic poets. Some passages in the
" Furioso" are licentious, though not obscene ;
Ariosto was somewhat lax in his morals.
Ariosto after printing his poem presented
a copy of it to his patron Cardinal Ippolito,
to Avhom he had introduced a feeling address
in the third stanza of the first canto, besides
other passages interspersed throughout the
werk, which are highly in praise of Ippolito,
his brother Alfonso, aud the whole house of
Este. 'The cardinal, after perusing the book,
seems to have been puzzled what to make of
it, aud he is said to have asked the author
" where in the devil's name he had picked up
so many absurdities? " Cardinal Ippolito, as
we have noticed above, was a busy man ef
400

the world, and had no taste fer poetry or
romance. Ariosto says in his Second Satire,
that the cardinal told him once that " he
would have been much more pleased if, instead
of praising him in idle strains, he had em
ployed mere ef his time in his service." In
the following year, 1517, the cardinal being
about to set off for his see of Agi-am in
Hungary, desired Ariosto te accompany him,
and was highly offended when Ariosto de
clined the journey on account of his weak
health. From that time Ariosto saw him no
more. Cardinal Ippolito fell ill In September,
1519, at his country house at Sabbioncello,
after his return from Hungary, and died soon
aifter. Previous te the death of the cardinal and
while he was stUl in Hungary, Ariosto had
been taken by Duke Alfonso into his own
service, and allowed a. monthly salary and
rations fer three servants and two horses.
This is proved by a note of the duke, dated
23d AprU, 1518. In July of that year Count
Rlnaldo Ariosto, a cousin of the poet, died
without male issue. Lodovico and his brothers
claimed the inheritance as being next of kin,
but they found an opposing claimant in a
convent of monks, whe had had one ef the
family among their brethren. The ducal
chamber er Fiscus interfered and sequesfrated
the landed property, which was considerable,
on the plea of its being feudal. The affair
went before the courts of justice, and the suit
was StlU undecided when Lodovico Ariosto
died, fifteen years later.
Arlosto's office in the duke's service was
fer a time merely nominal, except that he
was sent once or twice on seme mission to
Florence and Urbino. At the beginning of
1522, he was appointed cemmissai-y er go
vernor of the (Ustrict of Garfagnana, a moun
tainous tract belonging to the duchy of Mo
dena, but situated on the opposite or southern
slope of the Apennines towards Lucca. This
wUd district had been just restored te the
house of Este, after being for years in the
hands ef the Florentines, and afterwards ef
Pope Lee X. The people were rude, factious,
and lawless. Ariosto, in his Fifth Satire,
humorously relates the difficulties of his ncAV
office. He remained for about three years at
Castelnuovo, the head town, and succeeded in
restoring seme sort of order, whUst at the
same time he wen, by his framk, unassuming,
and disinterested raamner, the hearts of the
people. A story is related by Garefalo, one
of his biographers, of Ariosto in ene of his
mountain excursions having met a band of
outlaAvs, by whom he was tt-eated with every
mark of respect. In 1523 Pistofilo, the duke's
secretary, wrote to propose to Ariosto the
office of ducal ambassador te the new pope,
Clement ^"II,, but Ariosto declined the honour,
saying that he had had enough already of
Rome and the Medici, In 1524 he gave up
his government, and returned to Ferrai-a,

ARIOSTO,

ARIOSTO.

when he resumed his attendance at the duke's
court. He then became intimately acquainted
with Ercole Bentivoglio, a nephew of the
duke, who afterwards was distinguished as
an Italian poet. In 1526 Ariosto purchased
a small house, and afterwards seme ground
adjoining, in a remote street of Ferrara called
Mlraisole, where he built himseff a modest,
commodious house, in which he lived the
remainder of his life. He placed in front of
the house the following distich :
" Parva, sed apta mihi, sed nulli obnoxia, sed uon
Sordida, parta meo sed tamen acre domus."
This house stUl exists, and has been pur
chased and repaired by the community of
Ferrara. 'The old ancestral house degli
Ariesti, near the church of Stai, Maria di
Bocche, was divided between the brothers as
well as the rest of the property, and their
respective shares were small. In 1528 the
duke had a theatre built in a haU of his
palace, in which the comedies ef Ariosto were
performed. These comedies, written in blank
verse, are five in number : " La Cassaria,"
" I Supposltl," " La Lena," " II Negromante,"
and " La Scolastica." They may be called
good imitations of the old Roman comedy.
At this period Ariosto seems to have been
leading a contented life. He had sufficient
fer a man of his habits: the duke allowed
him fuU leisure to attend te his favourite
studies, and both the duke and his sen Ercole,
a weU-educated and well-disposed young
prince, treated Ariosto with friendly famiU-
arity- His son Virginio, to whom he was
much attached, lived with him for a time,
until his father sent him, in 1530, to finish
his studies at Padua, where he recommended
him to his old friend Bembo. It is believed
that Ariosto had been privately married for
some years to the widow Alessandra, already
mentioned, but they did net Uve under
the same roof, and the marriage was kept
secret till his death. One reason of this may
be that Ariosto still enjoyed some small
church benefices from the time that he was
in the service ef the cardinal, which he would
have lost, had his marriage been divulged.
In the spring of 1530 Duke Affonso went
to Bologna to meet the Emperor Charles V.
Whether Ariosto accompanied him in his
journey er not, the story of his receiving
on that occasion the laurel crown from the
emperbr's hand is Avithout foundation. On a
subsequent occasion, when Charles V. went
a second time to Italy, in the autumn of 1532,
Duke Alfonso repaired to Mantua with a
numerous retinue to meet the emperor, 'This
time it is certain that Ariosto followed his
master to lUantua, where it seems that he
was introduced te the emperor, to whom he
presented a copy of the last revised edition
of his poem, which had just appeared, and
in which the poet had introduced a splen
did panegyric of Charles. It is said that
VOL. III.

the emperor was highly pleased Avith the
book, and that he created the author poet
laureate by a diploma signed with his own
hand, and we find Ariosto mentioned as
laureate in several documents after his death ;
but that he was publicly crowned by the
emperor at Mantua is a mere fiction, as his
own son Virginio plainly says in his me
moirs. Previous to the journey to Mantua, Ariosto
had gone twice with Duke Affonso to Venice,
and in Sep'cember, 1531, he was sent by the
duke on a delicate mission to Alfonso d' Avales,
marquis del Vaste, and a general in the
emperor's service, whe had entered the Mo
denese territory at the head of a body of
imperial troops, and was suspected of having
a secret understanding with Pope Clement
VIL, who, like his predecessor Leo X,, was
far from friendly towards the house of Este,
Ariosto this time proved fortunate in his
mission, D'Avalos, who was hberally in
clined and fond of learning, was delighted
with Arlosto's society, and he not only treated
the poet with the greatest kindness while he
remained at his head-quarters at Correggio,
but gave him a substantial token ef his regard
in the shape of an annual pension of one
hundred gelden ducats, which he assigned to
him by a notarial act, which is given by
Baruffaldi in his appendix.
On his return to Ferrara from his mission,
Ariosto applied himself sedulously to prepare
a new edition ef his " Furioso," in forty-six
cantos, which was printed by Francesco del
Rosso, and published in October, 1532.
Ariosto took great pains in correcting, re
vising, and partly recasting the text, for, not
withstanding the apparent ease of his verse,
he was a laborious reviser and a fastidious
critic ef his own writings, as appears by the
corrections on his autographs, which are pre
served in the library of Ferrara,
After the publication of this new edition,
Ariosto fell seriously iU, from a compli
cation ef complaints ; his stomach had been
leng diseased, for, though a temperate man,
he was too careless and irregular in his
diet. He grew worse month after month,
and at last was given up by the phy
sicians. He saw the approach of death with
calmness ; and his biographer, Garefalo, re
ports that he said te his friends who stood
by his bedside, " that he died contented ;
especially ff it were true that human souls
after death recognise and commune with each
ether in another world." He expired on the
6th of June, 1533, being in his fifty-ninth
year. He was buried without pomp in the
old church ef S. Benedetto, and his ftmeral
was spontaneously attended by the monks ef
that convent, from respect te him. Forty
years after, Agostino Mesti, prior of S. Anna,
Avho had been in his youth a disciple of
Ariosto, raised him a marble monument in
the new church of S, Benedetto, whither his
D D

ARIOSTO.

ARIOSTO.

bones Avere transferred. This Mesti is the
same whe, being superior ef the hospital of
S. Anna, had the charge of Tasso when con
fined fer his real or supposed insanity.
In 1612, Lodovico Ariosto, a descendant
of the poet, raised to his ancestor's memory
another and mere splendid monument in
another part of the same church, to which
Arioste's remains were again transferred.
Lastly, when the French occupied Ferrarai,
in 1801, they transported this last monu
ment, together with the remains ef Ariosto,
te the palace of the public schools, in which
it now is, in ene of the halls ef the library.
Ariosto is one of the earliest and best
ItaUan satirists. His Satires, which are
seven in number, contain many particulars
of his own life, and also of the public events
of his time. His language is free, but gene
rally decorous, after the manner of Horace
rather than that of Juvenal, The " Satires "
were not pubUshed until after his death.
Ariosto wrote also Sennets, Canzoni and
Capitoli, which are inserted in the general
editions of his werks, and have also been
published separately by the title of " Opere
Varie di Lodovico Ariosto," 3 vols. 12mo.
Paris, 1776, and " Poesie Varie di Lodo
vico Ariosto," by Molini, Florence, 1824.
Fie wrote also a dialogue in Italian prose,
entitled " L'Erbelato," on philosophy and
medicine. His Latin poems have been little
noticed, and yet they are not without merit :
they were published in two books by G, B,
Pigna at Venice in 1553, and are inserted in
the edition of all Arlosto's works by Orian
dino, 2 vols, fek, Venice, 1730, and other
subsequent general editions,
'The editions of the " Orlando Furioso " are
very numerous, Baruffaldi, in his " Lffe of
Jirioste," gives a leng list of them. The
edition published by MoraU, 4to., MUan,
1818, is ene of the most correct. Panizzi
has published a London edition in 4 vols,
Svo., 1834, with copious notes in English, a
life of Ariosto, and bibliographical notices of
the old editions of the poem. The " Orlando
Furioso " has been translated into most Eu
ropean languages. The English translation
by Harrington, though spirited, is not faith
ful ; that by Hoole is very inferior. The
best EngUsh translation is the recent one by
S. Rose,
Ariosto had begun a new poem, of which
we have five cantos, which are printed in
several editions at the end ef the " Furioso,"
as if they were a continuation of it, but they
appear te be rather the beginning of a dis
tinct poem, which Ariosto left unfinished,
and such Is the opinion of most critics. The
number of commentators, critics, and biogra
phers of Ariosto is very great ; seme of the
principal of them are mentioned in the course
of this article. (Baruffaldi giuniore. La Vita
di M, Lodovico Ariosto ; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori
d" Italia ; Corniani, / Secoli della Letteratura
402

Italiana ; Valery, Voyages Littiraires en
Italic.) A, V.
ARIOVISTUS, a German chief, whom
Caesar encountered and defeated in Gaul in
the first year of his proconsulship, e.c. 58.
Plutarch writes the name 'Api6SvaTos ; Dien
Cassius, 'Apioouio-Toy ; and Appian, 'Aptd^io-ros.
It is net known te which ef the Germanic
nations Ariovistus belonged : that he was
from the Germanic side ef the Rhine is evi
dent. He was invited or rather hired to
enter Gaul by the Sequani (the ancient in
habitants of Franche-Comte), who, in alliance
with the Arverni (the ancient inhabitants of
Auvergne), were struggling with the iEdui
(who inhabited Burgundy) for the supremacy
of Gaul. The first band of Germans who
were induced by the premises and gffts ef
the Sequani te cross the Rhine amounted to
fifteen thousand, but subsequent reinforce
ments in the course of years swelled the
number to ene hundred and twenty thousand
ef various nations — Triboces or Tribocci,
Vangiones, Nemetes, SedusU, Harudes, Mar-
cemans, and Suevi. Three of these nations,
the Tribocci, Vangiones, and Nemetes, we
find at a subsequent period settled on the
Gallic side ef the Rhine ; but whether they
had acquired a settlement before the time of
Ariovistus, and united themselves to him
after he entered Gaul, is not clear. They
certainly fought under his command. The
other nations appear te have crossed the
Rhine with him er after him.
The aid of Ariovistus and his forces gave
a decided superiority to the Sequani. The
jEdui were defeated in several engagements,
with the loss ef aU their nobiUty and cavalry,
and were obliged to submit to all the demands
ef their victorious enemies, and to bind them-
scIa'cs by oath neither te ask help from Rome
nor to refuse obedience te their conquerors.
The Sequani were hoAvever in no wise
benefited by their victory. Ariovistus seized
a third part of their territory, in which he
settled with his army. This appears to have
provoked a general confederacy of the Gauls,
against whom Ariovistus was ebUged for
seme months to keep on the defensive, untU
having, by his apparent fear, throAvn them
off their guard, he burst forth from his caimp
and defeated them so completely at a place
called Magetobria er Admagetobria (perhaps
La Meigte de Broie at the junction of the
Saone and the Oignen), that aU that part
of Gaul which was near his settlement became
subject to him, and was reduced to a con
dition of the most cruel bondage.
Such are the paiticulars ef the earlier part
of the career of Ariovistus as gathered from
various passages in Caesar's GaUic War.
The dates cannot be ascertained, but the
chief events appear to have occurred pro
bably seme years before Caesar's ai-rival in
Gaid, since Ariovistus, " from long practice,"
was accustomed to speak the Celtic language

ARIOVISTUS.

ARIOVISTUS,

(Caesar, De Bell. Gall, i, 47,), and had married
his second wife, a Noric woman, sister ef
Voctio or Veccie, the king of the Norici, who
inhabited Upper Bavaria and the Tyrol. After
his settlement in Gaul, in a message to Caesar,
Ariovistus beasts that his unconquered Ger
mans had not for fourteen years dwelt in a
fixed abode : but this wUl only imply that
his army had been embodied for so many
years, not that they had been se leng in
Gaul. He had anxiously sought, and in
Caesar's consulship had obtained the alliance
of the Reman senate and people, by whom
he had been acknowledged as king, which
seems te imply an admission of his title to
the sovereignty of that part of Gaul of which
he had taken possession.
The Gallic princes, whose statements Caesar
has recorded, may have exaggerated both
the power and the cruelty of Ariovistus. In
the plot of the Helvetian Orgetorix and his
confederates to obtain the supremacy of Gaul
by means of an alliance of the three nations,
the Helvetli, the Sequani, and the iEdui
(Caesar, De BclL Gall. i. 3.), they seem to
have made no account of Ariovistus ; and
when the Helvetli negotiated with the
Sequani fer a free passage through their ter
ritories, Ariovistus appears not te have been
consulted, though the Sequani are said to
have been his subjects. And in the Helvetian
war the iEdui acted as the aUies of Rome,
furnishing them with corn and sending a con
siderable body of cavalry to serve in their
army. These facts seem inconsistent with
the representations given by the Gallic chief
tains to Caesar, as recorded by him. The
encroachments of Ariovistus do not appear
to have excited any apprehension among the
Romans, who recognised him as king ; and
the attempt of Divitiacus to engage them at
the time to assist the iEdui entirely failed.
In fact, they appear to have looked upon his
progress with little concern, until it suited
Caesar's purpose to begin a war : yet had his
aggressions and power been such as are repre
sented by Ca;sar, they could scarcely have
failed to excite both jealousy and apprehen
sion. When Ca3sar had, in the first year of his
proconsulship in Gaul, broken the power
of the Helvetli, he determined to pick a
quarrel with Ariovistus and attempt to drive
him out of Gaul. Dion Cassius plainly inti
mates that the quarrel was ef Caesar's seeking ;
but Cassar himself says that he was induced
to attack him by an application from the
Gallic princes, who came to congratulate him
on his victory over the Helvetli.^ The ap
plication has, however, every appearance ef
having been get up for the purpose of fur
nishing an excuse for the war, and was
sustained by evidently exaggerated represent
ations. Cassar's first step was to send to
demand an interview with Ariovistus, that
they might confer on matters of importance
403

to both. Ariovistus replied, that if Caesar
wished fer an interview he might pome to
him ; but that he (Ariovistus) could not
come into the Roman territory. He also
rejected the terms en which Caesar proposed
to renew the aUiance of Rome with the Ger
man prince.
Caesar upon this determined on immediate
hostilities, being urged by the iEdui te
protect them from the Harudes, twenty-four
thousand of whom had just arrived in Gaul,
fer whom Ariovistus had demanded another
third of the Sequanian territory, and who
were meanwhile ravaging the country of the
^dul. He had also received intelligence that
a hundred clans {pagi) of the Suevi had
reached the bank ofthe Rhine near the coun
try of the Treviri (the electorate ef Treves),
and were attempting to cross that river. By
a rapid march he anticipated Ariovistus in
occupying Vesontie (the modern Besanyon),
an important military pest ; and, by a well-
timed address, dispelled a panic which had
seized his men, especiaUy seme of the young
officers, who had seen little service. He has
graphically described the terror which pre
vailed in his camp. Having converted the
fear ef his troops into warlike ardour, he
continued his march ; and Ariovistus, alarmed
at his approach, consented te an interview,
which preduced, however, ne result, and was
broken off by a report that the Germans
were attacking the escort of the Roman
general. The German matrons, who were
regarded by their countrymen as prophetesses,
had foretold that an engagement could not be
successful if fought before the new meen.
Ariovistus consequently wished te decline
fighting before that time ; but Caesar, aware
ef the superstition ef his opponents, forced
them te an engagement ; and after a severe,
and for a time doubtful struggle, gave them
an entire defeat. The pursuit was continued
with great slaughter to the banks ef the
Rhine, distant, as the manuscripts of Cffisar
teU us, five mUes ; but Plutarch and Orosius
make the distance much greater, Ariovistus
escaped in a Uttle beat across the river; but
his two wives and one of his daughters
perished in the flight, and a second daughter
was taken prisoner. Neither the force of the
Germans nor their less is stated by Caesar ;
but Plutarch and Appian give the loss at
80,000, and Orosius says that the number
and loss of the enemy and the fierceness of
the fight were inconceivable.
The subsequent history of Ariovistus is un
known. His death wais mentioned by Titurius
Sabinus, about four years after, as one cause
of the hostility ef the Gemians towards Rome
(Caesar, De Bell. Gall, v, 29.), But no act
of hostility after Caesar's first and decisive
campaign is recorded,
Caesar does not state any facts in confir
mation of the character of arrogance and
craelty which he has assigned to Ariovistus,
D D 2

ARIOVISTUS.

ARIPOL.

His demand of the Sequanian territory was
the necessary result of his position, however
hard upon those whe had so unwisely solicited
his aid. Tried by the maxims of his age and
country, the German prince dees net appear
to be chargeable with any peculiar guilt,
except in the seizure of Cajsar's envoys,
C. Valerius ProcUlus and M. Mettlus, and
in the design which he is charged with enter
taining ef putting the former of the two te
death. But the only account we have of this
transaction is from Caesar himself (Caesar,
De Bello Gallico, 1. 31, &c., v. 29., vi. 12. ;
Livy, Epitome, lib. civ.; Plutarch, Life of
Julius Casar, ch. 19. edit. Reiske ; Appian,
Roman History, book iv. {of the GaUic Wars),
ch. 3. edit. Schweighaeuser ; Dion Cassius,
Roman History, book xxxviii. ch. 34 — 50.
edit. Reimar ; L. Annaeus Florus, Epitome
Rerum Romanarum, lib. iii. cap. 7. {Bellum
Gallicum) ; Paulus Orosius, Historia, lib. vi.
c. 7.) J. C. M.
A'RIPHRON {'Apiippuv) of SicvoN, a
Greek poet, who seems to have lived about
B. c. 550. He is known to us only as the
author of a beautfful paean to Health ('T7(eia)
consisting of nine lines, which has been pre
served by Athenaeus. This poem is ene of
the most exquisite popular songs of the
Greeks that have come down te us. The
beginning of it is also quoted by Lucian and
Maximus Tyrius. Lucian says that the poem
continued to be popular in his time. (Athe
naeus, XV. 702.; Lucian, Pro Lapsu inter Sa-
lutandum, c. 6.; Maximus Tyrius, xui. 1. ;
C. D. Ilgen, Carmina convivalia Gracorum,
p. 120. ; H. Kolster, De Cantilenis popularibus
Gracorum, p. 68, &c.) L. S,
A R'l P O , a painter of Regensburg of the
tenth century, who, with Adalpert, restored
the illuminations ofthe "Golden manuscript"
of the monks Berengarius and Lluthard,
[Berengarius.] R. N, W.
ARTPOL or AREPOL, R, SAMUEL
(?1snN 7N1DB' '-\), a Jewish writer of Sa-
pheth in GaUlee, who lived during the six
teenth century. He is called the son of
Isaac the son of Jom Tob Arlpol, He was
the author of several works, which are hew-
ever, according to the testimony of Buxtorff,
held in no very great estimation by his
natien. His principal werks are : — 1, " Sar
Shalom " (" Prince of Peace," Is. ix. 5.), a
commentary on the " Song of Sengs," which,
with the biblical text of that book, was
printed at Sapheth by Abraham and EUezer
Ashkenazi, a.m, 5339 (a.d. 1579), 4te, The
learned R, Oppenhelmer, In whose library
Wolff met with this edition, expressed to him
his doubts whether a printing press was ever
established at Sapheth in Galilee ; but it is
most probable that an attempt, at least, was
made by some German Jews te establish ene
there, as various books of this period bear
Sapheth on the title-pages, Bartolocci says
it was printed at Venice, but he does not
404

give the year, 2, " Mizmor Letoda " (" A
Psalm of Praise," Ps, c, 1,). This is a com
mentary en the 119th Psalm and the fifteen
Psalms of degrees. It was printed at Venice
by Jo. de Gara with the biblical text, a.m.
5336 (A.D. 1576), 4to, and at Prague, a,m.
5370 (a.d. 1610), 4te. Extracts from this
commentary are also met with in the " Ke-
hiloth Moshe" or Rabbinical Bible of R.
Moses Francofurtensis, printed at Amster
dam, A. M. 5484 (a.d. 1724). 3. " Vahad Le-
chacamim " (" The Congregation of Wise
Men ") which, according te the " Siphte
Jeshenim," is a commentary on the Jewish
prayers, and was printed at Venice without
date. 4. " Imrath Eleah " (" The Word of
God," Prov. xxx. 5.). This, according te
the " Siphte Jeshenim," is a collection of
sermons on aU the sections (parashas) of the
law, but we are not told whether this work
has appeared in print. 5. " Leb Chacam "
(" The Heart ef the Wise," Eccles. vin. 5.),
A commentary en the boek of Ecclesiastes,
printed at Constantinople by R. David ben
'lOB'p cura R. Ellezer ben Isaac Ashkenaizi,
A.M. 5351 (a.d. 1591), 4te. Also, at the
same place, a.m. 5346 (a.d. 1586), according
to De Rossi and the Bodleian catalogue, and
Meelfiihrer in his "Dissertatio de Meritis
Hebraeor. in Re Literaria," cites an edition
ef Lublin, a.d. 1604, in 4to. 6. " Aguddath
Shemnel " (" The Collection of Samuel ").
This work forms a selection in the manner
of a compendium and copious index to the
five volumes ef the author cited above, the
initial letters of the titles of which five books
form together the name Samuel (Shemnel),
The " Aguddath Shemnel " is itself divided
into five parts, each of which has its separate
title. It was printed at Venice by Jo, de
Gara, a.m, 5336 (a,d, 1576), 4te. 6. "Nehim
Zemireth" (" The Sweet Psalmist," 2 Sam.
xxiii, 1,), Under this title the commen
tary on the fifteen Psalms of degrees was
printed separate from that en the 119th
Psalm at Cracow, a,m, 5336 (a,d. 1576), 4to.
Bartolocci also attributes to this author " Ig-
gereth Shemnel" ("An Epistle of Samuel"),
which he caUs a boek en the law (liber
legalis), divided into eight parts, with a very
splendid preface, written with wonderful Rab
binical astuteness, printed at Venice by Jo.
de Gara, a.m. 5353 (a.d. 1593), 4to. ; but
we are inclined to think that he here aUudes
to the " Aguddath Shemnel " above cited, as
neither Wolff, De 'Rossi, or any other of our
authorities have named the " Iggereth," and
the substitution of the letter "I for 1, which
so easily ogcui-s, makes all the difference in
the two words Avhen without points, as all
Rabbinical works are printed. (Wolfius,
Biblioth. Hebr. 1. 1090, 1091., iii. 1077, 1078.,
iv. 998. ; Bartolocclus, Biblioth- Mag. Rabb.
iv. 391. ; De Rossi, Dizion. Storic. degli Autor.
Ebr. i. 55, 56. ; Plantavitius, Florileg. Rab
bin, p. 550. 591.; Le Long, Biblioth. Sacra,

ARIPOL.

ARISTiENETUS.

ii. 943. ; Hyde, Catal. Libr. Impress, in
Biblioth. Bodl. i. 65.) C. P. H.
ARIRAM, a monk of the convent ef St.
Emmeram at Regensburg. He lived in the
ninth century, was a skifful artist, and is
termed by an old writer (Pez), the most
ingenious man of his age. [Alfred and
Ariram.] R. N. W.
ARFSI, FRANCESCO, a lawyer of Cre
mona, of a distinguished family in that city,
was born on the 3d of February, 1657. He
studied law at Rome, Bologna, and Pavia,
and graduated at the last-mentioned uni
versity in March, 1679. After passing six
months at MUan with a distinguished ad
vocate of that city, in order to obtain a
knowledge of the practice of the law, he
returned to his native place, where he con
tinued to reside, combining the practice
of an advocate with literary pm-suits tUl his
death in 1743. Mazzuchelli states, as a
proof of the confidence entertained in his
judgment and legal knowledge, that he was
sent to MUan as counsel for the municipality
of Cremona no less than fourteen times. The
same author has preserved lists of Arisi's
works, amounting to forty printed and twelve
in MS., in addition to twelve that perished
when his house was burned in 1726. They
are chiefly pamphlets, containing verses,
tours, and bibliographical discussions, (Maz
zuchelli, Scrittori d'ltalia.) "W, W,
ARISMENDI, JUAN DE, a Spanish
sculptor of Guipuzcoa of the seventeenth
century, [Vascardo, Juan.] R. N. W.
ARISTiE'NETUS C AparTo-iveTos) of
Nicaea in Bithynia, was an intimate friend
ef Libanius, who often mentions him, and
reckons him among the most distinguished
rhetoricians of his time. In a. d. 358 he
perished at Nleomedia during an earth
quake : he had been appointed governor of
that district of Bithynia by the Emperor
Constantius, whe called it by the name of
" DioBcesis Pietatis," in honour ef his wife
Eusebia. This Aristainetus was formerly
considered the author ef the collection of
fifty-one erotic letters, which are extant
under the name of Aristaenetus. -But one
of these letters (i. 26.) contains an historical
fact, almost the only ene that occurs in the
whele collection, which completely over
throws this opinion ; for in that letter the
author speaks of a celebrated female dancer
of the name of Panareta, and says that
she only imitated Caramallus, the pantemine,
while she herself might serve as a model fer
any one. Now this Caramallus is mentioned
by Sidonius ApoUinaris, whe died in a. d.
484, as his contemporary. The author of
these erotic epistles must therefore be a
different person from the rhetorician of
Nicaea, but it must remain uncertain whether
he actually bore the name of Aristaenetus, or
whether he assumed it to make his werk
pass as the production of a celebrated person.
405

