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The Oxford Library
of
Practical Theology

EDITED BY THE
REV. W. C. E. NEWBOLT, M.A.
CANON AND OHANOEILOR OF ST. PAUl's
AND THE
REV. F. E. BRIGHTMAN, M.A.
LIBKARIAN OF THE PUSEY HOUSE, OXFORD

o

THE HISTORY OF THE
BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

BY THE REV.
LEIGHTON PULLAN
I!/
Fellow of St. John Baptist's College, Oxford ;
Lecturer in Theology at St. John's, Oriel,
and Queen's Colleges

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
39 Paternoster Row: London
New York, and Bombay
1900

All rights reserved

P^64.

EDITORS' PREFACE
The object of the Oxford Library of Practical Theo
logy is to supply some carefully considered teaching
on matters of Religion to that large body of devout
laymen, who desire instruction, but are not attracted
by the learned treatises which appeal to the theo
logian. One of the needs of the time would seem
to be, to translate the solid theological learning, of
which there is no lack, into the vernacular of every
day practical religion; and while steering a course
between what is called plain teaching on the one hand
and erudition on the other, to supply some sound
and readable instruction to those who require it, on
the subjects included under the common title 'The
Christian Religion,' that they may be ready always
to give an answer to every man that asketh them
a reason of the hope that is in them, with meekness
and fear.
The Editors, while not holding themselves pre
cluded from suggesting criticisms, have regarded their
proper task as that of editing, and accordingly they
have not interfered with the responsibility of each
writer for his treatment of his own subject.
W. C. E. N.
F. E. B.

INTRODUCTORY
This volume is intended to illustrate the history and
meaning of the Book of Common Prayer, and more
especially of those services which are in most frequent
use or have been the subjects of theological discussion.
The author has sometimes ventured to repeat his state
ments in different chapters, in order to make each
chapter as intelligible and complete as its necessary
limits will permit.
The phrase ' common prayers ' was used in the
middle of the sixteenth century to signify what we call
' public worship.' It was used not only by the reform
ing party in the Church, but also by their opponents,
and it is therefore an error to suppose that the adop
tion of the name was intended to mark a difference
between the reformed and the unreformed worship of
the Church in England.
The English Litany published in 1544, in the reign
of Henry VIII., was the first instalment of reformed
worship. It was intended to be sung before High Mass.
In 1548, after the accession of Edward VI., appeared
the ' Order of the Communion,' a short series of ex
hortations and prayers in English, appointed to be
inserted into the Latin Mass, in order to promote
communion in both kinds among the laity.

viii HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
The first Book of Common Prayer in English
appeared in 1549, and was mainly the work of Arch
bishop Cranmer. He skilfully included in one book
an abbreviated form of almost all the principal 'common
prayers ' which had been used before the Reformation.
These services had originally been distributed through
a large number of different volumes, and although the
number of these books had been somewhat reduced by
the end of the Middle Ages, the idea of compressing
them within the compass of one volume appears to
have been unknown in England until the time of
Cranmer. The fact that it has now become usual in
Roman Catholic countries to include the more im
portant services in a 'Paroissien' or in a 'Diocesan
Gesangbuch,' testifies to Cranmer's true perception of
a real need.
The Book of Common Prayer originally contained
no forms for the ordination of bishops, priests, and
deacons, and consequently a simplified form of the
mediaeval English rites was published in 1550.
Cranmer was a student with eclectic tastes, and he
drew his supplies from many sources. The Joreign
sources which he employed were the following: (1)
The Mozarabic rite used in Spain, the influence of
which is shown in the English Baptismal Office, and
perhaps in the Eucharist. (2) The Greek Liturgy of
S. Basil, the influence of which is shown in some words
of the Eucharist, and also the Greek Liturgy of
S. John Chrysostom. (3) The revised Roman Breviary
drawn up by Cardinal Quinones (or Quignon), in order
to simplify the daily ' divine service,' the influence of
which is shown in the introduction to the Book of

INTRODUCTORY ix
Common Prayer, entitled 'Concerning the Service of
the Church,' and in our Mattins and Evensong. (4)
German books which may be conveniently grouped
together under the name of Lutheran, more especially
the books used in Coin, Niirnberg, and Schleswig-
Holstein. The influence of these books was great, and
may easily be detected in the English Mattins and
Evensong, in the Eucharist, in the Baptismal Office,
and especially in the Litany. In remembering this
influence it is also important to remember that no
distinctive Lutheran doctrine is contained in the Book
of Common Prayer, that the original Lutheran services
in certain districts closely approximated to the medi
aeval services, and that it was only after several years
that the violence of Luther and some of his extreme
opponents made impossible a reconciliation of the
moderate men on both sides. There were real hopes
of reconciliation as late as 1541 in the conference held
at Ratisbon, and an attempt was made in the Leipsig
Interim of 1549.
Besides these foreign sources, Cranmer had at his
disposal the mediasvai books used in England. These
books, like those now known by the name ' Roman,' are
drawn from the Roman Service Books of the sixth
and eighth centuries, which were enriched and debased
with elements drawn from the 'Galilean' services
used in France before the introduction of the Roman
rite. It is a profound misfortune that students in
Cranmer's time were not acquainted with the pure
Roman and Galilean Service Books of the type used
when S. Augustine came to England in 597, or when
Benedict Biscop, of Monkwearmouth, went to Rome

X HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
in the next century. If these books had been known,
it would have been possible to revise the common
prayers of the English Church with complete success,
to remove every real corruption, and convince every
reasonable opponent. Even as things were, the services
of 1549 were in substantial agreement with the ser
vices of Rome and France in the sixth century, and
the great majority of English bishops and priests
performed them with the conviction that no essential
Catholic doctrine or practice was thereby compromised.
A new epoch came in 1552, when a second Book of
Common Prayer was published. Cranmer had adopted
some strongly Protestant opinions even before the
first book came into use, and was not unwilling to
modify it, but in the changes that he made he appar
ently acted as a tool of the men who managed the
boy-king Edward VI. The changes made were in an
unmistakably Protestant direction, and included an
omission of the more direct prayers for the dead, of
passages which implied the Real Presence of the Body
and Blood of our Lord in the Sacrament, of the
apostolic custom of anointing the sick with prayers for
their recovery, and of the traditional ornaments of the
churches and the clergy. Whereas in the first English
Book of Common Prayer the Mass was directed to be
celebrated in such a manner that the congregation
would realise that they were assisting at a purified and
intelligible form 6f the mediaeval service, when the
second book was introduced no English congregation
could feel that their parish church was any longer the
same familiar home. The second book never received
the sanction of the Church, but was used in London,

INTRODUCTORY xi
and at least to some extent elsewhere. The result was
disastrous. The conservative party, who disliked these
hasty changes, identified themselves more closely with
Rome, and were able to taunt the reformers with heresy
and vacillation.
The accession of Queen Mary in 1553 put an end to
the use of the Book of Common Prayer. The full
mediaeval services were welcomed gladly, Cranmer was
burnt, and his successor, Cardinal Pole, insisted on the
most extravagantly Roman theories with regard to
transubstantiation and' the essentials of ordination. It
should be mentioned, however, that the priests ordained
by the reformed rite appear to have been regarded as
validly ordained, although in some dioceses they were
not allowed to officiate unless they received the anoint
ing of their hands which some ancient ceremonialists
had added to the primitive rite. In some places they
came forward for re-ordination. The cruel persecution
of the reformers by Mary caused many of them to take
refuge in Switzerland and Germany, where they be
came infected with the intolerance of Calvin and the
rationalism of Zwingli.
The shrewdness of Elizabeth, who became queen in
1558, caused her to see the value of moderation and
the desirability of having a Church free from Rome in
a State free from Spain, Her action towards the
Church was somewhat despotic, but apart from her in
tervention the Church of England might have become
Calvinistic in doctrine and Presbyterian in organisation.
She wished to restore the use of the Book of Common
Prayer of 1549, and of the ecclesiastical ornaments of
the second year of Edward's reign, a year when almost

xii HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
the whole of the mediaeval ceremonial was still retained.
With regard to the first point, Elizabeth only succeeded
in restoring the book of 1552 with a few significant
doctrinal improvements ; and with regard to the second
point, her success was generally superficial. Legal
effect was given to the rule that the mediaeval orna
ments should be retained, but the law was seldom
obeyed. Calvinistic Protestantism, known as Puritan
ism, was widely spread both among bishops and priests,
and the Government exacted large 'fines from those
Roman Catholics who refused to attend the slovenly
and distasteful services which were common in the
national Church. But we can remember with gratitude
that the reign of Elizabeth not only gave us, almost in
its present form, our Book of Common Prayer, with all
its great capacities, but also produced men of the type
of Richard Hooker, who were able to understand the
difference between reformation and revolution. Hooker
stands at the beginning of a new age. He called men
away from the mere negations of controversy, and
enabled his immediate successors to make good their
foothold on Catholic ground.
During the seventeenth century the history of the
Book of Common Prayer was the epitome of the history
of Great Britain. The Puritans twice attempted to
modify it, and once endeavoured to destroy it. Con
vinced that the Book of Common Prayer and the
Thirty-nine Articles were adverse to Calvinism, they
were resolved that they should either be mended or
ended. Immediately after the accession of James I.
in 1603, they approached the King with a request for
an alteration in the ceremonies of the Church of

INTRODUCTORY xiii
England . The result was the Hampton Court Cooiference
of 1604, at which Puritans and Anglicans met together.
It became evident that the two parties differed with
regard to some of the first principles of theology, and
the Conference came to a close. The struggle was
renewed in the reign of Charles I. The King actively
supported those members of the Church of England
who were anxious to vindicate its Catholic character
and maintain the ceremonial which Elizabeth had
approved. Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, was the
leader of this school. Equally resolute in his opposition
to the distinctive tenets of Rome and of Geneva, he
enjoyed the hatred of both Jesuit and Calvinist. He
helped the Scottish bishops, who had made large con
cessions to the uncouth habits of Presbyterian worship,
to draw up a Book of Common Prayer for Scotland.
It contained a Communion Office resembling that of
the book of 1549. It came into use in 1637, and met
with a bitter and barbarous opposition. The vigour of
the Scottish Protestants strengthened the hands of
their English sympathisers. Laud and Charles were
executed. Episcopacy was abolished, the use of the
Book of Common Prayer was prohibited. A Puritan
Directory for Worship was set forth in 1645, and a
Calvinistic Confession was drawn up at Westminster by
an assembly of English and Scottish Presbyterians.
On the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the
Puritans made a final attempt to eviscerate the Book
of Common Prayer. A conference was held in 1661, at
the Savoy Palace, in the Strand, London, which ended
in the same way as the Hampton Court Conference.
The ordination services were slightly altered in such a

xiv HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
manner as to emphasise the fact that the Church of
England repudiates the Presbyterian theories that a
priest has the same authority as a bishop, and that
Episcopacy is not necessary in the Church of Christ.
After the fall of the Stewart dynasty and the arrival of
William III., some of the English bishops themselves
tried to make the Book of Common Prayer agreeable
to the convictions of the Presbyterians and the
Calvinistic King. The Church refused to sanction
their proposals, and the Book of Common Prayer
remained intact.
The eighteenth century was marked by a growing
deterioration in English public worship, and by the
year 1800 an intelligent appreciation of the Book of
Common Prayer was almost extinct. In Scotland and
America there were effected some changes which are
both interesting and important. In 1689 William III.
disestablished the Church in Scotland, and Presby-
terianism was established in its place. The Church
was subjected to a series of penal laws, and its numbers
steadily diminished. It retained, however, a strong
affection for Catholic tradition, and revised the Com
munion Office of 1637 so as to bring it into still closer
conformity with primitive practice. The authentic
version of this fine liturgy was published in 1764, and is
unquestionably superior to any other Anglican service
except the Litany. It was carried to America by Dr.
Seabury, who was consecrated by Scottish bishops at
Aberdeen in 1784 to be the first bishop of the Church
in the United States. Seabury and other American
churchmen resisted an insidious attempt which was
ostensibly made to fit the Book of Common Prayer for

INTRODUCTORY xv
American use, but was really intended to remodel it on
sceptical and Unitarian lines. The sceptical revision
was a failure, and Seabury succeeded in introducing
into the Communion Office some of the most important
parts of the Scottish service.
At the present time the growth of the English
people and the spread of the English language seem to
foretell that the Book of Common Prayer will have an
influence in the world as great as that of the early
Roman Service Books which it so frequently resembles.
But it certainly cannot fulfil its true function unless it is
employed in the best possible manner. Our common
prayers are often recited with a zeal destitute of know
ledge, and sometimes with neither zeal nor knowledge.
We are familiar with deviations from the spirit of
the Book of Common Prayer for which excuses are
sometimes found, but for which no adequate defence
can be made. Such novelties from Belgium or Zurich
formed no part of the religion which S. Augustine
brought to England, and they injure the unity and the
charity of his spiritual children. The law of worship
is the law of faith, and any disloyalty to faith or dis
cipline in public worship must rob our common prayers
of that power to edify the believer and convert the
wandering which has been granted by Jesus Christ to
worship offered in His Name.
The author has used the word ' mediaevalist ' to
describe those members of the Church of England in
the sixteenth century who preferred the mediaeval
Enghsh worship, while often rejecting various mediaeval
corruptions. The differences between these men and
modem English Romanists make it unjustifiable to

xvi HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
describe them as Romanists. The author has used
the word ' Protestant ' in its modern sense. In the
seventeenth century the word was often used in
a totally different sense, viz. to describe a Christian
protesting against the peculiar doctrines and practices
of the Roman Church of that day. The word is used
in this latter sense in the quotation on page 36 from
Hammond, a typical Anglican theologian.

CONTENTS

'-"*''• PAGE
I. THE EUCHABIST BEFORE THE COMING OP S. AUGUSTINE 1
n. THE EUCHABIST FROM S. AUGUSTINE TO THE
BEFOEMATION . . . . .36
m. CHANGES UNDER HENRY VIII. . . .66
IV. REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION . . .81
V. THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION .... HI
VI. MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER . . . 139
VIL THE LITANY . . . . . .168
Vin. THE ORDER OP BAPTISM .... 182
IX. SACRAMENTAL CONFESSION AND ABSOLUTION . . 201
X. THE CATECHISM ..... 207
XI. THE ORDER OP CONFIRMATION . . . 209
XIL THE FORM OF SOLEMNIZATION OP MATRIMONY . 217
XIII. THE ORDER FOR THE VISITATION OP THE SICK, AND
THE COMMUNION OP THE SICK . . . 224
XIV. THE ORDER FOR THE BURIAL OP THE DEAD . . 237
XV. THE THANKSGIVING OP WOMEN AFTER CHILD
BIRTH ...... 246
XVI. A COMMINATION ..... 249
XVII. FORMS OF PRAYER TO BE USED AT SEA . . 252
xvii

xviii HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
CHAP. 'AGE
XVIII. THE ORDINAL ..... 263
XIX. THE PRAYER BOOK IN SCOTLAND, AMERICA, AND
IRELAND ...... 274
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE .... 295

APPENDICES
A. The Sarma Canon of the Mass and that of the First Prayer
Book . . . . . . . .300
B. The Ornaments Bubric and the supposed prohibition of
ancient ceremonies ..... 310
C. The Mozarabic Canon of the Mass . . . .313
D. The ' Black Rubric ' . . . . . .316

INDEX ... ... 319

THE HISTORY OF
THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

CHAPTER I
THE EUCHARIST BEFORE THE COMING OF
S. AUGUSTINE
It was a veritable consecration, hopeful and animat
ing, of the earth's gifts, of all that we can touch and
see — of old dead and dark matter itself, somehow re
deemed at last, in the midst of a jaded world that had
lost the true use of it. Pateb, Marius the Epicurean.
§ 1. Origin of the Liturgy.
The use of liturgical prayers among Christians has come
down from Christ Himself. It is certain that our Lord
attended the services of the Synagogue, and that His
earliest disciples modelled their worship upon the
worship of the Jews, to which they added the Com
munion of the Body and the Blood of Christ, and
discourses by the inspired prophets of the Church.
Normal prophesying was a preaching unto 'edification,
and comfort, and consolation.'^ The more excep
tional prophesying included some especial witness to
the work and Person of our Lord and guidance as to
future events. All prophesying was calmly tested by
the Church, the marks of a false prophet being the
assertion of 'destructive heresies,' a denial of the
Divinity of Christ, and ' lasciviousness.'
All this is made plain to us by the New Testament.
It is also plain that the Christians, in commemoration
^ I Cor. xiv. 3.

2 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
of the Resurrection, called the first day of the week
' the Lord's day,' and that they ' gathered together to
break bread' upon that day. Following the usage
of the Jews with regard to the Jewish Sabbath, the
Christians probably consecrated part of the previous
night to prayer, and celebrated the Eucharist before the
break of day. This certainly seems to have been the
case at Troas ^ in a.d. 56. Slaves would doubtless he
obliged to work during Sunday, and they would be able
to attend the Eucharist and betake themselves to their
accustomed work at the usual hours. It is unlikely
that the Eucharist was ever celebrated on Sunday
evening, and there is no evidence for such a practice.
Before the Eucharist was celebrated it was custom
ary, at least in some places, for the Christians to
partake together of a social meal. This was probably
suggested by the fact that our Lord had instituted
the Eucharist at the conclusion of a modified Passover
supper. In the apostolic age this social meal was
known as the Agape or love-feast, and it was regarded
as a solemn and religious act. As early as a.d. 55 the
love-feast was associated with serious abuses. We find
S. Paul sternly rebuking the Corinthians because the
richer Christians had their meal prepared in a style
different from the meal eaten by their poorer brethren,
and because they were guilty of excesses which led
to an impious disregard of the Presence of Christ in
the Blessed Sacrament. In despising Christ in His
Sacrament, they were guilty of the sin of those who
murdered Him on Calvary.^ In S. Jude 12 and
2 S. Peter ii. 13 we again find grave abuses connected
with the love-feasts.
The early Christian manual known as the Didache,
or Teaching of the Apostles, and possibly written
before a.d. 100, furnishes us with some interesting
details of Christian worship, although the account of
1 Acts XX. II. 2 I Cor xi. 27.

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 3
Eucharistic service cannot be regarded as at all com
plete. The love-feast still existed and a prophet might
order it to be held, but he was forbidden to partake of
it himself — evidently lest he should fall into the sin of
the 'shepherds' condemned by S. Jude. Some modern
writers hold that in the Didache it is implied that the
love-feast still preceded the Eucharist. This is not
quite certain. It was celebrated every Lord's day, and
the congregation confessed their sins before com
municating. Great emphasis seems to have been laid
upon the idea of the unity effected between the com
municants by the Sacrament. It is compared with the
unity of the various grains of wheat in the Eucharistic
bread. ' As this broken bread was scattered upon the
mountains and gathered together became one, so let
Thy Church be gathered together from the ends of the
earth unto Thy kingdom.'
The first important change with regard to the cele
bration of the Eucharist was the separation of it
from the Agape. It is very possible that such dis
orders as were rebuked by S. Paul and S. Peter ulti
mately induced the apostles to place the Agape after
the Euchai-ist, About a.d. 112 Pliny, the imperial
legate in Bithynia, wrote to the Emperor Trajan about
the Christifins and their worship. His letter is not
free from ambiguity, but it certainly seems to imply
that the Agape was eaten some time after the
Eucharist. Pliny writes as follows : —
' They maintained that all their fault or error was
this, that they had been accustomed on a fixed day to
meet before dawn and sing antiphonally a hymn to
Christ as a god ; and that they bound themselves by a
solemn pledge (sacramento), not for any crime, but to
abstain from theft, brigandage, and adultery, to keep
their word, and not to refuse to restore a deposit when
demanded. After this was done they used to dis
perse and assemble again to share a common meal of

4 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
innocent food ; and even this (they said) they had given
up after I had issued the edict by which, in accordance
with your instructions, I prohibited the existence of
clubs,' It seems, therefore, that the Christians in Bithynia
abandoned the Agape when Trajan opposed such
gatherings, but they probably continued their religious
worship as before. We should notice that the habit of
assembling for the Eucharist before daylight is ex
pressly mentioned by Tertullian (a.d. 200), who says:
' The Sacrament of the Eucharist administered by the
Lord at the time of supper ... we receive even at our
meetings before daybreak.'
We fortunately possess two very important accounts
of the Eucharist as it was celebrated at Rome about
A.D. 152 and a.d. 200 respectively. The first occurs
in the Apology written by Justin to the Emperor
Antoninus Pius. No mention is made of the Agape,
and the account of the service is intentionally put into
language which would be intelligible to non-Christians :
e.g. the bishop is called ' the president.' The account
is as follows : — ¦
' On the day called Sunday all those who live in
the towns, or in the country, meet together ; and the
memoirs of the apostles and the writings of the
prophets are read, as long as time allows. Then, when
the reader has ended, the president addresses words of
instruction and exhortation to imitate these good
things. Then we all stand up together and offer
prayers. And when prayer is ended, bread is brought
and wine and water, and the president offers up alike
prayers and thanksgivings with all his energy, and the
people give their assent, saying the Amen. And the
distribution of the elements, over which thanksgiving
has been uttered, is made, so that each partakes ; and
to those who are absent they are sent by the hands of
the deacons. And those who have the means, and are

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 6
so disposed, give as much as they will, each according
to his inclination ; and the sum collected is placed in
the hands of the president, who himself succours the
orphans and widows, and those who, through sickness
or any other cause, are in want, and the prisoners, and
the foreigners who are staying in the place, and, in
short, he provides for all who are in need.'
Another passage in Justin shows that the service
was called the Eucharist or 'service of thanksgiving,'
a peculiarly fitting name, since our Lord especially
' gave thanks ' when He instituted the Sacrament. We
also find from Justin that the service included — (1)
the reading of passages from the Old Testament and
the New Testament ; (2) a sermon ; (3) prayers ; (4) the
kiss given by the Christians to one another ; (5) the
oblation of the elements ; (6) praise to God the Father
through the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost,
with a thanksgiving pronounced over the elements
which then become ' the flesh and blood of that Jesus
who was made flesh ' ; (7) Communion given to those
present, the Sacrament being also reserved and taken
from the church to those absent. It is interesting to
notice that no mention is made of the singing of
hymns or psalms, but passages in the New Testament
combine with the evidence of Pliny to make us think
that singing was not omitted in the public worship of
the Christians. The Cano7is of Hippolytus complete
the picture, of which the outline is given by Justin.
These canons may be as old as a.d. 195, and it is
improbable that they are as late as a.d. 218. The
Communion was received fasting, and the deacons
and presbyters with the bishop were clothed in white
vestments ' more beautiful than all the people and as
splendid as possible.' The 'readers' also wore 'festival
garments.' These readers read passages of Scripture
until all the people were assemljled together, and a
confession of sins was made before the Kiss of peace

6 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
and the offering of the oblations. Three points of
special interest are to be discovered in the remaining
directions for the service : —
(a) We find in these canons the earliest definite
reference to the Sursum Corda. The service contained
the familiar sentences :
The Lord be with you.
And with thy spirit.
Lift up your hearts.
We lift them up unto the Lord.
Let us give thanks unto the Lord.
It is meet and right so to do,
(b) We find an explanation of a sentence in the
present Roman service which for many centuries was
quite unintelligible. After the consecration of the
Sacrament the celebrant still prays that God will
admit us to the company of the saints, ' not weighing
our merits but bestowing Thy pardon, through Christ
our Lord, through Whom, O Lord, Thou dost always
create, sanctify, quicken, bless, and bestow upon us
all these good things.'' The last phrase is not very
appropriate to the Holy Sacrament, and the only
clue to its meaning now remaining in the Roman
service is the fact that on Maundy Thursday bishops
are accustomed to bless oil for the anointing of the sick
at this point of the service. The Canons of Hippolytus
show that at this point of the service there was origin
ally a thanksgiving over gifts of corn and wine and oil.
(c) The formula for administering the Sacrament is
given. ' This is the Body of Christ ' was said to the
communicant, who replied Amen. Then, when the cup
was given, ' This is the Blood of Christ,' the com
municant again replying Amen.
(d) Directions are given for the observance of the
Agape, which took place every Lord's day before sun
set. All stood up, and the senior of the clergy present
— the bishop if possible — offered a thanksgiving,.

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 7
breaking a loaf of bread and signing it with the sign of
the cross. If no priest was present, each person broke
his own bread. After the meal lights were lighted.
Sometimes there was a sermon. The service ended
with psalms. An Agape was also held when the
Eucharist had been offered for the faithful departed.
A few words may here be added with regard to the
later history of the love-feast. In the fifth century
Socrates, the Church historian, describes certain Egyp
tian Christians who 'partake of the mysteries {i.e.
Sacrament) otherwise than is customary with Christians.
For after feasting and taking their fill of all kinds of
food, about evening they offer the oblation and partake
of the mysteries.'^ This was on Saturday, and not
Sunday. It is difficult to say whether this is a primi
tive practice or whether it arose in times of persecu
tion, when it was safer to meet at night than in the
early morning. There is an apparently similar case
mentioned by S. Cyprian about 250. He rebukes some
Africans for communicating in the evening in their
fear lest the odour of the wine should lead to their
detection. In any case, the Egyptian practice seems
to be a reminiscence of the Agape, and the Agape was
known to the Armenian Christians at the same date.
The Canons of S. Sahak, a celebrated Armenian patri
arch about 400, show that the Agape still existed
among the Armenians, but it was considered a sin for
people 'to eat and drink in their own houses ' before
the Eucharist. It is therefore probable that the Agape
was celebrated at some time after the Eucharist. John
of Otzun, an Armenian born about 688, says that
whereas the Lord instituted the Eucharist after supper,
' we now place many hours between the carnal and the
spiritual meal.' Whether he refers to the Agape or
not is difficult to determine. The Council in Trullo
of 692 forbade the Agape to be held in churches, and
^ Ecclesiastical History, v. 22.

8 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
this proves that the practice was not extinct at the
end of the seventh century. But long before this date
the Agape had tended to become either a social enter
tainment for the rich, as at Alexandria, or a dole of
food to the poor, as in Western Africa. In either case
the true significance of the rite was lost. S. Ambrose
found it necessary to suppress it at Milan about 390,
and S. Augustine urged the Bishop of Carthage to
follow his example. But the practice has left a definite
survival in the bread, blessed though not consecrated,
and distributed during or after the liturgy in certain
countries. This is still customary in all the Eastern
Churches. It survived throughout the Middle Ages
in England, for the Devonshire rebels in the time
of Edward VI. clamoured for the retention of 'holy
bread,' and the 'pain benit' is still distributed in
certain churches in France.
§ 2. National Varieties of the Liturgy.
In the fourth century the Christian Church emerged
from the catacombs and enjoyed imperial favour. The
great cities of the Roman Empire were adorned with
magnificent churches, mostly of that type which has
been preserved for us in the older churches of Rome.
A great hall with rows of marble columns and a semi
circular apse at the end with the altar and the bishop's
throne made an almost ideal house of prayer, especially
when decorated with all the glory of bright mosaic
and vigorous carving. Worship was offered with great
magnificence, and in different countries the liturgy
was already assuming different forms. But it is this
very diversity in the liturgies which makes their sub
stantial unity so remarkable. In a period ranging
from the fourth to the seventh century we find that
the main features of the different liturgies, so far as
we can trace them, are practically identical. Such

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 9
an identity points back almost to the apostolic age.
There are plain indications of the same features in
the second and third centuries, nor was there any
attempt to destroy them until the Reformation.
The service was divided into two parts. The first
was open to persons who were not yet baptized but were
being prepared for Baptism, and was therefore known
in later times, though not yet in the fourth century,
as the Mass of the Catechumens. The second part of
the service was only open to the baptized, and was
given the name of the Mass of the Faithful.
% i. The Mass of the Catechumens. S. Ambrose
says, 'After the lessons and sermon the catechumens
are dismissed.'^ So S. Augustine of Hippo (died 430),
complaining of people talking in church, says, ' What
an exertion it is to secure silence in church when the
lessons are read. If one speaks, all murmur ; when the
psalm is read, it makes silence for itself.' So we find
The Lessons from the Bible. These were not less
than three in number, the two last being the
Epistle and Gospel.^ Between the Epistle and
Gospel was sung a psalm.
The Sermon.
The Dismissals of any non-Christians who might
be present and any catechumens who were being
prepared for Baptism. After the dismissals the
doors were shut. In the fourth century the word
' missa ' was still used in its original sense of ' dis
missal,' and therefore S. Augustine, Sermon 49,
says, ' After the sermon the missa catechumenorum
takes place ; the faithful will remain.' Afterwards
the word 'missa' (in English 'mass') became
' Ep. XX. ad Marcell.
" The lessons in some places were read in the fourth century by
readers and not by deacons, and at Milan the psalm was sung by a
boy reader [lector farvidus) and taken up by the congregation.

10 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
transferred from these solemn dismissals to the
Eucharist in which the dismissals occurred. The
word 'missa' is another form of ' missio,' just as
'coUecta' is another form of 'coUectio.' When
the old meaning began to be forgotten any service
was at first called 'missa,' and in the sixth
century in Spain and Gaul 'evening masses'
meant Evensong, and not the Eucharist.
With regard to the Mass of the Faithful S. Augus
tine, in commenting on 1 Timothy ii. 1, says, 'I prefer
in these words to understand this, that all or nearly all
the Church is met together : so that we take the svp-
plications as mentioned, which we make in the celebra
tion of the mysteries, before that which is on the Lord's
table begins to be blessed — prayers when it is blessed
and sanctified and broken to be distributed, which
entire petition almost every Church concludes with the
Lord's Prayer — and intercessions, or as your manu
scripts have it, " petitions," are made when the people
are blessed, for then the bishops, like advocates, offer
to the most merciful Power those whose cause they
have undertaken by the laying on of hands — and when
these things are done, and this great Sacrament
received, the thanksgiving concludes all things, which
in these very words the apostles recommended last,'
These words of S. Augustine show us the general
tenor of the Mass of the Faithful. A careful compari
son of the statements made by writers of the fourth
century shows us that this part of the service every
where contained the following sections, though the
different sections were not everywhere arranged in
precisely the same order.
§ ii. The Mass of the Faithful — Preparatory Section.
Prayers of the faithful for various blessings.
The Kiss of peace.
The Oblation of the bread and wine and water.

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 11
In Rome and Africa the Kiss was not given until
just before Communion.
§ iii. The Consecration.
The Lift up your hearts, etc.
A solemn prayer of thanksgiving (originally extem
pore), including (a) The Preface and singing of
Holy, holy, holy.
A continuation of the thanksgiving, including (/3)
a narrative of the institution of the Eucharist by
our Lord.
An invocation of the Holy Spirit or divine Word
to make the bread and wine the Body and Blood
of Christ.
An intercession for the living and the dead (in
Egypt this came in later times to be placed before
the Sanctus : at Rome the intercession for the
dead has long been separated from that for the
living, but some ancient manuscripts do not place
the commemoration of the dead in its present
position).
The Lord's Prayer.
§ iv. The Communion, etc.
The Fraction or breaking of the bread and other
manual acts, including generally the elevation of
the Sacrament.
The Communion, during which a psalm was generally
sung.
A Thanksgiving for Communion.
The Dismissal of the faithful.
The thanksgiving, consecration, and intercession in
cluded in the third of the four sections just analysed,
are in the East known collectively as the Anaphora.
The earliest complete, or nearly complete. Anaphora
which we possess is that of Bishop Serapion of Thmuis

12 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
in Egypt, of about a.d. 350. It is of such interest that
it is here printed in full : ^
The Preface.
It is meet and right to praise, to hymn, to glorify Thee
the uncreated Father of the only-begotten Jesus Christ.
We praise Thee, O uncreated God, Who art unsearchable,
ineffable, incomprehensible to every created substance.
We praise Thee Who art known of Thy Son the only-
begotten, Who through Him wast uttered and interpreted
and made known to created nature. We praise Thee Who
knowest the Son and revealest to the saints the glories
that are about Him : Who art known of Thy begotten
Word, and art brought to the sight and interpreted to
the understanding of the saints. We praise Thee, O in
visible Father, provider of immortality. Thou art the fount
of life, the fount of light, the fount of all grace and all
truth, O Lover of men, O Lover of the poor. Who recon-
eilest Thyself to all, and drawest all to Thyself through
the sojourning of thy beloved Son. We beseech Thee
make us living men. Give us a spirit of light, that ' we
may know Thee the true [God] and Him Whom Thou
didst send, even Jesus Christ.' Give us the Holy Spirit,
that we may be able to tell forth and to relate Thine
unspeakable mysteries. May the Lord Jesus speak in
us and the Holy Spirit, and hymn Thee through us.
For Thou art ' far above all principality and power and
might and dominion, and every name that is named, not
only in this world but also in that which is to come'
(Eph. i. 21). Before Thee stand thousand thousands and
myriad myriads of angels (Dan. vii. 10, Heb. xii. 22), arch
angels, thrones, dominations, principalities, powers : before
Thee stand the two most honourable six-winged seraphim,
with two wings covering the face, and with twain the feet,
and with twain flying, and crying holy (cf. Is. vi. 2, 3), with
whom receive also our cry of " holy " as we say :
' See Bishop Serapion's Prayer Book, with introduction by the
present Lord Bishop of Salisbury (S. P.C.K., 1899).

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 13
The Sanctus.
Holy, holy, holy. Lord of Sabaoth, full is the heaven and
the earth of Thy glory.
Oblation and Narrative of the Institution.
Full is the heaven, full is also the earth of Thy excellent
glory. Lord of Hosts : fill also this sacrifice with Thy
power and Thy participation: for to Thee have we
oiFered this living sacrifice, the unbloody oblation. To
Thee we have offered this bread the likeness of the Body
of the only-begotten. This bread is the likeness of the
holy Body, for the Lord Jesus Christ in the night in
which He was betrayed took bread and brake and gave
to His disciples saying, ' Take and eat, this is My Body
which is being broken for you for remission of sins.'
Wherefore we also making the likeness of the death have
offered the bread, and we beseech Thee through this sacri
fice be reconciled to all of us and be merciful, O God of
truth : and as this bread ^ had been scattered on the top of
the mountains and gathered together came to be one, so
also gather Thy holy Church out of every nation and every
country and every city and village and house and make one
living Catholic Church. We have offered also the cup, the
likeness of the Blood, for the Lord Jesus Christ, taking
a cup after supper said to His own disciples, ' Take,
drink, this is the new covenant, which is My Blood, which
is being shed for you for remission of sins.' Wherefore
we have also offered the cup, presenting a likeness of the
Blood. The Consecration.
O God of truth, let Thy holy Word come to sojourn on this
bread that the bread may become Body of the Word, and
on this cup that the cup may become Blood of the Truth.
And make all who communicate receive a medicine of life
for the healing of every sickness and for the enabling
' This passage is borrowed from the T&e Teaching of the Apostles,
Ch. ix.

14 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
of all advancement and virtue, not for condemnation, 0
God of truth, and not for censure and reproach. For we
have invoked Thee, the uncreated, through the Only-
begotten in the Holy Spirit.
The Great Intercession.
Let this people receive mercy, let it be counted worthy
of advancement, let angels be sent forth as companions to
the people for bringing to nought of the evil one and
for establishment of the Church.
We intercede also on behalf of all who have fallen
asleep, whose is also the memorial we are making. After
the recitation of the names : — Sanctify these souls ; for Thou
knowest all. Sanctify all souls at rest in the Lord. And
number them with all Thy holy hosts and give them a
place and a mansion in Thy kingdom.
Receive also the thanksgiving of the people, and bless
those who offered the oblations and the thanksgivings,
and grant health and soundness and cheerfulness and all
advancement of soul and body to this whole people
through the only-begotten Jesus Christ in the Holy
Spirit; as it was and is and shall be to generations of
generations and to all the ages of the ages. Amen.
Having now sketched the structure of the Holy
Eucharist in the fourth century, we may proceed to
describe the great national families of the liturgy
which already existed between the fourth and seventh
centuries. (i) The West Syrian Rite. — This was said in Greek
and was used at Antioch. Light is thrown upon
it by the writings of S. John Chrysostom, who lived
and taught in Antioch before he became Archbishop of
Constantinople in 398, and also by the Apostolic Con
stitutions, a manual of ecclesiastical life containing
numerous liturgical formulae, and written at Antioch
about 375. The Syrian Service is represented by the
Greek ' Liturgy of S. James,' which is still sung at Zante
on the festival of that saint. A Syriac version of the

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 15
same liturgy is used by the Maronites, a sect which is
very numerous in the Lebanon, and has been united
with the Roman Church since the twelfth century.
Greek remained the literary language of Damascus
until the eighth century, but long before that time
Syriac had become a cultivated language, and was used
in divine worship. This liturgical use of Syriac began
when the Syrians separated from the Greek Church,
through adopting the Monophysite heresy, which
denied the reality of Christ's human nature. Crushed
by Moslem domination, the once great and cultured
sect of Syrian Monophysites now probably numbers less
than 200,000 in Asia Minor and Syria, and about
300,000 in India. They employ a Syriac version of
the Liturgy of S. James.
The Palestinian Rite, once used at Jerusalem, is closely
akin to the rite used at Antioch. Our knowledge of
it is largely derived from the writings of S. Jerome
and S. Cyril of Jerusalem, and from the Pilgrimage
of S. Silvia, a Burgundian lady who stayed in the holy
city near the end of the fourth century, and wrote an
account of the Church services in such Latin as was
then spoken by the people of Burgundy.
(ii) The East Syrian or Persian Rite. — This is the
rite now used by the Nestorians, who declared that Jesus
Christ was two persons, and refused to accept the
decisions of the Council of Ephesus held in 431. They
were at one time one of the most numerous and active
Churches in Christendom. In 850 there were Nestorian
metropolitans in India, Merv, and Arabia, and a
flourishing mission was established in China about 720.
This vast Church now consists only of about 200,000
impoverished people on the borderland of Turkey and
Persia. Their liturgy bears the name of ' the apostles
Addai and Mari.' Mari, one of the apostles of Meso
potamia, probably lived in the middle of the third
century. Addai, whom legends have made a contem-

16 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
porary of our Lord, probably lived in the second half
of the second century, and taught at Edessa, a large
and flourishing city, which became a Roman colony in
244. The Syrian Christians of Malabar, who are now
Monophysite, and use the West Syrian rite, were for
merly Nestorians, Many of the Persian Nestorians
have lately been united with the Orthodox Eastern
Church. (iii) The Byzantine Rite. — This great rite has a
peculiar importance, inasmuch as it is now the rite used
throughout the Orthodox Eastern Church, It stretches
almost across the world. It is used in different languages
throughout the Russian Empire, also by all Greek-
speaking Christians, by the Roumanians, Serbs, Bul
garians, Georgians, by those of the Orthodox who speak
Arabic, and by numerous converts from heathenism
in Japan and elsewhere. The rite comprises three
liturgies, that of S, John Chrysostom, that of S. Basil,
and that of S. Gregory Dialogos. The Liturgy of
S. Basil is used on the Sundays of Lent (except Palm
Sunday) and on certain holy days. On other days
the liturgy is celebrated according to the rite of S. John
Chrysostom. The Liturgy of S. Gregory is used on
week-days of Lent, when the priest is not allowed to
consecrate the Eucharist, but publicly partakes of the
Sacrament, which has been reserved for that purpose.
The ordinary name of this form of service is the Mass
of the ' Pre-sanctified ' (i.e. 'previously consecrated'
Sacrament). The Armenian Rite is an offshoot of the Byzantine.
It is most probable that the Armenians first received
some instruction in Christianity from Syrian Christians.
This would be easy, for Edessa, the great centre of
Syrian Christianity, is near to the passes which give
access to Armenia. It is probable that this evangelisa
tion began in the third century. The Armenians,
however, regard as the true founder of their Church

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 17
S. Gregory the Illuminator, who lived near the begin
ning of the fourth century. The first Armenian trans
lation of the New Testament was from the Syriac.
But at the close of the fourth century the Armenians
were in communication with Constantinople and other
centres of Greek Christianity. At this period they
made an admirable translation of the Bible from the
Greek, and they probably accepted the Byzantine rite
at that time. The Armenian liturgy is of great beauty,
and shows traces of Latin influence dating from the
later Middle Ages.
(iv) The Egyptian Rite. — The earliest form of the
Egyptian rite which we possess is to be found in the
precious document which contains the prayers of
Serapion, already quoted. It is in Greek, like the
more developed Egyptian rite known as the Liturgy
of S. Mark. The majority of Egyptian Christians ac
cepted the Monophysite heresy. They emphasised
their separation from the Greeks by using in their
worship the vernacular language of Egypt known as
Coptic, which is descended from the language of
ancient Egypt. The Copts still use a Coptic version
of the Liturgy of S. Mark, though their vernacular is
now Arabic. The orthodox Christians of Egypt have
adopted the Byzantine rite.
Christianity spread widely beyond the boundaries of
Egypt at an early date. In Egypt it has suffered
severely from the encroachments of Muhammadanism,
and in Nubia it became extinct in the seventeenth
century. It still survives in a corrupt Monophysite
form in Abyssinia, which received Christianity from
Egypt in the time of Athanasius, a.d. 346. The
Abyssinian liturgies are very numerous, and are of the
Egyptian type. The long intercession for the Church
is inserted between the Sursum Corda and the Sanctus,
a peculiarity which is only found in the liturgies of
Egyptian origin,

18 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
(v) The Roman Rite. — The Roman Church abandoned
the use of Greek as its official language in the third
century after Christ. The Roman rite has some points
of contact with the Egyptian rite. It slowly spread
over nearly the whole of Western Europe, and our own
Prayer Book is mostly derived directly or indirectly
from Roman Service Books of various types. Although
it is the ordinary rite used by Christians who are under
the authority of Rome, the Roman Church generally
permits converts attracted from the Eastern Churches
to use a slightly Romanised form of their own services.
It is therefore quite a mistake to suppose that absolute
uniformity of worship exists in the Roman communion.
The oldest form of the Roman Mass is to be found in
the 'Leonine Sacramentary,' discovered at Verona about
1735. It is mutilated, and of the original twelve
sections corresponding with the twelve months of
the year, only nine remain. Unfortunately the most
interesting parts are missing, including the Easter cere
monies and the Canon of the Mass, or prayers for the
consecration of the Eucharist. "The book is purely
Roman, containing numerous local allusions to Rome,
and showing no trace of the French elements which
abound in later Roman Service Books. Its date is almost
certainly near 550, as there seems to be a reference to
the Ostrogoths who besieged Rome in 538, and the
prayer Hanc igitur appears without the conclusion
added to it by S. Gregory about 595.
(vi) TTie Gallican Rite. — This ancient Latin rite
was used in France, in Spain, and in Britain and Ire
land. It differs widely from the Roman. In France
the Gallican rite was replaced in the eighth century
by the Roman rite by a decree of King Pepin,
his action being mentioned in a document of Charles
the Great, a.d. 789. The Prankish Church was dis
organised and in a state of liturgical anarchy, and
the king and his successors determined to restore order

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 19
by introducing the Roman rite. After the Roman
rite was brought into Gaul it became mixed with
numerous Gallican ceremonies, and returned to Rome
in this adulterated form. Rome, so far from troubling
to maintain her ancient rite in its purity, adopted the
new Service Books, and has kept them, with additions,
to this day. In Spain the Gallican rite was more
fortunate than in France. The Church of the Visi
goths had a strong centre in the city of Toledo, and
the liturgy of Toledo was the liturgy of all Spain,
Gradually the conflict between the Roman and the
Gallican rite became inevitable. The story goes that
in the eleventh century. King Alfonso VI., according to
the strange spirit of the age, decided that the rival
claims of the two liturgies should be decided by a
tournament between two knights. The Roman
champion was killed, but the king was unconvinced.
So a fire was kindled, and the two Mass Books were
thrown into the flames. That of Rome was consumed ;
that of Toledo was uninjured. The king then arbitrarily
commanded the abolition of the Spanish rite. The
people were furious, and a compromise was made to the
effect that the Roman use should be introduced into the
later chui-ches, and the national rite should remain in
those of ancient foundation. The old Gallican service
of Spain, known by the name Mozarabic, was revised
and printed in a.d. 1500 by Cardinal Ximenes, and it is
probable that Cranmer knew some of the Mozarabic
services. The rite still survives, tended like a hot
house plant, though in its own native air.
A chapel in the cathedral church of Toledo is
set apart for Mozarabic services ; there are also two
Mozarabic parish churches in Toledo, and the old rite
is, or was vmtil lately, said at Salamanca and in the
church of S. Martinho de Cedofeita at Oporto.
In the great diocese of Milan there is used a rite
which is called Ambrosian. It contains many Roman

20 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
features, including the Roman Canon of the Mass. It
is, however, very difficult to decide whether the original
Ambrosian service was Roman or Gallican. Students
nave long been divided into two hostile camps on this
question. Our chief authorities for the Milanese
services of the fourth century are S. Ambrose and
S. Augustine. Their writings do not suggest that
there was then much difference between the services of
Rome and of Milan. But at a time when it is known
that the present Roman Canon of the Mass was already
employed at Milan, the manuscripts prove that the
Mass sung on the Thursday before Easter was of a
type which strongly resembles the Gallican. The
present writer is inclined to rank the Ambrosian
service with the Gallican.
§ 3. Western Liturgies in the time of Augustine.
Owing to a most fortunate circumstance we are able
to reconstruct almost the whole of the Gallican Mass
as it was in the days of S. Augustine of Canterbury,
a reconstruction which is not nearly so easy in the
case of the Roman Mass. S. Germanus of Paris, who
died in 576, has left us a description of the Gallican
service, and by availing ourselves of this description
and consulting the oldest liturgical books of Gaul,
Britain, and Spain we can imagine ourselves assist
ing at the holy mysteries in Paris or Toledo at the
close of the sixth century. Turning to the Roman
rite, we find that the Ordines Romani contain the
ritual for various services at which the Pope himself
assisted. In particular they describe the 'stational'
Mass which the Pope celebrated himself, and to which
all the clergy and all the faithful were summoned.
The Ordines are of different dates, but the earliest
describe the divine worship of the eighth and ninth
centuries. With the help of older books it is possible

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 21
to extract from them a fairly good idea of the Roman
liturgy of the sixth century.
We will now consider the Gallican Mass with which
S. Augustine was familiar, and during which. service
he was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury at Aries
in 597. Comparisons will also be made with the
Roman Mass of the period.
MASS OF THE CATECHUMENS.
§i(«).
GALLICAN. ROMAN.
Antiphon. Antiphon and Psalm ad In-
Trisagion. troitum,
Kyrie eleison.
The Prophecy, i.e. Benedictus. Gloria in excehii.
The service begins with the chanting of an Antiphon,
such as is now called the Introit or entrance, and the
celebrant enters wearing a white tunic or alb and a
very large chasuble with a hood attached. Let us
observe that our word chasuble is a Gallican Latin
word. ' Casula ' means a little house, and it was the
name colloquially applied in Gaul to the large dignified
robe worn by the clergy and the higher lay officials.
The Roman word for a chasuble is 'plan eta,' tlie origin
of which word is unknown. The priest would be ac
companied by two deacons, probably wearing the same
dress as the celebrant, for the chasuble was not yet an
exclusively priestly garment.^ A deacon exhorts the
people to be silent, and the celebrant says, ' The Lord
be always with you.'
Then the Trisagion was sung in Greek and Latin —
^ During Advent and Lent the deacon and sub-deacon in England
continued to wear chasubles throughout the Middle Ages. A statue
at Wells Cathedral shows us that their chasuble was long and of thin
material, folded so as to be quite narrow, then placed on the left
shoulder and passed under the girdle of the alb exactly like a deacon's
stole. The Continental custom of clothing the deacons in Lent in
chasubles which have been cut down to the size of an English university
hood, is a modern barbarism.

22 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
' Holy God, Holy mighty. Holy immortal, have mercy
upon us' — a beautiful custom of Eastern origin. It
was followed by the chant Kyrie eleison, another Greek
custom introduced into Gaul in the sixth century.
The Kyrie had previously been introduced into Rome,
but in Rome as in the East it was connected with
a previously recited litany, whereas in Gaul it was
isolated. It still survives in the petition, ' Lord have
mercy upon us,' in the answer made by our choirs
during the recital of the Commandments. The Kyrie
was followed by the Prophecy, that is, the Benedictus
or Song of Zacharias, which we sing at Mattins. Instead
of the Benedictus the Roman Church sang the Gloria
in excelsis, used at the Greek Mattins. This hymn
probably dates from the second century, and was
lengthened in the fourth century. ¦'^
§i(6)-
GALLICAN. ROMAN.
Collect.
The Prayer in Rome was called ' CoUecta,' in Gaul
' CoUectio.' There can be little or no doubt that the
name means the prayer said when all the people
were collected together and joined in spirit with the
celebrant. The chants were regarded as preliminary.
A similar prayer is found in the Prayer Book of
Serapion, showing the custom of Egypt about a.d. 350.
§ i (c)-
GALLICAN. ROMAN.
Lesson from Old Testament. Gradual, i.e. Psalm sung from
Gradus or pulpit step.
Epistle.
Benedicite. Alleluia ; or Psalm called Tract
sung loithout repeat.
Trisagion and Gospel.
1 At Rome it was first used at the first Mass of Christmas Day only.
Afterwards it was used every Sunday by bishops only, and finally by
priests.

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 23
Then came the readings from the Bible. Originally
there was always a lesson read before the Epistle and
Gospel. This lesson was taken from the Old Testa
ment. It is still retained on certain Lenten and
Ember days in the Roman Church, and also by the
Armenian Church, but it was abandoned long ago by
the Greeks, from whom the Armenians derived their
liturgy. The so-called Ambrosian service of Milan
also retains this lesson, although a modern itching
for shortened Masses has caused it to be frequently
omitted by lawless clergy. After this lesson there was
the Epistle, and then the Benedicite was sung.^
Then began the procession of the Gospel while the
Trisagion was chanted. The deacon ascended the
marble ambo or pulpit, seven candles being borne
before him to signify the seven gifts of the Holy
Spirit ; the clerks sang ' Glory be to Thee, O Lord ' ;
and the deacon read the Gospel. There is reason for
thinking that at Rome S. Gregory himself fixed the
rule that a deacon should read the Gospel. In the
eighth century, and perhaps earlier, incense was used
at Rome both at the approach of the celebrant to
the altar and on going to the pulpit for the Gospel.
About 830 no incense was used in Rome at Mass after
the Gospel. After the Gospel came a homily or
sermon, and S. German appropriately says that the
pastor of the church must so temper his words with
art that his rusticity does not offend the wise, and that
his proper eloquence does not puzzle the rustics.^ The
Creed was already sung at Mass in Spain, though not
in Gaul. It was introduced into the service at Antioch
in 471, but at Rome it was not sung until the eleventh
' At Rome, when they omitted the Old Testament Lesson, they sang
the Gradual after the Epistle. Its original place was between the Old
Testament Lesson and the Epistle.
" Preaching at Rome was rare, as at this period it had become a
prerogative of the Pope.

24 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
century, by which time the Gallican service had been
extinguished in France by the Roman.
§ i (d).
GALLICAN. ROMAN.
Litany: collect Post-precem. Oremus: Prayers.
Dismissal of Catechumens.
In Gaul after the homily came a short litany closely
corresponding with the litany still repeated here in the
Greek service. The litany was followed by a collect.'
In Gaul penitents who had been guilty of grievous
sin and catechumens being prepared for Baptism
were then bidden to depart, and in Rome they were
probably dismissed after some prayers. This is the
missa or dismissal of the catechumens, which in the
sixth century was still maintained in Rome as well as
in Gaul. The first part of the service concluded with
this dismissal. The deplorable ignorance of a great
number of the English clergy has led to the astounding
modern custom of encouraging the laity to depart just
before or after the Offertory, as if they had been guilty
of some deadly sin, and were unfit to be present at the
Christian sacrifice. MASS OF THE FAITHFUL.
The second part of the service was preceded in Gaul
by an injunction to guard the doors. At this period
the original meaning of this injunction was already
forgotten, and it was supposed to be a command to the
worshippers to keep the door of their lips, but it had
originally been a warning to, beware of the intrusion
of pagans.
' After the Creed in the Roman Mass the priest still says, ' Let us
pray.' These words are not followed by any common prayer, but it
may be regarded as certain that at this point either the 'prayer of the
faithful ' was said, or a prayer before the dismissal of the catechu
mens. The prayers now said in the Roman liturgy on Good Friday
suggest the latter alternative.

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 26
§ii-
GALLICAN. ROMAN.
Chant and three/old Alleluia : Offertory sung: oblation of
procession with previously bread, wine and water.
prepared oblations. Celebrant washes his hands.
Lory invitation to prayer. ' Pray, brethren,' etc.
Collect over the oblations. Collect called Secreta.
Commemoration of saints and
the departed : collect.
Kiss of peace : collect. ' Lift up your hearts,' etc.
' It is meet and right,' etc.
' Holy, holy, holy,' etc.
The Gallican Offertory was a ceremony of great
solemnity. The choir sang a chant ending with Alle
luia, followed by another verse called the ' Praises,'
also ending with Alleluia. Meanwhile a procession
entered from the sacristy, one deacon bore the Euchar
istic bread in a little tower of some precious workman
ship, another bore a chalice containing wine mingled
with water. The elements were placed upon the linen
altar-cloth or ' corporal cloth,' and covered with a
veil of silk embroidered with gold and gems. The
oblations, in accordance with Eastern usage, were
prepared before the service began, and this practice
lingered in France after the introduction of the Roman
rite. The Dominican friars, who use a Roman service
of a mediaeval French character, still mix the chalice
before the Mass actually begins, and the same fashion
was common in England during the Middle Ages. At
Rome, on the contrary, it was the custom for the
clergy and laity, and the celebrant himself, to make
an oblation of bread and wine to be used for the
Eucharist. If the Pope celebrated, the archdeacon

26 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
selected some of these oblations, and before the water
was added to the wine in the chalice, some of the wine
offered by the Pope was mingled with that offered by
the clergy and laity. In the meantime the choir sang
the Offertory Psalm. Then the celebrant said, ' Pray,
brethren, that my sacrifice and yours may be acceptable
to God the Father almighty,' and over the oblations
said the ' Secret ' prayer. Similarly in the Gallican
service the Offertory was followed by a prayer, which
at Milan is called the ' prayer over the veil.'
Then the celebrant in Gaul read the diptychs or
tablets containing the names of the saints which were
specially commemorated and ' all those at rest,' and
God was asked to bid their names to be 'written in
eternity.' After this commemoration of those who
have departed to be with Christ, the living gave to one
another, in accordance with apostolic custom, the Kiss
of peace. In Spain, and perhaps in France, the choir
sang, ' My peace I give unto you ; My peace I leave
with you ; not as the world giveth, give I peace unto
you. — A new commandment I give unto you, that ye
love one another.''^
The supreme moment of the liturgy now approaches.
At Rome immediately after the ' Secret ' collect, and
in Gaul immediately after the Kiss of peace, the priest
briefly saluted the people,^ and then exclaimed, ' Lift
up your hearts,' the people responding, ' We lift them
up unto the Lord.' Next came the prayer which we
call the Preface, then named in Gaul the Immolation,

' At Rome the Kiss of peace was not given until the solemn break
ing of the bread after the consecration and before the communion.
2 At the present day the Canon of the Roman Mass is not supposed
to begin until after the Sanctus and Benedictus. But it was formerly
sometimes reckoned as beginning with the salutation given by the
priest before ' Lift up your hearts.' It is most reasonable to hold that
the Canon ends at the conclusion of the clause added to the ' Our
Father.' The whole of the Roman Canon in its Sarum form is printed
in Appendix A.

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 27
followed by the singing of the words, Holy, Holy,
Holy, a chant to be found in all the liturgies.
§ iii.
GALLICAN. ROMAN.
Collect called Post-sanctus. Prayer for the Church ; the
living ; commemoration of
saints ; prayers for the obla
tion.
Narrative of the Institution by our Lord.
Wherefore we ; Upon which ;
Prayer that the elements may receive a heavenly consecration.
Memento of dead : To us also :
Through whom (dedication of
the fruits of the earth):
Our Father : Deliver us.
In Gaul the Sanctus was followed by a prayer called
the Post-sanctus, and this led immediately to a recital
of the words used by our Lord at His supper in the
upper room. The form of these words printed in
tlie Toledo books is almost identical with that of the
present Anglican prayer of consecration. After this
recital the priest began another prayer, to the effect
that the oblation offered to God might be sanctified
by the Holy Spirit, and so ' conformed ' to the Body
and Blood of Christ.
It is of the utmost importance in studying the
liturgies to remember that the consecration of the
elements was not generally believed to be immediately
effected by the words ' This is My Body,' ' This is
My Blood,' as in the present English service and in the
false interpretation now attached to the Roman service.
The prayer of consecration in the Roman Mass
beginning Te igitur, consisted of several prayers com
bined and known even in the time of Gregory as the
Canon. After the Sanctus the priest recited prayers

28 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
for the Church and for the living,^ and commemorated
the saints. This series of prayers has left a survival
in our prayer for the Church militant, now placed in
a new position. Then came two brief prayers that
the oblation might be accepted, and the Qui pridie,
which begins the recital of our Lord's institution of
the Eucharist. Then after a commemoration of our
Lord's Passion and Ascension are two clauses begin
ning respectively Supra quae and Supplices te rogamus.
This was the original consecration, and corresponds
exactly with the place occupied in the Greek liturgies
by the prayer that the Holy Ghost will make the
bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Christ.
The consecration was very quiet and simple. There
was no genuflexion, no censing, no bell-ringing, no
carrying of lights. No one denied the sacramental
doctrine of the Church, and therefore it was unneces
sary to emphasise it by effective ceremonies.
After this consecration came a commemoration of
the departed, and another of the living and of the
saints, and then the clause beginning Per qvem, which
is a prayer for fruits of the earth dedicated at this
part of the Mass.^ This prayer was wholly unin
telligible at the end of the Middle Ages, and its
present retention in the Roman Canon is scarcely
defensible. At the end of the Roman Canon S. Gregory placed
the Pater noster, set, as everywhere else, between a
short preface and a prayer developing the words
' Deliver us from evil.'
' It is probable that at the beginning of the fifth century the
diptychs of the living and of the dead, for whom the prayers of the
Church were desired, were read after the Te igitur, and that the
present Memento had not yet been inserted. — Magistretti, LaLiturgia
della Chiesa Milanese, p. 103.
' See above, p. 6. The Leonine Sacramentary contains the full
formula for the blessing of milk, honey, grapes, etc.

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 29
§ iv (a).
GALLICAN. ROMAN.
Breaking of the Bread. Kiss of Peace.
Our Father. Breaking of tlie Bread.
A morsel of the bread is put in the chalice.
In Gaul the Lord's Prayer was not said until after
the Fraction or breaking of the bread. This was
an elaborate ceremony, the bread being broken and
arranged on the paten in the form of a cross while
the choir sang an anthem. The whole congregation
then said the Lord's Prayer together. The Roman
practice was, and still is, for the priest to say the
Lord's Prayer alone until the people respond 'but
deliver us from evil.' Both in Gaul and at Rome a
portion of the bread was placed in the chalice. In
Gaul, as in the East, the priest accompanied his
action with the words, ' Holy things to the holy.' In
the East the Sacrament was elevated at these words.
§ iv (6).
GALLICAN. ROMAN.
Blessing of the people.
Communion while a chant is sung.
In Gaul the celebrant then blessed the people, and
this custom of blessing the people before Communion
was continued in France by the bishops after the
introduction of the Roman rite. The English bishops
maintained it until the Reformation. It still survives
at Lyons. The celebrant then communicated himself
and gave Communion first to the clergy and then to
the laity, who approached close to the altar. The
men received the Body of our Lord in their hands as
we do, the women received it not in the naked hand
but in the hand covered with a linen napkin. A

30 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
deacon administered the chalice to the laity, who
communicated in both kinds until the thirteenth cen
tury.^ Some of the large chalices which were used
for the communion of the people had two handles.
During communion a psalm or hymn was sung both
in Gaul and at Rome. Our English hymn, 'Draw
nigh and take the Body of the Lord,' is a translation
of an ancient communion hymn used in Ireland.
§ iv (c).
GALLICAN. ROMAN.
Long invitation to give thanks. ' Let us pray.'
Post-communion Collect.
Dismissal. Dismissal.
The Mass concluded in the simplest fashion. The
celebrant invited the congregation to give thanks
' that we who have spiritually received the sacred body
of our Lord Jesus Christ may be freed from the sins
of the flesh, and be worthy to become spiritual.' ^ A
short collect followed. The congregation was then
dismissed, probably without any further blessing, the
supreme blessing of receiving Jesus Christ being re
garded as enough for all their needs. At Rome, as
soon as the collect of thanksgiving (known as the Post-
communion) was ended, a deacon pronounced the
formula Ite, missa est — ' Go, it is the dismissal,' In the
later Middle Ages, this meaning of the word 'missa'
having been forgotten, the formula had ceased to be
intelligible. It has now been rendered doubly unintel
ligible by the prayers added at the end of every Low
Mass by command of Pope Leo XIII,
At the end of this chapter is printed a table of
Liturgies. It gives in parallel columns, first, the order
of the Syrian Liturgy of the fourth century, found
' It is hardly necessary to say that all communicated fasting.
* From the form in the Missale Gothicum for Christmas Day.

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE 31
chiefly in the Apostolic Constitutions; secondly, the
Liturgy of S. Basil, used in Constantinople ; thirdly,
the Gallican Liturgy, used in France; fourthly, the
Roman Liturgy. The three last are given, as nearly
as can be ascertained, in the form used about
A.D. 600.

32 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

MASS OF THE CATECHUMENS.

Early Syrian.

8 1- Byssantine — 8. Basil.
' Little Entrance ' of priest.

Trisagion.

Old Testament Lesson.

Old Testament Lesson.

Psalm.

Antiphon 'Prokeimenon.'

Epistle.Psalm.

Epistle. Alleluia.

Gospel. Sermon.

Gospel.Sermon.

Prayers and Dismissals.

Litany and Prayer.
Prayers and Dismissals.

MASS OF THE FAITHFUL.

§ ii. Preparatory Section.

Litany and Prayers.
Kiss of peace.
Diptychs. OiFertory.

Celebrant washes hands.
Private Prayer.

Prayers of the Faithful.

Offertory: 'Great Entrance':
procession of previously pre
pared oblations : Chant.
Celebrant washes hands.
Prayer.Diptychs of dead and living.

Kiss of peace.
Creed.

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S, AUGUSTINE 33

MASS OF THE CATECHUMENS.
§i.
Gallican. Roman.
Antiphon. Antiph. and Ps. ad Introitum.
Trisagion. Kyrie eleison. Kyrie eleison.
Prophetia, i.e. Benedictus. Gloria in excelsis.
CoUectio. CoUecta.
Old Testament Lesson. (Old Testament Lesson).
Gradual.
Epistle. Epistle.
Benedicite. Alleluia or Tract.
Gospel (procession: Trisagion). Gospel.
Sermon. Sermon.
Litany : coUect Post-precem. Oremus : (Prayers).
Dismissals. (Dismissals).

MASS OF THE FAITHFUL.
§ ii. Preparatory Section.

Offertory : procession of pre- Offertory : oblations offered :
viously prepared oblations: Antiphon and Psalm 'Offer-
Chants 'Sonum' 'Laudes.' torium.'
Celebrant washes hands.
CoUect over oblations. Secreta, a collect.
Diptychs of dead read, saints
commemorated: coUect 'Post
nomina.'
Kiss : coUect 'ad Pacem.'

34 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Early Syrian.

'The grace,' 2 Cor. xiii. 14.
"A.vm roc vovv.
"h^iov its d\r]6S>s.
'Ayios. EvKoyrjTos.

Byzantine — S. Basil.
Anaphora. 'The grace.'
"Avay (TxS>iJ.ev ras napSlas.
"A^iov Koi hiKaiov.
"Ayios . . , 'Sliravva.
"EvXoyriiicvos.

'Ayios yap el.
Narrative of the Institution.
M€fivriiJ,evoi ovv (commemora
tion of Passion, Resurrec
tion, Ascension).

Ayioj 61.
Narrative of the Institution.
MefivTjiievoi ovv (commemora
tion of Passion, Resurrec
tion, Ascension).

Epiklesisor Invocation of Holy Epiklesis or Invocation of Holy
Spirit. Spirit.

The Great Intercession (the
Church, emperor, saints,
persecutors).

Kai fivjjirBrfTi navrav (aU faith
ful departed, the Church,
emperor, aU men).

Blessing of the people. Blessing of the people.
narep rjfiav, with preface and Xlarep rjp.av, with preface and
embolismos. doxology.
§ iv. The Communion.

Prayer before Communion.
Fraction.

Prayer before Communion.
Fraction (xXdcrw).

Ta ayia Tois aylois.
Communion : Ps. xxxiv.
Thanksgiving. Prayer for blessing.
'AiTo}t.ie(r6€ iv flpTjvrj.

Commixtion. Ta ayia rots Ayiois.
Communion : Chant.
Thanksgiving. Ev elpijvjj TTpoeKBcoiiev.

THE EUCHARIST BEFORE S. AUGUSTINE
Gallican. Roman.

3S

Sursum corda.
Vere dignum et justum.
Sanctus . . . Hosanna.
Benedictus.

Vere sanctus (coUect 'Post-
sanctus ').
Narrative of the Institution.

Dominus vohiscum.
Sursum corda.
Vere dignum et justum.
Sanctus . . . Hosanna . . .
Benedictus. Canon Missae.
Te igitur : [Diptychs].
Memento : Communicantes,
Hanc igitur: Quam oblationem.

Invocation in collect called
' Post - secreta ' or ' Post-
mysterium.'

Qui pridie.
Unde et memores (commemo
ration of Passion, Resurrec
tion, Ascension).
Supra quae.
Supplices te . . . jube haec per-
ferri per manus Angeli.
Memento etiam (the dead).
Nobis quoque (the living and
the saints).
Per quern (fruits, etc., dedi
cated).
Pater noster, with preface and
embolismos.

§ iv. The Communion.

Fraction : Antiphon sung.
Pater noster, with preface
and embolismos.
Commixtion.Blessing of the people.
Sancta Sanctis.
Communion : Chant.
Post-Communion Collect.

Fraction.

Commixtion. Kiss of peace.

Communion : Psalm.
Post-communion Collect.

Dismissal.

Ite, Missa est.

CHAPTER II
THE EUCHARIST FROM S. AUGUSTINE TO
THE REFORMATION
The Protestants of the Church of England believe and
reverence, as much as any, the Sacrifice of the Eucharist,
as the most substantial and essential act of our religion,
and doubt not but the word Missa, Mass, hath fitly
been used by the Western Church to signify it, and
herein abhor or condemn nothing, but the corruptions
and mutilations which the Church of Rome, without care
of conforming themselves to the Universal (Church), have
admitted in the celebration. H. Hammond, Archdeacon
of Chichester, Dispatcher Dispatched, a.d. 1669.
§ 1. Changes in the Roman Rite in England.
The great liturgical changes which took place in the
west of Europe after the introduction of Christianity
into England were partly changes in the rite or service
employed, and partly changes in the interpretation
and performance of the service. The changes in the
rite were caused by the gradual spread of the Roman
rite, its absorption of alien elements, and the birth of
numerous diocesan uses of a Roman type adapted to
the French and Teutonic love of variety and cere
monial,^ All the services of the Roman Church are
^ It is worth noting that most of the ceremonies of the modern
Roman Church which are of a spectacular character are not of Roman
origin. Among such may be mentioned the censing of persons and
oblations, the Veneration of the Cross on Good Friday, the manner of
employing lights at Tenebrae, the anointing of a priest at his ordina
tion, and Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament.
86

THE EUCHARIST 37
of this mixed Roman type, and we have already
observed that only one manuscript exists to show us
the character of the Roman liturgy free from all
foreign influences. This is the Leonine Sacramentary,
which shows us the Roman liturgy of the time of
S. Gregory and S. Augustine. The Gelasian Sacra
mentaries show us the earliest stage of admixture.
The oldest was written in the seventh century, or in
the early years of the eighth, for the use of some
church in the Prankish dominions, possibly for the
abbey of S. Denis. It formed part of the library of
Queen Christina of Sweden, and is now in the Vatican.
It contains several Gallican elements, such as — (a)
features in the ordination services; (6) the arrange
ment and character of the feasts. The Roman book
employed by the compiler was probably earlier than
A.D. 731, but certainly is not as old as the time of
Gelasius, who was Pope from 492 to 496.
The next stage of development is represented by the
so-called Gregorian Sacramentaries. Near the end of
the eighth century Pope Adrian I. sent to Charles the
Great, at his request, a copy of the Roman Sacra
mentary in the form which, as it was then believed, had
been given to it by S. Gregory. This pattern-book
formed the basis of the class of Sacramentaries known
as Gregorian. It was a book intended for use in Rome
by the Pope himself, but Adrian and Charles meant
it to be adopted by the Church of Gaul. It was
immediately copied and supplemented with various
services, such as those for marriages and funerals, and
the reconciliation of penitents. The original and the
supplements became gradually fused together. For
some time the Gelasian Sacramentary continued to
exist by the side of its rival, and was probably used in
many places in the ninth century, and perhaps in the
tenth. It is impossible that even the oldest Gregorian
Sacramentaries exactly represent the Roman rite of the

38 THE EUCHARIST FROM
times of S. Gregory. This is proved by the feasts
which they contain, such as that of S. Gregory him
self, and festivals of the Blessed Virgin, which are
known to be subsequent to his time.^
The few books which now remain to show us the char
acter of the liturgies used in Great Britain and Ireland
before the Norman Conquest come under two heads :
(a) liturgies used in Celtic churches, originally
Gallican but in process of being Romanised; (6)
liturgies used in Anglo-Saxon churches, Roman but
with a few Gallican features.
The most complete relic of the ancient Celtic
Eucharist is the Stowe Missal, probably written in
Tipperary in the tenth century. The Missal contains
not only the Eucharist but also an Order of Baptism,
a form for the Visitation of the Sick, and another for
Extreme Unction. The Canon of the Mass is Roman,
and is expressly named after 'Pope Gelasius.' It
nevertheless contains several important additions : e.g.
after the words 'As often as ye do this ye do it in
remembrance of Me ' are added, ' Ye shall declare My
Passion, ye shall announce My Resurrection, ye shall
hope for My Advent, until I shall come to you again
from heaven.' In the Memento, or commemoration of
the faithful departed, there is a commemoration of the
^ In the Book of Common Prayer five entire collects are Leonine,
viz. those for Sunday III. after Easter, and V., IX., XIII., XIV. after
Trinity. The Gelasian Sacramentary contains these collects and con
tributes the second Morning collect, a few words of the third Morning
collect, the second and third Evening collect, the collect ' for Clergy
and People,' those for Sunday IV. in Advent, Innocents' Day, Palm
Sunday, II. for Good Friday, the first half of that for Easter Day, those
for fourteen other Sundays, the collect 'Assist us mercifully,' and
' O Lord, we beseech Thee,' in the Commination. The Gregorian
Sacramentary hands these on and adds those for S. Stephen, S. John
the Evangelist, the Epiphany, the Sundays after Epiphany, Septua-
gesima, Sexagesima, Sundays II., III., IV., V. in Lent, I. for
Good Friday, half of the Easter Day collect, those for Ascension and
Whitsunday, the Purification, Annunciation, S. Michael, S. Paul,
' Prevent us,' and others.

