«'Ti^LIl«¥]MII¥IEI^SIIir¥«' " ILIIIBI^^IE^ " 1921 ._^.S^^^^,;iS,^^^V— — ~g..!;g. I. D. 1189 A MANUAL OF PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA Compiled hy the Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, Admiralty Gt3v+. ^^yn^r^Wu LONDON : PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. To be purchased through any Bookseller or directly from H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE at the following addresses : Imperial Ho0se, Kingswat, London, W.C. 2, and 28 Abingdon Street, London, S.W. 1 ; 37 Peter Street, Manchester ; 1 St. Andrew's Crescent, Cardiff; 23 Forth Street, Bdinbdbgh ; or from E. PONSONBY, Ltd., 116 Grafton Street, Dublin. 1920 Price 7s. 6d. net Printed under the authority of His Majesty's Stationery Office By Frederick Hall at the University Press, Oxford. NOTE It will be apparent at many points in this volume that the available sources of information on Portuguese East Africa are far from complete ; for large areas they are very scanty, and for some parts wholly wanting. The country is at a comparatively early stage of economic development under modern conditions, and for that reason its state is constantly undergoing change in many details ; great parts of it have recently been the scene of military operations, which have a similar effect, and it is therefore necessary to emphasize the fact that in the circumstances the information given in the following pages must be in some measure tentative or incomplete. The Admiralty will be glad to receive corrections or additions. CONTENTS CHAP, p^OE I. Geographical Outlines , . . . 13 Position — Frontiers — Area and political divi sions—Name — Natural divisions of surface — Plan of description — Coast — Currents — Drainage areas and principal rivers — Detailed description of surface (Lourenzo Marques, Gaza, Inhambane — Mozambique Company's Territory — Tete — Quelimane, Mozambique District, Nyasaland) — Geology, II. Climate 60 Observations — General conditions — Coastal zone — Inland districts — Tables, III. Vegetation and Animals 73 IV. Inhabitants 86 Population — Density and distribution — White population — Asiatics and half-castes — Native in habitants (general survey) — Tribes south of the Zam bezi — Tribes along the Zambezi — Tribes north of the Zambezi — Eolations between Portuguese and natives — Eolations of natives with Arabs and In dians — Missions and education — Health conditions, ' V. Government and Trading Companies , ,135 Introduction — Territories directly administered — The Eevolution and Law of 1914 — Tho Governor- General and Councils — Administrative departments and officials — District government — Municipal and other forms of local government — Prazos administra tion — Military organization — Justice — Finance — Currency — Foreign Consulates — Mozambique Com pany — Zambozia Company — Nyassa Company — Labour and Emigration (Labour in Transvaal — Eegula- 8 CONTENTS CHAP, PAGE tion of emigration to Transvaal — Mutual interests of Transvaal and the Province — Numbers of emigrant labourers — Closing of recruiting areas — Death-rate in Transvaal mines — Moral effects consequent upon emigration — Eecruiting in Companies' territories — Eecruiting for Ehodesia — Administration of emigra tion — Witwatersrand Native Labour Association — Labour within the province), VI. Agriculture, Economic Plants, and Live-stock , 187 General position of agriculture — Agricultural areas — Experimental farms — Sugar — Coco-nut planta tions — ^Vegetable oils — Timber resources — Eubber — Fibre plants (sisal, Mauritius hemp, kapok. New Zealand flax, &c,) — Cotton — Coffee -^ Maize and mUlet — Eice — Tobacco — Fruit-growing — Spices — Beeswax — Gums — Beans — Wattle plantations — Cas sava — Local food-supplies — Fermented drinks — Native drugs and medicines — LiVe-stock, VII. Mining and Other Industries .... 259 Mining : Mineral areas — Manica — Tete — Southern districts — Northern districts. Other Industries : Whaling — Fishing — Salt. VIII. Commerce 284 Transit trade — Lourenzo Marques — Out-transit trade of Lourenzo Marques — Exports from Portu guese territory through Lourenzo Marques — In- transit trade of Lourenzo Marques — Imports into Portuguese territory through Lourenzo Marques — Indian traders — British goods — Principal articles imported. Inhambane — Beira — Chinde — Nyasaland transit trade through Chiade — Quelimane — Mozambique — Nyassa Company's territory — Summary tables. Customs duties — Preferences in favour of Por tugal — ' Nationalized ' goods — the Customs Union — Export duties. CONTENTS 9 CHAP, TAGE IX, Communications,- I 315 Shipping : Factors influencing transit trade — Shipping freights — Shipping ring — Gorman com petition — Portuguese interests — Shipping com panies — Classes of shipping— Shipping statistics. Ports : Lourenzo Marques — Chai-Chai — Inham bane — Bazaruto — Bartholomeu Diaz, Chiluane, Sofala — Beira — Chinde — Quelimane — Makivale, Porto Bello, Bijon, &c, — • Angocho — Mozambique — Mo- kambo Bay — Conducia Bay — Fornao Velloso Bay — Memba Bay — Lurio and Mkufi — Port Amelia — Arimba and Montepuesi — Ibo — Mazimbwa and Port Mluli— Tungue, Inland navigation : Maputo — MatoUa — Tembe — Umbeluzi — Komati — Limpopo — Inyarrime — Inham bane — Buzi — • Pungwe — Zambezi — Quelimane Eiver — Mutu Canal — Waterways in Quelimane District, Maganja da Costa, &c, — Mozambique and Nyassa Company's territory. X, Communications. — II ...... 