The epistles therefore cannot have been
written earUer than the end of the fifth or
the beginning ef the sixth century of our
aera. Their character, toe, is in direct
opposition te the praise with which Libanius
mentions Aristaenetus of Nicaea, fer they are
evidently the production of seme Sophist
without much talent er taste. They seem to
be a series ef rhetorical exercises in the form
of letters, which, however, have none ef the
interest which belongs to genuine letters.
They chiefly contain flctitious love stories
and descriptions, fuU of strange and very
improbable incidents. The tone in which the
stories are told is frequently voluptuous and
vulgar. The style is very declamatory and
overloaded with fine words and phrases
borrowed from all quarters, such as Ho
mer, Sappho, Plato, Philostratus, Alciphron,
Xenophon the Epheslan, the grammarian
Musaius, and others. But with all these
precious gatherings, the letters are stiff and
cold. There is only ene MS. ofthe epistles of
Aristajnetus, which is now in the imperial
library at Vienna. It is in rather a mu
tilated condition. The first edition is that of
J. Sambucus (Antwerp, 1566, 4to.), who then
possessed the MS. 'The edition of J. Mer-
cerus (Paris, 1595, Svo.) was often reprinted.
That of F. L. Abresch (Zwell, 1749, 8ve.)
contains the notes ef his predecessors, with
contributions by Tollius, Derville, and Valck-
enaer. Abresch also published " Lectionum
Aristaenetearum," libri U., 1749, and "Viro
rum Eruditorum in Arlstaeneti Epistolas
Cenjecturae," &c., Amsterdam, 1752, 12mo.
Amedern Greek, Polyzeis Kontou, published
an edition (Vienna, 1803, Svo.) in which ene
new letter was added from a MS. ef Alexios
Spanos. The last edition is that of L. F.
Boissonnade (Paris, 1822, Svo.) which con
tains the notes of his predecessors with many
of his own, and a much improved text. This
edition and that of Abresch are the two best
editions of Aristaenetus. There are German,
Italian, and French translations of the Epis
tles ; a French version ef seme ef the letters
is attributed to Le Sage, 1695, 1787, and
1794. There is an English version by
Thomas Brown, 1715, 12mo. ; and another
printed fer Bernard Lintot, London, 1750,
Svo. Some of the epistles Avere translated
into English verse by Richard Brinsley She
ridan and N. B. Halhed, London, 1771, Svo.
There are some other persons of the name of
Aristaenetus, ef whom nothing of interest is
known. One of them wrote a werk on the
tOAvn ef Phasells, of which the first boek is
quoted by Stephanus Byzantlnus. A list ef
these obscure Arlstaeneti Is given by Fabri
cius, Biblioth. Grcec- 11, 697, L, S,
ARIST^NUS ("Aplo-TaiTOs) of Megalo
polis, a celebrated strategos or general of
the Achaeans, In some MSS, of Polybius
he is caUed Aristaenetus, but Aristacnus is
probably the correct form. The first time.
D D 3

arist.s;nus,
that he appears in history is in E. c. 198,
when he was strategos, and persuaded the
Achaeans, at the congress of Sicyon, to re
nounce the aUiance with Philip V. of Mace
donia, and te form friendship with the Ro
mans, a measure which, in the opinion of
Polybius, was the only means ef preserving
the independence ef the Achaean republic,
though some Achaeans appear to have looked
upon it as an act ef treason. In the winter
of B.c, 198 and 197, Arlstaenus accompanied
the Reman proconsul, T, Quintius Flami
ninus, to the conference with King PhUip en
the Maliac Gulf, In the spring of e, c. 197,
a congress was held at Thebes in Bceotia, at
which Arlstaenus advised the Bceotlans to
follow the example of the Achaeans. In B. c.
195 he was again strategos, and attended the
meeting of the Roman allies which T. Quin
tius Flamininus had convoked at Corinth to
decide upon the war against Nabis of Sparta.
Arlstaenus attacked the iEteUan ambassadors
for wishing that the Romans should quit
Greece, and leave Argos in the hands of
Nabis. War, however, was decided at this
meeting against Nabis ; and when Flami
ninus, on his march towards Argos, had
reached Cleonae, he was joined by Arlstae
nus with an Achaean army of ten thousand
feet and one thousand herse. In b. c. 186
Arlstaenus was again strategos ofthe Achaeans,
and in this year the ambassadors returned,
whom the Achaeans had sent to Ptolemy V.
of Egypt, just at the time when the Achaean
representatives were assembled at Megalo
polis. Here Lycortas and PhUopoemen said
much in praise of the Egyptian king, and
recommended the Achaeans to renew their
alliance with him. But Arlstaenus did not
allow the meeting to come to any decision
upon the point, as the reasons adduced in
favour of the alliance appeared to him absurd.
Shortly after Q. Caecilius came to Argos,
where Arlstaenus had convoked a meeting of
the Achaeans. CaecUius censured them, or
rather PhUopoemen, fer the severity with which
Sparta had been treated in E. c. 188, and Arls
taenus, by his silence, signified that he thought
the censure net to be undeserved. [Philo-
pcemen.] Philepcemen and Lycortas, on the
other hand, endeavoured to defend the conduct
ef the Achaeans ; and CaEcillus, displeased at
finding the Achaeans unwilling to own then-
fault, withdrew from the meeting. The majo
rity ofthe Achaeans, exasperated at this, attri
buted the arrival of Caecilius and his censure of
their conduct to the influence ef Arlstaenus and
Diophanes, the political opponents ef Phile
pcemen. Arlstaenus was from this time looked
upon with suspicion, as betraying the interests
of the Achaeans to the Romans, and he Avas
never again appointed strategos. Polybius,
who draws a comparison between the cha
racters of PhUopoemen and Aristacnus, states
that the latter was mere distinguished as a
politician and an orator than as a general,
406

ARISTiENUS.
and that on all occasions he espoused the
cause of the Romans, whom he regarded as
the only safeguard ef the Achaean state.
Polybius further suggests that, in his support
of the Romans, he went further than the laws
of his country aUewed, but that he always
preserved the appearance of acting perfectly
in accordance with the law. (Livy, xxxii
19, 20, 21. 32., xxxiii 2., xxxiv. 24, 25, 26.;
Polybius, xvii. 1. 7. 13., xxui. 7. 9, 10., xxv.
9.; Plutarch, PhUopoemen, 13.17.; Pausanias,
viii 51. § 1.) L. S.
ARISTION (^ApioTaiav), a Greek phUo
sopher, who is only known as the author ef
a work on Harmony {Jlepl 'Appovias), of which
a fragment is preserved in the " Eclogae " of
Stobaeus, in which the eternity of the world
is inferred from the eternity ef the Deity
(p. 45. ed. Orleans, 1609.). Fabricius and
ethers suppose that this Aristaeon is the
same as the Pythagorean philosopher, Aris-
taeus of Croten, the sen of Damephon, who is
described by lamblichus as the successor and
son-in-law of Pythagoras, since he married
Theano, the daughter, or according te ethers,
the widow, of Pythagoras. This Aristaeus,
again, is generaUy believed to be the author
ef two mathematical werks which are new
lost, but of which Euclid made use, ene on
conies {KoivtKd), and another (Ilepl tS'jtojv
^Tepeicv), consisting of five books, which was
restored from conjecture by Vincenzio Vivi
ani, (Fabricius, Biblioth, Grac. 1, 836.) L, S.
ARISTjEUS. [Aristion,]
ARISTA'GORA. [Hyperides,]
ARISTA'GORAS {'AparTaydpas), a Greek
writer en the antiquities and towns of Egypt,
whose work, consisting of at least two books, is
often referred to by Stephanus ef Byzantium,
He is the source from which .SlUan derived
his information respecting the signs hy which
the Egyptian god Apis was recognised, and
Pliny mentions him among the writers on
the pyramids. Respecting the time at which
he lived we can only form conjectures.
Stephanus ef Byzantium (under TwaiKiiTroXis)
gives us the vague statement that he Avas not
much younger than Plato. Pliny, in the
passage aUuded to, seems to ai-range the
writers on the pyramids in chronological
order, and if we may take this fer granted,
Arlstagoras must have lived betAveen the
time of Duris of Samos and Artemidorus of
Ephesus, that is, between b, c, 280 and 100,
This might seem to confirm the conjecture
that this Arlstagoras Avas the same as Aris-
tagoras, the sen ef the celebrated graimmarlan
Aristarchus, But as the latter is not known
te have written anything, and as Diogenes
Laertius speaks of an Aristarchus of Miletus
as a writer, the matter must remain doubtful,
(Stephanus Byzant, under 'Eppiorvp-gieis,
TaKofj-^os, NikIou K(i>iJ.7j, '^VeSiii, 'EXXrjvtKSv ;
.aSlian, Hist Animal- xi. 10.; PUny, Hist
Nat xxxvi. 17.; Diogenes Laertius, Pro
cemium, § 11., i. 72.) L. S.

ARISTAGORAS.
ARISTA'GORAS {'AparraySpas) of Mi-
L.ETUS. In the reign of Darius the son of
Hystaspes, we meet with several tyrants of
this name in Asia Minor. One of them was
tyrant of Cyme and a second ef Cyzicus,
but the most celebrated is Arlstagoras the
tyrant of Miletus. He was a sen of Molpa-
geras, and obtained the government of Mi
letus at the time when Histiseus, his kinsman,
was invited by Darius to Susa. During the
government of Arlstagoras, the aristocratic
party of the island of Naxos, who had been
expelled by their democratic opponents,
applied, in E. c. 502, to him for assistance.
Arlstagoras was tempted to comply with
their request by the hope of making himseff
master of Naxos and the adjacent islands ;
but net having sufficient force, he represented
to Artaphernes, the brother of Darius and
governor of the western part of Asia Miner,
the great advantages that might be derived
from an expedition te Naxos, the conquest
of which and the other Cycladeshe described
as an easy matter. Artaphernes was
delighted with the prospect, and made a
report to King Darius, who immediately
placed a large fleet and a considerable army
under the command of Megabates. Aris-
tagoras and Megabates accordingly sailed
towards Naxos, in the spring ef b. c. 501 ;
but before they reached the island, they be
gan to quarrel, and Megabates, in order to
thwart the undertaking, informed the Nax
ians, who were not aware of their danger,
of what was going on. 'The Naxians ac
cordingly made all preparations to sustain a
siege. Arlstagoras and Megabates with their
forces lay before the town for four months,
during which no progress Avas made, while
all the money which they had received for
the expedition was exhausted, and the arma
ment was obliged te return to Asia. Aris-
taigoras feared Darius and Artaphernes, as
he was unable to make good his promise.
Megabates also calumniated Arlstagoras,
whom fear and shame drove to revolt.
While he was maturing his plan, there came
a messenger from Histiacus, who was still
detauned at Susa, requesting Aristagoras to
rise against Persia. 'This strengthened his
resolution. At his instigation the tyrants in
the Greek armament which had gone to
Myus after the failure of the Naxian expe
dition Avere arrested, and a democratical
form of government Avas instituted in all the
Ionian cities, including Miletus. In order to
strengthen himself against Persia by aUiances
with the Greeks of Europe, Arlstagoras
went in b. c. 500 te Sparta te solicit the aid
of King Cleomenes I. Flerodotus says that
Aristagoras took with him a map ef the
world, to shoAV to the king the position of
the Persian empire, and the route to Susa.
Herodotus describes this map, the earliest ef
which we have any record, as a copper tablet
on which the earth, aU the seas, and aU the
407

ARISTAGORAS.
rivers were engraved. Aristagoras meeting
with no success at Sparta went to Athens.
The Athenians had been provoked by the
demand ef Artaphernes to receive back their
exiled tyrant Hippias, and they hoped to
strengthen their own freedom by protecting
that of the lonians : accordingly, they sent
twenty ships te Asia, Avhich were joined by
five triremes of the Eretrians. On the arrival
of the allies in Asia in e. c. 499, Aristagoras
sent them against Sardes, but he himself
remained at Miletus. Sardes Avas taken
and burned, but the Greeks were obliged to
retreat to Ephesus, where they were ever-
taken and defeated by the Persians. Here
upon the Athenians retumed heme, notwith
standing the entreaties ef Aristagoras, The
lonians, who had gone toe far te hope for
pardon, tried te gain over to their side as
many of the Greek towns as they could,
Byzantium and many other places on the
Propontis and the Hellespont declared for
them, and also the greater part of Caria, and
the island ef Cyprus, But Cyprus and many
of the revolted states were reduced by the
Persians in b. c. 498, and Aristagoras, In
despair at the progress of the enemy, assem
bled the principal men who had revolted with
him, and proposed to emigrate with them
either to Sardinia or Myrcinus in Thrace.
He could not preA'ail on all his friends to
join him ; but after having given the govern
ment ef Miletus te Pythagoras, a distin
guished Milesian, he emigrated to Myrcinus
with those whe chese to follow him. Soon
after his arrival there, apparently in B, c. 497,
he laid siege to a place called Enuea Hodei
(the Nine Ways), ( Ewe'o 'OSoi, afterwards
AmphipoUs), but he and his men were cut
off by the Edenians, a Thracian tribe. The
ambition er rashness ef Aristagoras and the
burning of Sardes were the Immediate cause
ofthe invasion ef Greece by Darius, (Hero
dotus, V. 30-38., 49 — 51., 55., 97 — 100.,
124 — 126, ; Thucydides, iv. 102. ; Diodorus
Siculus, xii. 68.) L. S.
ARISTA'GORAS (comic poet), [Meta-
genes,] ARISTANDER {'Aplaravdpos) ef Tel-
mlssus in Lycia, a celebrated soothsayer,
who accompanied Alexander on his Asiatic
expedition, and was consulted by him on all
important occasions. From iElian we learn
that he survived Alexander, and when the
king's body had been lying for thirty days
unburied, Aristander declared that the coun
try in which it should be buried would be
the most prosperous in the Avorld, and would
not be exposed te the ravages of an enemy,
'This declaration ef the soothsayer induced
Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, te have the body
conveyed to Egypt, Pliny frequently refers
to an Aristander as the author of a Averk on
prodigies, in Avhich many extraordinary oc
currences were enumerated, and he may be
Aristander the soothsayer of Alexander the
D D 4

ARISTANDER.

ARISTARCHUS.

Great. (Arrian, Anabasis, u. 26., in. 2., iv.
4.; Q. Curtius, iv. 2. 6. 13. 15., v. 4., vU. 7.;
Plutarch, Alexander, 25, ; .Silian, Varia His
toria, xii 64,; Artemidorus, Oneirocritica,
i. 31,, iv, 24, ; Pliny, Hist Nat xvii 38.;
Elenchus to books vUi. x. xiv. xv. and xviii, ;
Lucian, Philopatris, 21.) L. S,
ARISTANDER (; ApurravSpos), a sculptor
born in the island of Pares. Pausanias says
he made a statue of a female, representing
Sparta, holding a lyre, which surmounted one
of the tripods dedicated at Amyclae out of the
spoil obtained by the Lacedaemonians at the
battle of iEgospetami. Aristander is sup
posed to have lived about the time ef this
victory, which was gained in the fourth year
of the ninety-third Olympiad, 405 B. c, (Pau
sanias, iii, 18,) R.W, jun.
ARISTARCHUS {'Api<TTapx.os) ef Athens,
distinguished himself as a violent oUgarch
during the latter period of the Peloponnesian
war. On the establishment ef the authority
ofthe Four Hundred in E.c. 411, Aristarchus
was one of the leaders of the new govern
ment, and made himself most conspicuous
in his opposition to the democratic party.
When the counter-revolution broke out,
Theramenes and Aristarchus went with an
armed force to Piraeus, to rescue Alexicles, a
partisan of the Four Hundred, whe had been
taken prisoner in the first outbreak. But
nothing could quell the insurrection, and the
oligarchical government was overthrown.
Aristarchus with ethers of the leaders took
to flight ; aud he satisfied his revengeful
spirit by inflicting a considerable injury en
his country. On leaving Athens he took with
him some bowmen belonging to the rudest
ef the barbarians, whe Avere employed in the
public service, and marched with them te the
fortress ef QSnoe, on the Bceetlan frontier,
Avhich was at the time besieged by the Co
rinthians assisted by a body of Boeotian
volunteers. The Corinthians had laid siege
te the place te take revenge fer the less
which a body of their troops had suffered
on its return from Decelea from the Athenian
garrison at Q3noe. Aristarchus, acting in
concert with the besiegers, deceived the gar-
risen ef CEno'e by telling them that a treaty
had just been concluded at Athens with the
enemy, by which the garrison Avas bound to
surrender Q3noe. As Aristarchus was still
an Athenian general his story was believed,
Qilnoe was abandoned by the garrison, and
fell into the hands of the Bceotians. About
four or five years afterAvards, at the latest in
E. c. 406, Aristarchus was justly punished fer
this piece ef treachery, by being put te death ;
but the circumstances ef his execution are net
stated. (Thucydides, viU. 90. 92. 98. ; Xeno
phon, Hellenica, 1. 7. § 29. ; Lycurgus, Contra
Leocratem, p. 164.) L. S.
ARISTARCHUS {'AploTapxos) the Gram
marian, was a son ef Aristarchus, and a
native of Samethrace, but he spent the greater
408

part of his lffe at Alexandria in Egypt, where
he was educated in the school of Aristo
phanes ef Byzantium. Aristarchus established
a grammatico-critical school at Alexandria,
which continued to flourish long after his
time, beth there and at Rome. Ptolemy IV.
Philopator (e.c. 222 to 205) entrusted him
with the education ef his son Ptolemy V..
surnamed Epiphanes, (b.c. 205 to 181,) and
Ptolemy VIL, sumamed Physcon, (b.c. 146
te 117,) is also said to have been a pupil
ef Aristarchus. These statements accord
with that ef Suidas, who says that Aris
tarchus lived about B.C. 156, in the reign
ef Ptolemy VI. Philometor. Suidas reckons
the number of his pupils te have been forty.
In the reign of Ptolemy Physcon, a cruel
monster, the scholars of Alexandria, who
had hitherto enjoyed an honourable po
sition, were ill-treated, and several ef them
quitted the place. One of these was Aris
tarchus, who, although he was already at an
advanced age, went te Cyprus. His great
opponent among his contemporaries was
Crates ef MaUus, who had founded a gram
matical school at Pergamus, amd was littte
inferior te Aristarchus in leaming and critical
skUl. Some time after his arrival in Cyprus
Aristarchus was attacked by dropsy, which
determined him to put an end to his life. He
died at the age of seventy -two of voluntary
starvation. He left two sons, Aristagoras
and Aristarchus, who are likewise caUed
grammarians, but are not known to have
written anything.
This is all that we know of a man whom
the ancients almost unanimously declare to
have been the first of grammarians, aud
whose infiuence upon some portions ef Greek
Uterature is felt to the present day. His life
was devoted to the critical study and eluci
dation ofthe ancient Greek writers, especiaUy
the poets. Homer, Pindar, ArchUochus,
iEschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Ion.
With these studies he combined that ef
grammar, the technical part ef which re
ceived its first development from Aristarchus.
The results of his studies were preserved in
his numerous cemmentai-ies {vwopviip.aTa),
which Suidas says amounted to upAvards of
eight hundred, aud in several grammatical
works. The most important of his gram
matical werks Avas " On Analogy " {Tlepl 'Ai/a-
Xoyias), which, as we learn fi-em A. Gellius,
was opposed by Crates of Mallus in a work
entitled " On Anomaly " (nepl 'Avn'/xaXtas).
Only a few fragments of the work " On Ana
logy " have come doAvu te us ; and not one of
his Avorks has been preserved complete. AU
that is extant consists of Isolated statements
preserved In the later scliolia, the authors of
which made great use of the commentarios ot
Aristarchus. But these fragmentary remarks
are scarcely sufficient to give us an adequate
notion of his wonderful activity, his extensive
learning, and his strict critical principles.

ARISTARCHUS.

ARISTARCHUS.

What he did for Homer was of greater
importance than the labours of any other
scholar, either ancient or modem ; and it is
now universally admitted that the Iliad and
Odyssey owe their present form and di
vision, each into twenty-four rhapsodies,
mainly to Aristarchus. His merits in regard
to these two poems could not be fuUy appre
ciated until the discovery of the "Venetian
scholia on the Iliad, which were first pub
lished by ViUeisou in 1788. From these
scholia, compared with the commentary of
Eustathius, we see that it was the great object
of Aristarchus to establish a criticaUy correct
text of the Homeric poems, and that he re
moved with great care and critical sagacity
all interpolations that in the course of time
had crept into the text. Suspected lines were
marked by him with an obelus, and those
which he thought particularly beautiful with
an asterisk. By this process he established
a text, which was the foundation of aU sub
sequent editions, and from the time that
F. A. Wolf pointed out the value of that text,
many critics have laboured at its restor
ation. The great importance whieh the
ancients themselves attached to the edition of
Aristarchus is sufficiently attested by the fact
that other grammarians, such as Callistratus,
Aristonicus, Didymus, and Ptolemy of As
calon wrote separate works upon it, which
have unfortunately perished.
But it was net only as a verbal critic that
Aristarchus treated the Homeric poems : the
explanation of the text, fer whioh scarcely
anything had been done up to his time, en
gaged his attention. His explanations were
net mere glosses or verbal explanations, but
he discussed subjects of geography, mytho
logy, aud ethers that threw light on these
venerable poems. The metre and prosody
also were explained, and according to some
accounts it was Aristarchus whe used accents
in his edition ef the Homeric poems, though
the invention of them is usually ascribed to
Aristophanes of Byzantium. The questien
as to whether the Homeric poems were reaUy
of that antiquity which is commonly ascribed
to them, and whether the author was really
an historical personaige, seems never to have
occurred to Aristarchus.
We cannot speak with the same precision
of the merits of Aristarchus in regard to the
other poets on whose works he commented,
though there can be Uttle doubt that his
labours here also were valuable. But the
fragments ef his other commentaries are
neither so numerous, nor have they been
di cussed in modern times with the same care
as his labours upon Homer. There were,
it is true, epinions and criticisms ef Arls-
t.arcbus which were opposed by other critics,
and Athenajus preferred Athenecles ef Cy
zicus to Aristarchus, but these are excep
tions, and general opinion aissigned to him
the first place among the critics of antiquity.
409

(Ch. L. Matthesius, Disputatio de Aristarcho
Grammatica, Jena, 1725, 4to. ; VUloison, Pro
legomena ad Homeri Iliad, p. 26, &c.. Ad
Apollonii Lexic. Homeric, p. xv, &c. ; F. A.
Wolf, Prolegomena ad Hcrmerum, p. ccxvi,
&c. ; K. Lehrs, De Aristarchi Studiis Ho-
mericis, Konlgsberg, 1833, Svo.) L. S
ARISTARCHUS QApiarapxos) of Samos,
an astronomer whose nameis preserved by one
remaining boek containing one true method,
and by a report that he maintained the motion
of the earth. The book, on which Pappus has
left a commentary, is entitled nepl MeyeBSiv
Kai ' AiruoTTiiJidTav, " On the Magnitudes and
Distances," i.e. of the sun and moon. The
method proves that Aristarchus had a correct
idea of the cause of the moon's phases. When
the meen appears exactly halved (or, to use
a learned word which seems to be reserved
for this occasion, dichotomized), the line join
ing the eye and the moon's centre is at right
angles to that joining the centres ef the sun
and moon. In the triangle EMS, then,
(E the spectator's eye, M the moon's centre,
S the sun's centre) the angle EMS is a right
angle, and the angle MES is that known by
the name of the elongation of the moon from
the sun, and can be measured at any time
when both luminaries are above the horizon.
Hence, two angles ef the triangle being
known, the triangle can be constructed in
species, and the ratio of the distances of the
sun and moon from the eye can be found.
The time when Aristarchus lived is known
from the mention of him by Plutarch, who
says (in his boek on the appearance ef the
moon) that Cleanthes (the successor of Zeno)
thought Aristarchus guilty ef impiety for
"moving the hearth {earla) ofthe universe,"
and by Ptolemy, who quotes from Hipparchus
an observation ofthe solstice ofthe second year
ofthe 125th Olympiad by Aristarchus. Hence
it appears that Aristarchus was alive E.c. 279,
and probably from twenty to thirty years
later. Nothing whatever is known of his
life. Vitruvius makes him the inventor of
the scaphe, a dial in Avhich the style throws
its shadow on a hemisphere whose centre is
the top of the style ; and also of another
which he calls " discus in planitla." Cen-
sorinus attributes to Aristarchus the inven
tion of the " annus magnus," a period of two
thousand four hundred and eighty-four years.
In the application ef his excellent idea on
the distances ofthe sun aud moon, Aristarchus
was not very fortunate, as his means of
measurement did not enable him to get the
elongation correctly. Accordingly, he makes
the sun's distance only about twenty times
that of the moon, instead of about four
hundred times, as it should be. His result,
even en his own data, is not so accurate as it
might have been made from a. ruler and
compasses ; and he appears to have had
no idea whatever of any trigonometrical
table er process. His notions on the apparent

ARISTARCHUS.

ARISTARETE.

diameters of the luminaries are very inaccu
rate, as given in his own work ; though
Archimedes attributes to him much mere
exact values than his own.
That Aristarchus did attribute motion to
the earth is confirmed by Archimedes and
Sextus Empiricus, as well as by Plutarch.
It seeins also that he maintained beth the
annual and the diurnal motion. But his own
work does net allude to this opinion, nor dees
Ptolemy take any notice ef his advocacy ef
it. The Cepernicans and their opponents of
the seventeenth century ahvays considered
the doctrine of Copernicus as a revival ef
that of Philolaus and Aristarchus.
The editions of Aristarchus are — 1. In
Latin, by George Valla, Venice, 1498, fek,
in a volume containing the "Logica" of Nice
phorus, and other matters. 2. In Latin,
by Commandine, with the Commentary of
Pappus, Pesare, 1572. 3. In Greek and
Latin, with the Commentary ef Pappus,
by Wallis, Oxford, 16SS, reprinted in
the third volume of his works, Oxford,
1699. There is a French translation of
Aristarchus " On the Magnitude and Dis
tances of the Sun and Moon," by Fortia
d'Urban, Paris, 1823, 8ve. This translation
had previously appeared at Paris in 1810, with
the Greek text, by Fortia d'Urban : the Greek
text and the scholia are described as amended
by the aid of some MSS. This work is
entitled " Histoire d'Aristarque de Samos,
suivie de la Traduction de sen Ouvrage sur les
Distances du SeleU de la Lune," &c. For the
treatise entitled " Systema Mundi," which
Boberval wrote under the name of Aristar
chus, see RoEERVAL. (Fabricius, Bibliotheca
Graca, vol. iv. 18. ; Delambre, Hist de V As
tronomic Ancienne.) A. De M.
ARISTARCHUS {'Aplarapxos), a Spar
tan, who succeeded, in b. c. 400, Cleander as
harmostes of Byzantium. The Greeks, who
had returned under Xenophon from their ex
pedition with Cyrus against his brother Ar
taxerxes IL, were at the time encamped in
the neighbourhood ef Byzantium. Cleander
had received the Greeks kindly, and taken
care ef those whose health was impaired ;
aud about four hundred ef them had settled
iu Byzantium. When Aristarchus arrived,
he sold aU these four hundred as slaves, ac
cording te the orders he received from Ana-
xiblus the Spartan admiral, whom he had met
at Cyzicus. This was dene with a view te
gain the faveur of the Persian satrap Phar
nabazus ; fer the Greeks intended te return
to Asia, and Avould have ravaged his satrapy.
Aristarchus, being bribed by the satrap, com
pelled the Greeks to march into the Thracian
Chersenesus. But Aristarchus still continued
to annoy them, especially in the neighboqi-hoed
of Perinthus, Avhich he did not alloAv them to
enter. (Xenophon, Anabasis, vii c. 2, 3. 6.)
L. S.
ARISTA'RETE, the daughter and
410

pupil of the painter Nearehus, was also dis
tinguished as a painter : she was celebrated
for a picture of iEsculaplus. Her time is not
known. (Pliny, Hist Nat xxxv. 11. 40.)
R. N. W.
ARFSTEAS. The name of this artist,
associated with that ef Papias, is found on
tA\'0 marble {nero antico) statues of centaurs,
which were formerly in the Furietti palace,
but are now in the museum of the Capitol at
Rome. These sculptors Avere natives of
Aphrodisium in Cyprus. Their date is un
known, but Winckelmann, judging by the
style of execution of the works above men
tioned, supposes they lived about the time of
Hadrian, in the second century of our aera.
{Museum Capitolinum ; Winckelmann, Storia
delle Arti di Disegno, U. 319, &c.) R.W. jun.
ARFSTEAS {'Apio-reas). Josephus, Epi
phanius, and ethers caU him ARIST^aiUS
{'Apiardios), but in the werk which bears his
name he is called Aristeas. He seems te
have been a Cyprian by birth, and to have
held a high place at the court ef Ptolemy
Philadelphus, king of Egypt, Josephus caUs
him ene of the king's great friends, and
Jerom says that he was " ene of the king's
body-guard ; " but Jerom seems to have con
founded him with another person named
Andreas, There is extant a work which is
generaUy entitled "the History ofthe Seventy
Interpreters," It is a letter in Greek which
professes to be written by Aristeas te his
brother Philecrates. This letter, iu which
Aristeais merely describes himself as being
highly esteemed by Ptolemy Philadelphus,
contains an account of a ti-anslatien which
was made of the "Jewish law," that is,
the Pentateuch, and net, as is commonly
stated, of aU the Old Testament, by the com
mand of Ptolemy PhUadelphus. The story
of Aristeas is very generally given with
great inaccuracy ; the foUowing account is
extracted from the letter itseff.
Ptolemy Philadelphus was forming a vast
Ubrary at Alexandria (b. c. 273), and he
entrusted the formation of this library to
Demetrius Phalereus. Demetrius in a con
versation which he held with Ptolemy in
the presence of Aristeas, told the king that
he had heai-d that a copy of the Jewish laws
deserved a place in his Ubrary, but that it
would be requisite to translate them, as they
were written in the peculiar language of the
Jews, " which," said Demetrius, " is ge
nerally considered te be Syriac, but this is a
mistake." The king determined to Avrite to
the Jewish high-priest on the subject. But
at the suggestion of Aristeas, as a pre
liminary step, he purchased the freedom of
all the Jews in his dominions whe had been
taken captive by his father or hunself They
amounted to more than a hundred thousand,
and the king paid six himdred and sixty
talents altogether. He gave twenty drachmae
for each slave to their several masters.

ARISTEAS.

ARISTEAS.