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 39
patriarchs, apostles, and martyrs, followed by the
names of as many as forty-seven saints. The Fraction
or breaking of the bread is exceedingly elaborate,
resembling the Mozarabic ceremony.
The Book of Deer is a memorial of the Scottish Celtic
Church, containing a portion of the service for the
Communion of the Sick. It was written before 1130.
After giving communion to the sick the priest recites
several beautiful sentences, mostly from the Holy
Scriptures, and interspersed with Alleluias, such as —
'We oifer the sacrifice of praise with exultation.
Alleluia. Alleluia. I will receive the cup of salva
tion and call upon the name of the Lord. Alleluia.
Alleluia.' A few fragments of Gallican origin are to be found
in some other Celtic books of Irish origin, such as the
Book of Dimma, yrhich dates from the seventh century,
and is a Mass for the Sick. But the only important
Irish book of a purely Gallican type is the famous Anti-
phonary of Bangor, belonging to Bangor in Ireland.
It is preserved in the Ambrosian Library at Milan.
It is of the seventh century, and free from all Roman
influence. The greater part of it consists of anthems,
hymns, and collects which belong to the Divine
Service or daily Ofiices of the Church. But it also
contains some very important liturgical or Eucharistic
portions. There is a unique form of the Creed, very
strongly asserting the Divinity of the Holy Ghost, the
Our Father without a preface or embolismos, a Gloria
in excelsis resembling that of the Eastern rites, and an
exquisite hymn to be sung during communion, now
translated into English as 'Draw nigh and take the
Body of the Lord.'
The liturgy used by the Anglo-Saxons was. Roman.
S. Augustine, having observed the difi"erence between
the Roman rite and the Gallican rite, wrote to S.
Gregory to ask what customs he ought to adopt in

40 THE EUCHARIST FROM
England. The Pope replied, ' You, my brother, know
the custom of the Roman Church in which you
remember that you were reared. But I am content
that whether in the Church of Rome or in that of
the Gauls, or in any other Church, you have found
anything that can better please Almighty God, you
select it with carefulness, and in the Church of the
English, which is yet new in the faith, implant with
special instruction what you have been able to collect
from many churches. For we ought not to love things
for the sake of places, but places for the sake of things.'
These masterly words sound strange enough to us who
live with those who think no vestment too vulgar and
no prayer too womanish if it be only thoroughly
modern and thoroughly Italian. Nor can we tell how
far Augustine followed the advice of Gregory. Possibly
he only asked the question under the impression that
the Celtic bishops in Britain would acknowledge his
authority — an idea in which he was disappointed. The
close intercourse which existed between England and
Rome was unfavourable to the retention of Gallican
usages in England.
Two famous Missals, named respectively after Leofric,
Bishop of Exeter, and after Robert of JumUges, who
became Bishop of London in 1044, and then Arch
bishop of Canterbury, show us the character of English
worship in the eleventh century. The oldest part of
the Leofric Missal was apparently brought by Leofric
from the Continent. It was written in Lotharingia
early in the tenth century, supplemented by an Anglo-
Saxon Kalendar written about 970 and a selection of
Masses, and then presented to the cathedral church
of Exeter by Leofric. The original part is simply a
Sacramentary of the so-called Gregorian type. The
gorgeous Missal of Robert of Jumieges closely re
sembles that of Leofric. Both contain some Gallican
features. Thus the Leofric Missal contains the bless-

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 41
ings pronounced according to the Gallican rite by
the bishop at Mass before the Communion, and the
Jumieges Missal contains Gallican prayers for a Mass
in commemoration of S. Leodegar or Leger. Both
these Missals contain the Rogation Days, which are
of Gallican origin, but had been introduced at Rome
about 800. These days had no place in the pattern-
book sent by Adrian to Charles the Great, and never
theless the Mass for these days is not Gallican, but is
the Mass which in Adrian's book was appointed for
the 'Greater Litany' of April 25. It should be
noticed that the Leofric Missal and the Jumieges
Missal, although they belong to the Gregorian type,
show the influence of the earlier Roman books known
as Gelasian.^
After the Norman Conquest of England in 1066,
the influence of French liturgies upon the English
naturally continued. No new principles were intro
duced thereby, and the later mediaeval English liturgies
are of the same type as those of the Anglo-Saxon
period, though still more composite. The ritual of the
dififerent dioceses varied considerably even in some of
the prayers in the Order of the Mass. The most im
portant of these diocesan ' uses ' were those of Hereford,
of York,^ and of Sarum or Salisbury. We must add
a few words to explain the origin of the use of Sarum,
and the chief sources from which our knowledge of it
is derived, inasmuch as it is far the most important
of English mediaeval uses, and was followed not only
over a large part of England but also in Scotland and
Ireland. The origin of the use of Sarum was attributed to
S. Osmund, who became bishop of that see in 1078.
' For further information about ancient Sacramentaries see Delisle,
MSmoires sur d'Anciens Sacramentaires.
2 Where the York use differs from the Sarum, the former often has
affinities with the Gregorian Sacramentary.

42 THE EUCHARIST FROM
This was an era when important changes began to
take place in our English cathedral churches. In old
times the bishop had sat in the apsidal east end of
his church, surrounded by his clergy in capitulo, i.e. in
the head of the upper end of the church. In this
place all business and discipline was ordinarily trans
acted by the bishop and his clergy. By degrees, how
ever, the bishop had to be absent more and more, and
he granted many of his rights to this body of clergy, or
capitulum, as it came to be called. The capitidvm, in
English ' chapter,' became divided into residentiary and
non-residentiary members, and rules for the dignity
and duties of the residentiary clergy were drawn
up. The Sarum Consuetudinary is such a book of
rules. It dates from about 1210, when Richard Poore
was dean. Some of it is probably older than the
time of Poore, and it is possible that it enshrines
some liturgical prescriptions of S. Osmund, The
Customary is based upon the Consuetudinary, and is
a copy of such parts of it as were of most general
importance. These were added to the Ordinal, which
was a Service Book for choir use, being a guide-book
to the rest of the Service Books, showing how the
various services and parts of services were to be con
ducted. The Consuetudinary of Sarum mainly showed
what person ought to perform a particular part of the
service ; the Ordinal showed him how to do it. The
rubrics of the later Service Books are a fusion of
the two.
A considerable number of printed Sarum Mass Books
still remain. The rubrics are comparatively few, and
our knowledge of the service has to be supplemented
from mediaeval pictures, books of private devotion, and
hostile criticisms by reformers. A list of the more
important Service Books is given in our next chapter.

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 43
§ 2. Corruptions in Worship.
The Latin service must always have been unintel
ligible to the greater number of the laity in England
and other Teutonic countries. In France and Italy
and Spain Latin was perhaps as much understood in
the seventh and eighth centuries as the English of
our Prayer Book is understood in the country districts
now. In France the introduction of the Roman ser
vices instead of the Gallican came at a time when
Latin was already imperfectly understood, and the
change probably caused the laity to take less part
in the responses and singing. Nevertheless it was
stiU the custom for the clergy to say the whole of
Mass aloud, except the Secret Prayer and the Canon.
But when no one understood Latin any more the
clergy repeated the whole of Low Mass in a low
voice, in spite of the fact that the practice was officially
condemned both in England and on the Continent.
Finally, at High Mass they began the practice of
reading part of the service while the choir was sing
ing another part, or even allowed the greater part
of the Creed and Preface to be performed on the
organ without any singing. In- this way some of the
most edifying parts of the service were completely
obscured.^ Another much more serious fault was the fact that
the laity ceased to communicate as often as they had
done formerly. At the beginning of the English Re
formation the laity probably had little or no feeling
against so-called sacerdotalism. Many of them heard
1 The writer was lately present at High Mass at the cathedral church
of Bruges, when the celebrant had almost finished the prayers of the
Canon preceding the consecration by the time that the Sanctus was
sung. In ancient times the Canon would not have been begun until
the choir was silent.

44 THE EUCHARIST FROM
Mass every day, a large proportion of the men must
have learnt how to assist the priest by acting as his
clerk, and must have known perfectly well that the
priest did not claim to belong to an exclusive caste.
He confessed his sins to the laity as he bowed himself
at the altar steps before he began the Mass, and at
the OiFertory he reminded his 'brethren and sisters'
that the sacrifice of the Mass was theirs as well as
his. But the laity allowed the clergy to do what they
ought to have done for themselves ; they liked the
priest to communicate often, but they disliked doing
so themselves. In the eighth century, Bede, the
first great English historian, said that in Rome many
Christians communicated every Sunday and festival,
and he wished that the same custom might be followed
in England.^ But communions were made more and
more rarely. In the fourteenth century Archbishop
Sudbury directed that the people should not com
municate less than three times a year, thereby showing
how widely the English people had departed from
primitive usage. By the beginning of the sixteenth
century it was usual to communicate only once a year.
In Rome the laity then thought it wrong to com
municate more frequently; in England the rebels of
Devonshire and Cornwall who protested against the
English Prayer Book of 1549 demanded that no one
but the priest should communicate more than this once.
In 1509 the devout Lady Margaret, the patroness of
English learning, was regarded as a marvel in that
she communicated 'fuUnigh a dozen times a year.'
One of the happiest changes of the sixteenth century
was the attempt made to increase the number of com
munions both in the Church of England and in the
Church of Rome, and although there is nothing less
desirable than the practice of a merely mechanical
conformity with the primitive rule, we must admit
' Ep. ad Ecgbertum, § 15.

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 45
that many of the most serious religious difficulties
would have been obviated if that rule had always been
devoutly kept.^
At the end of the Middle Ages communions were
not only rare, but they were also mutilated by the
withdrawal of the chalice from the assistants, whether
clerical or lay. When the faith was first brought to
England all had received the precious Blood from the
chalice, and some of the more ancient churches on the
Continent of Europe still preserve in their treasuries
the large chalices which were employed in administer
ing the Sacrament to the people. An exaggerated fear
of the possible danger of spilling the contents of the
chalice led to such decisions as those of the Lambeth
Constitutions in 1281, in which it was forbidden that
the laity in smaller churches should partake of the
chalice.^ For some time it was customary to give the
lay folk unconsecrated wine and water, which they
drank after receiving the Body of our Lord. This is
mentioned very clearly in the fifteenth century Instruc-
^ There is a prayer in the Roman Missal which appears to have
been actually altered in order to accommodate itself to the late mediseval
practice. At the end of the Mass the priest now says, ' May Thy
Body, O Lord, which I have taken, and the Blood which I have
drunken, cleave to my heart.' In the ancient Gothic Missal the
words are, ' May Thy Body, O Lord, which ive have received and Thy
chalice which we have drunken, 'etc.
' In the middle of the twelfth century, the practice was being
introduced into England, as is shown by Robert Pullen. He was
familiar with three usages, communion in one kind, communion in
both kinds, and communion with intinction, a ceremony in which a
little wine was poured over the hosts given to communicants. He
strongly opposes this last practice, which was condemned by an
English Council in 1175. It had previously been sanctioned by a
Council of Tours for the communion of the sick, ' in order that the
presbyter may truthfiiUy say to the sick man, the Body and Blood of
our Lord Jesus Christ avail for thee . . . unto everlasting life.'
Cardinal Bona ridicules this statement of the Council of Tours. It
is, of course, contrary to modern Roman theology. The Lambeth
decision of 1281 was ignored by a Synod held at Exeter in 1287, which
distinctly mentions communion in both kinds (Wilkins, Concilia,
vol. ii. p. 133).

46 THE EUCHARIST FROM
tions for Parish Priests, . by John Myrc, and in the
North of England until the very eve^of the Reforma
tion the laity were permitted to receive wine, though
it was probably not consecrated. Communion was
given in both kinds until the Reformation at the
great abbeys of Monte Cassino, Cluny, and S. Denis.
As late as the thirteenth century the deacon and
sub-deacon always communicated with the priest who
sang High Mass, but even this practice was gradually
abandoned. At Cluny and S. Denis it survived until
the eighteenth century, and it is still the custom when
the Pope sings Mass himself. The habit of the cele
brant communicating alone was emphasised by another
change. The proper time in the service for the people
to communicate was during the Mass, immediately after
the priest had communicated and before he rinsed the
chalice. At first only the sick received Holy Communion
in any other way. But Langland's famous poem Piers
the Plowman, in which we find such a multitude of
details concerning the daily life of our forefathers in
the fourteenth century, shows us that it was already
the practice to be ' houselled,' i.e. communicated, after
the Mass was over. This is still a common practice
in Roman Catholic countries, although the wording of
the service certainly implies that the people ought to
communicate during the Mass and not after it.
With the separation of communion from worship
there arose certain superstitious beliefs concerning the
nature of the worship offered to God in the Mass.
There is a good deal of evidence to show that the
presence of Christ in the Sacrament was often regarded
as a material presence similar to His presence in the
manger or upon the cross, although it was concealed
from human eyes. The better theologians of the
Middle Ages, such as S. Thomas Aquinas and S.
Bonaventura, absolutely repudiated the notion that
the presence of our Lord in the Sacrament is a material

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 47
presence limited by the laws which limit our material
bodies. In early Christian times the doctrine of
Christ's presence in the Eucharist was not elaborately
defined. Nevertheless it seems to have been univer
sally beUeved by intelligent orthodox Christians that
the outward signs of bread and wine remained real,
but that the effect of the prayer of consecration was
that the Holy Spirit and the divine Word attached to
those outward signs the Real Presence of the Body and
Blood of Christ, Language was used which stated
that the bread and wine became the Body and Blood
of Christ, not that it was meant that they ceased to be
bread and wine, but that they became dignified by a
union of their own properties with the essential pro
perties of Christ's Body and Blood. This doctrine is
plainly expressed by S. Irenaeus, who was the pupil of
S. Polycarp, who was the pupil of S. John. He says,
' It is no longer common bread but Eucharist, com
posed of two things, both an earthly and a heavenly.'^
In the same way Scripture itself designates that which
is received as both ' bread ' and ' the Body of Christ.'
The presence of Christ in the Sacrament was origin
ally regarded as none the less real because it was
spiritual. But long before the time of Thomas Aquinas there
was a tendency to explain ' the inward part or thing
signified' in the Sacrament as material. A notorious
instance of this is afforded by the declaration which
Pope Nicholas II. forced Berengarius to accept in 1059.
It contains the assertion that the Body and Blood of
our Lord 'are sensually, not sacramentally only, but
actually handled and broken by the hands of the
priests, and ground by the teeth of the faithful.' ^ This
^ For other references see Early Christian Doctrine, p. 75 ff.
(Rivingtons). 2 It is worth noting that S. Thomas Aquinas openly denies this. —
In iv. Sent. Dist. a. q. I. a. I.

48 THE EUCHARIST FROM
repulsive statement implies a physical transformation
of one material thing into another material thing.
Then the philosophic ' schoolmen ' tried to defend the
doisfrine of the Real Presence in a more subtle manner.
They propounded the doctrine of a metaphysical and
non-physical transubstantiation. They were wont to
describe everything as consisting of 'substance' and
' accidents.' The accidents were thought to be that part
of a thing which we can know by our outward senses.
The substance was thought to be a mysterious some
thing which exists behind everything that we can see
and touch, and exists independently of it while giving it
reality. It was therefore said that after consecration
the accidents of bread and wine and all the properties
of bread and wine (such as that of giving nourishment)
still remain, but that the substance of the bread and
wine was replaced by the mysterious spiritual sub
stance of the Body and Blood of Christ. The fourth
Lateran Council, held at Rome in 1215, accepted the
theory and said that the bread and wine are transub
stantiated into the Body and Blood of Christ.
Unfortunately the grosser view tended to prevail.
This was especially the case in England, where the
word ' substance ' was generally used, as we use it, of a
material physical substance. This was illustrated by
the trial of Sir John Oldcastle in 1413 on a charge of
heresy. He heartily admitted that ' the most worship
ful Sacrament of the altar is Christ's Body in form of
bread, the same Body that was born of the blessed
virgin our lady Saint Mary.' But Thomas Arundel,
the Archbishop of Canterbury, attempted to make
him declare that in the Mass ' the material bread that
was before is turned into Christ's very Body.' Old
castle denied this, and was burned partly in con
sequence of his denial. The persistence of the
materialistic theory in England is shown by the fact
that in 1556 Sir John Cheke was made to reaffirm the

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 49
very confession required of Berengarius. The official
doctrine of the Roman Church was again stated at the
Council of Trent in 1551, and is always explained as
the schoolmen such as Thomas Aquinas explained it.
But the Council of Trent did not explicitly condemn
the materialistic doctrine.
The popularity of the materialistic view was in
creased by popular legends which passed from country
to country with some gruesome story about the impious
Jews who had insulted the holy mystery and had been
rebuked by the appearance of living blood in the con
secrated bread ; and one of the most popular of religious
pictures was a representation of S. Gregory saying
Mass before an altar on which he suddenly beheld
Christ crucified and bleeding. The Ascension of our
Lord and the nature of His ascended Body and His
present work became half forgotten in the emphasis
that was laid upon His sufferings. And this makes
it necessary for us to consider the meaning of such
phrases as ' the Eucharistic sacrifice ' and ' the sacrifices
of Masses.'
In the primitive days of the Church it was a general
custom to describe this service as a ' sacrifice.' S. Paul
implied this when he reminded the Corinthians^ that
the heathens who partook of a sacrifice offered to
heathen gods did this in order to identify themselves
with those false deities, and that the Christian identi
fied himself with Christ when he partook of the dedi
cated Sacrament. In the Teaching of the Apostles, xiv.,
and in Justin Martyr, Dialogue, 70, the Eucharist is
represented as the pure sacrifice or offering foretold by
Malachi. S, Cyprian about a.d. 250 speaks of 'offering the
Blood,' and ' offering the chalice in commemoration of
the Lord.' The most ancient Christian writers unite
in showing that the Church believed that the offering
' I Cor. X. 14-21.
D

60 THE EUCHARIST FROM
of the whole service was regarded as the offering of a
sacrifice. It was chiefly so regarded because it included
the oblation of bread and wine which became the Body
and Blood of Christ, so that the worshippers could
plead before the Father the merit of Christ's work in a
more special manner than in their ordinary thanks
givings and prayers. In harmony with their primitive
belief we find that later writers, such as S. Ambrose,
A.D. 390, and Paschasius Radbertus, a.d. 840, point
out the identity of our worship in the Eucharist with
the present work of Christ. For our Lord, as our
High Priest, ' hath somewhat to offer,' viz. Himself in
heaven (Heb. viii. 3), where ' He ever liveth to make
intercession' for us (Heb. vii. 25). Christ in heaven
pleads the work of Calvary,^ and His people share His
action when they mystically represent the shedding
of His Blood and procla,im His death. The offering
of the Eucharist is therefore the oifering of a sacrifice,
not only because it is the offering of all that we are
and all that we have to God, but because in it we
spiritually offer the Passion of Christ Who is 'the
propitiation for our sins' to the Father. Therefore
' we have an altar' (Heb. xiii. 10).
Such a sacrifice involves no repetition of the death of
Christ, although the Body and Blood of Christ are truly
present and the separate consecration of the bread and
wine is a picture of the separation of Christ's Body and
Blood upon the cross. The notion of such a repetition
arose in the latest and most debased mediaeval belief.
Some of the great Catholic theologians of the Middle
Ages entirely avoid language which would suggest that
our, Lord is made subject to a new destruction in the
Eucharist. Thus S. Thomas Aquinas says that the
immolation of Christ in the Eucharist is ' a representa-
' If Christ did not ' offer ' His Blood in heaven, His action would
fail to correspond with that of the Jewish high-priest as described in
Hebrews ix. 7.

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 61
tive image of the Passion.' Watson, who was Bishop
of Lincoln in the time of Queen Mary, says, ' Christ in
heaven and we His mystical Body on earth do but one
thing : for Christ being a Priest for evermore after His
Passion and Resurrection entered into heaven and
there appeareth now to the countenance of God for us,
offering Himself for us, representing His Passion and
aU that He suffered.'^
But the idea of ' the sacrifices of Masses ' which
prevailed at the end of the Middle Ages was totally
diff'erent from the earlier doctrine. "There was no
authoritative doctrine on the subject, but the doctrine
popularly held in the fifteenth century is plain. First,
the belief that Christ is materially present in the Sacra
ment led to the idea that He is carnally offered, so that
each Mass was regarded as an inferior but precious
repetition of Christ's suffering and death. ^ Secondly, it
was held that a man whose spiritual life had never risen
higher than such repentance as is produced by fear of
punishment, could, either in this world or in purga
tory, obtain forgiveness of sins and remission of
punishment if a priest could be induced to say a
sufficient number of Masses on his behalf. Such a
theory must have deadened the conscience both of the
layman who trusted to be thus forgiven and of the
priest who sold his services for this purpose. Side by
side with this doctrine there came into existence before
the Reformation another perverted notion of the sacri
fice of the Mass. A writer of the fifteenth century,
1 See Field, Of the Church, vol. ii. p. 8i (Cambridge edit.).
^ There has been a more modern Roman revival of a somewhat
similar theory, though there is also a school of Roman Catholic
theologians who hold a totally different theory. There is probably
no subject on which Roman theologians are so much divided as the
doctrine of the sacrifice of the Mass. See Rev. B. J. Kidd, Later Medi-
aval Doctrine of the Eucharistic Sacrifice (S.P.C.K.), and Vacant,
Histoire de la Conception du Sacrifice de la Messe (Delhomme, Paris,
1894).

62 THE EUCHARIST FROM
whose sermons were unfortunately bound up with the
works of the great schoolman Albertus Magnus, asserts
distinctly that 'as the Body of the Lord was once
offered on the cross for the original debt,' so the
sacrifice of the Altar was instituted ' to be oiFered on
the altar continually for our daily transgressions,'
That is to say, the death of Christ was regarded as an
atonement for the sin of Adam which tainted his
descendants, while each Mass was regarded as removing
the guilt of men's daily sins. This doctrine is described
by the Lutheran Confession of Augsburg in 1530, and
by Becon in his Comparison between the Lord's Supper
and the Pope's Mass^ in 1559. It is strongly con
demned by both the 2nd and the 31st Articles of the
Church of England. The doctrine is a complete per
version of the true doctrine of the Eucharistic sacrifice,
and led first to gross superstition and then to violent
reaction. But our Articles contain no condemnation
whatever of the pure doctrine of the sacrifice of
the Mass as expressed by one of the ablest Anglican
opponents of Romanism, Archbishop Bramhall. ' We
acknowledge an Eucharistical Sacrifice of praise and
thanksgiving ; a commemorative Sacrifice, or a memo
rial of the Sacrifice of the Cross ; a representative
Sacrifice, or a representation of the Passion of Christ
before the eyes of His heavenly Father ; an impetrative
Sacrifice, or an impetration of the fruit and benefit of
His Passion, by way of real prayer; and lastly, an
applicative Sacrifice, or an application of His merits
unto our souls. Let him that dare go one step further
than we do, and say that it is a suppletory Sacrifice to
supply the defects of the Sacrifice of the Cross. Or
else let them hold their peace and speak no more
against us in this point of Sacrifice for ever ! ' ^
' Parker Society edit. , p. 368.
" Bramhall, Works, Tome i. Discourse iii,, a.d. 1674.

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 63
§ 3, The Lord^s Supper ^ in later Mediceval
Times.
The changes which came over the performance of
Christian worship may be illustrated by the alterations
which were effected, in the cathedral churches of this
country, alterations which were probably more radical
in England than in any other country. We possess
few architectural memorials of the Saxon period, but
there is every reason to believe that the Saxon churches
were small imitations of the Roman churches, some
times different from the Roman churches in having a
square east end instead of a semi-circular apse. By
the sixteenth century a large English church bore only
a remote resemblance to the churches of a thousand
years before. There was still a great nave and a pro
minent altar, but their surroundings were new. About
A.D. 780 the Roman Christians began to build churches
with three apses and altars at the east end instead
of one, an architectural improvement which was
connected with a new form of worship.
In the seventh century there began in the West of
Europe the custom of simplifying the Communion
Service on all occasions when the full ancient ritual
was difficult. This simplified service, which became
known by the name of 'Low Mass,' was celebrated
without a choir and without incense, and the priest
who celebrated it was unaccompanied by a deacon and
a sub-deacon, though he generally had some one to
assist him at the altar. This new form of service soon
became very popular in the West, but it has never
been accepted by the Greek Church. Moreover, the
brevity and simplicity of the service made it possible
^ The phrase ' Lord's Supper ' was a usual mediseval term for the
Eucharist, and ' Lord's table ' was a name for the altar. It cannot be
discussed here whether in Scripture the 'Lord's Supper' means the
Eucharist or the love-feast, or both combined.

64 THE EUCHARIST FROM
for most priests to celebrate the Holy Eucharist very
frequently and even every day, so that the larger
churches became gradually provided with a great number
of altars for such services. At York minster there
were at least twenty-two altars, and there was nearly
the same number at Salisbury. These altars were
generaUy dedicated to the commemoration of some saint
independently of the saint after whom the church
itself was named, and the largest churches were pro
vided with a chapel and altar of especial beauty built
eastward beyond the high altar in honour of the
Blessed Virgin. One of the last and loveliest of these
' Lady ' chapels is that which was built at Gloucester
beyond the stern ancient apse, which a master architect
of the fourteenth century had already covered with a
lace of delicate stone-work, and illuminated with
jewelled glass.
The structure of the Mass itself had not been
altered since the period of S. Augustine, in spite of
the fact that the High Mass at which the deacon
and sub-deacon assisted the celebrant was performed
with more sumptuous accessories, while the Low
Mass was simpler than any Eucharist of the sixth
century. A series of preparatory prayers was provided for the
celebrant, including the hymn, 'Come, Holy Ghost,
our souls inspire,' to be said while he put on his vest
ments, and Psalm xliii., to be said before approaching
the altar.^ The Our Father and the opening coUect
in our Communion Service are taken from this
^ The chalice was frequently mixed immediately before the Mass.
Where this practice prevails at the present day, it will probably be
found best to follow the Dominican usage, i.e. for the celebrant to mix
the chalice at the altar immediately after he has approached it, before
he opens the book or says any prayer. We must strongly condemn
the foolish custom, which is sometimes seen, of placing water in the
chalice before the beginning of the service and wine at the Offertory —
as though the water had flowed from our Lord's side before the blood.

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 65
preparatory section. The High Mass will now be
described. § i (a). The Opening Chants.
The Psalm sung ' at the Introit,' or entrance of the
celebrant, was now greatly reduced, being a single
verse from the original Psalm. On the contrary, the
Kyrie eleison was not only retained, but on many
festivals was interspersed with Latin verses, the mixture
of Greek and Latin producing a somewhat hybrid
effect. This custom of interpolating the Kyrie has
been revived in our present service, in which the Kyrie
is interpolated with the Ten Commandments. Much
of the Mass music was thus varied, and, as an example,
we may note how the Gloria in excelsis was inter
polated in commemoration of S. Mary. The last
clause then ran thus :
For Thou only art holy, sanctifying Mary ; Thou only art the
the Lord, ruling Mary ; Thou only, crowning Mary, O Jesu
Christ, with the Holy Ghost, art most high in the glory of God
the Father. Amen. § i (b). The Collect.
The Collect, which is really the first of the three
collects of the Mass (the other two being the Secret
Prayer and the Post-communion Prayer) followed the
Gloria in excelsis. In England the collects were
numerous, and the rules for their use were complicated.
Occasionally as many as seven were said at one Mass
in the place of the original first collect. The later
mediaeval collects are sometimes fine, but seldom equal
the old Roman collects.
§ i (c). The Lessons and accompanying Chants.
The first of the three lessons at the Mass had pro
bably never been read in England except on certain
days in Lent and at the Ember seasons. At High Mass

66 THE EUCHARIST FROM
the celebrant ordinarily read the Epistle quietly at the
altar, and retired to the carved stone sedile or seat on
the south wall of the sanctuary while the sub-deacon
read the Epistle aloud. Then the Gradual psalm or
Grayl, originally sung before the Epistle, was sung at a
pulpit (i.e. lectern), or in the gallery of the chancel
screen. This was followed by the chanting of the
Alleluia or, in penitential services, by the Tract or
Tract psalm, originally sung from a pulpit like the
Gradual. The Gospel was read by the deacon at a lectern on
the north side of the chancel, lights and incense being
carried before him.
In the meantime, while the Gradual was being sung,
there took place a ceremony which probably arose from
a blending of the Roman rite with the Gallican ritual
of France, where the oblations used to be prepared
before the Mass began.
The two boys who acted as candle-bearers and the
'clerk' (acolyte) went to the vestry, from which the
clerk returned bearing the chaUce and the paten
with the oblation. These were enveloped in a silk
veil, which was probably put over the clerk's shoulders
like a shawl.
They proceeded to the south side of the sanctuary,
and at Lincoln the celebrant then mixed the chalice of
red wine and water before the Gospel began. The
chalice was then placed behind the altar until the
Offertory. The usual practice was to place it on the
altar.i § i (d). The Mass Creed, etc.
The Nicene Creed or Mass Creed was sung on Sundays
and festivals in England after the Gospel during the
later Middle Ages. The dismissal of the catechumens
' The older custom of not mixing the chalice until the Offertory was
certainly more appropriate, and was sometimes followed in England.

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 67
and the prayer connected with it, as described on p. 24,
had long ago disappeared. In English parish churches
the sermon seems to have generally followed the Creed
or Offertory, contrary to the Roman use, in which it
follows the Gospel.
§ ii. The Offertory ; The Preface, etc.
The ancient Roman form of Offertory has long been
discontinued at Rome, but it is beautifully preserved
in the English Coronation Service. The sovereign
offers bread and wine, and the Archbishop, having
placed them upon the altar, offers them with the
following Secreta or ' privy prayer ' : ' Bless, O Lord, we
beseech Thee, these Thy gifts, and sanctify them unto
this holy use, that by them we may be made partakers
of the Body and Blood of Thine only begotten Son
Jesus Christ, and fed unto everlasting life of soul and
body : And that Thy servant Queen Victoria may be
enabled to the discharge of her weighty office, where-
unto of Thy great goodness Thou hast called and
appointed her. Grant this, O Lord, for Jesus Christ's
sake, our only Mediator and Advocate. Amen.' This
follows the arrangement of the mediaeval English
Coronation Service, in which the Offertory prayers
then used at other Masses were not inserted.
A writer of the eleventh century shows that the
people had already ceased to offer bread and wine,
because it was not necessary that there should be so
much bread, as the people did not communicate.
The priest ordinarily offered the chalice and paten
together, as is still done by the Dominicans. He
meanwhile said two brief prayers, then censed 'the
sacrifice' with the words 'Let my prayer, O Lord,
be set forth in Thy sight as the incense.'^ Then
^ In the majority of English churches incense does not appear to
have been offered at any later point in the service. The rite of using
incense at the Offertory was copied by the Roman Church.

68 THE EUCHARIST PROM
having washed his hands, he bent before the altar,
saying :
In an humble spirit and a contrite heart let us be accepted,
O Lord, of Thee ; and let our sacrifice be so made in Thy sight
this day that it may be received of Thee, and please Thee, O
Lord God (Song of the Three Children, 16, 17).
Most of these Offertory prayers differed widely in
the various English dioceses, and differed widely from
those used at Rome. They do not belong to the
original Roman service, and the process of their
gradual insertion into the Mass was accompanied by'
the curtailment of the Offertory psalm chanted by the
choir. The oblations having been thus prepared, the priest
turned to the people with the words :
Pray brethren and sisters for me : that my sacrifice, which is
equally yours, may be accepted of our Lord God.
In the twelfth century the people still stood and
prayed aloud while he said the Secreta, called in
English the 'privy prayer.' They then knelt again
until the Preface, and stood during the Sanctus. They
also stood at the Agnus, a custom which might well be
introduced again in order to relieve the strain caused
by long kneeling. The ' Lift up your hearts,' the
Preface, and the Sanctus are too familiar to need
description. § iii. The Canon of the Mass.
The Sanctus having been sung, the priest began the
long prayer of consecration, divided into many parts
and diversified with many ceremonies. These prayers,
from time immemorial, were read inaudibly by the priest,
the silence being at this period broken by the ringing
of a bell immediately before and after the consecration
of the host, and again after the consecration of the
chaUce. This ringing of the bell is probably not of

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 69
Roman origin. It began about 1100, one of the
earliest records of it being the fact that Matilda,
Queen of England, gave bells for this purpose to the
church of Notre Dame at Chartres, It is therefore
older than the official declaration of the doctrine of
Transubstantiation by the Church of Rome in 1215,
The spirit in which the Canon of the Mass was
regarded in England may be best illustrated by quoting
the Rationale, written soon after the separation of the
Church of England from Rome, but while the Sarum
rite was still employed :
' Then the priest begins to represent in this sacrifice
of the Mass, the most painful and bloody sacrifice
once offered for our salvation upon the cross, and prays
the Father to accept these gifts prepared for the con
secration ; and inclining his body, makes a cross upon
the altar, and kisses it, signifying thereby the humble
inclining and obedience of Christ to the Father's will,
to suffer His Passion upon the altar of His cross for our
salvation, ' And then, following the example of Christ, the high
Bishop, which, approaching the time of His Passion,
gave Himself to prayer; and also according to the
apostle's doctrine to Timothy, the minister gives him
self to prayer . , , and after certain prayers and
petitions made for the people, and also, that the
oblation may be acceptable unto God, he proceeds
with all reverence to the consecration.
'First, of the bread, taking it in his hands, and
giving thanks, following the example of Christ ; by
virtue and power of whose words, the substance of
bread is turned into the substance of the Body of Christ.
' And likewise the substance of wine into His precious
Blood, which He lifteth up, both that the people with
all reverence and honour may worship the same, and also
to signify thereby, partly Christ's exaltation upon the
cross . , . and partly signifying that triumphant advance-

60 THE EUCHARIST FROM
raent and exaltation whereto God the Father, because of
His Passion, has exalted Him above all creatures, bidding
the people to have it in remembrance as oft as they
shall do the same. After the which, the priest extends
and stretches forth his arms in form of a cross ^ . . .
and so proceeds to the second memento, in which he
prays for them that be dead in the faith of Christ, and
sleep in peace, that it might please God to grant them
a place of refreshing, light and peace. Then he joins
himself with the people, knocking himself upon his
breast, thereby teaching them that he and they both
be sinners, and have need of mercy and grace purchased
by Christ's Passion, and desireth Almighty God to
give them a society with the holy apostles and martyrs,
not as an esteemer of their merits, but as a merciful
granter of remission, and that by Christ by Whom He
works and grants all these benefits;^ wherefore all
honour and glory is to be rendered to him by Christ,
and with Christ, the Holy Ghost being knit in unity
to them,
'And then expressing with a loud voice, how long
this honour and glory is due to God, he saith, per
omnia saecula saeculorum, i.e. perpetually ; the Church
answering Amen.
' The priest then, to the intent he may more worthily
receive the blessed Body and Blood of Christ, both to
the comfort and strength as well of him as of them
that be present, saith the Pater noster.''
§ iv (a). The Kiss of Peace and Breaking of Bread.
The priest having finished the embolismos or prayer
appended to the Pater noster, said, 'The peace of the
^ This extending of the arms in the form of a cross is contrary to
Roman usage. It was general in England, and continued at Paris
until 1615. It still survives at Milan, where it is apparently of remote
antiquity. — Paulinus, Vita S. Amir., n. 47.
2 Notice the attempted explanation of the dedication of the fruits of
the earth, no longer understood at this period.

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 61
Lord be always with you,' The choir having responded,
sang the Agnus.
It was in the time of Pope Sergius, a.d. 700, that
the admirable custom of singing the Agnus had been
introduced into the Mass. We cannot wonder that a
welcome was given to such words : ' O Lamb of God
that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon
us ... O Lamb of God that takest away the sins of the
world, grant us Thy peace.' This was intended to
accompany the solemn 'fraction' or breaking of the
bread immediately before the celebrant communicated.
In England it was the custom to place a particle of the
Sacrament in the chalice after the Agnus. This act was
called the Commixtion. The present Roman practice
is to do this immediately before the Agnus, but the
English usage is nearer to the original Roman usage.
In the eighth century the celebrant gave the Kiss of
peace when he said, ' The peace of the Lord be always
with you,' and he communicated immediately after the
Commixtion. But during the Middle Ages devotion
prompted the insertion of a few prayers to be said by
the priest before communicating. Considerable varia
tion existed with regard to these prayers. The Roman
differed from the Sarum, and the Sarum prayers were
not identically the same as those employed in other
English diocesan uses. The Sarum prayers which come
after the Agnus are as follows :
May this sacred commingling of the Body and Blood of our
Lord Jesus Christ become to me and to all who receive it health
of mind and body and a saving preparation towards the attain
ment of everlasting life.
This prayer plainly dates from a time when the
laity still received the chalice, and it was retained in
England when the chalice was withdrawn from them.
In 1549 Archbishop Cranmer, in replying to the
Devonshire rebels, correctly argued that this prayer.

62 THE EUCHARIST FROM
like the still more definite prayer in the Canon of the
Mass, implied that the people should communicate
with the priest. The priest next prayed :
O Lord, holy Father, almighty, everlasting God, grant me so
worthily to take the sacred Body and Blood of Thy Son our Lord
Jesus Christ, that through this I may deserve to receive remis
sion of all my sins and be filled with Thy Holy Spirit, and have
Thy peace. For Thou art God, and there is none other beside
Thee, Whose glorious kingdom abideth for ever and ever. Amen.
The celebrant then kissed the corporal and chalice
and then kissed the deacon, or gave him to kiss the
carved or embossed picture called the pax or pax-brede
(i.e. pax-board). Such was the late mediaeval manner
of giving the Kiss of peace. The pax wa^ carried round
to different members of the congregation in order of
precedence. It was constantly used in England in the
first half of the sixteenth century. In 1548, the
second year of King Edward VI., it was directed in
the deanery of Doncaster that the clerk should take
the pax, and standing with it outside the door in the
rood screen say boldly to the people : ' This is a token
of joyful peace, which is betwixt God and men's
conscience. Christ alone is the peace-maker, which
straitly commands peace between brother and brother.'
It is difficult to see how such a custom, as thus
practised in the early days of the Reformation, could
be abused. But there were sometimes unseemly quarrels
about precedence in kissing the pax. Chaucer's Parson
speaks of the proud man who liked to ' kisse the paxe,
or be encenced before his neighbour ' ; and in 1496
a woman was presented before the Archdeacon of
Middlesex for throwing the pax on the church floor
because another woman was allowed to kiss it first.
§ iv (b). The Communion.
After the Kiss of peace the priest recited three
prayers of great beauty, communicated himself, and

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 63
gave thanks. All these prayers were unknown in the
older Roman Mass.
After the Communion the service soon ended. The
people very rarely communicated at High Mass, and
the psalm and antiphon which had been chanted during
their communion were now reduced to an antiphon. The
deacon then folded up the fine linen cloth or corporal
(then known as the corporas cloth'). The sub-deacon
rinsed the chalice, while the priest held it, with wine
and water. The priest rinsed his fingers with this
wine and water, and drank the contents of the chalice.
He then again rinsed his fingers with wine or water,
and drank the contents. Then he washed his hands
at the sacrarium in the south waU of the sanctuary.
During these ablutions, or rinsings, as they were
formerly called, the people knelt.
§ iv (c). The Thanksgiving.
The celebrant, having returned to the altar, invited
the people to join in the last collect, known as the
Post-communion, and the people rose to pray. They
were then dismissed with the words Ite, missa est. The
mediaeval English Mass Books contain no final bless
ing, and it has been commonly supposed that none was
given. But the Rationale and other documents show
us that a ' benediction in the name of the whole
Trinity ' was sometimes given, and that the Reformers
only continued a mediaeval usage in placing a benedic
tion at the end of the Eucharist. The Mirroure of our
Lady says, ' Every priest may bless the people in the
' In some English churches it is now the custom to provide (i) a
corporal, (ii) the stiffened corporal known as the pall, (iii) a fair
linen cloth to be used after the Communion. This is a mistake. The
fair linen cloth was in the seventeenth century correctly called the
' corporas cloth,' and nothing is needed except the two corporas cloths.
In some medieval English churches only one was used, and this practice
is not yet extinct.

64 THE EUCHARIST FROM
end of his Mass, if there be no bishop present that will
bless,' .This proves that the English custom of the
fifteenth century was the same as the printed rule of
the present Prayer Book,

§ 4>. Popular Mass Books.
The immense price of large books, whether written
or printed, made it impossible that many of the laity
should be provided with complete Mass Books, Never
theless a series of prayers especially intended for
worshippers at the Eucharist was provided in the
Lay FoWs Mass Book. The original seems to have
been composed in French by an Anglo-Norman of the
twelfth century. The existing English translations are
of different dates, and iUustrate in a significant manner
the difference between the more archaic form of York
shire English and the later Yorkshire and Midland
English. The reader is bidden to say the Pater noster
when nothing else is provided. There is a good
paraphrase of the Creed, accurate enough except that
'the communion of saints' is misinterpreted as the
'housel' or Sacrament of Christ's Body and Blood.
Some of the prayers, in spite of the roughness of their
metre, are of the greatest beauty, and are here tran
scribed in a slightly modernised form.
At the Offertory :
Jesu, that wast in Bethlem bore.
Three kings once kneeled Thee before.
And oflFered gold, myrrh, and incense ;
Thou disdained not their presents.
But didst guide them all the three
Home again to their countree.
So our offerings that we offer.
And our prayers that we proffer,
Take them. Lord, unto Thy praise,
And be our help through all our days.

S. AUGUSTINE TO THE REFORMATION 65
EquaUy beautiful is the prayer to be said at the
Sanctus : In world of worlds without ending
Thanked be Thou, Jesu my King :
All my heart I give to Thee
For meet it is that so it be.
With all my will I worship Thee
And give Thee thanks most heartily.
Jesu, blessed mayest Thou be
For all the good Thou givest me.
Sweet Jesu, grant me this.
That I may come into Thy bliss.
There with angels for to sing
This sweet song of Thy praising,
Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus,
Jesu, grant that it be thus.
As the time of the consecration approaches and the
' little bell ' is rung to give warning before the priest
says ' This is My Body,' the worshipper is exhorted to
pray in his ' best manner ' and ' without dread,' kneel
ing and holding up both his hands in the ancient
attitude of supplication. He is to behold the eleva
tion and not cover his eyes in the fashion which
modern reverence has dictated. He should pray in
his own words, but if he cannot find words of his
own then he may say :
Loved be Thou, King,
And blessed be Thou, King,
For all Thy gifts good
That for me spilt Thy blood
And died upon the rood.
Thou give me grace to sing
The song of Thy loving.
When we compare the prayers contained in the
Lay FoWs Mass Book and other old books with some
modern devotions, we are reminded of the difference
between an English primrose and the creations of a
merchant of artificial flowers.

CHAPTER III
CHANGES UNDER HENRY VIII
My lord of Canterbury,
I have a suit, which you must not deny me.
Shakespeare, King Henry VIIL
§ 1. Service Books at the Eve of the
Reformation.
The account given in the preceding chapter is enough
to suggest that some reform in the manner of celebrat
ing the Eucharist was desirable. Other chapters will
show that a reformation was equally needed in the
case of other services of the Church. It is also im
portant to remember that even in matters where there
was no moral necessity for a change, practical con
venience demanded it. The ritual of different dioceses
varied considerably. The 'uses' of Sarum, York,
Hereford and Bangor diverged from one another in
many details, and a similar though less important
divergence was to be found elsewhere. A priest who
knew the ceremonial of High Mass at Exeter would
have been puzzled at Lincoln, and a monk of West
minster would not have felt at home in the midst
of the rites of some of the great Yorkshire abbeys.
Moreover, the number of books through which the
different services of the Church were distributed made
it almost impossible for the laity to possess any
adequate knowledge of these services in their entirety.

CHANGES UNDER HENRY VIII 67
The result of this is plainly shown among Roman
Catholics at the present day. The laity use pious
manuals suited to their degree of intellectual capacity.
The more highly educated possess a fair knowledge
of the Mass and of Vespers, but have hardly any
acquaintance with the history and meaning of the
other liturgical services. The solid devotions of ancient
days are neglected, particularly in Italy and Spain, in
favour of devotions which are vulgar in language and
superstitious in tendency.
The more important Service Books used in England
immediately before the Reformation were as follows : —
1. The Missale or Mass Book, containing all that
was necessary for the Mass for every day throughout
the year. It was an expansion of the ancient Sacra-
mentarium (which contained the prayers relating to the
Sacraments, including the fixed parts of the Mass with
the collects and other parts chanted by the celebrant).
In earlier times the Office of Holy Communion was
usually contained in four volumes, viz. the Sacra-
mentarium, the Lectionarius, the Evangelistarium, and
the Antiphonale. When the last three books were
incorporated in the Missale they were still printed
separately for the convenience of the assistants of the
celebrant. The Lectionarius included lections read at Mass, but
not the Gospels. Sometimes it included the Epistles,
sometimes only those lections which are neither from
the Gospels nor from the Epistles.
The Evangelistariuvi contained the portions of Scrip
ture appointed to be read from the Gospels. The
book was often sumptuously adorned, and placed upon
the altar as one of its choicest ornaments.
The Antiphonale, Antiphonarium, or Antiphoner^
' This must be distinguished from the Antiphoner which contained
the music for Vespers, Mattins and the other daily services, and was
the ordinary Antiphoner of late mediseval book catalogues.

68 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
used at Mass was in later times called the Gradualei
Gradale, or Grayl, and the name Gradale is as old as
the ninth century. The Graduale contained the Scrip
tural portion of the choral part of the Mass, viz. the
Introit and Psalm, the Gradual, Offertory and Com
munion. It hardly altered at all in contents from the
time of S. Augustine to the Reformation, It was
divided into four parts : (a) TemporaJe, for the seasons
from Advent to the Sundays after Trinity ; (b) Sanc-
torale, for the holy days from S, Andrew's Day onwards,
excluding the saints' days of Christmastide ; (c) Com
mune Sanctorum, for saints' days which had no 'proper'
service, but were beholden to some common form ; (d)
Music for the Ordinary of the Mass, i.e. the series of
fixed forms in which are set the Canon and the variable
parts of the Mass.
After the Graduale we must mention the Troparium
or Troper. Modern tropes are to be found in the
insertion of the Ten Commandments, etc., in the midst
of the petitions 'Lord, have mercy upon us' in our
Communion Service. A trope is an insertion or ' fars-
ing,' such as was put into the Introit, Gloria, Sanctus,
and Agnus. Tropes were ordinarily non-Scriptural
additions to the Antiphoner, and like so many other
unprimitive elaborations of divine worship, they de
veloped mostly in the extreme West of Europe. Some
of those in the Winchester Troper contain Greek
words. By the thirteenth century tropes mostly dis
appeared from use, and the remainder was incorporated
in the Graduale. Finally the title of Troper was
transferred to a collection of Sequences, which were
originally prose words set to the prolonged notes of
the Alleluia before the Gospel, Metrical hymns were
added to the collection and are still known as Proses.
2. The Processionale or Processional. This con
tained the hymns, litanies, and all parts of the service
which pertained to the processions, whether within

CHANGES UNDER HENRY VIII 69
the church or outside it. At the beginning was the
Office for the blessing of the holy water used in the
procession. At an earlier date the Processional was
included in the Gradual.
3. The Manuale corresponded with the book called
on the Continent Rituale. It included the occasional
Offices which can be performed by a priest, such as the
services for Baptism, Matrimony, Churching of Women,
Visitation of the Sick, Extreme Unction, and Burial
of the Dead.
4, The Pontificale or Pontifical, This contained
those sacraments and rites which can only be performed
by a bishop, viz. Confirmation, Ordination, the Conse
cration of a Church, etc.
5. The Hymnarium or Hymnal. This contained the
Latin hymns with the musical notation. Many of
these were of great beauty, and are familiar to us in
English translations. They were printed in the order
of the days in which they occurred in the daily ' divine
service.' 6. The Portiforium, Portors, or Portuis corresponds
with the Breviarium. It contained the ' divine service '
or ' office ' strictly so called, viz. the eight daily services
or ' offices ' which were intended to secure the recitation
of the Psalter by the clergy every week, and the read
ing of the greater part of the Bible every year. The
history of these services is given in the chapter on
' Morning and Evening Prayer.'
The Legenda contained the lections appointed to be
read at Mattins, the most important service of the
daily offices.
The Psalterium or Psalter at this period contained
the Psalms, divided into portions for the daily divine
service, the Litany, and the Office of the Dead. With
the Legenda and Antiphoner it would make up the
entire Portiforium.
In connection with the Portiforium must be men-

70 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OP COMMON PRAYER
tioned the popular Prayer Book known as the Pri-
marium or Primer. It is of especial interest as illus
trating the manner in which our forefathers were
gradually prepared for a return to the primitive prac
tice of using their mother tongue in divine worship.
The Primer may be described as a layman's com
panion to the Breviary Offices. The Primers used in
England were sometimes in Latin and sometimes in
English. They contained those liturgical accretions
to ' divine service ' which were devised in and after the
ninth century, and became interwoven with the autho
rised daily (or Lenten) services. By the fourteenth
century these additions were regarded as obligatory on
the clergy. They consisted of: — (i) special psalms —
the fifteen Gradual ^ psalms, cxx to cxxxiv ; the seven
Penitential psalms, vi, xxxii, xxxviii, Ii, cii, cxxx, cxliii ;
and the Commendations,^ i.e. Psalms cxix and cxxxix,
with a few prayers : (ii) Offices of the Dead, of the
Blessed Virgin, etc., framed on the model of the Divine
Office : (iii) the Litany.
The invention of printing made it easy to lengthen
the Primer, and at the close of the fifteenth and in
the first part of the sixteenth century we find a number
of pious prayers added to these devotions.
It is easy to see why these devotions were taken as
the basis of the Primer. Many of the laity attended
the Offices of the Church, and the women even recited
alternately in Church the OflSce of our Lady in a low
voice. The Divine Office of the Breviary was much
too long and intricate to be mastered by busy laymen.
But the accretions of the Divine Office were simple.
They were, with the exception of the Office of the
Blessed Virgin, invariable. Even this Office was not
* These fifteen psalms, called also the Psalms of Degrees, were so
named because they were supposed to have been sung on the fifteen
steps (gradus) of the Temple.
^ So called because they commended Christian souls to God.

CHANGES UNDER HENRY VIII 71
very complicated. It was therefore natural that in
the fourteenth century the laity should begin to use a
book which enabled them to follow part of the common
prayers recited in church, and which was also adapted
to their daily habits. There are abundant proofs of
the popularity of the Primer, chief among which we may
observe the survival of the word 'Primer' in English,
and the survival of the word Dirge, which means the
Mattins and Lauds in the Office for the Dead. The
latter is simply Dirige, the first word of the Anthem
of the first psalm (v) of the Office — Dirige Domine Deus
meus in conspectu tuo viam meam. Vespers for the
dead were formerly called Placebo, the first word of
the Anthem of the first psalm (cxvi) of Vespers —
Placebo Domino in regione vivorum.^ In Elizabeth's
Primer of 1559 both Mattins and Vespers of the dead
are included under the one name of Dirige.
The following table shows the full contents of a
Primer about a.d. 1400 : —

1.

Mattins, and the Hours of our

Lady.

2.
3.

Evensong and Compline of our
The Penitential Psalms.

¦ Lady.

4.

The Psalms of Degrees.

5. 6.

The Litany.
The Placebo.

7.8.

The Dirge.
The Psalms of Commendation.

9.
10.

The Pater Noster.
The Ave Maria.

11.
The Creed.
12.
The Ten Commandments.
13.
The Seven Deadly Sins.
To illustrate the nature of the services contained in
1 The Prymer or Lay Folks Prayer Book, edited by Henry Little-
hales, Early English Text Society, 1895-1897.
72 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
the Primer it will be sufficient to give an outline of
Mattins of our Lady.
Lord, open thou my lips.
And my mouth, etc.
O Lord, make haste to help me.
Glory be to the Father, etc.
As it was, etc.
Alleluia.
The Invitatory. Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord
is with thee.
The Venite, with the Invitatory interwoven.
The Hymn Quern terra (Arwient and Modern, 449).
The three Psalms, viz. viii, xix, xxiv.
Anthem. Blessed be thou among women, etc.
Our Father.
Hail Mary, followed by versicle and responses.
The three Lessons (very short), each followed by
versicles and responses.
The Te Deum, followed by versicle and response.
An unreformed Sarum Primer was printed in 1532
in Paris, when the Church of England had already
affirmed the supremacy of Henry VIII.
§ 2. Results of the Breach with Rome.
Henry's divorce of Catherine, his deceased brother's
wife, was the occasion, but not the cause, of the English
Reformation. A long train of events had made a breach
with Rome almost inevitable, and inasmuch as Pope
Alexander VI. had allowed the French king Louis XII.
to divorce his wife in the same fashion as Henry, it is
reasonable to think that political motives weighed most
strongly with Pope Clement VII. when he refused to
allow Henry to repudiate his wife. Wolsey had en
deavoured to set aside the marriage by invoking the
Pope, but the Pope was forced to refuse Henry his
heart's desire. The king was not so blinded by his

CHANGES UNDER HENRY VIII 73
unholy passion as to lose his diplomatic instincts. He
saw that he could get his own way if he could have
Parliament on his side, and he wished to secure the
acquiescence of the clergy in his intended Parliamen
tary legislation. Therefore in 1531 he induced the
English clergy to declare that he was, ' so far as the
law of Christ will aUow, supreme head of the English
Church and Clergy.' The formula was elastic enough,
and did not necessarily imply a denial of some real
supremacy of the Pope,
By the beginning of 1534 the breach with Rome was
nearly complete, Thomas Cranmer, the new Arch
bishop of Canterbury, had urged with great acuteness
that the Pope had originally acted beyond his powers
in granting Henry a dispensation to marry Catherine,
and in 1533 declared the marriage to be spiritually
null and void. The Pope retaliated by declaring
Henry's new marriage to be null and void, and both
the Convocations of York and Canterbury then threw
off the jurisdiction of the Pope by asserting that ' the
bishop of Rome hath not by Scripture any greater
authority in England than any other foreign bishop,'
The words are carefully chosen, and they contain within
themselves the whole principle of English protest
against Rome. They do not deny that the Pope has a
primacy of honour among Christian bishops acquired
by the consent of the Church ; nor has the Church
of England ever denied this primacy. They simply
declare that no primacy was granted by Christ to
S. Peter, and his supposed successors in the see of
Rome, sufficient to make the Pope the necessary centre
of truth and government in the Church. After such
a declaration two courses were open to the Church
of England : either to adopt the Protestant principle
by attempting entirely to reconstitute the Church by
a new appeal to Scripture, or to return to a purer
Catholicism by simply rejecting any doctrine which

74 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
could not claim the continuous assent of the Church
both in East and West. The English Church chose the
latter method. The process of reform was necessarily
slow, but the formularies of this reign made a real
advance in the right direction.
During the remainder of Henry's reign nothing was
introduced into public worship which savoured of any
dislike of the practice of the whole Catholic Church,
and there was a general retention of rites and practices
which were exclusively Western and mediaeval. But
there are important facts which iUustrate the moving
current of theology.
1. In 1542 it was directed that the use of Sarum
should be followed throughout the whole province of
Canterbury, In 1543 Convocation entrusted to the
Bishops of Sarum (Shaxton) and Ely (Goodrich) the
work of examining and reforming 'all mass-books,
antiphoners, portuises in the Church of England,' If
they had been able to complete their labours at this
time it is certain that we should have, had a carefully
reformed edition of the Sarum books, A slightly
reformed edition of the Sarum Portiforium appeared
as early as 1541, It omits the title of Pope and some
doubtful legends.
The Primer was also in process of reform. The first
reformed English Primer was printed by John Byddell,
probably in 1534, In 1535 Byddell printed another
for William Marshall, This Primer is considerably
simplified, and contains a Litany which is partly based
on a Litany written or edited by Luther, The ac
customed requests to the saints for their prayers are
retained, but with a strong warning against the
popular abuse of such a practice. This may be com
pared with the vigorous protest uttered by Sir Thomas
More, a staunch supporter of papal supremacy, against
the custom of invoking special saints for special needs.
In 1539 John Hilsey, Bishop of Rochester, published

CHANGES UNDER HENRY Vlll 76
another reformed Primer in English and Latin 'at
commaundement of Lorde Thomas Crumwell.' It is
somewhat more conservative than that of Marshall.
Both were superseded by King Henry''s Primer^ pub
lished in 1545. This contains, nearly in its present
form, the English Litany which had been published
in 1544. Various godly prayers and the Psalms of
the Passion were added to the Offices, Ave, Creed, and
Ten Commandments.
2. Four important doctrinal formularies appeared
between 1536 and 1543. In 1536 Convocation drew
up Ten Articles for the purpose of 'stablishing
Christian quietness.' They are written from an intel
ligent Catholic standing-point. The authority of the
first four General Councils 'and all other sith that
time in any point consonant to the same ' is asserted.
Papal pardons to deliver souls from purgatory are
repudiated. We may ask saints to pray for us, but
' without any vain superstition, as to think that any
saint is more- merciful, or will hear us sooner than
Christ, or that any saint doth serve for one thing more
than another.' It is interesting to notice that although
the Body and Blood of Christ are said to be really
present ' under the form and figure of bread and wine,'
the word transubstantiation is omitted.
In 1537 these Articles were embodied by the bishops
in a book entitled The Institution [i.e. Instruction] of
a Christian Man, but more commonly known as The
Bishops' Book. It contains an excellent explanation
of the Apostles' Creed and the Seven Sacraments,
the Our Father and the Hail Mary, and two articles
on Justification and Purgatory. It should be noticed
that this book (a) distinctly asserts the Real Presence
of Christ in the Sacrament of the Altar, but does not
employ the word transubstantiation; (b) repudiates a
' The first book printed in Welsh was the Prymer, by Sir John
Price of Brecon, which appeared in 1546-

76 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
materialistic view of purgatory, simply insisting on the
duty of prayer for the souls departed ; (c) speaks very
temperately of the bishop and the Church of Rome,
while denying that they possess a primacy which
permits Rome to lord over other Churches ; (d) asserts
that it is right to ask the saints 'to be intercessors
with us and for us,' but repudiates ' invocation,' which
is interpreted as beseeching the saints to bestow gifts
and graces upon us as though they possessed divine
power. '^
At the present day the phrase 'invocation of saints'
includes both requests to the saints for their prayers
and addresses to the saints similar in wording to the
adoration which we render to God. The Institution of
a Christian Man uses it in the latter sense only and
condemns it in that sense only. This use agrees with
the true meaning of the Latin invocare, which means
to ask the help of a god. As late as 1624 Archbishop
Ussher, in his Answer to a Jesuifs Challenge, dis
tinguishes 'Popish invocation' from ' compellation.'
The former consists of ' absolute prayers to the saints,'
the latter of 'wishes only or requests of the same
nature with those which are in this kind usually made
unto the living.' ^
A revised edition of The Bishops'' Book appeared in
1543 with the full sanction of the King and Convoca
tion. The new edition bears the title of A Necessary
Doctrine and Erudition for any Christian Man. It
was commonly called The King''s Book, but it must be
remembered that it had the full sanction of the Church,
^ Formularies of Faith (Oxford, 1825), p. 141. The Hail Mary is
treated neither as a request nor as an invocation. This is easily ex
plained when we remember that the old English form was. Hail Mary,
full of grace, the Lord is with thee : blessed art thou among women ; and
blessed is the fruit of thy womb. It did not usually contain any
petition to 'pray for us,' but such petitions were sometimes added in
private practice.
^ Cambridge edition, 1835, pp. 384, 389.

CHANGES UNDER HENRY VIII 77
It is in some respects an improvement upon its prede
cessor, and in some respects more mediaeval. It con
demns the use of the word purgatory while highly
commending prayer for the departed. The Article on
the Sacrament of the Altar is much longer than that in
The Institution, and definitely implies the truth of the
doctrine of Transubstantiation and the sufficiency of
communion in one kind. It denies that the unity of
the Church is preserved by the Pope's authority, and
shows no desire to separate from the Churches which
still acknowledge his supremacy, declaring that the
Churches of England, Spain, and Italy are ' one Church
in God.' The great merits of many of the contents
of the book may well cause us to regret that it was not
again revised. It would then have supplied a per
manent and admirable method of instruction for the
English laity.^
About the same time (1543) was finished the short
and pious Rationale of Rites and Ceremonies, quoted
above in the account of the Canon of the Mass. It
seems to have been neglected, probably because The
King's Book was considered to contain sufficient in
struction. 3. The history of the English Bible during this
period illustrates the coming struggle between a
Catholic and a Protestant Reformation. Modern
writers have often been ready to assume that the Bible
in English was a 'sealed' book before the Reforma
tion. Yet it is certain that there existed not only
translations of portions of the Bible and more than
one translation of the Psalms, but also a translation of
the whole Bible or nearly the whole. This is partly
proved by a statement in the Mirroure of our Lady,
' The Thirteen Articles of 1538 are interesting as a link between the
present English Articles and the Lutheran Augsburg Confession. But
they were not recognised either by the Church or by the State, and in
IS39 Henry in the Statute of Six Articles enforced the very doctrines
and practices which the Lutherans attacked as abuses.

78 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
written about 1450 and printed about 1530. The
writer says, ' Of psalms I have drawn [i.e. translated]
but few, for ye may have them of Richard Hampoule's
drawinge, and out of Englysshe bibles if ye have
lysence thereto.' The difficulty is to determine the
exact relation of Wyclif s work to these orthodox Bibles
of the fifteenth century, and to that English Bible
which Cranmer, when making preparations for the Great
Bible, divided into nine or ten parts, to send to learned
bishops of Catholic opinions to revise. On the whole,
it seems probable that the translation to which Wyclif
(1380) contributed most of the New Testament was
generally regarded as Catholic, in spite of the fact that
Archbishop Arundel in 1412 denounced it. Unless the
so-called Wyclifite version was accepted by Catholics, it
is difficult to see why Bishop Pecock, an opponent
of the Wyclifites, should have quoted it, or why some
of the existing manuscripts are carefully marked to
show the portions read in Catholic worship. It is
even quite possible that at High Mass in some places
the Epistle and Gospel were read in English from this
very version. We must remember that in England
Wyclif s theological opinions almost died with him,
and that Hereford, who translated the Old Testament,
and Purvey, who seems to have revised it, both ended
their days in the full favour of the Church, It is
possible that their names may have acted as a certifi
cate for the Wyclifite version, and that Wyclif s own
part of the work did not differ materially from transla
tions which Sir Thomas More describes as 'already
well done of old before Wyclif s days,'
The first translation of the Scriptures which appeared
in the time of Henry VIII. is distinctly Protestant. It
is a translation of the New Testament made by William
Tyndale, who went to Coin in 1525, was betrayed, and
then fled to Worms with the printed sheets of his book.
In 1526 it was being circulated in England. It is

CHANGES UNDER HENRY VIII 79
marked by some doctrinal bias, chiefly Lutheran.
Instead of the words elders or presbyters, church,
grace, charity, Tyndale wrote seniors, congregation,
favour, love. The notes are of a somewhat partisan
character. Tyndale pubUshed a translation of the
Pentateuch in 1531, and was strangled and burnt
near Brussels in 1536.
In 1534, in order to secure a more orthodox version
than that of Tyndale, Convocation petitioned Henry
for an authorised version. Both the conservative and
the progressive parties were united in the good work.
Bishop Gardiner, the leading prelate of mediasvai
sympathies, undertaking the Gospels of S. Luke and
S. John. Stokesley, Bishop of London, was the only
prelate who refused to do his share. The work was
rashly repressed by Cromwell's injunction to have the
Bible in Latin and English in every parish church.
The version employed for this purpose was that of
Miles Coverdale, printed at Zurich in 1535. The
author probably knew little Hebrew, but used the
'Douche [i.e. German] and Latyn.' The work is in
ferior, and yet the author possessed literary dexterity
and a true ear for rhythm.
The next Bible is that of 1537, named after Thomas
Matthew. This is probably a pseudonym for John
Rogers, who was a friend of Tyndale and continued the
work of that intrepid scholar. The book is to a great
extent made up of the work of Tyndale and Coverdale.
It was presented to Cranmer, who cannot have properly
examined it, for he seems to have mistaken it for a new
version. He expressed himself delighted with it, and
got the royal licence for it. Matthew's Bible is the first
royally-authorised English version. It is even more
Lutheran than the work of Tyndale, and yet had the
licence of a king who detested Luther and all his works.
A hasty and pirated version of Matthew's Bible
appeared under the name of Taverner in 1539.

80 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
The next Bible is the Great Bible, otherwise caUed
Cranmer's, because Cranmer wrote the preface to the
second edition. The Psalter in our Prayer Book is
from Cranmer's Bible. It had Henry's authorisation,
the bishops having assured him that it contained no
heresies. It was made by Coverdale on the basis of
Matthew's Bible, with the help of Miinster in the Old
Testament and Erasmus in the New Testament, and
omitted Matthew's offensive notes. It was first printed
at Paris with the licence of Francis I. On December
17, 1538, the Inquisition intervened and the sheets
were seized. They were partly saved by a haber
dasher, and the plant was removed to England,
where the whole Bible appeared in April 1539. Hans
Holbein had been employed to design the title-page,
which is one of the most celebrated ever printed. On
it is seen King Henry VIIL, and above the royal
debauchee appears the form of the Almighty, from
Whose mouth issue the words, ' I have found me a man
after My heart, who shaU fulfil aU My wiU.'^
Note on later Primers. — In the reign of Edward VI. Henry's
Primer was republished in 1647, and again in 1649, when it
appeared with the Litany as amended for the Book of Common
Prayer, and contained no direct appeals to the saints. It still re
tained the old English form of the ' Hail Mary.' It was reprinted
without the 'Hail Mary' in 1661 and 1562, and again in 1659,
at the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth. Various editions of
the Sarum Primer appeared under Mary. Another series of
books for private prayer was printed from 1553 onwards.
It is important to notice that the Primer of 1669, like the
older Primers, contains direct prayers for the dead, and that
this practice was not then considered to be inconsistent with
the formularies of the reformed Church of England.

^ The IS43 Convocation ordered that every Sunday and holy day the
curate of every parish church, after the Te Deum and Magnificat,
should read to the people a chapter of the New Testament in English,
and when the New Testament was read over, begin the Old. A new
translation was proposed under Queen Mary. For the subsequent
English versions see p, 130,

CHAPTER IV
REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION
My business is not to remake myself.
But make the absolute best of what God made.
Browning, Bishop Blougram's Apology.
§ 1. Public Worship in English.
Henry VIII. died January 28, 1547, and was succeeded
by his son Edward VI. Henry had appointed a care
fully balanced Council of Regency ; but his will fell
into the keeping of Edward Seymour, Earl of Hert
ford; and Gardiner, the leader of the conservatives,
was declared to have been excluded from the Council.
Then the Council was reconstituted, and Tunstall,
Bishop of Durham, another conservative, was purposely
ousted. Hertford raised himself to the dukedom of
Somerset, he surrounded himself with newly-made
peers, and by means of a new patent of Protectorate,
drawn out in the boy-king's name, he made himself
supreme. He had now tricked the conservatives out
of power. He had first used Henry's will in order to
form the Council, then set it aside in order to remodel
the Council. Finally, he used the name of Edward to
raise himself above the Council. His only hope of
gaining adherents was to crush the conservative party
by encouraging the spread of Protestantism. There
fore at the very moment when Protestantism on the
Continent was on the verge of ruin Somerset was
F

82 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
obliged to come forward as its patron. His own
religion was Calvinism tempered with Erastianism and
inspired by the love of Mammon. He would have
destroyed Westminster Abbey itself if he had not been
bought off by a bribe of twenty manors. Cranmer
was far too weak to resist. A prelate who, when
himself secretly married, had beggared clergymen for
marrying, and had openly perjured himself by taking
an oath of allegiance to the Pope which he never
intended to keep, was not made of stuff capable of
resisting the Protector. When Somerset fell in 1549
Cranmer basely aided the intrigue which brought him
to the scaffold, and was left to be the tool of
Northumberland as he had been the tool of Henry
VIII. and Somerset.
Convocation and Parliament met in November,
The Lower House of Convocation presented a petition
to the archbishop that the works of the bishops who
had been examining and reforming the divine service
might be produced, and on December 2 the whole
session approved the proposition ' of taking the Lord's
Body in both kinds.' Parliament approved the adminis
tration of the Sacrament in both kinds, and an Act
was passed to condemn those who blasphemed it,
allowing such persons to do so with impunity until
May 1, 1548. It is important to notice that Somersiet
was willing that blasphemy should be allowed to run
its course during that period.
In January 1548 a Commission of certain bishops
and divines associated with Cranmer was assembled at
Windsor. The first publication of this Commission was
The Order of the Communion. It was not a full Com
munion Office, but inserted into the Latin Mass a form
for communicating the people in English. It restored
the chalice to the laity, and was intended to make the
communion of the people an integral part of the Mass
as it had been in earlier times. It is based upon one

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 83
of the best of the books which had been published on
the Continent in favour of a wise and moderate refor
mation. This is the book called A Simple Decision
concerning the Reformation of the Churches of the
Electorate of Coin, published in German in 1548. It
was drawn up by Bucer, Melanchthon, and Sarcerius at
the request of Hermann, Prince Archbishop of Coin
(died 1552). This again was based upon the form of
worship used by the Lutherans in Brandenburg and
Niirnberg and the form used in Cassel. A translation
of it appeared in England, October 30, 1547, under
the title, A Simple and Religious Consultation ^ of us,
Herman by the grace of God archbishop of Cologne,
etc. The book contained hardly any Protestant state
ments, and did not win the favour of Luther, who
wished to see a definite Protestantism introduced at
Coin. The new English ' Order ' was published March 8,
1548, and was appointed to come into use on Easter
Day, April 1. It was distinctly ordered that there
was to be no varying of any other rite or cere
mony in the Mass. The next Sunday or holy day,
or at least one day before the Communion, the priest
was to read an address, which is mainly that which
stands in our Prayer Book, as the first notice of
Communion. After the direction about the use of
private absolution which still remains, it contained a
sensible caution to the effect that those who were
satisfied with a general^ confession should not be
offended with those who use ' the auricular and secret
confession to the priest,' and vice versa.
At the Mass the priest was bidden to consecrate
enough of ' the Sacrament of the Body ' for the people,
' The Latin names vme Judicium or Deliberatio.
' This is no vague confession of sinfiilness to God, but is explained
as a general confession to the Church after a humble confession of
' sins and unkindness ' to God in private.