He then sent Aristeas and Andreas the com
mander of the royal body-guard, with mag
nificent presents, and a letter to Eleazar the
Jewish high-priest, in which he requested
Eleazar to send to Alexandria seventy-two
interpreters, six elders from each tribe, that
their nmnber might give authority te the
work. The seventy-two elders were sent.
Their names are given in the letter. They
were well versed in both the Hebrew and
Greek language. They brought a copy ef
the law consisting of " different parchments,
in which the law was written in gold in the
JcAvish letters ." (p. 790. D. ed. Gallan
dius). The king when he saw the work
bent down in reverence before it about
seven times, and wept from joy ; and as
about this time he had gained a naval victory
over Antigonus, he said that the day ef their
arrival should be observed during his life
as a holy day, and he invited them to a rich
banquet the same day. During seven days,
he entertained them at similar banquets, pro
posing te them questions which they an
swered with great wisdom. Three days
after these banquets, Demetrius took them
to an island, which from the description was
Pharos, in the harbour of Alexandria, but
the name is net stated in the letter. Here
they were ledged aU together in a magnificent
house, near the shore, far from all noise and
tumult. They laboured every day at the
translation till the ninth heur, that is, till
three o'clock in the afternoon, aud they
finished their work in seventy-two days.
The translation was made in this manner.
The elders consulted together as to the mean
ing of a passage, and when they had fixed
upon the translation, Demetrius wrote it
down. 'When the work was ended, Deme
trius summoned the Jews and their heads to
the house where the interpreters had ledged,
and read to them the tramslation. They
approved of it. Curses were pronounced
upon aU who should venture to add or take
anything from it. The Jews requested per
mission ef Demetrius to take a copy ef the
translation. The king received it with re
verence, and ordered it to be carefuUy pre
served, and after inviting the interpreters to
come and visit him frequently, he sent them
home with ample gffts both fer themselves
and Eleazar. This and ne more is the sum
of the story of Aristeas. The letter of
Aristeas was first published in the original
Greek, with a Latin translation, by Simon
Schardius, Svo. Basle, 1561. The best
edition is given by Gallandius, in his " Bib
liotheca Veterum Patrum," tem.ii. p. 771 —
824. It is founded chiefly on the Oxford
edition ef 1692, Svo.; but GaUandius has
also made use of the edUion by Fabricius,
which is appended to Havercamp's edition of
Josephus, and of these by Hody and Van Dale.
'The story ef Aristeas is repeated with
various degrees of difference by the foUowing
411

ancient fathers and writers. Aristobulus, who
is supposed to be a Jewish philosopher, apud
Eusebiura, Praparatio Evangelica, lib. xiU. c.
12. p. 664. Paris, 1628; Phllo-Judaens, De
Vita Mosis, lib. ii. in tem. il. p. 657, &c.,
Paris, 1640; Josep'nus, Preface to the Jewish
Antiquities, § 3. tom. i. p. 2. ed. of Haver
camp, Amsterdam, 1726., lib. xii. c. 2.; Jo
sephus, Contra Apionem, lib. U. tom. ii. p. 472. ;
Justin Martyr, Cohortatio ad Gracos, § 13.,
Apologia, 1. § 31., Dialogus cum Tryphone
Judao, § 71. Paris, 1742 ; Irenaeus, Ad
versus Hareses, 'iii. 21. al. 25. § 50.; Clement of
Alexandria, Stromata, 1. 22. tom. i. p. 409.,
Oxford, 1715 ; TertulUan, Apologetic, c. 18.;
Anatolius Alexandrinus, Liber de Paschate,
apud Eusebium, Histor. Eccles. vii. 32,;
Eusebius of Caesarea, Praparat Evangel.
viii, 1,, Chronicon, ad annum 1734 ; Cyril
of Jerusalem, Catechesis, iv, 34, ; Hilary of
Poitiers, Prologus ad Librum Psalmorum, § 8,,
Psalm II. § 2„ and Psalm C XVIII. Litt. xvi,
§ 16, ; Epiphanius, DeMensurls et Ponderibus,
c, 3 — 11,, Paris, 1622, ; 3erova,Prafat in Pen
tateuchum, ed, Verona, 1738, tom. ix, p, 3,, Pra-
fat in Librum Hebraic. Quastionum iuGenesim,
tem, iU. p, 303. ; Augustin, De Civitate Dei,
xviii. 42, 43.; Chrysostom, Orat I. adversus
Judaos, Paris, 1718, tom, i p, 595.; Homil.
IV. in Genesim, tem, iv. p. 25.; Theodoret,
Prafut. ad Psalmos, Paris, 164-2, tom. i.
p, 396,; Auctor Synepseos Scripturae Sacrae,
printed among the werks of Athanasius,
Paris, 1698, tom, ii p, 203,; Cosmas iEgyp-
tius, in the " Collectio Patrum Graecorum,"
published by Montfaucon, Paris, 1706, tom.
11, p, 344.; Joannes Malalai, Chronogr. viii. 1.,
Venice, 1733, p. 83.; Chronicon Paschale,
p. 172, Paris, 1688; Georgius SynceUus,
Chronograph., Venice, 1729, p, 216, 217.;
Georgius Cedrenus, Historiarum Compendium,
Venice, 1729, tom. I. p. 132,; Joannes Zonaras,
Annales, iv. 16. All these passages in the
original Greek and Latin are collected in an
appendix to the letter of Aristeas by Gallan
dius in his "BibUotheca," amd also in the
Oxford edition ef 1692.
Although all these writers derive their
account from the letter of Aristeas, they not
only differ from him more er less, but they
also disagree among themselves. The an
tiquity ef the letter is shoAvn by its being
quoted by Philo and Josephus, As to Aris
tobulus, if, as some suppose, he lived in the
reign of Ptolemy PhUadelphus, he was con
temporary with Aristeas, Others place hhn
later, and seme are ef opinion that the frag
ments from Aristobulus quoted by Eusebius
were forged in the first century of the
Christian aera. He speaks briefiy of the
interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures
made by order of Ptolemy PhUadelphus,
under the superintendence of Demetrius,
but he does not mention Aristeas by name.
Josephus professes to derive his account
from Aristeas, and he has inserted in his

ARISTEAS.

ARISTEAS.

"Jewish Antiquities," the various letters
which were written en the subject ; but his
edition of these documents differs materiaUy
from the copy which is found in the work of
Aristeas, as it is now extant, Justin Martyr
says that Ptolemy built separate cells fer
each ef the seventy-two interpreters ; that
they were prevented from holding any inter
course together, and yet their separate trans
lations agreed without the difference of a
werd, Epiphanius differs most of aU from
Aristeas, and every ene else. He gives the
story that the interpreters were shut up by
twos in a ceU, None of these fables are
found in the work ef Aristeas, Eusebius has
extracted the greater part ef the letter, and
his story agrees most of aU with that which
is found in the copy of the letter now extant.
There is ne reason to doubt that we have
now the original letter ascribed te Aristeas.
The genuineness and authenticity of this
letter were unanimously believed by the
ancient church, ner were they called in ques
tien till the seventeenth century. From
this date the general opinion has been that
the letter attributed to Aristeas is a forgery,
and that it is the work of an Alexandrine
Jew, whe lived before the time of Christ,
and whose object in forging the letter was to
give authority to the Greek version, which
was in use among the Hellenistic Jews. An
examination of the Septuagint version is
sufficient to show that it was made by different
persons, and probably at different times.
Even if the story of Aristeas is true, it ap
pears from the letter itself that the Pentateuch
alone was translated by order of Ptolemy
Philadelphus. Josephus expressly declares
that " only the law " was translated in the
time of Philadelphus, and such was the
opinion ef the learned in the time of Jerom.
{Jerom,InEzec.Y. 12., xvil3.) There seems
to be no such excessive improbability in the
story of the letter, if adopted up to a certain
point, that the Pentateuch was translated into
Greek by order of Ptolemy PhUadelphus for
his library, and that he invited Jews from
Judaea who were learned in Hebrew to assist
the Alexandrine Jews, who knew Greek well,
but Hebrew imperfectly. But the common
opinion seems now to be that the version ef
the Pentateuch was made by the Alexandrine
Jews fer their own use about B.C. 285, during
the reign ef Ptolemy Soter. Under any
supposition it is probable that this version
was called " the Septuagint," because it was
approved by the Sanhedrim, er council of
seventy, ef the Alexandrine Jews. The
ether books of the Old Testament Avere ex
tant in Greek two centuries before the birth
of Christ.
The letter has given rise to a great number
of werks. The truth of the story of Aristeas
is maintained by Isaac Voss, " De Septuaginta
Interpretibus," Hague, 4to, 1661, and " Ap
pendix ad Librum de LXX. Interpretibus,"
412

Hague, 4to., 1663; by Walton, " Biblia Sacra
Polyglotta. Prolegomsna," ix. p. 55, ed. 1657,
Londen, fol. ; by Whiston, in the Appendix
to his work on " The Literal Accomplishment
of Scripture Prophecies," London, 1724, 8vo.;
by Brett, in his " Dissertation on the Septua
gint," published in Bishop Watson's coUec
tion of theological tracts, vol. iii. p. 20,
&c. ; and by Masch, in his preface to the
" BibUotheca Sacra " of Le Long, part ii.
vol. ii. p. 10., where some other works in
defence of the story are mentioned. Its trath
is denied by Antonius Van Dale, " Disser
tatio super Aristeam de LXX. Interpretibus,"
4to., Amsterdam, 1705; and by Hody, " De
Biblierum Textibus Originalibus, &c. Libri
IV.," fek, Oxford, 1705. This werk of
Hody, which is still one of the best books on
the subject, contains a dissertation " Centra
Historiam LXX. Interpretum Aristeae Nomine
inscriptam," which had been pubUshed sepa
rately in Svo., Oxford, 1685, but this new
edition ef it contains an answer te Isaac Voss.
Both Hody's and Van Dale's werks contain
an edition of the letter ef Aristeais. Among
the other refutations which are extant, the
" Dissertatio de LXX. Interpretibus " of
Cellarius should be consulted. It is printed in
his " Dissertationes Academicae," Svo., Leip
zig, 1712. {Mont&ViCon, De Historia LXX.
vel LXXII. Interpretum, qua Aristea Nomine
circumfertur. This treatise is inserted by
GaUandius in the Prolegomena to his " Biblio
theca," tem. 11. p, 59 — 64.; Fabricius, Biblio
theca Graca, ed. Harles, vol. Ui. p. 658, &c,)
C, J, S.
ARFSTEAS {'Apiareas), a native of
Peoconnesus, an island in the Propontis,
was the son of Caystrobius, according to
Herodotus ; of Democharis, according to
ethers. Upon the authority of Suidas, he
may be supposed to have lived in the
time ef Croesus and the first Cyras in
the sixth centm-y before Christ Tatian
says that he was anterior to Homer, and
others again represent him as the teacher
and a contemporary of Homer, Some of the
ancient writers regarded Aristeas as a ma
gician, whose soul could enter or leave the
body whenever it pleased, Herodotus tells
the following story about Aristeas, which he
heard from the inhabitants of Proconnesus
and Cyzicus, Aristeas entered ene day into
the shop ef a fuller, and died there : the
owner of the shop, having shut the doors,
went te announce the event to the family of
Aristeas ; but a citizen of Cyzicus, who had
just arrived at Proconnesus, said that he had
met Aristeas on the road to Cyzicus, and had
conversed with him. His relatives went to
the shop, and when the doors were opened,
Aristeas was not foimd either dead er alive.
Seven years afterwards he re-appeared at
Proconnesus, and wrote the poem " which is
now called hythe Greeks the Arimaspea," and
after writing it he disappeared a second time.

ARISTEAS.
The inhabitants of Metapontum, a town in
Magna Graecia, told Herodotus that Aristeas
appeared in their country three hundred and
forty years after this second disappearance,
and ordered them to erect an altar to
ApoUo, and to place near the altar of
the god a statue of himself. He told them
at the same time that Metapontum was
the only city in Magna Graecia where
Apollo had already appeared, and that he,
who was now Aristeas, had accompanied
the god in his visit, under the form of a
raven. After saying this he disappeared.
The inhabitants of Metapontum, after con
sulting the oracle of Delphi, complied with
the order, and a statue with the name of
Aristeas was te be seen in the time of Hero
dotus by the side of a statue ef ApoUo in the
public place of Metapontum. Herodotus gives
no date fer the existence or these various
appearances of Aristeas, and Tzetzes, in
copying his account, misrepresents it by say
ing that Aristeas re-appeared at Metapontum
in the time of Herodotus.
Aristeas wrote an epic poem in three books,
of which the title was Ta 'Apipidinreia. Six
verses of this poem are preserved by Longi
nus {De Subllm. x. 4,), and six by Tzetzes
in his " Historiarum Variarum Chiliades "
{Chii. vii, 686, &c,). From the geographical
statements which Herodotus (iv, 13.) and
Aulus Gellius {Nodes Attica, ix. 4.) have
extracted from the poem, it appears that it
contained geographical details of the countries
north and east of the Euxine, but it is gener
ally represented as being an account ef the
war between the Arimaspi, a people with ene
eye, (" Arima " in the Scythian language
meant " one,") and the Grypes, " the
guardians of the mines of gold." The werk
seems to have been regarded in ancient times
as a source of geographical information, but
Valckenaer in his note upon Herodotus (iv.
13. 2.) considers, without sufficient foundation
for the opinion, that Herodotus derived
much of his account of Scythia from the
poem of Aristeas. Many of the ancient
writers mention the " Arimaspeia " as the
work of Aristeas, but Dionysius of HaU
carnassus {Judicium de Thucydide, 23,) con
sidered that Aristeas was net the author of
the poem. Others, as Aulus GeUius, re
garded it as a work full of fabulous stories,
and of " things unheard-of and incredible."
Suidas also mentions a " theogony " in prose,
composed by Aristeas, and consisting of
about a thousand lines {arixoi). Nothing more
is known of it. The followmg Avriters, among
others, make mention of Aristeas. Their
accounts are in many respects dissimilar.
(Herodotus, iv. 13 — 16. ; Pausanias, i. 24.,
v. 7.; Pliny, .ff/«<. Nat vu. 2., vii 52. (53.);
Suidas, 'Apiareas; Tzetzes, Chiliades, ii.
723 — 740. ; Plutarch, Romulus, 28. (al. 27.);
Strabo, i. p. 21. s. 40. A., xui. p. 589. s. 881. A. ;
Athenaeus, xiii. p. 605. G; Origen, Contra
413

ARISTEAS.
Celsum, iii. p. 463. ; Athenngoras, Legatio pro
Christianis, p. 28. ; Apollonius Dyscolus,
Hist Comment- c. 2. ; Ger. John Voss, De
Historicis Gracis, lib. 1. c. i p. 6., lib. iv. c. 2. ;
Huet, Demonstratio Evangelica, Propositio IX.
c. vi, fok, Paris, 1679.) C. J. S.
ARISTE'NUS or ARISTFNUS,
ALE'XIUS ("AAe'lios ' Api<rTT]v6s), nemo-
phylax and oeconomus ef the church ef Con
stantinople, lived in the twelfth century. In
1166 he was present at the synod of Con
stantinople and made himself remarkable by
his dispute Avith Nicephorus, the patriarch of
Jerusalem. Arlstenus is said te have written
a " Synopsis Canonum," which has been
published by Veellus and Justellus in the
second volume of their " Bibliotheca Cano
nica ; " but the general opinion is that he
is not the author of this Synopsis, which
seems to belong to an earlier century than
that of Arlstenus. However, Arlstenus has
written schoUa te this Synopsis as well as
te other canons, which, with the scholia of
John Zonaras and Theodore Balsamo, have
been published by Beveridge in the first
volume of his " Pandectae Canonum SS.
Apostelerum," p. 1, &c. The Synopsis above
mentioned was also published with a Latin
translation by Beveridge, and forms an un
paged appendix to the first part of the second
volume of the " Pandectae Canonum : " its
title is " Alexii Aristini Epistelarum, quae
dicuntur Canonicae, Synopsis." {Prolegomena
to Beveridge, Pandecta Canonum SS. Apos-
tolorum; Fabricius, Biblioth. Graca, xi. 280,
281. ; Cave, Hist Literar- ii. 238.) W. P.
ARISTEUS ('Aplo-Teus) according to
Thucydides, er ARFSTEAS QApurTeas) ac
cording to Herodotus, was a Corinthian and
son ef Adeimantus. He commanded the
force which was sent by Corinth te support
Potidaea in its revolt from Athens tOAvards
the beginning ef the Peloponnesian war,
B. c. 432. Aristeus had always held a con
nection with Potidaea. The force, amount
ing in all to sixteen hundred heavy-armed
and four hundred light troops, consisted
mainly of Corinthians who volunteered then-
services chiefly from friendship for Aristeus.
He reached Potidaea in forty days after the re
volt began ; and en his arrival he was chosen
commander of all the infantry by the Poti-
daeans and their Peloponnesian allies. A
battle was fought near the walls of the tOAvn
between the Potidaean army and the Athe
nians under CaUias. Aristeus, with the
body under his command, routed the di
vision which was opposed to him, and pur
sued them to a considerable distance. But
on his retura from the pursuit he found that
the rest of the Potidaean army had been de
feated by the Athenians, and driven into
Potidaea. Forming his troops into the
smallest possible space, he forced his way
Into Potidaea, with very little loss, but with
great difficulty-. Potidaea was seen blockaded

ARISTEUS.

ARISTIDES.

beth by sea and land. Aristeus advised all
the garrison except five hundred te watch
fer a favourable wind and quit the town, in
order that the provisions might last longer.
He was wUllng to be one of these whe re
mained to defend the town. The Potidaeans
would not adopt his advice, and Aristeus,
considering that he could best serve them
if he were out ef Potidaea, contrived to elude
the Athenian guardships and to effect his
escape by sea. He stayed in Chaloidice
some time, annoying the Athenian allies, and
endeavouring to obtain aid from the Pelo
ponnesus fer Potldasa. In the second year
of the Peloponnesian Avar, b. c. 430, Aristeus
accompanied some Lacedaemonians en an em
bassy to Artaxerxes I., king of Persia. The
object of their journey was to obtain from
the Persian king a supply ef money, and to
form a league with him. Ou their road te
the Hellespont they went to Thrace, with the
intention ef soliciting Sitalces, the Odrysian
king, to abandon the Athenian alliance, and
march an army to Potidaea. But some
Athenian ambassadors who happened to be
at the court of Sitalces, persuaded Sadocus,
the son ef Sitalces, whe had lately been made
an Athenian citizen, to deUver up Aristeus
and the other ambassadors into their hands.
The ambassadors were overtaken at Bisanthe
as they were about to cross the Hellespont.
They Avere conveyed to Athens, and the
Athenians put them all to death en the very
day ef their arrival without any trial, and
threw them into pits. They took this step
chiefly from fear of the ability ef Aristeus,
lest he should do them any further injury, if
his life was spared ; but they alleged as a
justification of this barbarous act, that the
Lacedaemonians at the beginning of the war
had treated in the same manner all the mer
chants of Athens and its allies, and even the
citizens of neutral states, whom they had
caught about the Peloponnesus. (Thucydides,
i. 59—65., U. 67. ; Herodotus, vii 137. ;
ThirlwaU, History of Greece, iii. 102—104.
162.) C.J. S.
ARISTTDES ('Apio-Tel57)s) was the author
of certain licentious tales or stories caUed
Milesian ( MiAijiriaKci), of which Harpo
cration ( V. Aepp,7jaT^ris) cites the sixth book.
The period of Aristides is unknown, but he
preceded the time of SuUa, for his werk was
translated into Latin by L. Cornelius Sisenna,
a contemporary of Sulla. Sisenna's version
is mentioned by Ovid. When Surena defeated
M. Licinius Crassus at Carrhae, b, c. 53, the
AVork of Aristides ( it is not said by Plutarch
whether the original or the translation) was
found in the baggage of Rustius, ene ef the
officers ef Crassus, which gave Surena oc
casion to taunt the Romans for carrying such
loose works as this with them in their
campaigns, Aristides is the earliest writer
of Milesian stories who is mentioned. There
is ne direct evidence that he was a native
^ 414

of MUetus, but that rich cemmercial city
may have been the scene of his stories, aind
it is a possible inference from an expression
of Ovid, that he Avas of MUetus. The general
character of Milesian stories was licentious
[Apuleius]. An Aristides of Miletus is several times
cited by Plutarch as a writer on SiciUan and
Italian affairs ( SiKeXiKa, 'IraXiKa), and he
cites the fortieth book of the " Italica."
Plutarch adso cites the " Persica" of Aris
tides, but without calling him a Milesian.
There is no authority for identifying the
historian with the author of the Milesian
tales : and it is an absurd conjecture, in the
absence of direct evidence, te suppose, as
Vossius does, that an historian who treated
en grave historical subjects at great length
should be the author of a lewd beek. Ner is
the conjecture of others more lucky, that
Aristides pubUshed his lewd stories together
with his history, fer the line of Ovid on
which this opinien is founded has a different
meaning. ( Plutarch, Crassus, c. 32., Crreek
and Roman Parallels, c. 1, 2, 3. 5, &c. ; Ovid,
Tristia, ii, 413, 443, ; Vossius, De Historicis
Gracis.) G, L.
ARISTIDES qApurreiS-ns), a stattiary of
Greece, and pupil of Polycletus ef Sicyon,
whe Uved in the latter part of the fifth
century b. c. He was celebrated, Pliny
says, for his skill in making chariots : Qua
drigae and Bigas. These chariots were, in
aU probability, made for seme especial and
important purpose ; either te be presented
as votive offerings to seme temple, er to be
used on particular occasions ; and, being the
work of an eminent artist, were decorated
with designs of figures in relief, or enriched
Avith foliage er ether elaborate ornament.
It has been supposed that this is the Aristides
mentioned by Pausanias as having made
seme improvements in the machinery of the
goal in the stadium at Olympia, (PUny, Hist.
Nat. xxxiv. S. 19. ; Pausanias, vi. 20.) R. W. inn.
ARISTFDES, iE'LIUS {AXXtos 'Apur-
relSris), a distinguished Sophist, the son ef
Eudaemon, wais a native of Hadriani or Ha-
drianepelis in Bithynia. His name Aristides
is Greek : iElius is a Roman name which he
probably adopted. He also assumed the name
Theodorus, te indicate that he owed his re
covery from his long iUness te the god .Slscu-
lapius. He Uved in the reigns ef 'Trajan and
the Antonines. The year ef his birth is
uncertain, but it is fixed by some modern
writers at A. d. 129, and by others at A. D.
117. His father is called a philosopher and
priest. He studied rhetoric under various
distinguished masters ; under Polemon at
Smyrna, Herodes Atticus at Athens, and
Aristocles at Pergamus, but chiefly under
Alexander of Cetyaaeum, whose leaiming
he commemorates in an epistle upon his
death, addressed to the senate and people of

ARISTIDES.

ARISTIDES.

Alexander's birth-place. Aristides travelled '
through Asia Minor, Greece, and Egypt to '
the boundaries of Ethiopia. He says that I
he travelled four times through Egypt. His
various journeys, and his great sufferings
from an illness of thirteen years' duration, are
recorded by himself. He had visions in
which he saw iEsculapius, Serapis, and Isis,
from whom he received instructions fer his
health. It wais in these dreams er visions
also that he was urged to the study of elo
quence, in which he was so successful that iu
his own judgment he equalled Demosthenes
and the other great masters of Grecian ora
tory ; as a writer he considers himself equal
to Plato.
In the year a. d. 175 he had recovered
from his illness, and was present at the
Isthmian games, where he pronounced his
oration to Neptune (Poseidon). It was pro
bably in this year that he pronounced his
Panathenaic oration also. In a. d. 176 the
Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his son
Commodus were at Smyrna, and Aris
tides exhibited before them his oratorical
skill ; but it is noi certain that the oration
(2fii/pi-a'i/cis nXiTiK6s) was delivered on this
occasion. Aristides did not aspire to the power of
extempore speech, and he described himself
to the Emperor Marcus AureUus as one ef
these who did not vomit forth (words), but
who laboured at accuracy and to please.
This was said either on the occasion of
Marcus visiting Smyrna er Athens, but it
was mere probably on the occasion of the visit
to Athens, where the rhetorician Hadrian as
tonished everybody by his readiness at speak
ing on any given subject. It is added that
Aristides also wished te exhibit his oratorical
skill before the emperor, but was prevented
by the jealousy ef Herodes Atticus, whe then
held the sophistic throne or chair at Athens,
Upon this Aristides presented to Herodes a
Panathenaic speech which he professed to
wish te deliver, and Herodes flnding it very
poer, thought he would only disgrace him
self by it, and accordingly consented to his
pronouncing it. But his cunning rival, in
stead of this poor affair, pronounced another
Panathenaic, that which is now extant, and it
was received with great applause. It appears
that Aristides enjoyed the faveur of Marcus
Aurelius, fer he states that he received a
letter from Aurelius and his son Commodus,
containing many gratifying expressions and
" immunity" {dreXeia) for life in consideration
of his eloquence. This was probably a
special grant of the privilege given to various
professional persons, which is particularly
described in the life of Antoninus Pius.
Among ether marks of distinction he was ap
pointed eirenarch er guardian of the peace fer
a district {TrdXiapia) ef Mysia, by Severus, the
governor of Asia, "by which it is supposed that
the native place of Aristides is meant. The
415

people of Smyrna also gave him the citizen
ship of their town and the priesthood of JEscu
lapius, from which circumstance Aristides
is sometimes caUed a Smyrnaean. When
Smyrna was visited by an earthquake, a. d.
178, Aristides prevailed upon the Emperor
Aurelius te restore the city ; and to mark
their gratitude fer this service the people ef
Smyrna erected his statue in bronze near the
temple of iEsculapius. We have his own
testimony te tbe crowded audiences which
his rhetorical displays collected around him :
the applause was unbounded, and his audience
was packed so close that nothing but heads
could be seen.
This seff-satisfied rhetorician survived
M. Aurelius, who died a. d. 180. He died
in the reign of Commodus, in the sixtieth
year of his aige, according to some authorities,
and in the seventieth according to another
authority. One of his orations {Tlpo(r(pa>vi]„
Tmhs Xp-vpvaios) was addressed to Commodus
after his accession, but it was not delivered
before him on his entry into Smyrna, as
the Latin title prefixed to the oration by
Canter states : the oration shews that it
was addressed te Commodus from a distance.
There is a sitting statue of Aristides at
Rome, with an inscription bearing his name,
but the genuineness of the statue has been
questioned. Another figure, and in a stand
ing posture, which was found in the ruins ef
Herculaneum, and is new in the Museo
Borbonico, has been called the statue of
Aristides the Just, but the affected attitude
and the character ef the figure sufficiently
confute that opinion. It ought to be the
statue of a rhetorician under the empire, and
it may be the statue of .^Slins Aristides. An
inscription in honour of Aristides is pre
served in the Museum at Verona.
Fifty-five of the orations or declamations
of Aristides are extant. Some of them are
addresses to certain deities, as Poseidon,
Dionysos, and ethers. That to Dionysos
was written in obedience te an order of
iEsculapius, which Aristides received in a
dream. He also received orders from .^s-
culapius in a dream to praise the Asclepiadae :
he began the oration in his dream and finished
it when he awoke. Other declamations are
in praise ef particular cities, as Smyrna,
Cyzicus, and Rome {'Pdjpnjs eyKivpiov), which
is ene of the best. The Panathenaicos is an
imitation of the oration of Isocrates, which
bears the same title. There is an oration in
praiise of the virtues ef M, Aurelius, a subject
which the orator could more easUy spell than
exhaust. Other orations have for their
topics subjects from the republican period of
Greece, such as advice to the Athenians te
conclude peace with the Lacedaemonians
after the affair of Pylos, and to send aid to
Nicias in Sicily. The orator has furnished
us with the means of estimating his rhetorical
essays by a comparison with those of the

ARISTIDES,

ARISTIDES,

best period ef Grecian eloquence. His ora
tion against Leptines is founded on the same
matter as the Leptines ef Demosthenes, ene
of the best specimens of the great Athenian's
power. It is printed in the same volume with
the edition of the Leptines ef Demosthenes,
by F. A. Wolf, and forms a striking contrast
by its frigid commonplaces, its laboured
antitheses, and its wearisome repetitions, with
the vigorous and practical speech of the great
master Avith Avhom Aristides had the impu
dence to enter into competition.
As a part of the literary history of the
period, and as furnishing a fcAv historical
facts, the orations ef Aristides have seme
value. In other respects the matter is trivial
and worthless. Being merely literary essays,
aud, with some fcAV exceptions, wanting the
basis of reality, they are tedious beyond en
durance. But even when Aristides handled
a real topic, his feeble powers were in
sufficient to give to it a lasting interest. The
great earthquake of Smyrna, which desolated
that flourishing city, is mentioned in the third
of his Sacred Orations, but it forms the sele
topic of his letter addressed on the occasion
to Aurelius and Commodus. After remind
ing the emperor that he knew what a place
Smyrna ence was, and that he is now in
formed of the calamity that had befallen it,
the orator proceeds thus : " All this is
new in the dust ; that harbour is closed ; the
beauty of the agora is gone ; the ornaments
of the streets have disappeared ; the gym
nasia with the men and boys are destroyed ;
the temples, some are prostrate, seme are
sunk ; and that city, which to look en was
the fairest of cities, and noted through the
world fer its beauty, is now the most un
seemly of sights, a heap of ruins and of dead;
and the west wind blows over the desolation."
On reading these words, says Philostratus,
Marcus shed tears; but perhaps he was more
moved by the reality ef the calamity than the
rhetorician's picture of it, and with his usual
beneficence he restored Smyrna from its
ruins. The style of Aristides is generally per
spicuous, seldom vigorous, always tiresome.
Even in perspicuity he falls far below De
mosthenes in his rival speech, for poverty of
invention compelled him to labour at ex
pression, and labour on words which mean
little er nothing, can hardly be productive in
the most skilful hands.
The " Six Sacred Discourses" {'lepol A6yoi)
are curious specimens ef superstition. The
disease whioh afflicted Aristides fer thirteen
years began A. d. 159 ; and these discourses
are a history of his sufferings, his dreams,
his supernatural intercourse with iEscula
pius, and of the remedies which the ged
prescribed, and of his application of them.
In the second discourse ho says that the ged
iEsculapius from the first commanded him
to keep a record ef his dreams. The genuine-
416

ness of these singular compositions has been
doubted, but on no sufficient grounds. They
are in all respects worthy of Aristides,
Aristides is also the author of two books en
Rhetoric {Texvii>v P-/]TopiK&v ;8 Ilepl noAiTiKoC
Kai 'AtpeXoiJs A6yov), or " On Political and
Simple Speech," He takes Demosthenes as
the pattern of the political, and Xenophon as
the pattern ef the simple.
The first edition of the orations of Aris
tides wais by Euphrosinus Beninus, and
printed by Phil. Glunta, Florence, 1517, fol.
It contains only fifty-two orations, all that
were then known. The Latin version of W.
Canter was published at Basel, 1566, and with
the Greek text by P. Stephens, 1604. S. Jebb's
edition, in 2 vols. 4to., Oxford, 1722 and
1730, contains both the Greek text and the
Latin version, the " Collectanea Historica
of Masson," which traces the life of Aristides
from his writings with painful minuteness,
and ether matters. The edition of W. Din
dorf, Leipzig, 1829, 3 vols. 8vo., contains an
improved text of the orations, and also the
two books ef rhetoric, with the Prolegomena
attributed te Sepater of Apamea, the scholia
coUected by Reiske and other matters. The
oration against Leptines was first published
by J. Morelli, Venice, 1785, Svo. The ora
tion of Aristides against Demosthenes (nepl
'ATeXelas) was discovered by A. Mai, and
first published by him in the first volume ef
his " Scriptorum Veterum Neva Collectio,"
Rome, 1825, 4to., with the fragment of
another oration of Aristides, which is a
panegyric on water. Beth of the orations,
that against and that for Leptines, have been
edited by Grauert, Bonn, 1827, Svo., under
the title " JElii AristitUs Declamatienes
Leptineae." It should be observed that the
name of Aristides is not attached to either of
these orations in the MSS., but no critic has
yet doubted that he has a right to both of
them. The ninth volume of the edition of
the " Rhetores Graeci " of C. Walz centaiins
the two books on rhetoric. Photius (Cod.
246.) has given copious extracts from Aris
tides, whe was a writer to his taste. (PhUos
tratus, Lives of the Sophists ; Fabricius,
Bibliotheca Grac. vi 12, &c,, has given a Ust
of the extant works of Aristides and of those
which are lost.) G. L.
ARISTTDES {^ApicrreiS-ns), an Athenian,
the son of Lysimachus, belonged to the tribe
{(pvx-li) Antiochis and the demus Alopeke.
It was a disputed point among the later
Greeks whether he was rich or poor : Plu
tarch, in opposition te the arguments of
Demetrius Phalereus, who contends that he
was in goed circumstances, adepts the more
received opinion ef Aristides being poor.
He was, however, well connected, for the
wealthy CaUias, the Dalduchus or torch-
bearer in the Eleusinian rites, was his cousin,
or at least a kinsman. It dees not, however,
appear that Aristides owed his rise to any

ARISTIDES.

ARISTID'ES,

thing except his own merits. His suc
cessful political career, and his reputation
for integrity among his countrymen, which
has been perpetuated to the present day, are
a signal instance of the power of character
in a pubUc man.
The date of the birth ef Aristides is not
known. He was a friend of Cleisthenes, who
established the Athenian constitution after
the ejection of the Pisistratidse (b. c. 510),
and he attached himself to the arlstocratical
party. His great opponent and rival was
Themistecles, who belonged to the demo
cratic party. Plutarch relates an incident,
as if it belonged to the earlier part of his life,
as evidence of the universal opinion of his
contemporaries of his unbending integrity.
When a play of .3<lschylus was exhibiting in
the theatre, Aristides was present. A pas
sage in the play, which Plutarch has quoted,
describes in vigorous terms the sterUng
honesty of Amphiaraus, and as it wais pro
nounced all eyes were turned on Aristides as
the person to whom the description wais ap
plicable. This play, the " Persae " of jEschy-
lus, was exhibited B.c, 472, when the reputa
tion of Aristides had been long established.
Being appointed treasurer or inspector of
the revenue he exposed the peculations ef his
predecessors in office and of others, particu
larly Themistecles. In passing his accounts
he was convicted of peculation himself by
the contrivance of Themistecles ; but the
better part of the citizens became ashamed of
the afiGair, the penalty or fine was remitted, and
Aristides wais again chosen to the same office.
The mede in which he gave the Athenians a
practical rebuke during his second term of
office for their former treatment of him, as
told by Plutarch (c. 4.), seems rather difficult
to understand.
On the invasion of Attica by the Persians,
under Datis and Artaphernes, Aristides
was one of the ten Athenian commanders,
among whom Miltiades Avas the most dis
tinguished. Plutarch says that he set the
example of resigning his day of command to
Miltiades, for each general in turn had the
command for a day. Herodotus tells the
story of the generals resigning their com
mand to Miltiades in a different way. In
the great battle of Marathon (b. c. 490),
ThenUstocles and Aristides fought in the
Athenian centre, side by side, in their respec
tive tribes, and had to bear the brunt of the
battle. Herodotus says that the Athenian
centre was broken and put to flight, and that
the victory was gained by the two -wings.
He does net mention the name ef Aristides
In his account of the battle. Aristides was
entrusted with the care of the spoU, which
was strewed over the battle-field, and he main
tained his character for integrity under this
tempting opportunity of enriching himself.
In the year after the battle (b. c. 489) Aris
tides was elected archon eponymus or chief
VOL. HI.

archon, a circumstance which seems to show
that there w as nothing in his behaviour at the
late battle, if he was present there, which gave
any dissatisfaction. By his condnct in his
administration he acquired the appeUatlen ef
the Just. But the jealousy of 'Themistocles
and the universal dislike of mankind of that
which is greatly exalted above themselves,
brought on Aristides the punishment of exile,
or ostracism. The pretext was fear that he
would acquire toe great power in a demo
cratic state : the reason was envy and
jealousy. Ostracism was so called because
the citizens whe voted on the question of
banishing an obnoxious citizen wrote on a
tile or some such material the name of the
person whom they wished to ostracise, and
deposited it in a place set apart for the
purpose. Ostracism was not a punishment
for any misconduct er even fer reputed bad
character: it was called by the specious name
of an humbling and curtailing of pride and
excessive power, but it was a humane mode
of satisfying envy, which vented its ill-wUl
in a sentence of ten years' exile instead ef a
capital punishment (Plutarch, c. 5.).
A characteristic story is told of the conduct
of Aristides on this occasion. A fellow who
could net write, but, according to the consti
tution of Athens, was qualified to give his
vote en such matters as the banishment of an
honest man, handed his tUe to one of the
standers-by, and asked him to write en it
the name of Aristides. " Has Aristides done
you any wrong?" said the stranger. " None,"
repUed the feUow, " and I don't even knew
the man, but I am tired ef hearing him
always called the Just." Aristides took the
tile and wrote en it his own name. The
ostracism ef Aristides took place E. c. 483.
When Xerxes was advancing against
Athens with his mighty armament, the Athe
nians, according to Plutarch, recalled the
exiles, and among them Aristides, fearing
that he might side with the enemy, in which
they showed how little they knew the
character of the man. Both before his recall
and after it, he exerted himseff to rouse the
Greeks to oppose the enemy, and he zea
lously co-operated with his rival Themis
tecles fer the common safety. According to
Herodotus (viii. 79.), he was stiU in exile at
the time of the battle of Salamis ; and this is
consistent with the account given both by
Herodotus and Plutarch ef his passing over
from .Slgina by night, at great risk, to the
Grecian fleet stationed near Salamis ; and in
forming Themistocles that the Greeks were
completely hemmed in by the Persian ships,
and that the retreat to the Isthmus, which
Eurybiades, the Spartan commander, and the
Corinthians recommended, was impossible.
Dm-ing the sea-flght ef Salamis (b. c. 4S0)
which ensued, Aristides landed with some
Athenians on the small island of Psyttaleia,
which is in the narrow sea between Salamis
E E

ARISTIDES.

ARISTIDES.

and the Attic coast, and he put to the sword
all the enemy who had occupied the island.
After the victory it was Aristides, according
to Plutarch, who opposed the proposal of
Themistecles to saU te the HeUespont and
to cut off the retreat ef Xerxes by destroying
the bridge of beats over the channek Herodo
tus says that it was Eurybiades whe opposed
this scheme of Themistocles, and that he was
supported by the other Peloponnesian com
manders. The whole tenor of the narrative of Hero
dotus, aud much of that in Plutarch, is incon
sistent with the fact of Aristides being recalled
before the battle of Salamis ; and we must ac
cordingly assume that his recall took place
immediately after, Demosthenes {Against
Aristogeiton, 2.) observes that Aristides lived
in jEgina till he was recalled. Now he was
net recalled before the battle of Salamis, or at
least before his night visit te Themistocles ;
and, according to Herodotus, he withdrew
immediately after announcing to the generals
that they were surrounded by the Persian
fleet. His services at Psyttaleia were those
of a volunteer, and, if the narrative of Hero
dotus is true, he could not have been formaUy
recalled till after the battle. Plutarch, the
only authority for the recall of Aristides be
fore the battle, speaks of this fact in vague
and general terms, and if his words are to
be construed as evidence in favour of this
opinion, it must be observed that he imme
diately after contradicts himself by the narra
tive of Aristides coming ever from .ffigina in
the night, and by the words of the address to
Themistocles, which he puts into his mouth.
He represents him, indeed, as present at the
conference of the generals held after his
communication had been made, but still ais in
vited to it by Themistocles : and his descent on
Psyttaleia further appears in the narrative ef
Plutarch as the act of a volunteer, who w as per
mitted to aid the Athenians, but had no direct
share in the sea-fight. These remarks may not
be inappropriate, inasmuch as the date of the
recall of Aristides has been made in modern
times somewhat ef a controverted question.
It will add little te this argument te cite Cor
nelius Nepos, who says that the battle of
Salamis was fought before Aristides was re
called. Mardonius, who had been left in com
mand of the Persian land forces by Xerxes,
attempted to bribe the Athenians to desert
the cause ef the Greeks. The Spartans
fearing the result of the Persian proposal
sent ambassadors te Athens to offer the
Athenians a refuge fer their wives and
children, and food fer the older folks in the
present difficulties. No answer was made to
the Spartans, but they were invited to a
public meeting, where the Persian envoys
were present, and there they were told that
there was no sum large enough to bribe the
Athenians te desert the common cause. To
418

the Persians this noble answer was given :
" So long as this sun shall keep his accustomed
course, the Athenians will wage war with
the Persians for their ravaged country, and
for their violated temples which have been
burned te the ground." The narratives of
Herodotus and Plutarch substantially agree
here, but Plutarch attributes the answer to
Aristides, and Herodotus mentions no name
in particular. Aristides was perhaps one of
the Athenians who were afterwards sent to
Sparta to urge the reluctant Spartans to
send them aid to oppose the force of Mar
donius. At the battle of Platsea, b. c. 479,
he was commander-in-chief of the Athenian
force of eight thousand men. Inthe dispute be
tween the people ef Tegea and the Athenians,
both of whom claimed to occupy the left
wing of the allied army, he prudently yielded
to the claims of the Tegeatae, but the Spartans,
by acclamation, declared that the Athenians
merited the post. Herodotus, who gives the
substance ofthe arguments ofthe Tegeatae and
Athenians, does not mention the name of
Aristides: he merely speaks of him as in
chief command of the Athenian contingent.
After the victory at Plataea, a dispute arose
as te the arlsteia or prize of courage
between the Athenians and Spartans ; but
Aristides persuaded the ether Athenian
commanders finally to submit the matter to
the general body of the Greeks, and the prize
was given te the Plataeans. Aristides also
proposed and carried a measure for the estab
Ushment of the Eleutheria at Platiea, a fes
tival in commemoration of the deliveramce of
Greece from the invaider. This solemn cele
bration of ene of these great events of which
a nation may be justly proud, was still observed
at Plataea in the time of Plutarch, six hundred
years after the battle.
The victory at Plataea led to some con
stitutional changes at Athens, of which Aris
tides himself is mentioned as the mover. 1 fe
proposed and carried a measure for giving
equal civic rights to aU, ais Plutarch expresses
it, and making the archons eligible from the
whole body of Athenians without regard to
the former qualifications of birth and pro
perty. Such a change could hairdly be con
sistent with the political views of Aristides,
and it is described as a measure of expediency
in the actual circumstances of the state.
Aristides is mentioned by Thucydides as
one of the ambassadors to Sparta with The
mistocles and others, en the occasion of the
rebuUdiug of the AvaUs of Athens, which had
been destroyed by the Persians. The Spartans
wished te prevent the restoration of the walls,
but were outwitted by the cunning of Themis
tocles ; and it is no unfair inference from the
tenor of the narrative of Thucydides, that
Aristides had no objection to take a part in
deceiving those hollow alUes whose treachery
er timidity had weU nigh ruined the Grecian
cause (b. c. 478).

ARISTIDES.

ARISTIDES.

In the prosecution of the war against
the Persians, Aristides was sent out by the
Athenians in command together with Cimon.
The prudence of Aristides, by whose advice
Cimon was guided, won the affections of
the allied Greeks, who became disgusted at
the haughtiness and oppressive conduct of
Pausanias and the other Spartan comman
ders. Thus the Spartans, whe had the direc
tion of the operations against the Persians, lost
the affections of their allies, mamy of whom
shortly after prayed Aristides to assume the
command on behalf of the Athenians, and
went over to them (b. c. 477). During the
supremacy of the Lacedaemonians, the allies
had contributed sums of money towards the
prosecution of the war : they now prayed to
be taxed a reasonable sum according to their
respective states, and they requested the
Athenians to appoint Aristides to fix their
several contingents. He discharged this
delicate duty in a way that secured universal
approbation, and the aUies were well satisfied
with a taxation of four hundred and sixty
talents, which, under the administration ef
Pericles, was increaised by nearly one third,
and after the death of Pericles wais raised to
thirteen hundred talents, and also misap
plied. The sacred island of Delos was fixed
as the treasury of the confederate Greeks,
being a central place, and one which, by its
sanctity and independent position, was well
suited to the purpose. Subsequently, when
the Athenians were deliberating about re
moving the treaisury to Athens, Aristides, it
is said, observed that it was politic to do so,
but not just. This is given by Theophrastus,
quoted hy Plutarch, as an instance that Aris
tides, though scrupulously upright in his
private dealings and in all his adminis
tration, would still do things for the benefit
of his country which were not just, Plutarch
himself, however, has preserved an anecdote,
which belongs indeed to an earlier period of
the life of Aristides, of his preferring fair
dealing towards ether states to what he
considered beneficial to his own ; though it is
rather difficult to see how Athens would have
been a gainer by such a piece of treachery
at that time. However the story is this,
Themistocles had stated te the assembled
Athenians that he had a scheme which was
useful to the state, but it could not be made
public. Aristides was appointed to com-
mimicate with Themistocles. The scheme
was indeed a bold one, and as unprincipled a
design as an unscrupulous man ever con
templated : it was to burn the naval station of
the Greeks (Gytheium in Laconia, according
to other versions of the story), and thus
secure to Athens the supremacy in Greece.
Aristides reported that there could not be a
design mere advantageous to the state, nor
one more dishonourable. The assembly, it is
said, rejected the scheme upon the advice of
Aristides without further inquiry.
419

By putting Athens at the head of a Greek
confederation, Aristides became the founder of
that supremacy which Athens maintained for
about seventy years. The Greeks of Asia Mi
nor, ofthe islands, and of Thrace, thus became
attached to Athens as the leading state, and
the influence of the Spartans was again
limited to the Peloponnesus. By the terms
of the confederation Athens had no power
to interfere with the internal affairs ef the
various states, nor had she directly any
greater authority than the rest. Her influence.
however, derived from her superior power
and her acknowledged services in the Persian
wars was great, and it was maintained and
strengthened by the necessity for continuing
their operations against the Persians. A
foundation was thus laid for Athens acquiring
a political superiority over the islands and
the Asiatic Greeks, which afterwards became
a grievous tyranny. The prudence which
Aristides displayed in peaceably transferring
to his own state the supremacy which Sparta
had hitherto enjoyed among the confederate
Greeks, and the equity and wisdom of his
general administratien, te which every frag
ment ef antiquity bears testimony, entitle
him to be viewed as the most distinguished
statesman that CA'cr appeared among the
Greeks ; and if we look fer his parallel in
other times and countries, it will not be easy
to find a man who for courage and general
ship in the field, sound judgment and in
flexible integrity in the conduct ef public
affairs in times of the greatest difficulty, and
unspotted purity of private life, can be com
pared with Aristides the Just. Te have been
exempt from the vice of peculation was itself
a virtue at Athens : but to have been virtuous
when compared with upright statesmen in
ages more free from corruption is exalted
praise. If Aristides has his parallel in
modem times, it is George Washington.
The time and circumstances ef the death of
Aristides are uncertain. He died, according
to one account, while abroad on public
business, according to another at Athens, at
an advanced age, and in the enjoyment of
the good opinion of his fellow-citizens. It is
certain that he survived the banishment of
Themistocles, and his death may be fixed
with probabiUty about E. c. 468. He died,
ais he had lived, poer ; and was buried at the
public expense, which, ff not an evidence of
his poverty, must be taken as evidence of
his high character ; the fact is stated by
Demosthenes {Against Aristocrates, c 54.) as
a simple truth well known ; it is Plutarch
who says he did net leave enough to bury
him. His tomb was still in Phaleram in
Plutarch's time. His daughters were adopted
as the chUdren of the state, which gave them
in marriage and a portion with them. His
son Lysimachus received a sum of money
from the state, and a hundred plethra of
planted land (that is, land with vines and
E E 2

ARISTIDES.
olive trees on it), and a daily pension of four
drachmaj. It appears from Demosthenes
{Against Leptines, c. 24.) that the land was
in Euboea, and there is an inscription on a
sepulchral column in the British Museum
to the memory of Aristides ef Histiaea or
Estlaea (according to the inscription), the son
of Lysimachus, whe may be a grandson of
Aristides the Just. An Aristides, a son of
Lysimachus, is also mentioned by Plato
several times. The generosity of the state
was even extended to the remoter descendants
of the great Aristides, as appears from the
testimony of Demetrius Phalereus, quoted by
Plutarch. ( Plutarch, Aristides, who cites the
various authorities that he followed; C, Nepos,
Aristides ; Diodorus, xi, ; Demosthenes,
Against Leptines, c, 24, and the note of
F, A. Wolf) G. L.
ARISTTDES {'Apia-reiSris) of Athens,
was the author of an apology for the Chris
tians, which was addressed to the Reman
Emperor Hadrian. The period of Hadrian is
A, D, 117 — 138, The work of Aristides
is cited by Eusebius, Jerome, and SynceUus,
It is now lost, but there is a story referred to
by Fabricius of a copy once existing in a
monastery near Athens, ( Fabricius, Biblioth.
Grac vi, 39.) G, L.
ARISTTDES QUINCTILIA'NUS ('Ap.<r-
reiSris Ko'ivTiXiavds), a writer on music whose
work nepl Movo^LKijs, in three books, has been
preserved, and appears in the collection of
ancient mu.sical authors by Meibomius, Am
sterdam, 1652, 4te, Meibomius says that all
which is to be found in antiquity en music,
both morally and physically considered, is
contained in the werk ef Aristides with the
utmost eloquence and brevity.
It is not well known when Aristides lived.
He quotes Cicero, and does not mention
Ptolemy, whose " Harmonics " he could not
have helped mentioning, if he had known
them. But on the other hand Ptolemy dees
net quote him ; so that it is most probable
the tAVO lived nearly together. He is quoted
by Martianus Capella (a. d, 400), Of all the
writers en music he only mentions Aris
toxenus. (Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graca,
vol. ill,) A, De M,
ARISTI'DES ( 'ApiarelSvs ) of Samos,
Gellius (111, 10,), en the authority of M.
Varro, attributes to Aristides of Samos the
opinion that the moon returns " in exactly
twenty-eight days to that part ef the heavens
from which she has taken her departure."
But Fabricius suggests that " Aristides" is a
blunder, and that the name should be "Aris
tarchus." G, L,
ARISTI'DES {'ApiareiSns) of Thebes, one
ofthe most celebrated artists of antiquity, was,
according to PUny, the greatest master of ex
pression among the Greek painters. He first,
says Pliny, painted the mind, and expressed
the feelings and passions ef man, which the
Greeks call Ethe (^Sij) ; but in colouring
420

ARISTIDES.
he was rather hard. This statement of Pliny
however requires some modification, for ex
pression, as PUny describes it, and that too
in a great degree, cannot be denied to Polyg
notus of Thasos, Apollodorus of Athens,
Parrhasius, Timanthes, and many other pain
ters whe preceded Aristides, The works of Po
lygnotus at Delphi, the " Athenian Demos "
of Parrhasius, and the " Sacrifice of Iphigenia"
by Timanthes, were all widely celebrated
for their expression. Aristotle speaks of
the great power of expression displayed by
Polygnotus, whom, in this respect, he much
preferred te Zeuxis : ef Parrhasius, Quintilian
says he so circumscribed all things, that he
was called the "Legislator;" and of the power
of expression displayed by Timanthes in the
picture mentioned above, we have abimdant
testimony ; besides the " censumptis affec-
tibus" of QuintUian, and a simUar expression
of Cicero, we have the "tristitiae omnem
imaginem consumpsisset" of PUny himseff.
Pliny relates that when Alexander the
Great stormed Thebes, he was so struck with
a picture he saw there by Aristides, that
he ordered it to be sent te PeUa. The
picture represented a dying mother, who was
wounded at the sack ef a city, with a chUd at
her bosom ; and it was remarkable for the
expression of agony of the mother, lest the
chUd should suck blood instead of mUk from
her breast. Pliny mentions the rate of pay
ment which Aristides received fer one ef
his pictures, which, with seme other simUar
notices, shows that the ancient Greek painters
were as weU paid for their works as any of
the most favourite masters of modem times,
and perhaps even better. Aristides painted
an eatsel picture (tabula) fer Mnason, tyrant
of Elatea, of a Persian battle, containing one
hundred figures, fer which the prince paid
him ten minae per figure, or one thousand
minae for the piece, about three thousand six
hundred pounds sterUng : an immense price,
fer as the piece was an easel picture, the
figures most probably were smaU ; amd of
many of them perhaps only parts were seen.
The works of Aristides, however, appear to
have risen in value after his death. After
the capture of Corinth, b. c. 146, by L.
Mummlus, which was about two centuries
after the time of Aristides, AttaUus IIL,
king of Pergamus, bought a picture of
Dionysus and Ariadne by Aristides for six
hundred thousamd sesterces, about five thou
sand three hundi-ed pounds ; so great a price
that it excited the suspicions of Mummius,
who, imagining that the werk possessed
some hidden value not understood by him,
withheld it, notwithstamdlng the complaints
of Attalus, and sent it to Rome, where it was
dedicated in the temple of Ceres. Pliny
thought this picture was the first foreign
painting that was publicly exhibited in Rome;
but this is an error. Marcellus, long before
the time of Mummius, had many works of

ARISTIDES.

ARISTION.

art carried from Syracuse to Rome and
placed in the public buUdings ; many Avere
carried in procession in his triumph in B. c.
214. Fabius Maximus also, and Lucius
iEmillus Paullus, sent works ef Greek art to
Rome, after their respective victories. Poly
bius and Strabo both mention this picture of
Dionysus by Aristides : Polybius saw it,
and another, of Hercules with the tunic of
Deianira, by whom he does net mention,
lying upon the ground at Corinth, and some
of the soldiers of Mummius playing at dice
upon them. Strabo says he saw the Bacchus
and Ariadne in the temple of Ceres at Rome,
and that it was most beautiful, but he did not
see the other: the Bacchus was burned in
Strabo's time in the fire which destroyed
the temple of Ceres. The same king of Per
gamus, mentioned above, purchased another
picture by Aristides at the enormous price
of one hundred Attic talents, about twenty-
one thousand six hundred pounds sterling.
Pliny mentions many other werks by Aris
tides : — Running quadrigae ; huntsmen with
game; a suppliant, whose voice yeu could
almost hear ; portraits and ethers all in
various styles. He notices also an unfinished
picture of Iris, which was mere admired than
any of his finished pieces. He painted,
according to Polemon in his book on the
pictures of Sicyon, quoted by Athenaeus, also
light subjects, and he is classed with Nice-
phanes and Pausanias as a Pomograph or
painter of lascivious pieces. There was a
picture in the temple of Apollo at Rome, of
a tragic poet and a boy, by Aristides, which
was destroyed by a picture restorer, to whom
the praeter M. Junius had given it, to be
cleaned, before the celebration of the Apol-
linaria. Aristides is said te have been the inventor
of encaustic painting, but if it was invented
by an artist of this name, it must have been
some ether Aristides, for Pliny mentions as
encaustic painters several artists who lived
many years before Aristides ef Thebes. The
period of Aristides was from about b. c. 360
until B. c. 330; he was the contemporary of
Apelles, though somewhat elder. He was the
sen of Aristodemus, and the brother and pupU
of the celebrated Nicomachus. A painter of
the name of Euxenidas was also his master.
Pliny mentions three of his scholars : — his
two sons Niceros and Aristen, and a third
of the name of Aristides. (PUny, Hist
Nat vii 39., xxxv. 4. 8., 10. 36., 11. 39,
40.; QuintUian, Inst Orator. U. 13., xii. 10.;
Cicero, In Verr. v. 52. seqq.; Plutarch, Fa
bius Maximus, 22., Marcellus, 21. 30.; Strabo,
vni. p. 381.; Livy, xxvi 21.; Athenasus, xnn
p. 567. b.) R- N. "^V.
ARISTFNUS. [Aeistenus.]
ARI'STION {'ApuTTiav), according to
Athensus, a Peripatetic, and according to
Appian, an Epicurean phUosopher, who to
wards tbe end of his life made himseff tyrant
421

of Athens. It is a curious circumstance that
Athenaeus, who relates the history of his
early lffe, on the authority of Posidonlus, at
great length caUs him Athenion ; while
adl the ether writers, such as Plutarch, Dion
Caissius, Strabo, and Pausanias, mention him
under the name Aristion. Casaubon en
deavours to solve the difficulty by supposing
that his original name was Athenion, and
that on becoming an Athenian citizen, he
exchanged it for Aristion. He was the ille
gitimate sen of an Athenian citizen, Athe
nion, by an Egyptian slave ; but he subse
quently acquired such influence over his aged
father, that he left all his property to Aristion,
who was new enrolled as a citizen of Athens.
He married a young and handsome courtezan,
and with her devoted himself te the study ef
phUosophy. Subsequently he is said to have
hunted after pupils, and te have taught phi
losophy at Messene and at Larissa in 'Thessaly,
and having amaissed a large fortune by his
teaching he returned to Athens. Soon after
he was sent by the Athenians as ambassador
to Mithridates the Great, with whom he
formed an intimate acquaintance. In his
despatches te Athens he lost no opportunity
ef praising the power and character ef his
royal friend, with a view to induce the Athen
ians to shake off the dominion ofthe Romans,
and throw themselves into the arms ef Mi
thridates. Mithridates sent him te various
Greek towns te persuade them to abandon
the cause of the Remans. On his return to
Attica he was received by the Athenians
with the most extravagant distinctions ; and
thousands of persons ef all ages and sexes
went out of the city to meet the friend of the
great king. His exhortations and his eulo
gies of Mithridates encouraged the Athenians
to take up arms against the Remans. Aris
tion was appointed their general, and a few
days afterwards he assumed the tyrannis,
which he exercised with almost unparalleled
cruelty and avarice. He surrounded himself
with a strong body-guard, and put to death
all whe seemed to stand in his Avay, or had
any friendly disposition towards the Remans.
The gates ef Athens were strongly guarded,
so that none of his devoted victims might
escape ; and those who had escaped were
hunted by his soldiers like wild beasts. After
having robbed and plundered as much as
he could at Athens, he formed the design of
seizing the treasures preserved in the temple
of Apollo in Delos. With this view he sent
out ApelUcon ; but his attempt was frus
trated by the Roman general Orobius, who
protected Deles, [.\pellicon.] Thus far
Athenaeus has given his account from Posi
donlus, Appian gives a different account of
the manner in which Aristion became tyrant
of Athens. " When Archelaus," he says,
" the general of Mithridates, came to Greece
with a fleet and army, he took possessien of
Delos, which had revolted from Athens, amd
£ E 3

ARISTION.

ARISTIPPUS.

gave the treasures which he foimd there to
Aristion to convey them to Athens, under
an escort of two thousand soldiers." With
the assistance of these troops," Appian adds,
" Aristion made himself tyrant of Athens."
[Archelaus.] While Aristion wasexercis-
ing his cruel tyranny at Athens, which fortu
nately dees net appear te have lasted very
long, Sulla, in B.C. 87, arrived in Greece, and
laid siege to Athens and Piraeus. The city
of Athens, which was defended by Aristion
and his party, held out to great extremities;
but after great sufferings on the part of the
besieged, the city feU into the hands of Sulla
in the spring of B.C. 86. Aristion and a
small number of his followers withdrew to
the AcropoUs, affter having set fire to the
Odeum, to prevent Sulla making use of the
wood in the building for the siege ef the
AcropoUs. Aristion and his band were soon
compeUed by famine to surrender te the
enemy, who ordered them te be put to death ;
Aristion himself was dragged forth to ex
ecution from the sanctuary of Athena (Mi
nerva), where he had taken refuge. (Athe
naeus, V. 211 — 214.; Pausanias, i 20, § 3,
&c, ; Appian, De Bello Mithrid. 28. 30. 38,
39. ; Plutarch, Sulla, 13, 14. 23, ; Dion Cas
sius, Fragm- 173, ; Strabo, ix, 398,) L. S,
ARI'STION QApMT'iav), an ancient Greek
surgeon, whe probably lived in the second
or first century b, c, as he is quoted by
Heliodorus, and himseff mentions Nympho-
derus. He was the sen ef Pasicrates, and in
the passage in the Greek text of Oribasius (in
the fourth volume of Angelo Mai's " Classici
Auctores e Vaticanis Codicibus Editi," p, 152.)
where he is called his father, we should evi
dently read " son " instead of " father," He
is mentioned by Oribasius as having introduced
an alteration in the machine that was invented
by Nymphedorus and went under his name,
which was partially adopted afterwards by
Heliodorus. Oribasius has also preserved an
extract from Arlstien's writings, in which he
criticises an opinion of his father Pasicrates,
though (as Heliodorus thinks) without suffi-
c'ent reason. (Oribasius, De Machinam, cap,
24,26. pp. 180. 183. ed. IL Steph. ; Angelo
Mai, Class. Auct, &c., vel. iv. pp. 146. 152,
153. 158.) W. A. G.
ARISTIPPUS QApiaTciriros), the son of
Aritades, was a native of the Greek colony
of Cyrene in Africa, and belonged to a rich
family. The year of his birth is tmknewn,
but his period is fixed sufficiently by the
fact that he came te Athens when a young
man to listen te Socrates, and was one of his
hearers tUl his death (B.C. 399). Arlstippus,
it is said, was in the island of iEglna at the
time when Socrates was executed : he was cer
tainly net present en the occasion, as we learn
from the Phaedon ef Plato. It is, however,
rather difficult to give se much significance te
the words of Plato, in which this fact is
barely stated, as seme ancient and modern
422

writers have done. He was stiU Uving in the
year B. c. 366 ; but the time of his death is not
recorded. The Ufe of Arlstippus by Diogenes Laer
tius is very barren of informatien about him ;
and it is chiefly filled with anecdotes of his
sharp sayings anS. repartees. According to
the scanty and scattered notices of Arlstippus,
he rambled to various countries, and was a
visitor at the court of the younger Dionysius
of Syracuse at the same time with Plato.
He also visited Asia, where he fell into the
hands of Artaphernes, a Persian satrap, who
may be the person mentioned by Diodorus
(xiv. 79.). The brief notices that we have of
Arlstippus represent him as a, man who
viewed pleasure ais the object of Ufe, and
showed by his example that he considered
the enjoyments of sense as part ef a wise
man's pursuit. He indulged in the luxuries
ef the table, and frequented the company of
prostitutes. Among his favourites was the no
torious Lais, whose birth is fixed at b. c. 421,
and consequently the period of her greatest ce
lebrity wUl agree very well with the period
of Arlstippus. He made himself as happy
as he could in aiU circumstances. His philo
sophy suited the views of Horace in his ma
turer age, who characterises the versatiUty of
his character by one happy line ; and in an
other passage he represents Arlstippus as
trying to subject circumstances to himself,
and not submitting te circumstances ; where,
as Wieland observes, Horace intends te mark
the opposition between the Cyrenaic and the
Stoic system. (Horace, Ep- 1. 1. 18., and the
note in Wieland's translation.)
Arlstippus left a daughter. Arete, who re
ceived instruction from him. He taught her
to despise all superfluity.
Arlstippus is caUed the founder of the
Cyrenaic school, but there is no clear proof
that he left behind him any systematic expo
sition ef his doctrines. If he did leave any
written system, it seems to have attracted
little attention, for, as Ritter observes, Aris
totle makes no mention of Arlstippus in his
Nicomachean Ethics, though he there ex
amines the subject ef pleasure, and the va
rious opinions upon it. Yet he is saiid to
have had hearers ; and he was the first of the
Secratics who received pay for his instruc
tien. Xenophon, in his "Memorabilia" (i
2. 6.) is supposed to aUnde to Arlstippus
when he says that Socrates had many follow
ers, both citizens amd foreigners, and that he
never took any thing for his instructien, but
that some persons who got a Uttle of his phi
losophy for nothing, sold it dear enough to
others, Xenophon disliked Arlstippus, and
accordingly, as Diogenes Laertius observes,
he makes Socrates tUrect his discourse on
temperance agaunst Arlstippus, Diogenes is
alluding to the first chapter of the second
beek ef the " SlemorabiUa " of Xenophon.
Aristotle calls Arlstippus a Sophist, pai-tly,

ARISTIPPUS.