84 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
and to consecrate ' the biggest chalice,' and after one
draught to leave the rest upon the altar covered, and
exhort the people in words nearly the same as those
of the present Exhortation at the time of the celebra
tion of the Communion. This exhortation, though
derived from that of Hermann, has been traced to
Wolfgang Volprecht, prior of the Augustinian canons
at Wittenberg, who became Protestants.
After a brief warning, ' If any man here be an open
blasphemer,' etc. (a clause now in the Exhortation,
giving warning of the Communion), the priest paused
a while to see if any withdrew themselves. The service
then continued : — ' You that do truly and earnestly
repent you,' etc. The general confession, absolution,
and comfortable words followed almost exactly in their
present form, then the prayer beginning ' We do not
presume.' The administration took place with these
words, 'The Body of our Lord Jesus Christ, which
was given for thee, preserve thy body unto everlasting
life' — 'The Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, which
was shed for thee, preserve thy soul unto everlasting
life.' The conclusion of the Communion is not clearly
expressed. The priest is told to let the people depart
with the blessing, 'The peace of God which passeth
all understanding, keep your hearts and minds in the
knowledge and love of God, and of His Son Jesus
Christ our Lord.' But it seems plain that this was
a dismissal from the altar and not from the church,
since the Post-communion Collect had to follow.
The concluding rubrics expressly state that the bread
is to be the same ' as heretofore hath been accustomed,'
i.e. unleavened wafer-bread, also that in each part of the
said consecrated breads is received the whole Body of
Christ. The only direction which by any ingenuity
could be interpreted as impugning the doctrine of the
Real Presence of Christ in the Sacrament is that which
orders that if the priest has to consecrate the chaUce

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 85
a second or a third time, it is to be done without any
levation or lifting up. This interpretation would be
contrary to the whole spirit of the service.
In the meantime a Protestant crusade was being
carried on in literature which had the sanction of the
Council. The new Order of Communion was followed
by The Psalter or Booke of the Psalms, whereunto is
added the Litany and certayne other devout prayers
set forth with the King's most gracious lycence of July
1548. It is strongly anti-sacramental in tone, and
exhorts people to receive the Sacrament ' as a memorial
of His death, and not to eat it thinking or believing
Him to be there really.' Among the books which were
intended to prepare the way for further changes was
a scurrilous attack on the Mass and the priesthood,
published in 1547 by William Turner, Somerset's
chaplain ; also a tract of 1548 containing a letter of
John Calvin against being a partaker 'of the masse
of the papysts,' and a book written by Hurleston soon
after the appearance of the Order of the Communion,
and called Newesjrom Rome concerning the blasphemous
sacrifice of the papisticall Masse.
The Commission assembled at Windsor continued
their deliberations, undertaking the arduous task of
revising the Latin services and preparing from them
and other sources a Book of Common Prayer and of
the Administration of the Sacraments. Their labours
were finished by Christmas 1548, and in January 1549
Parliament passed the first English Act of Uniformity.
The statute provided that from and after Whitsunday
(June 9) no other form was to be used than that con-
tainecf in the new book. A fresh chapter was thus
opened in the history of the English Church.^
The objects of the compilers are stated in the
1 The first service sung in English, except the Litany, was probably
Compline, which was sung in English in the King's chapel as early as
April II, 1547. Mass was sometimes sung in English in 1548.

86 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
'Preface,' based upon the preface to the Reformed
Roman Breviary of Cardinal Quifiones. They are that
the whole realm should have only one ' use ' ; that the
rubrical directions ' called the Pie ' should be simplified ;
that the Psalms should be repeated in their order, in
stead of a few being ' daily said, and the rest omitted';
that the Lessons should include 'the whole Bible, or
the greatest part thereof in a continuous course ; that
the reading of the Scriptures should not be interrupted
by 'Anthems, Responds, and Invitatories '; that nothing
should be read but ' the very pure Word of God, the
holy Scriptures, or that which is evidently grounded
upon the same'; and that the services should be in
the English tongue. It is evident throughout the
book that it was intended to be more simple, more
intelligible, and more congregational than the Latin
services had been for many centuries, and that the
test of Scripture and the practice of the first six
hundred years of Christianity should be more carefully
considered. These intentions were excellent, and the
outcome is sound and great. Catholic in its teaching
and perfect in its language. But simplicity was
attained at the sacrifice of much that was scriptural,
and the rubrical directions were so inadequate that the
services could not be properly performed without some
knowledge of the ancient ceremonial.
The eight, or as sometimes reckoned seven. Daily
Services of the Breviary were replaced by a new form
of Mattins and Evensong. The services of terce, sext,
and nones were omitted, and Mattins were constructed
from the services of mattins, lauds, and prime on
the model of the German mattins used in Schleswig-
Holstein. Evensong was constructed from the ancient
evensong and compline after the same German model.
Both these services began with the Lord's Prayer
and ended with the third Collect. The Litany was
that drawn up by Cranmer in 1544 and ordered to

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 87
be used by Henry VIIL, with the exception of the
requests to the saints for their prayers, which were
now omitted. This Litany is of mixed Sarum and
German origin. The Baptismal Office was partly
based upon the Sarum Offices, but is mainly derived
from the Consultation and early Lutheran books.
It still retained the primitive anointing of the candi
date and the threefold immersion. The Order of Con-
Urmation followed that in the Sarum Pontifical, but
omitted the primitive chrism (anointing with oil).
The Order of the Visitation of the Sick included the
apostolic practice of anointing with oil, popularly
known as Extreme Unction. The Burial Service con
tained plain and explicit prayers for the deceased
person, and full provision was made for a Mass to
be celebrated at a burial. The forms for ordaining
bishops, priests, and deacons were not published until
1550. Inasmuch as it is chiefly ' the Mass that matters,' the
relation of the Mass in the First Prayer Book to the
Sarum Mass wiU be carefully examined. But before
this examination it will be best to notice some of the
differences between the service in the First Prayer Book
and that in the present Prayer Book. The ' Supper of
the Lord and the Holy Communion, commonly called
the Mass ' was almost wholly adapted from the Sarum
Missal, except that it incorporated the Order of the
Communion of 1548 after the consecration of the
elements. The service began with an Introit or Psalm,
sung at the entrance of the priest ; the Commandments
were not read ; the name of the Mother of God was
specially mentioned in the praise offered for the saints ;
prayer was offered expUcitly for the departed ; the con
secration included a prayer for the sanctification of the
elements by the Holy Spirit and the Word ; the words
used in delivering the Sacrament were only the first
clause of those now used. It was directed that water

88 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
should be mixed with the wine, that the sign of the
cross should be twice used in the consecration, and that
the Benedictus and Agnus should be sung.
When the Prayer Book came into use the Council
immediately exerted itself to make the new worship
seem as different as possible from the old, and ordered
the disuse of various private ceremonies used by the
priest in saying Mass, and also of lights upon the altar
and sacring bells.
§ 2. Cranmer and the Mass.
At the time of the Reformation three distinct classes
of opinion prevailed concerning the Eucharist. The
first may be dismissed very briefly. It is the theory
of Zwingli, which was to some extent modified and
improved by his followers, but which is still widely
spread. In plain contradiction with the primitive
teaching of the Church, it is taught that no special
gift is bestowed in the Sacrament, but that the value
of it resides in the effect produced upon the soul by
reviving a memory of the death of Christ. Every
notion of a mystery in the Sacrament is rejected.
The supporters of this theory were known as Sacra
mentaries, and it was almost universally repudiated by
all members of the Church of England, whether they
held reformed or unreformed opinions.
The other theories may be classified as follows : —
I. Theories now included under the name of the
doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Sacra
ment. It is assumed that there is a Real Presence
attached to the elements at the time of the consecration
and before the eating and drinking. The subordinate
forms of this doctrine were these :
A (a). The better Roman theory. It is taught that
at the consecration the substances of bread and wine
are changed into the substances of Christ's Body and

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 89
Blood. The size, shape, colour, taste, and all the
properties of bread and wine remain, but in some
mysterious manner the bread and wine have ceased to
be. Together with the size, shape, colour, taste, etc.
of bread and wine, our Lord, says Cardinal Newman,
' is in the Holy Eucharist after the manner of a spirit
. . , not according to the manner of natural bodies,'
This is the doctrine now taught in the Church of
Rome and known as Transubstantiation.
A (6). A debased Roman theory. It was popularly
taught and believed that not only did the substance
of bread and wine cease to exist, but that our Lord
was present in the Eucharist in a material though
invisible manner, as described above in Chapter II.
B (a). The better Lutheran theory. This strongly
resembles the primitive doctrine, as it maintains the
co-existence of the substance of bread with the sub
stance of Christ's Body.^ But it was unfortunately
connected with the heretical doctrine that Christ's
human nature is present in the Sacrament because it
is strictly present everywhere. The Lutherans also
taught the novel doctrine that after the conclusion of
the service the presence of Christ was withdrawn from
the Sacrament.^
B (b). A debased Lutheran theory. This was quite
as materialistic as the most debased Roman theory,
and more so, for it was not only taught that Christ
was present 'to the stomach,' but language was em
ployed which suggested that Christ is, as Hooker
says, ' invisibly moulded up with ' the substance of
the elements. There is therefore a confusion of the
substance of the bread with the substance of Christ's
Body. 1 Thus Melanchthon in 1535 wrote, ' We must be careful not to
oppose the doctrine of the ancients,' and previously he had said that
he would rather die than agree with the Zwinglians.
^ Hence they taught that it ought not to be reserved in a pyx.

90 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
This theory is known as Consubstantiation, and
the same name is applied, somewhat inaccurately, to
better varieties of Lutheran doctrine.
II. Theories now included under the name of Re
ceptionist doctrines of the Sacrament. It is assumed
that the effect of the prayer of consecration is to attach
to the elements, not a presence, but a promise. The
bread and wine have been blessed, and the Lord's
promise is that when the religious communicant par
takes of this bread and this wine he partakes of a
special mysterious power uniting him to Christ. The
subordinate forms of this doctrine are these : —
C. The doctrine of Calvin. It is taught that the
elements have the power of communicating to the elect
recipients predestined to eternal life the virtue of
Christ, so that Christ 'sustains them not otherwise
than if He were present in body.' This is ordinarily
called the Virtual Presence.
D. The doctrine of Bucer. Bucer says, ' The signs
have no union whatever with the glorious Body and
Blood of Christ.' Nevertheless ' The true Body and
Blood of our Lord, Christ Himself, God and man, is
given and received ' by the worthy communicant. The
language of Bucer more closely approximates to
Catholic language than that of Calvin, but their mean
ing appears to be nearly identical. Both these theories
are as supernatural as the doctrine of the Real Presence,
but put a severe strain upon our faith by teaching
that our Lord communicates Himself to us ' by ' the
elements, as Bucer says, although He is not present in
the Sacrament.
If we ask ourselves how the character of public
worship in the sixteenth century would have been
likely to be affected by a congregation abandoning
the doctrine of the Real Presence in favour of the
Receptionist theory, a little reflection will convince us
that the following changes would be likely to take

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 91
place. First, there would be an inclination not to
attend at the Eucharist except for the purpose of
communicating, inasmuch as no special presence of
Christ would be granted to the worshipper unless he
communicated. Secondly, there would be a tendency
to abandon the use of Eucharistic vestments and altar
lights, for if there is no special presence in the Sacra
ment there is no reason why it should be surrounded
with more tokens of reverence than a pulpit. Thirdly,
there would be a strong tendency to give up the
custom of elevating the host at the consecration,
although the abandonment of such a custom would
not necessarily mean a denial of the Real Presence,
nor even a denial of the doctrine of Transubstantiation.
Fourthly, the Sacrament would no longer be reserved
for the sick, lest any kind of adoration should be paid
to the presence of Christ in the Sacrament so reserved.
All these points are of importance and will help us to
estimate the intentions of Cranmer and his associates
in compiling the First Prayer Book of Edward VI.
For the internal evidence of that Prayer Book agrees
minutely with the external evidence derived from
other sources. They show that when the book was
published Cranmer had himself adopted the Recep
tionist view, but that he dared not introduce into the
book anything which definitely implied a denial of the
Real Presence. In fact, the book was so worded that
every reader would believe that the doctrine of the
Real Presence was retained,^ and the book must have
been accepted and used in that belief. We have con
clusive evidence with regard to Cranmer's own convic
tions at the time when the book was published.
In August 1548 Cranmer made a translation of
^ The doctrine is almost more explicit than in the Order of the Com
munion of 1548, for whereas the rubric of 1548 speaks of the priest
ministering ' the bread ' and the deacon ' the wine,' the same rubric in
1549 has 'the Sacrament of the Body' and 'the Sacrament of the
Blood.'

92 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
a Lutheran catechism. The original says, 'God is
almighty, therefore He can do all things that He will.
. . . When He Himself calls and names any thing which
was not before, then at once that very thing comes into
being as the Lord names it. Therefore when He takes
bread and says : " This is My Body," then immediately
there is there the Body of the Lord.' Cranmer in his
translation leaves out the words printed above in italics
and then continues: 'Wherefore when Christ taketh
bread and saith: "Take, eat, this is My Body," we
ought not to doubt but we eat His very Body.'
The meaning of the change is as clear as dayUght,
and Cranmer himself tells us the reason of it. For
in 1551, in his answer to Smythe, he says : ' This I
confess of myself, that not long before I wrote the said
catechism I was in that error of the Real Presence as
I was many years past in divers other errors, as of
Transubstantiation.' ^ Therefore, as the work of com
piling the Prayer Book formally began in September
1548, it is certain that Cranmer had deserted the
primitive doctrine for the doctrine of Bucer when the
compilation was inaugurated.
But he probably still felt scruples, for we possess
two letters written in August 1548 by two pupils of
the Calvinist BuUinger, in which complaint is made of
Cranmer's lukewarmness and lethargy with regard to
Eucharistic doctrine.
By the end of 1548 Cranmer was bolder in his state
ments. Parliament met at the end of November.
Before any full discussion of the new Prayer Book, there
was a discussion on the doctrine of the Sacrament.
The disputation began in the House of Lords on
December 14, and lasted for several days. The Pro
tector Somerset acted as moderator. Tunstall, Bishop
of Durham, defended the doctrine of the Real Presence,
and was supported by Thirlby, Bishop of Westminster,
¦' Cranmer's Remains, vol. iii. p. 13 (Oxford edit. 1833).

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 93
and several others. Cranmer disputed against Tunstall,
and was supported by Holbeach of Lincoln, Ridley of
Rochester, and to some extent by Goodrich of Ely.
A few salient points in the dispute demand special
attention. Sampson, Bishop of Lichfield, though he
refused to accept Cranmer's doctrine, objected to the
word ' transubstantiation,' thought the doctrine of the
new Prayer Book 'very godly,' and added that he
never thought Christ's Body in the Sacrament to be
present ' so grossly as divers there alleged.' Probably
he meant this as a criticism of Tunstall, who maintained
that in the Sacrament 'there is the very Body and
Blood of Christ both spiritual and carnaV Tunstall
certainly seems to have been guilty of exaggerating
the mediaeval doctrine, and was understood by the
secretary Smythe to mean that ' the natural Body ' of
Christ was present, so as to necessitate a presence
according to physical laws. Ridley urged with modera
tion that ' the bread of Communion is not mere bread
but bread united with Divinity, as a burning coal is
more than a coal for there is fire with it.'^ When asked
' whether the receiver taketh any substance in the
Sacrament or not,' he cautiously replied that 'the
carnal substance' of Christ is at the right hand of
the Father, and ' after this understanding of the pre
sence He is not in the Sacrament.'
If the two parties engaged in the controversy had
been anxious to come to an understanding rather than
anxious to defend a controversial position, it is possible
that such men as Holbeach and the Bishop of Lichfield
might have found that they were not hopelessly
divided. But Cranmer's line made reconciliation im
possible. He declared that 'eating with his mouth
giveth nothing to man, nor the body being in the
bread. Christ gave to His disciples bread and wine,
^ Gasquet and Bishop, Edward VL and the Book of Common Prayer,
p. 415.

94 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
creatures among us, and called it His Body.' On the
fourth and last day of the discussion he said, 'The
Body of Christ is in heaven : E/rgo He is not in the
Sacrament,' and he added that ' the Body of Christ
cannot be under any form in the Sacrament.' And
again he said, ' We cannot eat His Body indeed,' and
he compared calling the bread Christ's Body with
saying 'This glove is my cap.'^
A general survey of this disputation leads us in
evitably to the conclusion that in December 1548
Cranmer held the Receptionist theory of the Eucharist.
He held the same view as Calvin, but expressed it in
more Protestant language than Calvin. But Ridley's
language approximates to Catholic language, and in
1555 he asserted that ' the nature of flesh ' was ' in the
bread.' If we examine the ceremonial of the First Prayer
Book, and thus test its Eucharistic doctrine, we find
that Cranmer only secured the most diminutive loophole
for the freedom of his own opinions. First, the idea of
the communion of the people is emphasised by the in
sertion of the Order of Communion of 1548, but there
is no prohibition of non-communicating attendance.
Secondly, Eucharistic vestments are retained, together
with other ornaments of the Church then in use. But
the rubric permits the use of ' a vestment or cope ' by
the celebrant. The meaning of this was probably not
perceived at first. But it was revealed later when
Cranmer sang Mass at S. Paul's wearing a satin cap and
a cope instead of a mitre and a vestment (i.e. chasuble).
There were chasubles in plenty at S. Paul's, and a cope
of the shape then worn was less convenient to wear
than a chasuble. Cranmer can only have done this
with the intention of destroying the traditional associa
tion between the Eucharist and the chasuble. We
have no reason to believe that Cranmer's example in this
' Gasquet and Bishop, Op. cit., p. 442.

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 96
respect was followed by the clergy generally. Thirdly,
the reservation of the Sacrament for the sick is directed
by the First Prayer Book. Fourthly, the elevation of the
host is forbidden. This prohibition was capable of two
interpretations. It might be understood as an indirect
prohibition to teach any worship of any Real Presence of
Christ. Or it might be understood only as an indirect
prohibition to teach the doctrine of Transubstantiation.
At the time when the Prayer Book first came into use,
Cranmer no doubt intended the former. But there is
sufficient contemporary evidence to show that English
men at that time were too well educated to identify
every doctrine of the Real Presence with the doctrine of
Transubstantiation, and the Prayer Book, understood
in its natural and grammatical sense, teaches the
doctrine of the Real Presence.
The Eucharistic service of 1549 has already been
contrasted with the present English Eucharistic service,
and must now be compared with the mediaeval service,
the general outline of which it closely follows. It more
strongly resembles the primitive Roman Mass, inasmuch
as it contains no private prayers to accompany the
Offertory or the Communion. Certain details deserve
special notice : —
§ i. The ancient ' Gradual ' sung between the Epistle
and Gospel is omitted. But we still find an Introit to
be sung as the priest enters the chancel, the Kyrie,
Gloria in excelsis. Collect, Epistle, Gospel, and Creed in
their old place.
After the Creed came two exhortations from the
Order of the Communion of 1548, standing in the place
of a homily.
§ ii. The Offertory, which was originally a Psalm,
with Antiphons, and had been reduced during the
Middle Ages to an Antiphon, was now represented by
different verses of Scripture to be sung by the choir.
After the placing of bread and wine mixed with water

96 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
upon the altar, the service continues as of old with the
salutation, 'The Lord be with you,' which with the
succeeding versicle, 'Lift up your hearts,' carries our
thoughts back to the earliest ages. Then comes the
Preface, Sanctus, and Benedictus.
§ iii. The Canon of the Mass,^ which is the core of
the service, will be examined presently, and will be
found printed side by side with the Sarum Canon in
Appendix A, In the meantime, let us merely notice
that in the First Prayer Book it concludes with the
Lord's Prayer, as in the Roman liturgy since the time
of Gregory and Augustine, But the pendant prayer
which followed the Lord's Prayer is omitted,
§ iv. The service then proceeds, as of old, with the
words, ' The peace of the Lord be always with you,'
and the answer, ' And with thy spirit.'
Then follows a slight inversion of the mediaeval rite.
The Agnus Dei used to come next, and then the ' com
mixture ' of the sacred elements. In the Prayer Book
no direction is given for the commixture, and the
Agnus is transferred to the time of the communion of
the people.^ The priest exhorts the people to keep
'a joyful and holy feast with the Lord,' and then we
have inserted the devotions preparatory to the com
munion of the people from the Order of the Communion
of 1548, ending with the prayer of humble access.
After the communion of the people a "verse of Holy
Scripture is to be sung, ' called the Post-communion.'
Formerly a variable verse was sung, called the ' Com
munion,' and a variable prayer called the 'Post-
communion.' But as the Agnus was now sung during
' The title ' Canon ' is not printed in this service as in the mediseval
books, but it is retained in the Celebration of the Holy Communion for
the Sick.
^ The Agnus was more or less moveable in ancient times. In the
Roman rite it was formerly sung during the Fraction and is now sung
after it. The Charterhouse monks used to sing it after the Com
munion.

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 97
the Communion, it was natural that the next chant
should be called the Post-communion.
Lastly, before the blessing came a new prayer,
retained as an alternative for the ' prayer of oblation '
in our present service. The beginning of this prayer
is adapted from the Sarum prayer said by the priest
immediately after communion.
Now, the words of this liturgy imply the doctrine of
the Real Presence, and teach it more clearly in some
respects than even the mediaeval Canon of the Mass.
The mediaeval Canon contains two different prayers of
consecration. The first is only preparatory, and occurs
before the words of institution, and is — ' Which obla
tion, we beseech Thee, O Almighty God, that Thou
wouldest vouchsafe, in all respects, to bless, approve,
ratify, and make reasonable and acceptable, that it
may become to us the Body and the Blood of "Thy most
dearly beloved Son our Lord Jesus Christ.' The
second completes the consecration, and is after the
words of institution — 'We humbly beseech Thee, O
Almighty God, command these things to be carried
by the hands of Thy holy Angel ^ to Thine altar on
high in the sight of Thy Divine Majesty,' etc. The
mediaeval and modern Roman practice is to teach that
the consecration takes place at the words of institu
tion, ' This is My Body ' — ' This is My Blood,' and by
so teaching the prayer last mentioned is rendered
imintelligible. Cranmer and his associates overcame the defects of
this interpretation with the utmost skill. They made
no attack on the received opinion. But they altered
the first prayer into : ' Hear us (O merciful Father),
we beseech Thee, and with Thy Holy Spirit and Word
vouchsafe to bless and sanctify these Thy gifts, and
creatures of bread and wine, that they may be unto us
' This Angel is perhaps the divine Word or Son of God, Who is
so called in early Christian literatur e. .
G

98 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
the Body and Blood of Thy most dearly beloved Son
Jesus Christ.' This phraseology was almost certainly
derived from the Liturgy of S. Basil, in which the con
secration depends upon a direct invocation of the Holy
Ghost. Then having made the consecration take
place in a manner which would be recognised as vahd
both by Eastern and Western Christendom, they altered
the second prayer into a request that ' our prayers and
supplications' might be brought before the sight of
the Divine Majesty.^ There was no longer any neces
sity for asking that the gifts already hallowed should
be blessed again.
A further question remains. Does the First Prayer
Book of Edward VI. imply the doctrine of the Eucha
ristic sacrifice ?
The answer must be in the affirmative, in spite of the
fact that modern writers sometimes state that Cranmer
treated all the sentences which implied the Eucharistic
sacrifice as so many weeds which he felt obliged to
pluck up. No doubt he was ready in some measure to
deny the Eucharistic sacrifice inasmuch as he wished
to deny the doctrine of the Real Presence. The doctrine
of the Eucharistic sacrifice is closely connected with the
doctrine of the Real Presence. If the Body and Blood
of Christ are not really present on the altar, the Victim
of Calvary cannot be present on the altar, and if the
Victim is not present, the sacrificial character of the
service is changed. A man who holds the Receptionist
theory believes that the Presence of Christ is only to
be found in the faithful communicant. Therefore,
although he can believe that the faithful communicant
pleads the merits of the Divine Victim, he cannot
believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are offered
under the forms of bread and wine. Now it is im
possible to prove that Cranmer eliminated the Catholic
^ This was in accordance with a mediasvai explanation of the words
/ube haec perferri.

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 99
doctrine of the Eucharistic sacrifice, unless it can be
proved that he eliminated statements which plainly
imply the above doctrine.
He left the word altar, which does imply the Catholic
doctrine of the Eucharistic sacrifice. He retained the
words ' sacrifice of praise,' transferring them from the
beginning of the Canon of the Mass to a position im
mediately after the consecration, and connecting them
with the ' holy gifts ' which have been already blessed
to be the Body and Blood of Christ. The name
' sacrifice of praise ' is borrowed from the Old Testa
ment, where it is applied to the peace-offering, and
the First Prayer Book enlarges it by calling it ' sacrifice
of praise and thanksgiving.' The last word recalls the
name Eucharist (thanksgiving), and also the oblation
of the Jewish peace-offering as a sacrifice of thanks
giving (Lev. vii. 12-13). We may add that the
phrase 'sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving' is the
precise phrase which the mediaeval party in 1546
compelled Shaxton, Bishop of Salisbury, to apply to
' the oblation and action of the priest ' in the Mass, as
one of the proofs that he repudiated the Protestant
doctrine of the Eucharist.^ Therefore a natural inter
pretation of the words employed forces us to say that
the First Prayer Book teaches the doctrine of the
Eucharistic sacrifice, although Cranmer had ceased to
believe in that doctrine when the book was published.
Does the Roman and Sarum Canon of the Mass give
any more explicit teaching on this subject than the
First Prayer Book.? No. The Roman and Sarum
Canon applies the following sacrificial terms to the
Eucharist: 'sacrifice of praise' once; 'sacrifices'
(sacrificia) once ; ' gifts ' (dona) twice ; ' bounties '
(data) once; 'presents' (mwnera) once; 'oblation'
twice. The word 'host' (hostia) occurs thrice, but
is really said once, and repeated for the sake of
^ Burnet, HiUory of the Reformation, vol. I. bk. iii. Record 29.

100 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
emphasis. It is now sometimes translated 'victim,'
but it may mean any kind of oblation, and both in
Roman books and the reformed Latin Prayer Book of
1551 it is applied to the unconsecrated bread. It
should be observed that the word ' bounties ' must be
struck out of this list, and also one of the two cases in
which the word ' gifts ' occurs, as the words mean the
bounties and gifts as given by God to man, and not
as offered by man to God.
The list still appears an imposing testimony to the
doctrine that the Body and Blood of Christ are offered
to the Father in the Eucharist, but on examination the
testimony vanishes. It will be a startling fact to some
who have not studied the history of the Roman Canon
of the Mass to learn that not a single sacrificial phrase
occurs in it after the prayer which anciently completed
the consecration of the bread and wine. All these sacri
ficial terms except the word 'host' occur not merely
before this prayer, but actually before the words ' This
is My Body,' which are now regarded as the words of
consecration. Moreover, all the sacrificial terms before
' This is My Body,' except the expression ' sacrifice of
praise,"" are simply names for the bread and wine,
which all English sovereigns ' offer ' at the Coronation
Eucharist. There remains the thrice repeated word ' host,' which
occurs between the words ' This is My Body ' and the
ancient prayer which completed the consecration. The
context makes it evident that the word here originally
meant the bread and wine regarded as likenesses of
the Body and Blood of Christ, and parallel with the
bread and wine mentioned in the story of Melchizedek.^
^ Dom Aidan Gasquet, who has made every effort to prove that the
First Prayer Book is heretical, instead of explaining the true meaning
of this part of the Roman Canon, contents himself with saying that it
is ' admittedly difficult and mysterious ' {Edward VL and the Book of
Common Prayer, p. 210). The solution of the mystery is that the Roman
Canon teaches the same doctrine as that of the First Prayer Book.

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 101
Cranmer omitted this ambiguous and misinterpreted
phrase, and replaced it by ' this our sacrifice of praise
and thanksgiving,' adding to it a mention of the obla
tion of ourselves, 'our souls and bodies.' When we
remember that the bread and wine according to the
First Prayer Book had already been consecrated so as
to be the Body and Blood of Christ, the conclusion is
obvious. It is that the Canon of the Mass in the First
Prayer Book of Edward VI. contains a definite reference
to the Eucharistic sacrifice as offered after the conse
cration, whereas the Roman Canon, rightly interpreted,
does not contain any such reference.
Cranmer afterwards denied the fact, but the ques
tion is not what Cranmer said after the book was
published, but what was the natural meaning of the
words which he wrote. All the bishops affixed their
signatures to the Prayer Book, except Day of Chiches
ter, and they all seem to have used it. Gardiner in
particular appealed to the Prayer Book as teaching
the doctrines of the Eucharistic sacrifice and the Real
Objective Presence. The nature of the other services
contained in the First Prayer Book will be described
in their proper place. It only remains to consider
whether the book had the definite sanction of the
Church of England.
It is probable that Convocation sanctioned it, but it
is not quite certain. The records of Convocation were
burnt in the 'great fire' of 1666, and therefore we
have no first-hand evidence. Against the idea that it
was submitted to Convocation, or even the Convoca
tion of Canterbury without the Convocation of York,
is the fact that the Act of Uniformity of 1549 only
speaks of the authority of ' the Archbishop of Canter
bury and certain of the most learned and discreet
bishops and other learned men.' This must refer to the
Windsor Commission, and cannot refer to Convocation.
Moreover, Heylyn, who was clerk to Convocation in

102 HISTORY OP THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
the time of Charles I., and was acquainted with the
records before they were destroyed, knows nothing of
any action of Convocation in the matter. On the other
hand, there is the strong assertion made in a letter
from the King to Bishop Bonner to the effect that the
uniform order of worship had been set forth ' not only
by the common agreement and full assent of the
nobility and commons of the late session of our late
Parliament, but also by the like assent of the bishops
in the said Parliament, and of all others the learned
men of this our realm in their synods and convocations
provincial.' Other statements made by the Government
are ambiguous, but there can be no doubt as to the
meaning of ' convocations provincial,' and there can be
no doubt that Bonner must have known the truth, and
that in this case diplomacy could have gained nothing
by falsehood.
§ 3. The Triumph of Protestantism.
The First Prayer Book was not very popular, for the
simple reason that men do not like to have their form
of worship suddenly disturbed. Nevertheless we may
be sure that before long it would have commended
itself to the piety of the majority of Englishmen, and
the extreme Reformers were enraged to find that in
places like S. Paul's Cathedral there was very little
difference between the new ceremonial and the old.^
But the Government was determined to change the
platform of the First Prayer Book into a slope. In
spite of the depravity of morals which attended the
introduction of Calvinist and Zwinglian doctrines,^ it
^ In 1549 a book for choir use was published as a companion to the
Prayer Book, and in 1550 Marbecke published his ' Book of Common
Praier — Noted,' founded on the pre-Reformation plainsong.
^ Calvin says that man 'is under the necessity of sinning,' and
Zwingli says that God is ' the author, mover, and impeller ' of the sins
of men. Such doctrine was not calculated to promote holiness.

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 103
was intended to make the Church of Engla4[i a
compound of Calvinism and Zwinglianism. Traheron,
writing to BuUinger, June 12, 1550, says : ' Religion
is indeed prospering, but the wickedness of those who
profess the gospel is wonderfully on the increase.'
The prosperity of 'religion' was shown in many
ways. The Protestant literary propaganda continued.
In 1549 there was published, with a dedication to the
King, A Tragoedie or Dialoge of the unjuste usurped
Primacie of the Bishop of Rome, translated by John
Ponet, a chaplain of Cranmer, from a work of Bernar
dino Ochino, a renegade Italian monk, who soon
afterwards denied the Divinity of Jesus Christ. The
book is violent and vulgar, and treats the doctrine
of free-will as the invention of Lucifer. It is surpassed
by the scurrilous book entitled The Image of bothe
Churches, written by Bale in 1548, but not printed until
1550, the Council having apparently delayed its pub
lication until a suitable moment. About the same
time was published The Spyritual and Precious Pearle,
by Thomas Becon, who was chaplain both to Somerset
and Cranmer. The obscene work on the Mass which
rendered Becon notorious was not published until
1559, so that we can charitably hope that Cranmer
chose his chaplain without knowing of what he was
capable. Two other books, both of which had the licence of
the Government, must be mentioned as intended to
pave the way for Calvinism. One is a catechism called
The True Beliefe in Christ and his Sacramentes, set forth
in a Dialogue betwene a Christen Father and his Sonne,
verye necessary to be leavjied of all Men, of what estate
soever they be. It is dedicated to the Duchess of
Somerset. It teaches the Calvinistic doctrine of
Predestination, and affirms that the godly, i.e. the
predestined who believe in Christ, 'cannot sin unto
death,' The other book is even more important. It

104 HISTORY OP THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
is a revision of Tyndale's New Testament, and was
published in 1552 by Jugge. It is amply supplied
with notes of a Calvinistic tendency. On Acts xxii.
we read concerning Baptism that ' by a figure called
alloiosis, the same is ascribed unto the outward sign,
which doth only pertain unto the grace and election of
God.' On S. Luke xxii. we read concerning the Eucha
rist that ' the cup doth only represent unto us the New
Testament, that is to say, the forgiveness of our sins
that we have in the Blood of Christ.' ^
The doctrines which the Government encouraged
were actively propagated by the foreign reformers who
came to dwell in England to escape molestation. The
most important were Martin Bucer, John a Lasco, and
Peter Martyr. Bucer came to England in 1549, and
was made Professor of Divinity at Cambridge. He was
a learned and, in some respects, an attractive man.
His views were far more moderate than those of many
of his contemporaries, and he approved of the First
Prayer Book, ' a very few words and acts apart.' His
chief objection was to the ceremonial of the baptismal
service. He died in February 1551, and the way was
left clear for the work of Peter Martyr and A Lasco.
Peter Martyr was a Florentine monk of good birth ;
he came to England in 1549, and was appointed
Professor of Divinity at Oxford. In 1548 a tract of
his which taught a Receptionist theory of the Eucharist
was translated into English and dedicated to Somerset.
His doctrine seems to have subsequently tended in a
Zwinglian direction. He maintained that it was a
useless repetition to repeat the words of consecration
' whenever it happens during communion in the Church
that wine is wanting in the cup.' With regard to
Baptism, he held that it was a sign of a regeneration
which God had perhaps bestowed previously upon the
child baptized. He expressly denied that grace is
' See AthencEum, June i886.

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 105
conferred by virtue of the Sacraments. He strongly
objected to the reservation of the Eucharist for the
sick. He called the Eucharistic vestments ' relics of the
Amorites,' and was such a fanatic that he thought it
better for a Protestant child to die unbaptized than
that it should be baptized by Lutherans.^ A Lasco
(in Polish ' Laski '), a Polish nobleman who lived with
Cranmer at Lambeth in 1550, held similar views. In
his book De Sacramentis Ecclesiae, which was printed
in 1552 and dedicated to Edward VL, he describes
both circumcision and the Passover as Sacraments,
and regards Sacraments as signs of a grace which is
bestowed upon the elect previously.
The protection which was extended by the Govern
ment to A Lasco and Peter Martyr is therefore of a
piece with the licence given to Calvinist and Zwinglian
books. It was determined to destroy root and branch
every form of Catholic doctrine or any Lutheran
doctrine which approximated to Catholicism rather
than to the extreme Protestantism of Switzerland.
The First Prayer Book was therefore doomed. The
path was cleared by depriving Gardiner and Heath and
Day of their bishoprics, and sending Tunstall to the
Tower on a fictitious charge of treason. Heath had to
make way for Hooper, who spoke of the First Prayer
Book as impious in parts, avowed his disbelief in apos
tolical succession, and taught a naked Zwinglianism,
putting Baptism on a level with circumcision.
Cranmer, stirred up by Calvin, summoned to his aid
the Archbishop of York and the Bishops of London
and Ely, obtained criticisms from Peter Martyr and
Bucer, and began to remodel the Prayer Book. In
April 1552 Parliament passed a statute declaring the
First Prayer Book to be 'agreeable to the word of
God and the primitive Church,' but saying that doubts
had arisen ' through curiosity,' and that therefore the
1 Strype's Cranmer, iii. ch. xv.

106 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
book would be explained and made perfect. The
new book came into use, November 1, 1552, and was
found to contain very important alterations. In the
Daily Offices the exhortation, confession, and absolution
were directed to be said before Morning and Evening
Prayer, In Baptism, the exorcism, the anointing, the
putting on of the chrisom or baptismal robe, and the
triple repetition of the immersion were omitted. In
the Visitation of the Sick the anointing and the direc
tion for reserving the Sacrament for the sick were
omitted. In the Burial Service the more explicit
prayers for the departed and the Mass for funerals
were omitted. In the Ordinations the ceremonies of
delivering the chalice to the priest and the pastoral
staff to the bishop were omitted. The outward
aspect of the services was greatly changed by a
rubric ordering that neither alb, vestment, nor cope
should be worn ; a bishop was to wear a rochet and a
priest only a surplice. The word ' Mass ' was dropped,
and the Office for Holy Communion altered into a
form identical in structure with the present Office,
although the small changes which have been sub
sequently introduced have cut through the peculiar
root of the Communion Service of 1552.
That root was Cranmer's latest doctrine of the
Eucharist. The actual method of remodelling the Mass was
apparently suggested by a book of Bishop Gardiner.
This was An Explication and Assertion of the True
Catholic Faith touching the most Blessed Sacrament of the
Altar. It was printed in 1551, and was a criticism of
Cranmer's book on the Eucharist published in 1549. He
contrasts the teaching of the Book of Common Prayer,
which he treats as Catholic, with the opinions expressed
in Cranmer's book. Five points deserve especial notice.^
^ Cranmer's Remains, vol. iii. pp. 155, 145, 347, 93, 217 (Oxford
edit. 1833).

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 107
(1). Gardiner refers to the prayers offered for the
living and the dead after the consecration as a proof
that the Eucharist was still to be regarded as a sacri
fice offered in their behalf. When the Second Prayer
Book appeared the prayers for the dead were omitted,
and the prayers for the living were shifted to a place
after the Offertory and before the consecration.
(2). Gardiner asserts that the doctrine of the Real
Presence is implied in the prayer ' wherein we require
of God the creatures of bread and wine to be sanctified
and to be to us the Body and Blood of Christ.' In
the Second Prayer Book this prayer was altered.
(3). Gardiner thinks that an adoration of Christ's
Flesh in the Sacrament is implied in the kneeling of
the priest and the prayer (now called the ' prayer of
humble access '), which then stood after the consecra
tion and before the Communion, In the Second
Prayer Book this prayer was put before the consecra
tion. (4). Gardiner points out that in ' the distribution '
of Holy Communion it is said that the Body and
Blood of Christ are ' under the form of bread and
wine.' In the Sarum Missal the ordinary formula for
administering was, 'The Body of our Lord Jesus
Christ preserve thy soul unto everlasting life. Amen.'
But in the Mass at which Communion was first given
to the newly confirmed a stronger formula was em
ployed : ' The Body of our Lord Jesus Christ preserve
thy body and thy soul unto everlasting life. Amen.'
In the First Prayer Book this latter formula was used
at every Mass with a short addition. In the Second
Prayer Book it was expunged and replaced by the
words : ' Take, and eat this, in remembrance that
Christ died for thee, and feed on Him in thy heart by
faith, with thanksgiving.'
(5). Gardiner points out that the rubric attached to
the Mass of 1549 says : ' And every one [i.e. of the

108 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OP COMMON PRAYER
consecrated hosts] shall be divided into two pieces
at the least, and so distributed, and men must
not think less to be received in part than in whole,
but in each of them the whole Body of our Saviour
Jesus Christ.' In the Second Prayer Book this was
omitted. We should notice that the Benedictus and the Agnus
Dei were omitted. The omission must have been
dictated by a desire to deny that the Blessed One is
present in the Sacrament and that He is there to be
adored as the Lamb of God. The same intention is
manifested in the Black Rubric appended to the Com
munion Service of 1552. It is there declared that
kneeling at Communion does not mean 'that any
adoration is done, or ought to be done, either unto the
Sacramental bread and wine there bodily received, or
unto any real and essential presence there being of
Christ's natural Flesh and Blood. For as concerning
the Sacramental bread and wine, they remain still in
their very natural substances, and therefore may not be
adored, for that were Idolatry to be abhorred of all
faithful Christians. And as concerning the natural
Body and Blood of our Saviour Christ, they are in
heaven and not here. For it is against the truth of
Christ's true natural Body, to be in more places than
in one at one time.' This declaration was added by
the Council of their own accord, against the wishes
of Cranmer, three days before the stated day of pub
lication. It may be truly urged that the Second Prayer Book
here and there manifests a desire to retain Catholic
forms where they might escape notice. It is also true
that the actual form of the Communion Service, apart
from the Black Rubric, does not condemn any Catholic
doctrine, and that the prayer of consecration is pos
sibly derived from the Catholic Mozarabic rite, either
directly or indirectly through the German form used

REFORMATION AND DEFORMATION 109
in Brandenburg and Niirnberg,^ And it is probable
that the book is in some true sense a well-meant com
promise. Men like Cranmer were perhaps afraid that
the whole Church of England would break in pieces
before the attacks of Zwinglians and Anabaptists. They
may have feared the extreme Protestants more than
the extreme mediaevalists. But the fact remains that
the Second Prayer Book made it, for the first time,
possible for adherents of the English Reformation to
hold fundamentally heretical views with regard to an
ordinance of Christ, and yet maintain that their views
were justified by the services of the Church, The
whole book is also marked by the essentially schis-
matical principle that a laudable practice of the
Catholic Church ought to be abolished if it has been
misused. All experience proves that regulation and
not abolition is the real cure, and that abolition will
simply bring about an unreasoning reaction. Queen
Mary and the English Jesuits are the; answer which
history has given to King Edward and the Calvinists.
The Second Prayer Book received no sanction on
the part of the Church of England. Its publication
was a gross breach of faith, as the Council had falsely
declared in a previous statute of Parliament that it
was an explanation and perfection of the former
' Order of Common Service.' Side by side with the
revision of the Prayer Book, Cranmer and others were
engaged on the compilation of Forty-two Articles of
Religion. They were published with royal authority
in May 1552. They carefully deny the doctrine of
the Real Presence, and when these Articles were
taken in the reign of Elizabeth as the basis for our
present Thirty-nine Articles, it was found necessary to
' With regard to the actual words of consecration we should note
that they are practically the same in the First and Second Prayer
Book. But in the First Book they are connected with a definite
prayer involving the doctrine of the Real Presence.

110 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
erase this and numerous other statements of a Pro
testant character. The Forty-two Articles were not
sanctioned by the Church of England, but the Council,
with lying effrontery, published them with a title-page
asserting that they had been agreed upon by the
bishops in Convocation.

CHAPTER V
THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION
As far as they (which are of the Church of Rome)
follow reason and truth, we fear not to tread the selfsame
steps wherein they have gone, and to be their followers.
Richard Hooker, Ecclesiastical Polity, Bk. v. ch. 28, § 1.
A.D. 1694. § 1, The Elizabethan Settlement.
It has been remarked that each of the three royal
children of Henry VIII. probably intended to follow
one aspect of Henry's religious policy. Henry's strong
opposition to Rome was inherited by Edward VI. , who,
if he had lived, would probably have reduced the Church
of England to a Calvinistic sect. Mary was a medi
aevalist by conviction, but with a stronger leaning
towards Rome than had been commonly found in
English sovereigns of the mediasvai period. Elizabeth,
on the other hand, represented the policy of modera
tion and reformed Catholicism to which the liturgical
changes of Henry's reign and The Bishops'" Book had
pointed. The difficulties which confronted her in
carrying out her policy were enormous. The moderate
or Anglican party was small in numbers, and modera
tion was not always united with enthusiasm. The
mediaeval party was very strong. Edward's excesses
had caused a decided reaction in favour of mediaeval
worship, although the reaction was weakened by
111

112 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
popular disgust at the brutal persecution of Pro
testants in the Southern and Eastern counties. One
extreme theory begets the opposite extreme.
This was shown by the birth of English Puritanism,
When Mary began to persecute, there began an exodus
to the Continent of some hundreds of English priests,
who found a home in Strassburg, Frankfurt, Ziirich,
and Geneva, At Frankfurt the magistrates allowed
the English to make use of the same church as the
French Calvinists, The English chose as their chap
lain John Knox, who had been ordained in Scotland,
had become a Protestant about 1545, and had been
forced to leave Great Britain in 1547 and again in
1554, A description of the English service (that of
the Second Prayer Book of Edward VI.) was sent to
Calvin 'for his judgment therein.' The description
was drawn up by Knox and others, and was unsympa
thetic and occasionally contemptuous. The prayer
for the Church militant is called 'a long heap and
mixture of matters,' Confirmation is ridiculed, the sign
of the cross in Baptism and the ring in Marriage are
severely criticised. Calvin, whose genius had raised
him to a position where his word was law, replied
that he saw in the English liturgy many 'tolerable
absurdities.' Some of the exilesj led by Dean Cox, tried to resist
the influence of Calvin upon their worship. But
circumstances told heavily upon them, and when the
exiles returned to England the majority of them had
learned to believe that the Pope was Anti-Christ, and
that anything which the Pope allowed in public
worship was the work of the devil, unless it could be
proved to possess the sanction of the New Testament.
Elizabeth was in a most difficult position. But she
was determined, both by prudence and conviction, to
espouse the cause of the moderate party. She had no
love for the Roman see, which regarded her as the

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 113
offspring of an iUegitimate union. She had nothing
in common with John Knox, who had lately written
against the monstrosity of a kingdom being ruled by
a woman,^ and at the age of fifty-nine himself fell
a victim to the charms of a girl of seventeen.
Elizabeth proceeded delicately. Mass according to
the use of Sarum was still said in the royal chapel,
although on the Christmas Day of 1558, a little more
than a month after her accession, she requested Ogle
thorpe, Bishop of Carlisle, not to elevate the host, and
left the chapel because he refused to comply with her
command. Her conduct on this occasion can only be
explained on the supposition that she regarded this
ceremony as necessarily connected with some material
istic theory of Christ's presence. For she told De Feria,
the ambassador of Philip of Spain, that ' she held that
God was really present in the Sacrament,' and her
action with regard to the Prayer Book abundantly
proves that this was her belief. By a proclamation
issued two days after her quarrel with Oglethorpe, it
was allowed that the Epistle and the Gospel, the Ten
Commandments, and the Litany might be said in
English. On December 27, 1558, all preaching was
forbidden in order to prevent the spread of dissension.
The Venetian ambassador of the time records with the
regrets of a sincere Roman Catholic the changes in the
Church. He tells us that on Easter Sunday, March
26, 1559, ' Mass was sung in English ' in the Queen's
chapel according to Edward's Prayer Book with vest
ments, and that on S. George's Day, April 23, the
Queen wished to procure and use the magnificent pro
cessional crosses kept in the Tower (Calendar of State
Papers, Venetian, 1558-1580, pp. 57, 74).
The Queen in the meantime asked for the assistance
of Sir Thomas Smith, a learned lawyer, who drew up
^ In a tract called The First Blast of the Trumpet against the
Monstrous Regiment of Women, and a Second Blast.
H

114 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
a document entitled 'Device for the alteration of
religion.' He advised the appointment of a cabinet of
councillors who should be made acquainted with the
Queen's wishes and aid her to select a committee of
divines to revise the services of the Church. The
councillors were directed by William Cecil, afterwards
Lord Burghley, a shrewd and vigorous politician, who
was disposed to encourage Puritanism. The revision of
the liturgy was entrusted to Parker, Grindal, Cox, and
a few others, to be assisted by Sir Thomas Smith.
Parker was learned, conscientious, and moderate ; Cox
and Grindal had become infected with Calvinism
during their Continental travels.
Parker fell ill, and his place was taken by Guest
or Geste, afterwards Bishop of Rochester. Sir Thomas
Smith, as representing the Queen's opinions, advised
the adoption of the First Prayer Book of Edward VI.
But the revisers were probably unwilling to alienate
the Puritan party ; they wished to make concessions,
and an explanatory letter written by Guest to Cecil
maintains the principle that, if ceremonies have once
been taken away as misused, they should not be again
adopted. When we recollect that it is certain that
Guest in some confused fashion believed in the doctrine
of the Real Presence, it is astonishing that in this letter
he opposes the use of the cross and the chasuble, the
retention of which ornaments was so intimately con
nected with that doctrine. He also advises that
non-communicants should be dismissed before the
consecration, and attacks the use of prayers for the
dead. The conclusion of the whole matter was that
the committee of divines put aside the First Prayer
Book of Edward VI., and entrusted Parker with the
disagreeable duty of reconciling the Queen to their
decision. But the Queen was determined that if she
accepted the Second Prayer Book she would only
accept it in a catholicised form.

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 115
Elizabeth's first Parliament met on January 25,
1559. On the 24th, Convocation assembled, and in a
few days the clergy issued a formal protest against any
alteration in the existing form of religion. They
emphasised three points in the doctrine of the Mass ;
also the supremacy of the Pope, and the fact that it
belongs to ' the pastors of the Church and not to
laymen ' to define doctrine and discipline ecclesiastical.
Four of these five articles were endorsed by the uni
versities of Oxford and Cambridge. The House of
Commons at once declared war against Convocation in
a bill annexing supremacy to the Crown. This was
first read on February 15, and on the next day a Uni
formity Bill 'for Common Prayer and Administering
of Sacraments' was read. Knowing the opposition
of Convocation, the Commons entrenched themselves
behind the royal supremacy, and left the Uniformity
Bill alone till the supremacy was practically secured.
In the meantime the Queen had directed Heath,
Archbishop of York, to arrange a public disputation
between the mediaeval and the reforming parties in
Westminster Abbey. There were to be not less
than eight disputants on each side.
On the mediaeval side there were four bishops —
White of Winchester, Bayne of Lichfield, Scott of
Chester, Watson of Lincoln ; Cole, Dean of S. Paul's ;
Chedsey, Prebendary of S. Paul's ; Langdale, Arch
deacon of Lewes; and Harpsfield, Archdeacon of
Canterbury. Feckenham, Abbot of Westminster,
assisted. On the reforming side were Scory, formerly Bishop
of Chichester; Cox, formerly Dean of Westminster:
Horn of Durham, Whitehead, Grindal, Guest, Elmar,
and Jewel.
The dispute began on Friday, March 31, 1559. Sir
Nicolas Bacon came to represent the Crown, and the
Privy Council sat in the stalls of the monks. The

116 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
prelates and other disputants sat below them in the
choir. The Houses of Parliament attended, and the
abbey was crowded with sightseers. Three subjects
had been agreed upon for discussion : —
1. It is against the word of God, and the custom of
the primitive Church, to use a tongue unknown to the
people in common prayers and administration of the
Sacraments. 2, Every particular Church hath authority to insti
tute, change, and abrogate ceremonies and rites in
the Church, so that it be to edify,
3, It cannot be proved by the word of God that
there is in the Mass offered up a sacrifice propitiatory
for the quick and the dead.
We cannot fail to notice that of these three subjects
only the third is of a strictly doctrinal nature.
Without the slightest surrender of principle the
mediaevalists might have granted the first assertion of
their opponents. They might after some discussion
have agreed upon the second, inasmuch as the Churches
of England, Spain, and Italy had long varied in their
ceremonies. With regard to the third subject, the
utmost care was needed in giving a definition of the
word ' propitiatory.' For the Mass might either be
called propitiatory with the idea that each celebration
of the Mass has a separate propitiatory character of
its own, or it might be called propitiatory with the
idea that it commemorates the propitiatory death of
Christ and pleads before the Father the merits of Him
Who is ' the propitiation for our sins.' The first of these
ideas is unscriptural, and the second is scriptural. Both
ideas had been held in the Middle Ages.^
^ A reconciliation between the two parties with regard to the
Eucharistic sacrifice was not an impossibility. Even Cranmer said of
the schoolman Peter Lombard that he ' confirmeth fully my doctrine,'
and his opponent Gardiner said the sacrifice of the Mass was not ' an
iteration of the once perfected sacrifice on the cross,' but 'a sacrifice
that representeth that sacrifice, and showeth it also before the faithful

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 117
When the dispute was opened. Cole argued on behalf
of the use of the Latin language. His speech was
foolish in spite of its subtlety. It was impossible to
convince the audience that to abandon the use of Latin
involved an act of schism, or that so expressive and
copious a language as the English could be treated
as if it were still an 'inferior and barbarous' idiom
unsuited for the dignity of divine worship. Unfor
tunately the disputation only ended in a misunder
standing. According to the etiquette of the Schools,
the mediaevalist party was entitled to speak second
as opposing the assertions of the other party. But
when the mediaevalists met again on the Monday after
the debate was opened. Sir Nicolas Bacon tried to
compel them to speak first, an arrangement in which
they had previously acquiesced. This would have left
the reformers the advantage of having the last word,
and the mediaevalists now declined. Angry protests
followed, and Bacon pronounced the discussion closed.
Parliament met a few days later. The Commons
brought the Supremacy Bill to its final stage, and then
read the Bill for Uniformity of Worship, April 18,
1559. The Bill re-established the Second Prayer Book
of Edward VI. , with a few additions, which will be
described presently. The Commons appear to have
accepted it without division. The Lords opposed it
with energy. Two important speeches have been pre
served. 'I'he first is that made by Feckenham, Abbot
of Westminster, and the second is that of Scott, Bishop
eyes, and refresheth the effectual memory of it.' The difference
between them was partly a difference as to meaning attached to the
word ' propitiatory.' Gardiner appealed to Hebrews xiii. as justifying
the application of the word propitiatory to all sacrifices accepted by
God through Christ. Cranmer said that the word could not be so
applied, because S. Paul and S. John speak of Christ as being the
propitiation for our sins only by His death. Cranmer admitted that
Gardiner had 'some good sparks of the Spirit,' but compared him to
a cow overthrowing her own milk. — Answer to Gardiner, Cranmer's
Remains, vol. iii. p. 540 ff. (Oxford edit. 1833).

118 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
of Chester, Neither of them was conciliatory, for
neither of them admitted that there was any necessity
for reform. But both are marked by considerable
ability. Both fasten upon the Second Prayer Book
of Edward VI. as denying the doctrine of the Real
Presence. Scott said ' no consecration at all ' is intended
by it. Feckenham showed how the foreign reformers
differed among themselves, and how Ridley and Cranmer
had changed their own opinions. He declared that the
First Prayer Book affirmed the Real Presence of Christ's
Body in the Holy Eucharist, while the Second ignored
it. He spoke of the revolting blasphemy of Pro
testants who trampled on the Sacrament and hung the
knave of clubs over the altars in derision. He there- ,
fore appealed to the lords not to forsake their professed
religion, which had the confirmation of ' all Peter's
successors in the see apostolic' ^
Feckenham hit hard, but the mediaevalists over
estimated their strength. The Bill passed on April
28, 1559, by a majority of three, and it provided that
the Prayer Book should come into use on June 24.
Nine lords spiritual opposed it. In May they ap
peared before the Queen, and Archbishop Heath
exhorted her to reconsider her determination. The
Queen refused to yield, and in the course of the year
thirteen bishops were deposed. At first sight it may
seem strange that in the time of Henry the bishops of
the mediaeval party accepted the royal supremacy with
so little hesitation, and that almost all the bishops of
the same party firmly refused to accept the supremacy
of Elizabeth, who explained her powers in a more con
ciliatory manner than Henry.^ The reason is to be
¦^ Ca-iAviaW, History of Conferences, p. 104.
" Queen Elizabeth expressly refused the title 'Supreme Head' of
the Church which was borne by Henry, Edward VI., and by Mary
during the first year of her reign. Elizabeth used, on the contrary,
the title ' Supreme Governor.' We should notice that it is wholly
inaccurate to say that the royal supremacy, even as asserted by Henry

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 119
found in the history of the reign of Edward VI. and in
the history of the Prayer Book in the time of Edward.
The bishops loved R,ome more because they knew
Geneva better. They preferred ' the shadow of Peter '
to the gloom of Calvinism, and the authority of a
distant Pope seemed less tyrannical than the authority
of a dictating Parliament. Strong in conviction,
though not in numbers, they withdrew and left the
field to be occupied by their adversaries.
When Elizabeth came to the throne there were
twenty-six sees in England and Wales, exclusive of
the see of Sodor and Man. Six were then vacant
through death, and nine more bishops died within a
few months. It truly seemed as if God was taking
His kingdom from their hands.
Parker was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury,
December 17, 1559, and the vacant sees were then
rapidly filled. Of the eleven surviving Marian bishops.
Kitchen of Llandaff conformed (died 1563), as did
Stanley of Sodor and Man (died 1570). Goldwell went
into exile, Poole was left in restricted liberty, and the
remaining eight were imprisoned until 1563. The last
to die were Watson, in 1584, and Goldwell, in 1585.
They were somewhat roughly treated, but none of
them suffered the extreme penalty of the law, and it is
to the lasting credit of Parker, the new primate, that
he was scolded by Cecil for his leniency to Bishop
Thirlby and Dean Boxall.
The Elizabethan Prayer Book, as sanctioned by the
Act of Uniformity of 1559, was distasteful to many
of the reforming party, because it contained certain
changes which were deliberately intended to include
the Catholic doctrine of the Eucharist.
VIII., replaced the supremacy of the Pope, either in the sense in which
the Pope's supremacy was understood then or is now understood.
Neither Henry nor Elizabeth believed that bishops derive their
spiritual authority from an earthly sovereign.

120 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
1. The use of the Eucharistic vestments was restored.
It was directed that the Minister at the time of the
Communion, and at all other times in his ministration,
shall use such ornaments in the church as were in use by
authority of Parliament, in the second year of the reign
of King Edward the VI. The use of the cross, candle
sticks, and censer would naturally be covered by this
rule.^ 2. The priest in administering Holy Communion
was directed to use, in addition to the words 'Take
and eat,' etc., and ' Drink this,' etc., the ancient for
mulae which were traditionally connected with the
doctrine of the Real Presence, ' The Body of our Lord
Jesus Christ,' etc., and ' The Blood of our Lord Jesus
Christ,' etc.
3, "The Black Rubric at the end of the Communion
Service, which declared that kneeling at the time of
Communion did not imply adoration ' unto any real
and essential presence there being of Christ's natural
Flesh and Blood,' was struck out.
We may also observe that when the Thirty-nine
Articles were issued in 1563, the 28th Article was
carefully altered in such a way as to deny no longer the
possibility of the Body of Christ being present in many
places at the same time after a spiritual manner.
4. There was removed from the Litany the virulent
prayer for deliverance ' from the tyranny of the Bishop
of Rome and all his detestable enormities.'
There were a few minor alterations which hardly
call for special mention, but improvements of some
importance were made by appointing a Table of Proper
Lessons for Sundays, and by directing that Morning-
and Evening Prayer were to be held in ' the accustomed
1 A thurifer was appointed at Lincoln Cathedral some time after the
introduction of the English service, viz. on March 3, 1560. — Reports
of the Architectural Societies of Lincoln and Nottingham for 1886
(Williamson, Lincoln). It is well-known that Bishop Andrewes, who
had been a chaplain of Elizabeth, used incense during divine service.

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 121
place ^ (i.e. the Choir), whereas the Second Prayer Book
had said ' in such place as the people may best hear.'
The general tendency of these changes is unmistak
able. "They show that the Queen intended to have a
service which was Catholic although reformed. An
exceedingly interesting illustration of her religious atti
tude was shown in September 1559 on the occasion of
the death of Henry II., King of France. A magnificent
catafalque was erected in the Cathedral of S. Paul's,
London, and in the afternoon of September 8 the
Dirge for the Dead was sung in English by Parker and
other bishops-elect. On the next morning a solemn
requiem Mass was sung in English by bishops attired
in copes, six of the principal mourners communicating.
If services of this type had been more common, it is
certain that many of those who eventually threw in
their lot with the Church of Rome would have lived
as loyal sons of the Church of England. Indeed, for
several years many members of this party attended
their parish churches. All over England the old vicar
or rector remained in his parsonage and his church.
Out of more than nine thousand clergy less than three
hundred repudiated the Reformation. Moreover, Pope
Pius v., according to the positive assertion of Sir
Francis Walsingham, who received the offer from the
papal nuncio in France, would have declared the
English Prayer Book to be Catholic, and allowed its
use, ' if the Queen would have acknowledged the same
as received from him.' ^ But the Queen refused, for to
acknowledge that she received the Prayer Book by the
Pope's leave would have been to acknowledge that he was
universal bishop with j urisdiction in England as in Italy.
Many of the new bishops were not merely Protestant
but Puritan, men who, instead of enforcing the rubrics
of the Prayer Book, winked at any ecclesiastical law
lessness so long as it was not Catholic lawlessness. The
1 Calendar of State Papers, Foreign, 1569-1571, p. 477.

122 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Puritans actually taunted the bishops for not wearing
what the Prayer Book directs, and asked why they did
not bear the pastoral staff, and why the alb was laid
aside and the surplice retained. The Protestant section
of the clergy had their own Bible (the Genevan version),
with Calvinistic notes, and their own ceremonial, and
in 1572 they started a Presbyterian organisation of the
ministry. They began to insert the whole Genevan
system into the framework of the English Church, and
agreed that the ceremonies which they disliked ' ought
to be omitted, if it may be done without danger of
being put from the ministry.'^ In 1565 the Dean of
Christ Church, Oxford, signalised himself by wearing
a hat with his gown instead of a square cap, and
refusing to ' communicate kneeling in wafer-bread.' It
should be explained that wafer-bread was expressly
directed to be used in Elizabeth's Injunctions of
1 559, and its use was constantly enforcect by Parker.
The Puritan resistance to the law was even more
vehement in Cambridge than in Oxford, and the
country reflected the opinion of the Universities. In
1566 Parker, after interviewing the Queen, sent to
Cecil a copy of so-called Advertisements, in which an
attempt was made, not indeed to enforce the full cere
monial of the Prayer Book, but to enforce such a mini
mum as was necessary to terminate the prevailing chaos.
Even then thirty-seven of the London clergy refused
to conform, against sixty-one who promised to obey.
Probably the recalcitrants knew that their bishop,
Grindal, was reluctant to enforce conformity, and we
read that the infuriated Queen once ' rated him soundly,
and threatened to punish him for an anabaptist.'^
^See Dr. Paget, Introduction to the Fifth Book of Hooker' s Ecclesi
astical Polity, p. 67.
^ An instance of the manner in which some of these bishops con
tinued the worst abuses is to be found in the fact that Davyes, Bishop
of S. Asaph, instituted Philip Sydney to the parsonage of Whitford
when Sydney was ten years old.

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 123
The nonconformists within the Church were so far
successful that the legal ceremonial of the Church fell
into wide disuse. They would have been greatly
astonished if they could have learned that in the
nineteenth century their disuse of the ornaments en
joined in 1559 would be considered a proof that such
ornaments were inconsistent with the spirit of the
Church of England.
The Queen, who was never a deeply religious woman,
robbed the Church so unmercifully that it was not
always possible to maintain the outward splendour of
God's service. Yet there never faded from her eyes
the attraction of that type of worship which originally
appealed to her conscience. She used to perform on
Maundy Thursday the ritual of the washing of the
feet of the poor, much as it is still performed at the
royal court of Spain. And, in spite of the Puritans,
the Eucharist continued to be celebrated in the royal
chapel with the pomp which she thought fitting for the
King of kings. The crucifix was sometimes placed
upon the altar, the celebrant, deacon, and sub-deacon
wore their sumptuous copes, tapers stood upon the
altar, censers were retained, wafer-bread was still used
for the Communion, and the Queen received the chalice
not with bare hands, but with a houselling cloth
' moste princely ' held at the ends by four noble earls.
Here must end our account of the Elizabethan
settlement of the English Book of Common Prayer, It
is a settlement which gained from the Church of Eng
land simply the approval of acquiescence. It was not
at the time formally sanctioned. As in the days of
Catholic unity the civil power made short work of the
rites of Paris and Toledo, so the civil power now brushed
away the rites of Sarum and Hereford, A true estima
tion of such changes cannot be based upon the authority
which made them, but only upon the reasons for which
they were made.

124 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
The Latin Prayer Book as used in the reign of
Elizabeth is of some importance, although it did not
receive the express and formal sanction of the Church.
In 1551 Alexander Ales or Alane, a Scottish divine,
published a Latin translation of the First Prayer Book
of Edward VI. The translation is inaccurate, and in
some cases shows a return to the language of the
mediaeval books. In the rubrics greater clearness is
sometimes attained by a reference to current practice.
For instance, the rubric 'the priest, or he that is
appointed, shall read the Epistle,' is paraphrased ' the
priest or sub-deacon'; and ' the priest, or one appointed
to read the Gospel,' becomes 'the priest or deacon.'
The rubric directing the preparation of the elements is,
' Then shall the priest place so many hosts [hostias] on
the chalice or corporal,' where the English has 'so
much bread.' The second clause of the concluding
blessing at the Mass is omitted, and, for some reason
which it is difficult to explain, there is no mention of
anointing after putting on the chrisom at Baptism.
In 1560 another Latin version was published by
Walter Haddon, with the authority of the letters
patent of Elizabeth. The book was intended to be
used in college chapels. It was based upon that of
Ales, and shows a strong Catholic tendency. The
Calendar is very copious, having the name of a saint
for almost every day of the year. The word Missa for
Mass is replaced by Coena, but an explicit direction is
given for the reservation of the Sacrament for the
communion of the sick, according to the primitive
custom of the Christian Church — the priest at the
Supper shall reserve so much of the Sacrament as shall
suffice for the sick man : and immediately after the
Supper is finished, together with some of those who are
present, he shall go to the sick man and first com
municate with those [in modern English ' communicate
those '] who stand by the sick man and were present at

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 125
the Supper, and lastly with the infirm man. Here we
have a plain direction both for reservation of the
Sacrament and for a non-communicating attendance at
the Supper by those who afterwards communicate with
the sick man. Equally remarkable is the fact that
provision is made for a celebration of the Eucharist at
funerals. The Collect is the original form of the
present second Collect at the end of our Burial Service.
The Epistle is 1 Thessalonians iii. 13-18 ; the Gospel
is S. John vi. 37-40, or S. John v. 24-29.
In spite of the discrepancies between this book and
the English Prayer Book of 1559, the Latin book is in
evident agreement with the Queen's religious senti
ments. It met with considerable opposition, and
another Latin version much more closely resembling
the English was published in 1571.
It is probable that Haddon's version of the Prayer
Book was intended not only to be used in college
chapels, but also in those parishes in Ireland where the
English language was not understood. The Church
of Ireland did not use the First Prayer Book of
Edward VI. until Easter 1551, when it was introduced
in the cathedral of Christ Church, Dublin. No effort
was made to transfer the book of 1552 to Ireland,
where, indeed, very few priests understood English.
The Sarum Missal was employed again in Ireland from
the death of Edward VI. untU August 30, 1559, when
the English Litany was sung in Christ Church Cathedral.
In January 1560 the Irish Parliament passed an Act
of Uniformity authorising the Book of Common Prayer
which had been put forth in England. As there was
no Irish printing-press yet provided, and few of the
people who spoke Irish could read the Irish letters,
permission was given to say ' common and open prayer
in the Latin tongue,' and there is good proof that
Latin was used.
It is said that the New Testament was translated

126 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
into Irish by Archbishop Fitz Ralph in the fourteenth
century. A translation of it was begun by Nicholas
Walsh, Bishbp of Waterford (1577-1585), assisted by
others, and completed by William O'Donnell, Arch
bishop of Tuam. It was printed in 1602, with a
dedication ^ to James I. The same prelate published
the Prayer Book in Irish, 1608-1609. The translation
of the Old Testament was commenced by Bishop
Bedell, an Englishman. It appeared in 1685.
Bedell's sympathy with the Irish language won him
the gratitude of the Irish and the contempt of many
of his friends. The failure of the Reformation in
Ireland, and the consequent strength of Roman
Catholicism in those countries to which the Irish have
migrated, are largely due to the neglect of this rich
and beautiful language by the clergy. In 1834, when
multitudes of Irishmen conversed almost entirely in
Irish, Archbishop Trench of Tuam affirmed that, with
the exception of his own brother, he had not one
clergyman in his diocese proficient in Irish.
The Bible was translated into Welsh in 1588 by
William Morgan, Bishop of S. Asaph, and others. A
previous translation of the New Testament by Sales-
bury appeared in 1567, and a translation of the Prayer
Book in the same year by the same author.
§ 2. The Development of the Seventeenth
Century.
James I. having lived among Presbyterians in
Scotland, the English Puritans made the mistake of
^ If the date is correct, it must have been issued on the first day of
his reign, March 24 (Old Style). The next day was 1603. The
preface says that Elizabeth had provided Irish characters for the press
in the hope that God would raise up some one to translate the New
Testament. The title is ' Tiomna Nuadh ar Dtighearna agus ar
Slanajghtheora Josa Criosd, air na tarruing ... as Greigis gu
gaoidheilg re Huilliam o Domhnuill.' It was reprinted in 1681.

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 127
supposing that he would be favourable to their in
terests. But the general state of piety in Scotland
was better calculated to prejudice a shrewd observer
against the established religion than in its favour, and
James disliked Presbyterianism heartily. Moreover,
educated opinion in the Church of England was begin
ning to crystallise. A school was growing which saw
that the English Reformation had a genius of its own
and implied a continuity with the period before the
Reformation. The Puritans wished to destroy this
continuity. The Jesuits and the Roman priests who
came over to England from the seminary at Douai
were at one with the Puritans in their endeavour to
blacken the character of the English Church. The
Puritan party said that it was saturated with Popery ;
the Roman party said that it was not Popish enough.
Both agreed that it was to be destroyed if possible.
It is also worth noticing that the Jesuits, in their
endeavour to be as Roman as possible, not only
quarrelled with some of the old English Roman
Catholics, but also joined with the seminarists in
endeavouring to supplant the Sarum Service Books
with new Roman books.^ The result of this double
opposition was that the Church of England began
to consolidate itself, and there was little chance of
any surrender to either Protestant or Romanist.^
In order to fully appreciate the aims of the Puritans,
we must not only remember that determined opposition
to the comely ceremonies of the Church and to the
primitive doctrine of the Sacraments which we have
' The reformed Roman Missal was introduced into England in 1577 ;
the Roman Ritual for occasional Offices in 161 5.
^ The nature of the Roman and Puritan alliance against the Church
of England was as well recognised in the seventeenth century as it is
now. Archbishop Bramhall, repl)ang to a Romanist, says that the
Presbyterians, Brownists, and Independents 'have done you more
service in England than ever you could have done for yourselves. ' —
Works, Tome i. Discourse i.

128 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
already noticed, but remember their absolute denial
that God offers salvation to all men through Christ,
their denial of the existence of any Catholic Church
except an invisible Church composed of the ' elect,' and
their tyrannical narrowness. Puritans were not all
cast in the same mould, for there were some whose
faith was simple and robust, as well as others who
were cunning and ferocious. But it is impossible to
palliate the fact that Cartwright, the apostle of
English Puritanism, asserted that 'false teachers'
ought to be killed according to the law of Deuter
onomy xiii. — adding ' if this be bloody and extreme, I
am content to be so counted with the Holy Ghost.'
The demands of the Puritans of the time of James I.
were comparatively moderate, but no one who under
stands their system can believe that Puritanism would
have remained contented with anything short of
absolute predominance. The earliest measure adopted
by them was to present to the King in April 1603 the
famous Millenary Petition, so called from the great
number of signatures attached to it. The Puritan
demands, as stated in this petition, or as subsequently
modified, were as follows : —
1. That the cross in Baptism and kneeling at Holy
Communion should be dispensed with.
2. That private persons, men or women, should not
be allowed to baptize.
3. That Confirmation should be abolished or altered
into a mere blessing by the bishop or ' every ordinary
pastor.' 4. That the ring in marriage, bowing at the Name
of Jesus, and the reading of the Apocrypha in church
should be abolished.^
5. That the term ' priest' should be abolished. The
forms of absolution were also disliked.
* Many of the Bibles of this period now in the British Museum have
the Apocrypha torn out by Puritan owners.