ARISTIPPUS.

apparently, because he took pay for his
teaching, but mainly in reference to his
doctrines. The school of Arlstippus derives
its name from Cyrene, not simply because
the founder was born and perhaps taught
there in his old age, but because his succes
sors also lived there or in the neighbouring
parts. Arlstippus taught his daughter Arete,
and Antipater of Cyrene. Arete taught her
son, the younger Aristippus, who is named
the Mother-taught (MtjtpoSISuktos), and is
said to have systematised his grandfather's
doctrines. It is not an easy matter to give
any thing like a satisfactory exposition of a
man's opinions when they are only known by
brief and unconnected notices of ancient
¦writers ; and the difficulty is increased, if it
be true, as some authorities say, that Aris
tippus wrote nothing at all, for in that case
the writings which were attributed to him
are spurious, and his opinions may have been
misrepresented. The passage of Diogenes,
however, in which he states that Sesicrates
of Rhodes and others say that Aristippus
wrote nothing at all, is somewhat ambiguous :
it may mean that he was not the author of
any Diatribes, of which class of writings seme
authorities attribute to him six. Diogenes
says that there were extant under his name
three books of Libyan history, addressed or
sent to Dionysius, and twenty-five tUalogues,
some written in the Attic and others in the
Doric dialect ; but he only enumerates twenty -v
two or twenty-three, at most, including a
letter to his daughter Arete, which is in
serted in the list. Diogenes also quotes an
other list of his writings, according to Sotien
and Panastius, which is somewhat different
from the first. But whether Aristippus wrote
any thing or not, there was a traditional
opinion of his life and doctrines generally
established in antiquity which is sufficiently
consistent, and the doctrines of the elder
Cyrenaic school, as they are exhibited by
various authorities, may perhaps be viewed
in the main as those of Aristippus.
Though the elder Cyrenalcs may have
called their philosophy simply Ethical, it
appears from Simplicius that it was not
purely ethical ; for they divided Ethic into
five parts, things to be sought and things to
be avoided ; the feelings or affections {irdBri) ;
the practical or acts ; that which treats ef
causes ; and that Avhich treats of proef Thus
the fourth wovUd have a physical, and the
fifth a logical character. Aristippus de
spised the mathematical sciences because
they were net concerned any way about
good and evil (Aristotle, Metaphys. Ui. 2.),
which is consistent with the doctrines of
Socrates, who set little value on pursuits
that had not a moral object. Also, when
Aristippus taught that pleasure was an end
in itself, he did not differ from his master so
much in the expression as in the meaning
that he gave to it.. In the dialogue with
423

Socrates (Xenophon, Memorab. ii. 1.) we are
left to infer that he was ene of the hearers of
Socrates who were intemperate in sensual
pleasures and unwilling te endure privation
or fatigue. But the dialogue itself, se far as
the words put into the mouth of Aristippus
show, does not prove any intemperance
against Aristippus ; it shows that he was
averse to all labour and trouble that he could
avoid ; that consequently he shunned public
affairs, thinking that a. man had enough to
do te look after his own ; he would neither
have power nor be a slave, but he selected
a middle path to happiness ; he would be a
citizen nowhere, and a stranger everywhere.
Consistently with this he taught, as we learn
from ether authorities, that a man should be
content with what he has, and net allow him
seff te be tormented by desire ; that he
should enjoy pleasure, but net let himself be
enslaved by it. When reproached with his
visits to Lais, he answered in terms which
implied that the pleasure which he sought in
her company had net the mastery over him ;
he possessed Lais, but was net possessed by
her. He taught that a man had the mastery
over pleasure, when he could enjoy it with
out excess ; he who simply abstained from
gratification had not such mastery. In
short, it was his practical philosophy to make
the best ef all things, to enjoy all pleasures in
moderation. He considered that the absence of pain was
not pleasure, nor yet did he admit that the
absence of pleasure was pain. Both pain and
pleasure were positive, and they consisted in
motion ; but neither privation of pain nor
privation of pleasure was motion. Pleasure
was a smooth motion, pain was a rough
motion. One pleasure, he said, was not su
perior to another, by which he apparently
meant te say that there was no standard by
which the several sensations called plea
surable could be measured, and if this is
admitted, he could consistently say that all
pleasures were equal. He did net limit the
notion ef pleasure te the mere sensuous
impressions ; he admitted that the mind wais
also affected by them, and he instanced this
by an example in which the same sensuous
impression might in one case give pain, and
in another case might give pleasure.
The Cyrenalcs admitted right understand
ing {^p6vi\(Tis) te be a good, net desirable in
itself, but for its results ; for the wise man
will not be affected by envy, nor love, nor
superstition, and he will net fear death. All
pleasure from a single act was complete
in itseff, for, the pleasure being obtained,
there remains nothing farther to desire, so
far as concerns the act which produced it.
Pleasure was an end {TeXos), Happiness and
pleasure differ thus : pleasure is partial ; hap
piness is composed of all the partial pleasures,
and consequently happiness in itself is not
desirable, for it only consists of the partial
E £ 4

ARISTIPPUS.

ARISTIPPUS.

pleasures ; that is, the whole caUed happiness
is made up of the parts called pleasures ;
and it comprises beth pleasures past and
pleasures to come.
The Cyrenaic doctrine in its logical conse
quences could hardly be said to admit the
ordinary terms virtue and vice. Pleasure was
a good, and whatever might be the act which
gave pleasure, the pleasure in itself was de
sirable and a good ; yet, as already observed,
pleasure was net te master a man, but a man
ought to master pleasure ; he need not ab
stain, but he must knew how to enjoy. Ac
cordingly, a man must be governed by rules
of prudence, and he wUl thus obtain the
most pleasure. It is imputed to the Cyre
nalcs that they maintained that there was
by nature {ipio-ei) neither just, nor virtuous
{KaX6v), nor vicious (aiVxpti''), but that all
these things were by institution and custom
{v6p(f Kai eSei). This doctrine was also
imputed te Archelaus, but in his system its
meaning is very doubtful. If from this
formula we infer that the Cyrenalcs main
tained that all the acts to which men usuaUy
give the name of vice and virtue are in
different, we might impute to them what they
did not mean. He who denies that there is
a virtuous and a vicious by nature expresses
himseff as obscurely as he whe asserts that
there is, er as he who speaks ef actions being
in themselves vicious or virtuous. "When a
man adds that positive institution and cus
tom determine the virtuous and the vicious,
and that nothing else does, he becomes
tolerably inteUigible. Institution and cus
tom imply society and political community,
and without society and political community,
the notion ef virtue and vice cannot be con
ceived ; for virtue and vice are names fer
acts which affect ethers besides the deer.
The dogma which is attributed to the Cyre-
iiaics in ne Avise excludes any ultimate test of
right and wrong ; it does not even exclude
the theory of a moral sense. It affirms as
an historical fact the mode in which the vir
tuous and the vicious have been determined,
by institution and custom : it dees net affirm
what is the remote origin ef institution and
custom. If it were intended simply as an
answer to the dogma that the virtuous and
the vicious are determined by nature {(pioei),
it was a goed answer to am unmeaning ex
pression ; for those among the Greeks who
thought loosely used their werd Nature in
as vague a manner as our werd Nature is
new used by many writers.
The Cyrenalcs maintained that the condi
tions of the mind {irdBn) are objects of
knowledge, but not the things on which these
conditions depend. Accordingly, says Di
ogenes, they meddled not with physics, be
cause such things cannot be comprehended.
Sextus Empiricus states that they also ad
mitted no sameness of judgment in men,
and they maintained that men only used the
424

same names te express their several judg
ments : thus men use the common terms
" white " and " sweet," but they have no
common " white " or " sweet," but every
man has his own feeling or affection {irdSos).
Accordingly aU that we know is the affec
tions of the mind ; or rather what each man
knows, is the affections of his own mintL The
opinions of the various followers of Aris
tippus are mentioned in the articles Anni-
cERis, Arete, Hegesias, Theodorus. Five
extant letters attributed to Aristippus ap
peared among the Epistles of the Secratics,
which were collected by Leo Allatius, Paris,
1637, 4to. : they are also contained in the
collection ef I, C, Orelli, Leipzig, 1815, Svo.
All these letters are generaUy admitted to be
spurious. (Diogenes Laertius, 11., Aristippus,
and the copious notes of Menage ; Ritter,
Geschichte der Philosophic, vok U., where mo.st
of the references are coUected. Hoffman's
Lexicon Bibliographicum contains a list of the
modem works which treat of Aristippus.
The Latin dissertation of H. Kunhardt, Helm
stadt, 1795, 4to, is an attempt to refute the
calumnies brought against Aristippus. Wie
land, in his " Aristippus amd some of his
Contemporaries," has also treated on the
subject of Aristippus.) G. L.
ARISTIPPUS. [Aratus of Sicyon.]
ARISTO, TITUS, was a contemporary
of the Roman jurists Celsus, Neratius, and
.Cassius, and himself a distinguished jurist.
He lived in the time of Trajan, and was a
friend ef the younger Pliny, who, in his let
ters, speaks of him as possessed ef every
virtue, a man ef great leaming, and well
acquainted both with the Jus Privatum and
PubUcum : he was actively engaiged as a
teacher of law and as a legal adviser. PUny
does not mention any writings by bim ; nor is
he mentioned by Pomponius {Dig. 1- tit 2.
s. 2.). Gellius (xi. 18.) mentions an Aristo
as a man of learning and a jurisconsult, and he
quotes from a boek by him, without saying
what was the subject of it, a passage in
which it is stated that the ancient Egyptians
permitted theft He is several times men
tioned in the Digest as having written
notes on the Libri Posteriores of Labeo, on
Cassius, of whom he was a hearer, and
Sabinus. He is ence quoted {Dig. 29.
tit. 2. s. 99.) as having written or drawn up
the decrees of Fronto (Aristo in Decretis
Frontianis er Frontonianis), who, it is con
jectured, may be M. Cornelius Fronte, the
colleague of Trajan in the consulship a. d.
100 : but it is uncertain what is meant by
these decrees. A passage in the Digest
(24. tit 3. s. 44.) seems to show that he
wrote Digesta, of which the fifth boek is
there referred te. His Responsa, or opinions,
are several times cited by Pomponius among
others {Dig- 23, tit 2, s, 40), from which,
however, it cannot be inferred that he wrote
books of Responsa, A passage in the Digest

ARISTO.

ARISTOBULUS.

(29. tit. 7. s. 9.) from Marcellus, quotes the
opinion of Aristo, to which is added the
opinion of Ulpian by way of correction of
that of Aristo. In this passage it has been
proposed to change Ulpianus into JuUanus ;
but it seems much more Ukely, as Zimmem
suggests, that the words " Ulpianus notat"
have been added by the compilers of the
Digest. Another passage in the Digest
(37. tit 5. s. 6.) presents a difficulty: it is
an extract from the twenty-third book of
Julian's Digesta, and is introduced by the
words " Salvius Aristo JuUano suo salutem,"
according to which one Salvius Aristo asks
the opinion of Julian on a legal question, and
Julian gives his answer, beginning with the
usual formula " Respondi." If the reading
is correct, this Salvius Aristo is a different
person from Titus Aristo.
Aristo belonged to the Stoic sect, and, con
sistently with his principles, he endured a
long iUness with great patience. A daughter
of his is mentioned by Pliny. (PUny, Epist
i. 22., viii 14.; Gui. Grotius, Vita Juris
consultorum, See- ; Zimmern, Geschichte des
Rom. Privatrechts, where the authorities
are collected.) , G. L.
ARISTOBU'LUS (Dl'jUIODnX), a
Jewish Peripatetic philosopher, of the priestly
race, who lived in Egypt in the reign of
Ptolemy PhUometor and his successor Pto
lemy Physcon (b. c. 181 to 117). He ap
pears to have held the office ef tutor to the
son ef this king, for whose information he
wrote a commentary en the law of Moses,
from which, though it no longer exists as a
separate work, we find nmnerous extracts in
Eusebius {Praparatio Evangelica, Ub. xiii,
uap, 12, &c. and also in his " Ecclesiastical
History," lib, vii cap. 26. 32.). In this
latter werk of Eusebius he has, however, been
made contemporary with Ptolemy Phila
delphus, and one of the Seventy who at the
command of that king are said to have trans
lated the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek.
This is given by Eusebius en the authority of
Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea, who, in his
" Canon Paschalis," cites from the commen
tary of Aristobulus on the boek of Exodus,
a passage concerning the exact time for cele
brating the passover. But the name of Aris
tobulus does net occur among the seventy-
two ef whom a Ust is given, as they were
chosen from each of the tribes ef Israel, in
the work ef Aristeas, which history ef the
Seventy translators, although no-w generally
admitted to be apocryphal, is, notwithstanding,
the only authority for their names. The
substitution, therefore, of Philadelphus for
Philometor is probably a mere error of some
transcriber. 'The supposition is made stiU
mere probable from the manner in which we
find Aristobulus cited by Clemens Alexan
drinus, who in one passage says he lived in
the time of Ptolemy PhUadelphus, and in
Another in that of Ptolemy PhUometor, Avhile
423

he evidently is citing the same person, and
net an elder and a younger Aristobulus, as
Bartolocci, Le Leng, and others have done,
who have made two of this ene, and supposed
two commentaries en the law. R. GedaiUa,
in the " ShalsheUeth Hakkabbala," has also
faUen into the error ef making Aristobulus
contemporary with Ptolemy PhUadelphus,
but he adds te his account ef this phUosopher
that he has heard that his great commentary
was still in existence, and in the Florentine
Library, and that it consisted ef a hundred
chapters. The great aim ef his commentary,
if we may judge from the numerous extracts
in Eusebius {Praparatio Evangelica), was
to prove to the king that the Greek philo
sophers, especially Pythagoras, Plate, and
their foUowers, were indebted to the Hebrew
Scriptures fer their wisdom. We find men
tion made ef Aristobulus in the Maccabees
(IL chap. i. V. 10.), where he is called King
Ptolemy's master, and of the stock of the
anointed priests, and he is congratulated with
the ether Jews in Egypt on the deliverance
of his people from the power ef Antiochus
Sidetes. This is stated te have been in the
"one hundred fourscore and eighth year"
ef the Seleucid aera (called in the first book
ef Maccabees the a;ra " of the kingdom of
the Greeks "), A. D. 124, in the reign of
Ptolemy Physcon, the successor ef Ptolemy
PhUometor. The fragments of Aristobulus
are considered by some critics net te be
genuine. (Eusebius, Praparatio Evangelica,
lib. xlii. c. 12., lib. vlii. c. 9., Eccles. Hist.
lib. vii. c. 32. ed. Valeslus, 1. 287., Paris,
1659 ; Clemens Alexandrinus, ed. J. Potter,
i. 410., Oxford, 1715; Le Leng, Biblioth.
Sacra,'ii. 614, 615.; Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr.
i 215,216. ; Fabricius, iJ/i/io/A. Graca, i 121.,
11. 280. ; Bartoleccius, Biblioth. Mag- Rabb.
i. 466 — 468. ; R. GedaUa, ShalsheUeth Hak
kabbala, p. 104,) C, P. H,
ARISTOBU'LUS, a Greek painter of
merit (non ignobilis) noticed by Pliny, who
calls him Aristobulus Syrus. {Hist- Nat
xxxv. 11. 40.) R. N. W.
ARISTOBU'LUS I. {'ApioTiSovXos) was
the eldest son ef Joannes Hyrcanus. In
his father's Ufetime, Arlstobulus and his
brother Antigonus were appointed to conduct
the siege ef Samaria. Antiochus Cyzicenus
came te the relief of Samaria, but he was
defeated by Aristobulus. When Hyrcanus
took Samaria, he levelled it with the ground.
On the death of Hyrcanus, a. o, 107, Arls
tobulus, according te Josephus, assumed the
title of king ; but Strabo says that the title
was first assumed by Alexander Jannaeus,
who succeeded Aristobulus b. c, 106. Aris
tobulus attempted to secure himself in his
power by murdering his mother, to whom
Hyrcanus had left the government, and im
prisoning his brothers Alexander Jannaeus,
and the rest, except Antigonus, He associated
with him in the government his brother An-

ARISTOBULUS.

ARISTOBULUS.

tigonus ; but the suspicious temper of Aris
tobulus was soon excited by his wffe and
her partisans, and Antigonus was assassi
nated B. c. 106. [Antigonus, sen of Hyrca
nus.] Aristobulus took possessien of part
of the district of Ituraea, and compelled the
inhabitants to be circumcised, and to adopt
the Jewish law. Remorse for his crimes
combined with feeble health hastened the
end ef Aristobulus, after one year's reign.
Aristobulus received the name of PhiUiellen,
or friend of the Greeks. On the death of
Aristobulus, his wife Salome, whom the
Greeks called Alexandras released his bre
thren from prison, and made Alexander Jan
naeus king. (Josephus, Jewish Antiq. xiii.
10, 11,, Jewish War, i 2, 3. ; Strabo, p. 762.
ed. Casaub.) G. L.
ARISTOBU'LUS IL ('ApicrT<(§ouAos) was
the younger sen of Alexander Jannaeus,
and the brother of Hyrcanus II. Alexander
Jannaius left his kingdom to his wife Alex
andra, who governed for nine years. Upon
her death, b. c. 70, Aristobulus made war on
Hyrcanus, whom his mother had created high-
priest in her Iffetime, and defeated him in
an engagement. The result was a treaty, by
which Hyrcanus resigned the high-priest
hood, and retired to a private station. After
wards Hyrcanus, being made suspicious of his
brother's designs by Antipater the Idumaean,
took refuge at Petra with Aretas, an Arabian
chief, en the advice of Antipater. In the
year B. c. 65, Aretas, being persuaded by the
promises of Hyrcanus, invaded Judaea, de
feated Aristobulus, and besieged him in
Jerusalem. Aristobulus bribed Scaurus, the
legate of Cn. Pompeius, who was then in
Armenia, and Scaurus compelled Aretas te
retire from Jerusalem. Aristobulus pursued
the enemy, who were defeated at Papyron
with the loss of six thousand men. Shortly
after Pompeius came to Damascus, and
heard the cause of Aristobulus and Hyrcanus,
who came before him to settle their dis
putes. Pompeius told them that he would
settle their affairs when he visited their
country, and in the mean time he bade
them be quiet Aristobulus, apparently mis
trusting Pompeius, returned to Judaea. On
the approach of the Roman generad, who
followed him, Aristobulus took refuge in the
fortress ef Alexandreium ; but he surren
dered it and ether fortresses to Pompeius, on
receiving his orders, and retired in iU hu
mour to Jerusalem, to prepare for war. Hew-
ever Aristobulus met Pompeius as he was
advancing en Jerusalem, and promised te give
him money, and receive him into the city.
Pompeius sent AulusGablniuswithArlstobulus
to receive the money and the surrender ef the
city ; but the partisans of Aristobulus in
Jerusalem would net execute the terms which
Aristobulus had agreed to, and shut out
Gabinius. On this Pompeius put Aristobulus
in confinement, and began the siege of Jeru-
426

salem. The city was easily taiken, but the
Romans did not get possession of the temple
tiU the third month of the siege. Pompeius
destroyed the strong walls, gave the kingdom
te Hyrcanus, and carried off Aristobulus
with his son Antigonus and his two daugh
ters to Rome : Alexander, the other son,
made his escape (b. c. 63). Aristobulus
appeared in the procession of the captive
kings which graced the triumph of Pompeius.
In the year E. c. 57, he made his escape from
Rome with his son Antigonus, and renewed
the war in Judaea. He was again taken
prisoner, with his son Antigonus, iu the city
ef Machaeras, which he had fortified, by
M. Antonius, who was acting under Gabi
nius, and sent back te Rome. In the year
E. c. 49, JuUus Caesar, having entered Rome
after the flight of Pompey and the senate,
wishing to make some use of Aristobulus,
sent him into Judaea with two legions to
operate against the party of Pompeius, but
Aristobulus was poisoned by some partisans
of Pompeius : the circumstamces are not
particularly related. His son Alexander
was put to death about the same time at
Antioch by A. Metellus Scipio. [Aretas ;
Alexander and Antigonus, sons of Aris
tobulus.] (Dion Cassius, xxx-vU. 15., xxxix.
56., xli. 18. ; Plutarch, Pompeius, c. 45.,
Antonius, c. 3. ; Josephus, .Jewish Antiq. xlii.
16., xiv. 1 — 6., Jewish War, i. 5, 6, &c.) G. L.
ARISTOBU'LUS Q ApmTdSovXos), the sen
ef Alexander, the son ef Aristobulus IL,
amd of Alexandra, the daughter ef Hyrca
nus II. He was also the brother of Mariamne,
the wife of Herod the Great. Herod had
appointed an obscure person, Ananelus of
Babylon, high-priest, but his mother Alex
andra was indignant at this preference ever
Aristobulus ; Mariamne also, by her entrea
ties, urged her brother's claim. Aristobulus
was accordingly made high-priest in the
seventeenth year ef his age. His mother
had already used the influence ef Cleopatra
with M. Antonius for this purpose, but with
out amy result. Herod, who suspected Alex-
andi-a of intriguing against his power, kept
her under constraint ; and though he de
tected her in an attempt to escape te Egypt
Avith Aristobulus, he affected to pardon her.
Alexandra and her son had procured two
coffins, in which they had placed themselves
to be carried away in the night, and they
were caught in the very act. But Herod re
solved en the death of Aristobulus, and he
shortly after caused him to be drowned at
Jericho, while he was bathing, a. d. 35. [He
rod the Great.] (Josephus, Jewish Antiq.
XV. 2, 3, &c., Jewish War, i. 22, &c.) G. L.
ARISTOBU'LUS ('Apio-TtJeoiyAos), the son
of Aristobulus, a Greek historian whe ac
companied Alexander the Great on his ex
pedition into Asia, and afterwards wrote a
history of it, which Arrian in the introduction

ARISTOBULUS.

ARISTOBULUS.

to his " Anabasis " declares to have been one
of the best and most trustworthy accounts,
and which for this reason he used as one of
his principal authorities. Plutarch, Lucian
and Athenaeus speak of an Aristobulus who
was a native of Cassandria ; and from the
manner in which they mention him it is pro
bable that he is the same as the historian of
Alexander the Great. If this supposition is
true, we obtain some further information
about the historian, fer Lucian relates that
Aristobulus of Caissandria began writing his
history at the age of eighty-four, and that he
died at the age ef upwards ef ninety. His
work appears to have had great reputation,
for it was not Arrian alone whe took it fer
his guide, but Plutarch in his lffe of Alex
ander also made extensive use of it, and
Strabo follows him to a great extent in his
description ef India. Athenaeus also fre
quently refers to him. The werk is now I
lost. Lucian {Quomodo Hist, conscribenda
sit, c. 12.) relates an anecdote of AristobtUus
which is incompatible with what he himself
says in the passage alluded to above, and also
with what we know of Aristobulus from
other sources. Hence Westermann concludes
that Lucian made a blunder in using the
name Aristobulus, where he ought to have
named Onesicritus. Plutarch in his treatise
" On Rivers " (c. 14.) quotes the first book
of a work pf Aristobulus " On Stones," and
in another passage {Parallela Minora, c. 32.)
a work in several books on the history of
Italy ; but it is uncertain if these two works
are the productions of the same person, and
also whether this person is the same ais the
historian of Alexander. There is also an
Epicurean philosopher, a son of Epicurus,
who is mentioned by Diogenes Laertius and
Plutarch. (Ste. Croix, Examen Critique des
Anciens Historiens d'Alexandre le Grand, p.
42, &c. ; Vossius, De Historicis Gracis, p.
89. ed. "Westermann.) L. S.
ARISTOBU'LUS (; ApurrSSovKos), son ef
Aristobulus and Berenice, and grandson
of Herod the Great. He was the brother of
Herodes Agrippa L and of Herodes, king of
Chalcis. His wife was lotape, the daughter
of Sampsigeramus, king of Emesa, by whom
he had a daughter of the same name. Aris
tobulus was with Flaccus, the proconsul of
Syria, when his brother Agrippa came to visit
Flaccus. The two brothers were not en good
terms; and Aristobulus accused Agrippa
before Flaccus of taking a bribe from the
people of Damascus in order to use his in
terest with the proconsul in their favour m
a dispute with the Sidonians _ about limits.
The charge was proved against Agrippa,
and Flaccus dismissed him. Aristobulus was
one of those who remonstrated with Petro
nius, the governor of Syria, when he was
preceeding to set up CaUgula's statue in the
temple at Jerusalem pursuant to the em
peror's command. Aristobulus always lived
427

in a private station. The year of his death
is not recorded. (Josephus, Jewish Antiq.
xvui 5, 6., XX. 1., Jewish War, i 28., ii.
10, 11.) G. L.
ARISTOBU'LUS (^ApwTdgavXos), the son
of Herod, king of Chalcis, the grandson
of Aristobulus, the husband of Berenice, and
the great-grandson of Herod the Great. He
was made king of the Less Armenia by the
Emperor Nero in a. d. 55, the first year of
his reign, and in a.d. 61, some part of the
Great Armenia was added to his dominions.
In the fourth year of Vespasian, A. D. 73,
Aristobulus, king of Chalcis, joined Cae-
sennius Paetus against Antiochus IV., king of
Commagene. This is probably the son of
Herod of Chalcis, and we may conclude that
his father's kingdom had been restored
to him. Agrippa II. had, about a.d. 52,
exchanged Chalcis for other possessions.
Aristobulus married Salome the daughter
of Herodias, by whom he had three sens,
Herod, Agrippa, and Aristobulus, of whom
nothing is known. (Josephus, Jewish Antiq.
xviii 5., XX. 8., Jewish War, vii. 7. ; Ta
citus, Annal. xiii. 7., xiv. 26.) G. L.
ARISTOBU'LUS, the husband ef Be
renice, and son of Herod the Great. [An
tipater, son of Herod the Great ; Herod
the Great,]
ARI'STOCLES {' ApmT0KXr)s). This name
was common te several Greek philosophers
and literary men of little note. In regard to
most of them we know nothing more than
that persons of the naime wrote books now
lost : treatises on poetry, on music, on dia
lects, on " paradoxa," a work en the polity
of Lacedaemon, and an Italian history. Aris
tocles of Lampsacus, a Stoic philosopher,
composed four books of commentaries on
Chrysippus. Aristocles of Rhodes was a
writer on grammar and a contemporary of
Strabo. One Aristocles is said to have been
the author of an epigram in the Greek
Anthology (Brunck, ii 98.) ; and this is the
only extant compositien ef any person bearing
the name, except the fragments of the author
next to be mentioned. (Fabricius, Biblio
theca Graca, ed. Harles, iii 471. 542.;
Meursius, i?!'/>//o(/!eca Graca, "Aristocles";
Vossius, De Historicis Gracis, lib. iii)
Aristocles of Messene ('Apio-ToicA^s
lAe(X(r-l]vios), was a Peripatetic philosopher,
and the author of a work in ten books on the
history of philosophy. Eusebius has pre
served several copious extracts from the
seventh and eighth books ef this treatise.
The doctrines of particular philosophical
sects are discussed in all of them, except one,
which is a defence ef the conduct of Aristotle
against his detractors. Suidas mentions like
wise a werk of Aristocles en ethics in nine
books, a rhetorical treatise, a comparison
between Plato and Homer, and a work on
the god Serapis. Doubts have been thrown
out as to the age in which this Aristocles

ARISTOCLES.