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 129
6. That the wearing of the surplice and cap should
not be compulsory.
7. That the clergy should preach at least once every
Sunday. The Puritans were also much dissatisfied with the
Thirty-nine Articles as not sanctioning Calvinism; and
they desired to limit the jurisdiction of the bishop,
so as to approach the Presbyterian model of Church
government. '
James granted a conference, which met at Hampton
Court in January 1604. The most important Puritans
were Dr. Rainolds and Dr. Sparkes. The Church was
represented by Archbishop Whitgift ; Bishop Bancroft,
a staunch upholder of Episcopacy ; Deans Andrewes
and Overall, both of them pillars of Catholic theology,
with others.
It was a foregone conclusion that the Church could
not gratify its Roman Catholic and Puritan opponents
by changing itself into a decorated form of Presby
terianism. And the frivolity of some of the objections
made by the Puritans caused the bishops in their
'by-talk' to recall the saying of Master Butler of
Cambridge, ' A Puritan is a Protestant frayed out of
his wits.' But the bishops made a few concessions
which involved no desertion of principle. Thus, a new
Jesson was appointed for August 26, instead of the
H^tory of ' Bel and the Dragon.' Into the title of the
Absolution were inserted the words. ' or Remission of
Sins.' The title of the Confirmation Service was
expanded so as to explain the meaning of the service.
Baptism by the laity was discouraged by altering the
I'ubrics of the Office for Private Baptism, arid in this
way greater security was made for the correct adminis
tration of the rite. Thanksgivings for rain, fair
weather, etc., were also added, and a prayer for the
Royal Family was placed after the prayer for the
King.

130 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
A far more important result of the Hampton Court
Conference was the addition to the Catechism of the
portion on the Sacraments. This portion appears to
have been written by Overall. It strongly asserts the
Catholic doctrine of Baptism and the Lord's Supper.
Wheatly appeals to the Catechism as teaching a belief
in the Real Presence, and this belief is testified by the
scrupulously careful distinction made therein. Baptism
is described as comprising two things : the outward sign
and the inward grace. The Lord's Supper is described
as comprising three things: the outward sign, the
inward part, and ' the benefits whereof we are partakers
thereby.' The inward part is defined as ' the Body and
Blood of Christ.'
Lastly, the Hampton Court Conference resulted in
the issue of a royal decree for an authorised translation
of the Bible. This was proposed by Rainolds. The
King was enough of a scholar to be charmed with the
idea, and all preliminaries were set on foot by July 22,
1604. Why Rainolds made the proposal is a mystery.
In 1557 a Puritan translation of the New Testament by
Whittingham, afterwards Dean of Durham, was pub
lished at Geneva. And in 1560 appeared the famous
Genevan Bible^ with which the Calvinists had every
reason to be satisfied. It was terse, scholarly, and
convenient. The notes were Calvinistic, and after
1579 it was bound up with a strongly Calvinistic
Catechism. One hundred and sixty editions of it were
published between 1560 and the Civil Wars, and the
book was the very fountain-head of English Protestant
ism. A rival Anglican translation. The Bishops'' Bible,
appeared in 1568. The work was uneven, and the
book was cumbersome. Moreover, the notes were
sometimes tainted with Genevan theology, and the
illustrations tainted with pagan morality. The book
' This is otherwise known as the Breeches Bible, because in Genesis
ii. 7 it has 'breeches' instead of 'aprons.'

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 131
was a comparative failure, though its translation of
the New Testament was afterwards emended. Next
came the clever version of the English Romanists,
which was mainly the work of Gregory Martin, for
merly a scholar of S. John's College, Oxford. It is an
able work, but the style shows a too slavish adherence
to the Latin. The New Testament was published at
Rheims in 1582, in which year Martindied, and the
Old Testament was published at Douai by Dr.
Worthington in 1609. It has since been revised,
and remains the ordinary Bible of English-speaking
Romanists. It was carefully studied by the writers of
the incomparable Authorised Version, which appeared
in 1611.
Before the close of the reign of James I. the position
of the Church of England began to be appreciated and
admired. The serene and holy life of Bishop Andrewes,
his learning, his courtesy, his intelligent devotion to
Catholic truth and worship, gave to the Church a new
attraction and a new ascendency.
The reign of Charles I. was marked by the propaga
tion of those principles which Overall and Andrewes
had maintained. The movement was headed by the
King himself and Archbishop Laud, a man who was a
munificent patron of learning and devotedly attached
to the Church of England, although less generous in
his methods than wise in his doctrines. He assisted
some Scottish bishops in bringing into Scotland, in
1637, a liturgy approximating to the First Prayer
Book of Edward VI. The book met with furious and
irrational opposition. It was of course denounced as
'Popish,' a fact which will not weigh much with any
modern reader who is aware that the Scottish Presby
terians had previously denounced university degrees as
' Popish.' Laud failed and died. If he had chosen to
purchase his life by the sacrifice of his conscience, it
would have been the Church of Eijgland that would

132 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
have failed. But the Church survived because Laud's re
ligious principles triumphed^ In spite of his faults, he
had made it practically impossible for any clergyman
of the English Church to teach that God has eternally
appointed the reprobation and damnation of the
majority of mankind, and 'doth not only appoint the
ends, but the means, tending to the same.'^
Parliament in 1645 forbade the use of the„ Jrayer
Book in smy°*church in England or Wales, and sup
planted it by a work called A Directoryjbr the Publique
Worship of God throughout the Three Kingdoms.
Another ordinance of Parliament prohibited the use of
the Prayer Book even in private, and severe fines were
imposed on ifeusei^ The churches were violated by
unseemly acts of vandalism, and respectable clergymen
were ejected from their benefices by thousands. The
English Puritans purchased the miUtary assistance of
the Scottish Presbyterians by abolishing Episcopacy,
and for fifteen years the Church was deprived of all
legal rights, and Presbyterianism reigned in its stead.
Wheji. Charles~II. was. recalled Ip 1660, it was only
natural that the Prayer Book sTiould be restored.
Puritanism was very unpopular, and the nation had
very little sympathy with a religion which prohibited
the observance of Christmas Day, and would not permit
a prayer to be said by the graveside of the departed.
Nevertheless the Presbyterian ministers assured the
King that the revival of the Prayer Book would give
great offence. Seeing that its revival was a certainty,
they petitioned that it might be revised. Their re
quest was granted, and on April.l5, 1661, a conference,
composed of twelve bishops and twelve Presbyterian
divines, met at the Bishop of London's lodgings in The
Savoy Hospital in the Strand. The Anglicans most
remembered by posterity were John Cosin, Bishop of
Durham, and Dr. Pearson, who was one of the
^ From the note in the Geneyan Bible on Deuteronomy ii.

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 133
coadjutors of the bishops ; while the most famous of
the Puritans were Edmund Calamy, and Richard
Baxter, a good man who committed the strategical
blunder of telling his colleagues that they were bound
to ask for everything that they thought desirable.
They certainly asked for a great deal, for the list of
their objections to the Prayer Book is enormous. A
few of their proposals were perfectly reasonable, such
as their wish for a direction that the celebrant should
'break' the bread, and their proposed alteration of
the two obsolete English phrases of the Marriage
Service, ' with my body I thee worship,' and ' till
death us depart.' And much might be said for their
dislike to the indiscriminate use of the words ' in sure
and certain hope of resurrection ' in the Burial Service,
and their plea for an enlargement of the minister's
authority to repel intending communicants. We can
only smile at the perverted sacerdotalism of their
suggestion that the congregation should take no out
ward share in public psalms and prayers beyond saying
Amen, or at the folly of desiring that the Litany
should be transformed into one long prayer by the
minister. But we must admit that they fastened with
unerring accuracy upon all the distinctively Catholic
features in the Prayer Book. They not only brought
forward the musty objections to the ring and the
surplice and the sign of the crossJTmt ^Iso protested
against the whole sacramental system of the Church.
They did not wish all the baptized to be called regene
rate, and wanted the Catechism to be so altered as to
imply that there was no visible Catholic Church into
which the baptized were admitted. They protested
that the laying on of hands in Confirmation by a
bishop must not be grounded upon the custom of the
apostles, and that the rite of Confirmation seemed to
imply that Confirmation is a Sacrament. They dis
liked, the sacramental character attributed to marriage

134 HISTORY OP THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
in the words which assert that Christ ' consecrated the
state of matrimony to such an excellent mystery.'
They wished the absolution in the Visitation of the Sick
to be altered. They assailed the Catholic doctrine of
the Communion of Saints by objecting to the observ
ance of saints' days, and by requesting that a rubric
should be inserted in the Burial Service to the effect
that the prayers are not for the benefit of the dead,
but only of the living. Finally, they desired the
notorious Black Rubric of 1552 to be inserted again,
and the Ornaments Rubric of 1559 to be omitted.
The bishops, however, were resolute. They made a
large number of small changes, but retained everything
which implied the doctrines which the Presbyterians
disliked. Many of the more important changes were
merely matters of convenience.
Such, for instance, was the use of the Authorised
Version of 1611 in all parts of the Prayer Book where
¦jfamiliarity with Cranmer's version had not made change
almost impossible. The result is that the Psalter, the
Decalogue, and the sentences from Scripture in the
Communion Service still remain in their old form,
, while the Epistles and Gospels are from the Authorised
^"Version. A separate Office was added for the Baptism
of Adults, and the Catechism was separated from the
Confirmation Service. A new Preface to the Prayer
Book was prefixed to the original Preface (1549).
Many of the changes, however, were made with the
plain intention of emphasising the Catholic character
of the revision : —
1. The doctrine of the priesthood of the clergy was
more distinctly marked. The absolution was definitely
directed to be pronounced by a priest instead of a
minister, and in the Litany the petition for ' bishops,
pastors, and ministers ' was henceforth to be made for
' bishops, priests, and deacons.' The old form used in
the consecration of a bishop, ' Take the Holy Ghost,

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 135
and remember that thou stir up the grace of God
which is in thee by imposition of hands,' was altered
in such a manner as to make it absolutely clear that
a bishop at his consecration is admitted to a grade
higher than that of a priest. A similar alteration was
made in the words used in the ordination of priests.
These changes were made, not because the old forms
were invalid, but in order to repudiate openly the
Presbyterian theory that a bishop and a priest are
essentially the same.
2. Although the more explicit prayers for the
departed were not restored, the prayer for the Church
militant was enriched by a thanksgiving for those
who have departed in the fear and faith of God.
3. The Presbyterians, inasmuch as they did not
believe in a visible Catholic Church, had tended to
use the word ' congregation ' instead of ' Church.' In
four places the revisers altered the word ' congregation '
into 'Church' to prevent any misconstruction being
put upon their words.
4. In the Communion Service the word ' oblations '
was introduced into the prayer for the Church militant
to signify the alms or the unconsecrated elements as
dedicated to God ; it was expressly directed that
the celebrant should ' break ' the bread ;^ and that the
remainder of the Sacrament should be covered with
a fair linen cloth.
5. In order to prevent the irreverence of Puritanical
clergymen who had been guilty of removing the Sacra
ment to their houses for the purpose of consuming
it like ordinary food, a new rubric was added bearing
a strong resemblance to a mediaeval canon. It directs
that 'if any remain of that which was consecrated
^ It has already been noticed that the Fraction or breaking of the
bread was of great importance in all ancient liturgies. The omission
of any direction to do this in the earlier editions of the Prayer Book
appears to be due to an oversight.

136 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
. . . the priest and such other of the communicants
as he shall then call unto him, shall, immediately
after the Blessing, reverently eat and drink the same.'
In recent times this rubric has been interpreted as a
prohibition of reservation of the Sacrament for the
sick, but there appears to be no evidence to show that
any such prohibition was intended.
6. The above-mentioned alterations, like the altera
tions made in the time of Elizabeth, restore part of
what had been lost during the reaction under Edward
VI. But it has been supposed that these restorations
are balanced by the insertion of the Black Rubric at
the end of the Communion Service, although the
bishops did not originally wish it to be inserted. This
rubric, which first appeared in the Second Prayer Book
of Edward VL, appears to have been aimed directly
against any doctrine of the Real Presence. It ran
thus : ' We do declare that it is not meant thereby
'[i.e. by kneeling] that any adoration is done, or ought
to be done . . . unto any real and essential presence
there being of Christ's natural Flesh and Blood.'
On its re-introduction in the time of Charles II. it
was worded, 'unto any corporal presence of Christ's
natural Flesh and Blood.' This change is peculiarly
significant of the spirit of the last revision of our
Prayer Book. For the rubric in its original form was
intended as a protest against the whole Catholic doc
trine of the Eucharist. In its present form it is merely
a protest against the vulgar superstition that Christ's
Body is present in a materialistic fashion. It is plain
that the alteration would not have been made if it was
not meant to sanction the doctrine that Christ is really
and essentially present in the Sacrament.^
1 It has not been sufficiently noticed that the conclusion of the
rubric, so far from containing an essentially Protestant doctrine,
exactly agrees with S. Thomas Aquinas, Quodlib. Quaest. Lib. ill.
q. I. a, 2. The change in the rubric was suggested by Dr. Gunning.

THE ANGLICAN RESTORATION 137
This Prayer Book was adopted by the Church in
Convocation on December 20, 1661 ; and the use of it
was enforced by an Act of Uniformity which received
the royal assent on May 19, 1662.
It should be noticed that Elizabeth's Act of Unifor
mity (1559) was included in the 'Contents' of the
Prayer Book revised and signed by Convocation. Even
if it cannot be argued from this fact that the Church
gave synod ical sanction to the Act, it can be argued
that Convocation was ready to accept it. The Act
was in no way adverse to any Catholic doctrine or the
fit use of Catholic ornaments.
An attempted revision of the Prayer Book was made
in 1689, in the reign of William III. The King, being
a Dutch Calvinist, desired that an agreement should
be made ' between the Church of England and Pro
testant Dissenters.' A Commission was issued to ten
bishops and twenty divines to prepare alterations in
the Liturgy and Canons. The proposed alterations
were extremely numerous. A few are prudent, such as
a petition in the Litany ' by Thy continual intercession
at the right hand of God,' and a proposed note to the
clause in the Nicene Creed ' Who proceedeth from
the Father and the Son ' — ' It is humbly submitted to
the Convocation whether a note ought not here to be
added with relation to the Greek Church, in order to
our maintaining Catholic communion.' The Collects
are stupidly expanded so as to resemble extempore
prayers, the word ' priest ' is altered to ' minister,' and
even the surplice is rendered optional. The doctrine
of baptismal regeneration is apparently retained, and
a ' conditional ' re-ordination of Presbyterian ministers
is made necessary. They are to be ordained by a
bishop without being compelled to deny the validity
of their former ordinations. But most of the proposed
changes are strangely inconsistent with the idea of
' Catholic communion.'

138 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
1. In the Communion Service a second form of con
secration is provided, in which the mention of the
partaking of Christ's most blessed Body and Blood is
omitted. Kneeling at Holy Communion is rendered
optional. 2. The mention of private absolution is omitted in
the first exhortation in the Communion Service.
3. The Confirmation Service is so modified as to
suggest that Confirmation does not mean a bestowal of
the gifts of the Holy Ghost, but a confirmation by
the candidates of what was promised in their name at
Baptism, and a prayer for their continuous strengthen
ing by the Holy Ghost.
4. The rule for the daily recitation of Morning and
Evening Prayer is relaxed ; Holy Communion is ordered
to be once a month in large parishes, and at least four
times in the year in smaller parishes. It is only fair
to add that this proposal with regard to Holy Com
munion was in harmony with the practice of many
devout Anglicans.
The Commission did not venture to lay these altera
tions before Convocation, and the revision was a fiasco.
But it has left behind it a valuable lesson. It proves
that the latitudinarian Commission which made the
proposals, and the Convocation which was prepared
to reject them, were agreed that the Prayer Book is
steeped in doctrine which ' Protestant Dissenters ' could
not conscientiously accept.

CHAPTER VI
MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER
We two will stand beside that shrine
Occult, withheld, untrod.
Whose lamps are stirred continuallj'
With prayer sent up to God ;
And see our old prayers, granted, melt
Each lilie a little cloud.
RossETTi, The Blessed Damozel.
Introductory.
The whole history of Morning Prayer, otherwise called
Mattins, and of Evening Prayer, otherwise called
Vespers or Evensong, is one of great difficulty and
interest. In no country have these services passed
through such a complicated history as in England, and
in no country have they kept so strong a hold upon
the affections of the people. Not that we can permit
ourselves to suppose that the modern English treat
ment of Mattins is satisfactory. Some devout people
never attend the service at all, while a large number
attend it every Sunday, and only attend the Eucharist
occasionally. This strange perversion of the laws of
Christian worship has chiefly been caused by the ignor
ance and slackness of the parochial clergy, who first
postponed Sunday Mattins, which used to be said
before the congregation had their breakfast, until after
breakfast, and then late in the eighteenth century
began the practice of saying Mattins on Sunday at

140 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
eleven o'clock. A well-authenticated tradition ascribes
the origin of eleven o'clock Sunday Mattins i in the
parish churches of London to the Rev. James Townley
(1714-1778). He held various ' city ' preferments ; he
also wrote farces and was a friend of Garrick. He
'rendered' the service in the style of that eminent
tragedian, and postponed Mattins until eleven, in order
that his fashionable admirers might have time to drive
from what was then the ' west end ' of London. The
result of choosing this late hour for Mattins has made a
subsequent attendance at the Holy Eucharist a great
difficulty to many Christian people, and it is a cause
of congratulation that an earlier hour has been kept
in some parochial and cathedral churches, as well as in
the colleges of our universities.
Throughout the Middle Ages, even in the darkest
periods, our ancestors generally endeavoured to hallow
Sunday by attending Morning and Evening Prayer as
well as Holy Mass. The Anglo-Saxons were familiar
with ' Uhtsang ' and ' Evensang,' and of William the
Conqueror it is said by Robert of Gloucester (a.d.
1270)— ' for him none day abide
That he heard not Mass and Mattins and Evensong, and each
tide.'
In the fourteenth century Langland represents ' Sloth '
as faiUng to hear ' matynes and masse,' and in 1532
Sir Thomas More complained that many laymen will
not rise in time to 'hear out their Mattins' before
breakfast. But the practice of attending Mattins was
still quite common. The hour of Mattins varied. In
some monastic churches Mattins were sung before
retiring to bed ; in other places they were sung before
daybreak, according to the primitive custom. It is
' Week-day Mattins were occasionally said in London at eleven as
early as 17 14, but they were preceded by earlier Mattins at six.

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER 141
probable that 6 or 7 a.m. jvere general hours.i In
1547, before the introduction of the reformed ser
vices, Holgate, Archbishop of York, directed that
Mattins should be sung in York minster at 6 a.m. or
7 A.M. according to the time of year, High Mass
throughout the year being at 9 a.m. In the cathe
dral church of Aberdeen Mattins were sung at 6 a.m.
both summer and winter. After the restoration of
Charles II. six and seven were the hours kept for
Mattins both at Canterbury and Worcester; the
Litany, followed by the Communion Service, begin
ning at 10 A.M.
The earliest hour at which Morning Prayer has been
said in England since the Reformation is probably
5 A.M., which was the usual week-day hour for Morning
Prayer in London churches during the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. Until a few years ago the bells of some
of the 'city churches' were still rung at this early
hour. The form of Mattins and Evensong now used in the
Church of England is a lengthened form of the services
which appeared in 1549 in the First Prayer Book of
Edward VI. The origin of these beautiful services
which Cranmer edited cannot be understood without
a careful consideration of the history of the forms of
daily Christian worship which were not included in the
Eucharist. For the sake of convenience we may divide
the history of this worship as follows :—
§ 1. Before the Coming of S. Augustine.
From the earliest times it appears that the Christians
consecrated to prayer, either public or private, (1) the
last moments of the night, the time between cock-crow
I In the house of King Edward IV. Mass was said in the hall at
six, at seven Mattins were said in chapel, and a. Mass was sung by
children at nine.

142 HISTORY OP THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
and sunrise, and (2) the time of gloaming, when the
sun disappeared and the lamps in the house were
lighted. Here then we see the beginning of Mattins
and Evensong. But besides these two hours of prayer,
Jewish tradition and the story of the Bible indicated
certain other hours. Daniel prayed three times a day,
and in the Acts of the Apostles we find the Christians
observing three hours of prayer. At nine o'clock the
apostles were met together when the Holy Spirit
descended upon them ; at twelve o'clock Peter goes to
pray on the flat roof of the house at Joppa ; at three
o'clock Peter and John enter the temple to offer
prayer. These hours marked the principal divisions
of the day in the first century of the Christian era ; and
at the close of the second century we find these three
hours of the day recognised as times of prayer by
Clement, the great Christian philosopher of Alexandria,
and by Tertullian, the fervid Christian writer of Car
thage. It is probable that the five hours of daily
prayer which have been mentioned were only observed
in private, and were quite voluntary.
The Sunday service stands on a different level. The
Jews had a tradition that the Messiah would come at
midnight as the destroying angel came at the time when
the first Passover was celebrated in Egypt. The early
Christians on Easter even remained in prayer until
cock-crow on Easter morning, expecting the return of
Christ to earth. This primitive observance of Easter
even formed a model for the observance of the eve of
every Sunday. In the first chapter of this book we
noticed how the Christians of the apostolic age met on
Saturday night. In theory the Saturday night service
was a continuous service lasting all night, and the old
Greek name (-Travvv^k, all-night service) proves this.
But as a general rule the Christians devoted to prayer
only a period at the beginning of the night when the
lamps were lit, and a period at cock-crow. To the

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER 143
present day the Eastern Christians attach great import
ance to the service on Saturday night. A recent
traveller who gives us an account of the observance
of Whitsunday among the West Syrians found the
Eucharist celebrated very early in the morning, and
nobody was supposed to have the right to be present
if he had not attended service the evening before. It
was the duty of the monks to spend the whole interval
between the two services in prayer.^
At an early date the service of cock-crow was
observed on other holy days besides Sundays. The
Canons of Hippolytus show us that about a.d. 200 the
Roman Christians were wont to meet together for this
service on certain days. The clergy were obliged to
come ; the laity were encouraged to come. The service
consisted of (i) psalms, (ii) the reading of Scriptures,
(iii) prayers.
In the fourth century there came a great change in
public worship. A desire to escape from the worldly
influences which had begun to effect an entrance into
the Church caused great numbers of earnest men and
women to adopt the monastic life, and monasteries
spread rapidly from Egypt to Italy and Gaul and other
countries. Moreover, the Church was now protected
by the State, and magnificent buildings dedicated to
Christian worship rose on every side. Many of the
religious communities began to meet in their great
churches and recite their prayers every day in public.
The number of services varied in different districts.
In Egypt, even in the fifth century, the monks still
recited nothing but the primitive services of the hours
of cock-crow and lamp-lighting. In Spain the poet
Prudentius wrote hymns for cock-crow, dawn, evening,
and the time for retiring to bed, as well as hymns
before and after meat. These hymns, however, were
^ Parry, Six Months in a Syrian Monastery, p. 119.

144 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
probably meant for private use. In Syria and Mesopo
tamia the monks met at the third, sixth, and ninth
hours of the day, in addition to the hours of cock-crow
and sunset. At Bethlehem they added a morning service
after the services at cock-crow; and thus there were
already six daily services. The text in Psalm cxix.,
in which the writer declares that he praises God
seven times a day, furnished an example of piety which
the monks decided to imitate, and they reached the
number of seven by singing, in addition to the Noc
turnal Office sung at cock-crow, another service at
dawn called Lauds or praises. Many years later, in
the rule of S. Benedict (a.d. 530), there was added a
service to be sung by the monks before retiring to
rest, and this is known as Completorium or Compline,
because it completes the consecrated day.
One of the earliest descriptions of the combined
Nocturnal Office and Lauds ^ is that given in the
Pilgrimage of S. Silvia, who visited Jerusalem late
in the fourth century, and wrote an account of
what she saw there. In the rough popular Latin of
the period she thus describes an early service at the
Church of the Resurrection, which stood near the
Holy Sepulchre : —
' Every day, before cock-crow, all the doors of the
Resurrection are opened and there descend all the
" monks " and " virgins," as they call them here ; and
not only these but also the lay people besides (men or
women) who nevertheless wish to keep watch at an
earlier hour than others. And from that hour until
daylight hymns [i.e. canticles from the Bible] and
psalms are said alternately, and likewise antiphons,
and after each hymn a prayer is made. For sets of two
or three presbyters, and likewise deacons, every day
talte turns together with the monks, who say prayers
' The Nocturnal Ofiice was afterwards given the name of Mattins in
Western Europe.

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER 146
at all the hymns and antiphons. And now when it
has begun to grow light, then all begin to say morning
hymns [matutinos ymnos]. And, behold, the bishop
arrives with the clergy, and immediately proceeds
within the cave, and from within the rails first says
a prayer for all; he also himself commemorates the
names of those whom he wills ; so he blesses the
catechumens. Again he says a prayer, and blesses
the faithful. And after this, as the bishop goes forth
from within the rails, all approach his hand; and he
blesses them one by one as he now goes out, and thus
the dismissal [/«ma] takes place, it being now day
light.' Such were the daily Nocturnal Office and Lauds at
Jerusalem about a.d. 385, and services of a similar
type were held at the sixth and ninth hours, and also
at the tenth hour, when the church was brilliantly
illuminated. But on Sunday morning, some time
before cock-crow, the Nocturnal Office was preceded by
the ancient observance of the Sunday Vigil (vigiliae,
otherwise called excubiae). Three Psalms were said,
each followed by a prayer. Then follow three prayers,
censers are brought in and the church is filled with
perfume ; the bishop then reads a lesson on the Resur
rection from the Gospel. After a psalm and a prayer
at the cross, the bishop blesses the people and retires.
The laity also retire, but a few remain with the monks
and sing the Nocturnal Office.
The distinction between the two services is plain.
The antique Vigil service is regarded as more or less
binding on all Christian people, the Nocturnal Office
and the other services are chiefly services for the monks.
The Nocturnal Office began at cock-crow, and was dis
tinct from the Vigil. This distinction was, however,
by no means universal. At Rome the Nocturnal Office
began at cock-crow, and was the Vigil. We saw that
this was the case at the close of the second century ;

146 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
and it was the case two hundred years later in the
time of S. Jerome, when the churches were so crowded
at the Sunday vigils that the saint advises a lady to
see that her daughter does not move an inch from her
mother's side. The musical attraction of the service
cannot have been very great, for Rome had not followed
the example of Milan in adopting the fashionable
Greek chants for which the choir and the congrega
tion were divided into two parts, which sang alternate
verses ' antiphonally.' No, the Roman Church still kept
the primitive fashion. The Psalms were sung in solo
by the deacons with the simplest inflexions. It seems
that the soloist sang each verse, and that the choir
repeated a short response after each two verses. Hence
the Psalms were called Responsory Psalms.
We must conclude our notice of the services of the
fourth century by saying that there was still a sharp dis
tinction between the frequent services of the monastic
churches and the few services of the ordinary churches.
This distinction existed in the sixth century and until
after the death of S. Augustine. In 529 the Emperor
Justinian directed that the clergy in each church
should sing Vespers, Nocturns, and Lauds. Such was
the custom in the East, and in Gaul and Spain it was
very similar. The Council of Agde in Gaul in 506
ordains that there shall be 'just as everywhere else' an
Office chanted every day in the morning and another
in the evening. The fourth Council of Toledo in
Spain in 633 ordains that there shall be one order of
singing ' in the evening and morning Offices.'
If we now turn to Rome in the time of S. Augustine,
we shall not discover any fundamental changes, but we
shall find some notable additions adopted, or on the
eve of being adopted. The Vigil service at Rome,
instead of being said only on Sundays and festivals,
was said on ' private ' days also. This was established
at the end of the fifth century, and was imitated from

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER 147
the churches of the East. Every day the clergy of
Rome met in church at cock-crow, and continued say
ing their first service until sunrise. The Sunday service
was longer than the week-day service, and included
nine lessons with various antiphons ^ and responsorii.
The latter word probably means responds, pieces of
music sung as a solo and then repeated. On week
days, at the time of year when the nights were shortest,
there were only three lessons, three responds, and
three antiphons. Another service was sung at sun
rise. Vespers apparently did not exist in the parish
churches ; there was only the Nocturnal Office or Vigil,
followed by Lauds. About the time of Augustine
the old Roman chanting had given way to the Greek
fashion, and the principal part of the service was sung
by children. S. Gregory himself regarded the chanting
of the Psalms and reading of the lessons as the duty
of the sub-deacons. Yet he may have thought the
Saxon boys, whom he saw in the Roman market-place,
fit to be 'readers' and singers, the voices of boys
being valued on account of the comparative ease with
which they were heard in the huge basilicas. It is
interesting to notice that the introduction of the Greek
fashion of chanting the Psalms was at first regarded
in the West as an insidious innovation, or 'the thin
end of the wedge.'
^ Antiphons (hence the English ' anthem ') must not be confiised with
antiphonal singing. The latter is simply the method of singing alter
nate verses of a psalm by two different choirs. An antiphon is a
psalm with a refrain interpolated in it, or simply the refrain sung
before and after each psalm. Originally it was sung more often, some
times after each verse. It was intended both to give the leading sense
of the psalm and the musical key in which it was to be sung. ' It
struck, in fact, the keynote of the psalm both devotionally and music
ally.' On festivals the antiphons usually had reference to the festival.
The only antiphon in the Book of Common Prayer after a psalm
is ' O Saviour of the world,' after Psalm Ixxi. in the Visitation of the
Sick.

148 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

§ 2. From S. Augustine to the Reformation.
In less than a hundred years after the coming of
S. Augustine the great church of S. Peter at Rome
was developing a system of daily worship which for
grave magnificence and completeness of effect was to
surpass all earlier and many later forms of worship.
In A.D. 680 Benedict Biscop, Abbot of Wearmouth
and teacher of the Venerable Bede, brought to Eng
land for the instruction of our forefathers ' the
venerable John, chief chanter of the church of the
Apostle S. Peter,' abbot of one of four monasteries
which clustered round that famed basilica and furnished
it with its noble choir of voices. The services were
not quite fixed, for John taught by word of mouth
and not from books, but in the eighth century the
Office of S. Peter's was written with care and welcomed
in country after country. The Roman order and the
Roman chant and the Roman corporation known as
as the Song School, or Schola Cantorum, were then
supreme, and began to become the rule for Western
Christendom. The following table shows the Roman Office of the eighth
century :
A. NIGHT SERVICES, . . ( "jaspers at sunset.
I. Nocturnal Oinoe at cock-crow.
B. SERVICE AT SUNRISE, . Lauds.Terce at 9 a. m.
C. DAY SERVICES, . . . ¦{ Sext at 12.
None at 3 p.m.

In addition to these public services there were two private services :
Compline said in the dormitory before going to bed ; Prime also said in
the dormitory when the monks rose from their second rest to which they
retired after Lauds. Compline was extremely simple. It began, as no
other Office did, with a short lesson. Then came four invariable Psalms,
the Nwnc dimittis, and a prayer. That was all. Prime resembled Terce,
but had a special ending.

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER

149

a. NOCTURNAL OFFICE,

5. LAUDS AND VESPERS,

>;. TERCE, SEXT, AND NONE,

The following table gives an analysis of the services : —
f ' O Lord, open Thou my lips,' etc.
Venite. 'Psalms. Our Father.
Nocturns _ Lessons, a Re-
(one or three). spond being
sung after
. each.
There was ordinarily one Nooturn with twelve Psalms and three
Lessons, but on Sundays there were three Nocturns, containing altogether
eighteen Psalms and nine Lessons. I 'O God, make speed,' etc.
Five Psalms with Antiphons.
Short Lesson.
Gospel Canticle with Antiphon.
Lord, have mercy.
Our Father.
Preces.
' O God, make speed,' etc.
Three Psalms.
Short Lesson.
Lord, have mercy.
Our Father.
Preces.'^
In reviewing these Old Roman services, wo must
notice that they include : —
(i) A recitation of the whole Psalter every week.
(ii) A regular system of Lessons. From December 1
to Epiphany, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel were read ;
from Epiphany to February 13, Ezekiel, the Minor
Prophets, and Job ; in the spring until Holy Week,
the Pentateuch, Joshua, and Judges ; from Easter to
Pentecost, the Catholic Epistles, Acts, and Revelation ;
in the summer. Kings, Samuel, and Chronicles ; in the
autumn. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus,
Esther, Judith, Maccabees, Tobit.
(iii) The Respond, or Responsorium, a chant which
related to the part of Scripture which was in course of
' See note on p. 164.

150 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
reading. The precentor sang- it as a solo, the choir
repeated it. The precentor then sang one, two, or
three verses, and the choir responded to each. The
precentor next sang the Doxology, the choir then re
peated the latter part of the Responsorium ; then the
precentor sang it entire, and the choir repeated it
entire. Many of these ancient Responds were master
pieces of beauty.^
Gradually the divine service passed through a trans
formation. The first great change came with the introduction
of services for saints' days. About 750 the Office of
the Saints was added as an appendage to the daily
Office recited in the churches of Rome. Then the
services were combined. Feast-days were divided
into two classes, ' lesser ' and ' greater.' On ' lesser '
festivals very little change was made in the ordinary
' ferial ' Office except the introduction of proper lessons
for the saint. At Vespers on ' greater ' feasts, Sunday
psalms and new antiphons were introduced. At first
the ordinary Nocturn was still sung before the Noc
turns of the saint's day. Then the ferial Nocturn
usually disappeared ; but until the thirteenth century
the Roman Church still retained a double Office for a
few great saints. The phrase 'double Office' or 'double
greater Office' still- survived for the service of high
festivals. Then, the meaning of the word having been
totally forgotten, the ritualists invented the ridiculous
term ' semi-double ' for certain Offices, and divided the
double Offices into four classes. In the Sarum rite the
word semi-double is not used, but four classes of
doubles are found. The result of these services for
' The Responsorium with its verse must be carefully distinguished
from the brief ' versicle,' followed by a ' response, ' such as we find sung
at or after an Office. The Gradual Psalm sung at the Mass after the
Epistle is called a Responsorium, though its structure differs from tha
of the Responds chanted at the Hours.

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER 151
saints' days was to destroy the orderly recitation of the
Lessons and Psalter. The more numerous the festivals
became, the more the services were confused and
spoilt. The second great change was the introduction of the
Breviary, the abbreviated and portable Service Book
to which our English forefathers gave the appropriate
Anglo-French name of Porthors or Portos (from porter
and dehors). This contained what Pope Gregory IX.
in 1241 calls the 'modern Office.' It was the Old
Roman Office modified and abbreviated by the Churches
north of the Alps, then introduced into Rome, and
accepted by the Pope and his court for their private
use when travelling. The Franciscan friars adopted
this for their own use, and about 1250 the Franciscan
revision was adopted at Rome and made its way
through the West of Europe. The ' Gallican ' version
of the Psalms, the second version made by S. Jerome,
replaced the first version made by S. Jerome,^ and the
Psalms were now arranged fh an order different from
the order in the Bible. The Lord's Prayer, and then
the Hail Mary, were placed at the beginning of each
service; after Compline anthems were introduced in
honour of S. Mary ; lessons from apocryphal romances
were multiplied ; ' memorials ' of the saints, with their
collects, were added to the Bless we the Lord at the
end of some of the Hours. To make up for the ruth
less abbreviation of the antique responds and anthems,
there is now a collection of metrical hymns, such as
were first used by the Benedictines in their daily
Offices. This is the most important characteristic of
the ' modern Office,' and is a proof of the passionate
love of Northern Europe for popular music. It is here
that the Wesleys were at one with the Franciscans, and
the EngUsh Reformers were, on the contrary, at one
with Gregory the Great.
1 In Rome itself the first version was used until the fifteenth century.

152 HISTORY OF tHE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
The late mediseval Breviary, Porthors, or Portiforium,
consisted of four parts : —
1. Kalendamum. The Kalendar, often with the
addition of a guide to find the moveable feasts in a
given year.
2. PsALTEuiuM and Commune Sanctorum. This
contains the non-variable part of the services for
Sundays and week-days, i.e. the Psalms divided into
two unequal parts for the services of Mattins and
Evensong for a week (with their anthems, etc.), and
the fixed Psalms for the other Hours. The Peni
tential Psalms and Litany were printed next. The
Commune Sanctorum is the common form for use on
those feasts of one or more Apostles, Martyrs,
Confessors, and Virgins which had no peculiar service
of their own.
3. Temporals, or Proprium de Tempore. This
contains the variable parts of the choir services, such
as hymns, anthems, capitula, responds, and collects.
Also the Sunday and week-day lessons. In the six
teenth century the rules called the Pie were printed
with the Temporale.
4. Proprium Sanctorum, or Sanctorale. This con
tains the proper forms for each particular saint's day
in the course of the year, anthems, hymns, lessons,
capitula, responds, collects, etc.
The Breviary services may be thus tabulated for conveniently
comparing them with the Old Roman daily services. The actual
hooks place Mattins first and Compline last. (Vespers. Compline.
Mattins, containing one
or three Nocturns.
B. SERVICE AT SUNRISE (nominally) . Lauds.
(Prime. Little -J Sext.
Hours. I None.

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER

153

The following table gives an analysis of the services ;
["Sentences.
Introductory.-! Venite.
(.Hymn. Psalms.

a. MATTINS,!

\

Nocturns
(one or three).

6. LAUDS, VESPERS, AND COM
PLINE 

Conclusion on Festivals.
' Introductory,

Essential.

Our Father
and Creed. 2
I Lessons and
Responds.
Te Dewm.
Sentences.
'Psalms. Little Chapter.
Hymn.Gospel Canticle
.Prayers.

c. PRIME, TERCE,
NONE,

'Introductory. Sentences.
/Hymn. Psalms.
SEXT, AND At Prime The
Essential. I Athanasiam Creed.
Little Chapter.
Prayers.
At the end of the Middle Ages, immediately before
the Reformation, these Breviary services were in a state
of almost inextricable confusion. The chief defects, in
addition to the retention of a dead language and the
repetition of the services at inappropriate hours, were
as follows : —
(a) The Scriptural element in the services was
seriously diminished. In the first place, the lessons
from the Bible at Mattins had been greatly shortened
since the Anglo-Saxon period. In the second place,
1 The word Mattins was originally a name of Lauds. In the later
Middle Ages it was incorrectly applied to the Nocturnal Office and
Lauds combined, or even to the Nocturnal Office only. The habit of
postponing the Nocturnal Office until 6 or 7 a. M. made the change of
name seem appropriate.
^ The use of the Ave and Creed here varies in different books.

154 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
the weekly recitation of the whole Psalter had become
a pretence, as it was interrupted by numerous holy
days with proper psalms.
(b) Legendary chapters were inserted, very unlike
the substantial and wholesome readings from S. Leo,
S. Gregory, and S. Ambrose, which had been read in
the Old Roman services. The absurdity of these
legends was sometimes so great that we find mediaeval
breviaries containing contemptuous notes written in
the margins, such as 'an old wives' fable,' 'a stupid
and ridiculous service.' ' To lie like a second
nocturn' became a proverb, and the veracity of the
other nocturns was by no means beyond suspicion.
(c) The services had become a burden too heavy to
be borne, for they left almost no time for private
study or devotion, or attention to the practical duties
of clerical life. This was not so much the fault of the
Breviary services as the result of the fact that two or
even three services or ' Offices ' were said instead of one.
After each particular service or ' hour,' it was usual to
say or sing the ' Little Office of the Blessed Virgin.'
This was again followed by the ' Office of the Dead ';
and on ordinary days an additional service was added,
consisting of the seven Penitential Psalms and the
fifteen Gradual Psalms. The result was gross irrever
ence or total neglect. Councils vie with one another
in deploring the manner in which the Divine Office
is recited. In some cathedral churches the canons
appear to have entered the choir attended by their
chaplains at the beginning of the Offices, bowed, and
then left the church. In 1330 the men who sat in the
higher stalls in Exeter choir beguiled the time by
pouring hot wax on those who sat below them, and in
the fifteenth century some of the clergy at Lincoln
used to come in and out for such fragments of worship
as they were pleased to attend.
(d) The variations in the services, required for the

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER 155
varying degrees in the importance of particular holy
days, made it very difficult for the clergy to ' find their
places' in the somewhat clumsy books of the period.
Some guidance was afforded by the Ordinate, or
Directory of Priests, which showed the priest what
festivals he ought to observe and the proper Offices
required throughout the year. This book was known
in England by the familiar title of The Pie (in Latin
' Pica '). The name means ' magpie,' and was probably
due to the parti-coloured appearance of the tables in
it, the thick black-letter type on white paper resembling
the hues of that bird. English printers still retain
the word jnca to signify a particular type, and the
word pie to denote a mixture of types.^ The intro
duction in our Prayer Book Concerning the Service of
the Church says: 'The number and hardness of the
rules called the Pie, and the manifold changings of the
service, was the cause, that to turn the book only was
so hard and intricate a matter, that many times there
was more business to find out what should be read,
than to read it when it was found out.' In England,
however, considerable assistance was afforded by the
writings of Clement Maydestone, a priest of the
fifteenth century, who drew up a convenient and
popular Directorium Sacerdotum.
What the old Ordinate had done for one ideal year,
this ' Guide ' of Clement Maydestone applied to all the
working almanacs of his day. Thirty-five varieties
were provided so as to serve for every possible con
tingency. Maydestone, author of the Directorium
Sacerdotum, or ' Guide of Priests,' was born about
1390 at Isleworth. Trained at Winchester College,
he was familiar with the Sarum ritual from his child
hood, and his book was so successful that at the end
' It seems possible, however, that the word Pica is only a mock
translation of Pie, and that the confiised mixture of black and white
with red initials suggested the name Pie.

156 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
of the fifteenth century his Directorium had superseded
all such books. About 1501 the shorter Ordinal, or
Pica Sarum, was cut up and incorporated into the
text of all editions of the Sarum Breviary. It is pro
bable that Maydestone is author not only of the
Directorium Sacerdotum, but also of the Defensori^m
Directorii Sacerdotum. In this ' Defence ' it is stoutly
and rightly maintained that it is a violation of the Sarum
rubrics to follow the debased practice of that day,
which was to read the Bible not continuously btit in
broken fragments. For instance, if it was Advent and
the book of Isaiah was being read, omissions would be
made for the sake of holy days with their proper
lessons, and the reading of Isaiah was not resumed at
the place where the previous reading ended.
The criticism passed by Wyclif upon the Ordinal
of Sarum is interesting, though somewhat violent.
Writing about 1370 he says it ' hinders much preach
ing of the Gospel ; for fools consider it more important
than the commandments of God and to study and
teach Christ's Gospel ' He blesses God that the Mass
Books witness His Gospel, but complains of the blind
ness of the priests who say that a priest may be excused
from saying of Mass, the substance of which God
Himself commanded, and not excused from saying
Mattins and Evensong. The recitation of these and
the other Hours made them ' weary and indisposed to
study God's law for aching of heads.' He specially
alleges as a reason for the decay of worship the introduc
tion of the elaborate music which was corrupting the
ancient plainsong, rendering it more fit for dancing
than mourning, and winning the praises of the lewd for
' Sir Jack or Hob and William the proud clerk.' This
light music had been introduced even into the Bene
dictine monasteries of England when Erasmus com
plained of it in 1512. To the words of Wyclif we
may appropriately add the words of one of the most

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER 167
eminent of Roman Catholic liturgical writers of the
present day : ' How far have we got from the broad
and harmonious simplicity of the Roman Office of the
eighth century ! . . . the lectionary is become scanty
and corrupt ... it is difficult not to see in these
additions, these numerous and burdensome services of
adventitious prayer, a grave wrong done to the canoni
cal Office itself. . . . The feasts of the Sanctorale have
been so multiplied as to make the Office of the Season
practically a thing condemned to desuetude.' ^
§ 3. The Reformation.
The need for a reformation of the daily services was
urgent, and the start was made at Rome. Pope
Clement VII. in 1523 gave his approval to a new
hymnal by Ferreri, Bishop of Guardia Alfiera, who
had been directed by Pope Leo X. to prepare a Breviary
' much shorter and made more convenient and purged
from all mistakes.' Ferreri died before he had more
than written his graceful hymns in the style of Horace,
and Clement VII. entrusted the work of reforming the
Breviary to a grave and learned Spaniard, Francis,
Cardinal Quinones.^ The Cardinal began his work in
1529, and was assisted by several other learned
Spaniards. His revised Roman Breviary appeared in
1535, with the sanction of Pope Paul III. It certainly
was not wanting in boldness. The preface asserts that
in the existing practice the books of Scripture are
almost entirely omitted, that the stories of the saints
have neither authority nor seriousness, and that whereas
it had been intended that the Psalms should be recited
once a week, only a few are said over and over again.
In the reformed Breviary itself the versicles and
^ Batiffol, History of the Roman Breviary, p. 225.
^ The name is also written in two French forms, Quignon and
Quignonez.

168 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
responses are omitted, the lessons are replaced by
longer Scriptural lessons, and three psalms are appointed
for each canonical hour, so that the entire Psalter is
recited every week. Only a few hymns are retained.
The lessons are three in number every day, the first
being from the Old Testament, the second from the
New Testament, and the third from the New Testa
ment, or from the history of a saint, if the day is a
saint's day. In the first edition all antiphons were
suppressed, but in the second edition some were rein
troduced. In spite of the boldness of the new
book, and in spite of the fact that Quinones was so
uncritical as to allow the insertion of some thoroughly
apocryphal tales of the saints, the book met a want
and won a great success. It was so easy and attractive
that it was immediately adopted and circulated by the
Jesuits, and in Spain was used in the choirs of several
cathedrals.^ Its popularity was further attested in
1542 by the issue of a Diurnale which contained the
Day Hours of Quinones without the Mattins, and so
provided a system of devotion for the learned laity.
But even the Jesuits did not ensure the permanence
of the revised Breviary. With the revival of religion
at Rome and a growing distrust of novelty, there came
a strqng reaction in favour of the mediaeval Roman
Breviary, and in 1558 Pope Paul IV. decreed that
there was no longer any reason for the Breviary
of Quinones to be reprinted. In spite of this
decree, we know that four editions appeared in
1566. However, the mediaeval Breviary was corrected
slowly and carefully, and appeared in its new dress
in 1568, and though it has undergone several sub-
^ The need of reform is shown by the fact that there were numerous
reformed Breviaries besides that of Quifiones, such as the Breviaries of
Soissons, Orleans, Saragossa, and Taragona. The Breviary of the
Humihati of Milan contained the rule that the Psalms were to be
recited once a month (as in the Book of Common Prayer), and this
was approved by Pope Paul III. and printed in 1548.

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER 159
sequent revisions it remains the Breviary of modern
Roman Catholicism. The services are now reduced to
reasonable limits by the permission to omit the Office
of the Virgin and the Office of the Dead, the lessons
are improved, and the rubrics are clear and good. But
it is far from perfect ; the hymns have been retouched
in the taste of an epoch which valued gilded stucco,
there are still fifty forged sermons and homilies, and
the weekly recitation of the Psalter is still interrupted
by the frequent use of special psalms.^
Expelled from Spain, the favourite Breviary of S.
Francis Xavier and the Jesuits has left a great and
lasting influence in England. In 1542 Convocation
directed that the Sarum Office should be generally
adopted through the province of Canterbury, and it
was ordered that the old books should be called in
and corrected. It is certain that in the next year
Cranmer desired a reform on the lines of Quinones,
and it is more than probable that the revised Breviary
was known in England. In a catalogue of the library
of Henry VIII. made in 1542, the only Breviaries men
tioned are Roman Breviaries. It is hardly conceivable
that immediately after the breach with Rome a Roman
Breviary would have been introduced into the royal
chapel, unless it had been of a reformed character. It
is therefore reasonable to conclude that the Breviary
of Quinones was actually used in England. In any
case, Cranmer's first scheme for a new Breviary for the
Church of England is clearly derived from Quinones,
with certain enrichments from the use of Sarum.
It would probably have been wiser if Cranmer had
remained content with publishing an English transla
tion of this proposed Latin Breviary. But he quickly
1 Great confusion still exists as to the hours for the public recital of
divine service. It is easy to find Continental churches where Compline
and Mattins are sung before sunset, and the writer once heard Vespers
sung at eleven in the morning.

160 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
made out a second Latin scheme, in which the eight
daily services were reduced to two, viz. Mattins and
Evensong. Cranmer's own statement shows that this
important change was directly caused by the slack
manner in which the mediaeval Offices were recited.
He says, ' It seems a mockery to retain the same divi
sions of the Hours observed by the ancient fathers when
the custom of praying seven times a day has long since
ceased, and we now assemble only twice a day for
prayers.' The late mediaeval practice of reciting one
service immediately after another, and the far worse
mediaeval practice of neglecting to say many or all of
the services, probably seemed sufficient reason for in
sisting upon a certain minimum of public worship,
which no priest could reasonably call a burden.^ Cran
mer's new Vespers were drawn entirely from the old
Vespers, the daily Mattins contained part of the old
service with the Benedictus taken from Lauds, and on
Sundays the Athanasian Creed taken from Prime.
Twenty-six of the old Breviary hymns were retained.
Three lessons were to be read; and on Sundays and
festivals a fourth lesson, taken from the Fathers or from
the life of a saint. The great peculiarity of the service
is the omission of the Venite. The Psalter was to be said
through once a month, and thus one of the most distinc
tive features of the modern Prayer Book was formed.
These varying projects were, however, to a great
extent abandoned by Cranmer in favour of another
scheme. The followers of Luther had drawn up forms
of Mattins and Vespers based on mediaeval German
forms, and Cranmer decided upon a service practically
identical with that drawn up in 1542 for use in
Schleswig-Holstein. A comparison of the German and
^ Cranmer at this time certainly wished that the clergy should con
tinue to recite the other Hours in private. It should be observed that
the monks of the Charterhouse only said Mattins and Evensong in
public, and recited the other Hours privately.

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER

161

English Mattins seems to place the fact outside the
range of any doubt.

German Mattins.
Creed.Lord's Prayer.
O Lord, open Thou my lips.
And my mouth, etc.
O God, make speed, etc.
O Lord, make haste, etc.
Gloria Patri.
Hallelujah. Psalm xcv.
Gloria Patri.
Hymn.Versicle and Response.
One to three Psalms.
Gloria Patri at end of each.
First Lesson
(ordinarily from the Old
Testament).
Te Deum.
Second Lesson
(ordinarily from the New
Testament).
Benedictus. Kyrie.Lord's Prayer.
Versicle and Response.
Salutation and Response.
Collects.Salutation and Response.
Benediction.

1st Edward VL
Lord's Prayer.
O Lord, open Thou my lips.
And my mouth, etc.
O God, make speed, etc.
O Lord, make haste, etc.
Gloria Patri.
Praise ye the Lord.
Hallelujah. Psalm xcv.
Gloria Patri.

Certain Psalms.
Gloria Patri at end of each.
First Lesson
(from the Old Testament).
Te Deum or Benedicite.
Second Lesson
(from the New Testament).
Benedictus.
Kyrie.Creed. Lord's Prayer.
Versicles and Responses.
Let us pray.
Collects.

The same may be said of Evensong, except that the
resemblance between the German and the English form
is even more striking, for the German Vesper service
contains the Nunc dimittis, like the English. The
Nunc dimittis did not find a place even in the second
of Cranmer's projects for a reformed Evensong, and it

162 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
is therefore reasonable to suppose that he took the
idea from the German service of 1542. As the Breviary
of Quifiones appeared in 1535, it is possible that the
German services were based upon it.
It was only necessary to combine these German ser
vices with a systematic division of the Psalms, and a
plan of daily lessons similar to that provided by
Quinones.! TJje combination appeared in the Mattins
and Evensong of the English Prayer Book which came
into use on Whitsunday 1549. The Mattins and
Evensong of 1549 began with the Lord's Prayer, 'the
priest being in the quire.' The Benedicite was to be
used in the place of the Te Deum all through Lent.^
The Benedictus was to be used every day. Both
Mattins and Evensong ended with the third Collect.
In 1552 it was definitely declared to be of obligation
on all priests and deacons to say daily the Morning
and Evening Prayer. It was also directed that the
Athanasian Creed ^ should be used on thirteen occasions
yearly, instead of on six only. In 1661 there was
prefixed to the Evening Service the present penitential
opening of Sentences, Exhortation, Confession, and
Absolution. This had been prefixed to Morning Prayer
in 1552, with a direction that it was also to be said
at Evening Prayer. Although it can claim a long
precedent in the Confession and Absolution contained
in the mediaeval Offices of Prime and Compline, it may,
^ The principle of Quifiones had been to have three lessons daily ;
one from the Old Testament, one firom the Gospels, one from the
Epistles or Acts. This has a parallel in the reformed English lection
ary, the first lesson both at Mattins and Evensong being from the Old
Testament, the second at Mattins was originally as a rule from the
Gospels, and the second at Evensong as a rule from the Epistles or
Acts. ' Although the Te Deum had not been used daily in the Divine
Office itself, its daily use was familiar to the people, as it was said daily
in the Mattins of our Lady contained in the Primer.
' Until l66l the Athanasian Creed appears to have been said before
the Apostles' Creed, and not instead of it.

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER 163
perhaps, be legitimately doubted whether the use of
such a form in a public service is not a mistake, as it
leads the ignorant to imagine that a general confession
of sinfulness is as valid as a careful confession of definite
sins. Apart from this, the only defect in our present
Evening Prayer seems to be the fact that the Nunc
dimittis is less appropriate here and in the Sarum Com
pline, in both of which it occurs long before the end
of the service, than in the Old Roman Compline,
where it was simply followed by one prayer before
the singers departed ' in peace ' to their rest.
The prayers added after the third Collect at Morn
ing and Evening Prayer were added in 1661.
(i) The prayer for the Sovereign occurs in the
Primer of 1553, and in two little books of prayers
printed by Berthelet, the King's printer at the end of
the reign of Henry VIII. In its present shape it was
introduced into the Litany adopted in Queen Eliza
beth's chapel in 1559.
(ii) The prayer for the Royal Family was added to
the Litany in 1604, and was probably composed by
Archbishop Whitgift. King James's family was the
first that would be likely to suggest to the clergy
the use of such a prayer.
(iii) The prayer for the Clergy and People, from the
Gelasian Sacramentary, occurs in the English Litany
of 1544.
(iv) The prayer of S. Chrysostom also occurs in the
English Litany of 1544, and was probably taken by
Cranmer from the Latin translation of the prayer
in the Greek and Latin edition of the Liturgy of
S. Chrysostom printed at Venice in 1528.
(v) The Benediction from 2 Corinthians xiii. 14
was introduced into the Prayer Book in 1559, among
the prayers at the end of the Litany.
If we compare our Evensong with the Old Roman
Evensong, we see that it contains almost the whole

164 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
of that venerable service with the exception of the
respond and the antiphons or anthems. The latter
were much reduced in the Middle Ages, and in the
' modern ' Roman service their original importance and
meaning were quite obscured. They had become
useless for the purpose of giving the musical tone at
the beginning of the psalm as the organ could do this
quite as well, and as they were no longer sung in the
course of the psalms they did not serve to relieve
monotony. The modern English anthem takes the
place of the Old Roman respond.
Our present Evensong agrees with the Old Roman
Evensong and differs from the modern Roman in these
particulars : — (1) It contains no liturgical hymns ; (2)
each lesson is a genuine lesson, and not a 'little
chapter,' ^ so diminutive as to be scarcely visible ; (3)
it allows hardly any interruptions to the systematic
reading of the Psalms. On the other hand, it has
borrowed from Compline — (1 ) the Nunc dimittis ; (2)
the Creed ; (3) the Sarum Collect derived from the
ancient Gelasian Sacramentary, beginning 'Lighten
our darkness.'
^ It is, however, doubtful whether the ' short lesson ' (corresponding
with what was afterwards called the capitulum or ' little chapter ') was
ever long, and whether any of the Offices had long lessons except
Mattins. The capitulum of Prime was originally quite a different
thing. It was named after the ' chapter ' of monks who assembled at
the beginning of each day for private devotions, and not named after
a ' chapter ' of the Bible. It was a series of devotions added to the
Office. It began with the Creed and included two lessons, one being
from the monastic rule of S. Benedict. In later times another
capitulum, viz. a short lesson, was inserted in the Office itself.
The preces feriales, or non- festal week-day petitions, called by
S. Benedict supplicatio litaniae, are a short litany. In the eighth
century they followed not only Lauds and Vespers, but also Terce,
Sext, and None. The Sarum Breviary always retained them after these
services. They survive in our petitions, ' O Lord, shew Thy mercy
upon us,' etc.
The Pater noster was originally the climax of Vespers ; in the eighth
century it was already replaced on Sundays and festivals by the Collect
of the day.

MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER 166
Our Morning Prayer differs widely from the Old
Roman Mattins, i.e. Nocturnal Office, being a mixture
of the late forms of Mattins, Lauds, and Prime. As
Vespers was apparently formed on the model of Lauds,
so the Anglican Morning Prayer has been assimilated in
form to the Anglican Evening Prayer. It cannot be
compared with the Old Roman Mattins for the reason
that the two Offices are on a wholly different level. It
is enough to say that it is better suited to the needs of
an average congregation.
The nature of the ancient services and of the revision
by Quinones will be shown in the tables at the end of
this chapter.

166 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

THE ORDER OF MORNING PRAYER.

Sarum Portiforium.

Revision of the Roman
Breviary J by Quifiones.

Old Roman Office.

MATTINS.

MATTINS.

NOCTURNAL OFFICE.

Pater noster. Ave.

Pater noster.
Confiteor. Absolutio.

Domine labia.

Domine labia.

Domine labia.

Deus in adjutorium.

Deus in adjutorium.

Gloria Patri. '

Gloria Patri.

Gloria Patri.

Alleluia, or Laus tibi.

Alleluia,_ or Laus tibi_.

Ps. Venite, ivitk Invitatory.

Ps. Venite, with Invitatory.

Ps. Venite, with Invitatory.

Hymn.

Hymn.

12, or(S) i8 Psalms, luith
3 Psalms, with
12, w(S) i8 Psalms, with
Antiphons, and Gloria
Gloria after each Psalm.
Antiphons, and Gloria
after certain Psalms.
after certain Psalms. ,
Pater noster. Ave.
Pater noster.
Pater noster.
3, or 9 Lessons, with
3 Lessons.
3, or 9 Lessons, with "¦
Responds,
Responds.
(S) Te Deum.
Te Deum, or Ps. Miserere.
LAUDS.
LAUDS.
LAUDS.
Pater noster. Ave.
Deus in adjutorium.
Deus in adjutorium.
Deus in adjutorium.
Gloria Patri.
Gloria Patri.
Gloria Patri.
Alleluia, or Laus tibi.
Alleluia, or Laus tibi.
5 Psalms, among them. (S)
3 Psalms.
5 Psalms, among them (S)
Jubilate, and Benedicite.
Jubilate, and Benedicite.
Lesson.
Capitulum.
Hymn.
Benedictus.
Benedictus. _
Benedictus.
CoUect of the Day, or
Collect of the Day.
Kyrie eleison. Paternoster.
Preces feriales.
Memorials.
Supplicatio litaniae.
Benedicamus. Deo gratias.
Benedicamus. Deo gratias.
Fidelium animae.
PRIME.
PRIME.
PRIME.
Pater noster. Ave.
Pater noster.
Deus in adjutorium.
Deus in adjutorium.
Deus in adjutorium.
Gloria Patri.
Gloria Patri.
Gloria Patri.
Alleluia, or Laus tibi.
Alleluia, or Laus tibi.
Hymn.
Hymn.
3, or(S)9 Psalms. ^^
3 Psalms.
3, or (S) 9 Psalms.
Symbolum Atbanasii.
Apost. or (S) Athan. Creed.
Capitulum.
Preces : — Kyrie eleison.
Kyrie elefson.
Pater noster.
Pater noster.
Credo.
Capitulum .—Credo.
Confessio. Miserere.
Versicles and Responses
with Confiteor ana
Lesson. Collect. >
Absolutio.
Collect for Grace.
Collect for Grace.
Verses and Responses.
Lesson. Blessmg.
Benedicamus. Deo gratias.
Benedicamus. Deo gratias.
Fidelium animae.
iV.iS.— (S) denotes the Sunday services.
MORNING AND EVENING PRAYER

167

THE ORDER OF EVENING PRAYER.

Sarum Portiforium.

Revision of the Roman
Breviary^ by Quifiones.

Old Roman Office.

VESPERS.
Pater noster. Ave.
Beus in adjutorium.
Gloria Patri.
Alleluia, or Laus tibi.
5 Psalms, with Antiphons.
Capitulum. Hymn.Magnificat, with Antiphon.
Collect of the Day.
Menorials. COMPLINE.
Pater noster. Ave.
Converte nos.
Deus in adjutorium.
Glorn Patri.
Allehia, or Laus tibi.
4 fixed Psalms.
Capitulum. Hymn.Nunc dimittis.
Preces : — Kyrie eleison.
Pater noster. Ave.
Credo.
Versicles and Responses
with Confiteor atid
Absolutio.
Collect for Aid.
Benedicamus. Deo gratias.

Pater noster.
Deus in adjutorium.
Gloria Patri.
Alleluia, or Laus tibi.
Hymn.3 Psalms.

Magnificat.Collect of the Day.
Memorials. COMPLINE.
Pater noster.
Converte nos.
Deus in adjutorium.
Gloria Patri.
Alleluia, or Laus tibi.
Hymn.3 Psalms.

Nunc dimittis.

Collect for Aid and Peace.
Benedicamus. Deo gratias.
Fidelium animae.
Salve regina. Collect.
Noctem quietam.

Deus in adjutorium.
Gloria Patri.

5 Psalms, with Antiphons.
Lesson.

Ma^ificat, with Antiphon.
Kyrie eleison.
Pater or Collect of the Day.
Supplicatio litaniae.

Lesson. 4 fixed Psalms.
Nunc dimittis.
Collect.

CHAPTER VII
THE LITANY
By Thy birth, and by Thy Cross,
Rescue him from endless loss ;
By Thy death and burial.
Save him from a final fall ;
By Thy rising from the tomb.
By Thy mounting up above.
By the Spirit's gracious love.
Save him in the day of doom.
Newman, Dream of Gerontius.
The Litany is the most admirable part of the Prayer
Book. It gathers together the finest utterances of
mediaeval devotion, and the English in which they
are expressed lingers in the ear and heart. The use
of litanies dates from the period when the Christian
faith was winning its last victories over paganism in the
countries of Latin speech, when the Church could
openly offer to the people that satisfaction of their
aspirations which they had vainly sought from pagaii
gods. Some historical facts of special interest show
us how the Christians began the use of litanies. First,
they endeavoured to supplant a pagan procession with
a Christian procession. The heathen Romans had
dedicated April 25th to the observance of the Robi-
galia, when the god Robigus was besought to preserve
the young corn from blight. The poet Ovid describes
the procession which took place upon that day. It

THE LITANY 169
left the city by the Flaminian Gate, passed over the
Milvian Bridge, and there worshipped at a sanctuary
in the suburbs. The Christians in the time of S.
Gregory and S. Augustine went in procession by a
similar route to implore the blessing of God upon the
fruits of the earth. They started from the Church of
S. Laurence in Lueina, near the Flaminian Gate, went
to the Church of S. Valentine, then to the Milvian
Bridge, and finally turned towards the Vatican, and
entered the basilica of S. Peter.
Secondly, there were other special litanies in addi
tion to these annual litanies. At Auxerre a litany
was recited every month. Extraordinary litanies were
sung in times of great public distress and fear. Such
a litany is described by S. Gregory of Tours as having
been observed in a.d. 477, when Mamertus, Archbishop
of Vienne in Gaul, ordered litanies for the three days
before Ascension Day, in consequence of a destructive
earthquake. These services spread through the whole
of Prankish Gaul, and were known as the Rogations or
' supplications.' The Rogation Days were days of fast
ing as well as prayer. They were probably observed in
England from the days of Augustine, as the Council of
Clovesho in a.d. 747 enjoins them to be kept ' according
to the custom of our ancestors.' They were introduced
into Rome about a.d. 800. It is possible that the
Christians of Gaul were influenced by the recollection
of the pagan procession known as the lustratio agrorum,
which took place at the Ambarvalia on May 29.
How these days were kept in the decadence of the
Middle Ages we read in Strype's account of the year
1554: 'Rogation Week being come, May 3 being Holy
Thursday, at the Court of St. James's, the Queen went
in procession within St. James's, with heralds and
sergeants of arms, and four bishops mitred. And
Bishop Bowen, beside his mitre, wore a pair of slippers
of silver and gilt, and a pair of rich gloves, with

170 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
ouches of silver upon them very rich. And all the
three days there went her chapel about the fields. The
first day to S. Giles', and there sung Mass. The next
day, being Tuesday, to St. Martin's in the Fields : and
there a sermon was preached and Mass sung. And the
company drank there. The third day to Westminster,
where a sermon was made, and then Mass and good
cheer made. And after, about the Park, and so to
St. James's Court. The same Rogation Week went
out of the Tower, on procession, priests and clerks, and
the Lieutenant with all his waiters ; and the axe of the
Tower borne in procession : the waits attended.' ^
Also, in addition to the annual and extraordinary
litanies, there was in England a choral procession every
Simday before High Mass. Our forefathers did not
regard this procession as a cheerful method of entering
or walking round the church, as seems to be the habit
in some modern places of worship. It was a definite
act of worship made while walking to a definite point.
Before Mass it led to the high altar, at other times to
the font, the rood, or some side altar. At Salisbury
there were processions after Evensong on special days :
(a) To the altars of S. Stephen, S. John, the Holy
Innocents, and S. Thomas on Christmas Day and the
three following days ; and when there was an altar
named after any saint, there was generally a procession
thither after the first Evensong of the festival of that
saint. (b) To the font from Easter Day to Friday in
Easter Week — this being from the earliest times the
favourite season for Baptisms and the procession being
of most ancient origin.
(c) To the rood on Low Sunday at first Evensong,
and thenceforward till the Ascension on every Saturday
and on Holy Cross IDay, and every Saturday from the
first Sunday after Trinity until Advent.
^ Strype, Historical Memorials, vol. iii. p. 120.

THE LITANY 171
Now, it is remarkable that our English Litany re
capitulates aU the historical circumstances of the more
important ancient litanies and processions. It was issued
in a time of distress and fear, it was based upon the
litany and procession of Rogation- tide, and it came to
be employed every Sunday £is weU as annually and
occasionally. In the year 1544 England was at war
with both France and Scotland. King Henry VIII.
wrote to Archbishop Cranmer to require the proces
sions to be observed ' upon the accustomed days.' In
these processions a litany was used, and the Mjiss
foUowed. The ' accustomed days ' are shown in the
mandate issued by Cranmer to the bishops to be
Wednesdays and Fridays. The Mass used would natur
ally be the Mass ' for time of war.' The same year,
1544, Cranmer issued a litany in EngUsh almost
identical with our present litany. It was printed in
Henry VIII.'s Primer of 1545 with the title The Litany
and Suffrages, and it is also called ' this common prayer
of procession.' The idea of an English litany had long
been familiar to the people, as such a litany had been
contained in the Prymers used by the laity throughout
the fifteenth century. It was therefore hoped by
Henry VTII. that as the Litany would now be recited
publicly in EngUsh, the processions would be better
attended than they had been when Latin was
employed. The new Litany was first sung in S. Paul's
Cathedral on S. Luke's day 1545, which day fell on a
Sunday.. It is certain that Cranmer intended to provide other
English processional hymns for festivals, for in October
1545 he wrote to Henry saying that he had ' trans
lated into the English tongue certain processions ' for
this purpose. Among these processional hymns was the
Salve Festa Dies, or ' Hail Festal Day,' sung at Easter
and other high festivals. Cranmer was unable to write
poetry with the facility that he displayed in writing

172 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
prose, and showed this inability in his translation of the
Veni Creator. His lack of skill caused him to abandon
his project. It therefore appears that before the end
of the reign of Henry VIIL, while the Mass was still
sung in Latin, it was generally preceded by the English
Litany, the old Latin processional hymns were dis
carded, and the Litany was called 'the procession,'
It was sung in procession.
Soon after Henry's death in 1547 an injunction of
Edward VI. directed that processions were to be dis
continued, and that 'immediately before High Mass'
the Litany was to be said or sung by the clergy kneeling
in the midst of the church. ' None other procession or
litany ' was to be used henceforth. The reasons given
for the discontinuance of the imposing ancient proces
sions, with their measured tread and lights and incense,
was ' to avoid all contention and strife, which heretofore
hath arisen among the King's majesty's subjects in
sundry places of his realms and dominions, by reason
of fond courtesy, and challenging of places in procession,
and also that they may more quietly hear that which is
said or sung to their edifying.' What historic value
we can attach to the first of the two alleged reasons
must be a matter of some uncertainty. The Calvinism
of Somerset probably suggests the real answer.
When the first English Prayer Book appeared in
1549, the Litany was printed after the Mass. No
direction was given for its use on Sundays, which was
probably well established. But the idea of providing
an alternative on greater feasts still lingered, for at the
very end of the Prayer Book it is said : ' Also upon
Christmas Day, Easter Day, the Ascension Day, Whit-
Sunday, and the Feast of the Trinity, may be used any
part of Holy Scripture hereafter to be certainly limited
and appointed, in the stead of the Litany.' The rubric
above the Litany is headed, 'The Litany and Suffrages'
(the suffrages being still disconnected from the first

THE LITANY 173
part of the procession). The rubric itself says that ' the
English Litany' shall be ' said or sung' on Wednesdays
and Fridays. The officiating priest apparently wore a
surplice. The Litany was still an introduction to the
Mass, for a rubric at the end of the Mass assumes that
the priest will celebrate immediately after the Litany
on Wednesdays and Fridays. If there were no com
municants, the priest vested himself in a cope and said
'at the altar' everything appointed to be said at the
celebration ' until after the Offertory.' After which he
added one or two collects, and let the people depart
with the accustomed blessing. The same tradition was
preserved in the time of Queen Elizabeth, who directed
in 1559 that the Litany should be said ' immediately
before the time of communion of the Sacrament.' In
these injunctions of Elizabeth the Edwardian phrase
concerning ' fond courtesy ' is repeated, but directions
are given for the 'perambulation of the circuits of
parishes . . . used heretofore in the days of rogations.'
These interesting directions mark a return to ancient
practice. They were not found in the injunctions of
Edward VI.
It is therefore abundantly clear that the English
Litany was intended to be the authorised prelude
to the principal Sunday Eucharist, and also of the
Eucharist of Wednesdays and Fridays. The latter
days being penitential days, it was considered appro
priate that the Litany, which had a somewhat peniten
tial character, should be prefixed to the Eucharist.
The Litany is in no sense an appendage to Morning
Prayer, and for many generations after the Reforma
tion it was often recited at a much later hour than
Morning Prayer. Thus in Canterbury Cathedral at
the close of the seventeenth century Morning Prayer
was read on Sundays at six or seven, and the Litany
was sung at ten, followed by the Communion Service.
At Christ Church, Oxford, the students attended

174 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Mattins at six on Wednesdays and Fridays, and Litany
at nine. The practice of regarding the Litany as an
appendage to Mattins was simply the result of neglect
ing to celebrate the Eucharist every Sunday. The
result of this widespread neglect of the service which
Christ Himself instituted was that in most parochial
churches the ordinary service for Sunday morning con
sisted of Mattins, Litany, and the beginning of the
Communion Service, said consecutively without any
break. When the Oxford movement caused a more
general revival of weekly celebrations, the great length
of the combined services of Mattins, Litany, and the
Eucharist, made it necessary to make some abbrevia
tion. In many cases the parochial clergy, instead of
placing Mattins at an earlier hour in accordance with
ancient usage, retained the late Mattins and omitted
the Litany. The final perversion of the meaning of
the Litany took place when it was shifted to the
afternoon. A somewhat similar practice has grown up
in those Roman Catholic churches where no litany is
familiar to the people except the Litany of Loretto,
ordinarily sung by the people in the afternoon or
evening. No student who is acquainted with the spirit of the
Prayer Book can doubt that the Litany ought to be
said or sung every Sunday before the principal service.
The congregation, by joining in the responses, would
in many places give to this form of devotion a solem
nity and vivacity which marked the golden age of
liturgical worship.
We may now consider the separate elements from
which the English Litany is derived.
(i) The Sarum Litany for Rogation Monday. The
most important part of the English Litany is derived
from the litany sung on Rogation Monday according
to the rite of Sarum. Before invoking the mercy of
the Holy Trinity, the Sarum Litany contained the

THE LITANY 176
Greek prayer to our Saviour, Kyrie eleyson, Christe
eleyson. After the petitions to the Holy Trinity there
came a long list of saints, each name being followed by
the request for their intercessions, pray for us. The
English Litany in the Primer of 1545 retained only
three of these requests — ' Holy Virgin Mary, Mother
of God our Saviour Jesu Christ, pray for us ' ; ' All
holy angels and archangels, and all holy orders of
blessed spirits, pray for us ' ; ' All holy patriarchs and
prophets, apostles, martyrs, confessors, and virgins, and
all the blessed company of heaven, pray for us.' It
should be noticed that such requests for prayer were
common in the Latin services which were used side
by side with the English Litany ; they were expressly
sanctioned by the King's Book of 1543, and also by
the Bishops' Book of 1537. But much popular super
stition had gathered round the veneration of the saints,
and in 1549 Cranmer adopted the measure of omitting
from the Litany all requests addressed to the saints.
In the petitions which follow, Cranmer massed to
gether various short clauses into one. The result is
that the English Litany has lost the short processional
steps which marked the Latin Litany, and has assumed
a certain fulness and eloquence which are fitted to aid
the worship of a motionless congregation. For instance,
the Sarum Litany has :
From all evil. Deliver us, O Lord.
From the crafts of the devil. Deliver us, O Lord.
From everlasting damnation. Deliver us, O Lord.
From the imminent perils of our sins. Deliver us, O Lord.
From the assaults of demons. Deliver us, O Lord.
In our modern Litany this is replaced by :
From all evil and mischief; from sin, from the crafts and
assaults of the devil ; from Thy wrath, and from everlasting
damnation. Good Lord, deliver us.

176 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
In the same way the Sarum Litany bases a separate
petition on the fact of the holy Incarnation, of the
Nativity, of the Circumcision, of the Baptism, and of
the Fasting of our Lord, all of which are now com
prehended in one clause.
(ii) The Sarum Litany Jor the Dying. It is im
portant to notice that Cranmer did not merely make
use of the processional Litany, and that his work is
partly based upon a Sarum Litany which was not
intended for processional use. This is the exquisite
Litany which was said by the priest as a ' Commenda
tion of a soul in the moment of death.' Immediately
before the beginning of this Litany, which was repeated
over our forefathers in their last agony, there was thrice
said: Spare, O Lord, spare Thy servant whom Thou hast vouchsafed
to redeem with Thy precious Blood : be not angry with him for
ever.
It should be observed that this does hot contain the
words ' give not Thine inheritance unto perdition,'
which are found in the ordinary Sarum Litany, and are
not found in the modern English form. The following
is an exact translation of the Latin words printed before
the ordinary Letania :
Antiphon. Remember not, O Lord, our offences nor the
offences of our forefathers, neither take Thou vengeance of our
sins.i [No more is said when it is said in choir.'^ Spare, O Lord,
spare Thy people, whom Thou hast redeemed with Thy precious
Blood, be not angry with us for ever : and give not Thine inherit
ance unto perdition : forget us not for ever. ^
From the ' Commendation ' appear to be derived the
words 'from Thy wrath,' and perhaps the conjunction
of ' crafts and assaults of the devil ' in our petition.
(iii) A German Litany. In 1529 Luther revised a
mediseval Litany used in Germany, and published it
> Tobit iii. 3. 2 Joel ii. 17.

THE LITANY 177
both in German and Latin for use at Wittenberg.
It was accepted by Archbishop Hermann of Coin
for his own diocese, and was certainly used as a basis
for the Litany in Marshall's Primer of 1635. The
Primer of Bishop Hilsey of Rochester in 1539 returns
to the Sarum Litany, though it reduces the number
of saints whose prayers are asked. From Luther's
Litany, if we can rightly give the name of Luther
to such a mediaeval work, are derived the petition
for magistrates, the words ' in all time of our tribula
tion : in all time of our wealth,' the words ' to bring
into the way of truth all such as have erred and are
deceived,' and practically the whole of the Litany from
' strengthen such as do stand ' to the end of the petition
for ' enemies, persecutors, and slanderers.'
Luther's influence is also shown in the prayer which
follows the Lord's Prayer. Luther has : ^
Vers. O Lord, deal not with us according to our sins.
Bes. Neither reward us according to our iniquities.
O God, merciful Father, that despisest not the sighing of the
contrite, and spurnest not the desire of the sorrowful, assist our
prayers which we make before Thee in the troubles which con
tinually oppress us, and graciously hear us, etc.
This collect occurs in the Sarum Missal in the ' Mass
for those in trouble of heart,' and Luther must have
known the same collect or a variation of it. But
Cranmer's translation adheres more closely to Luther's
version than to the Sarum version, for he inserts the
words ' merciful Father,' alters the words ' to Thy
goodness' into 'before Thee,' and says 'graciously
hear' instead of 'graciously regard.' And Cranmer
sometimes turned from Marshall and Hilsey to Luther,
as can be seen from the petition that Christ will ' beat
down Satan under our feet,' a petition which is less
^ The versicle and response occur in the Sarum Litany, but are not
followed by the prayer. M

178 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
accurately translated in Marshall's rendering of Luther,
and does not occur in Hilsey.
After the long prayer, which was modified through
Luther's influence, our Litany returns to the Sarum
Litany for Rogation Monday.
0 Lord, arise, help us, and deliver us for Thy Name's sake.
This is the ancient antiphon, Exsurge Domine (Psalm
xliv. 26), and it is still appropriately continued with
the words, ' 0 God, we have heard with our ears,'
etc. (Psalm xliv. 1). After this the Gloria used to
be sung, and the Exsurge was repeated. It is an
ordinary antiphon shortened. By a grotesque modem
mistake the Exsurge is now printed and sung as if it
were a kind of Amen said by the choir to the previous
collect. The coUect ought to end with Amen like any
other collect, and Amen was printed here in the
versions used in Elizabeth's chapel in 1558 and 1559.
Until the revised book was printed in 1662, the clergy
ended the collects with the traditional formulae, but
in 1662 Amen, though omitted in the Litany collect,
was wrongly printed in the Sunday collects after the
words ' Jesus Christ our Lord.' The words Who liveth
with Thee in the unity of the Holy Ghost were left out
by mistake.
(iv) The Sarum Litany in time of war. The beauti
ful petitions which begin From our enemies defend us,
O Christ, and end graciously hear tis, 0 Lord Christ
are translated with small changes ^ from certain verses
added to the Sarum Litany for Rogation Monday in
time of war. Their retention in 1544 was peculiarly
appropriate, as England was then at war with France
and Scotland. But there is no necessity for con
fining their use to times of war. Their oldest use in
1 The words Son of David are remarkable. The original was Pili
Dei vim ; it seems possible that the words Dei vivi may have been so
written as to be mistaken for David,

THE LITANY 179
England was connected with peace and joy, and dates
back almost to the dawn of English Christianity.
They are to be found at the conclusion of the litany
appointed to be sung at the consecration of a church
in the Pontifical attributed to Egbert,^ who became
Archbishop of York in a.d. 732.
Then come the following versicle and response :
Priest. O Lord, let Thy mercy be showed upon us ;
Answer. As we do put our trust in Thee.
In the Sarum service these words were ordinarily said
on week-days at the conclusion of Lauds. The collect
which follows is enlarged from the Sarum collect for
the time of war. The Litany ought to end with
the prayer of S. Chrysostom as in 1549. But in 1559
there was added The Grace of our Lord, etc., which
now closes the Litany. This has given the Litany a
false appearance of completeness by obliterating the
fact that its real completion is the Eucharist, which
ought to follow it immediately. It is true that in
the Liturgy of S. Chrysostom The Grace of our Lord,
etc., occurs at the beginning of the most solemn part
of the Eucharist. But this is not sufficient justification
for printing it where it stands in our Prayer Book.
In 1661 our revisers placed the same words at the
conclusion of Morning Prayer, and thus corroborated
the popular misconception that the Litany comes to an
end as definitely and absolutely as Morning Prayer.
Having considered the history and sources of the
Litany, it remains to add a few words to explain its
structure. It may be divided into six parts :
(a) The Invocatioks to the Holy Teinity, invok
ing mercy for us as sinners. It was to ask for mercy
that some of the first litanies were first instituted.
The prayer 'Remember not' comes as a climax to
this section. ' Published by the Surtees Society, vol. xxvii.

180 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
The Suffrages now follow immediately, as there are
no longer any requests to the saints for their prayers.
In the Ordination Service the special petition for those
to be ordained is called the ' proper suffrage.' So the
original title of the English Litany was, as we have
seen. Litany and Siffrages. The Sufirages are usually
distinguished as follows : —
(6) The Deprecations, or prayers against evil, be
ginning 'From all evil and mischief.' They may be
regarded as expansions of the clause in the Lord's
Prayer, Deliver usjrom evil, and they are immediately
addressed to our Blessed Lord as the Deliverer from
all forms of evil and their injurious consequences.
(c) The Oeseceations, or prayers of entreaty; i.e.
prayers entreating for the assistance which is derived
from all that Christ has done for us men and our
salvation, beginning 'By the mystery.' These are
addressed to our Blessed Lord.
(d) The Intercessions, or prayers on behalf of others,
commencing with ' We sinners do beseech.' They in
clude ' all sorts and conditions of men,' from the holy
Church to the persecutors and slanderers of the same.
These also are addressed to the Saviour of all men.
(e) The Supplications. These are two prayers ; one
for material blessings, that God will preserve to us the
fruits of the earth ; the other for spiritual blessings,
that God will give us repentance, pardon, and the
grace of the Holy Spirit.
Thus conclude the Suffrages.
(J) The Versicles and Prayers are, on the whole,
penitential and marked by a sense of calamity and
need in accordance with their origin. The Divine
Redeemer is so touched with the feeling of our in
firmities that His intercession for us is as perpetual
as our need, and we do wrong to imagine that we are
ever free from danger and weakness, or that these
prayers are ever inappropriate.

THE LITANY 181
We may notice one or two instances of archaic
English, viz. wealth for wellbeing or felicity, the Lords
of the Council for the Lords of the Privy Council,
Tcindly Jruits for natural fruits, and after our sins . . .
cfter our iniquities for ' according to, in proportion to,
our sins and iniquities.'

CHAPTER VIII
BAPTISM^
And when the pure
And consecrated element hath cleansed
The original stain, the child is there received
Into the second ark, Christ's Church, with trust
That he, from wrath redeemed, therein shall float
Over the billows of this troublesome world
To the fair land of everlasting life.
WoRDSwoBTH, The Pastor.
§ 1. Baptismal Rites before a.d. 600.
Holy Baptism was instituted by our Lord Himself. In
S. Matt, xxviii. 19 the risen Saviour commands His
apostles to go and teach all nations, ' baptizing them
in the Name of the Father and of the Son and of the
Holy Ghost.' Modern sceptics have denied that Christ
ever employed such a formula, simply because they deny
that His sacred Body rose from the dead, and that He
gave any directions to His disciples after His death on
Calvary. Without pausing to discuss the momentous
fact of the Resurrection, we may observe that the
primitive use of this formula is attested by the men
tion of the Three Persons of the Holy Trinity in such
passages as 2 Cor. xiii. 14, S. John xiv. 26, Heb. x. 29.
Another passage where Christ speaks of the necessity
1 For a full account of the Ceremonies of Baptism and the Prepara
tion of Catechumens, see Baptism, chaps, xii., xiii., by Mr. Datwell
Stone, in this series.
182

BAPTISM 183
of Baptism is in the Gospel of S. John. The Gospel
was written a long time after the other Gospels,
probably about a.d. 85, and the inspired author does
not regard it as necessary to record the institution of
the Eucharist and Baptism. These holy rites were
then familiar to the Christian world, and their origin
was adequately described in the other Gospels. S. John
therefore confines himself to recording two discourses
which illuminate these two Sacraments respectively. In
chapter vi. he records our Lord's own exposition of the
Bread which came down from heaven, and in chapter
iii. he gives us the discourse with Nicodemus, where it
is asserted that ' except a man be born of water and
the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God.'
It is quite impossible to exaggerate the importance
which the early Christians attached to Baptism. S.
Peter attaches to it the remission of our sins by God,^
and S. Paul calls it the ' laver ' or ' washing ' of
' regeneration ' (Tit. iii. 5). Not only so, but in Romans
vi. 1-14 he enforces the truth that the Christian must
not yield to Sin, because any such yielding is a repudia
tion of the union which Baptism effects between Christ
and the believer. Every one, he teaches, who has faith
in Christ is baptized into Christ, and the great crises
in the history of the Saviour are then repeated in the
believer. Christ died, and the believer enters the
baptismal water to die unto sin, and to place himself
out of its reach. Christ was buried, and the believer,
in order to ratify his death to sin, remains for an
instant submerged beneath the water. Christ was
raised from the dead, and the believer stands upright
again to begin a new and risen life. It is abundantly
evident that S. Paul neither here nor elsewhere regards
Baptism as a mere symbol. The desire to put such an
interpretation upon his words has been caused by the
erroneous notion that the doctrine of a real, as opposed
'¦ Acts ii. 38 ; cf. Acts xxii. 16.

i84 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
to a merely symbolic, baptismal regeneration, implies
that a baptized person will infallibly be saved. But the
doctrine implies nothing of the kind, and the apostle
only regards Baptism as an assurance of sanctification
and salvation when a Christian actively avails himself
of the powers which Baptism imparts.
The question as to whether infants were baptized in
the apostolic age must, it seems, be answered in the
affirmative. It is not definitely said that infants were
baptized, but the Scriptures suggest it both by men
tioning the Baptism of ' households,' and by drawing a
comparison between Baptism and Circumcision, which
was always performed in infancy. Secondly, we must
notice that when the Jews baptized their proselytes
they seem to have baptized their children also, and the
Christians would almost certainly follow the Jewish
practice in such a matter. Thirdly, the Baptism of
infants is definitely mentioned by S. Irenaeus, who was
the pupil of Polycarp, the disciple of S. John. It is
also mentioned about 190 by Clement of Alexandria;
and Origen expressly says, ' The Church has received it
as a tradition from the apostles to administer Baptism
even to infants.' The evidence of these three great
Fathers is so valuable that it cannot reasonably be
rejected. Outside the New Testament, the earliest account of
Baptism is that contained in the Teaching of the
Apostles, if we are right in dating the book about
A.D. 100. The rite of Baptism here includes (1)
previous instruction and fasting; (2) a person who
baptizes the convert; (3) the use of water — ^running
water if possible; (4) the repetition of the formula,
' into the Name of the Father, of the Son, and of the
Holy Ghost.' If the water was not abundant enough
for the candidate to be immersed in it, pouring water
upon his head was sufficient.
The following account is given by S. Justin Martyr

BAPTISM 186
of Baptism as it was administered at Rome about
A.D. 152 :—
Those who are convinced of the truth of our doctrine, and
have promised to live according to it, ai-e exhorted to prayer,
fasting, and repentance for past sins, we praying and fasting with
them. Then they are led by us to a place where is water, and in
this way they are regenerated, as we also have been regenerated
— ^that is, they receive the water-bath in the Name of God, the
Father and Ruler of all, and of our Redeemer, Jesus Christ,
and of the Holy Ghost. For Christ says, ' Except ye be born
again, ye cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven.' Thus,
from children of necessity and ignorance we become children of
choice and of wisdom, and partakers of the forgiveness of former
sins. . . . The baptismal bath is also called illumination, because
those who receive it are enlightened in the understanding. ^
The comparative simplicity of Justin's description of
the ritual of Baptism does not exclude the probabiUty
that ceremonies which he does not mention were already
employed in the service. These ceremonies came to be
of a very impressive and picturesque character, having
some resemblance to ceremonies employed in certain
pagan rites of initiation. Capital has lately been made
out of this fact, in order to represent the Catholic
baptismal ceremonial of the fourth century as pagan in
origin and the Church of that period as deeply infected
with heathen superstition. But a close examination of
the phenomena shows the accusation to be as ridiculous
as it is malicious. The more important ceremonies of
the fourth century were in use about a.d. 200, when
the Church took no enjoyment in the precarious
advantage of pagan asstheticism. Among the circum
stances of Baptism about a.d. 200 was the fact that
the time was generally at Easter, that the candidate
renounced Satan, that he was anointed and signed with
the cross, that immediately after Baptism he received
the laying on of the bishop's hands, then was given
Holy Communion, and finally a draught of milk and
i. i6.

186 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
honey, symbolical of the good things of the land of
promise. It is almost certain that this anointing dates
back as early as a.d. 140, and the draught of milk and
honey seems suggested in the Epistle of Barnabas, which
is probably at least as early as a.d. 98,
Now these features are conspicuous in the use of the
fourth century, at which time we find an astonishing
unanimity in the baptismal rites of different countries.
Our best information is derived from the writings of
S. Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem, a.d. 347, and S. Silvia,
A.D. 385, and those of S. Ambrose and S. Augustine.
The former writers show us the customs of Greek-
speaking Christians, the two latter show us the customs
of the Latin-speaking populations of Milan and North
Africa. Examples of the baptismal prayers employed
in Egypt are preserved in the book of Bishop Serapion.
The rites are sharply divided into two parts ; the first
part is the service used when a convert from heathenism
was admitted to the catechumenate, i.e. made a pro
bationary member of the Church and brought under
Christian instruction. In the fourth century it was not
uncommon for men to become catechumens and then
to postpone Baptism until old age or the imminent
approach of death. The emperors Constantine and
Constantius were guilty of this trifling with religion.
Sometimes the delay was due to an exaggerated rever
ence ; too often it was due to a man's desire to have
his ' fling ' before he made his peace with God ; and
this accounts for the denunciation of the practice
which flashed from the ' golden mouth ' of Chrysostom.
The second part of the rites of initiation into
Christianity comprises the actual Baptism, followed by
Confirmation and first Communion.
At Jerusalem the candidates for the catechumenate
presented themselves at the beginning of Lent to the
bishop. Their names were taken down, and the bishop
made careful inquiries as to the character of each

BAPTISM 187
candidate. If the information received was favourable,
the candidate was accepted and numbered among the
(fituTi^ofievoi 'the recipients of enlightenment' (cf.
Heb. vi, 4). During the whole of Lent they met in
church every morning, and were instructed by the
bishop or his delegate. Clergymen of lower rank pro
nounced over them certain exorcisms of the Evil One.
In due time they were taught the Creed, which was
somewhat shorter than our present Nicene Creed. The
course of instruction still continued, and each candi
date recited the Creed by heart before the bishop.
Instruction on the Eucharist and Baptism was reserved
until Easter week.
On the night of Easter Even all the candidates were
received in the vestibule of the baptistery, and the
ceremony began by the candidates renouncing Satan.
This they did turning to the West, the region of
darkness. Then they turned to the East and recited
the Creed. These ceremonies then followed : —
(1) The candidates unrobed and entered the bap
tistery, where they were anointed with oil. In the
case of female candidates this unction was performed
by deaconesses.
(2) They entered the baptismal water, which had
previously been blessed by the bishop. They confessed
their faith in a threefold answer to the bishop's inter
rogations, and water was thrice poured over them.
(3) Having left the water, the candidates were
anointed with perfumed oil (fivpov. Chrism). The
bishop signed them with the cross with this oil, and
apparently laid his hands upon them, thus administer
ing Confirmation.
(4) The bishop then celebrated the Eucharist, and
Holy Communion was given to the baptized.
It should be noticed in conclusion that, in parts
of the Greek-speaking world, a presbyter was per
mitted to sign the candidate with the Chrism if the

188 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
bishop was not present. Ambrosiaster expressly says
that this was done in Egypt.^ Hence in the Eastern
Church at the present day, if no bishop is present, the
only confirmation is this unction administered by a
priest. This is one of the very few cases in which the
East has been less faithful than the West to apostolic
usage. Inasmuch as infants were treated by the
Church in the same manner as adults, Holy Com
munion was administered to little children at their
Baptism. This practice still prevails in the East, and
it lasted at Milan as late as the fifteenth century.
The usage of the West in the fourth century was so
similar to that of the East that it is hardly necessary
to quote at length the vivid and interesting passages
in which S. Ambrose and S. Augustine depict the
ceremonies of Baptism. The candidates or competentes
were ' catechised, exorcised, and scrutinised.' The
scrutinium is defined by an ancient writer as an ' in
vestigation ' ; the exorcisms at Rome and at Milan
included the giving of salt to the catechumen in token
of the savour of wisdom which befits a Christian ; they
also included the ceremony of the Ephpheta or Effeta,
which Ambrose calls ' the mystery of opening.' This
was a touching of the lips and ears with saliva, as
Christ touched the deaf and dumb man that he might
hear and speak. The competentes, or electi as they
were also called, were instructed during the course of
Lent ; and Ambrose speaks of himself as teaching the
Creed to the competentes on Sunday after the sermon,
when the catechumens had been dismissed.^ By cate
chumens he evidently means those catechumens who
had not yet been 'elected' for the rite of Baptism.
On Palm Sunday the candidates entered the baptistery,
answered the necessary questions, renounced Satan,
turned to the East ' to Christ,' and repeated the Creed.
The teaching of the Creed was known as the Traditw
^ In Ep. ad Eph. c. iv. ^ ^p^ ^x. ad Marcell. 4.

BAPTISM 189
Symholi; the repetition of it by the candidate was
called the Redditio Symboli.
Late on Easter Even, after a long series of lessons
and psalms, a procession went to the baptistery. At
Milan there were two baptisteries, one for men and the
other for women. The bishop blessed the water with
the sign of the cross, the candidates descended into it,
were questioned and confessed their faith, the bishop
made the sign of the cross over them and poured
water over their heads, repeating the baptismal formula.
The neophytes then ascended from the font. The
bishop then washed their feet, and they received from
the bishop's hands a white baptismal robe.
The bishop then administered Confirmation, making
the sign of the cross on the foreheads of the candidates
with Chrism. S. Augustine speaks very definitely of
this anointing.
The procession then returned 'amid the brilliant
lights of the neophytes ' to the cathedral church.
The bishop immediately celebrated the Eucharist, and
the newly baptized were allowed to communicate,
although they were not, in Milan and Africa, allowed
to make any oblation at the Offertory until the next
Sunday. This was postponed on account of the fact
that the ' sacrificial system ' (sacrifidi ratio) was not
explained to them until Easter week.
§ 2. Baptismal Rites from a.d. 600 to a.d. 1549.
The baptismal rites of the Middle Ages were sub
stantially the same as they were in the fourth century.
Only it has to be remembered in studying them that
many details were modified in order to fit them for the
Baptism of children rather than adults, and to allow
the frequent administration of Baptism by a priest
instead of an administration by a bishop in the midst
of the various rites of Easter Even. The selection of

190 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Easter had no doubt been due to the desire that
converts should commence their new life on the day
that Christ had risen from the dead. But in the West
the eve of Pentecost was chosen as a second baptismal
festival, and in the East the Epiphany and Christmas
were added for the same purpose.
A complete account of the Roman ceremonies of
Baptism as administered in the seventh and eighth
centuries has been preserved to us in an Ordo Baptismi
of the time of Charles the Great, and in the Gelasian
Sacramentary, which agrees closely with the Ordo
Baptismi, except that it contains a few Gallican
additions. The rites of admittance to the catechumenate con
tained the exsufflation or breathing on the face of the
candidate, in imitation of our Lord breathing upon
His disciples, the signing with the sign of the cross,
and the giving of salt. The instruction which pre
ceded Baptism began in the third week of Lent, and
the 'scrutinies' were seven in number. At the
'stational' Mass on Monday, at which all were ex
pected to be present, notice was given of the first
scrutiny. It took place after the collect in the Mass.
Prayer was offered, and then three exorcists in turn
laid their hands upon the candidates with this or a
similar formula : —
O God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob, God Who
appearedst to Moses Thy servant in Mount Sinai, and broughtest
forth the children of Israel from the land of Egypt, appointing
for them the angel of Thy goodness to guard them day and
night ; we beseech Thee, O Lord, that Thou wouldest vouchsafe
to send Thy holy angel to guard in like manner these Thy
servants also, and bring them to the grace of Thy Baptism.
Therefore, accursed devil, recognise thy sentence and give
honour to the living and true God, and give honour to Jesus
Christ His Son, and to the Holy Spirit, and depart from these
servants of God, for our God and Lord Jesus Christ hath
vouchsafed to call them to Himself and to His holy grace and
blessing and the Baptism of the font by His free gift. And

BAPTISM 191
this sign of the holy cross which we make upon their foreheads,
do thou, accursed devU, never dare to violate.
The priest then said a prayer, and the catechumens
were dismissed before the Gospel.
On the third day of scrutiny the catechumens were
no longer dismissed just after the Gradual. Four
deacons placed the four Gospels severally at the four
corners of the altar, and the ' elect ' listened to a
short commentary on each of them. Then the Nicene
Creed was taught to them either in Greek or Latin,
according to the preference of the candidates. Lastly,
the priest expounded and taught the 'Our Father.'
These instructions were the Roman expansion of the
Traditio Symboli. The Redditio Symboli took place
at the seventh scrutiny, which was on the morning of
Easter Even when no Mass was celebrated. After
the Effeta the candidates were anointed with oil, like
athletes about to struggle with a foe. This done, they
renounced Satan and his works and pomps, and recited
the Creed. They were dismissed by the archdeacon.
In the afternoon the ' elect ' attend at the solemn
Easter vigil, probably the most ancient of all Christian
services except the Eucharist.^ A series of lessons was
read from the Old Testament, illustrating the dealings
of God with His people from the creation of the world.
The series was diversified with chants from the Old
Testament, such as the Song of Miriam and 'Like as
the hart desireth the water brooks.'
The Pope and his clergy then entered the sumptuous
baptistery of the Lateran basilica. A portico encrusted
with mosaic opens into an octagonal baptistery adorned
with columns of porphyry. In it is a tank, from the
midst of which there arose a candelabrum. Into the
' This vigil was originally kept on Saturday night, and the Mass
which followed it was at dawn. It has now become transferred to
Saturday morning, with the result that the first Mass of Easter is
sometimes said twenty hours too soon.

192 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
tank there poured a stream of water from above a
golden figure of the Agnus Dei, supported by silver
statues of our Lord and S. John Baptist. The Pope
recited a coUect and a long Eucharistic prayer, in the
course of which he thrice signed the water with the
cross, once breathed upon it, and once paused while
two attendants threw lighted tapers into the water as
he prayed that the power of the Holy Spirit might
descend upon the fulness of the font. He then poured
Chrism into the water, and moved the water with his
hand. All being ready, the 'elect' advanced towards the
tank, modesty being safeguarded by the fact that
separate oratories for men and women were provided
close to the baptistery. The archdeacon presented
them one by one to the Pope, who asked them, ' Dost
thou believe in God the Father Almighty.''' — 'Dost
thou believe also in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our
Lord, Who was born and suffered ?'' — 'Dost thou believe
also in the Holy Ghost, the holy Church, remission of
sins, the resurrection of the flesh .?' As each answered
in the affirmative, he stepped into the tank, and the
Pope baptized him with the scriptural formula, the
other clergy entering into the water and assisting.
The baptized were then anointed with Chrism and
clothed in white raiment.
Confirmation immediately followed in the adjacent
chapel of the Holy Cross. The procession then entered
the basilica once more, and Mass began. Before the
end of the Canon the Pope blessed milk and honey,
and the neophytes after receiving their first Communion
partook of those emblems of the promised land as the
day began to dawn over the eternal city..
The Sarum Baptismal Office is an abbreviated form
of the ancient Roman rite. It contains four rites : the
Ordo ad faciendum Catechumenum, the Benedictio Fontis,
the Ritus Baptizandi, and the Confirmatio Puerorum.

BAPTISM 193
The priest met the child at the door, and inquired
whether it was a boy or a girl, whether it had been
baptized, and what its name was to be. If a boy it
was placed at the priest's right hand, if a girl at the
left — a custom which was a relic of the ceremonial
anciently used at the Baptism of a large number of
adults. The old ceremonies then followed. The child
was signed with the cross, named and signed again.
'The salt of wisdom' was administered. A series of
' adjurations ' and exorcisms was pronounced. A short
Gospel from St. Matthew, describing Christ blessing
the little children, was read. Then the priest per
formed the ceremony of the Effeta, touching the child's
right ear, nostrils, and left ear. He then repeated the
Our Father, Hail Mary, and the Creed with all the
bystanders. And finally he made the sign of the cross
on the child's hand, and brought it into the church
saying, 'Enter into the temple of God, that thou
mayest have eternal life and live for ever and ever.
Amen.' The Gospel, Pater, Ave, and Credo were all
that remained of the instruction of the competentes.
The Benediction of the Font began with a litany
followed by a Eucharistic preface. The priest then
divided the water in the form of a cross, and prayed
that it might be 'a living fountain, a regenerating
water, a purifying wave.' He then threw some of the
water in four different directions, breathed upon it,
poured wax into it from the taper, and finished the
preface. Finally, he poured oil. Chrism, and oil and
Chrism mingled into the water. The last ceremonies
were omitted on the Eves of Easter and Pentecost
unless there were any to be baptized.
The Rite of Baptizing is almost the same as in the
eighth century. The priest places his hand upon the
child and asks its name. Then follows the renunciation
of Satan and all his works. The child is then anointed
with oil on the breast and between the shoulders.

194 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Then the priest puts the questions as to belief, adding
' What dost thou seek ? '— ' Baptism.' ' Wilt thou be
baptized ? ' — ' I wiU.' The child is then baptized with
a threefold immersion. The priest afterwards gives
the child to the godparents. He anoints it with
Chrism, and the child is clothed with the vestis chris-
malis (in English, chrisom), the priest saying mean
while : ' N. receive the white, holy, and stainless
garment to bear before the judgment seat of our Lord
Jesus Christ, that thou mayest have eternal life and
live for ever and ever. Amen.' Parish churches were
generally provided with chrisoms, which were lent to
people who did not provide them for their god
children. A taper was then placed in the child's hand, with
the words, ' N. receive the burning light, which means
freedom from reproach : guard thy Baptism, keep the
commandments, that when the Master cometh to the
marriage feast, thou mayest meet Him together with
the saints within the court of heaven : that thou mayest
have eternal life for ever and ever. Amen.'
The Confirmation of the child followed immediately
if the bishop was present ; and the rubric also directs
that the child should be communicated 'if his age
demand it,' the priest saying, ' The Body of our Lord
Jesus Christ preserve thy body and thy soul unto ever
lasting life. Amen.' The father and mother were then
bidden in English to preserve the child from fire and
water, and all other dangers until his seventh year,
and the godparents, or the godmothers only, were
enjoined to teach the child the Our Father, the Hail
Mary, and the Creed, and to see that the child was
confirmed as soon as the bishop came within seven
miles of the place.
The service concluded with (i) a Gospel from S.
Mark, containing the story of the healing of the dumb
boy whose father said, 'Lord, I believe, help Thou

BAPTISM 195
mine unbeUef '; (ii) the prologue of S. John's Gospel,
which was also read by the priest at the end of
every Mass.
§ 3. The Reformed Rites.
In spite of the beauty of much of the mediaeval
English service, it is marked by certain defects. The
ceremonies were too numerous for one continuous ser
vice, and their meaning had become somewhat obscured.
If the service were said in two separate parts over adult
converts from heathenism, the old Roman or Greek
service would even at the present day be most imposing
and felicitous. But the compressed mediaeval service
was in most cases said over infants only, and in such a
manner that the essential rite of Baptism was smothered
in non-essential ceremonies, A reform was therefore
desirable, and, on the whole, the reform of 1549 was
very well carried out.
In 1549 the preliminary service took place as before
at the church door. It was greatly reduced in length.
The child was named, crossed on the forehead and
breast, and exorcised. There was no giving of salt and
no Effeta. The Gospel story about the blessing of the
little children was read from S. Mark, and no longer
from S. Matthew. The minister repeated the Our
Father and the Creed with the bystanders, and then
took one of the children by the right hand and pro
ceeded to the font with a brief prayer.
The reformed Benediction of the Font was printed
at the end of the private Baptism of Infants, and it
was ordered that the water should be changed at least
every month, and blessed before a Baptism. The prayers
appointed are admirable. The only ceremonial act
directed is the primitive signing of the water with the
sign of the cross. This Benediction is directly taken
from the Mozarabic Benediction of the Font on Holy

196 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Saturday, and part of it is retained in our present
service.^ The Rite of Baptizing contains the renunciation of
Satan, the questions as to belief including the whole
of the Apostles' Creed, followed by ' What dost thou
desire .?'—' Baptism.' 'Wilt thou be baptized .?'—' I
will.' The child is then baptized with a threefold im
mersion. The child is afterwards taken by the god
parents, and the minister puts upon it the chrisom
with a prayer resembling the mediasvai prayer. After
this he anoints the child on the head, saying : —
Almighty God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, Wlio
hath regenerate thee by water and the Holy Ghost, and hath
given unto thee remission of all thy sins : He vouchsafe to
anoint thee with the Unction of His Holy Spirit, and bring thee
to the inheritance of everlasting life. Amen,
The lighted taper is no longer given. The godparents
are exhorted to see that the children learn the Creed,
the Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Commandments in the
English tongue, and the chrisoms are to be delivered
to the priests 'after the accustomed manner, at the
purification of the mother of every child.'
The influence of Archbishop Hermann's baptismal
rite is very marked, and can be seen in
(a) The exhortation, ' Dearly beloved, forasmuch,'
(6) The prayer, 'Almighty and everlasting God,
which,' (c) The exhortation, ' Friends, ye hear,'
(d) The thanksgiving, 'Almighty and everlasting
God, heavenly Father.'
The first of these four was apparently used by
Luther in 1521, and perhaps written by him. The
selection of the Gospel from S. Mark rather than
S. Matthew is again due to the use of Coin,
In 1552 the service was greatly altered. The idea of
' See Missale Gothicum (Cardinal Lorenzana's edit., Rome 1804),
col. 4SS.

BAPTISM 197
the catechumenate was given up, and the service began
at the font. What is left of the earlier part of the
service is merely an introduction to the Baptism itself.
The exorcism and the sign of the cross at the beginning
of the service were omitted. No direction was given
with regard to the Benediction of the Font, although the
prayers connected with the Benediction were repeated
before the act of Baptism. The Unction and the
chrisom were both omitted, and in their place was put
the sign of the cross transferred from the beginning
of the first division of the service. What is really
remarkable is that amid this series of innovations the
revisers erected a citadel of Catholicism. They inserted
the address ' Seeing now, dearly beloved,' ' Our Father,'
and 'We yield Thee hearty thanks.' In this new
section, inserted after the sign of the cross, is the
strongest possible assertion of the doctrine of baptismal
regeneration. It certainly suggests that Cranmer,
conscious that he had yielded far too much in other
parts of the book, was determined that he would not
surrender a doctrine to which the whole primitive
Church had given such unequivocal testimony.
In 1661 ' of Infants ' was added to the title to dis
tinguish this Office from the new one for adult persons.
The second rubric, requiring three sponsors, was added.
Some other small changes were made. Two changes
were really important. It was directed that the font
was to be filled with pure water at each celebration of
the rite, and the Benediction of the Font was restored
by inserting in the prayer 'Almighty, everliving God '
the words, ' sanctify this water to the mystical washing
away of sin.' In 1661 there was also added the rubric
asserting the salvation of baptized infants, derived from
the Ten Articles of 1536, and placed in 1549 in the
Order of Confirmation. The final rubric concerning
the cross in Baptism was also added in 1661.
In and since 1549 the rite of Confirmation has

198 HISTORY OP THE BOOK OP COMMON PRAYER
been printed quite separately from the Baptismal
Office.
§ 4. Private Baptism of Infants.
The necessity of Baptism has brought with it the
necessity of permitting that, in the case of dangerous
sickness, it may be administered in a private house.
The rubric directs that the formula of Baptism is to
be preceded by 'so many of the Collects appointed
to be said before in the Form of Public Baptism, as the
time and present exigence will suffer,' The Sacrament
is to be administered, if possible, by the minister of the
parish, or ' in his absence by any other lawful minister
that can be procured,' This does not confine the power
to persons in holy orders. According to the unanimous
teaching of the Catholic Church any person, man or
woman, may administer Baptism if no priest is present.
Lay Baptism is permitted, but discouraged except
when it is unavoidable. Strange to say, the Puritans
objected to it much more than members of the Church,
The service of 1549 was taken from the Consultatio
of Archbishop Hermann and from the Sarum Manual.
The latter bids the lay folk to baptize with the words,
' I cristene the N. in the name of the Fadir, and of the
Sone, and of the holy Ghost. Amen.' The child was
to be sprinkled or dipped in the water thrice, or at
least once. If the child lived he was brought to church,
and the priest having diligently inquired to find out
whether a valid form of Baptism had been employed,
performed all the rites used in public Baptism except
the immersion. If any doubt existed as to the validity
of the Baptism, the priest sprinkled or immersed the
child with the words, ' N. If thou hast been baptized,
I baptize thee not; but if thou hast not yet been
baptized, I baptize thee : In the Name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen,' The

BAPTISM 199
same rules and almost exactly the same formula are still
retained in the Church of England,
The latter part of the Office consists of a somewhat
abbreviated form of the public service. The objects of
it are that the Baptism of the child may be publicly
recognised, and that the sponsors may undertake their
obligations on the child's behalf. In 1552 the investi
ture with the chrisom was omitted as in the public
service; the questions to the sponsors 'Dost thou
forsake,' etc., became ' Dost thou in the name of this
child forsake,' etc., although the corresponding change
had not then been made in public Baptism.
§ 5. Baptism of those of riper years.
This service was compiled in 1661 for two reasons,
as stated in the fourth paragraph of the Preface to the
Prayer Book : (1) To counteract ' the growth of Ana-
baptism, through the licentiousness of the late times
crept in amongst us.' It is hardly necessary to say that
the Anabaptists now call themselves Baptists, but the
title Anabaptist is still perfectly correct, as they baptize
' again ' persons who have been baptized by the Church
in infancy; (2) 'for the baptizing of natives in our
plantations, and others converted.' Plantations, now
called colonies, began with Virginia in 1607. In Eng
land it is necessary to perform this rite in the case of
converts from the Jews, or the Quakers, who reject the
Sacraments, or the Unitarians, who deny the Trinity,
or the Swedenborgians, who explain the doctrine of the
Trinity in a heretical manner resembling that of the
ancient Sabellians.
The service is based upon the service for the public
Baptism of Infants. The rubrics are clear and simple ;
but it may be noted that, in accordance with very
primitive usage, fasting with prayer is urged as a means
of preparation for Baptism, and that the word ' dip,' as

200 HISTORY OP THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
in the Baptism of Infants, apparently does not neces
sarily mean ' immerse,' but dip so as to touch the water.
The word ' mergere ' in the mediaeval books originally
meant that the child was to be put into the font, but
latterly both pouring and sprinkling were allowed.

CHAPTER IX
SACRAMENTAL CONFESSION AND ABSOLUTION
The Church of England, howsoever it holdeth not con
fession and absolution sacramental, ^ that is made unto,
and received from a priest, to be so absolutely necessary,
as without it there can be no remission of sins ; yet by
this place it is manifest, what she teacheth concerning the
virtue and force of this sacred action. The confession is
commanded to be special. The absolution is the same
that the ancient Church, and the present Church of Rome
useth. What would they more ? Bishop Cosin, Notes on
Common Prayer, first series, p. 163, a.d. 1638.
In the exhortation in the Communion Service the
intending communicant 'who cannot quiet his own
conscience ' is invited to come to his parish priest, ' or
to some other discreet and learned minister of God's
Word, and open his grief; that by the ministry of
God's holy Word he may receive the benefit of
absolution, together with ghostly counsel and advice,
to the quieting of his conscience and avoiding of all
scruple and doubtfulness.' This passage in our
Prayer Book is merely an abbreviated form of the
exhortation contained in the Order of the Communion
of 1548, in which this opening of grief to the parish
priest is called 'auricular and secret confession,' and
those who find this form of confession necessary are
urged not to be offended with those who do not, and
1 According to old-fashioned usage the adjective is here placed after
the substantive : cf. 'letters patent,' 'Church universal.' 201

202 HISTORY OP THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
vice versa. Then come these excellent words, ' But in
all things to follow and keep the rule of charity ; and
every man to be satisfied with his own conscience, nor
judging other men's minds or consciences ; whereas he
hath no warrant of God's Word to the same.'
It is exceedingly remarkable that this invitation to
unburden the conscience remained in all the successive
revisions of the English Prayer Book, and that after
1549 it was not even considered necessary to retain the
warning that members of the Church should not criticise
one another's action in respect of confession. The fact
is that there was little or no necessity to defend its
use. The words which were and are employed at the
Ordination of every priest — 'whose sins thou dost
forgive, they are forgiven; and whose sins thou dost
retain, they are retained' — made a misunderstanding
almost impossible. The same words had been employed
in the Ordination of Priests in the mediaeval services,
and they were intended in 1550 to bear the same
meaning as before. It should also be observed that
the phrase ' discreet and learned ' is a technical expres
sion which is now frequently used by the clergy without
an exact appreciation of its meaning. 'Discreet,' or
'discreet and prudent,' is the mediaeval term for an
'authorised' confessor. To suppose that the English
Reformers, who had been authorised to hear confessions
in the unreformed Church, did not know what the word
meant, verges on the ridiculous. Every parish priest
was entitled to hear confessions in his own parish, but
not other priests, unless they had a special faculty from
the bishop of the diocese. Such priests were ' discreet,'
being regarded by the bishop as trained men com
petent to undertake the most difficult and trying duty
of a Christian minister.
The unanimity of the great divines of the Church of
England with regard to 'Confession and Absolution
Sacramental ' is so obvious that it requires little com-

SACRAMENTAL CONFESSION AND ABSOLUTION 203
ment. It may be doubted whether any serious diversity
of opinion on the subject existed until the later Georgian
period, when the clergy, having shirked some of their
more irksome duties, began to be tempted to find
reasons for their conduct. Bishop Ridley, who died in
protest against Rome ; Richard Hooker, who appealed
to men's consecrated reasoning powers ; Bishop Overall,
the author of the latter part of the Catechism ; George
Herbert, the typical English priest and gentleman ;
Bishop Ken, who would not resign his conscience into
the hands of William III. ; Bishop Berkeley, the refined
philosopher — all uphold the usefulness of auricular or
'particular' confession. He would be an unnatural
son of the Church of England who could look with
indifference upon such a roll of names. But it is a roll
which can be indefinitely enlarged for the simple reason
that men took, in their plain and Catholic meaning,
the words contained in the Communion Service, and in
the Visitation of the Sick. And with regard to the
latter service, which contains the form of absolution
ordinarily employed in the case of auricular confession,
it may be fit to quote the reverent words of Dr. Donne,
one of the ablest ecclesiastics of the time of James I. :
' We are to remember that every coming to the Com
munion is as serious a thing as our own transmigration
out of the world, and we should do as much here for
the settling of our consciences as upon our death
bed.' i
It is strictly forbidden to the clergy to reveal any
matter made known to them in confession. The 113th
Canon of 1603 says : —
If any man confess his secret and hidden sins to the Minister
... we do straitly charge and admonish him, that he do not
reveal and make known to any person whatsoever any crime or
offence so committed to his trust and secrecy (except they be
such crimes as by the laws of this realm his own life may be
' Sermons, Ivi.

204 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
called into question for concealing the same), under pain of
irregularity.^ If the conscientious physician regards himself as
morally bound not to gossip about the facts which he
learns in his professional capacity, much more is the
clergyman bound by every conceivable moral and legal
obligation not to make known the troubles and sins of
those who have sought his absolution. In any case
where there is any abuse of confidence the penitent
should at once inform the bishop, who in such cases has
the full right to withdraw the power of the priest to
hear confessions.
It is difficult to realise how in this country it should
ever be imagined, even by the most prejudiced, either
that the clergy would wish to violate such confidence,
or that clergymen and laymen aUke do not frequently
desire to avail themselves of confidential help. The
growing complexity and the increased temptations of
life makes it a matter of the utmost importance that
all, and more especially the young and inexperienced,
should know whither to turn when they need both the
assurance of divine pardon and the guidance of human
counsel. This assurance and this guidance are, as a
matter of fact, perpetually being sought, and an immense
number of lives would be saved from shipwreck if a
larger number of persons in this country had been
regularly taught to avail themselves of this means of
grace. It is possible that an infinitesimal number
of priests, like an infinitesimal number of qualified
^ This canon was by no means a dead letter. The bishops of the
seventeenth century in their visitation articles made careful inquiries to
ensure the regular hearing of confessions by their parish priests. Thus
Bishop Montague in 1638 inquires, 'Doth the minister exhort his
parishioners to make confession of their sins to himself, or to some
other learned, grave, and discreet minister, especially in Lent, against
the holy time of Easter, that they may receive comfort and absolution,
and so become worthy receivers of such sacred mysteries ? ' Express
inquiries were made by the bishops as to any breach of secrecy on the
part of priests.

SACRAMENTAL CONFESSION AND ABSOLUTION 205
physicians, misuse their power. But in England such
a misuse is almost an impossibility. The clergyman
who is not above suspicion in the eyes of his people
knows that he is destitute of influence and that his
private ministrations will never be required. The
repulsive suggestions which have sometimes been made
with regard to the method and results of private con
fession must always remain unjustifiable except in
a country where the moral tone is universally low,
where there is also compulsory celibacy among the
clergy, and where private confession is always required
before Communion if the intending communicant
suspects that he has been guilty of any deadly sin.^
There is probably not a country in Europe where all
these three necessary conditions are fulfilled. They
are certainly not fulfilled in Ireland. Nor are they
fulfilled in France. No one was capable of giving
better evidence on the subject than Renan, who was
trained for the French priesthood, and then attacked
the Church with every faculty at his command. Renan's
testimony is unequivocal. He says, ' The fact is, that
what people say about clerical morals is, so far as my
experience goes, destitute of any foundation. I never
saw the shadow of a scandal. . . . Confession may be
attended in some countries with serious drawbacks.
I did not see a trace of them in my ecclesiastical
youth.' 2
This, and more than this, is true of England. The
standard of clerical morality is very high, compulsory
celibacy does not exist in the Church of England, nor
does the Church in any way deny that contrition for
sin may be adequate without sacramental confession.
It may be added that the parochial clergy would do
' It is not strictly true to say that confession is ' compulsory ' in the
Roman Church. It is compulsory before Communion when the penitent
is conscious of having committed deadly sin.
* Souvenirs, p. 139.

206 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
much to protect themselves against misunderstanding
if they clearly informed their people precisely when,
and by whom, and where, confessions are heard in the
churches under their care.
Note on Lay Confession. — In the Middle Ages, when a priest
could not be found to hear a confession, penitents sometimes
confessed their sins to a lay friend, who prayed for them though
he could not pronounce absolution. The custom is sanctioned
by the high authority of S. Thomas Aquinas (Summa, Suppl.
iii. Partis, q. viii. a. 2) and Peter Lombard (Sententiarum,
Lib. iv. dist. 17, q. ii.). In 1349, being a time of pestilence, the
Bishop of Bath and Wells said that if no priest were present the
dying were to confess to a layman or even to a woman, and in
1524 the famed Chevalier Bayard made his confession to his
steward.

CHAPTER X
THE CATECHISM
Before the last revision of the Prayer Book, a.d.
1661, the Catechism was included in the Order of
Confirmation. In the Books of Edward VI. and
Elizabeth the title was. Confirmation, wherein is con
tained a Catechism for Children. In 1604 this was
altered to The Order of Confirmation, or laying on of
hands upon children baptized, and able to render an
account of their faith, according to the Catechism
following; with a further title to the Catechism itself,
that is to say. An Instruction to be learned of every
Child, before he be brought to be confirmed of the
Bishop. The word ' catechism ' is derived from Karrj'x^io}
and denotes viva voce instruction. In the chapter
dealing with Baptism we have noticed how the converts
were catechised in the primitive Church, The Sarum
use contains no catechism, but requires children to be
taught the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and the
Hail Mary ; and in a.d. 1281 it was ordered that parish
priests should expound once a year the Ten Command
ments in English. As there was a tendency to increase
the interval between Baptism and Confirmation, it
became more necessary that children who came to be
confirmed should have received definite instruction.
The authorship of the first part of the Catechism
is uncertain. It has been attributed to Alexander
NoweU, second master of Westminster School in 1549,
207

208 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
and Dean of S, Paul's from 1560 to 1602 ; to Poynet,
Bishop of Rochester (1550-1) ; and to Goodrich, Bishop
of Ely (1534-54). The latter part of the Catechism
was added after the Hampton Court Conference in
1604. It was composed by Overall, then Dean of
S, Paul's, and afterwards Bishop of Norwich.
The Catechism contains three main divisions —
(1). The blessings of Baptism ; and the nature of
our baptismal vows, which are :
The vow of Renunciation of the devil, the
world, and the flesh.
The vow of Faith : the Apostles' Creed and
its explanation.
The vow of Obedience to God's will : the Ten
Commandments and their explanation in
our duty towards God and our neighbours.
(2). The practice of Prayer : the Lord's Prayer and
its explanation.
(3). The use of the Sacraments generally (i.e. univer
sally) necessary to salvation.
The ' N. or M.^ at the beginning of the Catechism has
puzzled multitudes of children. The initials are pro
bably mere contractions of Nomen and Nomina, ' Name '
and 'Names,' Jf. being an error for NN.

CHAPTER XI
THE ORDER OF CONFIRMATION
This belongs to the use and custom of the Anglican
Church, according to the most ancient traditions founded
upon the revealed word ; inasmuch as of old times among
our forefathers, and in our days among our own selves it
is a frequent practice to make the sign of the cross in the
Name of the Lord Jesus Christ ; both publicly in Baptism
as we are commanded to do, and in the Confirmation of
those who have been catechised, and in all the other
Sacraments of the Church ; and also in our ordinary life
and conversation.! Richard Montague, Bishop of Chiches
ter, Origines Ecclesiasticae, Tome i. Part 2, p. 79, a.d. 1636.
Confirmation is, in accordance with the language of
ancient Christendom, a sacred 'mystery' or 'sacra
ment,' ordained for the strengthening of the spiritual
life. The Roman Catholic Council of Trent asserts it
to have been ' ordained by Jesus Christ,' and apparently
alleges this as a reason why it should be reckoned as a
Sacrament. Our English Catechism adopts a similar
view of the nature of a Sacrament, defining it ' ordained
by Christ Himself,' but our 25th Article denies that
Confirmation is one of the ' Sacraments of the Gospel,'
because it has no visible sign ' ordained of God.' The
difference between the Churches of England and of
Rome on this point is little more than verbal. Both
hold the same doctrine with regard to the nature of
Confirmation, and both believe that it is based on the
inspired authority of the New Testament. The ques
tion, therefore, as to whether we ought to draw a

210 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
distinction between a rite mentioned in ' the Gospel '
and one mentioned elsewhere in the New Testament,
and between a rite which Christ personaUy ordained
and one which He ordained through the instrumen
tality of His apostles, is a comparatively trivial
question. The word 'sacrament' was in primitive
times vaguely applied to other mysteries besides those
seven to which it became restricted in the language of
twelfth century. It was also used, in early times, as by
our Articles, of the two eminent Sacraments of the
Eucharist and Baptism, And Confirmation was so
closely allied with Baptism that it was called a Sacra
ment when the vaguer use of the word was becoming
extinct, and when it had not yet become the custom to
restrict the word to seven rites only.
It is greatly to be regretted that the 25th Article
is worded so carelessly. The Article suggests
that Confirmation, Penance, Orders, Matrimony, and
Extreme Unction are all either the results of a corrupt
following of the apostles, or are states of life allowed
in the Scriptures, But it is quite obvious that Confir
mation is not a ' state of life' or caused by a corrupt
following of the apostles. It is true that in the
Middle Ages certain innovations and corruptions were
connected with the administration of Confirmation,
Penance, Orders, and Extreme Unction, but the rites
themselves are all of scriptural origin. In this volume
these corruptions are pointed out and distinguished
from the pure and ancient ceremonies.
Confirmation has the most express warrant of Holy
Scripture. The apostles laid their hands upon the
baptized in order that they might receive the Holy
Ghost, and thereby become admitted to full com
munion with the Church created by the Holy Ghost
upon the day of Pentecost. It appears that the Holy
Ghost was imparted in different manners in the
miraculous beginning of Christianity. The apostles

THE ORDER OF CONFIRMATION 211
received the Holy Ghost from our Lord for their
ministerial work of absolving the penitent when He
appeared to them on the evening after His resur
rection. Yet it was not until the day of Pentecost
that the Holy Ghost descended to give them full
power to witness to Christ. Similarly we find that
the Holy Ghost is said in one instance to have been
granted to the unbaptized ^ ; but the whole tenor of the
Acts of the Apostles suggests to us that the Holy
Ghost was normally imparted by the laying on of the
apostles' hands. His divine presence manifested itself
in a rich variety of gifts, of which an account is given
in 1 Corinthians. These new powers and joys are
shown to be attended by the most serious responsi
bilities inasmuch as the Christian has become a temple
of the Holy Ghost. Modern paganism is in the habit
of asserting that Christianity depreciated the human
body and its faculties. As a matter of fact, it exalted
the human body to a position which it had never
held before, by teaching men that it had been taken,
limb for limb, by the Eternal God, and become the
dwelling-place of the Lord and Giver of life.
Inasmuch as the first converts to the faith were
generally adults, who, if they had been previously
heathens, were carefully instructed in the truths of
religion before their Baptism, Confirmation was ad
ministered immediately after Baptism, In describing
the ancient baptismal service we have already described
the ancient rite of Confirmation, The Eastern Church
still administers Confirmation in this way both in the
case of adults and of infants.
The age of candidates for Confirmation has varied
greatly in the West. The ordinary mediaeval English
rule was that it should be received as soon as possible
after Baptism. The difficulty of travelling to meet
a bishop often caused an interval of some years to
' Acts x. 47.

212 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
elapse between Baptism and Confirmation, and the
permissible age was raised from one to seven years.
Bishops were allowed to confirm on the roadside if
children presented themselves to them for that purpose.
In 1604 the English rubric laid down no limit of age,
but directed that candidates should be able to render
am, account of their faith according to the Catechism
following. When the service was brought into its
present form in 1661 these words were altered into
come to years of discretion. The present Roman
Catholic rule is the same as our own, but in some
parts of Italy the custom of confirming infants still
lingers. The custom of postponing Confirmation until
the age of fourteen and upwards was certainly not
contemplated by the authors of the Prayer Book.
It was introduced within living memory into certain
dioceses where the bishops found the children of the
peasantry to be abnormally ignorant. Early in the
eighteenth century and also early in the nineteenth
children were confirmed at the age of eleven and upwards.
The Sarum Order of Confirmation is very brief and
simple and may thus be translated :
The Confirmation of Children and other Baptized
Persons.
First let the bishop say : Our help, etc. The Lord be with you.
Let us pray.
Almighty everlasting God, Who hast vouchsafed to regenerate
this Thy servant (or these Thy servants), by water and the Holy
Spirit, and Who hast given to them remission of all sins : send
upon them the sevenfold Spirit, the Holy Paraclete, from
heaven. Amen. The Spirit of wisdom and understanding.
Amen. The Spirit of knowledge and goodness. Amen. The
Spirit of counsel and strength. * Amen. And fill them with
the Spirit of the fear of the Lord. * Amen. And sign them
with the sign of the holy cross * confirm them favourably with
the chrism of salvation unto eternal life. Amen.
Then having inquired the name of each one and anointed his
thumb urith chrism, let the bishop make a cross on the forehead of

THE ORDER OF CONFIRMATION 213
each separately, saying: I sign thee N. with the sign of the
cross * and confirm thee with the chrism of salvation. In the
Name of the Father and of * the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.
Amen. Let there follow the Psalm. Lo thus shall the man be blessed
that feareth the Lord. The Lord from out of Syon shall so
bless thee that thou shalt see the prosperity of Jerusalem all
thy life long. Glory be to the Father, etc. Vers. Send forth
Thy Spirit and they shall be made. Besp. And thou shalt renew
the face of the earth. Peace be to thee.
Let us pray.
O God, Who didst give unto Thine apostles the Holy Ghost, and
Who didst will that He should be bestowed through them upon
their successors and the rest of the faithful : favourably regard
the family of our human nature, and grant that the hearts of
these whose foreheads we have marked with the consecrated
chrism, and signed with the sign of the holy cross, may be
fitly perfected by the advent and indwelling of the same Holy
Ghost to be a temple of His glory. Through our Lord, etc.
May the Almighty God, the Farther, and the * Son, and
the Holy * Ghost bless you. Amen.
And if his age demand it, let the bishop communicate him,
saying : The Body of our Lord Jesus Christ preserve thy body
and thy soul unto everlasting life.^ Amen.
This being done let some priest enjoin that the godfathers and
godmothers pray some set prayer for the good estate of the lord
bishop, and for the souls of his father and mother, and for the souls
of all the faithful departed, and that they come on the third day
with the children to the church to lay down the chrisoms — and so
let them depart in the Name of the Lord.
It wiU be observed that in this Sarum Office there
is no definite mention of the laying on of hands.
It is probable, however, that the bishop laid his hand
upon the child's head while anointing his forehead
with the thumb of the same hand. This was the old
Italian custom as is shown in the Roman Pontifical
printed at Venice in 1520. The Roman Pontifical of
the year 1888 in a new Office for the confirmation of
' These words were taken by the Reformers for the words of
administration in the Order of Communion. The mediseval English
formula in ordinary use ran, 'preserve thy body unto everlasting life,'
and did not contain the words ' thy soul.'

214 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
one person directs this. But the ordinary Roman
custom, when a larger number of persons is confirmed,
is to omit the laying on of the hand while anointing,
although the bishop extends his hands towards the
candidates just previously.^ The use of the sign of
the cross in Confirmation was continued in England
long after the Reformation, and in the eighteenth
century it was practised in Scotland, sometimes with
the addition of the Chrism itself.
The First English Prayer Book neither mentioned
the use of Chrism nor forbade it. After the versicles
and the first prayer the Office proceeded thus :
Minister. Sign them, O Lord, and mark them to be Thine for
ever, by the virtue of Thy holy cross and passion. Confirm and
strength them with the inward unction of Thy Holy Ghost,
mercifully unto everlasting life. Amen. Then the Bishop shall
cross them in the forehead, and lay his hand upon their heads,
saying : N. I sign thee with the sign of the cross, and lay my
hand upon thee : In the Name of the Father, etc. And thus
shall he do to every child one after another. And when he hath
laid his hand upon every child, then shall he say, The peace of the
Lord abide with you. Answer. And with thy spirit.
The collect ' Almighty everliving God, Who makest
us,' etc., was taken in 1549 from a collect in the Order
of Confirmation of Archbishop Hermann of Coin.
In 1552 the whole of this beautiful form from ' Sign
them ' to ' with thy spirit ' was omitted, and there was
inserted the present prayer :
Defend, O Lord, this child with Thy heavenly grace, that he
may continue Thine for ever, and daily increase in Thy Holy
Spirit more and more until he come unto Thy everlasting king
dom. Amen.
In 1661 the Office was expanded. The Our Father
was inserted immediately after the laying on of the
bishop's hand, and before the blessing was placed the
' Cf. the present Roman manner of ordaining a priest, see p. 265.

THE ORDER OF CONFIRMATION 216
ancient collect, ' O almighty Lord, and everlasting God.'
At the beginning of the Office there was printed
the present rubric, preface, and interrogation by the
bishop. This preface in the previous editions of the
Prayer Book existed in the form of opening rubrics
to the Order of Confirmation, The shifting of it in
1661 has led to a deplorable mistake. It states that
children 'ratify and confirm' ('confess' 1549) when
they come to the years of discretion what their god
fathers and godmothers promised for them in Baptism,
So long as this statement occurred only in the rubrics
it was hardly possible for it to cause any misunder
standing, as it came at the head of the Catechism
which was printed as a preliminary to the Order of
Confirmation, But the insertion of it in the actual
Order of Confirmation had led the ignorant to confuse
the two senses in which the word 'confirm' is em
ployed, and even to imagine that the Church of
England teaches that 'to be confirmed' by the Holy
Spirit means no more than 'to confirm' by our own
breath what our godparents promised.
It is to be feared that some of the clergy have been
guilty of a mistake only less serious in requesting
their bishop to permit the singing of a hymn im
mediately before the laying on of his hand. Inasmuch
as the laying on of the hand depends directly upon
the previous prayer for the gifts of the Spirit, such
an interpolation is a liturgical error of the gravest
kind. It is difficult to find a parallel to it except
in the action of the ignorant bishops of the later
Middle Ages, who recited the ancient Roman prayer
for the ordination of a priest without any intention
of ordaining the candidates until several additional
ceremonies had been performed.
The rubric at the end of the service which enjoins
that ' none shall be admitted to the Holy Communion,
until such time as he be confirmed, or be ready and

216 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
desirous to be confirmed,' corresponds almost precisely
vnth the mediaeval canon passed under Archbishop
Peckham. It appears that in some parts of the
Continent the Anglican clergy give Holy Communion
to Presbyterians and German Lutherans. It should
be remembered that both these denominations have
repudiated the episcopate, and with it any genuine
confirmation. It is therefore a direct violation of the
rules of our Church to administer the Eucharist to
such persons.

CHAPTER XII
THE 'FORM OF SOLEMNIZATION OF MATRIMONY
A contract of eternal bond of love,
Confirm'd by mutual joinder of your hands.
Attested by the holy close of lips,
Streng^hen'd by interchangement of your rings.
And all the ceremony of this compact
Seal'd in my function, by my testimony.
Shakespsabi:, Twelfth Night, Act v. Sc, 1.
The present Form of Solemnization of Matrimony
differs very little from that issued in 1549, and it is
substantially the same as that in the Sarum Manual,
though influenced by the Consultatio of Archbishop
Hermann. It seems that in the earUest ages of the Church there
was no special benediction of Matrimony except a
special Eucharist. The man and woman are them
selves the ministers of Holy Matrimony, and their
acceptance of one another as husband and wife in the
presence of witnesses constitutes a valid marriage.
The Roman bride as a sign of her marriage was
covered vidth a flame-coloured veil; so S. Ambrose
speaks of this flammewn nuptiale, and Pope Siricius
speaks of marriage vows ' at which we were present at
the veiling.' 1 Tertullian also about a.d. 210 speaks
of the happiness of a marriage which the Church
counsels, which the oblation of the Eucharist confirms,
and a benediction seals. ^ The Leonine Sacramentary
' Epp. Ambrosii, 8o. ^ ^^ Uxor. ii. Q. 217

218 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
shows that in the sixth century there was at this
Eucharist a prayer inserted before the consecration,
and a short prayer and a long Eucharistic prayer after
the Our Father and before the Fraction of the bread.
These two latter prayers formed the benediction, and
were pronounced while a veil was held over the man
and his wife. This veil is distinct from the marriage veil
of the bride. It is called by S, Ambrose ' the priestly
veil,' and was commonly used until lately in France
and Spain, though the fact that it has disappeared
in Italy is causing its disappearance in other lands.
For several centuries at Rome, and perhaps still
longer at Milan, no other religious service was held at
a marriage than such a Eucharist as that which we have
noticed. But the disappearance of paganism and the
absorption of all social life into the Church caused the
Roman civil ceremonies of marriage to become a part
of ecclesiastical ritual. This is first shown in the reply
of Pope Nicholas I, to the Bulgarians in a,d, 866, He
divides th,e various ceremonies of marriage as follows: —
(1) The sponsalia or espousals, being the promise of
of marriage with the consent of the parents ;
(2) The subarrhatio or giving of the ring by the man
to the woman ;
(3) The conveying of the dowry by a written docu
ment in the presence of witnesses.
All this was preliminary. The actual marriage
consisted of: —
(a) The Mass at which the man and the woman
both take part in the Offertory and in the
Communion ;
(b) The benediction pronounced while the veil is held
over their heads ;
(c) The coronation as they leave the church. The
crowns used were usually kept in the church.

THE FORM OF SOLEMNIZATION OF MATRIMONY 219
All these ceremonies were the ancient Roman cere
monies, with the all-important exception that the Holy
Eucharist was substituted for the worship of pagan
gods with sacrifices of blood. The Roman bride and
bridegroom both wore crowns of flowers, and in the
West this custom has survived in the case of the bride.
In the East large crowns of metal are worn by both
husband and wife, and apparently such crowns were
used at Rome in the time of Nicholas I.
The mediasvai English Offices are midway between
the rites of the ninth century and the modern form in
which several of the old English features are preserved.
The rites differed slightly in different dioceses, and
the vernacular language was largely employed in this
service. An interesting proof of the continued per
sistence of Norman French among the upper classes in
this country is the fact that about 1200 a Council held
at Durham directed the use of either French or English.
The priest, wearing alb and stole, met the man
and woman at the church door. Hence Chaucer in
describing the Wife of Bath says : —
She was a worthy woman all hire live,
Housbondes at the chirche dore had she had five.
But it is certain that as early as 1472 the service was
sometimes begun in modern fashion within the body
of the church at the chancel door. The priest gave a
brief admonition in the mother tongue. The espousals
then took place, the man saying, ' I N. take the N. to
my wedded wyf to have and to holde fro this day
forwarde for better, for wors, for richer, for poorer,
in syknesse and in hele, tyl dethe us departed if holy
chyrche it woU ordeyne, and therto I plight the my
trouthe.' In the woman's formula the present ' love,
cherish, and obey ' was represented by the words ' to be
' This sense of the word having become obsolete, ' depart ' was in
1 66 1 replaced by 'do part.'

220 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
bonere and buxum,' i.e. gentle and obedient — ^words
which were already unintelligible at the beginning of
the seventeenth century. The man then laid gold
and silver and a ring upon a shield or upon the book.
In 1549 these a;re called ' tokens of spousage.' This
custom is retained by the English Roman Catholics,
On the Continent a medal is sometimes used, and in
some places the custom has been given up altogether.
In 1552 the English rubric, which is still retained,
refers to this money as 'the accustomed duty to the
Priest and Clerk.' This rubric reveals two facts : first,
that it was even previously to 1552 the custom to give
these tokens to the priest and the clerk; secondly,
that the wording of the present rubric has caused the
origin of the custom to be forgotten. The money
symbolises the same thing as the ring, to whatever
purpose it may be devoted when the ceremony is over.
The priest blessed the ring with holy water, and the
man took it, saying ' With this ryng I the wed,
and this gold and silver I the geve, and with my body
I the worshipe,^ and with all my worldely cathel I the
endowe.' Placing the ring on the woman's thumb he
said ' In the Name of the Father,' on the second (now
called the first) finger he said ' And the Son,' on the
third he said 'And of the Holy Ghost,' and on the
fourth he said 'Amen.' There is a quaint Sarum
rubric which explains that the ring is placed upon that
finger because it contains a vein connected with the
heart. Having been twice blessed, the man and woman
came to the ' altar step.' Psalm cxxviii. was then said,
as now. They knelt or prostrated themselves, and the
^ The Hereford form has ' honour.' In mediseval English ' worship '
included almost any kind of honour or veneration. The lower sense of
the word 'worship' is still preserved in the modern title 'worshipful.'
A similar ambiguity attaches to adorare and irpoaxuveiv, and has been
a fruitfiil cause of error.