ARISTOCLES.

lived; but the questien should have been
held as decided, since passages were referred
to from SimpUcius and Saint Cyril of Alex
andria, in beth of which Aristocles the Peri
patetic is unequivocally asserted to have been
the teacher ef Alexander Aphrodisiensis.
He must therefore have lived about the end
of the second century in our asra. (Suidas,
ApuTTOKXris, XoyrdSiis ; Eusebius, Praparatio
Evangelica, lib. xiv. cap. 17 — 21., lib. xv.
cap. 2. 14. ; Simplicius, Commentaria in
Aristotelis Libros De Calo, p. 34., Venice
(Aldus), 1520, fol. ; Cyrlllus, In Julianum,
lib. ii. p. 61. (in Spanheim's Julian) ; Jonsius,
De Scriptoribus Historia Philosophica, lib. iv.
cap. 8.)
Aristocles of Pergamus CApio-roKX^j
TlepyapnjvSs) is named by Suidas, and is ene
of the Sophists or Rhetorical Teachers whose
lives were written by the elder Philostratus.
He lived in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian.
At first a disciple ofthe Peripatetic philosophy,
he became a student of rhetoric at Rome
under Herodes Atticus ; and his change ef
pursuits was attended by a change of habits,
from excessive slovenliness to finical neatness.
Returning to his native city, he there opened
a rhetorical school, which gained high repu
tation, and was strongly recommended by
Herodes. Aristocles wrote epistles, decla
mations, two treatises en rhetoric, and an ad
dress to the emperor. His own eloquence is
described by his ancient biographer as having
been marked by perspicuity and Attic purity,
but as deficient in animation and oratorical
power. (Suidas, 'ApuTTOKXris ; Philostratus,
Vita Sophistarum, lib. ii. cap. 3. ; Wester
mann, Geschichte der Beredtsamkeit in
Griechenland und Rom, i. 212.) W. S.
ARTSTOCLES ("Apio-TOKA^s), a sculptor
of Cydonia. He was the author of a group,
which was dedicated at Olympia by Evagoras
of Zancle, representing Hercules fighting
with an Amazon on horseback for her girdle.
Pausanias observes that Aristocles must be
classed among the most ancient sculptors of
Greece, and that it was not known when he
lived ; but he says it was clear that it was
before Zancle received the name ef Messene.
This change was made, according to Pau
sanias, at the time when Anaxilas and the
Messenians took Zancle in the twenty-ninth
Olympiad, which would be about six hundred
and sixty years before Christ. But there is
a difficulty as to the date ef Pausanias, for
the time when the name of Zancle was
changed te Messene is fixed by other au
thorities at E.c. 494. [Anaxilas, Tyrant
of Rheglum.] Aristocles is called of Cy
donia {KvSaividTris), which signifies that he
was a native of Cydonia; but no town of
this name is known except Cydonia in Crete.
It seems clear that Pausanias thought that
the date of the name of Messene being
changed was shortly after the close of the
second Messenian war. This war terminated
428

with the capture of Ira by the Lacedaemonians
in the first year ef the twenty-eighth Olym
piad. Pausanias therefore means to assign
to Aristocles a very early period, and to place
him before the twenty-ninth Olympiad, and
no argument can be drawn from the fact of
his giving the wrong date to the establish
ment of the name of Messene. Whether he
is right or wrong as to that point, he intends
te assign this Aristocles to the period of the
second Messenian war. By calUng him a
Cydonian he also means to consider him as
belonging to the eld Cretan schoek (Pau
sanias, V. 25., iv. 23. ; Thucydides, vi 5.)
Another Aristocles was a native of Si
cyon. He was the son and scholar of Cleoetas :
and Cleoetas was the sen of an Aristocles
(Inscription in Pausanias, vi. 20.). He exe
cuted a group which was at Olympia, the
offering of one Gnothis, a ThessaUan, repre
senting Jupiter and Ganymede. If Aristocles
began to be eminent about the seventy-first
Olympiad, or four hundred and ninety years
before our aera, he practised his art during
the most glorious period of Greek sculpture.
He is said by Pausanias not to have been
much inferior to his brother Canachus ; but
there were two sculptors of the name Cana
chus. Synnoiin was a pupU of Aristocles.
Synnoon was the father and teacher of Pto-
lichus of iEglna. Pantias is mentioned by
Pausanias as the seventh disciple in succes
sion from Aristocles the Sicyonian ; but in
another place he calls Pantias of Chios, (and
he appears to mean the same person,) the
pupil of his father Sestratus. Accordingly
the following series of Sicyonian sculptors
is made out by Thiersch — Aristocles, the
father of Cleoetas ; Cleoetas ; Aristocles and
his brother Canachus ; Synnoon ; his son
Ptolichus ; Sostratus ; and his son Pantias.
Thus Pantias is the seventh from the first
Aristocles, beth ends ef the series being
included. Here then we appear to have a chronolo
gical series of sculptors of the Sicyoniaui
school from Aristocles to Pantias. If this
series is considered well-established, and we
could determine the period ef any one in the
series, the chronology of the elder and the
younger Aristocles might be made out with
reasonable probabiUty ; but there are great
difficulties. SiUig conjectures that Aristocles
of Cydonia and Aristocles the father of
Cleoetas are the same person ; which is hardly
possible, if we assume the period of Aristocles
ef Cydonia, as fixed by Pausanias, and there
is no other evidence for it. The subject
is discussed at great length by Thiersch,
Epochen der Bildenden Kunst, p. 278. second
ed. (Pausanias, v. 24., vi, 9,) R, W. jun.
ARI'STOCLES ('Apio-To/tAijs). an ancient
Greek physician, who must have lived some
time in or before the first century after
Christ, as he is mentioned by Andromachus.
None of his writings are now extamt, but a

ARISTOCLES.

ARISTOCRATES.

few of his medical formulae have been pre
served by Galen. One of these is also men
tioned by Dr. Cramer in the first volume of
his " Anecdota Graeca Parisiensia " as being
contained in a MS. in the King's Library at
Paris. W. A. G.
ARISTOCLI'DES, a Greek painter of
uncertain time, enumerated by Pliny among
the artists of second rank (primis proximi).
He painted the temple of Apollo at Delphi.
{Hist Nat xxxv. 11. 40.) R. N. W.
ARISTO'CRATES {' AparTOKpdTns), a
Greek historian, was a sen of Hipparchus
and a native of Sparta. He wrote a work on
the history of Laconia {AaKuvmd), of which
Athenaeus quotes the fourth boek. It appears
to have commenced with the earliest times,
and must have carried the history at least as
far as the war of the Achaeans under PhUo
poemen against Sparta, B.c. 188. Respecting
the period of Aristocrates nothing is known,
except that it must have been after B.c. 188.
(Athenaeus, iil. 82. ; Plutarch, Lycurg-us, 4.
31., PhUopoemen, 16. ; Stephanus Byz., 'ASdv-
Tis.) L. S.
ARISTO'CRATES {'AparToicpdrris), an
ancient Greek grammarian, whe is mentioned
by Andromachus, and who must therefore
have lived seme time in er before the first
century after Christ. He appears to have
given some attention to pharmacy, as a few
medical formulae are ascribed to him by
Galen, one of which is probably the same as
that which is mentioned by Dr. Cramer in
the first volume of his " Anecdota Graeca
Parisiensia " as being presei-ved in a MS. in
the Royal Library at Paris. (Galen, De
Compos. Medicam- sec. Locos, lib. v. cap. 5.
tom. xii. p. 878, 879, ed. Kiihn.) W. A. G.
ARISTO'CRATES (^ApurroKpdTris), an
Athenian, who is known only from an ora
tion of Demosthenes against him. He had
induced the senate of Athens te pass a decree
respecting Charidemus of Oreus in Euboea,
Avhe commanded a mercenary force in the
service of Athens, and who had been
honoured with the Athenian franchise. The
decree of Aristocrates was to this effect,
that if any one should kill Charidemus, he
should be expelled from aU the states aUied
with Athens ; and that if any town or person
should offer shelter to the murderer, they
should be treated as outlaws. Respecting
the object of this biU see Charidemus.
Euthycles took up this decree in the as
sembly of the people, and showed its iUegal
and pernicious character in the oration
against Aristocrates, which is stUl extant,
and was written for him by Demosthenes.
It was delivered in B.C. 352. {Argumenta
on Demosthenes contra Aristocratem ; Taylor,
Prafatio ad Orat Demosth. contra Aris
tocratem.) ,!'• S-
ARISTO'CRATES {' ApurTOKparns) is the
name of two of the eariy kings of Orcho
menus in Arcadia, a town which was ruled
429

by kings as late as the time of the Pelepon
nesian war.
Aristocrates L, a sen of .Slchmls. He
is said to have treated the Arcadians haugh
tily, and to have violated the virgin priestess
of Artemis Hymnla at the altar of the god
dess. But this act proved fatal to him, for
as seen as the Arcadians heard of it they
stoned him to death, and to prevent a similar
crime for the future, they made a law that
henceforth the priestess of Artemis should be
a married woman. The tomb of Aristocrates
was shown on a road leading from Orcho
menus as late as the time ef Pausanias. He
was succeeded by his sen Hicetas. (Pausa
nias, vUi 5. § 8., 13. § 4.)
Aristocrates IL, a son ef Hicetas and
grandson of Aristocrates I., seems to have
reigned about the period from b. c. 680 to
640, during the time of the second Messenian
war against Sparta, The Arcadians sup
ported the Messenians in this war, but Aris
tocrates, who had the command ef the Arca
dians, allowed himself to be bribed by the
Lacedaemonians, in consequence ef which the
Messenians were defeated in a battle near
the great ditch {MeydXri Tdippos). "When his
treachery became known seme time affter,
the Arcadians stoned him to death like
his grandfather. [Aristomenes.] Plutarch
states that he was concealed fer twenty
years before the Arcadians punished his
crime. His body was thrown beyond the
frontier of his kingdom, and a piUar was
erected in the sanctuary of Apollo Lycius
with an inscription recording his treason,
which is preserved in Pausanias. According
to a tradition which Pausanias heard in Ar-
catUa, the family of Aristocrates was excluded
from the throne of Orchomenus ; Polybius
states that the whele famUy was extirpated.
But neither statement seems to be correct,
fer we know from other sources, that Aris
tocrates was succeeded by his son Aristo
demus, who ruled over Orchomenus and a
great part of Arcadia. (Pausanias, iv. 17.
I 4., 22. § 2, &c., viii. 5. § 8. ; Polybius,
iv. 33. ; Strabo, viii. 362. ; Plutarch, De his
qua sero a Numine puniuntur, 2. ; Diogenes
Laertius, 1. 94. ; K. O. MiiUer, Dorians,
i7. §11.) L, S.
ARISTO'CRATES {'ApurTOKpdTns), a son
of ScELLiAS, and am Attic statesman who acted
a prominent part at Athens during the latter
part of the Peloponnesian war. He was a man
of considerable wealth and influence, and be
longed to the oligarchical party, which estab
lished, in B.C. 41 1, the government ofthe Four
Hundred, of which he himself was a member.
But he appears never te have had any great
faith in the oligarchs, for he amd Theramenes
were in the end the principal persons who
brought about the overthrow of the oligar
chical government. In B.C. 407, when Al
cibiades, after his return to Athens, was
appointed commander-in-chief of the Athe-

ARISTOCRATES.

ARISTODEMUS.

nian forces, Aristocrates (Diodorus and C.
Nepos mention Thrasybulus in his stead)
and Adimantus were elected te command the
land forces under him. But soon after, when
the people ef Athens were dissatisfied with
Alcibiades, and appointed ten new generals
te supply his place, Aristocrates was one of
them. In the following year, b. c. 406, Aris
tocrates was one of the unhappy commanders
in the battle of Arginusae, and after his re
turn to Athens, he and several of his col
leagues were tried and put to death. There
is a passage in the " Birds " of Aristophanes
(125.) where he plays upon the name
Aristocrates. (Plate, Gorgias, p. 472. A. ;
Thucydides, viii. 89. 92. ; Xenophon, Helle
nica, i. 4. § 21., 5. § 16., 6. § 29., 7. § 2.
34. ; Diodorus Siculus, xui. 69. 74. 101.; Ly
sias, Against Eratosthenes, p. 126. ; Demos
thenes, Against Theocrines, p. 1343. ; Com.
Nepos, Alcibiades, c 7.) Ij. S.
ARISTODE'MUS {'ApurrSSripios). Besides
the writers of the name of Aristodemus who
are here particularlj' mentioned, others are
spoken of as authors, without any further indi
cations which enable us to identify them. The
following is a Ust ef them. 1. Aristodemus,
the author ef a collection of fables (Plutarch,
Parallela Minora, 35.). 2. Aristodemus, a
Platonic philosopher and contemporary of
Plutarch (Plutarch, Adversus Colotem, 1.).
3. Aristodemus, the author of TeAota 'A-nopprj-
fioj/euiuaTa (Athenaeus, vi 244., viii 338. 345.,
xiii. 5S5.). 4. Aristodemus, the author of a
work en inventions (nept Evp-qpidTicv, Cle
mens Alexandr. Stromata, 'i. p. 133.). 5.
Aristodemus, the epitomiser of a work of
Herodian, which he dedicated to ene Danaus,
whe is likewise unknown. (Suidas. 'Apitr-
T6S71P-OS-) L. S.
ARISTODE'MUS {'Api<rT6Snpios)- There
were three Greek artists of this name. A
painter, probably ef Thebes, whe lived in the
early part ef the fourth century before Christ.
He was the father of two of the most cele
brated paiinters ef Greece, Nicomachus and
Aristides ef Thebes. [Nicomachus ; Aris
tides ef Thebes.]
A statuary, ef uncertain country, whe
probably lived shortly after the time of Alex
ander the Great, for he made a statue of Se
leucus, king of Babylon, which was most likely
a portrait. He made also, according to
Tatian, a statue of iEsop the fabulist ; this,
however, cannot have been a portrait from the
life, if Tatian alludes to the same Aristode
mus whe made the statue of Seleucus. Aris
todemus made likewise statues of philoso
phers, wrestlers, and charioteers.
The third artist ef this name was a painter
of Caria, and the contemporary, and for four
years the guest, not hest, as seme have said,
of the elder Philostratus. Aristodemus lived,
therefore, about the time ef Nero. He wrote
a book, comprising notices of the most emi
nent painters ef the cities in which painting
430

had chiefly flourished, and of the kings whe
had encouraged the art (Pliny, Hist. Nat.
xxxiv. 8. 19., xxxv. 10. 36.; Tatian, Orat
adversus Gracos, p. 55. ; Philostratus, Imag.
in Proamio.) R. N. W.
ARISTODE'MUS QApurrSSni^os) of Alex
andria, is quoted in the Scholia on Pindar,
and may be the same as the one whom
Athenaeus, without stating his native place,
mentions as a commentator on Pindar, who
is often referred te in the scholia to that
peet. (Scholia Ad Pindari Isthmiaca, i. 11.;
Athenaeus, xi. 495.) L. S.
ARISTODE'MUS ('ApHrTiJSjj/ior), a son
of Aristomachus, was, according to a Lace
daemonian tradition, the leader of a band of
HeracUdae into Peloponnesus, and the first
Heraclid king of Sparta. He married Ar-
geia, a daughter of Autesion, who bore him
twin sons, Eurysthenes and Procles, and
shortly after their birth Aristodemus died.
The more common tra<Utien, however, was,
that Aristodemus never reached Sparta, and
that his sons Eurysthenes and Procles were
the first Heraclid kings of Sparta, for it is
said that when the HeracUdae were about to
embark at Naupactus fer the Peloponnesus,
Aristodemus was kiUed by a flaish of light
ning, or that he was killed at Delphi by
Apollo for having consulted Heracles (Her
cules) about the return ef the HeracUdae in
stead ef the Delphic god. Pausanias speaiks
of a tradition which he thought more pro
bable, according te which Aristodemus was
murdered by the sens ef Pylades and Electra,
who belonged to the dynasty which raled at
Sparta previous to the conquest of the coun
try by the HeracUdae. (ApoUodorus, U. S.
§ 2, &c. ; Pausanias, iii 1. ^ 5. ; Herodotus,
vi. 52. ; Xenophon, Agesilaus, 8. § 7.) L. S.
ARISTODE'MUS q ApiaT6^pa,s) of
Athens, a tragic actor, and contemporary of
Philip II. of Macedoniai, and Demosthenes.
Of his talents as an actor no particulars are
knoAvn ; but he took a prominent part in the
political affairs of his time. He belonged to
the Macedonian party at Athens, and endea
voured te persuade his feUow-citizens to pre
serve peace with Macedonia, as the only
means of saving themselves. Demosthenes,
therefore, was his opponent and he treats him
as a traitor to his country. The Athenians sent
him repeatedly as ambassador te King PhUip,
and the king on one occasion sent him as his
ambassador te Athens Avith friendly promises.
(Demosthenes, De Corona, p. 232., De Falsa
Legatione, p. 344. 371. 442., Philippica, in.
p. 150. ; Cicero, De Re Publica, iv. 11.) L. S.
ARISTODE'MUS ('ApiirTiiSijitioj), a tyrant
ef Cum A in Campania, and a contemporary
of Tarqulnius Superbus, the last king of
Rome. He was a son of Aristocrates, and
belonged te a distinguished famUy. He was
surnamed by his feUow-citizens Malacus
(MoAaKiis). He first distinguished himself

ARISTODEMUS.

ARISTODEMUS.

above aU his Greek countrymen in a battle
against the Umbrians, Daunians, and other
Italian tribes. After the Adctory, disputes
arose as to who wais to receive the prize of
bravery, for the government of Cuma was in
the hands of the aristocracy, who wished to
honour Hippomeden, a man of their own
party, while the people and all the impartial
judges declared that the honour was due to
Aristodemus. This induced Aristodemus to
place himself at the head of the people, whose
faveur he contrived to win, and thus became
obnoxious to the aristocrats. In this state
Cuma is said to have remained for nineteen
years, untU in the twentieth after the battle
aigainst the Umbrians, the inhabitants of
Aricia, whe were besieged by the Etruscans
under Aruns, the son of Porsenna, soUcited
the aid of Cuma. The nobles thought this
a favourable opportunity for getting rid ef
Aristodemus and the most turbulent part of
their opponents. An army was accordingly
formed of the populace and placed under the
command of Aristodemus. He defeated the
Etruscans, was honoured and richly rewarded
by the Aricines, and haistened home. His
valour and the munificent presents which he
distributed among the people gained their
favour. When the remainder of the army
of Aristodemus returned to Cuma and was
informed of the object of their rulers in send
ing them out, they were inflamed with in
dignation. A conspiracy was formed, and
whUe the senators were assembled to receive
the report of the expedition, the conspirators
rushed into the senate-house and murdered
all whe were present. The other members
of the ruling party concealed themselves er
took to flight, and Aristodemus proclaimed a
democracy. But he demanded the exercise
of. unlimited power for a period sufficient to
enable him to regulate the constitution, to
distribute lands among the people, and to
cancel all their debts. After having de
prived all the citizens of their arms, ostensi
bly fer the purpose of preventing bloodshed,
and put to death all who refused to comply
with his demand, he assumed the tyrannis,
which he secured by forming a guard of two
thousand of the lowest and most desperate
persons, by sending the surviving sens ef the
nobles into the country, and compelling them
to perform servUe labour fer the murderers
of their fathers, and by systematically des
troying all manly virtue and energy among the
citizens of Cuma. When he thought himself
perfectly secure, he abandoned himself to
cruelty. His ptmishment, however, reached
him in his old age. The sons ef the mur
dered nobles, whe were dispersed in the rural
districts about Cuma, had grown up to man
hood, and Aristodemus, whe feared that they
might attempt to recover possession of Cuma,
resolved to put them all to death. But his
plan was betrayed ; and forming a con
spiracy with the assistance of numerous
431

Campanians they ravaged the country round
Cumai. One ef them, assuming the appear
ance of a deserter, went te Aristodemus, and
premised to lead him in the ensuing night
by a secret path to a place where he might
take the conspirators by surprise. Aristode
mus sent an army with the guide, but as the
army was on its march, the conspirators made
their way te the town of Cuma by another
road. They entered the town, massacred
the body-guard of the tyrant, whom they
surprised in their sleep, and put te death
the tyrant and his chUdren and friends with
the most atrocious tortures ; and Cuma was
restored to freedom. This must have hap
pened after the year B. c. 492, since Aris
todemus survived Tarqulnius Superbus, and
inherited his property ; and all writers agree
in stating that the Roman king spent the
last years of his lffe at Cuma, at the com-t ef
Aristodemus. Plutarch represents Aristode
mus as assisting the Romans against the
Etruscans, who endeavoured to restore the
Tarqulns. (Dionysius Halicam. vii. p. 418 —
427. ed. Sylburg ; Plutarch, De Virtutibus
Mulierum, p. 261, ed, Frankfurt; Diodorus
Siculus, Fragm. lib, vii, ; Suidas, 'ApiffTtiSrjfios ;
Livy, 11. 21, 34.) L, S.
ARISTODE'MUS {'ApiarT6Sr,p.os) of Elis,
a Greek writer te whom Harpocration refers
as an authority forthe number ef the hellano-
dicae in the Olympian games. He is probably
the same as the Aristodemus mentioned by
TertulUan and Eusebius. (Harpocration, 'EA-
XavoUKai ; TertulUan, De Anima, 46. ; Euse
bius, Chronicon, i. p, 37, ; SynceUus, p, 370,
ed. Dindorf.) L. S.
ARISTODE'MU-S {'ApurrdSripios), tyrant
of Megalopolis, was a sen of Artylas, and a
native of Phigalia, but he was adopted by
Tritaeus, a powerful Megalopelitan, and thus
became a citizen of Megalopolis. He lived
in the reign ef Antigonus Gonatas (b. c. 283
— 240), and appears to have made himself
tyrant of Megalopolis through the influence
of the Macedonian king. The MegalepoU-
tans honoured him, nevertheless, with the
surname ef Chrestus (Xprjo-Ttis), which shows
that his rale was net oppressive. During his
reign the Lacedaemonians, under their king
Acretatus, the son of Areus I., invaded the
territory of Megalopolis. A fierce battle en
sued in which many were slain on both sides,
but Aristodemus gained the day, and the
Spartan king, Acretatus, was among the dead,
B. c. 265. Afterwards, the time is uncertain,
Aristodemus was assassinated by emissaries
ef Ecdemus and Demophanes, two patriotic
citizens of Megalopolis, and friends of young
PhUopoemen. The septUchral mound ef
Aristodemus existed in the neighbourhood of
Megalopolis in the time of Pausanias. (Pau
sanias, viii. 27. 36. ; Plutarch, Philopcemen,
.. 1.) L. S.
ARISTODE'MUS {'ApurriSripos), a Mes
senian, of the house of .Slpytus, distin-

ARISTODEMUS.

ARISTODEMUS.

guished himself during the first war between
the Messenians and the Lacedaemonians, the
commencement of which is fixed by Pausa
nias at B.C. 743. [Aristomenes.] The
war had been carried en above five years
without any decisive advantage when the
oracle was constdted by the Messenians.
The answer was, that a virgin ef the house
of iEpytus should be sacrificed to the gods
of the lower world. After the daughter
of Lyclscus had been declared unfit to be
sacrificed on account of her being a sup
posititious child, Aristodemus offered his
own daughter. When the sacrifice was
to be performed, a young Messenian who
was betrothed to the maid, opposed her being
sacrificed, and maintained that he had higher
claims upon her than her father : but his re
monstrances were of no avail ; and when aU
hope of saving the girl had vanished, he as
serted that she was no longer a virgin, but
was with child by him. The enraged father
immediately killed his daughter, and dis
proved the lover's assertion by opening her
body. Some were now ef opinion that the
death of the daughter of Aristodemus could
not be regarded as a sacrifice, but that it was
a murder committed by Aristodemus ; and
the people would have avenged the crime
upon the lover, ff the seer Epebelus, the
Messenian king Euphaes, and the whele
house of the .ffipytlds had net declared the
sacrifice to be valid. When the news of the
oracle and its fulfilment reached Sparta, great
alarm prevailed, and hostilities were sus
pended for some years. At last, however,
favourable signs encouraged the Spartans te
renew their attacks upon the Messenians, and
to lead their army against Ithome, the forti
fied stronghold ef the Messenians. A battle
was here fought which was not decisive ; but
the Messenian king Euphaes was wounded,
and soon after died. As he left ne heir to
the throne, Aristodemus was elected king ef
the Messenians in preference to two ether
candidates, and notwithstanding the opinien
of some, that as the murderer of his daughter
he was unfit to rule. This happened about
E. c, 729, Aristodemus treated his people
kindly, respected the magistrates, and kept
up a good understanding with his aUies, the
Arcadians, Sicyonians, and Argives. The
war against Sparta was continued, and in the
fifth year of his reign Aristodemus defeated
the Lacedaemonians in a great battle. After
this beth parties consulted the oracle. The
answer given to the Messenians became
known at Spartai, and through the cunning of
Qilbalus the Spartans anticipated the Messe
nians in complying with the command ef the
oracle, and in thus turning it te their own
advantage. Various prodigies now portended
the approaching ruin of the Messenians, and
Aristodemus, alarmed by them, as well as by
reflecting on the death of his daughter, killed
himself upon her tomb, after a reign of six
432

years and seme months. A few months after
this event the Messenians were obliged to
evacuate Ithome, and to sue fer peace, after
the war had lasted twenty years. (Pausa
nias, iv. 9 — 13. ; Diodorus, Fragmenta Vati
cana, p. 7. ed. Dindorf; Eusebius, Praparatio
Evangelica, v. 27.) L. S.
ARISTODE'MUS {'ApiaroSv/ws) of
Miletus, a general ef Antigonus, king of
Asia, who in b.c. 315 sent him with one
thousand talents te Peloponnesus for the
purpose of strengthening his friendship with
Polysperchon and his sou Alexander, of rais
ing an army of mercenaries, and of making
war upon Cassander, who had formed a
coalition with Lysimachus and Ptolemy, the
sen of Lagus, against Antigonus. On his
arrival in Laconia, Aristodemus obtained
permission from the Spartans to raise troops
in Peloponnesus, and soon had an army of
eight thousand men. He had an interview
with Polysperchon and Alexander, con
nected their interest with that of Antigonus,
and appointed Alexander commander-in-
chief of Peloponnesus, but at the same time
he advised him to sail to Asia te assure the
king ef his friendship. Cassander was new
declared a public enemy by the soldiers of
Antigonus, and the Greek towns of which he
held possession were proclaimed free. After
these declarations Alexander wais sent back
te Peloponnesus by Antigonus with five hun
dred talents. Ptolemy, the ally ef Cassander,
who was no less anxious to win the faveur of
the Greek towns, sent Polyclitus with fifty
ships to Peloponnesus to make war upon
Aristodemus and his allies. Cassander, who
heard of the exertions made by Aristodemus,
at first endeavoured to gadn ever Polysper
chon, but this attempt faiUng, he marched
with an army through Thessaly and Boeotia
into Peloponnesus, and took several towns.
The state of Macedonia, however, obliged
him te return. After his departure Aris
todemus and Alexander marched about Pelo
ponnesus, and endeavoured to prevaU on the
people te expel the Macedonian garrisons,
and recover their liberty. Ne sooner was
Cassander informed of this, than he sent a
messenger to Alexander, and promised to
leave him in the chief command of Pelo
ponnesus, and to honour him with other dis
tinctions, if he would desert the cause of
Antigonus and enter into alUance with him.
Alexander was prevailed upon, and after his
defection Aristodemus went in b.c. 314 to
jEtolia to induce the inhabitants of that
country to take up the cause of Antigonus.
Having obtained from the jEtoUans a
body of mercenaries he returned to Pelo
ponnesus, where he foimd Cyllene besieged
by Alexander. Aristodemus compelled him
to raise the siege, and also made himself
master of several other places which were
occupied by Cassander's garrisons. The in
habitants of Dyme, the most western Achseau

ARISTODEMUS.

ARISTODEMUS.

city, were engaged in a struggle with the
Macedonian garrison in their citadel. Alex
ander hastened to the assistance of the gar
rison, forced his way into the town, and made
great havoc among the citizens. Fear now
kept the Dymaeans quiet for a time, but when
Alexander had left their country, they re
newed their attacks upon the citadel, which
was reduced by the assistance of Aristo
demus, who came to aid them with his mer
cenaries. The garrison of Cassander and
aU who supported them were put to death,
and the town of Dyme restored to free
dom. In B. c. 306, when Demetrius, the
sen of Antigonus, had defeated Ptolemy at
Salamis in Cyprus, he sent Aristodemus with
the news of his victory to his father, and
Aristodemus was the first te salute Antigonus
king. After this time we hear no more of
Aristodemus. (Diodorus Siculus, xix. 57 —
66.; Plutarch, Demetrius, e. 17.) L. S.
ARISTODE'MUS {' AparrSS-niios) of Nysa
in Caria, a Greek grammarian, who was at
an advanced age when Strabo, the geographer,
was a young man, and received instructien
from him at Nysa. He was a son of Mene
crates, and a pupil of the celebrated gram
marian Aristarchus. Respecting his writings
nothing is known.
There is a second Aristodemus of Nysa
whom Strabo calls a relation {a,ve^i6s) of the
former, and who was somewhat younger than
his namesake. He was likcAvise a gram
marian, and taught rhetoric in various places,
as at Nysa, Rhodes, and at a mere advanced
age at Rome. In the last place Cneius and
Sextus, the sens of Pompey the Great, are
mentioned among his pupUs, and Pompey
himself had at an earlier time received
instructien from Aristodemus. One of these
two Arlstodemi (which is uncertain) wrote
an historical work {iaropiaC), ef which the
first book is quoted by Parthenius en some
story connected with the early history of the
lonians in Asia. The real subject of the
work is unknown. (Strabo, xiv. 650. ; Scho
liast ad Pindari Nemea, vii. 1.; Parthenius,
Erotica, 8.; Varro, De Lingua Latina, x. 75,
ed. Muller; SchoUa ad Homeri Iliad, ix. 354.,
xiu. 1.) L. S.
ARISTODE'MUS {' ApurrSSripos), a
Spartan, and one of the three hundred with
whom Leonidas resisted the Persian host at
Thermopyla; in b. c. 480, before the path was
shown te the Persians which led over the
mountains to the pass ef Thermopyla?. Aristo
demus and Eurytus had been dismissed from
the army by Leonidas, as they were suffering
from a disease ofthe eyes, and were staying
in the neighbouring town ef Alpeni Accord
ing to another tradition Aristodemus had been
sent en an embassy by Leonidas, and lingered
on his return in order not to be obliged to
take part in the battle against the barbarians.
When it became knoAvn at Alpeni, that
the Persians had crossed the mountains,
VOL. IIL

Eurytus put en his armour, and commanded
his helot (slave) te conduct him to his com
rades, with whom he feU in the glorious fight.
Aristodemus returaed to Sparta, but he was
scorned by his fellew-cltlzens, declared in
famous {drip-os), and was branded as Aristo
demus the Coward. In this miserable con
ditien he lived till the battle of Plataea in
b. c. 479, in which he endeavoured to wipe off
his disgrace by extraordinary bravery, and
hoped te meet with a glorious death. He fell
in the battle, but although he surpassed aU
his countrymen in courage on this occasion,
he received none of the distinctions with
which his comrades were honoured. (Hero
dotus, vii 229 — 231., ix. 71.; M\ia.a, Histor.
Animal, iv. 1.; Suidas, 'ApurrdSij/xos.) L. S.
ARISTODE'MUS ('Api<j-T<i57)^os) ef
Thebes in Bceotia, a Greek author who
wrote a work on Thebes {OriSdiKd), which is
often referred to by the ancients, and in
which he seems te have treated chiefly en
the antiquities of his native city. It consisted
of at least two books. (ScheUa ad Theo-
critum, vii. 103; Scholia ad Euripid- Phceniss.
162, 1120,withValckenaer'snote, 1126, 1163.;
Scholia ad Apollonium Rhodium, ii 906.;
Suidas, 'Opio\il}'ios Zexis-) L. S.
ARISTO'DICUS {'ApiiTToSiKOs), an epi
grammatic poet, a native of Rhodes. All his
works have perished with the exception of
two smaU epigrams written in the Doric
dialect. They are contained in the Greek
Anthology (vii 189 and 473, ed. Tauchnitz).
ARISTO'GENES. [Callicratldas.]
ARISTOGI'TON {'ApicrToyeircv), an
Athenian orator and demagogue, was a con
temporary of Demosthenes, and an adherent
ef the Macedonian party. The scattered
notices which haA'e been preserved in regard
to his lffe concur in conveying a very un
favourable impression of his character. He
was caUed " the Deg," a title which his
friends and himself, as it should seem, pro
fessed to accept as descriptive ef his Avatchful
attention te the interests of the people ; but
his adversaries in his lifetime, as weU as
critics and historians in later times, applied
the term te him in a derogatory sense. His
turbulence Involved him frequently in dis
grace and danger ; and at length he was con
demned to die, and was executed in prison.
Phooion, the virtuous chief of his party, en
being invited to visit him in his dungeon,
was advised by some of his friends to decline
the invitation : " Nay," answered he, " where
could I have greater pleasure in seeing this
person ? " 'The orations of Aristogiton are
said te have been numerous ; but they were
not included in the Alexandrine canon, and
nothing of them is new extant 'They were
long, however, referred te by the Greek
teachers of rhetoric, usually in terms of con
temptuous ridicule, er with censures of the
author's conduct. Hermogenes (by whom,
F F

ARISTOGITON.