THE FORM OF SOLEMNIZATION OF MATRIMONY 221
Lord's Prayer, versicles and responses followed. Five
coUects then foUowed. The second besought God as
' God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jeicob,' and
the third referred to the sending of the angel Raphael
to guard Tobias and Sara the daughter of Raguel,'
In 1549 these two coUects were compressed into one ;
and in 1552 the reference to ' Thobie and Sara the
daughter of Raguel ' (1549) was omitted as being taken
from the Apocrypha, Then came a collect, of which
' O merciful Lord, and heavenly Father ' in the present
Office is an inferior version. The present final blessing
referring to Adam and Eve is an appropriate fusion of
the fifth Sarum collect and the subsequent benediction.
The Mass then began, the husband and wife being
placed ' between the choir and the altar, on the north
side of the church,' After the Sanctus the married
pair knelt at the altar step, and the pallium or veil
was held over them by four clerics until the Agnus,
when the priest gave the pax to the husband and the
husband kissed his wife. Immediately after the Frac
tion was given the solemn ' sacramental benediction,'
in which the priest spoke of the mystical union between
Christ and His Church, He then went on to offer a
special prayer for the wife that she might be lovable
as Rachel, wise as Rebecca, aged and faithful as Sara,
Part of these prayers is preserved in the prayer ' O God,
Who by Thy mighty power,' but in 1661 the reference
to Rachel, Rebecca, and Sara was omitted. In some
parts of England the husband and wife were given
bread and wine to drink immediately after the Mass,
in memory of the marriage feast at Cana,
In the wording of the service of 1549 one or two
very interesting changes occur. Most of the opening
address, which describes the three reasons for which
Matrimony was instituted, does not occur in any
known copy of the mediaeval English books, but bears
a striking resemblance to an address in a Parisian

222 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Rituale of the seventeenth century, and similar forms
are found in several continental books, both Catholic
and Lutheran, Cranmer evidently derived it from a
Lutheran ritual, probably that of Schwabisch-Hall,
and inserted it into some words of the Sarum use. It
can be traced back in substance to the schoolmen, such
as S, Thomas Aquinas and Peter Lombard,
Another remarkable addition is to be found in the
words said by the priest on joining the hands of the
bride and bridegroom : ' Those whom God hath joined
together let no man put asunder,' The sentence is
found in Hermann and some early Lutheran rituals,
such as that drawn up in 1526 by Osiander, It is no
doubt derived from mediaeval forms used on the
Continent. The Polish Catholics used it in the
eighteenth century, and it occurs in the Ambrosian
rituals. From 1549 to 1661 it was the rule in the Church of
England not only that there should be a celebration of
the Eucharist, but also that the husband and wife
should communicate according to primitive custom.
In 1661 the rule was altered, and Communion, instead
of being compulsory, was said to be ' convenient,'
i.e. fitting. No doubt the alteration was due to the
pious wish that the Holy Sacrament should never be
profaned, but we may nevertheless regret that the
Christian Church should have so lost her first love of
Christ that the old rule should have become modified.
The service cannot be performed by a deacon, as the
Church of England retains the primitive and mediaeval
rule that only a priest may pronounce the nuptial
benedictions. Note on the Wedding Ring. — There is a strange similarity
between the modern English and the modern Roman custom
with regard to the wedding ring. In both rites the husband
places it immediately on the third finger of his wife's left hand.
According to the mediseval English custom, it was placed on

THE FORM OF SOLEMNIZATION OF MATRIMONY 223
the thumb and each finger of the right hand until it rested on
the third finger (then called the ' fourth ' finger). The English
Roman Catholics, who have continued to use a modified form of
the Sarum marriage service, kept the old English custom at least
as late as the time of James II. They now, since at least 1769,
have adopted the custom of placing the ring on the left hand,
though they still place it on each finger in turn. The Roman
books began to say definitely that the ring must be placed on
the left hand about 1600, but the practice existed in Italy some
time earlier. The direction to put the ring at once on the finger
where it is intended to remain, occurs in the Roman Sacerdotale
of 1637. Cranmer's adoption of this continental custom is very
remarkable, and it is possible that both he and the Roman
revisers were influenced by the Renaissance authors who
described the ancients as wearing their rings on the left hand.

CHAPTER XIII
THE ORDER FOR THE VISITATION OF THE SICK,
AND THE COMMUNION OF THE SICK
Cut off even in the blossoms of my sin,
Unhousel'd, disappointed, unanel'd ;
No reckoning made, but sent to my account
With aU my imperfections on my head.
Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act i. Sc. 5.
§ 1. The Visitation of the Sick.
This Office is based upon the beautiful Office in the
use of Sarum. As the priest proceeded to the sick
man's house the Seven Penitential Psalms were sung,
concluding with the antiphon, ' Remember not. Lord.'
When the priest had entered the house he said, ' Peace
be to this house and to all that dwell therein : peace be
to those that go in and to those that go forth.' Then
the priest sprinkled the sick man with holy water, and
a short series of versicles and responses followed, begin
ning with 'Lord have mercy,' 'Christ have mercy,'
and continuing with the Lord's Prayer, and the sen
tences which are so weU translated in our present Office.
Then followed nine coUects, of which only two were
translated in 1549. These two prayers were somewhat
altered when translated, and the second was further
altered in 1661 when the reference to the apocryphal
story of ' Thobie and Sara' was omitted.
221

THE VISITATION OF THE SICK 226
The Office still continues on the lines of the medi
aeval rite. The priest was wont to say, ' Dearly beloved
brother, give thanks to almighty God for all His bene
fits, patiently and gently bearing the weakness of body
which He hath sent upon thee ; for if thou endure it
humbly without murmuring, it bringeth the greatest
reward and health unto thy soul. And, dearly beloved
brother, because thou must go the way of all flesh, be
firm in the faith,' etc. The priest then expounded the
articles of faith with regard to the Trinity and the
Incarnation, or, if the sick man was unlearned, very
briefly questioned him. He then urged him to do
works of charity, to make amendment for the injuries
which he had done, and forgive the injuries which he
had received. Then he exhorted him to confess his
sins : —
'If thou desirest to attain to the vision of God, it entirely
behoveth thee to be pure in mind and clean in conscience ; for
Christ saith in the Gospel, Blessed are the pure in heart for they
shall see God. If therefore thou desirest to have a pure heart
and whole conscience, confess all thy sins.'
The priest then heard the sick man's confession, and
absolved him from all his sins. So also in our present
Office the sick man is exhorted to repentance, forgive
ness, and charity, and to dispose justly of his goods, if
he has not already done so. After this comes the
rubric Here shall the sick person be moved to make a
special Confession of his sins, if he Jeel his conscience
troubled with any weighty matter. After which Confes-
sion, the Priest shall absolve him (if he humbly and
heartily desire it) qfier this sort.
Our Lord Jesus Christ, Who hath left power to His Church to
absolve all sinners who truly repent and believe in Him, of His
great mercy forgive thee thine offences : And by His authority
committed to me, I absolve thee from all thy sins. In the Name
of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.
This form of absolution, so rich in the comfort of

226 THE VISITATION OF THE SICK AND
the Gospel, and so close in its adherence to our Lord's
own words, is followed by an adaptation of the ancient
Gelasian absolution of a dying penitent ; and the first
part of the service then concludes.
The second part of the service now contains an ugly
gap. The minister repeats 'the Psalm In thee, 0 Lord,
have I put my trust, adding the exquisite mediaeval
antiphon, ' O Saviour of the world. Who by Thy Cross
and precious Blood hast redeemed us. Save us, and help
us, we humbly beseech Thee, O Lord.' Then he pro
nounces a benediction composed in 1549, and a second
benediction which, with four occasional prayers, was
added in 1661. In all this no single word is said about
the anointing of the sick man to which the recitation
of the aforesaid Psalm was formerly a preliminary.
The scriptural practice of anointing the sick was
retained throughout the Middle Ages, and by our own
Reformers in 1549. It disappeared in the Calvinistic
revision of 1552, and its disappearance throws a lurid
light upon the attitude of English Puritanism towards
traditions ' not repugnant to the word of God,' but in
accordance with that word.
The duty of anointing the sick is expressly laid upon
the presbyters in S. James v. 14-16 : ' Is any among you
sick ? let him call for the elders of the church : and let
them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the
Name of the Lord : and the prayer of faith shall save
him that is sick, and the Lord shall raise him up ; and
if he have committed sins, it shall be forgiven him.
Confess therefore your sins one to another, and, pray
one for another, that ye may be healed.' Confession,
prayer, and anointing are here mentioned side by side.
In the second century some Gnostic heretics, who
parodied the rites of the Church, are known to have
anointed the dying, thereby perverting a rite intended
for the recovery of the living. Very interesting is
the fact of the recent discovery of a prayer for the

THE COMMUNION OP THE SICK 227
consecration of 'oil of the sick' among the prayers
used by Bishop Serapion of Thmuis in Egypt about
350. This anointing is also directed in the Apostolic
Constitutions about a.d. 375.
In the Eastern Church this rite has been maintained
unimpaired unto the present day. In the Churches of
Western Europe the anointing of the sick came to be
known as Extreme or Last Unction, inasmuch as a
Christian was anointed at Baptism and again at Confir
mation, so that to be anointed in time of sickness was
to receive the last kind of unction which was bestowed
upon a Christian. The Sarum rite retained the temper
of the primitive service. The prayers which it directs
are prayers for the recovery, bodily and spiritual, of
the sick man, and it is plainly laid down that the
anointing may be repeated if necessary. In spite of
the unmistakable meaning of the words employed, it is
probable that it was often used as an unction in
extremis, and administered to those who were obviously
dying. This popular burlesque of the rite still exists
on the Continent of Europe. The Abbe Gratry, one
of the brightest ornaments of French Catholicism in
the nineteenth century, denounced in burning words
this practice of administering Unction to ' corpses.' ^
The English Prayer Book of 1549 contains the fol
lowing form of anointing : If the sick person desire to
be anointed, then shall the Priest anoint him upon the
forehead or breast only, making the sign of the cross,
saying thus :
As with this visible oil thy body outwardly is anointed : so
our heavenly Father, Almighty God, grant of His infinite good
ness that thy soul inwardly may be anointed with the Holy
Ghost, Who is the Spirit of all strength, comfort, relief, and
gladness : and vouchsafe for His great mercy (if it be His blessed
wiU) to restore unto thee thy bodily health, and strength, to
serve Him ; and send thee release of all thy pains, troubles, and
diseases, both in body and mind. And howsoever His goodness
^ Philosophic du Credo, p. 238.

228 THE VISITATION OF THE SICK AND
(by His divine and unsearchable providence) shall dispose of
thee : we. His unworthy ministers and servants, humbly beseech
the Eternal Majesty to do with thee according to the multitude
of His innumerable mercies, and to pardon thee all thy sins,
and offences, committed by all thy bodily senses, passions, and
carnal affections : Who also vouchsafe mercifully to grant unto
thee ghostly strength by His Holy Spirit to withstand and
overcome all temptations and assaults of thine adversary, that
in no wise he prevail against thee, but that thou mayest have
perfect victory and triumph against the devil, sin, and death,
through Christ our Lord : Who by His death hath overcomed
the prince of death, and with the Father and the Holy Ghost
evermore liveth and reigneth God, world without end. Amen.
Usque quo Domine, Ps. xiii.
Although this Last Unction has been called 'the
lost Pleiad of the Anglican firmament,' it should be
remembered that the English Church is not the only
branch of the Church Universal which has neglected it
after misusing it. The Church of Rome for a long
time permitted the abeyance of Unction of the sick
among the Uniate Armenians (i.e. Armenians retaining
Armenian rites but accepting Roman doctrine), the
Armenians having formerly been in the habit of post
poning Penitence with the idea that their sins would
be remitted by Unction.^ It would have been wiser of
the clergy both in England and Armenia to explain
the rite of Unction instead of abolishing it. The
Uniate Armenians have already restored it, and there
are at least some Anglican dioceses where it has recently
been revived with the bishop's sanction.
It is practically certain that some of the Scottish
bishops in the eighteenth century consecrated oil not
only for the chrism used in Confirmation, but, also for
the unction of the sick. There was long preserved
a case which had belonged to Bishop Alexander of
Dunkeld, and contained two vials, one for Confirmation
and another for Unction.^
' Issaverdenz, Rites de Cirlmonies (Venise, 1876), p. 62.
^ Walker, Life and Times of Dean Skinner, p. 120 (Skeffington,
London, 1883).

tHE COMMUNION OF THE SICK 229

§ 2. The Communion of the Sick.
The Office for the Visitation of the Sick is foUowed in
the Book of Common Prayer by the Office for the
Commimion of the Sick, which it is permitted to com
bine with the former Office. A lengthy rubric precedes
the service, saying that ' if the sick person be not able
to come, to the Church, and yet is desirous to receive
the Communion in his house; then he must give
timely notice to the Curate, signifying also how many
there are to communicate with him (which shall be
three, or two at the least), and having a convenient
place in the sick man's house, with all things necessary
so prepared, that the Curate may reverently minister,'
etc. A special collect opens the service, followed by
an Epistle, from Heb. xii. 5, and a Gospel, from S. John
V. 24. The priest is then to proceed according to the
form prescribed for a public celebration of the Holy
Communion, beginning at the words Ye that do truly,
etc., and apparently continuing to the end of the
Office. The companions of the sick person are to
receive the Communion immediately after the celebrant,
and last of aU the sick person. Such are the directions
contained in the first two of the five rubrics that are
printed at the end of the Office. The third of these
rubrics points to spiritual communion as a true par
taking of the Body and Blood of our Saviour granted
to those who are in a state of grace, but are unable to
receive the Sacrament ; the fourth rubric directs that
the form of the Visitation of the Sick may be abbrevi
ated if the sick person is visited and receives the Holy
Communion ' all at one time ' ; the fifth rubric says
that ' in the time of the Plague, Sweat, or such other
like contagious times of sickness or diseases' the
minister may communicate alone with the diseased
person.

230 THE Visitation of the sick and
The present Office is derived from that of 1549,
which is as follows : —
O praise the Lord, all ye nations, laud Him, all ye people ;
for His merciful kindness is confirmed towards us, and the
truth of the Lord endureth for ever. Glory be to the Father,etc.
Lord have mercy upon us. | ^.^^^„^
Christ have mercy upon us. ^ repetition.
Lord, have mercy upon us. j ^
The Priest. The Lord be with you.
Answer. And with thy spirit.
Let us pray. Almighty everliving God, etc.
The Epistle. Heb. xii. My son, despise not, etc.
The Gospel. John v. Verily, verily, etc.
The Preface. The Lord be with you.
Answer. And with thy spirit.
Lift up your hearts, etc., unto the end of the Canon.^
It should be observed that in 1549 this Office for
the celebration of the Mass in the house of a sick
person was somewhat of the nature of a novelty, and
it was only intended as an alternative for the older
practice. The rubric directed that if a sick person
was to receive the Communion on the same day in
which there was a celebration in the church (and in
most churches there would be a celebration every day),
the priest should reserve so much of the Sacrament of
the Body and Blood as should serve the sick person,
and so many as should communicate with him, if there
were any. The portion intended for reservation would
in all probability be put aside in a pyx or other seemly
vessel immediately after the priest communicated him
self at the Eucharist. The service employed in com
municating a sick person with the reserved Sacrament
was, the general Confession, the Absolution, with the
comfortable sentences of Scripture, the distribution of
the Holy Communion, and the Collect ' Almighty and
everliving God, we most heartily thank Thee,' etc.
This practice of reserving the Holy Sacrament for
' That is, probably, unto the end of the Our Father which is at the
end of the Canon.

THE communion OF THE SICK 231
those unable to communicate in church dates from a
remote antiquity. In the earliest complete account of
the Eucharist, that written by Justin Martyr about
a.d. 152, it is expressly said that the deacons took
the Sacrament to those who were not present. It is
difficult to say whether the statement of Justin
Martyr implies that the Sacrament was reserved only
for immediate use, or also for use after a longer period.
In any case it is plain that the celebrant reserved
the Sacrament for the purpose of communicating the
absent. An instance of reservation about the year
A.D. 250 implies continuous reservation of the Sacra
ment. The story occurs in a letter written by the
famous Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria.^ It relates
that a certain Sarapion having lapsed from the faith,
was seized with sickness, and thereupon his faith
returned, and he sent a boy to the priest to ask that
he might have the Holy Commimion. The boy ran to
the priest, but the priest was also sick and could not
go ; but having the Holy Sacrament reserved, he took
a portion, which he entrusted to the messenger. The
Sacrament was brought to Sarapion, and administered
just in time for him to receive it before he died. The
13th Canon of the First Council of Nicaea, a.d. 325,
the first General Council of the Church, regards it of
great importance that the dying should not be de
prived of the consolation of the last ' food for the
journey ' — in Greek i^oSiov, in Latin Viaticum. The
Canon certainly implies that such provision should be
made that there should be no risk of the Church
failing to provide this Viaticum, and it can scarcely
be doubted that continuous reservation is meant. It
is certain that such reservation was practised during
the fourth century in the cathedral church at Con
stantinople, and it can be traced throughout the whole
Catholic Church. ^ Eusebius, H.E., vi. 44.

232 THE VISITATION OF THE SICK AND
An early instance of reservation in England is im
plied in the story related by Bede of the death of
Caedmon, the poet of Whitby, He was seized with
sudden sickness, and asked the monks if they had the
Eucharist in the chapel or within the house. It was
brought to him, and he received it before dying. The
principle of continuous reservation of the Sacrament
was repeatedly recognised in the Church of England,
the reservation being suitably regulated by laws which
forbade the Sacrament to be reserved for more than
a week after consecration, and commanded it to be
carried to the sick by a priest, or at least by a deacon,
and directed it to be carried with fitting dignity and
ceremonial. Suitable places were made for the reserved
Sacrament in the churches. In Rome and in Scotland
it was usual to reserve it in a handsome niche or cup
board in the chancel wall ; sometimes it was placed in
a little stone tower, delicately carved, such as may be
seen at Lean in Belgium and at S. Sebald's, Niirnberg ;
frequently it was suspended over the altar in a hanging
pyx of precious metal. These pyxes were occasionally
made in the form of a dove, such as that still used at
Amiens in France. Several of these ancient doves are
still in existence, the older being so constructed as to
hold the consecrated wine as well as the consecrated
bread. It is worth noting that in the Anglo-Saxon
Church, as in the Eastern Church, the Holy Sacra
ment was not carried in procession for the purpose of
encouraging the people to adore the presence of Christ
in the Sacrament. Nor did the Church of England at
any period employ the rite known as Benediction.
This rite took its rise in Italy during the sixteenth
century, and consists in placing the reserved Sacrament
upon an altar while incense is offered and litanies
recited, after which the priest holds the Sacrament
over the congregation in token of the divine bene
diction. Neither priest nor people communicate at

THE COMMUNION OF THE SICK 233
Benediction, the service being totally distinct from
the celebration of the Eucharist, though sometimes
appended to it.
Putting aside all further consideration of reservation
for Benediction and similar rites, which have neither
primitive authority nor the Ecumenical sanction of the
whole Church, it remains to ask whether reservation
Jor the sick is not still lawful as well as necessary in the
Church of England.
Of its practical necessity there can be no doubt. A
private celebration of the Eucharist, where the con
ditions laid down by the Prayer Book can be fulfilled,
is both right and edifying. Such a service has been
described by the angelic genius of Mr. Keble : —
A simple altar by the bed
For high Communion meetly spread.
Chalice, and plate, and snowy vest. —
We ate and drank : then calmly blest.
All mourners, one with dying breath.
We sate and talk'd of Jesus' death.
But there are numberless instances where the condi
tions laid down in the rubrics for such a celebration
cannot be fulfilled. Few members of the Church
of England will dispute the opinion of the eminent
Roman theologians who hold that a priest may
celebrate non-fasting if he celebrates at a late hour of
the day in order to give the Viaticum to the dying.
But such a relaxation of a rule does not remove all
difficulties. A private celebration is far too long for
a person at the point of death, as well as for persons
exhausted by such maladies as consumption or heart
disease. These sufferers sometimes earnestly desire
Holy Communion, but cannot receive it if they have
to wait for a fresh consecration of the Sacrament. In
times of infectious disease, the priest runs a great risk
of carrying the infection to his other parishioners if he
celebrates in the sick man's house. And lastly, in the

234 THE VISITATION OF THE SICK AND
crowded and heathen tenements of our large towns, it
is frequently impossible to celebrate with decency or
quiet, or to secure two persons to communicate with
the sick person. These circumstances demand reser
vation for the sick, and in the Episcopal Church of
Scotland, with which the Church of England is in full
communion, such reservation has been continued for
generations. It has also the primitive and Ecumenical authority
of the undivided Church which the Church of England
is so peculiarly bound to maintain. In point of view
of both law and charity it must be maintained that
only the most explicit and precise prohibition by the
whole authority of the Church of England could
render such a practice unlawful in the Church of
England. Our formularies contain no such prohi
bition, but certain objections raised against the legality
of reservation must be noticed.
It is maintained that (1) the sixth rubric at the end
of the Communion Service, inserted in 1661, forbids
reservation because it forbids the Sacrament to be
' carried out of the Church,' and orders it to be
' reverently ' consumed. But the argument drawn
from this rubric melts into air upon examination. The
rubric was inserted at the advice of Bishop Wren, a
decided Catholic. He intended it to strike not at
reservation but at irreverence.^ We have records of
certain profane clergymen of the seventeenth century,
who consecrated a large quantity of bread and wine,
' Wren, having mentioned that at Westminster, ' if I remember
aright,' and elsewhere, ' plain wafers have ever been used ' for the
Communion, suggested the following rubric : — What remaineth of the
Bread of any Loaf or Wafer that was broken for the use of the Com-
mttnion, or of the Wine that was poured out, or had the Benediction,
the Curate shall, after the Service is ended, take some of the Communi
cants to him, there to eat and drink the same. But all the rest in both
kinds, the Curate shall have to his own use. — ^Jacobson, Fragmentary
Illustrations of the History of the Book of Common Prayer, p. 84.

THE COMMUNION OF THE SICK 235
and then removed the surplus not required for Com
munion to their own houses. The rubric put a, stop
to this profanity, and is similar to a rubric directing
the consumption of the elements in the Sarum Missal,
which certainly did not intend to forbid reservation.
It is maintained that (2) reservation is forbidden
by the 28th Article, which says that 'the Sacrament
of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's ordinance
reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped.'
Here once more it is contemporary history which must
be studied. The extreme rarity of communions
at the end of the Middle Ages resulted in the fact
that the reservation of the Sacrament existed almost
entirely for the sake of the worship of the Sacrament.
Against such a change it was necessary to protest, and
to assert that the Eucharist was ordained for those
very purposes which recent customs had overshadowed.
The Article does not say that reservation is wrong
or blasphemous like certain other mediaeval practices.
And that it was not understood as an absolute
prohibition of reservation is shown by the fact that
reservation is provided for by the Latin Prayer Book
of 1560. It is also important to notice that Bishop
Sparrow in his Rationale, of which the earliest extant
copies are dated a.d. 1657, seems to be wholly uncon
scious that the 28th Article could be quoted against
such reservation. He notices that the Prayer Book
then in use (that of 1604) does not direct how much
of the Communion Service shall be used for the
Communion of the sick, and he refers to the First
Prayer Book of Edward VL as showing what ought to
be done in such a case. It is perfectly plain that he
could not have referred to the direction to reserve
the Sacrament if he had thought that the Article
prohibited it.
Finally, it has been supposed that the Prayer Book
attaches less importance than the mediaeval books to

236 VISITATION AND COMMllNIO>f OF THE SICK
sacramental communion, and shows that reservation
is not to be regarded as necessary (when the Eucharist
cannot be celebrated) on account of the third rubric
after the Office of the Communion of the Sick. This
rubric asserts that the sick man, if truly believing
and repentant, but unable to receive the Sacrament,
nevertheless ' doth eat and drink the Body and Blood
of our Saviour Christ profitably to his soul's health.'
The reply to this ignorant argument is simple. The
rubric is actually derived from the Sarum Manual,
which taught precisely the same doctrine.^ And our
reformers, instead of attaching less importance to
Communion than the later mediaevalists, insisted on a
minimum of three communions a year instead of one.
It should be added that in mediasvai times it was not
uncommon for those who were dying, and could not
obtain the Eucharist, to make a symbolical communion.
Three blades of grass were sometimes used for this
purpose. The Chronicle of Gaimer (a.d. 1148) shows
how William Rufus acted as he was dying in the New
Forest : — Four times he cried out
And asked for the Corpus Domini,
But there was no one to give it, to him ;
He was in a waste, far from a minster.
Nevertheless, we are told, a hunter
Took some herbs with all their flowers.
And made the king eat a few of them.
This he considered the Communion.
' It is only fair to add that thefpresent Office extends the limits of
the circumstances under which sacramental communion may be
omitted.

CHAPTER XIV
THE ORDER FOR THE BURIAL OF THE DEAD
Prayer for the resurrection, public acquittal in the day
of judgment, and perfect consummation, and bliss of
them that are fallen asleep in the sleep of death, is an
apostolical tradition. Richard Field, Dean of Gloucester,
Of the Church, vol. iv. p. 262 a.d. I606-I6I0.
§ 1. The Mediceval Rites.
The man is little to be envied who can read without
emotion the mediaeval English services for the dead.
If the length of these services arouses our surprise, it
also arouses our admiration for the affection which it
displays for those who have gone to be with Christ.
In early days the body of the departed Christian was
reverently buried — never burned after the pagan Roman
fashion — and the Holy Eucharist was celebrated with
the intention of beseeching for him light and peace.
The Canons of Hippolytus refer to this custom, and
also mention the love-feast which was held after the
Eucharist. The Gelasian Sacramentary contains a
number of Masses to be said for the departed at
different intervals, and also prayers said before the
body is carried out for burial, and others to be used
at the grave. The growth of the Divine Office was
followed by the growth of a special Office of the dead,
and the Placebo and Dirge of this service have already
been mentioned in our account of the Primer. In
237

238 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
addition to the Mass and the Divine Service for the
dead and the prayers at the burial, it was the custom
in England to say a long Commendatio Animarum.
This is distinct from the pathetic litany known as the
Commendatio Animae in Articulo Mortis repeated while
the dying Christian gave up the ghost. It was said as
soon as possible after death, partly in the house and
partly in the church to which the body was taken.
And it is difficult to say which is the more clearly
revealed, the sense of piety or the sense of beauty, in
a service which contains such antiphons, psalms, and
prayers. The pleading refrain 'May Christ Who
called thee receive thee, and may the angels lead thee
unto Abraham's bosom ' is mingled with the trium
phant song ' When Israel came out of Egypt,' and
with the hope that the soul of the departed may be
crowned among the martyrs, and gain the joy of God
amid the gleaming stones of Paradise.
The Inhumatio Defuncti or Burial of the Dead was
performed when Mass was done, the priest wearing an
alb and no cope. This long service began with an
antiphon, the Kyrie, and prayers. The priest asked
those present to pray for the soul of the dead, and the
first section of the service ended with this collect : —
Incline, O Lord, Thine ear unto our prayer in which we
humbly entreat Thy mercy that the soul of Thy servant which
Thou hast commanded to depart from this world, may be placed
by Thee in the region of peace and light, and bidden to be
numbered among Thy saints.
The body was then carried to the grave, the choir
singing Psalm cxiv., and, if time permitted. Psalm xxv.
The grave was opened, another Psalm was sung, and
the antiphon ' Open unto me the gates of righteous
ness and I will enter into them and confess unto the
Lord : this is the gate of the Lord, the righteous shall
enter into it' The grave was blessed, sprinkled with
holy water, and censed, and the body placed therein.

THE ORDER FOR THE BURIAL OF THE DEAD 239
while the Psalm was sung ' Like as the hart desireth
the water brooks, so longeth my soul after thee, O
God.' After the body was lowered the grave was sprinkled
with holy water, the priest scattered earth upon the
body in the form of the cross, then censed it and
sprinkled holy water upon it, a Psalm and antiphon
being sung. Then the priest said, 'I commend thy
soul to God the Father Almighty, earth to earth, ashes
to ashes, dust to dust, in the Name of the Father,' etc.
More prayers were said, then Psalms cxlviii., cxlix., cl.,
and the Benedictus, foUowed by the antiphon, ' I am
the resurrection and the life, he that believeth on Me
though he were dead shall live, and every one that
liveth and believeth on Me shall not die for ever.'
The Psalm Miserere followed shortly afterwards. The
final collect was : —
O God, by Whose mercy the souls of the faithful are at rest,
to the souls of Thy servants and handmaidens who here and in
all places repose in Christ, favourably grant the pardon of their
sins, that absolved from all offences they may with Thee rejoice
without end.
Praying that the Lord would grant to the departed
everlasting rest, and that perpetual light might shine
upon them, the mourners went away.
Such were the rites with which our forefathers were
put to sleep in the green churchyards of England : —
There scattered oft the earliest of the year.
By hands unseen, are showers of violets found ;
The redbreast loves to build and warble there.
And little footsteps lightly print the ground.
§ 2. The Reformed Rites.
The Burial Service of 1549 is much shorter than the
mediasvai rite, and is rather a compilation from various
services for the dead than a translation of the Inhumatio

240 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Defwncti. No service is provided to be said in the
house of the dead. The priest met the corpse at
the ' Church stile,' and the body was carried either
to the church or to the grave, the priests saying, or
the priests and clerks singing, ' I am the Resurrection,'
' I know that my Redeemer,' ' We brought nothing into
the world.' i The first sentence is the old antiphon to
the Benedictus, the second is the respond after the first
lesson in the first Nocturn in Mattins for the Dead, and
the third was appropriately added by the compilers.
At the grave were sung the words ' Man that is born,'
which is from the fifth lesson in the Sarum Mattins for
the Dead, followed by the antiphon ' In the midst of life,'
which is based upon the Lenten antiphon to the Nunc
dimittis in the Sarum Breviary. This antiphon is of
ancient origin, and its use in the Burial Service was
probably suggested by its use in Heqmann's Consulta
tion. Cranmer's version is partly derived from the
Latin, and partly from a metrical translation by
Coverdale of Luther's paraphrase of the Latin.^ The
priest was directed to cast earth upon the corpse with
the commendation of ' earth to earth, ashes to ashes,'
followed by the antiphon ' I heard a voice,' which was
the antiphon to the Magnificat in the Sarum Evensong
for the Dead. Then followed two fine prayers, the
first of which is as follows : —
We commend into Thy hands of mercy (most merciful Father)
the soul of this our brother departed, N. And his body we
commit to the earth, beseeching Thine infinite goodness, to give
us grace to live in Thy fear and love, and to die in Thy favour :
that when the judgment shall come, which Thou hast committed
to Thy well-beloved Son, both this our brother, and we may be
found acceptable in Thy sight, and receive that blessing which
Thy well-beloved Son shall then pronounce to all that love and
1 It was the sweet old English custom for each mourner to carry a
sprig of rosemary, an emblem of the Resurrection. This was general
in the seventeenth century.
"^ See Dr. Dowden, The Workmanship of the Prayer Book, p. l6l.

THE ORDER FOR THE BURIAL OF THE DEAD 241
fear Thee, saying : Come, ye blessed Children of My Father :
Receive the kingdom prepared for you before the beginning
of the world. Grant this, merciful Father, for the honour
of Jesu Christ, our only Saviour, Mediator, and Advocate.
Amen. The second prayer is from the order of Hermann of
Coin. After the service at the grave ^ there was printed a
service to be performed in church either before or after
the burial. It consisted of Psalms cxvi., cxlvi., cxxxix.,
the lesson from 1 Cor. xv. 26 to the end (part of which
was an alternative Epistle in the Sarum Mass for the
Dead), the Kyrie, Lord's Prayer, and the following
suffrages from the Sarum order : —
Priest. Enter not (O Lord) into judgment with Thy servant.
Answer. For in thy sight no living creature shall be justified.
Priest. From the gates of hell.
Answer. Deliver their souls, O Lord.
Priest. I believe to see the goodness of the Lord.
Answer. In the land of the living.
Priest. O Lord, graciously hear my prayer.
Answer. And let my cry come unto Thee.
The whole concluded with a long prayer, beginning
' 0 Lord, with whom do live the spirits of them that
be dead.' The beginning of the prayer is taken from
one in the Sarum order, and the rest of it shows the
influence of other Sarum prayers.
Immediately afterwards follows The Celebration of the
Holy Communion when there is a Burial of the Dead.
The Introit is Psalm xiii., which occurs not in the
Sarum Mass but in the Inhumatio. The Collect is
practically the same as the last Collect in our present
1 It has been the immemorial custom to lay the body with its fee
eastward, turned towards the dawn. In some places there has been
introduced the custom of burying the bodies of the clergy westward.
This custom seems to have been adopted during the period of the
Renaissance, and has become connected with the idea that the priest
must face his people at the Resurrection. a

242 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
order, the Epistle is 1 Thess. iv. 13 ff., and the Gospel
is S. John vi. 35-41.
In 1552 there came a violent change. Prayers for
the faithful departed, and indeed all words concerning
the departed, were omitted from the Prayer for the
whole state of Christ's Church in the Communion
Service, and the Order for the Burial of the Dead was
modified in such a way as to greatly discourage such
prayers. To appreciate the meaning of this change it
must be remembered that the Calvinists denied that
there was any intermediate place between this life and
heaven, and naturally did not pray for people whom
they believed to be already in heaven and past praying
for. It is difficult to imagine how such an extraordinary
idea could have arisen, when our Lord in the most
explicit language said that He, with the penitent thief,
would enter paradise on the third day before His
resurrection, and more than forty days before He
entered heaven. But the superstition took such deep
root that it has been given a place of honour in the
Presbyterian Westminster Confession, and in many
English parishes it is by no means eradicated at the
present day. That so widely read a man as Cranmer
could have accepted a notion so wholly foreign to the
writers of the first ages of the Church is almost in
credible, and the order of 1552 shows that he made an
effort to preserve a prayer for the dead in a form
calculated to attract as little attention as possible.
The last collect of the order of 1549 appeared in the
following form : —
Almighty God, with Whom do live the spirits of them that
depart hence in the Lord, and in Whom the souls of them that
be elected, after they be delivered from the burden of the flesh,
be in joy and felicity : we give Thee hearty thanks, for that it
hath pleased Thee to deliver this N., our brother, out of the
miseries of this sinful world ; beseeching Thee, that it may please
Thee of Thy gracious goodness, shortly to accomplish the number
of Thine elect, and to haste Thy kingdom ; that we with this our

THE ORDER FOR THE BURIAL OF THE DEAD 243
brother, and all other departed in the true faith of Thy holy
Name, may have our perfect consummation and bliss, both in
body and soul, in Thy eternal and everlasting glory. Amen.
The rest of the service was mutilated by the omission
of all the Psalms and suffrages. No direction was given
to enter the church, and the celebration of the Holy
Communion was ignored. Instead of the priest being
told to cast earth upon the body, the act is to be
performed ' by some standing by.'
It should be observed that, although the Burial
Service of 1559 is the same as that of 1552, Eliza
beth's Primer of 1559 contains distinct prayers for the
dead, and that the Office of the Dead contained in
the Primer and a celebration for the dead were
performed in the 'most public manner at Elizabeth's
command, as already noticed on p. 121.
In 1661 a rubric was prefixed, directing that the
Office should not be used for any who have died un
baptized, or excommunicate, or have laid violent hands
upon themselves. The element of psalmody, expelled
in 1552, was restored by directing that Psalm xxxix. or
xc, or both, should be read in the church before going
to the grave. The lesson from 1 Cor. xv. was now to
be read after the Psalms and not after the burial. In
the committal of the body, the passage ' sure and cer
tain hope of resurrection to eternal life ' was modified
by the insertion of ' the ' before ' resurrection.'
A similar change was made in the coUect which has
been quoted above. The words 'that we with this
our brother, and all other departed in the true faith
of Thy holy Name, may have our perfect consumma
tion' were altered to 'that we, with all those that are
departed in the true faith of Thy holy Name, may
have our perfect consummation.' "The reason for this
is recorded by Wheatly. The Puritans protested,
very reasonably, ' against all that expressed any assur
ance of the deceased party's happiness, which they did

244 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
not think proper to be said indifferently over all that
died.' On that ground, and not because the prayer is
a prayer for the dead, the bishops abbreviated the
clause. Wheatly does not doubt that it is a prayer
for the dead. He says : —
We pray (as it is now) that ' we, with all those that are
departed in the true faith of God's holy Name, may have our
perfect consummation and bliss ' ; which is not barely a sup
position that all those who are so departed will have their
perfect consummation and bliss, but a prayer also that they may
have it.i
The duty of prayer for the dead was repeatedly
inculcated by the great divines of the Church of
England until the revival of Calvinism in the latter
part of the eighteenth century. Numerous illustrations
might be given of the practice, but it will suffice to
give a translation of the beautiful epitaph of the good
Bishop Barrow, a.d. 1680 : —
The remains of Isaac, Bishop of St. Asaph, laid in the hand of
God, in the hope of a joyful resurrection, through the merits of
Christ alone. O ye that pass by into the house of the Lord,
the house of prayer, pray for your fellow-servant that he may
find mercy in the day of the Lord.
There can be no reasonable doubt that: — (1) The
Christian Church inherited prayers for the dead, with
our Lord's tacit or explicit sanction, from the Jewish
(Jhurch, which still employs them ; (2) the whole
Christian Church has sanctioned them, not one ancient
liturgy being without them ; (3) the Church of Eng
land permits them. The Church of England in Article
xxii. condemns, and justly condemns, ' the Romish
Doctrine concerning Purgatory.' That is to say, it
condemns the ordinary doctrine held in the middle of
the sixteenth century by the Christians who believed
in the supremacy of the Pope. That doctrine taught
' Wheatly, Rational Illustration of the Book of Common Prayer,
p. 509 (fourth edition, 1722).

THE ORDER FOR THE BURIAL OF THE DEAD 246
that the intermediate state is a place of torment, and
that souls are continually passing from purgatory to
heaven, before the day of resurrection, in virtue of the
application to them of prayers and 'indulgences' by
their friends on earth. This extraordinary perversion
of the original teaching of the Church survives in the
coarser forms of modern Romanism, and to some extent
even in its best forms. It may be illustrated by the
fact that whereas the venerable Canon of the Roman
Mass prays for the servants of God ' who rest in the
sleep of peace,' Father Faber of the Brompton Oratory,
now the headquarters of English Romanism, quotes as
' true,' though not ' complete,' descriptions of the inter
mediate state which describe it as ' simply a hell which
is not eternal. Violence, confusion, wailing, horror. , . .
The fire is the same fire as that of hell, created for the
single and express purpose of giving torture.'^
No more telling illustration could be given of the
fact that ' the Romish doctrine concerning Purgatory '
is not the same as ' the Primitive doctrine concerning
Paradise,' and that the 22nd Article in condemning
one cannot possibly mean to condemn the other.
Only one thing more is needed to put the matter
outside the area of controversy. It is that a rough
draft of the Articles of the Church of England con
tained a condemnation of prayers for the dead, and
that this was omitted in every authentic edition of the
Articles both in English and Latin.
' All for Jesus, pp. 364-366 (ninth edit. ).

CHAPTER XV
THE THANKSGIVING OF WOMEN AFTER
CHILD-BIRTH ^
In the Sarum Manual this rite is called the Order for
the Pvrfication of a woman cfter child-birth before the
door of the church. The service was very short, consist
ing of Psalms cxxi. ' I will lift up mine eyes,' cxxviii.
' Blessed are all they,' the Kyrie, the Lord's Prayer,
suffrages, and a prayer. The woman was then sprinkled
with holy water, and the priest, taking her by the right
hand, led her into the church, saying ' Enter into the
temple of God, that thou mayest have eternal life, and
live for ever. Amen.' According to the York Manual,
the woman was led into the church at the beginning of
the service. Some old English books contain a strong
protest against the vulgar superstition that women
might not 'enter holy chirche to thanke theyr god'
as soon as they liked after child-birth.
In 1549 the service was called the Order of the
Purification of Women. The rubric directed the
woman to come into the church, according to the
mediaeval use of York. She was to kneel down ' in
some convenient place, nigh unto the quire door.' The
^ In the Manx Gaelic version of 1610 this service is called Losky na
Kannil, the Burning of the Candle (cf. the Manx name for the Feast of
the Purification, Lail More na Kannil, the festal day of Mary of the
Candle). This refers to the old custom of women bearing a lighted
candle when they were ' churched,' and may imply that the custom
was continued after the Reformation.
246

THE THANKSGIVING AFTER CHILD-BIRTH 247
idea of thanksgiving, which was not expressed in the
Sarum rite, was now made prominent in the brief
address at the beginning of the service. Psalm cxxi.
was the only one used, and the rest of the service
proceeded as before. An interesting instance of the
fact that before the Reformation the ' omission ' of a
rubric commanding a practice was not regarded as a
' prohibition ' is to be found in the rubric at the end
of the service of 1549. It directs that the woman
shall ' offer her chrisom \i.e. her child's baptismal robe]
and other accustomed offerings.' This direction does
not occur in the Sarum Manual, but it affords plain
proof that the offering was customary when the Sarum
Manual was employed.
In 1552 the title of the service was altered to what
it now is. The Thanksgiving of Women after Child
birth, commonly called the Churching of Women.
The word ' Purification,' which was likely to be mis
understood, was now omitted. In the same way the
final rubric was altered from ' the woman that is
purified,' etc., to ' the woman that cometh to give her
thanks.' There was no more mention of the chrisom.
Instead of kneeling nigh unto the quire door, the
woman kneels ' nigh unto the place where the table
standeth.' In 1661 the Psalms cxvi. and cxxvii. were substituted
for Psalm cxxi. The direction that the woman should
kneel ' nigh unto the place where the table standeth '
was omitted from the opening rubric, which now
directs that the woman 'shall come into the church
decently apparelled.' This refers to the old custom
that the woman should wear a white veil. Such veils
were worn before the Reformation, and were still worn
in the seventeenth century, and, in fact, regarded as
compulsory.^ It seems probable that during the per-
1 Bishop Sparrow in the Rationale, a.d. 1657, says 'the woman
that is to be churched is to have a veil.' Wheatly, Op. cit., shows that

248 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
secution of the Church under the Commonwealth the
rule was sometimes disregarded, and that it was neces
sary to enforce it again in 1661. The clergy would do
well to provide such a veil for the poorer members of
their flock.
According to a seemly old rule, the woman should
be accompanied by two matrons.
in the reign of James I. a woman was excommunicated for refusing to
wear the veil. In 1662 Bishop Wren, in his visitation of the diocese
of Ely, inquired whether women came to be churched veiled according
to ancient custom.

CHAPTER XVI
A COMMINATION
This service is a substitute for the primitive dis
cipline of penitent sinners which began on the first
day of Lent, and is a modified survival of the later
mediaeval rites for that day. The institution of Lent
dates from the fourth century, and it was in its origin
simply a period set apart for the instruction of catechu
mens and the discipline of repentant sinners. The
latter were treated in a manner very similar to the
treatment of catechumens. The number of days over
which Lent extended varied in different countries, but
there was a steady tendency in the fourth century for
all Christians to join in the prayers and fasts of the
penitents, and out of this noble and instinctive sym
pathy Lent, as we now know it, had its rise.
The rites of Ash Wednesday are first described in the
Gelasian Sacramentary, where we learn that before the
' stational ' Mass the penitents presented themselves to
a priest who clothed them with sackcloth. On Maundy
Thursday they were solemnly restored to communion.
At the beginning of the Mass the penitents were intro
duced by a deacon, who expressed their sorrow for
sin, and the Pope offered a beautiful prayer for their
pardon. By the ninth century the custom of recon
ciling the penitents in this manner had disappeared
at Rome, and by the twelfth century an entirely new
conception was attached to the rites of Ash Wednes-
249

260 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
day. All the faithful, clergy and laity, put themselves
into the position of penitents, and had ashes placed
upon their heads before attending Mass. Even as late
as the ninth century this would have been an impossi
bility. Clergymen in the position of penitents would
not have been allowed to officiate, and the laity in a
like position would not have been allowed to communi
cate. In the fourth century they would not have been
allowed even to be present at the consecration of the
Eucharist. In the present English Office the Penitential Psalm
and the collects and suffrages which follow it are taken
from the mediaeval ceremonial of Ash Wednesday, and
are entirely appropriate. The Maledictions in the
earlier part of the service resemble the Greater Ex
communication which used to be proclaimed in the
English tongue three or four times a year in the un
reformed service. There exists some popular prejudice
against these cursings, under the false impression that
they are of the nature of prayers. On the contrary,
they are merely declarations, and in no sense impreca
tions. They merely announce what God has said, and
the fact that the modern service, like the later mediaeval
service, is for the faithful and not for unreconciled
penitents, makes them chiefly a warning to those who
actually repeat them. When we affirm that the curse
of God is indeed due to certain sins, the use of such an
affirmation is to make us avoid these sins, and repent
of them if we be guilty.
In 1549 the service was simply headed ' The First
Day of Lent, commonly called Ash Wednesday,' and
the first rubric announced that ' After Mattins ended,
the people being called together by the ringing of a
bell, and assembled in the church : The English litany
shall be said after the accustomed manner : which
ended, the priest shall go into the pulpit and say thus.'
In 1552 and 1604 the title was ' A Commination

A COMMINATION 251
against sinners, with certain prayers, to be used divers
times in the year.' The title did not mention Ash
Wednesday, and although the service was no doubt
intended to be used on that day, it is plain that it was
also intended to be used on other occasions also, like
the mediaeval Greater Excommunication. In 1661 the
title was altered to its present form.
This brief account of the service may be closed with
two reflections. First, some may feel a regret that
the service no longer contains the picturesque and
significant ceremony which gave ' Ash ' Wednesday its
present name. But we may remember that in the
omission of the ceremony the Church of England, as in
so many other cases, has returned to the usage of the
old Roman Church. Secondly, we may fully agree with
Cranmer's wish, written in 1549, that the godly public
discipline of ' the Primitive Church ' in the fourth and
succeeding centuries may be restored. But at the same
time we may be thankful that he judged it best that
the man who was burdened with the sense of sin should
avail himself of private confession and ' open his sin
and grief secretly.' The two penitential methods are
adapted to different states of society, and the Church,
which lives to save, has rightly sanctioned both.

CHAPTER XVII
FORMS OF PRAYER TO BE USED AT SEA
These forms of prayer were composed in 1661. They
are believed to have been written by Robert Sanderson,
Bishop of Lincoln (died 1663). They are supplemental
to the services of the Prayer Book which are ordinarily
to be the same at sea as on land, save for the addition
of two prayers to Morning and Evening Prayer. The
other forms are intended for emergencies. There was
ancient precedent for such forms in the ' Missa pro
Navigantibus ' in the Sarum and other Missals, and in
a ' Missa Nautica,' ^ which contained the Mass without
the consecration and communion. The impossibility
of consecrating the Eucharist on an ancient vessel in a
rough sea accounts for the mutilated form of the ' Missa
Nautica.' It should also be noticed that under the
Long Parliament (1640-53) a Presbyterian form of
prayer had been issued for the use of the navy, and
this fact probably suggested the use of special forms of
prayer when the Church and the King were restored.
An additional form is given for a burial at sea, and
in time of imminent danger there is appointed the
confession and absolution from the Communion Service.
An excellent form of thanksgiving after victory is pro
vided ; but Bishop Sanderson does not appear to have
contemplated the possibilities of defeat.
1 Bingham, Antiq., edit. 1855, vol. v. p. 365 ; Durandus, Rationale,
lib. iv. cap. i.

CHAPTER XVIII
THE ORDINAL
Order is heav'n's first law.
Pope, Essay on Man.
§ 1, 2%e Threefold Ministry.
CiiiiisT Himself ordained the first ministers of the
Christian Church, choosing apostles to whom He gave
the solemn commission, 'As the Father hath sent
Me, even so send I you' (S, John xx. 21). After
the death of Judas the apostles elected another to fill
the place of the traitor, thereby showing that they
believed themselves to be in possession of the authority
to send forth others as they had been sent themselves.
When Matthias was chosen to succeed Judas, it was
stated by S. Peter that a qualification for this office
was a personal acquaintance with our Lord's ministry .
from His Baptism to His Ascension. S. Paul also
reckons that among the qualifications of an apostle is
to have seen the Lord. It was the duty of the apostles
to preach to the unbelieving, to exercise a paternal
discipline, and to impart traditions. This much would
be admitted by all professing Christians who accept
the New Testament ; but unfortunately there are many
such persons who sincerely accept the New Testament
but reject the present ministry of the Catholic Church.
The Church maintains that there are three orders of
the ministry which date from apostplic times, and exist
253

254 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
for the permanent life of the Church. The apostles
first appointed deacons to minister to the needs of the
Christians at Jerusalem. Then we learn how the
Gospel spread from city to city, and officials named
presbyters, whose title was an old title used in the
synagogues, were appointed to labour for the salvation
of souls in these cities. These presbyters were also
known by the name of episkopoi, or overseers of the
Church. Finally, when S. Paul saw that his end was
apparently drawing near, he appointed S. Timothy
and S. Titus to act as his delegates in Ephesus and
Crete, with the power to ordain presbyters and deacons.
S. Paul and some of the twelve apostles had exercised
a wandering ministry, but it seems that S. James at
Jerusalem, and afterwards S. John at Ephesus, settled
down and directed the adjacent Churches from one
centre only. We can be almost certain that other
men were appointed in the same manner as S. Timothy
and S. Titus. S. Irenaeus relates how S. Peter and S.
Paul appointed Linus to be the first Bishop of Rome ;
and S. Ignatius of Antioch, who suffered martyrdom
about A.D. 110, was undoubtedly Bishop of Antioch,
and he seems to have been the second who occupied
that position. Ignatius must have been of mature
years before S. John died (about a.d. 98), and his
predecessor may well have been appointed by an apostle.
The seven letters of S. Ignatius show that he regards
episcopacy as essential to the existence of a Church,
and they show us that before the death of the writer
the word episkopos had been appropriately transferred
to the highest order of the ministry and taken from
the presbyters. Inasmuch as these bishops succeeded
to the office of guiding the presbyters, deacons, and
laity, which had been formerly exercised by such men
as S. Timothy and S. Titus, and originally by the
apostles, the Church has scrupulously retained the
teaching of S. Ignatius that no Church is a true Church

THE ORDINAL 266
unless it is governed by a bishop. The episcopate is
thus a golden chain, stretching link by link between
our modern bishops and the apostles of Jesus Christ.
No ministers of religion can receive the power to act as
the representatives of man to God and as ' stewards of
God's mysteries,' unless they receive the laying on of
hands from those whom the apostles and their repre
sentatives ordained for that purpose. This is what is
meant by the doctrine of Apostolic Succession.
In maintaining the truth asserted in the preface of
the present English Ordinal that ' from the Apostles'
time there have been these Orders of Ministers in
Christ's Church ; Bishops, Priests, and Deacons,' we do
not ignore some difficulties which beset this truth.
Some of S. Paul's Epistles show us that in the earliest
days of Christianity there was a rich temporary out
pouring of spiritual gifts, such as prophecy and speak
ing with tongues, which existed side by side with other
gifts which God has been pleased to continue. Corre
sponding with this difference in gifts, there was a
considerable distinction between the ministers required
for evangelisation and those required for pastoral
charges. Moreover, the nomenclature of the Church
was for many years in a fluid state ; final meanings had
not yet been fixed to particular names. Thus, although
the letters of S. Ignatius show us that the meanings
were already fixed at Antioch, the Teaching of the
Apostles and the Epistle of S. Clement, which are only
a few years earlier in date, still call the presbyters
episkopoi, and in the former book we find so-called
'apostles' over the local clergy; S. Paul,i S. Peter,
and S. John seem to have called themselves ' presbyters '
or elders ; and this vague use of the term appears to
have lingered for a long time in some parts of Christen
dom. But in spite of the difficulties occasioned by
1 See I Tim. iv. 14, and 2 Tim. i. 6; 2 S. John I i 3 S. John i;
1 S. Peter v. i.

256 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
some variations in detail, the fact remains true that
the three orders of the ministry date from the apostolic
age ; and while it is wrong to condemn the ' fruits of
the Spirit ' when they are manifested among men who
are without this ministry, it is also wrong to question
the necessity of a system which has such a sacred
sanction.
§ 2. The Ordination of Deacons and Priests.
The present Ordinal of the Church of England was
first drawn up in 1550, and it was prepared as a
companion to the Prayer Book of 1549.^ It was
slightly modified to suit the Prayer Book of 1552, and
was again revised by Convocation in 1661. The
Ordinal only includes Offices for the Ordination of
deacons, priests, and bishops, as the 'minor orders,'
viz. those of sub-deacon, acolyte, exorcist, reader, and
doorkeeper were discontinued at the Reformation,
having for some time previously become mere steps
to the higher offices of the ministry, and having no
essential importance in the ministry of the Church.
All Ordinations, according to immemorial usage, must
take place at a ' sung or said ' celebration of the
Communion Service. A sermon having been delivered,
the archdeacon presents to the bishop the candidates
for the diaconate ; the bishop then inquires of the
congregation whether any of them know of any
^ The Anglican Ordinal was undoubtedly influenced by the ' Ratio
Ordinandi' in Bucer's Scripta Anglicana. The interrogations in
Bucer's form are the basis of those which are proposed to the candi
dates of each order in the Edwardine Ordinal, and the Allocution to
the candidates for the priesthood is taken from the same source.
Bucer had no clear belief in the threefold ministry, but our Ordinal
contains no part of Bucer's work which affects the validity of Anglican
Ordinations. Cranmer, in spite of adopting suggestions from Bucer,
deliberately kept a Catholic structure of the Ordinal. As in the case
of the Mass, he felt constrained to satisfy the bishops of 'the old
learning ' ; and all the bishops appear to have used the reformed Ordinal.

THE ORDINAL 267
impediment which would render any candidate unfit
for Ordination. If no ' impediment or notable crime '
be alleged, the bishop asks for the prayers of the
congregation on behalf of those to be ordained, and
then sings the litany with a special suffrage for the
candidates. The preliminary forms used in the case
of the ordaining of priests are similar.
At the Communion Service special collects are
provided ; that on behalf of the deacons makes mention
of 'the first martyr S. Stephen' as chosen into that
order. Before the Gospel is read the bishop instructs
the candidates for the diaconate in the duties of that
office, and afterwards lays his hands upon every one
with the words, ' Take thou authority to execute the
office of a Deacon in the Church of God committed
unto thee ; In the Name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.' He then delivers
to every one a New Testament, saying, ' Take thou
authority to read the Gospel in the Church of God,
and to preach the same, if thou be thereto licensed by
the Bishop himself.' One of the newly ordained
deacons then reads the Gospel.
At the Ordination of Priests the bishop addresses the
candidates at some length after the Gospel. He then
questions them as to their sense of a call to the
order of priesthood, and asks them whether they will
be faithful in their duties and doctrine, exemplary
in life, and obedient to their ' ordinary and other chief
ministers.' After a prayer for their assistance he sings
the Veni Creator, and then prays that as Christ after
His Ascension sent abroad His apostles, prophets,
evangelists, doctors, and pastors, so those now called
' to the same office and ministry appointed for the
salvation of mankind ' may, with those over whom they
shall be appointed, be the means of glorifying God's
Name and enlarging His kingdom. Then the bishop
with the priests present, lays his hands upon each

268 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
candidate saying, 'Receive the Holy Ghost [for the
office and work of a Priest in the Church of God, now
committed unto thee by the imposition of our hands.^
Whose sins thou dost forgive, they are forgiven ; anc
whose sins thou dost retain, they are retained. Anc
be thou a faithful dispenser of the Word of God anc
of His holy Sacraments ; In the Name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.'
Then, while they still kneel, he delivers to every one
the Bible into his hand saying, ' Take thou authority
to preach the Word of God, and to minister the holy
Sacraments in the congregation, where thou shalt be
lawfully appointed thereunto.'
The Nicene Creed is then sung or said, and the
Communion Service is continued to the end with
special collects before the blessing.
Few rites have been the subject of greater contro
versy than this form for the Ordination of Priests, and
it is necessary to give some special consideration to
its history. At the end of the Middle Ages the
Ordination services, like that of the Roman Church at
the present day, were of a picturesque but very com
posite and confused character. The Old Roman form
for the ordaining of priests had been of a very simple
and intelligible form. One of the most learned of
modem Roman Catholic writers says : ' The whole
rite of the Ordination of deacons and priests, according
to Roman usage, consisted in prayers, some being made
in common by the whole assembly, some being recited
by the Pope over the prostrate candidate.' ^ Shortly
before the Gospel the archdeacon presented the candi
dates for the order of deacon to the Pope. The Pope
then asked the congregation to pray for these servants
of God whom He condescends to call to 'the office of
' The words in brackets were not in the Edwardine form, but were
inserted in 1661.
^ Duchesne, Origines du Culte Chritien, p. 345.

THE ORDINAL 269
the diaconate.' All knelt in prayer, and the choir
sang the litany, after which the Pope laid his hands on
each of the candidates and offered two prayers. The
deacons are compared with the sons of Levi, and God
is asked to send forth upon them His Holy Spirit ' by
Whom they may be strengthened unto the work of
faithfully executing their ministry through the seven
fold gift of Thy grace.' The deacons then received an
embrace from the Pope and took their place with the
older deacons near the Pope's side.
The candidates for the priesthood then came forward,
and the Pope asked the faithful to pray that God ' may
multiply His heavenly gifts upon these His servants
whom He has chosen for the office of the presbyterate.'
The collect or first prayer was this : — ' Hear us, O
God of our salvation, and pour forth upon these Thy
servants the benediction of Thy Holy Spirit and the
might of priestly [sacerdotalis] grace, that Thou mayest
aid with the perpetual bounty of Thy favour those
whom we present for consecration to the regard of Thy
goodness.' In the second or Eucharistic prayer God is
praised for instituting the priestly rank and the functions
of Levites to assist the high priests. Thus in the
desert He gave seventy men to help Moses to rule the
multitudes, and gave to Eleazar and Ithamar, the sons
of Aaron, the abundance of their father's fulness ' that
the worth of the priests might avail for salutary offer
ings and for the mysteries of a more frequent service.'
It is evidently meant that as the priests of the Old
Dispensation assisted the high priest, so the priests of
the New Dispensation are to assist the bishop. Then
the prayer continues, 'By this providence, O Lord,
Thou didst add teachers of the faith as companions of
the apostles of Thy Son, by whom they filled the whole
world with a second rank of preachers. Wherefore,
we beseech Thee, O Lord, bestow these aids upon our
weakness, who in proportion to our frailty need this

260 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
enlarged number. Grant, we beseech Thee, almighty
Father, the dignity of the presbyterate to these Thy
servants ; renew within them the Spirit of holiness, that
they may find accepted by Thee, O God, the office of the
second rank, and by the example of their conversation
may instil the correction of manners. May they be care
ful workers together with our order ; may the form of all
righteousness shine forth in them, that they may give
a good account of the stewardship entrusted to them
and attain the rewards of everlasting blessedness.' Here
again we see that the duty of the presbyter is to aid
the bishop as the teachers aided the apostles. The
prayer as a whole implies, like some of the earliest
Christian documents, that there is an analogy between
the threefold Jewish ministry and the threefold Christian
ministry, but it only suggests in a very vague manner
that the Christian priest has other duties in addition
to that of teaching. Moreover, in some places where
the Roman rite was used, there was no mention of the
conferring sacerdotal power, as the words 'priestly
grace ' were replaced by ' spiritual grace.' In fact, the
Old Roman rite is much less definite with regard to
the duties of a priest than the present English Ordinal.
The presbyters received the laying on of hands before
this prayer, and after it were embraced.
Such was the Roman service in the early days of
English Christianity ; we must now show how the
service became transformed. The transformation is
one of the many instances in which the French love
of ceremonial altered the character of Roman worship.
The famous Missal of the Franks, now preserved in
the Vatican, contains the old Gallican Ordination ser
vices already mixed with Roman elements. The date
of the book is about a.d. 800. The Ordination of the
sub-deacon contains a ceremony which was destined to
have a portentous influence in the history of Christen
dom. Before the bishop blessed him and prayed that

THE ORDINAL 261
the spirit of wisdom and understanding might rest
upon him, he handed to him an empty chalice and
paten, and the archdeacon gave him a napkin, a cruet
of water, and a vessel. This is the traditio instru-
mentorum or 'handing of the vessels,' intended to
remind the sub-deacon that he was. entrusted with the
humble but useful task of keeping the altar linen
clean, taking care of the vessels, and preparing the
bread and wine for Mass. The same Missal of the
Franks shows us a very simple form for the Ordination
of a deacon. The bishop gave the candidate no
vessels, but laid his hand upon him with a prayer
that he might serve in purity in that order which the
apostles had instituted, and which Blessed Stephen
had led.
The Gallican Ordination of a priest, like that of a
deacon, included a short address from the bishop,
asking the congregation to give their testimony as to
the character of the candidate. The congregation,
instead of giving consent to his Ordination by their
silence, replied, 'He is worthy.' The bishop then
said : ' Brethren, let us pray in common, that he who
is elected to aid and promote your salvation may
by the indulgence of the divine favour obtain the
blessing of the presbyterate : that he may maintain
the priestly [sacerdotaJia] gifts of the Holy Spirit by
the prerogative of his virtues, lest he be discovered
unequal to his place.' The bishop and all the priests
then place their hands upon the candidate with the
prayer that God may put forth the hand of His
blessing upon this His servant 'whom we dedicate to
the honour of the presbyterate, that he may meditate
in the Law of God day and night and believe what he
has read, teach what he has believed, imitate what he
has taught.' The prayer goes on to beg that he may
keep the gift of God's ministry unstained, and ' by the
offering of Thy people transform the Body and Blood

262 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
of Thy Son by an unstained consecration.'^ After
this prayer the bishop anointed the hands of the
newly ordained priest, with these words : ' May these
hands be consecrated and sanctified by this anointing
and our blessing: that whatsoever they have blessed
may be blessed, and whatsoever they have hallowed
may be hallowed.' This ceremony of anointing was
suggested by the Old Testament. It is at least
probable that it was first performed in Great Britain,
and from thence spread to France and Spain.
Although this old Gallican Ordination is more
elaborate than the Roman, most of it is quite clear
and intelligible.^ The priest is ordained by the laying
on of the bishop's hands, the bishop having shown the
meaning of the rite which he performs by saying that
it is 'the blessing of the presbyterate' which God is
asked to give the candidate. His duties are defined as
teaching, and consecrating the Eucharist. His hands
are anointed as a symbol of God's ratification of the
blessings which he is to bespeak.
This ceremony of anointing occurs in the Leofric
Missal, which was used at Exeter by Bishop Leofric,
who died in 1072. In this book we see the Old Roman
service in process of change — we can hardly yet say
degeneration — through an admixture of Northern
ceremonies. It contains the two Old Roman prayers
for ' the ordaining of a presbyter.' * The second prayer,
which mentions Eleazar and Ithamar and the teachers
who assisted the apostles, has the prayer for the
1 The Latin in this sentence is difficult to understand, but the strange
words ' transform the Body ' are a usual Gallican phrase.
2 The Gallican prayer was afterwards added to the Roman. The
two occur together in the Gelasian Sacramentary, in which the Roman
prayer is called Consecratio, and the Gallican prayer Benedictio.
' The Leofric Missal does not contain the Gallican Ordination prayer,
which was already repeated in some districts after the Roman prayer,
but the later books, both English and Continental, contain both
prayers, and thus the real degeneration of the rite began.

THE ORDINAL 263
anointing of the hands added to it, and it is headed
' Consecratio,' which plainly shows that the priest was
considered to be consecrated when this prayer was
concluded, or when the prayer and the anointing were
concluded. There is no mention of the Eucharist.
An additional feature, which did not exist in the Old
Roman rite, is a prayer for blessing the stoles given
to the deacons, and the chasubles given to the priests.
The chasuble, having long ceased to be worn by
laymen, and being seldom worn by the deacons, was
now regarded as the peculiar normal ornament of a
priest. We should particularly notice that the Leofric
Missal, faithful to Old Roman usage, does not direct
that any vessels should be given to the priest. Sacred
vessels are given to the sub-deacon at his Ordination,
because he does not receive the laying on of the hand.
These are the words plainly set forth in the Leofric
Missal. It is clear, therefore, that the ancient English
and Roman bishops laid hands upon the candidates for
the priesthood, the ceremony and the office both
having the plain warrant of Scripture. In conferring
the order of sub-deacon they were conferring a rank
unknown in Scripture, and attached to it a ceremony
unknown in Scripture, but perfectly appropriate.
But in the eleventh century this principle began to be
undermined. There was a growing desire to emphasise
the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Sacra
ment, on account of recent controversies concerning
that Presence. Consequently there began the practice,
which developed through several stages, of introducing
ceremonies which called attention to the doctrine of
the Real Presence. After the hands of the priest
were anointed he was given a chalice and wafer with
the words, ' Receive the power of offering sacrifice to
God, and of celebrating Masses on behalf of both the
quick and dead.' These striking words, accompanied
by so conspicuous a ceremony, soon produced their

264 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
natural effect. They began to be considered the most
important thing in the service; the words just quoted
began to be considered as what is technically known
as the ' Form ' of Ordination, i.e. the external words
giving the rite an intelligible shape, and the handing
of the vessels or ' instruments ' was considered as the
' Matter,' or necessary outward sign. In a.d. 1439,
Pope Eugenius IV. distinctly asserted that the handing
of the ' instruments ' is the ' Matter ' of Ordination,
and says nothing about the laying on of hands. The
same view is apparently assumed in the present rubrics
of the Roman service, for after the candidates have
received the vessels they are described as 'ordained,'
whereas until they have received them they are de
scribed as 'those about to be ordained.' ^ Therefore
the present Roman service, as it stands, seems to
assume that the handing of the vessels is essential, an
opinion which is in defiance of the opinion held by the
Catholic Church for the first thousand years. i
But the story of the Ordination Service is not yev
complete. It seems to have occurred to some thoughtj
ful minds in the Middle Ages that it was a misfortune
that the laying on of hands should have become so
completely overshadowed by more modern ceremonies.
To make amends for this defect it was directed that,
after the newly made priests had received Holy Com
munion, the bishop should lay his hands upon them
with the words, ' Receive the Holy Ghost : whosesoever
sins thou remittest they are remitted unto them : and
whosesoever sins thou dost retain, they shall be
retained.' All the early books omit this formula.
Then came the last stage in the corruption of the
service. The first laying on of hands, which was the
essential action in the Old Roman service, and was
' The Sarum Pontifical contains a true survival of the older belief,
for in a prayer before the giving of the vessels, the candidates are cor
rectly called 'Thy priests.'

THE ORDINAL 265
retained in the Sarum books, was omitted at Rome as
unnecessary, and now the Roman Catholic bishops
merely extend their hands when they utter the prayer
which was originally called the ' Consecration,' i.e.
Ordination prayer. A comparison of the Sarum Pon
tifical with the modern Roman Pontifical exposes the
history of the service, a history which is thinly dis
guised by the present rubrics of the Roman Pontifical.
To sum up. At the time of the Reformation the
Sarum Pontifical unmistakably included the following
elements, which are also included in the modern Roman
service : —
(1) A primitive Ordination by the laying on of the
bishop's hands, and prayer ; in the modern Roman rite
an extension of the bishop's hands has been substituted.
(2) A second Ordination according to the Gallican
form, with a consecration by anointing — a rite first
used in England and France.
(3) A third and mediasvai Ordination at the giving
of the vessels or ' instruments.' ^
(4) A fourth and later mediseval Ordination, with
the words used by our Lord, ' Receive the Holy Ghost,'
etc. The English Reformers, although they did not enjoy
the advantage of having copies of the Old Roman
service, composed a service very similar to it, but in
some respects more scriptural. They combined (1)
with (4), omitted (2) entirely, and altered (3) into a
delivery of a copy of the Bible with the words, 'Take
thou authority to preach the Word of God, and to
minister the holy Sacraments in this congregation,
where thou shalt be so appointed.'
It is difficult to perceive how any Christian instructed
^ The form of 1550 directed that the newly ordained deacon who
read the Gospel should first put on the tunicle. At the Ordination of a
priest the bishop was directed to deliver the Bible to each priest in
one hand, ' and the chalice or cup with the bread, in the other
hand.' This was omitted in 1552.

266 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
in the history of the services used in the Ordination
of Priests, could possibly maintain that the English
service is invalid. Yet this was done by Pope Leo XIII.
in his Bull Apostolicae Curae of 1896. The Bull was
produced under strong pressure from a party of
EngUsh Roman Catholics who were afraid that any
decision from the Pope which did not absolutely con
demn Anglican Orders would strengthen the Chm-ch of
England in her assertion of Catholic claims. The Bull
therefore attempted to slide a decent dogmatic basis
under the practice of the English Roman Catholics,
who had circulated ridiculous legends about Anglican
Ordinations and had re-ordained any Anglican priests
who joined the Roman Communion. Leo XIII. put
aside or ignored various legendary difficulties which
had been raised against Anglican Orders, and confined
himself to attacking them on the ground of insuf
ficiency of Form and lack of Intention. The doctrine
with regard to Intention varies much in Roman
theologians. According to the doctrine as taught by
Cardinal Bellarmine and some other eminent Roman
theologians, it is necessary that a minister should have
a general intention of doing what the Church does,
and he asserts that this is taught by the Councils of
Florence (a.d, 1439) and Trent (a.d. 1545-1563).
' There is no need,' he adds, ' to intend to do what the
Roman Church does, but what the true Church does,
whichever Church that may be, or what Christ insti
tuted, or what Christians do ; for these all come to the
same thing.' Now, the most convinced opponent of
the Anglican Church cannot doubt that the English
Reformers intended in ordaining to do what the true
Church does, and what Christ instituted. For they
intended, as the preface to the Ordination Service
shows, to retain the same Holy Orders as existed in the
English Church before the Reformation. It would
therefore be an innovation in Roman doctrine to assert

THE ORDINAL 267
that the English service is rendered invalid by the defect
of Intention which it exhibits.
It is still more impossible to say that the service is
invalid because the Form is insufficient. For this
becomes a mere matter of historical investigation.
The question is settled directly it is proved that the
Catholic Church has tolerated a Form of Ordination
which is not of a particular kind alleged to be neces
sary. Leo XIII. has defined as necessary for a valid
form of Ordination to the priesthood that the form
should contain either the name of presbyter or priest
(sacerdos), or a description of the chief part of his office,
viz. to offer the sacrifice of the Body and Blood of
Christ. The Anglican form is therefore condemned
because it does not definitely express either ' the sacred
order of priesthood ' (or did not definitely express it
before 1662) or ' its grace and power.' It is evident
that in some parts of the English Ordination the office
of priesthood has always been definitely expressed, but
Leo XIII. made light of this fact, and insisted that the
words following 'Receive the Holy Ghost' ought to
have contained a definite reference to the priesthood.
But a speedy retribution has followed the Pope's
quibbling. Within less than three years of his asser
tion there was published the recently discovered Pon
tifical of Bishop Serapion of Thmuis in Egypt, of about
a.d. 350. These prayers are unquestionably orthodox,
and show us how priests were ordained in the time and
country of Athanasius. Now Serapion's form for the
Ordination of a presbyter was as follows : —
We stretch forth the hand, O Lord God of the heavens.
Father of Thy Only-begotten, upon this man, and beseech Thee
that the Spirit of truth may come upon him. Give him the
graces of prudence and knowledge, and a good heart. Let the
divine Spirit come to him that he may be able to be a steward
over Thy people and an ambassador of Thy divine oracles, and
to reconcile Thy people to Thee, the uncreated God. Thou
Who didst give of the spirit of Moses, and put the Holy Spirit

268 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
upon the chosen men, give a portion of the Holy Spirit also to
this man, from the Spirit of Thy Only-begotten, for the grace
of wisdom and knowledge, and right faith, that he may be able
to serve Thee in a pure conscience, through Thy Only-begotten
Jesus Christ, through Whom to Thee be the glory and the
dominion in the Holy Ghost both now and for all the ages of
the ages. Amen.
The above prayer contains no reference to any sacra
mental act except that of reconciliation, which is more
definitely expressed in the Anglican form, and it only
contains a most distant allusion to the presbyterate in
mentioning the 'chosen men' or elders who assisted
Mosesj
§ 3. The Consecration of an Archbishop or
Bishop.
The form for the Consecration of a bishop includes a
special collect adapted from that for S. Peter's Day.
The Epistle is 1 Timothy iii. 1-7. In 1661 an alterna
tive lesson for the Epistle was introduced from Acts
XX. 17-36. The Gospel is S. John xxi. 15-17. The
alternative Gospels from S. John xx. 19-24 or S.
Matthew xxviii. 18 ff. were provided in 1661 instead
of S. John X. 1-17. After the Creed and Sermon two
bishops present the bishop-elect to the archbishop of
the province ' to be consecrated bishop.' The rubric
of 1661 directs that the bishop-elect shall wear his
rochet, which is a shortened form of the alb. The
royal mandate for the Consecration is then read,
and the oath touching the acknowledgment of the
royal supremacy is taken by the bishop-elect, who
also promises 'all due reverence and obedience to
the archbishop, to the metropolitical church of N.
and to their successors.' Before the Reformation
the promise was made to obey the archbishop
' according to the decrees of the Roman pontiffs and

THE ORDINAL 269
their laws.' The archbishop then asks for the prayers
of the congregation, with a reference to the Twelve
Apostles, Paul, and Barnabas, showing that the
bishop-elect is regarded as succeeding to an apostolic
office. The Litany is then sung, with a special
petition for the bishop-elect. Similar petitions were
inserted in the Litany before the Reformation, but
the Litany was preceded by a long examination of
the prelate, both as to his moral character and his
belief He was required to assent to a full statement
with regard to the Trinity and the Incarnation, and to
assert that ' the bread which is placed on the Lord's
table ' is changed ' into the nature and substance of the
Flesh of Christ.' The present examination is after the
Litany, and contains no reference to the doctrine of
the Eucharist. The examination, like the Litany,
concludes with a prayer for the bishop-elect.
The actual Consecration now begins. The bishop-
elect is directed to put on ' the rest of the episcopal
habit.' This should include alb, stole, maniple, tunic
and dalmatic (or dalmatic only), and chasuble. If a
cope be considered sufficient, it should not be placed
immediately over the rochet, but over the more
ancient and dignified alb. The bishop-elect being
vested, kneels down while the archbishop and bishops
sing the Veni Creator.
A long prayer is then offered resembling that which
is said at the ordering of priests, but differing from it
in the greater degree of ' authority ' attributed to the
person about to be consecrated. Then the archbishop
and bishops lay their hands upon the head of the
elected bishop with the words —
Receive the Holy Ghost, for the office and work of a Bishop
in the Church of God, now committed unto thee by the imposi
tion of our hands i ; In the Name of the Father, and of the Son,
' Until 1662 the form used was, 'Take the Holy Ghost, and
remember that thou stir up the grace of God, which is in thee, by

270 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
and of the Holy Ghost. Amen. And remember that thou stir
up the grace of God which is given thee by this imposition of
our hands : For God hath not given us the spirit of fear, but of
power, and love, and soberness.
The archbishop then delivers to him the Bible with
an admirable injunction to give heed unto the things
contained in this Book, to ' be to the flock of Christ
a shepherd, not a wolf; feed them, devour them not.
Hold up the weak, heal the sick, bind up the broken,
bring again the outcasts, seek the lost.' At the
mention of the flock of Christ the archbishop was
directed by the rubric of 1549 to put into the bishop's
hand the pastoral staff. The direction was omitted in
1552, but it is implicitly restored by the Ornaments
rubric.^ The Communion Service then proceeds as usual,
with a special collect before the Benediction.
imposition of hands : For God hath not given us the spirit of fear,
but of power, and love, and of soberness.' See above, p. 135. The
reason why the word ' Bishop ' (and the corresponding word ' Priest ' in
the Ordination of a priest) was not contained in the Edwardine sentence,
was that the sentences themselves were thought to mark the respective
orders, because they had been spoken to the primitive holders of those
orders (see S. John xx.. 22, 23 ; and 2 Tim. i. 6 ; cf. Erasmus' Para
phrase.) It is the same principle on which the words of Institution at
the Eucharist are used by the Roman Church as the words of consecra
tion, and yet Leo XIII. treated the Edwardine sentences as inadequate.
' It should be noticed that when the cope or chasuble is not worn an
illegal use of certain episcopal ornaments has lately been introduced
into certain Anglican dioceses : (a) the wearing of the hood of a Doctor
of Divinity over the rochet and black chimere, an error said to have
been introduced by Dr. Samuel Wilberforce ; (b) the wearing of a
purple cap, a modern ornament of continental origin ; (c) the wearing
of a violet chimere, through confusion with the Italian mantellettum :
the Italian chimere is black ; (d) the wearing of a purple scarf ! Both
before and after the Reformation English bishops usually wore a black
cap, a black chimere, and a scarf, otherwise called a tippet, of black
material covered with sable for protection in cold weather. The
English episcopal cassock may be black, scarlet, or purple ; the fchimere
must be black or scarlet. The hood must not be worn with the black
chimere, but with the scarlet. — See Transactions of S. Paul's Ecclesio-
logical Society, vol. iv. pp. 181-220.