ARISTOMACHUS.

as weU as by his scholiasts, and by Apsines,
Aristogiton is mentioned repeatedly) de
scribes his oratory as rough and boisterous,
and ais remarkable for its incessant introduc
tion of abusive epithets. Most of the dis
creditable facts ef his life are related, though
with obvious exaggeration, in three orations
directed against him, one by Dinarchus, and
the other two (the genuineness of which is
disputed) among the works of Demosthenes.
(Demosthenes, Contra Aristogitonem ; Dinar
chus, Contra Aristogitonem ; Libanius, Argu-
mentum ad Demosthenis Orationem contra
Aristogitonem; Suidas, 'ApuTToyeiTtav; Har
pocration, AiiT0KXeiS7]s, QepcravSpos, with the
notes of Maussac and H. "Valesius ; Plutarch,
Phocion, cap. 10. ; Rhetores Graci (Walz), iii.
236, 237. 363., v. 214., vi 256., ix. 492, 493.
497. ; Taylor, Prafatio ad Orationem De
mosthenis contra Aristogitonem, and Prafatio
ad Orationem .^schinis contra Timarchum;
Westermann, Geschichte der Beredtsamkeit, i-
99.) W. S.
ARISTOGTTON {' Apiaroyelro>v), a sculp
tor or statuary whe was employed with Hy-
patodorus to execute some of the offerings
dedicated at Delphi by the people of Argos.
These were the statues of the leaders who
marched with Polynices against Thebes.
Among these offerings was the chariot ef
Amphiaraus, in whieh Baton, who was ef the
famUy ef Amphiaraus, was represented as
the charioteer guiding er driving the horses.
The Argives declared that these werks were
made out of the spoil which was obtained by
their countrymen and their allies, the Athe
nians, in their victory over the Lacedaemo
nians at Q5noe in Argolis, Silllg refers to a
Greek inscription in Bockh's coUection, which
was found at Delphi, on a statue of a con
queror in the games, in which the names of
these two artists occur together, and they are
called Thebans. Pliny makes Hypatedoms
contemporary with the sculptors whe were
living in the hundred and second Olympiad,
and Aristogiton may therefore be placed
about three hundred and seventy years before
our aera. It is uncertain what battle is meant
by Pausanias ; but, ff the event took place in
the Peloponnesian war, which is not unlikely,
it shews that Aristogiton must have been
living at the close of the fifth century B.C.
(Pausanias, x. 10, ; Pliny, Hist. Nat, xxxiv,
8. ; SiUig, Cat Artif.) R. W. jun.
ARISTOGI'TON. [Hippias.]
ARISTOLA'US, a distinguished Greek
painter, of the beginning of the third century
before Christ, was the sen and pupil ef the
celebrated Pauslas of Sicyon. [Pausias.]
He was distinguished for the severity of his
style. Pliny enumerates the following werks
by him : — Epaminondas, Pericles, Medea,
Valour, Theseus, the Attic Plebs, and the
Sacrifice ef an Ox. (Pliny, Hist Nat- xxxv.
11.40.) R. N. W.
ARISTO' MAC HUS ('Apio-T<i;uaxoj), a
434

sculptor surnamed Strymonius who is cele
brated in the Anthologia as the author of
three statues of courtezans. {Anthol- Grac.
lib. vl. tit i.) R. W. jun.
A R I S T O'M A C H U S, tyrant of Aegos.
[Aratus.] ARISTOME'DES {'ApmTop-iiSns), a sculp
tor ef Thebes whe, together with Socrates
(also a Theban), made a statue of Dindymene,
a name of the goddess Cybele, which was
dedicated by Pindar, and placed in her temple
near Thebes. Pausanias says it was not
lawful to open this temple oftener than once
a year. He happened to arrive at Thebes
on the day when this occurred, and therefore
had an opportunity ef seeing the statue
which, as well as the throne of the goddess,
was made of Pentelic marble. As Ariste-
medes was a contemporary of Pindar, he
must have lived at the close of the sixth and
in the first part ef the fifth century b. c.
(Pausanias, ix. 25.) R, W, jun.
ARISTO' MEDON {'ApiOTopeSav), a
sculptor of Argos who executed for the
Phecians the statues ef Apollo, ef Tellias the
seer, of the commanders in their army, and
also of the heroes ef their country ; aU of
which were dedicated at Delphi in comme
moration for their success obtained ever the
Thessalians. The events aUuded to preceded
the invasion ef Greece by Xerxes, b. c. 480,
by a few years, and are briefly described
by Herodotus, vii, 27, (Pausanias, x. 1.)
R. W. jun.
ARISTO'MENES, a Greek painter ef
Thasos, ef uncertain age, enumerated by
Vitruvius among other artists, who, though
possessed of the greatest ability, were unsuc
cessful from want of a patron or sufficient
eppertunities. (Vitruvius, lib. iii Praf.) R. "N. W.
ARISTO'MENES {' Apurropevris), an
Athenian Comic poet, lived about B. c. 420.
He is caUed by Suidais ('Api(rTOjuei^s)oneof the
later poets of the old Attic comedy, contem
porary with the Peloponnesian war. In the
year B. c. 425, he produced a piece called
'TXoipSpoi or the " Wood-Carriers," with
which he contended for the prize agaiinst
Aristophanes and Cratinus. He is saiid
to have brought out another play, the
"Admetus," at the time of the exhibition of
the " Plutus " of Aristophanes ; but as the
"Plutus" was exhibited twice, once in e.c. 408,
and again in B. c. 388, it is doubtful which
exhibition is meant. If the latter, his dramatic
career must have been of considerable du
ration. As, however, he is reported to have
composed only five plays in his lifetime, it
seems probable that the first exhibition of the
" Plutus" Is Intended. Little mere is known of
Aristomenes, except that either himseff orbis
father was a door-maker, whence he was nick
named ©upoiroiijs. The titles of five onlyofhis
plays are known ; and there are only three
small fragments of his compositien extant.

ARISTOMENES.

ARISTOMENES.

To whioh of his plays they belong is uncer
tain. {Argum- ad Aristoph. Plutum; Athe-
naeus,Lp.ll.; Harpocration, 127-9. ; Meineke,
Historia Com. Grac i- 210.) R. W — n.
ARISTO'MENES {'Aparropivvs), the hero
of the second Messenian war, was the sen ef
Pyrrhus, accortUng to the general opinion
among the Greeks, but of Nicomedes, ac
cording to the Messenians. He was of the
royal house of jEpytus.
The first war between the Lacedaemonians
and Messenians was commenced by the Lace
daemonians attacking by night, without having
made any declaration of war, Ampheia, a Mes
senian town on the borders of Laconia. Some
of the inhabitants were massacred in their
beds, others at the altars of the gods, and a few
escaped. Pausanias places this event in the
second year of the ninth Olympiad, er e.c.
743. The Lacedaemonian commander was
Alcamenes, the son of Teleclus, whe had been
killed by the Messenians. [Alcamenes.]
The war, thus commenced, was continued
twenty years by the Messenians under the
command of their princes Euphaes and Aris
todemus. It was terminated by the capture
of Ithome in Messenia, in the first year of
the fourteenth Olympiad, or B.C. 723. The
Messenians endured a galling servitude for
thirty-nine years. In the mean time a new
generation grew up, who were eager to rescue
their country from slavery. Aristomenes and
the leading men of Messenia encouraged this
feeling, but they first secured the assistance
of Argos and of the Arcadians, who hated
the Lacedaemonians. The Messenians re
volted in the fourth year ef the tAventy-third
Olympiad, or B. c. 685. Anaxander and
Anaxidamus were the kings of Sparta during
this second Messenian war.
The first battle was fought at Derac, a
place in Laconia, between the Messenians
and Lacedaemonians, without their respective
allies, but with no decisive result. Aris
tomenes performed surprising feats of valour,
and his countrymen wished te make him
king ; but he declined this dignity, and Avas
chosen general with full powers. To strike
terror into the Lacedaemonians he entered
the city ef Sparta alone by night and sus
pended a shield on the temple ef Athene
Chaloicecus (Athene of the Brazen House),
with an inscription purporting that it was an
offering to the goddess from the spoils of the
Spartans. In the following year another great battle
was fought at the Boar's Tomb, in the dis
trict of Stenyclerus in Messenia. 'The Mes
senians and Lacedaemonians were aided by
their respective allies. The Messenians
gained a complete victory, which was chiefly
due to Aristomenes and his chosen band of
eighty Messenians, who led the Avay to suc
cess by putting to flight King Anaxander
and his bravest Spartans. The poet Tyrticus
Avas present at this engagement, and animated
435

the Spartans to the contest. On the return
of Aristomenes te Andania, a Messenian
town, where he had been brought up, the
women shoAvered garlands and flowers upon
him, accompanying these testimonials of their
favour with a song which was stUl sung in
the time of Pausanias, in the second century
of our aera.
In the third year ofthe war, e.c. 683, the
Messenians, under Aristomenes, sustained a
total defeat at the Great Ditch, ewing to the
treachery of their ally, Aristocrates, whom
Pausanias calls king of the Arcadians. Aris
tomenes collected the Messenians whe sur
vived the battle, and persuading them to leave
Andania and the other places in the interior,
led them to the mountain fortress ef Eira.
The Lacedaemonians commenced the siege
of Elra, which occupied them to the close of
the second Messenian war. From their strong
hold ef Eira the Messenians made incursions
into Laconia and into Messenia, which was
now occupied by the Lacedaemonians, with
the exception of the tracts along the coast,
which were held by the people of Pylos and
Methone. In one of these incursions Aris
tomenes and his chosen band surprised and
plundered Amyclae. He was however taken
prisoner ey the Lacedaemonians in one of his
predatory expeditions, and thrown with fifty
ef his companions into a deep hole caUed
Caeadas, which was the punishment inflicted
by the Spartans on great malefactors. 'The
rest ef the prisoners were kiUed by the fall ;
and Aristomenes, whe escaped unhurt, lay at
the bottom of the chasm, awaiting his death
by famine. Ou the third day he saw through
the dim light a fox preying on the dead
bodies. He caught the fox, and following in
its track, discovered a small hole through
which it had entered. With his hands he
made the hele large enough for himself, and
escaping from the place, he joined his friends
at Eira. The Lacedaemonians heard the
rumour ef his escape, but they did net credit
it tiU they Avere informed of the surprise
and slaughter of a body of Corinthians Avho
were coming to aid them In the blockade of
Eira. Then they knew that nobody but
Aristomenes had dene this. To commemo
rate this exploit Aristomenes offered to Jupiter
ef Ithome for the second time the Hecatom-
phonia, a sacrifice which he alone was in-
titled te make whe had slain a hundred
enemies. The first occasion en which Aris
tomenes offered this sacrifice Avas after the
victory at the Great Ditch ; and he offered
it again a third time in the course of his
subsequent campaigns.
It wais new the eleventh year of the siege,
and it wais the wIU of fate that Eira should
be taken. Aristomenes and Thuclus, the
Messenian seer, had consulted the god after
the battle of the Great Ditch, and were
warned of the fate of Messenia in the foUoAV-
ing terms : — F F 2

ARISTOMENES.

ARISTOMENES.

" "When Neda's winding stream the goat shall drink.
My care will cease, Messene's end is nigh."
'This was understood to apply to the he-
goats ; but the oracle had a different meaning.
In the Messenian dialect the same word
(rpa'^os) signified " he-goat " and the " wild
fig tree." It happened then in the eleventh
year of the war that a wild fig tree on the
banks of the Neda ceased to grew upwards,
and dipped its leaves into the stream. Aris
tomenes now perceived the meaning of the
god, and he endeavoured te secure the future
prosperity of his country. The prophecies
of Lycus had declared that the Messenians
should be restored to their country, provided
a certain tin plate, on which were inscribed
directions for the worship of the great deities
(Demeter and Persephone), should be pre
served. This sacred deposit had been care
fully kept by the Messenians, and Aristo
menes now took it by night and buried it in
the most solitary part of Mount Ithome.
The cause of the capture of Eira, says
Pausanias, like that of Trey, was adultery.
A Spartan herdsman, whe had gone ever to
the Messenians, had corrupted the wffe of a
Messenian, and one stormy night, while he
was concealed in the house, he heard the
husband say that the Messenian g-uards were
obliged to leave their posts by the fury of
the tempest. The herdsman passed ever to
the Lacedaemonians, and told them that the
place was unguarded. The Lacedaemonians
made the attempt on the walls, and get into
the place. The Messenians, however, made a
desperate struggle, in which they were aided
by their own women. On the third day,
being exhausted by hunger and fatigue, they
resolved to leave the place. Aristomenes
collected a part ofthe Messenians, and placing
the women and children in the centre, put
himself at their head, and by his attitude
signified te the enemy that he wished fer a
free passage, and was ready to ge. The
Lacedaemonians, fearing to resist a desperate
body of men, allowed them te depart. Eira
was taken, and the second Messenian war
terminated in the first year ef the twenty-
eighth Olympiad, or b. c. 668.
When the Arcadians heard ef the fall ef
Eira, they urged Aristocrates to lead them te
the aid of the Messenians ; but he had already
sold himseff to the Lacedaemonians, and he
refused. The Messenians were hospitably
received by their Arcadian friends. Aris
tomenes, who did not yet despair, selected
five hundred ef his countrymen, and asked
them, in the hearing of Aristocrates and the
Arcadians, If they would join him in an at
tempt en Sparta, whioh was left unguarded.
Three hundred Arcadians volunteered to ge
with him ; but the scheme Avas frustrated by
the treachery of Aristomenes, Avhe gave the
Lacedajmonlans notice of it. This time his
treachery was detected. The letter from
King Anaxander, in reply to that of Arls-
436

tocrates, fell into the hands of the Arcadians,
and also disclosed the treachery ef Aris
tocrates at the battle of the Great Ditch.
The Arcadians stoned him to death, and
urged the Messenians te assist them in punish
ing the traitor. The Messenians looked to
Aristomenes, but he had his eyes fixed on
the ground, and was weeping.
The Messenians assembled at Cyllene to
deUberate on their future plans, and there
they spent the winter iu the hospitable ter
ritory of the Eleians. AVhile they were stUl
doubtful what they should de, they received
an invitation from Anaxilas, tyrant ef Rhe
gium, to come te Italy. The proposal was
accepted, and Anaxilas, together with the
Messeiuans, took the town ef Zancle, which
was thenceforward inhabited jointly by the
Messenians and Zanclaeans, but received the
new name of Messene (Messina), which it
retains to the present day. This is the ac
count of Pausanias, whe places the capture ef
Zancle in the twenty-ninth Olympiad. The
story of the capture of Zancle is referred by
Herodotus te the year B. c. 494. [ Anaxllas,
tyrant of Rhegium.]
Aristomenes had decUned te put himseff at
the head of the exiles who went to Italy.
He went to Delphi te consult the oracle, but
it is not known what answer he received.
Damagetus, king ef lalysus in Rhodes, had
also come te Delphi to consult the oracle
about the choice of a wffe, and he was told
te marry the daughter of the bravest of the
Greeks. He married a daughter of Ao-is-
tomenes, who accompanied his son-in-law to
Rhodes. It is said that from Rhodes Aris
tomenes intended to -visit Ardys, kiug of
Lydia, and Phraortes, who resided at Ecba
tana ; but he died before he could accomplish
this design. Damagetus and the Rhodians
erected a splendid tomb to his memory, and
paid him the honours due to a hero. The
Diageridae ef Rhodes were the descendants
ef Damagetus and the daughter ef Aris
tomenes. 'The memory ef Aristomenes was
perpetuated among his countrymen to the
second century of our aera by songs and a
solemn sacrifice on his tomb. Pausanias saw
his monument in the city of Messene, and
there was a tradition that it contained his
bones, which had been brought from Rhodes
by the command of the ged at Delphi. In
the battle ef Leuctra (b.c. 370), in which
the Thebans under Epaminondas defeated
the Lacedaemonians, Aristomenes again made
his appearance, and mainly contributed to
the defeat of his old enemies.
The exploits ef Aristomenes are evidently
mingled with fable, but there seeins no reason
to doubt his existence, and that he was the
hero ofthe second Messenian war. Pausanias,
who has given a connected narrative of the
Messenian wars, says that Myron of Priene
treated of the Messenian Avars, and Rhianus
of Bene in Crete wrote an epic poem upon

ARISTOMENES.

ARISTON.

them. Myron only treated of the capture ef
Ampheia and the subsequent events nearly
to the death of Aristodemus. [Aristode
mus,] Rhianus, whom Pausanias took as his
authority, began his poem with the events
which followed the battle at the Great Ditch.
Myron made Aristomenes contemporary with
the first Messenian war. (Pausanias, iv. 6 —
24. ; Polybius, iv. 32, &c. ; Diodorus, xv.
66, Fragment 10. of the seventh book, ed.
Dindorf; Strabo, p. 362, ed Casaub. ; com
pare Polyaenus, ii. c. 31, with Pausanias, iv,
27.) G.L.
ARISTO' MENES. [Ptolemy Euer
getes.] ARISTON {'AploTuv). The number ef
persons whe bere the name Aristen is very
great: about thirty of them may be distin
guished, but of most of them we knew
nothing. A good critical examination of the
history of the Aristeus is contained in tbe
dissertation of Hubmann, referred to under
Ariston ef Ceos. L. S.
ARISTON {'Apia-Tuv). The name ef
three Greek artists.
A painter, the son of Aristides of Thebes,
lived about b. c. 330. He painted a picture
ef a Satyr, crowned, holding a goblet He
was the master of Euphranor, the celebrated
painter and statuary, and of a painter of the
name of Antorides, concerning whom this
fact is all that is known.
Ariston, a sculptor of Laconia, with his
brother Telestas, made a colossal statue ef
Jupiter, about eighteen feet high, which was
placed by the Cleitorians at Olympia, Ui com
memoration of their victories over several
cities. Pausanias has preserved the inscrip
tion on the statue. The time ef Ariston is
unknown. There was also a celebrated
statuary and engraver in silver, of Mytilene,
of this name ; his time is likewise unknown.
(Pliny, Hist Nat xxxui. 12. 55., xxxiv. 8.
19., xxxv. 10. 36. ; Pausanias, v. 23.)
R. N. W.
ARISTON {'ApiaTwv), the sen ef Pyrr-
hichus, was a Corinthian who fought ou the
side of the Syracusans against the Athenians,
when they invaded Sicily, b.c. 414. He is
named by Thucydides as the best pilot whom
the Syracusans had, and it was through
his suggestions that they gained their first
naval victory over the Athenians. He ad
vised the Syraousan admirals te remove the
market from the city to the shore, so that
the sailers might get their meal close to their
ships. They did so, and then went en board
again unexpectedly, so that the Athenians
were taken by surprise, and being ebUged to
fight at a disadvantage, they were defeated.
Diodorus (xiU. 10.) ascribes to him an
alteration in the buUd of the bows of the
Syraousan ships, by which they Avere made
thicker and stouter, se as to strike the enemy's
ships with mere force and weight. According
to Plutai-ch {Nicias, 20. 25.) he feU in the
437

last sea-fight between the Athenians and
Syracusans, when the latter had just gained
the victory. (Thucydides, vii. 39. ; Polyainus,
V. 13.) R. W— n,
ARISTON {'Apiarav), one of the most
ancient Greek physicians, whose exact date
is unknown, but who probably lived in the
fffth century b. c, as Gaden mere than once
mentions his name in company with several
other physicians, all ef whom, he says, lived
in eld times, some at the same time as Hip
pocrates, and the others before him. He is
said by Galen to have been one of the per
sons to whom some of the ancient critics
ascribed the work entitled nepl Aiairris "tyi-
eivTjs, {" On Wholesome Diet,") which has
always gone under the name of Hippocrates,
but which is generally supposed to have been
written by some other person. Some medical
prescriptions are preserved by Celsus and
Galen, and attributed to a person of this
name, but it is uncertain whether the same
individual be meant (Galen, Comment in
Hippocr. " De Rat, Vict in Morb- Acut"
lib. i. § 17. tom. xv. p. 455. ed. Kiihn,
De Aliment Facult- lib. 1. cap. 1. tom. vl.
p. 473., Comment- in Hippocr- '¦' Aplior." lib.
vi. § 1- tem. xvUi. pt. 1. p. 9., De Compos.
Medicam. sec Locos, Ub ix. cap 4. tom. xiii.
p. 281.; Celsus,- De Medic. Ub. v. cap. 18.
p. 235. ed. Argent) W. A. G.
ARISTON ('Aplo-Twc) ef Alexandria
in Egypt, a Peripatetic philosopher and con
temporary ef Strabo. Both this Aristen and
Euderus, a contemporary of his, wrote werks
on the Nile which resembled each other very
closely. Eudorus charged Aristen with being
a plagiarist, but Strabo, whe had the two
books before him, says that their style was
rather Aristonian, from which we may infer
that he thought Eudorus to be the plagiarist,
though he says that the oracle of Ammon
would be the proper party to decide the diffi
culty. (Diogenes Laertius, vii. 164. ; Strabo,
xvii p. 790.) L. S.
ARISTON QAploTinv) ef Athens, a na
tural sen ef the Tragic peet Sophocles by
Theeris ef Sicyon, and father of Sophocles
the younger. There is a story that Sophocles
the elder showed such attachment te Ariston,
that his legitimate sons feared lest their father
would bequeath all his property to him. Re
specting the truth ef this story, which gave
rise to the notorious suit between Sophocles
and his sons, see Sophocles. Diogenes
Laertius mentions a tragic poet Ariston. and
we know that one of his tragedies contained
an attack upon Mnesthenus, but whether this
poet was the same as the son of Sophocles
cannot be ascertained. (Suidas, 'l6(piav ; Eu
docia, p. 248. ; Diogenes Laertius, vil. 164.;
Fabricius, Biblioth. Grac. 11. 287.) L, S,
ARISTON QAp'ioToiv) of Ceos, or mere
correctly of the small town of lulis in the
island ef Ceos, was a Peripatetic philosopher
and a disciple of Lycon, who Aras at the head
F F 3

ARISTON.

ARISTON.

of the Peripatetic school about B.C. 270, and
was succeeded by Ariston about b.c. 230.
It is not recorded that Ariston propounded
any new doctrines within the school to which
he belonged, from which we must infer that
he followed the track of his master and pre
decessor. Cicero describes his works as
shewing a man of a refined and elegant mind,
but who did not possess the gravity which
one expects in a philosopher. He adds that
the Avorks of Ariston were numerous, but
that his opinions did not carry any weight
with them. Strabo states that he imitated
the Platonic philosopher Bien, the Borys-
thenite. Ariston of Ceos has frequently been
confounded beth by ancient and modern
writers with the Stoic Aristen of Chios ; and
Diogenes, after giving a list ef the works at
tributed to the latter, states that Panaetius
and Sesicrates ascribed all ef them te Ariston
of Ceos, with the exception ef the collection
ef Epistles addressed to Cleanthes. We can
not, of course, ascertain on what grounds this
opinion was based, since the werks them
selves are lost, but there are two which un
questionably belonged to the Peripatetic of
Ceos : — 1. 'EpuiTiKal Aiarpi^ai, er, as Athen-
ffius calls them, 'EpuriKa 'Opiola; and 2. a werk
entitled AvKtcv, in honour ef his master Lycon,
The Greek Anthology contains two epigrams
under the name of Ariston, whe is generally
supposed to be the Cean, though there ap
pears to be ne reason for this opinion, (Dio
genes Laertius, v. 70, 74., vii 163, 164.;
Cicero, De Finibus, v. 5. ; Strabo, x. 486, ;
Athenaeus, x. 419., xni. 563., xv. 674. ; Plu
tarch, De audiendis Poetis, 1. ; Antholog.
Grac- vi. 303., vil. 457. ; J. G. Hubmann,
Ariston von Keos, der Peripatetiker, in Jahn's
Neue JaiirbUcher fur Philologie, third supple
mentary volume, Leipzig, 1835, Svo.) L. S,
ARISTON {'Aplirrav) of Chios, surnamed
the bald head {<pdXavTQs) or the Siren {^eipiiv)
on account ef his pleasing and insinuating
eloquence, was a Stoic philosopher and a
disciple of Zeno. He was a sen ef Miltiades,
and lived about b.c, 275, Respecting his
Ufe little is known. He established his phUo
sophical school in the Cynosarges at Athens,
and is said in his old age to have abandoned
himself te sensual pleasures, and to have died
of a stroke of the sun. From the account of
Diogenes Laertius and the numerous pas
sages in which he is spoken of by Cicero, we
see that he did net strictly adhere te the
Stoical doctrines, as they had been developed
by Zeno, and he appears to have been a man
of great independence of mind. He rejected
all physical and logical speculations, asserting
that the former Avere beyond man's compre
hension, and the latter ef ne use. The only
part of philosophy which he thought of any
importance Avas ethics, but even this depart
ment he treated less from a practical than
theoretical point ef view, 'The highest moral
good, according to him, consisted in a perfect
438

indifference te every thing except virtue, and
that which was opposed to virtue : virtue was
the only goed, and that which was opposed to
it, the only evil. All that lay between the
two, and even things which Zeno had charac
terised as desirable er agreeable, were to
Ariston matters ef absolute indifference : he
regarded it as immaterial whether a phUoso
pher enjoyed good health, or whether he was
suffering under severe illness. Zeno, more
over, had spoken ef virtues, but Ariston
admitted only one virtue, which consisted in a
healthy state ef mind. A philosopher, he
said, should not have opinions upon things,
but should know them or not know them, for
the conflict of opinions liisturbed the health
of the mind. The virtue ef Ariston was thus
of a purely subjective nature, and as he re
garded all the affairs ef life as matters of
indifference, he deprived his virtue of the
possibility of becoming objective and prac
tical. His notions of the deity appear to
have been pantheistic ; he denied that God
had any form or senses, and doubted whether
he was a living being with a distinct personal
existence. This opinien also wais opposed te
that of Zeno, in se far as he considered God
te be an aethereal fire difpused through the
universe. The modified Stoic school which
Ariston founded, and which contains the ele
ments ef the scepticism which subsequently
became se prominent in that school, dees net
appear te have had a long existence, for
Cicero speaks of the doctrines of Aristen as
having been exploded long before his time.
But his works were stiU read as late as the
time ef the Reman empire, and M. AureUus,
in a letter to Fronte, speaiks of them with
great esteem. Diogenes Laertius gives a Ust
ef the werks ef Aristen, but at the end he
adds that Panaetius and Sesicrates attributed
all ef them to Ariston ef Ceos, -with the excep
tion of the collection of Letters to Cleanthes.
There is, however, one work, entitled 'Ofwajl)-
fxara, which Diogenes Laertius does not men
tion, but which Stobaeus attributes to him,
and of which he gives seme extracts. (Die-
genes Laertius, vii 160 — 164.; Plutarch,
Maxime contra princip. Philos. esse disput. 1.,
Virt Moral- 2.; Seneca, Epist 89.; Stobasus,
Sermones, iv. 110, &c. ; OrelU, Onomasticon
Tullianum, p. 68, &c., where aU the passages
are coUected in which Cicero speaks ef
Ariston.) L. S.
ARISTON ('Ap/uTOi/) ef Cyrene was
the leader ef the popular party there in b. c.
403. In this year the Lacedaemonians had
expelled the Messenians from their settle
ments in Cephallenia and at Naupactus, amd
thus compelled them to quit Greece, The
greater part ef them, a body of three thousand
men, sailed to Cyi-ene, which was then tUs-
tracted by a cIa-U war, Ariston, whe had
placed himself at the head ef the people, was
in possession of the city. About five hundred
of the Cyreuean nobles had been put to death

ARISTON.