THE ORDINAL 27l
To this service Pope Leo XIII. made two objections
similar to the objections made to the Anglican Ordina
tion of Priests. He first called attention to the fact
that the form used from 1552 to 1662 did not mention
the office of a bishop immediately after the words
' Receive the Holy Ghost.' Secondly, he said that, as
the Anglican rite had eliminated the priesthood, it had
necessarily eliminated with it ' the highest priesthood,'
as the office of a bishop is sometimes called.
The second objection assumes that the Church of
England rejected the doctrine of the Eucharistic
Sacrifice because it rejected a theory — there was no
clearly defined doctrine on the subject — current in the
sixteenth century. The first objection assumes that it
is not enough for a valid Ordination that the rite as a
whole should definitely signify the office of a bishop,
but that it must be signified in the ' form ' used in the
actual Consecration. The Old Roman form does indeed
include a mention of ' the highest priesthood ' and ' the
episcopal chair.' This form is contained in the Leofric
Missal ; another form of ' consecration ' being also pro
vided in which ' the highest priesthood ' is mentioned,
but in which the words ' bishop ' and ' episcopal ' do not
occur. The later mediaeval English pontificals had
both these prayers, and at the end of the latter added
a prayer for the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the
bishop-elect. This was followed by the Gallican cere
mony, gradually introduced in the Roman rite, of
anointing the new bishop.
Now the later mediasvai English method of conse
crating a bishop, though it contains a confusing mix
ture of Roman and Gallican rites, still leaves it possible
for us to suppose that the Consecration was believed to
take place at or immediately after one of the prayers
mentioning 'the highest priesthood.' But the present
Roman Consecration of a bishop is as corrupted as the
present Roman Ordination of a priest. The Old

272 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Roman prayer of consecration is still retained, preceded
by the laying on of hands. This is followed by the
Veni Creator and the anointing of, the head of the
bishop-elect. Then there is a prayer that whosesoever
sins he remits they may be remitted, and that he may
be given the episcopal chair. Then his hands are
anointed, and not until then is he called ' consecrated.'
The modern rubrics only call him ' elect ' even after the
laying on of hands and the old consecration prayer.
The consequence is that the present Roman service is
involved in the same defect as the English service in
the form which was used from 1552 to 1662. Both
rites as a whole show that the candidate is unques
tionably being consecrated to the episcopal order, but
we could hardly say that in either of the two rites
the laying on of hands with prayer would be sufficient
unless the intention and purpose of the Consecration
were made evident by other portions of the service.
The fact, is that Anglican Orders and Roman Orders
stand on the same level, and this was recognised in the
reign of Mary by Pope Paul IV. The Bull says, 'And
all ecclesiastical persons, whether seculars or regulars of
any order, who, under the pretended authority of the
supremacy of the Anglican Church, have milliter et
de Jacto obtained any requests, dispensations, grants,
graces, or indults concerning as well orders as eccle-.
siastical benefices and other matters spiritual, but who
have returned to the bosom of the Church and have
been restored to unity, we will indulgently receive in
their orders and benefices either in our own proper
person or by deputies by us appointed for that pur
pose.' That is to say, Paul IV. treated as null and
void the dispensations, etc., which were obtained from
Edward VI. and not from the Pope, but expressly
ratified the acceptance of Anglican Orders by his legate.
That the Roman Church in the sixteenth century
should have thus acknowledged the validity of Anglican

THE ORDINAL 273
Orders given according to the reformed rite is impor
tant, but something approximating tp an element of
humour is to be found in the fact that the Roman
Church also came very near to pronouncing orders
administered in England before the Reformation to be
invalid. The later Roman mediaeval rite inserted, and
still retains, before the ancient prayer of consecration
the words, ' Receive the Holy Ghost.' And the Council
of Trent, which is regarded as infallible by Roman
Christenciom, says, ' If any one shall have said that by
Holy Ordination the Holy Ghost is not given ; and that
consequently bishops say in vain Receive the Holy Ghost,
let him be anathema.' Morinus,^ an important Roman
authority, holds that this statement includes a reference
to the Consecration of bishops, and it is certain that
the Continental theologians of the later Middle Ages
regarded these words as the absolutely necessary form
in the Consecration of a bishop. But unfortunately
for Roman theology, none of the mediseval English
pontificals, except that of Exeter, contains the words
at all ; and therefore, according to the standard of
the Council of Trent, the modern Anglican form of
consecrating a bishop is better than the form employed
when the Anglican Church was in union with Rome.
^ De sacris ordin. , Pars iii. excerc. 2. c. ii.

CHAPTER XIX
THE PRAYER BOOK IN SCOTLAND, AMERICA,
AND IRELAND
God be thanked, this will do very well. Archbishop
Laud to Bishop Wedderburne of Dunblane, a.d. 1636.
I beheld four ploughs in the north-east which ploughed ,
the whole island, and clear wellsprings came out of the
furrows. I beheld four other ploughs in the north which
ploughed the island athwart, and black streams came out
of the furrows. Vision of S. Brigit.
The close intimacy of race and language which existed
between the Gaels of Ireland and the Gaels of Scotland
was manifested in their common use of Gallican rites,
which gradually succumbed to Roman influences. The
Saxons who colonised the south-east of Scotland natu
rally inclined to the use of Rome, and as the royal house
became more Anglicised, Celtic ecclesiastical customs
gradually disappeared. Scottish Celts had played a
most noble part in spreading the Gospel through
Great Britain. And although it is incorrect to say
that Aidan rather than Augustine was the apostle of
England, it is true to say that the north of England
mainly owes its faith to Aidan and the other sons of
lona, and it is right to rejoice that the life of the
Church of the Gaels was interwoven with that of
the Church of the English. Gradually, however, the
light of zeal began to fail in Scotland, and it was
274

THE PRAYER BOOK IN SCOTLAND 275
then that England gave back what she had received.
When Margaret, grand-niece of Edward the Confessor,
became Queen of Scotland in 1068, she found that
monks were married, that Sunday was neglected, and
that the Scots had even given up the habit of com
municating at Easter. Margaret became the instru
ment of a great revival which was afterwards carefully
fostered by King David. Scotland became dotted
with magnificent churches, its dioceses were carefully
organised, energetic monastic orders replaced the
degenerate Culdees, and the stately use of Sarum
found a second home beyond the Tweed.
Not until a few years before the Reformation was
any attempt made to break this harmony of worship.
The publication of a breviary at Aberdeen in 1510,
one of the most benighted periods of the pre-Reforma
tion Scottish Church, was both a token of the culture
which had risen around the new university of that city
and a sign of national exclusiveness. In 1507 King
James IV, actually prohibited the ' bukis of Salusbury
use' to be used after the appearance of the expected
Aberdeen books. But the prohibition was not very
widely regarded, and the Sarum use generally held its
gi-ound. When the Reformation came, it came with
a violence proportionate to the vice of the great
ecclesiastics against whose persons and riches it was
mainly directed. The English Reformation may be
compared with a river troubled but yet unbroken in
its passage. On the throne of Canterbury, Parker
succeeded Pole as Pole had succeeded Cranmer. In
Scotland the Reformation was like an earthquake. On
the morning of August 25, 1560, the episcopate was
supreme, in the evening of the same day Calvinism
was set up. One bishop, Bothwell of Orkney, con
tinued to act as a minister of religion, but on the
mainland Calvinistic doctrine was united with a type
of government which became more and more rigorously

276 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Presbyterian. In this government there were for a
time men who bore the title of bishops, but they did
not receive episcopal consecration. John Knox, whose
had been the guiding hand through most of the changes
effected, was well acquainted with the English Prayer
Books of the reign of Edward VI. The Second Book
of Edward VI. was used for a time in Scotland, hut
was superseded by the ' Book of Common Order,' or
Knox's Liturgy. Indications are not wanting to show
that neither Knox nor his Liturgy was universally
considered the best exponent of reformed Christianity,
and the Book of Common Prayer found many purchasers
in Scotland throughout the reign of James VI.
In 1603 James VI. succeeded to the throne of Eng
land, and soon manifested a desire for the restoration
of ecclesiastical unity between England and Scotland.
He began the policy, continued by his successors, of
endeavouring to gradually insinuate an episcopate and
a liturgy into the Presbyterian Establishment. The
attempt was by no means so foolish as it has been
frequently thought to be. The Scottish Presbyterians
had not yet developed a dislike to set forms of prayer,
and only a few years had elapsed since they had
definitely excluded bishops from their Church (1592).
James was quite justified in supposing that their
moderate men would not object to a good liturgy and
a genuine episcopate, and his hopes seemed near to
realisation in 1610, when three prominent Presbyterian
ministers, SpOttiswoode, Lamb, and Hamilton, con
sented to be consecrated bishops in London. He
followed up this action by ordering in 1614 that all
ministers should celebrate the Communion on Easter
Day, and in 1618 secured by a large majority of votes
in the Assembly of the Church of Scotland, held at
Perth, assent to five articles directed against Puritan
innovations in worship. The Articles of Perth upheld:
(1) Kneeling at the Holy Communion ; (2) private

THE PRAYER BOOK IN SCOTLAND 277
Communion in cases of sickness ; (3) private Baptism
in similar cases ; (4) Confirmation of children by the
bishop; (5) religious observance of Christmas, Good
Friday, Easter, Ascension Day, and Whitsunday.
James was succeeded in 1625 by his son Charles I.,
who was more tolerant than his father. He permitted
the Scottish clergy who were ordained before 1618 to
disregard the Perth Articles, and in 1633 placed the
stipends of the Scottish clergy on a satisfactory footing
for the first time since the Reformation. It was this
very desire for justice which worked for his downfall,
for it seems to be an undisputed fact that Charles
roused the avaricious opposition of the Scottish land
owners by his intention of restoring to the Church
some of the property which they had plundered. They
were soon furnished with a pretext and with a battle-
cry for their opposition.
As early as 1629 a liturgy which had been completed
in the reign of James was sent to London by the
Scottish bishops for the royal approval. Archbishop
Laud urged that it would be better for the Scots to
use the English rite. John Maxwell, then a lead
ing clergyman of Edinburgh, discussed the subject
with Laud, and very properly maintained that his
countrymen would be better satisfied if they could use
a liturgy framed by their own clergy. The 'difficulty
lay in deciding, first, whether the English liturgy
should be employed, or a Scottish liturgy; secondly,
if it were Scottish, was it to be the liturgy of 1629 ?
The latter is a clumsy performance. It is a mixture
of the liturgy of Knox and the Book of Common
Prayer; it is written neither in good English nor in
good Scots; and we cannot wonder that Laud pre
ferred the English liturgy. Nevertheless, a series of
compromises was made, and finally the Scots bishops
prevailed upon the king to allow them to have a liturgy
of their own. Laud strongly disliked this concession

278 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
of the king's, and delayed to render them the help
which the king commanded him to give. The book
was virtually finished in April 1636, Laud and Bishop
Wren having actively co-operated. But the popular
fashion of calling the book 'Laud's' liturgy, a title
which has created a prejudice against it in Scotland,
is scarcely j ust. Laud, so far from wishing the Scots
to use a liturgy of his own making, wished them to
use the English book pure and simple. And the fact
that the tone of the Scottish book is so Catholic and
approximates to the English book of 1549 is mainly
due, not to any Englishman, but to Wedderburne,
Bishop of Dunblane, a man of good Scottish family,
gentle and learned, who was twice hunted out of
Scotland by the Presbyterians, and died in England
after many sorrows. ¦¦¦
This Scottish liturgy employs the word 'presbyter'
instead of ' priest,' and omits quotations from the
Apocrypha. In most places the order of the English
services is followed, but the Eucharist contains an
explicit direction 'to offer up and place the bread
and wine . . . upon the Lord's Table,' and the Prayer
for the Church Militant contains a long and exceed
ingly beautiful commemoration of the saints. The
narrative of the Institution is preceded by the Invocation
and followed by the Oblation and the Lord's Prayer.
The prayer of humble access came immediately before
the Communion, and only the first clause in the words ,
of Administration was retained. This was directly
due to Wedderburne, who wished to exclude anything
suggestive of Zwinglianism. It was directed that the
Lord's Table should stand at the east end of the
church, and the presbyter at ' the north side or end.'
The Calendar contained, in addition to the names in
^ Among other excellent features of the work of Wedderburne is the
fact that he suggested to Laud certain improvements upon the English
translation of the Athanasian Creed.

THE PRAYER BOOK IN SCOTLAND 279
the English Calendar, those of several saints connected
with North Britain.
The royal proclamation authorising the Scottish
Book of Common Pra,ver was dated December 20,
1636, and directed that every parish should procure
at least two copies before ' Pasch [i.e. Easter] next.'
It was first read in S. Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh, on
Sunday, July 23, 1637. A tale, still circulated with
exultation in thousands of books, asserts that as soon
as the dean began to read Morning Prayer, a woman
named Jenny Geddes, who kept a stall in the High
Street, flung her stool at his head, and thus began
the revolution which destroyed episcopacy in Scotland.
The modern Englishmen who have made a fine art of
religious brawling would be hardly justified in con
demning such an action on the part of an ignorant
coster-woman. But as the story appears to be only a
legend of the eighteenth century, the mythical Jenny
Geddes requires neither our condemnation nor our
applause. Let it suffice that a modern tablet has
been erected to her memory by the Presbyterians of
Edinburgh.^ It is impossible to give in this book any account of
the persecution of the Scottish adherents of episcopacy
from the outbreak of this revolt until the accession of
Charles II. in 1660, or of the misguided policy of the
government of Charles II., by which a large amount of
semi-Presbyterianism was tolerated within the Church
of Scotland, and the more consistent Presbyterians
outside the Church were cruelly harried, The Scottish
bishops, being attached to the House of Stewart, refused
to swear allegiance to William III., a refusal in which
they were supported by eight English bishops and four
hundred clergymen. The departure of the 'Non
jurors,' as they were called, did irretrievable injury to
the Church of England, and in Scotland their action
' See Stephen, History of the Scottish Church, vol. ii. p. 255.

280 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
was immediately followed by the establishment of
Presbyterianism (a.d. 1690). From that day Scottish
Presbyterianism has enjoyed the favour of the State,
and is in fact allowed greater privileges than the
Church of England is allowed in England. The dis
established Episcopalians, as the adhgrents of the
ancient order are called, began to suffer a persecu
tion which reached its climax in the time of George
II. and brought the Church to the verge of anni
hilation. In the time of Anne the Episcopalians used either
the English Prayer Book, many copies of which were
sent to them by the University of Oxford, or the
Scottish Book of 1637, which was reprinted in 1712.
In 1718 the English Non-jurors published a liturgy
called A Commimion Office, taken partly from Primitive
Liturgies. It revived the direction to mix water with
the wine, prayer for the dead, the invocation of the
Holy Spirit to consecrate the elements, and the prayer
of oblation. It made the order of the canon conform
to that of the Syrian liturgies. The book was mainly
the work of Bishops Jeremy Collier and Thomas Brett.
The four distinctive revivals of this Communion Office
were known as the ' usages,' and they were upheld by
an influential party among the Scottish ecclesiastics.
There was much confusion and difference of opinion
concerning them, and in 1731 the Scottish bishops
simply agreed to use either the English liturgy or the
Scottish liturgy of 1637. An edition of this book was
published in 1735, in which the order of the prayers in
the Eucharist was assimilated to that of the book of
1549. The turning-point in the history of the Scottish
liturgy was the publication of Bishop Rattray's Ancient
Liturgy of the Church of Jerusalem in 1744. This re
markable and laborious book, produced in an age when
the majority of British Churchmen were in abysmal
ignorance concerning the historical principles of divine

THE PRAYER BOOK IN SCOTLAND 281
worship, led to the reconstruction of the Scottish
Eucharistic canon. In 1755 Bishop Falconar pub
lished a book in which the narrative of the Institution
is followed by the Oblation and the Invocation of the
Holy Spirit. Finally, in 1764, Bishop Falconar and
Bishop R. Forbes published another edition in which
these changes were embodied, and issued it with the
authority of Falconar as 'Primus' of the Church of
Scotland. This edition remains the standard text of
the Scottish Communion Office, and is worthy of the
affection and veneration with which it is regarded by
all who use it. Issued before the penal laws against
the Church were yet removed, and read in lonely
cottages by priests who were 'unskilled in every art
but the art of suffering for conscience' sake,' it shares
in the pathos of that primaeval Christian worship which
it reflects.^ The first translation of this Scottish Communion
Office into Scottish Gaelic was printed at Edinburgh
in 1797. It was edited by Bishop Macfarlane, and is
called ' An Oifig chum ceart fhrithealadh an Comuin
Naomh do reir Gnathachadh Eaglais na h'Alba.'
Until the earlier part of the eighteenth century the
literary language of the Highlands hardly differed from
Irish Gaelic, and it is probable that the Irish Prayer
Book was used to some extent in the Highlands.
Indeed, there are persons still living in Scotland who
remember aged people who first learned to read the
Bible in Irish Gaelic.
The Scottish Communion Office connects the history
^ In i8il the Scottish Office was declared by a Synod held at
Aberdeen to be of primary authority in the Church. In 1863 it was
ordered that the English Office should be used in all new congregations,
unless a certain number of communicants declare their desire to use the
Scottish Office. Thus, while the Queen and the Presbyterians were
endeavouring to make the Episcopal Church of Scotland to be regarded
as an exotic from England, Scottish Churchmen actually restricted the
use of their national liturgy in favour of a liturgy which is both English
and inferior to their own !

282 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
of the Church in Scotland with the history of the
Church in America, a connection which is of the utmost
importance from a liturgical point of view.
The first recorded Eucharist which was offered in
the great country now known as the United States
of America was offered by a priest of the Church of
England, Francis Fletcher, a chaplain of Drake. The
day was the first Sunday after Trinity a.d. 1579, and
the place was a ' fayre and good baye,' which is supposed
to be Drake's Bay, about thirty miles from San Fran
cisco in California. This was some two hundred years
before Father Junipero Serra, a Spanish Dominican
friar, began his noble work of converting the Indians
of California. It is probable, though not quite certain,
that the first Indian who was baptized in the present
United States was a converted chief, Manteo, who was
baptized by another Anglican priest on the island of
Roanoke in 1587. The Anglican Church was first
organised at Jamestown, Virginia, a.d. 1607, and the
first elective assembly of the new world met in James
town church, A.D. 1619, and was opened with a collect
said by a clergyman of the Church of England. The
colonial Church was therefore planted before the Dutch
Calvinists came to New York, and before the landing
of the English Puritans in Massachusetts. The Church
depended for its ministry upon recruits from England,
and was nominally under the supervision of the Bishop
of London. This supervision became a reality at the
close of the seventeenth century, when Bishop Compton
despatched Dr. Bray to investigate the state of the
Church in the American colonies, and the untiring
investigator brought to pass the foundation of 'The
Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts '
in A.D. 1701.
If the Church had only been sufficiently organised in
America to meet the efforts of the Society, the whole
religious history of North America would have been

THE PRAYER BOOK IN AMERICA 283
changed, and changed for the better. The work was
completely frustrated by the English Government.
The political motives which caused the Georges to
destroy the Church in Scotland had a parallel in the
political motives which caused them to strangle the
American Church when she was scarcely born. There
were districts where the Dissenters were fanatically
opposed to the Church and did not hesitate to tax
and imprison the Anglicans who dwelt among them.
In other places they were inclined to be friendly, and
even allowed the missionaries of the Church to preach
in their places of worship. But the English Govern
ment was afraid of the fanatics, and in order to please
them refused to send a bishop to America, although in
the reign of Anne a scheme had been adopted for four
American bishoprics, and certain government lands were
actually sold for their endowment. The ablest men in
the English Church recommended the scheme, but the
Government would listen to neither Berkeley, Butler,
Sherlock, nor Seeker. The result was inevitable. In
the Southern States, where the Church was established,
the clergy, free from all ecclesiastical control, tended
to sink to the moral level of the colonial planters, and
were snubbed and despoiled by the very man who had
grown up under their influence. In the Northern
States the Church was downtrodden. And yet it was
healthier under insults than under patronage. The
story of the New England converts of a.d. 1722 is a
dramatic illustration of the spiritual power of the
Book of Common Prayer. Seven professors of Yale
College, all of them Congregationalists or Presbyterians,
had been accustomed to meet together and discuss the
claims of Episcopacy. Their leader was the President
of the college. Dr. Timothy Cutler. He was a man
who had learned to love the Prayer Book, and committed
many of its prayers to memory, with the result that
they coloured his own ' extempore ' devotions, until he

284 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
became celebrated for his ' gifts in prayer.' From the
study of the Prayer Book he and his colleagues went
on to the study of the great masters of Anglican
theology. One of them has said that not a single path
was left untrodden which seemed likely to lead to
fresh sources of knowledge. Slowly the little band
became convinced, and their convictions rested on the
Church of England. The result was that on September
13, 1722, they met the trustees of the college in the
college library, and read a simple and honourable
statement of their belief. Woe and consternation
smote the ranks of the Puritans ; nor was their anxiety
lessened by a public disputation at which the converts
unmasked the old sophistry which asserts that Epis
copacy has no scriptural warrant because in the New
Testament the name episkopos is applied to presbyters.
Their opponents showed the honesty of their dismay
by appointing a day of prayer and fasting to avert the
wrath of the Almighty.
Cutler went to England for ordination, and both he
and his friends worked with such success that within a
generation the Church had penetrated all the principal
strongholds of Dissent in New England. While the
religion of the Anglicans in the middle States tended
tO' be traditional and slack, that in New England was
inclined to be historical and devout. The former
believed in the Church of the Georges, the latter
preferred the Church of the Caroline theologians. The
result was seen when the United States declared them
selves independent of Great Britain in 1776. About
two-thirds of the number of men who framed the
constitution of the United States were Anglicans, and
neither the American Government nor the English
bishops would have been likely to oppose the giving of
an episcopate to America after peace was made between
the two countries in 1783. But before the end of the
war had been officially proclaimed, the clergy of

THE PRAYER BOOK IN AMERICA 285
Connecticut elected Dr. Samuel Seabury, the son of a
convert, to be their bishop, and directed him to seek
consecration in England or, if it was refused him there,
in Scotland. He had to fall back upon the latter
alternative. A Concordat was made 'between the
Catholic remainder of the ancient Church of Scotland
and the now rising Church of Connecticut.' Dr.
Seabury was consecrated by three Scottish bishops in
the upper room of a house in Aberdeen on November
14, 1784, and thus the Church which had been reduced
to ' the shadow of a shade ' gave life to a Church which
is becoming a mother of nations.
The difference between the two schools of thought
in the American Church was very soon illustrated.
On April 1, 1786, was published a book called 'The
Book of Common Prayer, as revised and proposed to
the use of the Protestant Episcopal Church.' It was
the work of a committee entrusted with large powers
by the General Convention of the Church, the most
important member of the committee being the Rev.
Dr. William Smith of Maryland. The book is a
melancholy proof of the influence exercised in America
by English Deistic and infidel writers, and it shows
that readiness to depart from definite Christianity
which fully revealed itself a generation later when
Unitarianism made havoc of American Puritanism.^
The Nicene Creed and the Athanasian were entirely
dropped; the clause 'He descended into hell' was
omitted from the Apostles' Creed ; passages implying
baptismal regeneration were omitted ; passages deaUng
with absolution were altered ; and the use of the Gloria
^ The great outbreak of American Unitarianism came in 1815. Of
the 366 Unitarian congregations which existed in the United States in
1882, at least 120 were descended from Puritan congregations, including
the first church of the Pilgrim Fathers at Plymouth. Many English
Presbyterian and some Irish Presbyterian congregations have become
Unitarian. On the Continent the Calvinists have largely become
Unitarian.

286 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
with its praise of the Holy Trinity was reduced to a
minimum. The ' proposed ' book was greeted with a chorus of
protests, and these protests came in the most earnest
form from the Northern States. Bishop Seabury not
only spoke strongly to his clergy against some of the
changes, but also issued a Communion Office almost
identical with the Scottish Office of 1764. Certain
English bishops also wrote to express their grief, and
when it was unanimously determined in the Southern
States to retain the Nicene Creed, they showed their
satisfaction by consecrating two American bishops ^ for
America at Lambeth Palace on February 4, 1787.
In October 1789 the Church in the United States was
united in one Convention, and a new version of the
Book of Common Prayer was rapidly completed. With
a few important later changes this book of 1789
remains the Prayer Book of the Church of the United
States. The American book is, on the whole, the monument
of a conservative victory. In spite of opposition from
New; England, the Athanasian Creed was omitted, but
the Communion Office is emphatically more primitive
in tone than the English. Owing to the influence of
Bishop Seabury, the Scottish Office was in a great
measure taken as the basis for the American. Permis
sion was given to say after the Commandments our
Lord's summary of the Law ; the Gloria tibi was ordered
to be said after the announcement of the Gospel ; the
words ' here on earth ' were significantly omitted from
the title of the Prayer for the Church Militant ; an
alternative but thoroughly orthodox preface was pro
vided for Trinity Sunday ; and the ' Black Rubric ' was
1 These were Dr. White for Pennsylvania and Dr. Provoost for
New York : Dr. Madison was afterwards consecrated in England for
Virginia. They appear to have been bishops of the Georgian type, and
greatly neglected their episcopal duties.

THE PRAYER BOOK IN AMERICA 287
omitted. The most important change in the whole
book is the adoption, with only a slight modification, of
the Scottish form of consecration. After the narrative
of the Institution comes the Oblation of the ' gifts.'
Then comes the Invocation of the Word and Holy
Spirit to sanctify the bread and wine 'that we, re
ceiving them according to Thy Son our Savour Jesus
Christ's holy institution, in remembrance of His death
and passion, may be partakers of His most blessed
Body and Blood.' The prayer for the acceptance of
this sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving follows as in
the Scottish Office.
Upon the other services a less favourable verdict
must be passed. We can only wonder at the curious
niceness which changed the words in the Te Deum
' Thou didst not abhor the Virgin's womb ' into ' Thou
didst humble thyself to be born of a Virgin,' at the
reduction of the Benedictus to four verses, and at the
omission of both the Gospel canticles from Evensong.
Permission was given to use the words ' He went into
the place of departed spirits ' instead of ' He descended
into hell ' in the Apostles' Creed, and permission was
given to omit the sign of the cross in Baptism. It does
not appear that any dioceses availed themselves of this
permission. Both at Morning and Evening Prayer
permission was given to use the Nicene Creed instead
of the Apostles', and the Gloria in excelsis, originally a
hymn for Mattins, was permitted to be used at the end
of the portion of Psalms for the day. On one point
only can it be said that the Latitudinarian party
succeeded in minimising the ancient doctrine of the
Church. That is with regard to private confession.
In the Visitation of the Sick the rubric as to a special
confession and the special absolution were omitted,
although the earlier form of reconciliation (the prayer
beginning 'O most merciful God') was retained.
Similarly, in the exhortation in the Communion Service

288 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
the mention of absolution is omitted, although the
penitent is still bidden to ' open his grief.' Lastly, in
the Ordinal published in 1792 an alternative form was
provided in the laying on of hands in the Ordination of
Priests, omitting the words ' Receive the Holy Ghost,'
etc., and also 'whose sins thou dost forgive, they are
forgiven ; and whose sins thou dost retain, they are
retained.' The old form is still given the place of
dignity in the American book, and the new form is
orthodox. But the adoption of the new form was a
concession to popular prejudice, and as such was natu
rally opposed by Bishop Seabury. It was probably no
recommendation in Bishop Seabury's eyes that the new
form was advocated by the notorious Bishop Provoost,
who afterwards studied Tasso instead of tending his
flock, and at a critical moment of Church life all but
persisted in refusing to join in the consecration of a
bishop, because the other bishops then present wore no

The American Prayer Book was revised in 1886,
1889, and 1892. Certain marked improvements have
been made. The most important are the appointment
of Collects, Epistles, and Gospels for the festival
of the Transfiguration and for the first celebrations on
Christmas Day and Easter Day ; the restoration of the
complete Benedictus, the Magnificat, and the Nune
dimittis ; and a rule making the use of the Nicene
Creed compulsory on the five greatest festivals of the
year. It is necessary to add a few words concerning the
modern history of the Book of Common Prayer in
Ireland. We have already noticed the introduction of
the English book and its translation into Irish Gaelic.
The civil union of the two countries was followed by
the complete union of the Churches in 1800; and
the Book of Common Prayer was officially printed
'/according to the use of the United Church of

THE PRAYER BOOK IN IRELAND 289
England and Ireland.' The Irish Church was dis
established in 1869, the disestablishment taking full
effect January 1, 1871. The General Convention or
Synod of the Church, instead of maintaining the
closest possible union with the sister Church of
England, revised the Prayer Book, and issued their
revision in 1877.
The changes in the actual book itself are few. It
should be noticed, however, that the Athanasian Creed
is no longer directed to be used, though still printed.
The absolution in the Visitation of the Sick is replaced
by that in the Communion Service. Parents are
allowed to be sponsors for their own children. In the
Form of Solemnization of Matrimony the opening
address is shortened. Marked improvements upon the
English form are to be seen in the adoption of a second
Epistle and Gospel for the Holy Communion on Easter
Day, and also on Christmas Day. With them are
provided two exquisite collects from the First Prayer
Book of Edward VI. That for Christmas Day is the
collect for the Mass of Christmas Eve in the Sarum
Missal ; that for Easter Day is the Sarum collect said
before the Mattins of Easter Day. The Church of
Ireland has also wisely introduced : — (1) A Prayer for
Unity ; (2) For a Sick Person ; (3) On Rogation Days ;
(4) On New Year''s Day ; (5) For Christian Missions ;
(6) A Prayer Jor the General Synod of the Church qf
Ireland; (7) A Prayer to be used in Colleges and Schools,
based on a prayer composed by Erasmus ; (8) A Thanks
giving for Recovery from Sickness. A few additional
services are provided, including a Form for the Conse
cration of a Church.
Any satisfaction which is afforded to devout minds
by the above changes is unhappily outweighed by the
new Preface to the Irish Prayer Book, and by certain
canons drawn up in 1871 and 1877, and printed with
the Prayer Book. If Roman theologians are justified

290 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
in accusing the French Breviaries of the eighteenth
century of a Jansenist tendency, Anglican theologians
are more than justified in accusing the Irish Prayer
Book of a Calvinistic tendency. The canons mark a
return to the English Prayer Book of 1552. The use
of wafer bread, of the mixed chalice, of Eucharistic
vestments, of altar lights, of incense, and of the cross on
or near the ' Communion Table,' is prohibited. More-
ever, the rubric prefixed to the Holy Communion
directing the celebrant to stand at the north ' side ' of
the Table is interpreted in Canon 5 as synonymous
with the north ' end,' this inconvenient position being
rendered compulsory in order to protest against
ordinary Catholic usage. The Preface manifests the
same Puritan temper. A passage on private confession
is so worded as to depreciate the value set upon con
fession and absolution by the original compilers of the
Book of Common Prayer. The skilfully reticent and
ambiguous passage on the Order of Baptism can have
no real meaning attached to it unless it is understood
as a permission to deny the truth of baptismal regenera
tion. And with regard to the Eucharist the Preface
says : ' As for the error of those who have taught that
Christ has given Himself or His Body and Blood in
this Sacrament, to be reserved, lifted up, carried about,
or worshipped, under the veils of Bread and Wine,^ we
have already in the Canons prohibited such acts and
gestures as might be grounded on it, or lead thereto.'
So that whereas the Church of Ireland retains the
statement of the Catechism that the Body and Blood
of Christ, which are ' the inward part ' of the Lord's

^ The reader will observe what kind of use the authors of this
Preface made of the 28th Article. The Article says that ' the Sacrament
of the Lord's Supper was not by Chrisfs ordinance . , . worshipped';
in the Prefece the word ' Sacrament ' is replaced by ' Himself or His
Body and Blood' in this Sacrament,' and ' not worshipped by Christ's
ordinance' is practically replaced by ' not given to be worshipped.'

SCOTTISH AND AMERICAN OFFICES 291
Supper, ' are verily and indeed taken ' (and therefore
given by Christ), it denies that the Body and Blood of
Christ ought therein to be adored. The whole passage,
and also the passage on Baptism, if not openly here
tical, speaks with an heretical brogue.

SCOTTISH AND AMERICAN OFFICES
Companson of the Canon of the Scottish Office (1764) with
Bishop Seabury's (1786) and that of the American Office.
Scottish, 1764 ; Bp. Seabury, American.
1786.
After the Preface, ending with the Sanctus.
Then shall the Priest, kneeling
down at the Lord's Table, say
in the name of all those who
shall receive the Communion,
this Prayer following.
We do not presume, etc.
Then the Presbyter {Priest When the Priest, standing be-
(1786)], standing at such a part fore the Table, hath so ordered
of the holy table as he may with the Bread and Wine, that he
the most ease and decency use may with the more readiness
both his hands, and decency break the Bread be
fore the people, and take the Cup
into his hands, he
shall say the Prayer of Consecration, asfolloweth.
All glory be to Thee, Almighty God, our heavenly Father, for
that ThoTx of Thy tender mercy didst give Thine [Thy (1764 and
1786)] only Son Jesus Christ to suffer death upon the cross for
our redemption ;
Who (by His own oblation of Who made there (by His one ob-
Himself once offered) made lation of Himself once offered)
[A. and 1786.]
a full, perfect, and sufficient sacrifice, oblation, and satisfaction,
for the sins of the whole world ; and did institute, and in His
holy Gospel command us to continue a perpetual memory
[memorial (1764)] of that His precious death and sacrifice until

292 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

Scottish, 1764; Bp. Seabury,
1786.

American.

The
Oblation,

The
Invocation,

The His coming again : For in the night that [in which A.] He was
Institution, betrayed. He took bread, etc. . . .
Wherefore, O Lord, and heavenly Father, according to the
institution of Thy dearly beloved Son our Saviour Jesus Christ,
we Thy humble servants do celebrate and make here before Thy
Divine Majesty with these Thy holy gifts, which we now offer
unto Thee, the memorial Thy Son hath commanded us to make ;
having in remembrance His blessed passion, and precious death,
His mighty resurrection, and glorious ascension ; rendering unto
Thee most hearty thanks for the innumerable benefits procured
unto us by the same.
And we most humbly beseech Thee, O merciful Father, to
hear us, and of Thy almighty goodness vouchsafe to bless and
sanctify with Thy Word and Holy Spirit, these Thy gifts and
creatures of bread
and wine, that they may become and wine; that we, receiving
the Body and Blood of Thy most them according to Thy Son our
dearly beloved Son. Saviour Jesus Christ's holy in
stitution, in remembrance of
His death and passion, may be
partakers of His most blessed
Body and Blood.
And we earnestly desire Thy fatherly goodness, mercifully to
accept this our sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving, most humbly
beseeching Thee to grant, that by the merits and death of Thy
Son Jesus Christ, and through faith in His Blood, we, and all
Thy whole Church, may obtain remission of our sins, and all
other benefits of His passion. And here we [humbly (1764)]
offer and present unto Thee, O Lord, ourselves, our souls and
bodies, to be a reasonable, holy and lively [living A.^ sacrifice
unto Thee, [humbly (1786 and A.y] beseeching Thee, that who
soever [we and all others who (1786 and A.y] shall be partakers
of this holy Communion, may worthily receive the most precious
Body and Blood of Thy Son Jesus Christ, [and (1764)] be filled
with Thy grace and heavenly benediction, and made one Body
with Him, that He may dwell in them, and they in Him. And
although we are unworthy, through our manifold sins, to offer
unto Thee any sacrifice ; yet we beseech Thee to accept this our
bounden duty and service, not weighing our merits, but pardon
ing our offences, through Jesus [Jesus Christ (1786 and A.)]
our Lord : by Whom, and with Whom, in the unity of the Holy
Ghost, all honour and glory be unto Thee, O Father Almighty,
world without end. Amen.

SCOTTISH AND AMERICAN OFFICES 293
Scottish, 1764 ; Bp. Seabuhy,
1786.
Let us pray for the whole state The Inter-
of Christ's Church. cession.
Almighty and everlivingGod, [In the American Office, the
who by Thy holy Apostle hast Prayer 'for the whole state of
taught us to make prayers and Christ's Church militant' and
supplications,andtogivethanks the Lord's Prayer occupy the
for all men ; We humbly be- same places as in the English
seech Thee most mercifully to rite.]
accept our alms and oblations, and to receive these our prayers,
which we offer unto Thy Divine Majesty; beseeching Thee
to inspire continually the universal Church with the spirit of
truth, unity, and concord ; and grant that all they that [who
(1786)] do confess Thy holy Name, may agree in the truth of
Thy holy Word, and live in unity and godly love. We beseech
Thee also to save and defend all Christian Kings, Princes, and
Governors, and especially Thy servant our t- r> j
King, that under him we may be godly L ®f,lTJ^ ' ^°^
and quietly governed: and |rant unto fj^V'^^V^y' ^'J,^
his whole council, and to all who are put ^.t, -j. ^ t • 1 "
in authority under him, that they may j . ' ' .. i-, ¦¦'
truly and indifferently minister justice, Ser'% J^C°'
to the punishment of wickedness and vice, -, tjoaw ' '
and to the maintenance of Thy true re- '-'
ligion and virtue. Give grace, O heavenly Father, to all Bishops,
Priests, and Deacons, that they may both by their life and
doctrine set forth Thy true and lively Word, and rightly and
duly administer Thy holy Sacraments : and to all Thy people give
Thy heavenly grace, that with meek heart, and due reverence,
they may hear and receive Thy holy Word, truly serving Thee in
holiness and righteousness all the days of their life. And we
commend especially to Thy merciful goodness the congregation
[which is (1764)] here assembled in Thy Name, to celebrate the
commemoration of the most precious death and sacrifice of Thy
Son and our Saviour Jesus Christ. And we most humbly beseech
Thee of Thy goodness, O Lord, to comfort and succour all those
who in this transitory life are in trouble, sorrow, need, sickness,
or any other adversity. And we also bless Thy holy Name for
all Thy servants, who, having finished their
course in faith, do now rest from their [labours : yielding
labours. And we.'yield unto Thee most high unto Thee most
praise and hearty thanks, for the wonder- high praise and
fill grace and virtue declared in all Thy hearty thanks for
saints, who have been the choice vessels the wonderful good-

294 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Scottish, 1764 ; Bp. Seabury,
1786.
of Thy grace, and the lights of the world ness and virtue (Bp.
in their several generations : most humbly Seabury, 1786)]
beseeching Thee to give us grace to follow
the example of their steadfastness in Thy faith, and obedience to
Thy holy commandments, that at the day of the general resur
rection, we, and all they who are of the mysticE^l Body of Thy
Son, may be set on His right hand, and hear that His most joy
ful voice. Come, ye blessed of My Father, inherit the kingdom
prepared for you from the foundation of the world. Grant this,
O Father, for Jesus Christ's sake, our only Mediator and
Advocate. Amen.
OurFather, Then shall the Presbyter say [omitted 1786]
with Pre- As our Saviour Christ hath commanded and taught us, we are
/«««¦ bold to say,
Our Father . . . For Thine is the kingdom . . . Amen.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
1498. First edition of the Sarum Missal printed in England. f i
1500. Mozarabic Missal printed at Toledo.
I500-I602. Mozarabic Breviary printed at Toledo.
1602. The Hereford Missal printed at Rouen.'
1509. Accession of Henry VIII.
1526. Tyndale's English New Testament.
1528. Liturgy of S. Chrysostom printed at Venice.
1529. Luther's revised Litany at Wittenberg.
1533. The York Missal printed at Paris.
Church of England rejects Papal supremacy.
Lutheran Kirchen-Ordnung of Brandenburg and Niirnberg.
1534. First reformed English Primer.
1535. Marshall's Primer.
Reformed Roman Breviary by Cardinal Quinones.
o Coverdale's Bible.
1537. Matthew's Bible.
1539. Bishop Hilsey's Primer.
The Great Bible. Taverner's Bible.
I64I. First reformed Sarum Breviary.
1542. Adoption of Sarum use throughout the province of Canter
bury.
Bugenhagen's Lutheran service for Schleswig-Holstein.
1543. Committee of Convocation to examine the Service Books.
A chapter to be read after Te Deum and Magnificat every
Sunday and holy day.
The Consultation of Hermann von Wied, Archbishop of
Coin.
1644. The Litany sung in English.
> 1546. King Henry's Primer.
' In the library of S. John's College, Oxford, is preserved a copy of
the second edition of this Missal (1510). It contains a manuscript
Latin prayer for Henry VIII. and his wife. The priest who used it
erased the names of two of Henry's wives and then decided to leave a
blank space. 295

296 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
1547. Jan. 28. — Accession of Edward VI.
July. — The whole Bible in English, and the Paraphrase of
Erasmus, ordered to be placed in churches.
First Book of Homilies.
Oct. — Hermann's Consultation in English.
Nov. — Peter Martyr in England.
Dec. — Communion in both kinds approved by Convocation
and by Parliament,
1548. Jan. 28. — Second year of Edward VI. begins.
Revised English translation of Hermann's Consultation.
March 8. — ^The English Order of the Communion.
May. — The Augsburg Interim, a manifesto of the Emperor
adverse to the reformers, causes continental Protestants
to come to England.
Among them was Pullain or Pollanus of Strassburg,
whose liturgy has been thought to have suggested the
use of the Decalogue in the Second Prayer Book.
July. — Cranmer's Catechism (Cranmer afterwards confessed
that he had given up a belief in the Real Presence before
this was published).
Oct. — A Lasco the Zwinglian in England.
Calvin writes to encourage the Protector Somerset.
Nov. — (.'') Book of Common Prayer sanctioned by Convo
cation.
Dec. 14. — ^Disputation on the Sacrament ; Cranmer defends
the Receptionist doctrine.
IS49. Jan. 16.— The First Act of Uniformity.
Jan. 28. — Second year of Edward VI. ends.
April. — Bucer arrives in England.
June 9. — The First Prayer Book used.
June 24. — The Council, without the consent of the
Church, issues letters and instructions to curtail the
mediaeval ceremonial.
1560, Feb. 28.— The new Ordinal.
1561> Jan. 5. — ^Bucer delivers to the Bishop of Ely a censura or
criticism of the Prayer Book, in which he objects to
vestments, and thinks that a superstitious notion as to
the effect of consecration is implied in the direction
to place on the altar only so much bread and wine as is
sufficient for the communicants.
Latin version of Prayer Book by Ales.
Peter Martyr objects to reservation of the Sacrament
for the sick.
Feb. 23. — Pollanus publishes the Strassburg service,
Liturgia Peregrinorum.
Feb. 28.— Death of Bucer.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 297
I66I. Oct. 16. — Somerset committed to the Tower of London.
1652. April. — The Second Act of Uniformity declares that the
Second Prayer Book will explain the First.
The Forty-two Articles circulated by Cranmer without
the authority of the Church.
Oct. 27. — Order of Council to add the Declaration about
kneeling at Communion (commonly called the Black
Rubric).
Nov. — The Second Prayer Book used.
1553. Mar, 26. — Poynet's Catechism.
The Second Prayer Book in French for the Channel
Islands ; the First had also been translated.
July 6. — Accession of Mary.
1567, Last edition of the Sarum Missal.
1558. Nov. 17. — Accession of Elizabeth.
V ' Dec. — ^Two editions of the Litany published.
A Committee of Divines at Sir T. Smith's house.
1669. Jan, 24. — Convocation meets and asserts Papal supremacy
and the doctrine of Transubstantiation.
1569. Mar. 31. — A disputation at Westminster.
An English Primer published.
April 18. — Parliament asserts supremacy of the Crown.
April 28. — The Third Act of Uniformity establishes the
revised Prayer Book.
. June 24. — The revised Prayer Book comes into use.
1660. Haddon's Latin Prayer Book.
The Irish Act of Uniformity authorises the Prayer Book
in Latin.
The Geneva Bible.
1563. The Thirty-nine Articles.
Nowell's Catechism.
The Second Book of Homilies.
1566. Parker's Advertisements, enforcing a minimum of Church
ornaments, etc.
1567. First translation of the Prayer Book in Welsh.
1568. The Bishops' Bible.
The revised Roman Breviary.
1570. Pope Pius V. excommunicates Elizabeth.
I57I. The Thirty-nine Articles settled, and subscribed by Convo
cation.
A Latin version of the Prayer Book.
1577. English Romanists begin the use of the reformed Roman
Missal.
1585. Death of Goldwell, the last of the Marian bishops.
1688. Translation of the Bible in Welsh by Bishop Morgan.
1592. Presbyterianism established in Scotland.

298 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
1603. Accession of James I.
The Millenary Petition.
Translation of the New Testament in Irish Gaelic by
Archbishop O'Donnell.
1604. The Conference at Hampton Court.
Changes in the Prayer Book ordered.
1609. Translation of the Prayer Book in Irish Gaelic.
Y The Douay Roman Catholic version of the Bible.
I6I0. Translation of the Prayer Book in Manx Gaelic by Bishop
Phillips.
Restoration of Episcopacy in Scotland.
I6II. The present Authorised Version of the Bible printed.
1616. French translation of the Prayer Book for the Channel
Islands.
1621. Second edition of the Prayer Book in Welsh.
1626. Accession of Charles I.
1637. The Prayer Book for Scotland.
1638. The General Assembly at Perth abolishes the Prayer Book
and Episcopacy.
1643. The Westminster Assembly of Presbyterian divines nomi
nated by Parliament.
1645. The Prayer Book suppressed by Parliament.
The Westminster Assembly issues a Directory for Worship,
a Confession of Faith, and a Larger and Shorter Catechism.
1660. Restoration of Charles II.
1661. The Savoy Conference.
Commission to Convocation to revise the Prayer Book.
Dec. 20. — The revised Book subscribed by Convocation.
Episcopacy again restored in Scotland.
1662. Feb. 24. — The revised Book approved by the King in
Council.
May 19. — The Act of Uniformity received the Royal
Assent. The Act directed that the Welsh Bishops,
with the Bishop of Hereford, should see that the
revised Book be translated into the British or Welsh
tongue.
1667. Durel's edition of the French Prayer Book for the
Channel Islands.
1685. Accession of James II.
1688. Translation of the Old Testament in Irish Gaelic by
Bishop Bedell.
1689. Accession of William and Mary.
Episcopacy disestablished in Scotland.
Futile attempt to alter the Prayer Book in the direction
of Presbyterianism.
1690. Presbyterianism established in Scotland.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 299
I69I. Expulsion of the Nonjurors.
1702. Accession of Anne.
1712. The Prayer Book printed in Irish Gaelic and English.
1714. Accession of George I.
1717. Convocation suspended by Government.
1718. The Liturgy of the Nonjurors.
1727. Accession of George II.
1744. Publication of Bishop Rattray's Liturgy of Jerusalem.
1746. Increased repression of Episcopal worship in Scotland.
1760. Accession of George III.
1764. The Scottish Communion Office completed.
1766. Second version of the Prayer Book in Manx Gaelic by
Manx clergy. 1
1772. Complete translation of the Bible in Manx Gaelic.
1784. Dr. Seabury consecrated at Aberdeen to be the first
bishop in the United States.
1786. ' Proposed Book ' (of Unitarian tendencies) published for
the American Church, and rejected.
1787. Two bishops consecrated at Lambeth for America.
1789. American revision of the Prayer Book ; the Communion
Office based on the Scottish.
1797. First translation of Scottish Communion Office in Scottish
Gaelic.
1820. Accession of George IV.
1830. Accession of William IV.
1837. Accession of Victoria.
1850. Convocation revived.
1870. The Lectionary revised.
1874. Public Worship Regulation Act, by which Parliament
attempted to mutilate the ceremonial of the Church.
1877. Revision of the Prayer Book by the Church of Ireland.
I886-I889-1892. Revision of the American Prayer Book.
1895. Complete revised version of the Prayer Book in Scottish
Gaelic.
' The two Manx versions of the Book of Common Prayer were
printed side by side in two volumes at the Oxford University Press in
1893 for the 'Manx Society.' Manx Gaelic is now nearly extinct,
and public worship is performed entirely in English.

APPENDICES APPENDIX A
THE SARUM CANON OF THE MASS AND THAT OF
THE FIRST PRAYER BOOK

The Sarum Missal. ¦

The Book of Common Prayer,
1649.
Almighty and ever - living
God, which by Thy holy Apostle
hast taught us to make prayers
and supplications, and to give
thanks for all men :

We humbly beseech Thee most
mercifully to receive

THE CANON.
Tcigitv/r. Therefore, we humbly beg
and beseech Thee, O most mer
ciful Father, through Jesus
Christ Thy Son our Lord [Aere
rising let him kiss the altar to
the right of the sacrifice, saying^
to accept and bless
these gifts, these presents, these
holy undefiled sacrifices, [after
making little signs upon the
chalice let him raise his hands
while saying,"] which we offer to
Thee especially
for Thy holy Catholic Church
which vouchsafe to keep in
' It should be noted that the Sarum rubrics, here printed in italics,
are much later in date than the prayers, and not always consistent with
them. 300

these our prayers, which we
offer unto Thy divine Majesity,
beseeching Thee to inspire con
tinually the universal Church
with the spirit of truth, unity.

APPENDIX A

301

The Sarum Missal.
to guard, unite, and
govern throughout the world.

together with Thy servant our
Pope N., and our Bishop N.,
and our King N.

The Book op Common Prayer,
1549.
and concord. And grant that
all they that do confessThyholy
Name may agree in the truth of
Thy holy word and live in unity
and godly love.
[All Bishops, Pastors and Cu
rates.]' Specially we beseech Thee to
save and defend Thy servant
Edward our King, that under
him we maybe godly and quietly
governed. And grant unto his
whole councU, and to all that
be put in authority under him,
that they may truly and in
differently minister justice, to
the punishment of wickedness
and vice, and to the mainten
ance of God's true religion and
virtue. Give grace, O heavenly
Father, to all Bishops, Pastors,
and Curates, that they may both
by their life and doctrine set
forth Thy true and lively word,
and rightly and duly administer
Thy holy Sacraments ;
and to all Thy people give Thy
heavenly grace, that with meek
heart and due reverence they
may hear and receive Thy holy
word, truly serving Thee in
holiness and righteousness all
the days of their life.
And we most humbly beseech Memento.
Thee of Thy goodness, O Lord,
to comfort and succour all
them, which in this transitory
life be in trouble, sorrow, need,
sickness, or any other adver
sity.
' All passages in this column of Appendix A which are enclosed in
square brackets have been transposed to facilitate comparison.

and all orthodox professing the
Catholic and Apostolic faith.

Here let him pi-ay for the living.
Remember, O Lord, Thy
servants and handmaidens, N.
and N.

302 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

Gommmni-
ca/ntes.

The Sarum Missal.
and all those standing
around, whose faith and devo
tion are known to Thee, for
whom we offer to Thee, or who
offer unto Thee this sacrifice of
praise, for themselves, and all
that belong to them, for the
redemption of their souls, for
the hope of their salvation
and safety : and who pay their
vows to "Thee, the everlasting,
living, and true God.
Communicating with, and
venerating the memory

in the first place of the glorious
ever Virgin Mary, Mother of
our God and Lord Jesus Christ:
as also of Thy blessed Apostles
and Martyrs Peter, Paul,
Andrew, etc. etc., and all Thy
Saints ; by whose merits and
prayers mayest Thou grant,
that in all things we may be de
fended by the help of Thy pro
tection. Through the same
Christ our Lord. Amen.

The Book op Common Prayer,
1549.
And especially we commend
unto Thy merciful goodness this
congregation which is here as
sembled in Thy Name, to cele
brate the commemoration of the
most glorious death of Thy Son.

And here we do give unto
Thee most high praise, and
hearty thanks, for the wonder
ful grace and virtue, declared
in all Thy Saints, from the be
ginning of the world :
and chiefly in the glorious
and most blessed Virgin Mary,
Mother of Thy Son Jesu Christ
our Lord and God, and in the
holy Patriarchs, Prophets,
Apostles and Martyrs,

whose examples, O Lord, and
steadfastness in Thy faith, and
keeping Thy holy command
ments, grant us to follow,
[The commemoration of the dead '
follows here, but for the sake

' The revisers of our Liturgy placed this prayer here, putting it in
connection with the commemoration of the living and of the saints in
accordance with ordinary primitive usage. This is a distinct improve
ment upon the Sarum Canon.

APPENDIX A

303

The Sarum Missal.

Bm'e let the Priest regard the
host with great veneration,
saying :
This oblation therefore of
our service, as also of Thy whole
family, we beseech Thee, O
Lord, favourably [placatus] to
accept, and to dispose our days
in ITiy peace, that we may be
rescued from eternal damna
tion, and be numbered in the
flock of Thine elect. Through
Christ, our Lord. Amen. [Here
again let him look at the host,
saying.-] Which oblation do
Thou, Almighty God, we be
seech Thee, in all things
vouchsafe to make bles^sed,
appro liived, rati*fied, reason
able, and acceptable.

that it may
become
to us the Bo * dy and Bio * od
of Thy most beloved Son, our
Lord Jesus Christ, [ftere let the
Priest raise and join his hands:
and after cleanse his fingers
and elevate the host, saying.-]
Who the day before He suffered,
took bread

The Book op Common Prayer,
1549.
of brevity is transferred to the
place corresponding vnth the
Sarum Canon of the Mass.]
O God, heavenly Father,
which of Thy tender mercy didst
give Thine only Son Jesu Christ
to suffer death upon the cross
for our redemption. Who made
there (by His one oblation once Kane
offered) a fuU, perfect, and suf- igitur.
ficient sacrifice, oblation, and
satisfaction for the sins of the
whole world ; and did institute,
and in His holy Gospel command
us to celebrate, a perpetual
memory of that His precious
death until His coming again :

Hear us, O merciful Father, Quam
we beseech Thee, and with Thy oblationem.
Holy Spirit and word vouchsafe
to bl * ess '

and sane * tify these Thy gifts
and creatures of bread and wine
that they may
be
unto us the Body and Blood of
Thy most dearly-beloved Son
Jesus Christ,

Who, in the same night that He Qui
was betrayed, took bread (here

^ In the ancient Eastern liturgies, and in the Scottish and American
liturgies, this prayer for the descent of the Holy Spirit and word is
placed after the narrative of the Institution, corresponding with the
position of the Supplices te rogamus (see p. 306).

304 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

The Sabum Missal.
into His holy and venerable
hands, and with eyes lifted up
to heaven [here let him raise his
own eyes], to Thee, O God, His
Father Almighty, [here let him
incline himself and afterward
raise a little, saying.-] giving
thanks to Thee, He bles * sed,
brake [here let him touch the
host], and gave to His disciples
saying. Take, and eat ye all
of this
[These are the words of Consecra
tion]. For this is My Body.

And these words ought to be
brought out with one breath
and at one utterance, no pause
being introduced. After these
words let the priest [bow to the
host and] elevate it above his
forehead that it may be seen
by the people: and reverently
replace it in front of the
chalice, making with it the
sign of the cross. And then
let him uncover the chalice
and hold it between his hands
not disjoining his thumb from
his forefinger, save when he
is giving the blessings, saying
thus :
Likewise after supper, tak
ing also this excellent cup into
His holy and venerable hands
[here he bows, saying:], also
giving thanks to Thee, He
blessed it, and gave it to His
disciples, saying.

The Book op Common Prayer,
1549.
the Priest must take the bread
into his hands).

and when He had blessed, and
given thanks. He brake it, and
gave it to His disciples, saying,
Take, eat.

this is My Body,
which is given for you : do this
in remembrance of Me.

Likewise after supper. He
took the cup (here the Priest
shall take the cup into his hands),

and when He had given thanks,
He gave it to them, saying,

APPENDIX A

305

The Sarum Missal.
Take, and
drink ye all of it ; [here let the
Priest elevate the chalice for a
moment, saying thus] for this is
the Cup of
My Blood oftheNewand eternal
Testament,
the Mystery of Faith ;
which for you, and for many,
shall be shed for remission of

The Book of Common Prayer,
1549.
Drink ye all of this ; for this is

My Blood of the New
Testament,
which is shed for you, and for
many, for remission of sins :

[Here let him elevate the chalice,
saying :]
As often as ye shall do these
things, ye shall do them
in remembrance of Me.
Here let him replace the chalice
and raise his arms in the
fashion of a cross, his fingers
being joined, until the words
Of thy gifts, saying on this
wise: Wherefore, O Lord,

we Thy servants
and likewise Thy holy people,
do offer
to Thy excellent Majesty
of Thy gifts and bounties, a
pure * host, a holy * host, a
spotless * host, the holy * bread
of eternal life, and the cup*
ofeverlastingsalvation; having
in remembrance as well the
blessed passion of the same
Christ Thy Son our Lord God,
as also His resurrection from

Do this, as oft as you shall
drink it,
in remembrance of Me.
The words before rehearsed are
to be said, turning still to the
altar, without any elevation,
or showing the Sacrament to
the people.
Wherefore, O Lord ZTnde ct
and heavenly Father, according memores.
to the Institution of Thy dearly-
beloved Son, our Saviour Jesu
Christ,we Thy humble servants,
do celebrate and make here
before Thy divine Majesty,
with these Thy holy gifts, the
memorial which Thy Son hath
willed us to make :
having in remembrance His
blessed passion, mighty resur
rection, and glorious ascension.

306 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

The Sarum Missal.
the dead, and likewise His
glorious ascension into heaven.
Supra quae. Upon which things (quae)
vouchsafe to look with a propi
tious and serene countenance ;

and accept them
as Thou didst vouchsafe to
accept the presents of Thy just
servant Abel, and the sacrifice
of our patriarch Abraham, and
that which Thy high priest Mel-
chisedec offered to Thee,
a holy sacrifice, a spotless
host.

The Book op Common Prayer,
1549.

rendering unto Thee mosthearty
thanks,, for the innumerable
beaefite procured unto us by
the same, entirely desiring Thy
fatherly goodness, mercifully
to accept this

Then let the Priest with body
bowed and hands folded (can-
cellatis) say :
Supplices te We humbly beseech Thee, O
rogamus. Almighty God,
command these things (haec) to
be carried by the hands of "Thy
holy Angel to Thine altar on
high in the sight of Thy divine
Majesty,
that as many of us as shall

our sacrifice of praise and
thanksgiving: most humbly be
seeching Thee to grant, that by
the merits and death of Thy Son
Jesus Christ, and through faith
in His Blood, we and aU Thy
whole Church may obtain remis
sion of our sins, and all othW
benefits of His passion. And
here we offer and present unto
Thee, O Lord, ourself, our souls
and bodies, to be a reasonable,
holy, and Uvely sacrifice unto
Thee :

humbly beseeching Thee,
[command these our prayers
and supplications, by the minis
try of Thy holy Angels, to be
brought up into Thy holy
Tabernacle before the sight of
Thy divine Majesty] ;
that whosoever shstll be

APPENDIX A

307

The Sarum Missal.
[here raising himself let him kiss
the altar on the right of the
sacrifice] by this participation
of the altar.

The Book op Common Pbaybb,
1549.

partakers of this holy Com
munion, may worthily

receive
the most holy Bo*dy and the most
Bio * od
of Thy Son,
may be fulfilled with [here let
him sign himself on the face] all
heavenly benediction and grace,
through the same Christ our
Lord. Amen.i

precious Blood

Body and

of Thy Son Jesus Christ,
and be fulfilled with Thy grace
and heavenly benediction.

Here let him pray for the dead.
Remember also, O Lord, the
souls of Thy servants and hand-
m^aidens, N. and N., who have
gone before us,
with the sign of faith, and rest
in the sleep of peace :
We beseech Thee to grant
unto them, O Lord,
and to all who rest in Christ, a
place of refreshment, light, and
peace.
Through the same Christ our
Lord. Amen.

and made one Body with Thy
Son Jesu Christ, that He may
dwell in them, and they in Him.

[We commend unto Thy Memento
mercy, O Lord, ail other Ihy etiam.
servants which are departed
hence from us,
with the sign of faith, and now
do rest in the sleep of peace ;
Grant unto them, we beseech
Thee,

Thy mercy and everlasting
peace.

and that, at the day of the
general resurrection, we and
aU they which be of the mysti
cal body of Thy Son, may al
together be set on His right
^ This is the prayer which, in primitive times, completed the con
secration. It corresponds with the Greek Epiklesis.

308 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

The Sarum Missal.

The Book op Common Prayer,
1649.
hand, and hear that His most
joyful voice : Come unto Me,
O ye that be blessed of My
Father, and possess the king
dom, which is prepared for
you from the beginning of the
world ; grant this, O Father,
for Jesus Christ's sake, our
only Mediator and Advocate.]'

And although we be unworthy
through our manifold sins

Here let him strike his own
breast once, saying :
Nobis To us sinners also Thyservants,
quoque. hoping in the multitude of Thy
mercies,
vouchsafe to grant some part
and fellowship with Thy holy
Apostles and Martyrs : with
John, Stephen, etc., with all
Thy Saints, into whose com
pany do Thou, we beseech
Thee, admit us, to offer unto Thee any Sacrifice;
yet we beseech Thee to accept
this our bounden duty and ser
vice, and command these our
prayers and supplications, by
the ministry of Tny holyAngels,
to be brought up into Thy holy
Tabernacle before the sight of
Thy divine Majesty ;
not weighing our merit, but not weighing our merits, but
bestowing Thy pardon, through pardoning our offences, through
Christ our Lord. Christ our Lord :
Per quern Through Whom, O Lord,
haec omnia. Thou dost ever create [here the
Priest shall sign the cup thrice,
saying:] sanctify, quicken,
bless, and bestow upon us all
these good things.^
1 Transposed from the place previously noted in p. 302, the words
being used prior to the consecration.
^ This was in primitive times a dedication of fruits of the earth.

APPENDIX A

309

The Sarum Missal.
[Here let the Priest uncover the
chalice and make a little cross
with the host, five times : first,
over the chalice on either side ;
second, level with the chalice;
third, at its foot; the fourth
being like the first one; the
fifth, in front of it.]
By * Him, and with * Him,
and in * Him, in the unity of the
Holy Ghost, all honour and
glory is unto Thee, O God the
Father Almighty [here let the
Priest cover the chalice, and hold
his hands on the attar until Pater
noster is said, saying:] world
without end. Amen.
Let us pray. Admonished by
salutary precepts, and directed
by divine instruction, we are
bold to say, [here let the deacon
receive the paten and hold it high
on the right of the priest, with
outstretched arm, until ' bestow
peace.' Here let the Priest raise
his hands, saying :]
Our Father, etc.
Choir. But deliver us from
evil. The Priest, privately. Amen.
Deliver us, we beseech Thee,
O Lord, from all evils, past,
present, and to come ; and at
the intercession of the blessed
and glorious Mary, ever Virgin
and Mother of God, and the
blessed Apostles Peter and
Paul, and Andrew and all the
Saints ; [here let the deacon give
the paten to the Priest, kissing
his hand: and the Priest shall
kiss the paten : afterwards put

The Book op Common Prayer,
1549.

by Whom, and with Whom,
in the unity of the Holy Ghost,
all honour and glory be unto
Thee, O Father Almighty,

world without end. Amen.
Let us pray. As our Saviour
Christ hath commanded and
taught us, we are bold to say.

Our Father, etc. Pater
The Answer. But deliver us noster.
from evil. Amen. Libera nos.

310 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
The Sarum Missal. The Book op Common Prayer,
i549.
it to his left eye, and then to
his right: afterwards making a
cross with the paten above his
head, and then replace it in its
own place, saying.-] graciously
bestow peace in our days ; that,
assisted by the help of Thy
mercy, we may be both ever
free from sin, and secure from
all disquiet. [Here let him un
cover the chalice and, bowing,
take the Body, transferring if
into the hollow of the chalice and
retaining it there between his
thumbs and forefingers, let him
break it into three parts, while
he says:] Through the same
our Lord, Jesus Christ, Thy
Son. [At the second breaking]
Who with Thee liveth and
reigneth in the unity of the
Spirit, God, world without
end. Amen.

APPENDIX B

THE ORNAMENTS RUBRIC AND THE SUPPOSED
PROHIBITION OF ANCIENT CEREMONIES
The rubric, which is printed immediately before the Order for
Morning Prayer, runs as follows : —
' And here is to be noted that such Ornaments of the Church,
and of the Ministers thereof, at all times of their Ministration,
shall be retained, and be in use, as were in this Church of
England, by the Authority of Parliament, in the second year
of the reign of King Edward the Sixth. '
This is simply a more emphatic form of the Ornaments rubric
inserted in 1659, and again, in a slightly different shape, in
1604. It was deliberately kept in I66I in spite of the objections
raised against it by the Puritans. It has been disputed whether
the ornaments in question are those actually in use in the
second year of the reign of Edward VI. (January 28, 1548—

APPENDIX B an
January 27, 1649), or those prescribed in the First Prayer Book
annexed to the Act of Uniformity which passed the House of
Commons on January 21, 1649, and came into force on June 9,
1549. If the lattes alternative is correct, the rubric at least
commands the use of the Mass vestments, the cope, the surplice
and pastoral staff, and does not prohibit the use of cross, candle
sticks, censer, and mitre.
There are, however, very strong reasons for believing that
the rubric is meant to enforce the ornaments which were em
ployed immediately before the First Prayer Book came into
use, that is, in the partially reformed services of 1548. For
the First Prayer Book was not ' in use ' in the second year of
Edward VI. , as it was not employed until Whitsunday, June 9,
1549. This was in the third year of Edward VI. Also it is of
the utmost importance to notice that when the Ornaments rubric
was inserted in the time of Elizabeth, Sandys, afterwards
Archbishop of York, who was one of the committee which
revised the Prayer Book in 1559, said, ' The last Book of Service
is gone through with a proviso to retain the ornaments which
were used in the first and second year of King Edward VI. [i.e.
I547-I648], until it please the Queen to take other order for
them.' Nothing could be clearer than this statement. It is
contemporary evidence of the highest value, showing that it was
intended to use the ornaments employed in the partially reformed
services. And this evidence entirely agrees with the impor
tant evidence which we have with regard to the Queen's wishes.
It accorded neither with her conscience nor with her policy
to drive old-fashioned members of the Church of England into
the arms of Rome.
It therefore seems reasonable that the literal meaning of the
rubric should be accepted as the only real meaning, and that no
attempt need be made to suggest that the rubric only sanctions
the ornaments expressly mentioned in the Prayer Book of
1549. Several Anglican bishops, including the present Bishop
of London, who is acknowledged as one of the ablest of living
historians, have practically decided that the rubric orders the
ornaments of 1948 by adopting the use of the mitre — an orna
ment which is not directed to be worn in the First Prayer
Book. They have followed no less an example than that of
Cranmer himself who, according to Strype (Cranmer, ii.
ch. xxiv.), wore a mitre on June 29, 1560. The authority for
using the censer is the same as that for using the mitre. The
chief times of ' ministration ' at which the censer was employed
in 1548 were at the reading of the Gospel, at the Offertory,
and at the Magnificat.
It seems necessary to add, that even if the Ornaments rubric

312 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
does refer to the Prayer Book of 1549, this is no proof that all
the ornaments of 154S are illegal except those mentioned in the
Prayer Book of 1649. No one can have known the meaning of
the Ornaments rubric of 1669 better than Elizabeth, and in
Elizabeth's chapel there were not only employed such ornaments
as the cope, which is mentioned in the Prayer Book of 1549,
but also the crucifix and houselling cloth, which are not.
Exactly the same argument applies to ceremonies as thdt
which applies to ornaments. It has lately been asserted
that the Prayer Book and the Acts of Uniformity to which it
was annexed, forbid all ceremonies which the Prayer Book
does not direct, and even forbid the ceremonies connected with
certain ornaments which are enjoined. The omission of a
command to employ a ceremony is therefore interpreted as the
prohibition of a ceremony. This theory reads into the Prayer
Book an essentially modern notion of Roman origin, viz. that
it is necessary or desirable for the clergy to have absolutely
complete and minute directions printed for their guidance in
celebrating divine worship. No ancient Service Book was
printed on such a principle. It was assumed that clergymen
learned the ceremonies from one another.
It is, however, only necessary to quote the various editions
of the Book of Common Prayer in order to prove that, until
recently, it was not and could not be supposed that a cere
mony is necessarily illegal if not explicitly enjoined.
I. The Book of 1649 furnishes us with two notable examples.
In the prayer of consecration, no direction is given for the
Fraction or breaking of the host. But the Prayer Book, so far
from regarding this omission as a prohibition of the Fraction of
the hosts, expressly says at the end of the Mass that ' eveiy one
shall be divided in two pieces.' It was therefore left to the
priest to perform the Fraction during the Canon of the Mass,
although the ceremony is not there commanded.
Another instance, showing evidence of haste in the compila
tion of the book, is to be found among the prefaces of the Mass.
The preface for the Feast of Trinity says, 'That which we
believe of the glory of the Father, the same we believe of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost, without any difference or in
equality. Whom the Angels,' etc. The middle of the preface is
then omitted, and it was therefore impossible to continue it
without having recourse to the mediaeval Missals which supply
the missing portion, ' whom the Angels and the Archangels
praise, the Cherubin also and the Seraphin, who cease not to
cry, with one voice saying. Holy, Holy, Holy,' etc. No one
can reasonably pretend that English prieste in 1549 were
'prohibited' from reciting the 'omitted words.'