ARISTON,

and the rest had fled. These fugitives were
strengthened by the arrival of the exUed
Messenians, who took up their cause, and
they now made an attack on Cyrene, A
great battle was fought, in which many feU
on beth sides, and nearly all the Messenians
were slain. After this struggle a recencilia
tion took place between the hostUe parties of
Cyrene, on conditien that henceforth each
party should have an equal share in the go
vernment (Diodorus Siculus, xiv. 34. Com
pare Pausanias, iv. 36. § 2.) L. S.
ARISTON of Pella {'ApioTav 6 TleXXa7os)
is first mentioned by Eusebius. The Pella of
which Eusebius speaks is probably the town en
the east side ef Jordan, to which the Christians
retired a shert time before the destruction
of Jerusalem. Ariston is generally supposed
to be the author of a Greek work entitled
" A Dispute between Papiscus and Jason."
The first author who names Aristen as the
author of this werk is Maximus, a writer ofthe
seventh century, and he states that Clement
of Alexandria, in the sixth book of his " Hy-
potyposeen," ascribed the werk te St Luke.
He probably mistook the meaning of Clement,
Maiximus entitles it AidXe^is TlaTriaKou Kai
'Idaovos. The work, whether it was written
by Aristen or not, was as ancient as the middle
of the second century, and was written about
A,D. 136, for it was mentioned by Celsus the
Epicurean, in his books against the Christian
religion, as a work " worthy not so much ef
laughter, as ef pity and hatred" (Origen,
Contra Celsum, Ub. iv. § 52.). Origen, in
reply to Celsus, speaks highly ef it, and says
that in it " a Christian was introduced dis
puting with a Jew from the Jewish Scriptures,
and provUig that the prophecies concerning
Christ apply te Jesus." Neither Origen ner
Celsus mentions the name of the author, nor
does Jerom, who quotes two fragments from
the work in two passages, towards the begin
ning of his " Quaestiones Hebraicae in Gene
sim," and in his " Commentary on the Gala-
tians," iii. 13., lib. U. These are the only
ancient authors who mention the " Dispute."
The work is lest, together with an ancient
Latin translation of it, made by one Celsus ;
but the Latin preface by this Celsus te his
translation in the shape of a letter, dedicating
the work to Vigilius, a bishop, is extant, and
is generally printed among the werks ef St.
Cyprian (Cyprianus, Opera, Appendix, p.
233., Paris, 1726). This preface states that
Jason was a Hebrew Christian and Papiscus
an Alexandrine Jew, and that Papiscus was
represented as ending by a confession that
Jesus Christ was the Sen of God, and a de
sire to be baptized by Jason.
It Is probable that Ariston also wrote an
Oriental history, for Moses Cherenensis,
whose Armenian history was published by
William and George Winston in Armenian
and Latin, quotes Ariston as an authority for
many of his facts (Moses Cherenensis,
439

Historia Armenia, Ub. 11. c. 57. p. 174.).
The fragment preserved by Eusebius {Histor.
Eccles. iv. 6.) is probably taken from this
Oriental history, and not, as is generaUy
supposed, from the "Dispute between Pa
piscus and Jason ;" for Eusebius says that
Aristen ef PeUa " relates" that the Jews were
prohibited by Hadrian after his conquest ef
Judaea from "beholding se much as afar off
their native soil." Eusebius dees not say
whence he derived the extract, but he makes
ne mention of the " Dispute." The author ef
the " Chronicon Paschale," p. 255., is mis
taken when he says that Ariston presented
an " Apology fer the Christian Faith " to the
Emperor Hadrian. He quotes Eusebius as
an authority for this assertion ; but Eusebius
mentions ne such work, and the passage in
the " Chronicon " where this assertion is
made is wanting in the Holstenian manuscript
ef that werk. The fragments of Ariston
from Eusebius, Jerom, and Maxunus, are
printed by Gallandi in his "Bibliotheca
Veterum Patrum," tom. i. p. 331. (Gallan
dius, Prolegomena, tom. i. p. 74., where he
expresses the opinion that he was mistaken
in printing the fragment from Eusebius as
an extract from the " Dispute ;" Gleseler,
Text-Book of Ecclesiastical History, English
translation, vel. i. p. 95., who thinks that
Ariston is net the author of the " Dispute.") C. J. S.
ARISTON ( 'ApidTav ), the sixteenth king
ef Sparta of the Proclid line, including Aris
todemus, was the son of Agesicles, and the
colleague ef Anaxandrides. He wais king as
early as B. c. 560, and, from the known
duration of the reigns of himself and his son,
it is probable that he reigned about fifty
years. At any rate he lived long enough to
marry three wives successively, and Dema-
ratus, his son by the third wife, was grown
up when he succeeded him. For a long
time Ariston was without any issue, and as he
was one ef the most eminent kings that
Sparta bad ever seen, the people offered up
public prayers for his having a son, although
the house ef the ProcUds was not without
ether representatives. His third wife he
gained by fraud from his friend Agetus.
Having fallen in love with her, and having
had no children by his two former wives, he
proposed that his friend should give him
whatever he might ask, on condition that he
himself did the same for his friend. Agetus
agreed to this, and Ariston asked fer his wffe,
whom Agetus accordingly surrendered to
him. (Clinton, Fast Hellen. i. 207.; Hero
dotus, 1. 65., vi 61 — 66,; Pausanias, Ui 7, 7.)
R, W— n.
ARISTON CApia-ruv) ef Tyke, a friend
ef the great Hannibal, who had made his
acquaintance at Ephesus, and afterwards em
ployed him on various occasions, and found
him a very trustworthy person. In E, c. 195,
when Hamnibal was staying with Antiochus

ARISTON.

ARISTONICUS.

the Great, and had succeeded in persuading
him to make war upon the Remans, he also
thought it advisable te stimulate the Cartha
ginians te recommence hostilities against
Rome, whose strength would thus be divided.
By presents and promises he induced Ariston
te go to Carthage ; but in order that no
despatches might be intercepted, he gave him
nothing in writing : he merely told him what
he had te do and what class ef persons he
ought te influence at Carthage. On his
arrival at Carthage Aristen soon became an
object of suspicion. The matter was at first
talked of in the private circles at Carthage,
aud at last seme one ventured to bring it
before the senate. Here the enemies of Han
nibal demanded that Ariston should be caUed
to account, and that, if he was unable to
exculpate himself, he should be sent te Rome ;
others demanded that he should be arrested
as a spy. But the friends of Hannibal op
posed these measures, as ne written evidence
could be adduced against him. The discus
sions which foUowed delayed the execution
of any plan tUl the next day. Aristen in the
meantime was informed of the proceedings
in the senate, and in the evening he fixed a
placard in the most conspicuous place at Car
thage, above the ordinary seats ef the magis
trates, containing these words : — " Ariston
had ne cemmissien fer any private person,
but public despatches for the senate." In the
night he embarked and escaped. When the
magistrates took their seats the next morning,
and saw the placard, they were gi-eatly
alarmed. The suspicion which had been
attached te the personal friends of Hannibal
alone was now cast upon the whele senate.
The senate suspected the persons who had
been most with Aristen, and the senate itseff
was suspected by the people. In this state
of distraction and uncertainty the Cartha
ginians sent an embassy to Rome to explain
what had happened. This is the account
which Livy gives ef the affair ; that ef Ap
pian differs from it in a few points. (Livy,
xxxiv. 61, 62. ; Appian, De Rebus Syriacis,
8. ; Justin, xxxi. 4.) L. S.
ARISTONTCUS ("Apio-Tdracor), an iUe
gitimate son of Eumenes II. king of Per
gamus. Upon the bequest of the kingdom
te the Remans by his lawful brother Attalus
Philometor, he claimed it by right of inherit
ance, and maintained a contest fer it with
much bravery. In the year b. c. 131, he
carried on a successful campaign against
Publius Licinius Crassus, one of the consids
for the year, whe, though powerfully assisted,
was defeated, taken prisoner, and slain. Next
year, however, Aristonicus was routed by
the consul Marcus Perperna, besieged in the
Carian city of Stratonice, and forced by
famine te a surrender. He was carried to
Rome with the treasures of Attalus, and
there. In the year b. c. 129, was put to death
in prison. (Livy, Epitome, lib. lix. and
440

Freinsheim, Supplementum; Florus, lib, ii,
cap, 20, ; Strabo, lib. xiv. p. 646. ; Justinus,
Ub. xxxvi. cap. 4.; Eutropius, lib. iv. cap. 20.)
W. S.
ARISTONTCUS OF ALEXANDRIA
{'AparrdviKos 'AXe^avSpeis) was a grammarian,
and a contemporary of Strabo. He is men..
tioned incidentally by several ancient writers,
as one ef these Alexandrine critics who
adapted elaborate systems of marginal marks
to the purpose of indicating, with the utmost
possible brevity, critical epinions in regard
te classical works. His labours in this pe
dantic walk ef criticism have gained some
additional importance since the pubUcation
of the Venetian scholia upon Homer; for
the marginal marks of VUloisen's Iliad, taiken
from the famous codex of the Ubrary of
Saint Mark (No, 454.), are described in the
manuscript as being " the marks ef Aristo
nicus and Didymus en the text ef Aristar
chus." To Aristonicus are ascribed the fol
lowing works, which are entirely lest, except
a few opinions and facts quoted from them
by subsequent writers, especiaUy the com
piler ofthe Venetian scholia en the Iliad. 1.
A treatise en the marks of the sort above
mentioned (nepl rwv ^np-eiuiv), as applied to
the theogony of Hesiod. 2. A treatise on
the marks as applied te Homer; a work from
which, and from these which feUow in the
list, VlUeisen's schoUast gathered many ef
his materials. 3. A treatise, in six books,
on the Syntactical Irregularities (Ilepl t&v
' AiTvvTdKTiav) ef the lUad and Odyssey. 4.
A memoir or commentary {"tiripLvniJia or
'TTTopvrjpLdTiov), the topic of which was a
matter ef dispute among the earUer critics
ef modern times, but which VlUeisen's codex
shows to have referred te the Homeric poems.
Perhaps it was the same work with that
which was last enumerated. 5. A disser
tation on the wanderings of Menelaus. Some
of the speculations advanced in this treatise
are cited with much deference by Strabo. 6.
A work on the Museum ef Alexandria.
(Strabo, lib. i. cap. 2. ed. Siebenkees ; Suidas,
'Apia-T6viKos, with Kuster's note ; Etymolo-
gicon Magnum, "Epaai, A^ixvos, 'O-irli ; Am
monius, De Vocabulorum Differentia, 'OAi'7oj';
Photius, Myriobiblon, Cod. 161. ; Meursius,
Bibliotheca Graca ; Fabricius, Bibliotheca
Graca, vi. 359. ; ViUoisen, Anecdota Graca,
1. 64., U. 1S3, 184.; A'iUoison, Prolegomena
ad Iliadem, p. xviii; Woff, Prolegomena in
Homerum, p. cxcUi, cclvii. ; Menage, Ob
servationes in Diogenem Laertium, Ub. Ui. cap.
65.) W. S.
^ ARISTONTCUS OF MA'RATHON
{'ApiirroviKos MapaBiivtos), an Athenian orator
and statesman, was a contemporary of De
mosthenes, and had the honour of sharing
his fate. Opposed to the poUcy of the Ma
cedonian party, he was one of those public
men whom, at the unfortunate close of the
Lamian war (b. c. 322.) the conqueror forced

ARISTONICUS.
the Athenians to abandon to his vengeance.
Aristonicus, Hyperides, and Hlmeraeus were
dragged by the infamous Archias from the
temple of .Slacus in iEglna ; and, being sent
to Antipater at Cleonae, were by him put to
death. Nothing is known as to the orations
of Aristonicus er the details ef his life.
(Plutarchus, Demosthenes, cap. 28.; Wester
mann, Geschichte der Beredtsamkeit, 1. 94.)
W. S.
ARISTONTCUS OF TARENTUM
{'ApuTTdviKos TapavT7vos)y?SLS an ancient writer
of mythology whose works are lost. His age
is uncertain ; but the extracts of Photius show
that he was quoted by Ptolemaeus Hephaestion
(er Hephaestionis), who is conjectured to
have lived in the reigns of Trajan and
Hadrian. This Aristonicus seems to be the
A\-riter referred te by Servius for a geogra
phical remark, and by Hyglnus (though
some copies read the name Aristomachus) as
an authority fer a version ef the fable of
Orion. (Vossius, De Historicis Gracis, lib.
iv. ; Photius, Myriobiblon, Corf. 190. ; Servius,
ad ,31neidem, lib. iii v. 334. ; Hyglnus, Poeti-
con Astronomicon, lib. U. cap. 34.) W. S.
ARISTO'NIDAS, a statuary whe is said
by Pliny to have been so skilful in mixing
the different metals which he employed in
his art, that he was able to express the
various tints of the complexibn. This was
effected in the statue of Athamas, who was
represented as overcome with grief for the
death of hi- son Learchus, whom he had
destroyed in a fit ef insanity. Pliny says the
artist had se combined the bronze with iron,
that the rust of the latter shining through
the brightness of the bronze expressed the
blush of shame. He adds that this work was
existing at Thebes in his time. It is scarcely
necessary to observe on this passage that,
whatever may have been the effect of the
statue, it is utterly impossible that it coidd
have been produced by the process described.
(Pliny, Hist Nat xxxiv. 14.) R. W. jun.
ARTSTONUS ('ApierTdcoi;i), a statuary ef
iEglna who executed the statue ef Jupiter
which was dedicated at Olympia by the in-
habUants of Metapontum. The figure was
turned te the east, and held an eagle in ene
hand and a thunderbolt in the ether. On the
head was a crown of lilies. Pausanias did
not knew who was the master of Arlstenus
nor when he lived. (Pausanias, v. 22.)
R. AV. jun.
ARISTO'NYMUS {'Aparriivvpos), an
Athenian Comic poet, contemporary with
Aristophanes (Anonym, in Vita Aristoph.
p. xxxv.). 'The titles of two only of his plays
are known, and only a few fragments of
them are new extant According te a state
ment in Suidas (^ Apurrdyvvpos), this same
Aristenymus was also a grammarian who
lived in the time of Ptolemy PhUadelphus,
and succeeded Apollonius as principal Ubrai-
rian of the Alexandrme library. This
441

ARISTONYMUS.
statement, however, is manifestly incorrect,
and Meineke therefore conjectures that the
name of Aristophanes ef Byzantimn (to
whom the description of Suidas is appUcable)
has dropped out ef the text, so that descrip
tions meant for two incUviduals are made to
refer to one. (Athenaeus, iii. p. 87., vii.
p. 284. 287. ; Meineke, Hist Com. Grac. i.
197.) Another Aristenymus, an Athenian, and
a contemporary of Alexander the Great, is
recorded by Athenaeus (x. p. 452., xii. p.
538.) to have been famous for his ingenuity
in making riddles. R, W — n,
ARISTO'PHANES {'Aparrocpdvris), a
Comic poet ef Athens, was the son ef Philip
pus, and is generally believed to have been
an Athenian by birth, and a resident in the
Attic demus or country district of Kyd-
athenaeon. The year of his birth is uncer
tain, but it has been supposed te be about
B.C. 444, as he was a youth in E.c, 427. It
would seem that his title to the Athenian
franchise was not altogether free from sus
picion, fer we know that his great political
and personal enemy, Cleon, brought more
than one accusation against him as being an
alien {^evias ypacfrli). In this however Cleon
was actuated by motives of revenge, and
Aristophanes was acquitted. Suidas, indeed,
says that he was only an Athenian by adop
tion, and various traditions represent him as
being a Rhodian, or an Egyptian, er an iEgi-
netan. To account for these traditions it has
been supposed that his father had possessions
in other places than Athens, and spent some
of his time in them ; or perhaps Aristophanes
was not born in Attica, and did net come to
Athens till after the death ef his father
(Bede, Geschichte der Hellenisehen Komik,
220.), His last comedy was exhibited in
B,c, 388, and it is not probable that he Uved
beyond the year 380, He had three sens,
PhUippus, Araros, and NIcostratus, described
as poets of the middle comedy, and this is aU
that we know certainly about his domestic re
lations. In private life he was fend of pleasure
and social intercourse, as we may learn from
the tone of his writings and the part he plays
in the " Banquet " of Plato, where he keeps
up " the feast of reason and the flow of soul "
tUl early in the morning.
The first comic drama written by him for
the stage, in b.c, 427, was the " Feasters "
(AaiTttAeis), which gained the second prize
of the contending pieces. He was then so
young that he could not legally claim a
comic chorus at the public expense to assist
in representing the play, and therefore it
was brought out in the name of a friend
{Clouds, V, 520,). His chief object in this play
was to censure the system of education and
manners then prevalent at Athens, and to
advocate a return to the habits of former
times. His next play was the " Babylonians,"
b. c. 426, also exhibited by a friend, in which

ARISTOPHANES.

ARISTOPHANES.

he shewed his political bias by ridiculing seme
of the democratical institutions of Athens,
especially the system ef appointing to offices
by lot, and by attacking Cleon, the most
powerful demagogue ef the day, in the pre
sence ef the allies and the foreign ambas
sadors. Cleon consequently brought an actien,
as some think, against CaUistratus, in whose
name the play appeared, but more probably
against Aristophanes himself, on the ground
of his having calumniated the government
and its officers in the presence of foreigners.
The actien failed, and Aristophanes was the
more encouraged to pursue the course he had
begun. In his following play, the " Achar-
nians," B.C. 425, exhibited by Callistratus,
he renewed his attack upon Cleon, abusing
him by name, and threatening him with a fur
ther attack. In the " Knights " Aristophanes
carried his threat into executien. Cleon was
then at the height of his power, having re
cently gained much credit by his success as
a general in an expedition of some import
ance. So formidable was his enmity that (as
it is said) no ene dared to make a mask te
represent his face, nor could any acter be
found to personate him. Aristophanes was
therefore compelled te de se himself, and
appeared en the stage fer the first time with
his face smeared with wine lees. The whele
play was a bold and scurrilous attack upon
Cleon, and proved eminently successfiil. It
would seem te have carried the popular feel
ing along with it, and it gained the prize.
His next play, the " Clouds " (b. c. 423),
had a different scope and object, being di
rected against the Sophists ef the day, and
Socrates, the philosopher, represented as their
chief Though considered by Aristophanes
himseff as the best of his comedies, it was
unsuccessful, as indeed it deserved te be,
from the misrepresentation (whether igno
rant or disingenuous) of the character of So
crates which runs through the whole of it.
In his next play, the " Wasps," directed
against the litigious propensities of the
Athenians, he reproves them for their want
of taste in condemning the " Clouds," and
takes credit to himself for his early attacks
on Cleon, whom be represents as a huge
monster attacked by himself with the vigour
of a second Hercules. It was net represented
by Aristophanes himself, but by Phllonldes,
whe took the principal character in it. It
gained the first prize. Shortly afterAvards
Cleon died, and in the subsequent plays of
Aristophanes no further allusion is make to
him, except in a passage of his next play,
the "Peace" (b.c. 419), which however is
taken from the " Wasps." The " Peace "
was directed against the evils of the Pele
ponnesian Avar, and it gained the second
prize. The other extant plays of Aristo
phanes are the " Birds " (b.c. 414), the " Ly-
slstrate " and " Thesmophorlazusac " (b. c,
411), first "Plutus" (b,c. 408), the "Frogs"
442

(B.C. 495), the " Eccleslazusae " or "Female
Orators " (e. c, 392), The " Lysistrata," to
gether with the " Acharnlans " and the
"Peace," was written for the purpose ef
recommending peace, which in this play is
simply considered as a means of deliverance
from domestic evils, and is represented to be
brought about at last as the termination of a
civil war between the sexes. It is worth re
marking that some expressions in this play
prove his aversion to the then oligarchical
party at Athens, and that he shows the
liberality of his principles by recommending
a communication of the franchise to merito
rious aliens, and a cenciUatery course of
policy towards the colonies and allied states
(Thirlwall, History of Greece, iv, 225,),
His last two comedies were the " iEolesicon "
{AloXoaiKfJov) and " Cocalus," exhibited about
B, c, 387 by his son Araros, The first was a
parody on a play of Euripides, and the second
is supposed to have been a parody of a poem
en the " Death ef Mines," said to have been
killed by Cocalus of Sicily. The total
number ef plays ascribed te Aristophanes
is fifty-four, ef which eleven are extant.
From what has been said it is clear that Aris
tophanes was a person of no smaU importance
at Athens, In political feeUngs he sympathised
with tbe arlstocratical party there, the interests
of which he supported en the stage, taking
every opportunity ef praising the goed old
times ef Miltiades, iEschylus, and Aristides,
while he abused the degenerate men and
manners of his own times, and kept up an
incessant warfare against the leader ef the
democracy, Cleon, whe was also the chief
supporter ef the ruinous war against Spartau
AVe need not therefore suppose that his hostility
to Cleon arose from party motives only, but
we may give him credit for patriotic feelings,
more especially as his hatred of Cleon did
not mitigate his hestility against the Spai-fans
and their friends. The Sophists, the then
teachers of the noblest Athenian youth, beth
in philosophy and rhetoric, were assaUed by
him with equal vigour. Seme of them pro
fessed to teach hew to argue on any side,
without reference to the merits er moraiUty of
a caise, while their phUosophic instniction
was sceptical, amd subversive ef tbe religious
tenets ef their age and country, AA'"e camnot
wonder therefore that Aristophanes, "whe
stood upon the old waA'S " ef his ancestors,
should have viewed them and their followers
with Indignation and abhorrence. Hence,
indeed, may be explained, and te seme extent
justified, bis antipathy to Euripides, who was
connected with them, and whose dramas
illustrated their doctrines and their practice.
In another respect his aversion te them led
Aristophanes te commit an act ef cruelty and
injustice against, perhaps, the most estunable
man ef his age, the philosopher Socrates,
Avhom he confounded Avith the very persons
Avliose doctrines Socrates constantly endea-

ARISTOPHANES.
voured te refute and expose, and in this cha
racter he held him up te the contempt and
execration of the Athenian people. An ex
planation of the causes which led to this
confusion is given by ThirlwaU {History
of Crreece, iv. 268.). It amounts simply
te this, that Aristophanes viewed Socrates at
too great a distance for anything more than
a superficial acquaintance, and that he formed
his judgment of him by "the company in
which he usually saw him.'' Besides this, the
poet's mind was not of a philosophic or specu
lative turn, and therefore likely te be im
patient of the close study necessary for a due
appreciation of the character and opinions of
such an original thinker as Socrates.
The relation in which Aristophanes
stood to his dramatic contemporaries and
predecessors, can only be gathered from
the ancient critics, and the representations
of the peet himseff. In one of his plays,
the " Peace," v. 755., he takes credit to him
self for having effected a variety ef improve
ments in the comic drama; for having rid it
of low buft'oonery and stale practical jokes,
and built it up te the " towering height ef a
great art," by noble diction and sentiments,
and refined humour. Some of his com
petitors, as Eupelis and Hermippus, he
charges with plagiarism from himself; a
charge retorted by Eupelis and Cratinus, the
former of whom stated that he had helped
the " bald man " in the cempositieu of his
"Knights." His older rival, Cratinus, is
spoken of as being coarse and bitter In com
parison with Aristophanes himself, and a
similar faUing is ascribed to Eupelis. " It is
difficult to conceive," says Thirlwall, " that
the satire of Cratinus could have been more
free or Ucentious than that of Aristophanes : so
that the difference may have consisted in the
grace with which he handled his subject."
Yet, according to another account. En-
polls surpassed him even in grace and ele
gance, and showed more imagination in the
invention of his plots. Moreover, it was
generally admitted by the ancient critics that
Aristophanes was the best writer ef what was
cadled the Old Comedy, which he elevated
in character and usefulness, and that in his
later plays he led the way to the New Comedy
of Menander. Of his pecuUar excellences
no adequate idea can be formed without a
perusal of his works, and a knowledge of the
history, literature, and manners of his times.
He is distinguished by exuberant wit, by
broad humour, by playful and bold fancy, by
his originality and powers of invention. His
comic characters are in the highest degree
amusing by their fun and drollery, their
shrewdness and na'ivetc, their heartiness and
gaiety. His mastery over the Attic dialect
was complete, and the exhibition of it made
more striking by its elegance being often
placed in close contact with the rudest pro
vincialisms of Greece, and the broken Greek
443

ARISTOPHANES.
of foreigners. The strangest combinations
of words (Uke seme of the Americanisms of
the present day), the drollest imitations of
animal sounds, iambic verses formed of the
grunts ef a pig, chaunts of creaking frogs
startle and amuse the reader: much mere
must they have had this effect upon the
hearers of Aristophanes. At the same time
he shows, by oecasionai bursts ef lyric
poetry, that he possessed a great and varied
poetic genius, by cultivating which he might
have succeeded in the mere serious walks
of lyric er dramatic art. His versification
is of the same character as that of the tra
gedians, but modified, so as to exhibit
greater lightness, and more seeming irregu
larity. The buffoonery and obscenity which
have been so often objected te him, Avere
the faults of the time, and common to him
with the other writers ef the Old Comedy ; of
which, indeed, they were amongst the distin
guishing characteristics. It did not indeed
profess to deluieate character, to represent
the detaUs ef private life, nor te have any
plots or intrigues ending with the usual de
nouement of a modern comedy. On the con-.
frary, the amusement of the spectators was
often promoted by bringing on the stage any
persons of sufficient importance and notoriety,
ridiculously caricatured in any ef their
peculiarities ; nor was any person, however
high in rank or character, safe from such an
exposure. But although the characters ef the
Old Comedy were real, the wit and fancy of
the writers were alloAved to run riot in de
vising the most extravagant situations and
incidents, interspersed with joking appeals to
the audience, whose presence was se com
pletely recognised that a direct address te
them was a usual part of every play. The
gross and obscene language in which the
old Attic comedy indulged was probably
increased by the absence of women from
the theatre, as well as the privileged licence
of the Dionysian festival, at which the plays
were represented ; a consideration Avhich to
some extent explains hew it happened that
it " did boldly nominate a spade, a spade,"
and said the " grossest things in the grossest
language." But in another respect the li
cence allowed to the Comic poets of Athens
had a beneficial tendency, though its in
fluence was not se powerful as we might
have expected. AVe allude to the privilege
which they exercised, and none of them more
freely than Aristophanes, of criticising public
men and measures, and, as we shall see, the
sovereign people itself In what has been
called a " hearing age," they discharged the
saune functions as the public journalists ef a
" reading age ;" and the reason why they did
net produce corresponding results appears to
be that they did net find their audience " iu
the humour for any serious thought " (Thirl
waU, Ui 83.).
The opinions entertained of Aristophanes

ARISTOPHANES.

ARISTOPHANES.

by his contemporaries and others were various
and discordant, though in the main highly
favourable. An epigram is ascribed to the
philosopher Plate, in whioh the soul of Aris
tophanes is described as an everlasting sanc
tuary of the muses ; and from the dialogue ef
the " Banquet," in which Plato makes him
one of the interlocutors, it appears that they
were at ene time en terms of intimate friend
ship. Aristotle, in his " Poetics " (ill, 4,),
seems te consider Aristophanes as the repre
sentative ef the old Greek comedy, and to
occupy the same place with regard to it as
Sophocles does in tragedy, St, Chrysos
tom is said te have admired him so much
that he studied his works daily, and kept his
plays under his piUew by night, Plutarch
(vok ix, p, 387,, ed. Reiske), on the contrary,
imputes te Aristophanes a variety ef faults,
and attacks him with a bitterness savouring
ef party- spirit. In comparing him with Me
nander, he describes the latter as infinitely
superior, and inveighs against Aristophanes
for his buffoonery and coarseness, for his mis
placed antitheses and play upon words. His
style, Plutarch describes as a mixture of the
comic and tragic, sometimes elevated, some
times coUoquial and prosaic, unequal, and
obscure. He further objects to him a de
ficiency in delineating character, and adds
that his representations ef men and manners
always display the worst and weakest side.
He concludes with remarking that the audi
ence which admired such a poet must have
been both morally and intellectually depraved.
This unfavourable judgment is well accounted
fer by Bode {Geschichte der Hellenisehen
Komik, p, 253.), It would almost appear that
Voltaire, who wrote the article "Aristo
phanes " for the " Encyclopedic," borrowed
his ideas on the subject from Plutarch. He
settles the matter in very few and flippant
words : " This comic peet, whe is neither
poet ner comic, would net have been allowed
in our days to exhibit his farces at the fair of
St. Laurence."
The "Acharnlans," with which Aristo
phanes gained the first prize in a contest
against the poets Cratinus and Eupolis, was
exhibited during the sixth year of the Pelo
ponnesian war, and written with the view of
showing its evils and recommending its ter
mination. The plot, if it can be said to have
any, is extremely simple. The scene is laid
at Achamae, the largest of the country toAvn-
ships of Attica, and the principal character
of the play is ene Dlca;epelis, a shrewd
rustic, and an inhabitant of the place. He is
described as disgusted with the sufferings of
war, and resolved te make a separate peace
on his own account, after vainly attempting
te persuade the Athenians te join him.
The chief humour of the piece consists In
the description of the advantages which
Dicaeopells derives from his bargain, con
trasted with the sufferings of the wounded
444

Lamachus, an Athenian general, who is
brought upon the stage as one of the sup
porters of the war. One of the most amusing
parts ofthe play is a dialogue between him and
Dlcaeopolis, in which Lamachus gives orders
of preparation fer battle, while DicaeepoUs
replies by calling fer dishes and dainties as a
man preparing fer an entertainment. There
is also an amusing market scene, in which
Dicasopolis is represented as having a weU-
stocked market, all to himseff, much te the
vexation ef his mere warUke neighbours.
They, indeed, are represented as being in the
first instance very angry with him fer his
treasonable correspondence with the Lacedae
monians, and with the view of deprecating
their indignation he makes a long speech to
them. This part ef the play, however, seems
mamly introduced as an excuse fer a hit
against Euripides, from whom Dlcaeopolis
begs some of the ragged dresses in which his
tragic heroes frequently appeared, that his
OAvn Avretched appearance in them might
move the compassion of his infuriated
neighbours while he addressed them. The
play also contains a severe attack upon the
Atheniam statesman Pericles, whom it re
presents as the cause of the war.
This play is further remarkable for a
joking statement of the peet addressed to
the audience, te the effect, that his fame had
reached even the King of Persia, whe was
desirous ef the friendship ef the Athenians,
because they had such an adviser as Aristo
phanes ; and, that the Lacedaemonians wished
for peace, and demanded the islaind of .^gina,
in order that they might rob the Athenians
of him. It would seem from this that Aris
tophanes either lived in that island or had
property there.
The " Knights " {'lirwels), er as Wieland
has termed it the " Demagogues," was di
rected against Cleon. The principal cha
racters of the play are Demosthenes and
Nicias, two Atheniam generals, the de
magogue Cleon, Demus, a personification of
the Athenian people, and a sausage-seUer,
by name Ageracritus. The first two ap
pear as the servants of the Athenian " John
Bull," ever whom the ether servant Cleon,
by wheedling and base compliances, has
gained an influence te the injury of the old
man himseff, and the torment ef his feUow-
servants, whom he oppresses without mercy.
AVith the view of getting rid ef Cleon, and re
lying on some oracles in which it is predicted
that a sausage-seller would succeed a leather-
seller (Cleon) in the stcAvardship of Demus,
they pick up Agoracritus, and put him for
ward as a rival ef Cleon. A regular fight ef
words ensues, ui whieh the tAvo abuse each
ether lu aU the slang terms of their re
spective trades, outbidding each other in their
promises of what they would do for Demus.
Agoracritus wins, and the eld gentleman
turns off Cleon, and puts himself imder the

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