APPENDIX C 313
2. The Prayer Book of 1552 in the Communion of the Sick
contains no form whatever for the consecration of the Sacra^
ment. In the service of 1649 the Canon was mentioned but
not printed ; in 1552 it is neither mentioned nor printed. In
spite of the spirit which marked the book of 1552, it would be
a bold thing indeed to affirm that the clergy were ' prohibited '
from consecrating the elements given to the sick.
3. The Prayer Book of 1559 has the same omission.
4. The Prayer Book of 1604 contains the same strange
omission. It also contains no mention whatever of the sign of
the cross at Confirmation. But the quotation from Bishop
Montague, which we have printed on page 209, makes it plain
that bishops of the time of Charles I. did not regard themselves
as 'prohibited' from using the sign of the cross in this particu
larly open manner.
5. The Prayer Book of I66I, while it remedies some of the
above-mentioned defects, also contains omissions which show
that traditional practices are sometimes presupposed. It is
directed that the people shall stand during the Nicene Creed.
They are not directed to kneel until the Confession. But it
has been the traditional practice to kneel during the Prayer for
the Church Militant ; and there is no reason to doubt that the
revisers in 1661 intended that the people should do so. Again,
it is well known that in our present Baptismal Service no
direction is given to the priest as to when he should return the
child to the godparents. The omission, instead of being trivial,
is one of some importance, for it is a difficult question to decide
whether the sign of the cross should be made while the child is
in the priest's arms or not. But the question is at once solved
by a reference to the Sarum Manual, which shows that the
child should be taken by the godparents immediately after the
actual Baptism, and then signed with the cross.

APPENDIX C
THE MOZARABIC CANON OF THE MASS
It does not seem to have been sufficiently observed that the
Roman Church, in still tolerating the existence of the Mozarabic
rite at Toledo, has preserved the most convincing proof that the
consecration of the Eucharist in the West as well as in the East
did not originally take place at the words, ' This is My Body '
—'This is My Blood." The narrative of the Institution is im-

314 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
mediately followed by a prayer called the Post-pridie, and on
some of the older festivals this is simply a prayer for the
consecration of the elements, although it is no longer under
stood in that sense. In the Gallican rite the corresponding
prayer is called the Post-secreta. After the Sanctus the
Mozarabic Canon of the Mass runs as follows on Christmas Day
and Easter Day.
Christmas Day. Easter Day.
Post-sanctus. Post-sanctus.
Truly holy, truly blessed is Truly holy, truly blessed is
our Lord Jesus Christ, Thy Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, Thy Son,
Who came from heaven, that Whom three days since we
He might dwell upon earth : mourned as dead, and to-day
was made flesh that He might we rejoice that by His own
dwell in us, Christ the Lord might He hath been raised
and everlasting Redeemer. from hell. Who by His death
hath overcome the devil not
by might but by righteousness,
and by the gl6ry of His Resur
rection hath made open to
sinners the way of return to
heaven, Christ the Lord and
everlasting Redeemer.
Let the presbyter bend himself before the altar.
Be present, be present, Jesu the good High Priest, in the
midst of us as Thou wast in the midst of Thy disciples and hallow
this oblation that we may take the things sanctified by the
hands of Thy holy angel. Holy Lord, and everlasting Redeemer.
[These words are almost certainly an interpolation. They do
not occur in the ancient Gallican forms, which immediately
after the Post-sanctus continue Who the day before (pridie), etc.
Moreover, the Mozarabic prayer after the narrative of Institu
tion is still called the Post-pridie, although the word pridie no
longer occurs. It therefore seems plain that the Mozarabic
form was originally nearer to the Gallican.]
Our Lord Jesus Christ on the night in which He was betrayed,
took bread, and giving thanks. He blessed and brake it : and
gave it to His disciples saying. Take, and eat. This is My Body
which shall be given for you. As often as ye shall eat it, do
this in remembrance of Me. Likewise also the cup after He
supped, saying. This is the cup of the New Testament in My
Blood, which shall be shed for you and for many for the

APPENDIX C

315

remission of sins. As often as ye shall drink it, do this in
remembrance of Me. Choir. Amen.
As often as ye shall eat this bread and drink this cup, ye shall
show forth the Lord's death, until He come in brightness from
heaven. Choir. Amen.

Post-pridie.
Keeping, O Lord, these Thy
gifts and commandments, we
set forth upon Thine altar the
burnt offerings of bread and
wine, beseeching the most
abundant goodness of Thy
mercy, that by the same Spirit,
by Whom undefiled virginity
conceived Thee in the flesh,
the undivided Trinity may
hallow these offerings, etc.

Post-pridie.
We pray Thee, Holy Lord,
eternal Father, almighty God,
that as our Lord Jesus Christ
Thy Son by that ineffable
giving of thanks offered Him
self to Thee for us, and when
about to take upon Him our
death was heard, so now we
also, who seek Him and His
life, by performing ministeri
ally what He instituted may
be heard, so that this bread
offered to Thee with this cup,
may by Thy benediction be
enriched so as to become the
Body and Blood of Thy Son,
etc.1

Oratio.
Thou granting it. Holy Lord, because Thou for us Thine un
worthy servants dost create all these right good things, dost
hallow, quicken, bless, and bestow them upon us : that they
maybeblessedbyTheeour God for ever and ever. Choir. Amen.
[This final prayer was evidently not part of the original conse
cration ; it is directly taken from the Roman Per quem.]
1 On Whitsunday the Post-pridie contains these words : 'After the
likeness of Whose 15ody and Blood we bring these presents, and entreat
that by Thy deifying power they may obtain the fulness of the fitting
sanctification.' This prayer is on that day offered to the Holy Ghost.
The sentiment may be compared with that expressed in the Eucharistic
prayer of Serapion, p. 13.

316 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

APPENDIX D
THE ' BLACK RUBRIC '
It has been a traditional opinion in the Church of England that
the Declaration on kneeling, popularly known as the 'Black
Rubric,' was deliberately altered in 1661-62 so as to sanction the
doctrine of the Real Presence. This traditional opinion has
lately been vigorously attacked. Mr. Tomlinson in his Prayer
Book Articles and Homilies, pp. 264^5, has asserted that the
alterations then made 'are merely verbal,' and that the meaning
of the Declaration of 1662 is the same as that of 1562, 'essen
tially Protestant.' He then naturally asks, 'Why did the
revisers of 1662. substitute the word " corporal " for the words
"real and essential," seeing that they left the meaning of the
clause the same as they found it?' He replies, 'The reason
clearly was, that men were no longer familiar with the language
of the schools.' The theological language of the sixteenth
century was, Mr. Tomlinson thinks, unintelligible in the seven
teenth, and so the phrase was changed into one which was up to
date. He continues, ' The pivot sentence upon which the whole
Declaration hung remains unchanged, viz. that the Body of
Christ which "is" in heaven is "not here." That was, and is,
absolutely fatal to any theory of "presence," in the sense of
residence within the elements.'
Fortunately for the Church of England, Mr. Tomlinson's
statement can be refuted.
Comparatively unnoticed among the better-known liturgical
treasures in the library of S. John's College, Oxford, is a copy
of the fourth edition of Wheatly's Rational Illustration of the
Book of Common Prayer, which was bequeathed by the author
himself to the library of his college. It had previously been
illustrated with valuable notes by Robert Watts (d. 1726),
another fellow of the college, who had bequeathed it to Wheatly
(d. 1742). On p. 337 Wheatly points out that in 1662 'the
words real and essential Presence were thought proper to be
chang'd for corporal Presence. For,' he adds, 'a doctrine of
the real Presence of the Body and Blood of Christ in the
Eucharist is what our Church frequently asserts.' Opposite
the words ' chang'd for corporal Presence ' is the following note
in manuscript, 'at y'' instance of D. P. G., viz. Dr. Peter

APPENDIX D 317
Gunning, as is said by Bp. Burnet in his Preface to his 3rd vol.
of the Hist. Ref. vol. 3, 1716.'
Dr. Peter Gunning, afterwards Bishop of Ely, was a man of
well-known Catholic principles, and was on the committee for
the revision of the Prayer Book. Among other things he wished
for a restoration of the Sacrament of Unction. He is especially
signalised by the Puritan Baxter as a man of 'greater study
and industry ' than any of the bishops. Even Burnet, in History
of My Own Time, says that Gunning was ' a man of great reading,'
and 'very honest.'
On referring to the first edition of Burnet's History of the
Reformation, it will be seen that the author indulges in a scornful
criticism of some important person whose name he does not
venture to mention. In the margin by the side of this criticism
are printed the letters D. P. G. There seems to be no reason for
doubting that these are meant to stand for 'Dr. Peter Gunning.'
But whoever the person may be, it is quite plain that Burnet
knew that he was responsible for the change in the rubric, and
also knew that he intended that the meaning of the rubric
should be fundamentally altered. 'We know,' says Burnet,
'who was the author of that change, and who pretended that a
Corporal Presence signified such a Presence as a body naturally
has, which the assertors of Transubstantiation itself do not and
cannot pretend is in this case, where they say the Body is not
present corporally, but spiritually, or as a spirit is present.'
We are not concerned with the 'extraordinary subtilty' with
which, Burnet says, the person in question supported his argu
ment. The point is that this person asserted that the Body of
Christ ' was both in heaven and in the elements. ' He believed
in the Catholic doctrine of the Real Presence, and the bishops
only consented to the insertion of the Declaration when it had
been corrected by this person.
The following therefore seems to be the history of the Declara
tion on kneeling in 1661-62 : —
I. The Puritans desired the restoration of it in its original
form. — Cardwell, History of Conferences, p. 322.
2. The Bishops objected. — Ibid. p. 354.
3. Bishop Gauden and the Earl of Southampton were desirous
of making concessions to the Puritans in this matter. — Burnet,
Harleian MSS., 6684, p. 158.
4. In the meantime the Prayer Book was completed and
Convocation dissolved.
6. In February 1662 the Privy Council, of which Southampton
was a member, debated on the Prayer Book and directed four of
the bishops to meet them.
6. Dr. Gunning showed the Bishops how the Declaration

318 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
could be made consistent with the doctrine of the Real Pre
sence. '
7. On February 24, the foiir Bishops showed the Prayer
Book to the Board of the Privy Council.
8. Sancroft, secretary of Convocation, added the Declaration
in a handwriting different from that of the rest of the MS., and
separated from it by a broad red line.
The change was not regarded as favourable to the Roman
doctrine of Transubstantiation, for Burnet says ' the papists
were highly offended when they saw such an express declaration
against the Real Presence.' — History of My Own Time, vol. i. p. 324
(Oxford edit. 1897). Burnet here uses the words ' Real Presence'
as equivalent to Transubstantiation. His History of the Reforma
tion shows that he fully understood that Gunning would never
have made a declaration against a doctrine of the Real Presence
which is consistent with the reality of the elements.

INDEX

Aberdeen, breviary of, 275.
Ablutions, or rinsings of the chalice,
63.
Absolution, in the Daily Services,
129,162; in the Communion Office, 84,
201;
in the Visitation of the Sick,
225.
Advertisements, of Parker, 122.
Agwpe, 2, 7.
Agnus Dei, 61, 96.
Alb, the linen under-vestment
reaching to the feet, worn by the
clergy, and anciently by the
choir, 21, 106, 268.
Ales or Alane, his Latin version of
the Prayer Book, 124.
'All conditions of men,' prayer
for, composed in 1661 by Dr.
Gunning.
Alms, 135.
Ambo (d/ifiuv), from dva^aCveiv, to
ascend, a pulpit, 23.
American Prayer Book, 285.
Amice, the linen cloth worn around
the neck under the alb.
Anaphora, the Canon of a Greek
liturgy, U, 34.
Andrewes (Bishop), 120, 131.
Anointing, at Baptism, 87, 106,
187 if;
at Confirmation, 87, 213 ;
of the Sick, 87, 106, 227 ;
at Ordination, 262, 271.
Antiphon, 147.
Antiphonarimn, 67.
Apocrypha, 128.
ApoatoUc Constitutions, 14, 31.
Armenians, liturgy of, 16 ;
their disuse of Extreme Unc
tion, 228.

Ash Wednesday, rites of, 249.
Augustine (S.), of Canterbury, on
the liturgy, 39.
Augustine (S.), of Hippo, on the
liturgy, 9.
Bangor, Antiphona/ry of, 39.
Baptism, PvhUc, 184 S. ;
sign of the Cross in, 128, 195,
197.
Baptism, m private houses, 198 ;
lay, disliked by the Puritans,
128.
Baptism of AdAdts (1661), 199.
Basil (S.), liturgy of, 16, 32.
Baxter, criticism on the Prayer
Book, 133.
Bede, on frequent communion,
44.
Bell, at the elevation in the Mass,
58.
Bened/ica/mus, 151, 166.
Benedicite, 22, 161.
Benediction, episcopal, at Mass,
29; at end of Mass, 63 ;
at Marriage, 221 ;
modern Roman service so
called, 232.
Benedictus, 166.
Betrothal, 218.
Bible, mediseval English version of,
77; later English versions of, 78,
130;
how read in the Divine Office,
149, 153.
Bishops, consecration of, 268.
Bishops' Book, the name commonly
given to the 'Institution of a
Christian Man '(1537), 75.
'Bonere and buxum,' 220. 319

320 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

Book of Common Prayer, the First
of Edward VI. (1549), 85 ;
the Second of Edward VI.
(1552), 106 ;
the revision under Elizabeth
(1559), 119;
the revision after the Hampton
Court Conference (1604),
129;
the revision for Scotland
(1637), 131;
the revision after the Savoy
Conference (1661), 132;
attempted Protestant revision
(1689), 137 ;
in Ireland, 125, 288 ;
in Scotland, 131, 277 ;
in America, 282.
Bramhall (Aichbp.), on the Euchar
istic sacrifice, 52.
Breviary, called Portiforium in
England, 69, 151 ;
of Quifiones, 157 ;
of Pius V. (1568), 158.
British Church, liturgy of, 18, 38.
Bucer (Martin), his influence on the
Prayer Book, 104, 256.
BuUinger (Henry), Swiss Pro
testant, corresponded frequently
with English Reformers ; his ser
mons were circulated among the
English clergy in the time of
Elizabeth. Apparently did not
influence the Prayer Book
directly.
Burial of the Dead, the mediseval
service, 237 ;
the service of 1549, 239 ;
the service of 1552, 242.
Byzantine rite, 16, 32.
Calvin (John), his doctrine of the
Eucharist, 90;
his influence on the English
Reformation, 91, 105, 112 ;
his doctrines held by Puritans,
122, 128.
Canon of the Mass, the consecra
tion and accompanying inter
cessions in the Western liturgies,
26, 35, 58, 96.
Ga/pitulum, two meanings of, 164.
Catechising, in early times, 187 ff ;
in mediseval times, 193.
Catechism, the, 130, 207.

Catechumens, Missa of, 9, 32, 56.
Chasuble, the last and most neces
sary vestment of a priest celebrat
ing the Eucharist. The ancient
Greek chasuble or 0au/i6XioK
resembled in shape an English
Gothic chasuble. The Greeks
still use large chasubles of a
somewhat similar pattern; the
Russians have much shortened
the front of the chasuble. At
the beginning of the sixteenth
century chasubles were ordinarily
of the same ample shape through
out the West of Europe, but the
orphreys or strips of embroidery
differed. The Roman chasuble
was, and is, adorned with one
strip or 'pillar' at the back, and
with a cross in front. In England,
France, and North Germany,
chasubles were usually orna
mented either with a cross in the
shape of a Y both at the back and
in front, or with a pillar in front
and a Latin cross at the back.
This Latin cross was quite
common in the later English
vestments. During the seven
teenth and eighteenth centuries
both French and Italian chasubles
were much reduced in size and
beauty. Gallican form of, 2l ;
worn by deacons, 21 ;
retained by the Church of
England, 113, 120.
Chimere, an episcopal vestment, in
the form of a sleeveless coat,
usually of black silk or satin, or
of scarlet cloth. See 270.
Chrism, 187, 213, 214.
ChrismaMa, linen bands placed on
the foreheads of the newly con
firmed.
Chrisom (spelt 'Chrism' in the
- First Prayer Book), 194, 196.
Chrysostom (S.),
liturgy of, 16 ;
prayer of, 163.
Church militant, prayer for, 28,
107, 135, 278, 286.
Churching of Women, 246.
Clement vii. (Pope), initiated re
form of Roman breviary, 157.

INDEX

321

CoUecta, or CoUectio, meaning of,
10.
CoUects, antiquity of, 38 ;
concluding phrases, 178. A
full account of the collects in
the Prayer Book wiU be
found in the essay by Dr.
Bright in the Prayer Boole
Commentary for Teachers
wnd Students (S.P.C.K.).
Commendation, Psalms of, 70 ;
of the soul, 238.
Commination, 249.
Commixture (in Old English ' com
mixtion'), 61.
Commune Swnctorwm, 68, 152.
Commwmo, antiphon at the Com
munion, 29, 63.
Communion :
the 'Order of the Communion'
(1548), 83 ;
the Office of 1549, 87, 95 ;
of 1552, 106 ;
of 1559, 120 ;
at a Marriage, 222 ;
of the Sick, 229 ;
with the Reserved Sacramfent,
230;
at a Burial, 241.
Comparative table, of liturgies, 32 ;
of Morning and Evening Prayer,
161, 166.
Competentes, 188.
Compline, 148, 153, 167.
Confession, private, retained by
the Church of England, 201. See
also Absolution.
Confirmation, in early times, 187 ;
in the Eastern Churches, 188 ;
in mediaeval times, 212 ;
the reformed services, 214 ;
sign of the cross at, retained in
Scotland, where it is stiU per
mitted, 214.
Consecration of the Blessed Sacra
ment, early Roman form of, 27 ;
mediseval misunderstanding of,
97;
in First Prayer Book, 97 ;
in Second Prayer Book, 108,
118;
in Mozarabic Missal, Appendix
C.
Consubstantiation, 89.

'Consuetudinary 'and 'Customary,'
of Sarum, 42.
Cope, a cloak used chiefly in pro
cessions, the most sumptuous of
ecclesiastical vestments. Its use
made alternative with the chas
uble in 1549, 94.
Corporal or Corporas, the linen
cloth on which the Sacrament is
placed, or by which it is covered,
called 'fair linen cloth' in the
Prayer Book, 63.
Cosin (Bishop), on Confession, 201.
He apparently suggested the
addition of the five prayers after
the third coUect in 1661.
Coverdale, translation of the Bible,
79 ; of the antiphon' In the midst
of life,' 240.
Creed, the Nicene, when first used at
Mass, 23;
originally used at Baptisms,
187;
the Apostles', in the Divine
Office, 153, 161 ;
the Athanasian, 162, 166.
Cross, or crucifix, usually placed on
or over the holy table. Used in
Elizabeth's chapel, 123.
Cutler (Timothy), of Yale College,
283.
Daily Pbayeks, in primitive times,
141; origin of the English forms,
159.
Dalmatic, a silk tunic, originaUy
with large sleeves, afterwards
reduced in size; worn by the
deacon at solemn Eucharists :
except (i) in Advent, from
Septnagesima to Maundy Thurs
day, when a folded chasuble is
worn, and (ii) Good Friday,
Vigils, lesser Masses of the dead,
and Ember Days (not those in
AiVliitsuntide), when only the alb,
amice, stole and maniple are
worn.
Deacons, ordination of, 256.
Dead, prayers for the,
in primitive worship, 237 ;
in mediseval worship, 238 ;
in reformed worship, 240.

322 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

Declaration about kneeling at Com
munion, otherwise oaUed the
Black Rubric, inserted by Privy
Council in 1552, 108; expunged
in 1559, 120; modified by Dr.
Gunning so as to sanction the
doctrine of the Real Presence,
and then inserted again in 1662,
Appendix D.
Deer, Book of, 39.
Deprecations of the Litany, 180.
Didache, or Teaching of the Twelve
Apostles, 2, 184.
Dimvma, Book of, 39.
Diptychs, tablets on which were
inscribed the names of the living
and the dead commemorated in
the liturgy, 26, 28, 32, 33.
Directory, the, estabUshed by
Parliament (1645), 132.
Dirge or Dirige, 71.
Dismissals, of those not qualified,
24, 57 ;
of the faithful, 30, 63.
Divine Office, the daily service at
the canonical hours, 69, 148.
Double, or Duplex, a festival on
which the Divine Office was origi
naUy recited twice, 150.
Dowden, Dr. (Bishop of Edin
burgh), on the antiphon 'In the
midst of life,' 240.
Durel, his version of the Prayer
Book, 298.
EnwAan VI., Reformation under, 81.
Elevation of the Host, before
Communion, 11, 29 ;
immediately after consecra
tion, 59, 95, 113 ;
Elizabeth, uses First Prayer Book
in her own chapel, 113 ;
wishes to restore it universally,
114;
alterations made in the Prayer
Book, 119 ;
Advertisements under (1566),
122;
ceremonial of her chapel, 113,
123.
Ember Days (in German Quatem-
ber), a corruption of the Latin
Quatuor Tempora, the fasts of
the 'four seasons,' the Wednes
day, Friday and Saturday after

the first Sunday in Lent, after
the feast of Pentecost, after
September 14, and after Decem
ber 13.
Embolismos, 28, 34, 35, 60.
EpikUsis, the prayer for the
descent of the Holy Ghost in the
Eastern liturgies, 34, 303 ;
the Western forms of, 27, 35,
97, 280, 307, Appendix C.
Espousals, anciently preceded mar
riage, 218.
Eucharist, before S. Augustine, 1 ;
from S. Augustine to the
Reformation, 36.
Evening Prayer, formed from the
German service of Schleswig-
Holstein, based on Vespers and
Compline, 161.
Exorcism, in old baptismal offices,
187, 193 ;
in the First Prayer Book, 195.
Extreme Unction, ancient rites of,
226; retained in Prayer Book of
1549, 227;
dropped by Armenian Uniates,
228;
retained by Scottish Episoo-
paUans, 228.
'Fabsed' {i.e. interpolated) chants,
55, 68.
Feria, an ordinary week-day, as
distinguished from a feast-day.
Ferial prayers, 164.
Festival or Feast: according to
Sarum use there are two ranks
of festivals caUed respectively
'double' and 'simple,' the
former being divided into four
classes. The festivals which now
'are to be observed' in the Church
of England are all 'doubles,' and
unlike most of the 'black letter'
holy days, they are days on
which an attendance at the
Eucharist was regarded as a
necessary duty.
Fraction, the ceremonial breaking
of the bread, 29, 61, 135, 312.
Frankfurt, troubles at, in reference
to Prayer Book, 112.
French translations of the Prayer
Book, 297, 298.

INDEX

323

Gallican Rite, 18, 2l, 33 ;
its influence on the Roman, 18,
36, 169, 262.
Gelasius (Pope), his Sacramentary
so-caUed, 37 ;
Office for Catechumens, 190 ;
for Baptism, 191 ;
for Confirmation, 192 ;
for Penitents, 249 ;
for Ordination, 258.
Gifts, the oblations of bread and
wine, 97, 99, 287, 292.
Girdle, a cord employed to secure
the alb : formerly the girdle was
often in the form of a long narrow
band.
Gloria in excelsis, 21, 55 ;
in the First Prayer Book, 95 ;
in the American Prayer Book,
287.
Good Friday, the ancient service
for this day was one of instruc
tion and prayer, resembling a
Mass of the Catechumens. The
service at Milan is still of this
type. Afterwards was added
the ' Adoration ' or ' Veneration '
of the Cross and the Mass of the
Presanctified. The Roman ser
vice in the eighth century was of
severe simpUcity. The reserved
Sacrament in both kinds was
brought from the sacristy to the
altar by the deacons, and priest
and people communicated, each
'adoring' and kissing the cross
before so doing. The service was
afterwards changed by the intro
duction of a more ornate proces
sion and 'Adoration' of the
Cross, and by the gradual aban
donment of a general communion.
Gradale or Graduale, 22, 56, 68.
Gradual Psalms, 70.
Gregory (Pope), the Great,
his Sacramentary so-called, 37 ;
his advice to S. Augustine, 39.
Guest, appointed to revise the
Prayer Book (1559), 114.
Gunning (Bishop), alters the Black
Rubric, Appendix D.
Haddon (Walter),
his Latin version of the Prayer
Book (1560), 124;

retains reservation of the
Sacrament, 124, 235.
Hampton Court, Conference at
(1661), 129.
Henry VIII. , Reformation under, 66;
the King's Primer, 75 ; a
' Necessary Doctrine and
Erudition,' the King's Book,
76.
Hereford use, 66, 295.
Hermann (von Wied), Archbishop
of Coin,
his Consultation, 83, 177, 196,
222, 240.
High Mass, the old English name
of a solemn celebration of the
Eucharist, celebrated with deacon,
sub-deacon and choir, and usually
with incense. There is a corre
sponding name in Flemish, but
the German is Hochamt or High
service. See 55.
HUsey (Bishop), Primer of, 74, 177.
Hooper (Bishop), and the First
Prayer Book, 105.
Host or Hostia, offering, i.e. the
bread, whether consecrated or un
consecrated, used in the Eucharist,
99, 124.
Hours, the Canonical, of the Divine
Office, 70, 148, 152 ;
of the Blessed Virgin, 70 ;
the Lesser (sometimes called
simply 'the Hours'), are
Prime, Terce, Sext, None.
Housel, the Blessed Sacrament, an
old English word derived from
a Saxon word signifying oblation
or sacrifice.
Houselling cloth, a linen cloth
spread before communicants ;
still used at S. Mary's Church,
Oxford: used in Elizabeth's
chapel, 123.
Illatio, the proper Preface in the
Mozarabic liturgy.
Immersion in Baptism, 184, 192,
200.
Incense, Old Eoman use of, 23;
later use of, 36, 311 ;
after the Reformation, 120.
Intercession, the great, the prayer
for the Church, recited in the
Anaphora, 11, 14, 27, 34, 293.

324 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

Intercessions of the Litany, 180.
Interim, of Leipsig, p. ix. ; of
Augsburg, 296.
Introit. See Officium.
Invitatory, the refrain to Venite at
Mattins, e.g. on Easter Day
'AUeluya, AUeluya: Christ has
risen to-day; AUeluya, AUeluya';
. on Ascension Day 'AUeluya:
Christ ascending into heaven,
come, let us worship; AUeluya.'
Invocation of the Holy Spirit. See

Invocation of saints, two meanings
of the term, 76 ;
in the Litany, 175.
Ireland, Gallican rite in, 18, 39 ;
Sarum rite in, 41 ;
Prayer Book in, 125, 288.
Irish Gaelic, Bible in, 126 ;
Prayer Book in, 126.
James (S.), the liturgy of, 14.
James I., revision of Prayer Book
under, 128 ;
his relation to the Church in
Scotland, 276.
Journal, or Diurnale, the book con
taining the offices of the day
hours only : Diurnale of Qui
nones, 158.
Jumifeges, Robert of, his Missal, 40.
Justin Martyr, his account of the
Eucharist, 4 ; of Baptism, 185.
KaZendarium,, Sarum, 152.
Kiss of peace, 5, 10, 26, 32, 35, 60.
Kneeling at Communion, 108, 128.
See Appendix D.
Knox (John), his connection with
the Marian exiles, 112 ; with the
Scottish Reformation, 276.
Kyrie eleison, in the Eucharist, 2l,
55; in the Divine Office, 166, 167 ;
in the Litany, 175.
Laski, or A Lasco (John), Polish
Zwinglian, stays with Cranmer,
105.
Latin Prayer Book, translated by
Ales, 124 ;
by Haddon, 124;
used in Ireland, 125 ;
translated by Durel (1670). ¦

Laud, assists in preparing Prayer
Book for Scotland, 131, 277.
La,uds, the service of, 144, 149, 153,
166.
' Lay Folks Mass Book,' 64.
Lections, in Old Eoman Office, 149 ;
corrupted, 154 ;
improved by Quifiones, 158.
Lent, origin of, 249.
Leofric, Missal of, 40, 262, 271.
Lessons, in English, 80 ; influenced
by Quinones, 162.
Lights, on the altar, usually two in
•number, iUegally prohibited in
1549, 88; at the Gospel, 23,
56.
Lincoln use, based on that of Sarum,
described, 56.
Litany, the, 168.
Liturgy, the celebration of the
Eucharist, or the formula em
ployed in such celebration, 1, S,
20, 32.
Lord's Supper, Coena Domini, a
mediseval term for the Eucharist
retained by the English reformers,
53, 87.
Lord's table, 53, 269.
Low Mass, late origin of, 53.
Lutheran influence on the Prayer
Book, on Communion service, 83, 108 ;
on Mattins and Evensong, 160 ;
on the Litany, 176 ;
on Baptismal Office, 196 ;
on Marriage Office, 222 ;
on Ordinations, 256.
Mamebtus, Bishop of Vienne, 169.
Maniple, a band of silk resembling
a very small stole, worn on the
left arm of the celebrant, deacon,
and sub-deacon.
Manuale, the Book of the Occa
sional Offices, 69.
Mark (S.), the liturgy of, 17 ;
litany on the day of, April 25,
169.
Marshall's Primer, 74, 177.
Martyr (Peter), his influence in
England, 104.
Mass, origin of the term, 9 ;
the mediseval English Mass
described, 53 ; Cranmer on,

INDEX

325

Matrimony, solemnization of, 217.
Mattins, originaUy a name for
Lauds, but afterwards given to
the Nocturnal Office, 139.
Maundy Thursday, the Thursday
before Easter,
called in Latin Coma Domini.
The English name is from
the Latin antiphon Man-
datum, novum, do vobis. The
washing of the feet of the
poor on this day was con
tinued by Elizabeth, 123;
and some of the ceremonies
are still retained in the royal
chapel at WhitehaU.
Maydestone (Clement), his Direc
torium, 155.
Memoria or Memorial, consisting
of Antiphon, Versicle, Response
with coUeot, said at the close of
Evensong and Lauds.
Milk and honey, given to the newly
baptized, 186, 192.
MiUenary Petition (1603), supposed
to contain a thousand signatures,
128.
Missa, 9.
Missa Nautica, 252.
Missa Praesanotificatorum, or Mass
of the Presanctified, 16. In the
East is sung on Wednesdays and
Fridays in Lent, in the West
only on Good Friday. See Good
Friday.
Mitre, worn by Cranmer after the
introduction of the English ser
vices at the consecration of Bishop
Poynet, 311.
Mixed chalice, the practice of mix
ing water with the wine used at
the Eucharist appears to date
from apostohc times; is men
tioned by Justin Martyr, 4 ; is
retained in aU Eastern liturgies
except the Armenian ; in ancient
Western rites, 25, 26, 56; directed
to be performed at the Offertory
in the First Prayer Book, 87, and
also in Seabury's liturgy : not
directed in the present English
and Scottish books, but has been
frequently performed in Eng
land since the Reformation ; was
almost uniiversal in the North

of Scotland in the seventeenth
century.
Morning Prayer, the order of, 139.
Mozarabic liturgy. The ancient
GaUican liturgy of Spain. The
word is derived from an Arabic
word which means 'those who
assume the manners of Arabs,'
and the name Mozarabic was
given to those Christians who
lived under Arab rule in Spain.
See 19, 195, and Appendix C.
NooTtjRN, 149, 153.
Nocturnal Office, afterwards called
Mattins, 144 G.
Nonjurors, Communion Office of,
280.
Niirnberg Lutheran service, 109,
295.
O, Antiphonae majores de; the
Antiphons to Magnificat, sung
on the nine days before Christ
mas, each beginning with 0. The
beginning of the first, 0 Sapien-
tia, remains in the English
Kalendar.
Oath of Supremacy, 118, 268.
Oblations. The name oblation was
in ancient times a title of the
Eucharist. Later it was usuaUy
applied to the bread and wine
offered before consecration. The
word was inserted in the Prayer
for the Church Militant in 1661.
It may mean money as offered
to God, as in the Scottish Office of
1637, but the phrase alms or obla
tions in the rubric suggests that
the oblations are not the alms.
Obsecrations of the litany, 180.
Offertorium, the antiphon (origi
nally with a psalm), sung at the
oblation of the elements.
Office, the Divine, 69 ;
of the Blessed Virgin, 71 ;
of the Dead, 71 ;
the 'modern,' 151.
Officium or Introit, the antiphon
and psalm at the beginning of
Mass, 21, 55, 95.
'Order of the Communion' (1548),
82.
Ordinal, the English, 253.

326 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

Ordinate or Ordinal, of Saium, 42,
155.
Ordinations, early Eoman, 258,
271; GaUican, 261, 271 ;
late medjseval, 263, 271 ;
reformed, 265, 268.
Ornaments rubric, in 1559, 120 ; in
1661, 134. See also Appendix B.
The chief Ornaments rubrics of
1549 were as follows :
(i) before the Mass — Upon the
day, a/nd at the time ap
pointed for the ministration
of the holy Commimion, the
Priest that shall execute the
holy ministry, shall put upon
him, the vesture appointed for
that ministration, that is to
say, a white Albe plain, with
a vestment or Cope. And
where there be nw/ny Priests,
or Deacons, there so mmny
shall be ready to help the
Priest in the ministration as
shaU be required : And shaU
have upon them likewise the
vestures appointed for their
ministry, that is to say, Albes
with tunicles.
(ii) at the end of the book —
And whensoever the Bishop
shall celebrate the holy Com
munion in the church, or
execute any other public
ministration: he shall have
upon him, beside his rochette,
a Surplice or albe, and a cope
or vestment, and also his
pastoral staff in his hand, or
else borne or holden by his
chaplain.
Osmvmd (S.), his relation to the
Sarum use, 41.
Patla or Pall, the linen cloth used
to cover the chalice, 63: the
cloth used to cover a coffin is also
so caUed.
Parliament, prayer for High Court
of, probably composed by Arch
bishop Laud in 1625.
Penance, 202, 249.
Perambulation of parishes, 173.
Pica or Pie, 155.

Placebo, 71.
Pontificale or Pontifical, 69, 265.
Portiforium,, English Latin name of
the Breviary, 69, 152.
Post-communion coUect, 30, 35, 63,
96.
Preces feriales, 164.
Preface to the Prayer Book of 1549,
from Quifiones ; the present Pre
face prefixed to it was written in
1661.
Presbyterians, 276. See also Puri
tans.
Priests, Ordination of, 256.
Prime, the service of, 148, 152.
Primer, 70 ; reformed, 71, 74, 80.
Procession, 168, 170.
Proper Prefaces. These were once
very numerous, and are still in
the Mozarabic rite. The Eoman
and mediseval English rites have
ten. The English rite now has
five, three of great antiquity, and
two (those for Christmas and
Whitsunday) composed in 1549.
Proprium, Sanctorum, 152.
Psalms, the vii. Penitential, 70 ;
the XV. Gradual, 70 ;
all originaUy said weekly,
149.
Puritans, their objections to the
Prayer Book, 128, 133.
Pyxis or Pyx, the usual name in
England for the vessel in which
the Sacrament is reserved for' the
Communion of the Sick, though
in modern times such a vessel is
often caUed the ciborivm. Some
of the oldest pyxes were con
structed for the reservation of
the Sacrament in both kinds. See
230.
Quicunque mitt, the Psalm, other
wise called the Athanasian Creed,
was probably composed in Gaul
in Latin about a.d. 430. The
reformers, believing the original
to have been in Greek, used a
Greek text as well as a Latin text
in making their translation. For
its use in England see 162, 166.
Quinones (Cardinal), compiles a re
formed Roman breviary used by
Cranmer, 157, 166, 167.

INDEX

327

Kattrat (Bishop), influence on
Scottish liturgy, 280.
Readers, order of, appointed to re
cite the lessons and responsory
psalms, 9, 147.
Redditio symboli, 189, 191.
Regeneration, baptismal, 183 ;
Puritan objection to, 133.
Requiem, the Mass for the dead, so
named from the first word of the
Introit :
instance of, after the Reforma
tion, 121.
Reservation of the Blessed Sacra
ment for the Communion of the
Sick (1549), 95, 230;
retained in Haddon's Latin
Prayer Book (1560), 124,
235;
regarded as lawful in the seven
teenth century, 235 ;
retained by Scots Episco
palians, 234.
Respond or Responsoriwm, 149.
Ridley (Bishop), his statements on
the Eucharist, 93, 94.
Ring, in Marriage, 222.
Rochet, a shortened form of the
alb. It is worn by bishops, and
was anciently in England some
times worn by canons and by
boys. The episcopal rochet had
sleeves rather larger than those of
the alb, but much smaller than
the hideous puffed sleeves worn
by bishops in the eighteenth
century.
Rogation Days, 169.
Sacramentaries, heretics who re
presented the Sacraments as mere
symbols, 88.
Sacram^ntarium, or Sacramentary,
an ancient service book, 67.
Sacrifice, Eucharistic, 49 ;
in the First Prayer Book, 98.
Saints, invocation of, 74, 76.
Sancroft, 318.
Sarum, use of, 41, 156.
Savoy, Conference at the, 132.
Scarf, 270.
Scotland, the Prayer Book for
(1637), 131, 277.
Scottish Communion Office (1764),
281, 291.

Sea, Form of Prayer for use at, 252.
Seabury (Bishop), 285 ;
his liturgy, 291.
Second Prayer Book of Edward VI.,
106.
Secreta, 57.
Sequentia or Sequence, 68.
Serapion (Bishop of Thmuis), his
book of prayers, 12, 227, 267.
Service Books, names of mediseval,
67.
Sick, Order for the Visitation of,
224.
Spousage, tokens of, 220.
Stole, a long narrow band of silk,
worn over the alb or surplice:
with the alb priests [not bishops)
cross it over the breast : deacons
wear it over the left shoulder.
Suffrages, petitions in the Litany,
171, 172, 257.
Surplice, the ordinary dress of the
clergy in choir. It is a some
what late mediseval form of the
alb, made with large sleeves in
order to cover a thick dress of
furs [super-pelliceum). The old
Italian surplice or cotta (the
Italian name is simply our 'coat')
was very ample : the small cotta
sometimes seen in England is
the debased shape used in the
eighteenth century, and is
peculiarly incongruous when
worn side by side with Gothic
Eucharistic vestments.
Sursum Corda, first known use
of, 6 ; later use of, 34, 35.
Te Dewm. This hymn was composed
about A.D. 400. It probably
originaUy ended at the words
'glory everlasting,' the remain
ing verses having been an appen
dage to the Greek morning hymn,
the Gloria in excelsis. At Rome
it was first used at the Nocturnal
Office of the festivals of Popes ;
in the use of Sarum it was sung
at Mattins on Sundays and most
feasts except in Advent and Lent.
Tenebrae, the Mattins and Lauds
of Thursday, Friday and Satur
day before Easter. They were
originally sung immediately after

328 HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER

midnight. The present cere
monies are French.
Thanksgiving, general, in the daily
service, was composed by Ed
mund Reynolds, Bishop of Nor
wich, in 1661.
Tractus or Tract, 22, 33.
Trisagion, 21, 33.
Troper, 68.
Tropus or Trope, 68.
Tvmica or Tunicle, a silk tunic re
sembling the dalmatic, but in
England sometimes plainer than
the dalmatic ; worn by the suib-
deacon at solemn Eucharists ; on
occasions when the deacon wears
no dalmatic, the sub-deacon wears
either the folded chasuble or
only the alb, amice and maniple.
Unction, in Baptism, 185, 187, 194,
196; ... -
in Confirmation, 213, 214 ;
of the '^ick, 226, retained in
ScotlaAd, 228 ;
&t Ordination, 262, 265, 271.
Uniformity, the Acts of,
Edward VI. , 85; Second of,
105;
Elizabeth, 118 ; relation of the
Church to, 123, 137 ;
Charles II., 137.
Unitarianism, in America, 285.
Usages, the (nonjuror), 280.
Veni Creator Spiritus, the hymn
'Come, Holy Ghost,' composed
in the ninth century, and after
wards put in the Ordinal. The
translation made by Cranmer for
the Ordinal of 1550 is now placed
second in our Ordinal. The first
translation was inserted in 1661
and is probably by Cosin.
Venite, 149, 153, 161, 166.
Versicles, 150, 166.

Versions of the Prayer Book,
in Latin, 124, 125, 235, 296,
297-
in Irish Gaelic, 126, 298;
in Welsh, 126, 298 ;
in Manx Gaelic, 246, 298, 299 ;
in Scottish Gaelic, 281, 299;
in French, 297, 298.
Vespers, or Evensong, 146, 149,
153, 161, 167.
Vestment. This word ordinarily
means the chasuble, or the
chasuble with stole and maniple.
Viaticum, or 'provision for the
journey,' the Holy Eucharist
when administered to the dying,
231.
Vigil, 142, 146, 191.
Visitation of the Sick, 224.
Water bread, retained at the
Eeformation, 84, 122 ;
in the seventeenth century,
234.
Wedderburne (Bishop), and the
Scottish liturgy, 278.
Westminster Confession, Presby
terian, p. xiii., 298 ;
denies the intermediate state,
242.
Whitsuntide, a solemn time for
Baptism, 190.
William III., commission to revise
the Prayer Book, 137.
Women, the Churching of, 246.
'Worship,' meaning of, in the
Marriage service, 220.
Wren (Bishop), on the carrying of
the Sacrament out of church,
234; aids the Scottish liturgy, 278.
Wyclif, his Bible, 78 ;
upholds the Mass and criticises
Mattins and Evensong, 156.
York, the use of, 41.

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Gold Dust : a Collection of Golden Counsels for the Sancti
fication of Daily Life. Translated and abridged from the French by
E.L.E.E. Edited by Charlotte M. Yonge. Parts I. II. III.
Small Pocket Volumes. Cloth, gilt, each is. Parts I. and II. in One
Volume, is. 6d. Parts I., II., and III. in One Volume. 25.
%* The two first parts in One Volume, large type, iSmo. cloth, gilt. 2s. 6d.
Parts I. II. and III. are also supplied, bound in white cloth, with red
edges, in box, price 3s.
Gore.— Works by the Rev. Charles Gore, M.A., D.D., Canon
of Westminster.
THE CHURCH AND THE MINISTRY. Fourth Edition, Revised.
Crown Svo. 6s., net.
ROMAN CATHOLIC CLAIMS. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
Great Truths of the Christian Religion. Edited by the Rev.
W. U. Richards. Small Svo. 2s.
Hall.— Works by the Right Rev. A. C. A. Hall, D.D., Bishop
of Vermont.
CONFIRMATION. Crown Svo. $5. (The Oxford Library of Practical
Theology. )
THE VIRGIN MOTHER: Retreat Addresses on the Life of the
Blessed Virgin Mary as told in the Gospels. With an appended
Essay on the Virgin Birth of our Lord. Crown Svo. 4J. 6d.
CHRIST'S TEMPTATION AND OURS. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
Hall.— THE KENOTIC THEORY. Considered with Parti
cular Reference to its Anglican Forms and Arguments. By the Rev.
Francis J. Hall, D.D,, Instructor of Dogmatic Theology in the
Western Theological Seminary, Chicago, Illinois. Crown Svo. Jj.
Hallowing of Sorrow, The. By E. R. With a Preface by
H. S. Holland, M.A., Canon and Precentor of St. Paul's. Small
Svo. 2S.
Harrison.— Works by the Rev. Alexander J. Harrison, B.D.,
Lecturer of the Christian Evidence Society.
PROBLEMS OF CHRISTIANITY AND SCEPTICISM. Crmim^o.
ys. 6d.
THE CHURCH IN RELATION TO SCEPTICS : a Conversational
Guide to Evidential Work. Crown 8ot. 3s. 6d.
THE REPOSE OF FAITH, IN VIEW OF PRESENT DAY DIFFI
CULTIES, Crown Svo, js. 6d.
Hatch.- THE ORGANIZATION OF THE EARLY
CHRISTIAN CHURCHES. Being the Bampton Lectures for 1880.
By Edwin Hatch, M.A., D.D., late Reader in Ecclesiastical History
in the University of Oxford. Svo. SJ.

IN THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

Holland.— Works by the Rev. Henry Scott Holland, M.A.
Canon and Precentor of St. Paul's.
GOD'S CITY AND THE COMING OF THE KINGDOM. Crown
Svo. 3s. 6d.
PLEAS AND CLAIMS FOR CHRIST. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
CREED AND CHARACTER : Sermons. Crown Siio. 3s. 6d.
ON BEHALF OF BELIEF. Sermons. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
CHRIST OR ECCLESIASTES. Sermons. Crown Svo. 2S. 6d.
LOGIC AND LIFE, with other Sermons. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
Hollings.— Works by the Rev. G. S. Hollings, Mission Priest of
the Society of St. John the Evangelist, Cowley, Oxford.
THE HEAVENLY STAIR ; or, A Ladder of the Love of God for Sinners.
Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
PORTA REGALIS ; or. Considerations on Prayer. Crown Svo. limp cloth,
IS. 6d. net ; cloth boards, 2S. net.
CONSIDERATIONS ON THE WISDOM OF GOD. Crown Svo. 4J.
PARADOXES OF THE LOVE OF GOD, especially as they are seen in
the way of the Evangelical Counsels. Crown Svo. us.
ONE BORN OF THE SPIRIT ; or, the Unification of our Life in God.
Crown Svo. 31. 6d.
Hutchings.— Works by the Yen. W. H. Hutchings, M.A. Arch
deacon of Cleveland, Canon of York, Rector of Kirby
Misperton, and Rural Dean of Malton.
SERMON SKETCHES from some of the Sunday Lessons throughout
the Church's Year. Vols. I and II. Crown Svo. y. each.
THE LIFE OF PRAYER : a Course of Lectures delivered in All Saints'
Church, Margaret Street, during Lent. Crown Svo. 4^. 6d,
THE PERSON AND WORK OF THE HOLY GHOST : a Doctrinal
and Devotional Treatise. Crown Svo. 4J. 6d.
SOME ASPECTS OF THE CROSS. Crown Svo. v (><^-
THE MYSTERY OF THE TEMPTATION. Lent Lectures delivered at
St. Mary Magdalene, Paddington. Crown Svo. 4J. 6rf.
A2

10 A SELECTION OF WORKS
Button.— THE SOUL HERE AND HEREAFTER. By the
Rev. R. E. HuTTON, Chaplain of St. Margaret's, East Grinstead.
Crown Svo. 6s.
Inheritance of the Saints; or. Thoughts on the Communion
of Saints and the Life ,of the World to come. Collected chiefly
from English Writers by L. P. With a Preface by the Rev. Henry
ScOTT Holland, M.A. Ninth Edition. Crown Svo. -js. 6d.
Jameson. — Works by Mrs. Jameson.
SACRED AND LEGENDARY ART, containing Legends of the Angels
and Archangels, the Evangelists, the Apostles. With 19 Etchings and
187 Woodcuts. 2 vols. Svo. 20s. net.
LEGENDS OF THE MONASTIC ORDERS, as represented in the
Fine Arts. With 11 Etchings and 88 Woodcuts. Soti I'os.net.
LEGENDS OF THE MADONNA, OR BLESSED VIRGIN MARY.
With 27 Etchings and 165 Woodcuts. Svo. los. net.
THE HISTORY OF OUR LORD, as exemplified in Works of Art.
Commenced by the late Mrs. Jameson ; continued and completed by
Lady Eastlake. With 31 Etchings and 281 Woodcuts. 2 Vols,
Svo. 20s. net.
Jennings.— ECCLES I A ANGLICANA. A History of the
Church of Christ in England frpm the Earliest to the Present Times.
By the Rev. ARTHUR Charles Jennings, M.A. Crown Svo. 7s. 6d,
Johnstone. — SONSHIP : Six Lenten Addresses. By the Rev.
Verney Lovett Johnstone, M.A., late Assistant Curate of
Ilfracombe. With an Introduction by the Rev. V. S. S. CoLKS,
M.A., Principal of the Pusey House, Oxford. Crown Svo. 2S.
Jukes.— Works by ANDREW JUKES.
THE NEW MAN AND THE ETERNAL LIFE. Notes on the
Reiterated Amens of the Son of God. Crown Svo. 6s.
THE NAMES OF GOD IN HOLY SCRIPTURE : a Revelation of
His Nature and Relationships. Crown Svo. 4s. 6d.
THE TYPES OF GENESIS. Crown Svo. ys. 6d.
THE SECOND DEATH AND THE RESTITUTION OF ALL
THINGS. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
THE ORDER AND CONNEXION OF THE CHURCH'S TEACH
ING, as set forth in the arrangement of the Epistles and Gospels
throughout the Year. Crown Svo, as. 6d.

IN THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

II

Knox Little.— Works by W. J. Knox Little, M.A., Canon
Residentiary of Worcester, and Vicar of Hoar Cross.
THE CHRISTIAN HOME. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
THE PERFECT LIFE : Sermons. Crown Svo. 7s. 6d.
¦ CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTIVES OF THE CHRISTIAN
LIFE. Ten Sermons preached in Manchester Cathedral, in Lent and
Advent. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d.
SERMONS PREACHED FOR THE MOST PART IN MANCHES
TER. Crown Svo. 3J. 6d.
THE HOPES AND DECISIONS OF THE PASSION OF OUR
MOS'T HOLY REDEEMER. Crown Svo. zs. 6d,
THE MYSTERY OF THE PASSION OF OUR MOST HOLY
' REDEEMER. Crown Svo. as. 6d.
THE LIGHT OF LIFE. Sermons preached on Various Occasions.
Crown Svo. 3s, 6d.
SUNLIGHT AND SHADOW IN THE CHRISTIAN LIFE.
Sermons preached for the most part in America. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.

Lear.— Works by, and Edited by, H. L. Sidney Lear.
FOR DAYS AND YEARS. A book contairiing a Text, Short Reading,
and Hymn for Every Day in the Church's Year. i6mo. ss, 6d. Also a
Cheap Edition, 3amo. zs.-,orcloth gilt, is.6d.; or with red borders, as. 6d.
FIVE MINUTES. Daily Readings of Poetry. i6mo. 3s. 6d. Also a
Cheap Edition, 32mo. is. ; or cloth gilt, is. 6d.
WEARINESS. A Book for the Languid and Lonely. Large Type.
Small Svo. ss.

CHRISTIAN BIOGRAPHIES.
Madame Louise de France,
Daughter of Louis xv., known
also as the Mother T&fese de
St. Augustin.
A Dominican Artist : a Sketch of
the Life of the Rev. P^re Besson,
of the Order of St. Dominic.
Henri Perreyvk. By PJ;re
Gratry.
St. Francis de Sales, Bishop and
Prince of Geneva.

Nine Vols: Crown Svo. 3s. 6d. each.
The Revival of Priestly Life
IN THE Seventeenth Century
IN France.
A Christian Painter of the
Nineteenth Century.
bossuet and his contempora
RIES.
F^nelon, Archbishop of Cam-
BRAI.
Henri Dominique Lacordaire. [confimied.

12 A SELECTION OF WORKS
Lear. — Works by, and Edited by, H. L. Sidney Lear —
ceniinued.
DEVOTIONAL WORKS. Edited by H. L. Sidney Lear. Nm and
Uniform Editions. Nine Vols. i6mo. as. 6d. each.

F^nelon's Spiritual Letters to
Men.
FiJnelon's Spiritual Letters to
Women.
A Selection from the Spiritual
Letters op St. Francis de
Sales. Also Cheap Edition, 32mo,
6d. cloth limp ; is. cloth boards.
The Spirit of St. Francis de
.Sales.

The Hidden Life of the Soul.
The Light of the Conscience.
Also Cheap Edition, 32mo, 6rf.
cloth limp ; and i;. chVi boards.
Self-Renunciation. From the
French.
St. Francis de Sales' Op the
Love op God.
Selections from Pascal's
'Thoughts.'

Lepine.— THE MINISTERS OF JESUS CHRIST: a Biblical
Study. By J. Foster Lepine, Curate of St. Paul's, , Maidstone.
Crown Svo. 5J. '
Liddon,- Works by Henry Parry Liddon, D.D.,D.C.L.,LL.D.
SERMONS ON SOME WORDS OF ST. PAUL. CrownSvo. y.
SERMONS PREACHED ON SPECIAL OCCASIONS, 1860-1889.
Crown Svo. 5J.
CLERICAL LIFE AND WORK : Sermons. Crmvn 8m 5^.
ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES : Lectures on Buddhism— Lectures on the
Life of St. Paul — Papers on Dante. Crown Svo. 3s.
EXPLANATORY ANALYSIS OF PAUL'S EPISTLE TO THE
ROMANS. Svo. ms.
EXPLANATORY ANALYSIS OF ST. PAUL'S FIRST EPISTLE
TO TIMOTHY. 8to. 7s. 6d.
SERMONS ON OLD TESTAMENT SUBJECTS. CrownSvo. 31.
SERMONS ON SOME WORDS OF CHRIST. Crown Svo. S'-
THE DIVINITY OF OUR LORD AND SAVIOUR JESUS CHRIST.
Being the Bampton Lectures for i866. Crown Svo. 3s.
ADVENT IN ST. PAUL'S. Two Vols. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d. each.
Cheap Edition in one Volume. Crown Svo, 51.
CHRISTMASTIDE IN ST. PAUL'S. Crown Svo. ss.
PASSIONTIDE SERMONS. Crown Svo. y.
EASTER IN ST. PAUL'S. Sermons bearing chiefly on the Resunec-
tion of our Lord. Two Vols. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d. each. Cheap
Edition in one Volume. Crown Svo. 3s.
SERMONS PREACHED BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF
OXFORD. Two Vols. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d. each. Cheap Edition in
one Volume. Crown Svo. 3s. [confintted.

IN THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 13
Liddon.— Works by Henry Parry Liddon, D.D., D.C.L.,
LL.D. — continued.
THE MAGNIFICAT. Sermons in St. Paul's. Crown Svo. as. 6d,
SOME ELEMENTS OF RELIGION. Lent Lectures. Small Svo.
as. 6d. [The Crown Svo. Edition (c,s.) may still be had,}
SELECTIONS FROM THE WRITINGS OF. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
MAXIMS AND GLEANINGS. Crown i6mo, is,
Linklater.— TRUE LIMITS OF RITUAL IN THE CHURCH.
Edited by Rev. Robert Linklater, D.D., Vicar of Stroud Green.
Crown Svo. 3s.
Lowrie.- THE DOCTRINE OF ST. JOHN : an Essay in
Biblical Theology. By Walter Lowrie, M.A., Mission Priest in
the City Mission, Philadelphia. Crown Svo. 3s.
Luckock.— Works by HERBERT Mortimer Luckock, D.D.,
Dean of Lichfield.
THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF EACH GOSPEL.
Crown Svo.
THE HISTORY OF MARRIAGE, JEWISH AND CHRISTIAN, IN
RELATION TO DIVORCE AND CERTAIN FORBIDDEN
DEGREES. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 6s.
AFTER DE^TH. An Examination of the Testimony of Primitive
Times respecting the State of the Faithful Dead, and their Relationship
to the Living. Crown Svo. 3J. 6d.
THE INTERMEDIATE STATE BETWEEN DEATH AND
JUDGMENT. Being a Sequel to After Death. Crown Svo. 3s, 6d.
FOOTPRINTS OF THE SON OF MAN, as traced by St. Mark. Being
Eighty Portions for Private Study, Family Reading, and Instruction
in Church. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d,
FOOTPRINTS OF THE APOSTLES, as traced by St. Luke in the
Acts, Being Sbtty Portions for Private Study, and Instruction in
Church. A Sequel to ' Footprints of the Son of Man, as traced by
St. Mark.' Two Vols. Crown Svo. las.
THE DIVINE LITURGY. Being the Order for Holy Communion,
Historically, Doctrinally, and Devotionally set forth, in Fifty Portions.
Crown Svo. 3s. 6d,
STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON
PRAYER. The Anglican Reform— The Purhan Innovations—The
Elizabethan Reaction — The Carohne Settlement. With Appendices.
CrownSvo, 3s. 6d.
THE BISHOPS IN THE TOWER. A Record of Stirring Events
affecting the Church and Nonconformists from the Restoration to the
Revolution. Crown Svo. 3s, 6d.

14 A SELECTION OF WORKS
MacColL— Works by the Rev. Malcolm MaoColl, D.D., Canon
Residentiary of Ripon.
THE REFORMATION SETTLEMENT : Examined in the Light of
History and Law. With an Introductory Letter to the Right Hon,
Sir W. V. Harcourt, M.P. Crown Svo. 7s. 6d. net.
CHRISTIANITY IN RELATION TO SCIENCE AND MORALS.
Crown Svo. 6s.
LIFE HERE AND HEREAFTER : Sermons. Crown Svo, 7s, 6d,
Mason.— Works by A. J. Mason, D.D., Lady Margaret Professor
of Divinity in the University of Cambridge and Canon of Canterbury.
THE CONDITIONS OF OUR LORD'S LIFE UPON EARTH,
Being the Bishop Paddock Lectures, 1896. To which is prefixed part
of a First Professorial Lecture at Cambridge. Crown Svo. 3s,
THE FAITH OF THE GOSPEL. A Manual of Christian Doctrine,
Crown Svo. 7s. 6d. Cheap Edition. Crown Svo, 3J. 6d.
THE RELATION OF CONFIRMATION TO BAPTISM. As taught
in Holy Scripture and the Fathers. Crown SVo. 7s. 6d.
Maturin.— Works by the Rev. B. W. Maturin.
SOME PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF THE SPIRITUAL
LIFE. Crown Svo. 4^. 6d.
PRACTICAL STUDIES ON THE PARABLES OF OUR LORD.
Crown Svo. 3s.
Medd.— THE PRIEST TO THE ALTAR ; or, Aids to the
Devout Celebration of Holy Communion, chiefly after the Ancient
English Use of Sarum. By Peter Goldsmith Medd, M.A., Canon
of St. Alban's. Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged. Royal Svo, 151.
Meyrick.— THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH OF ENG
LAND ON THE HOLY COMMUNION RESTATED AS A
GUIDE AT THE PRESENT TIME. By the Rev. F. Meyrick,
M.A. Crown Svo. '4s. 6d.
Mortimer.— Works by the Rev. A. G. Mortimer, D.D., Rector
of St. Mark's, Philadelphia.

CATHOLIC faith AND PRAC
TICE: A Manual of Theology.
'Two Parts. Crown ivo. Sold sepa
rately. Part I. -JS. 6d. Part 11. gj.
JESUS AND THE RESURRECTION:
Thirty Addresses for Good Friday and
Easter. Crcyam Svo. ^s.
HELPS TO MEDITATION: Sketches
for Every Day in the Year.
Vol. I. Advent tx Trinity. 8»». 7i.6rf.
Vol. II. Trikity to Advent. Svo.^s.6d.
STORIES FROM GENESIS : Sermons
for Children. Crown Svo. ^s.
THE LAWS OF HAPPINESS; or.
The Beatitudes as teaching our l^uty
to God, Self, and our Neighbour.
iStno. 2f.

THE LAWS OF PENITENCE: Ad
dresses on the Words of our Lord from
the Cross. T.6tH0. is. 6d.
SERMONS IN MINIATURE FOR
EXTEMPORE PREACHERS:
Sketches for Every Sunday and Holy
Day of the Christian Year. Cr. Svo. 6s.
NOTES ON THE SEVEN PENI
TENTIAL PSALMS, chiefly from
Patristic Sources. Fcp. Svo. 5s. td,
THE SEVEN LAST WORDS OF
OUR MOST HOLY REDEEMER:
with Meditations on some Scenes in
His Passion. Crown Svo. s*-
LEARN OF JESUS CHRIST TO
DIE : Addresses on the Words of our
Lord from the Cro^s; taken as Teach
ing the way of Preparation for Deatli.
r6mOt as.

IN THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. li
Mozley.— Works by J. B. Mozley, D.D., late Canon of Christ
Church, and Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford.

ESSAYS, HISTORICAL AND THEO
LOGICAL. Two Vols. Svo. 24*.
EIGHT LECTURES ON MIRACLES.
Being the Bampton Lectures for 1865.
Crown Svo. js. 6d.
RULING IDEAS IN EARLY AGES
AND THEIR RELATION TO
OLD TESTAMENT FAITH.
Svo. 6s.

SERMONS PREACHED BEFORE
THE UNIVERSITY OF OX
FORD, and on Various Occas.ons.
Crown Svo. js, 6d.
SERMONS, PAROCHIAL AND
OCCASIONAL. CrownSvo. 3s. 6d.
A REVIEW OF THE BAPTISMAL
CONTROVERSY. Crown Svo.
3*. 6d.

Newbolt— Works by the Rev. W. C. E. Newbolt, M.A., Canon
and Chancellor of St. Paul's Cathedral.
RELIGION. Crown Svo. ss. (The Oxford Library of Practical
Theology.)
WORDS OF EXHORTATION. Sermons Preached at St. Paul's and
elsewhere. Crown Svo. 6s.
PRIESTLY IDEALS ; being a Course of Practical Lectures delivered in
St. Paul's Cathedral to ' Our Society ' and other Clergy, in Lent, 1898.
Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
THE GOSPEL OF EXPERIENCE ; or, the Witness of Human Life
to the truth of Revelation. Being the Boyle Lectures for 1895.
Crown Svo. 5^ .
COUNSELS OF FAITH AND PRACTICE: being Sermons preached
on various occasions. New and Enlarged Edition. Crown Svo. s^-
SPECULUM SACERDOTUM; or, the Divine Model of the Priestly
Life. Crown Svo. 7s. 6d.
THE FRUIT OF THE SPIRIT. Being Ten Addresses bearing on
the Spiritual Life. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d.
THE MAN OF GOD. Small Svo. is. 6d.
THE PRAYER BOOK : Its Voice and Teaching. Crown Svo. as. 6d.
Newman,— Works by John Henry Newman, B.D., sometime
Vicar of St. Mary's, Oxford.
LETTERS AND CORRESPONDENCE OF JOHN HENRY NEW
MAN DURING HIS LIFE IN THE ENGLISH CHURCH. With
a brief Autobiography. Edited, at Cardinal Newman's request, by
Anke Mozley. 2 vols. Crown Svo. 7s.
PAROCHIAL AND PLAIN SERMONS. Bight Vols. Cabinet Edition.
Crown Svo. ss. each. Cheaper Edition. 3s. 6d. each.
SELECTION, ADAPTED TO THE SEASONS OF THE ECCLE
SIASTICAL YEAR, from the ' Parochial and Plain Sermons,'
Cabinet Edition. Crown Svo. 5J. Cheaper Edition. 35. 6d.
FIFTEEN SERMONS PREACHED BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY
OF OXFORD. Cabinet Edition. CrownSvo. 3s. Cheaper Edition. 3s.6d.
SERMONS BEARING UPON SUBJECTS OF THE DAY. Cabinet
Edition. Crown Svo. ss. Cheaper Edition. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d.
LECTURES ON THE DOCTRINE OF JUSTIFICATION. Cabinet
Edition. Crown Svo. 51. Cheaper Edition. 3i. 6d.
V A Com/ilete List of Cardinal Newman's Works can be had on Application,

I6 A SELECTION OF WORKS
Osborne. — Works by Edward Osborne, Mission Priest of the
Society of St. John the Evangelist, Cowley, Oxford.
THE CHILDREN'S SAVIOUR. Instructions to Children on the Life
of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. Illustrated. i6mo. as. 6d.
THE SAVIOUR KING: Instructions to Children on Old Testament
Types and Illustrations of the Life of Christ. Illustrated. i6mo. as. (d,
THE CHILDREN'S FAITH. Instructions to Children on the Apostles'
Creed. Illustrated. i6mo. as. 6d.
Ottley.— ASPECTS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT: being the
Bampton Lectures for 1897. By Robert Lawrence Ottley, M.A,
Vicar of Winterbourne Bassett, Wilts ; sometime Principal of the
Pusey House. Svo. ys. 6d.
Ube ©jforb Xibrars of ipractfcal XTbeologB.
PRODUCED UNDER THE EDITORSHIP OF
The Rev. W. C. E. Newbolt, M.A., Canon and Chancellor of
St. Paul's, and the Rev. F. E. Brightman, M.A., Librarian
of the Pusey House, Oxford.
The Price of each Volume will be Five Shillings,
The following is a list of Volumes as at present proposed : —
RELIGION. By the Rev. W. C. E. Newbolt, M.A,, Canon and
Chancellor of St, Paul's. Crown Svo. sj. [Seadji.
HOLY BAPTISM. By the Rev. Darwell Stone, M.A., Principal
of the Missionary College, Dorchester. Crown Svo. S'- [Ready,
CONFIRMATION. By the Right Rev. A. C. A. Hall, D.D.,
Bishop of Vermont.
THE HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, By
the Rev. Leighton Pullan, M.A., Fellow of St. John Baptist's
College, Oxford.
HOLY MATRIMONY. By the Rev. W. J. Knox Little, M.A.,
Canon of Worcester.
THE HOLY COMMUNION. By the Rev. F. W. Puller, M.A.,
Mission Priest of St. John Evangelist, Cowley.
RELIGIOUS CEREMONIAL. By the Rev. F. E. Brightman,
M.A., Librarian of the Pusey House, Oxford.
PRAYER. By the Rev. A. J. Worlledge, M.A., Canon of Truro.
VISITATION OF THE SICK. By the Rev. E. F. Russell, M.A.,
St. Alban's, Holborn.
Confession and Absolution. I Devotional Books and Readikg.
Fasting and Almsgiving. | Ordination.
Retreats, Missions, Etc. I Foreign Missions.
Church Work. I The Bible.

IN THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

17

Outlines of Church Teaching: a Series of Instructions for
the Sundays and chief Holy Days of the Christian Year. For the
Use of Teachers. By C. C. G. With Preface by the Very Rev.
Francis Paget, D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford. Crown Svo.
3s. 6d,
Oxenham.— THE VALIDITY OF PAPAL CLAIMS : Lectures
delivered in Rome. By F. Nutcombe Oxeni;.4M, D.D., English
Chaplain at Rome. With a Letter by His Grace the Archbishop of
York. Crown Svo. as. 6d.
Paget.— Works by Francis Paget, D.D., Dean of Christ Church.
STUDIES IN THE CHRISTIAN CHARACTER : Sermons. With an
Introductory Essay. Crown Svo. 6s. 6d.
THE SPIRIT OF DISCIPLINE : Sermons. Crown Svo. 6s. 6d.
FACULTIES AND DIFFICULTIES FOR BELIEF AND DIS-
BELIEF. Crown Svo. 6s. 6d.
THE HALLOWING OF WORK. Addresses given at Eton, January
, 16-18, 1888. Small Svo. as.
Percival.— THE INVOCATION OF SAINTS. Treated Theo
logically and Historically. By Henry R. Percival, M.A., D.D.,
Author of ' A Digest of Theology,' ' The Doctrine of the Episcopal
Church,' etc. Crown Svo. 5^.

Pocket Manual of Prayers for the Hours, Etc. With the
Collects from the Prayer Book. Royal 32mo. is.
Powell.— THE PRINCIPLE OF THE INCARNATION.
With especial Reference to the Relation between our Lord's Divine
Omniscience and His Human Consciousness. By the Rev. H. C.
Powell, M.A. of Oriel College, Oxford ; Rector of Wylye and Pre
bendary of Salisbury Cathedral. Svo. i6s.
Practical Reflections. By a Clergyman. With Preface by
H. p. Liddon, D.D., D.C.L., and the Lord Bishop of Lincoln.
Crown Svo. ¦

The Book of Genesis.
The Psalms. 5^.
Isaiah. 4s. 6d.

4s, 6d.

The Minor Prophets. 41. 6d.
The Holy Gospels. 4s. 6d.
Acts to Revelation. 6s.

Priest's Prayer Book (The). Containing Private Prayers and
Intercessions ; Occasional, School, and Parochial Offices ; Offices for
the Visitation of the Sick, with Notes, Readings, Collects, Hymns,
Litanies, etc. With a brief Pontifical. By the late Rev. R. F.
LiTTLKDALE, LL.D., D.C.L., and Rev, J. EDWARD Vaux^ M.A.»
F.S.A. Post Svo. 6s. 6d.

i8 A SELECTION OF WORKS
Pullan. — Works by the Rev. Leighton Pullan, M.A., Fellow
of St. John B&ptist's College.
LECTURES ON RELIGION. Crown Svo. 6s.
THE HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMqN PRAYER. Crown
Svo. 5J. (The Oxford Library of Practical Theology.)
Pusey.— Works by the Rev. E. B. Pusey, B.D.
PRIVATE PRAYERS. With Preface by H. P. LiDDON, D.D.,
late Chancellor and Canon of St. Paul's. Royal 3zmo. is.
SPIRITUAL LETTERS OF EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY,
D.D. Edited and prepared for publication by the Rev. J. 0.
Johnston, M. A., Principal of the Theological College, Cuddesdon;
and the Rev. W. C. E. Newbolt, M.A., Canon and Chancellor of St.
Paul's. Svo. I2S. 6d.
THE STORY OF THE LIFE OF DR. PUSEY. By the Author
of ' Charles Lowder. '
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