361 Eailways : Area and history of railway interests — Lourenzo Marques-Transvaal railway (MacMurdo's railway — Kruger's attitude — Completion of railway — Physical comparison of Lourenzo Marques and Durban routes — Stations in Portuguese territory — The Waterval deviation) — Distances from Lourenzo Marques — Competitive traffic question (Delagoa Bay favoured by Netherlands railway — Conflicting railway administration — Modus Vivendi, 1901 — Amalgama tion of South African railways — ^The Convention of 1909— Effect of rate-adjustments— Transvaal labour considerations) — New railways in Transvaal (Komati Poort-Messina railway — Bandolier Kop-Messina rail way — Messina copper-mines — Communication with Ehodesia — Nelspruit-Graskop extension — Machado- dorp-Broyten line — Witbank loop-line — Witbank coal district — Eailways in western Transvaal— Barberton railway) — Swaziland railway — Eesources of Swazi land — Moamba-Chinavane and Gaza railways — 10 CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE General statistics of railways in Lourenzo Marques District — -Beira-Mashonaland railway (Construction — Change of gauge — Eoute and elevation — Stations — Working proportions — Kafue extension — Competi tive areas — General statistics — Beira Eailway Co, — Beira Junction Eailway Co, — Mashonaland Eailway Co, — Ehodesia Eailways, Ltd,, and Ehodesia Eail ways Trust) — Eailways along tho Zambezi — Beira- Zambezi railway — Nyasaland railways (Central Africa railway — Shire Highlands railway) — Eailways in Quelimane District (Quelimane-Makivale railway — Inyamakurra-Mokuba railway — Quelimano-Euo rail way — Quelimane-Tete railway) — Mozambique-Nyasa- land railway — Port Amelia-Lake Nyasa railway. Eoads and transport — Post Ofifice and telegraphs, XI, History 441 Early history — Tho coast : establishment of Portu guese power in East Africa — Tho interior : the king dom of the Monomotapa and the gold trade — First Portuguese attempts to penetrate the interior — Portuguese establishments in the interior — Conquest of the Monomotapa — Height of Portuguese influence in the interior, 1630-90 — Missions — Portuguese loss of sea-power — Loss of Mombasa — Portuguese trade — The period of decline — The Bonga war — The Gaza invasion — The slave trade in the nineteenth century — The beginnings of colonial reform — The Delagoa Bay question — Early Portuguese relations with Delagoa Bay — Capt. Owen's visits — MacMahon's arbitration- Portugal and the partition of Africa — Portuguese explorers and Livingstone — Progress of the colony, 1860-90 — Gouveia and Paiva d'Andrada — Portuguese claim to transcontinental dominion — The Tungue Bay question — The question of Nyasaland — The question of Mashonaland — Progress of Portuguese expeditions — The British ultimatum, January, 1890 — The Treaty of 1890--The Modus Vivendi — The Manica incident — Tho mission to Gungunyana — The final negotiations — The Treaty of 1891 — The occupa- CONTENTS 11 chap. PAGE tion of the modern province — Situation in 1891- Gazaland — Mozambique Company's territory — Zam bozia — Mozambique District — Portuguese Nyasaland, XII. Political and Economic Conclusions , ,513 Introductory — Political obstacles to progress of the colony — Territorial disunity (Territory south of the Sabi — Mozambique Company : chartered company administration — Zambozia — Mozambique and Nyasa land) — Development by companies and individual settlement — Need for systematic investigation of tho country — Means for investigation and development — External relations : British territories (Eolations with Transvaal — Eolations with Ehodesia and Nyasaland) — External relations other than British — Portuguese sentiment in regard to frontier readjustment, BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 530 NOTE ON THE SPELLING OF PLACE-NAMES . 534 INDEX ... 535 DIAGRAMS 1, Typical Curve of Rise and Fall of the Zambezi at Tete 31 2, Diagram to illustrate fluctuation in percentage of transit traffic with the Competitive Area, pass ing through Lourenzo Marques, Durban, and Cape ports • • 380 LIST OF MAPS accompanying this volume {Separately issued) T. Principal Geological Formations, II, Native Peoples, III. Agriculture, etc, IV. Mineral Areas, V. Railways of South Africa. VI. The Competitive Area and Competing Ports, VII. German-Portuguese Frontiers in the Tungue Bay District. VIII. Portuguese Occupation from the 16th to the 18th Centuiy, IX, Frontier Negotiations, 1875-91, Inset A, Portuguese Claim to African Transcontinental Dominion, 1886, Inset B. Delagoa Bay : MacMahon's Arbitration. General Map of Portuguese East Africa, CORRIGENDA According to information received while this volume was in the press : (1) The territory of Gaza, referred to on p, 14 and else where as administratively part of Lourenzo Marques District, has been erected into a separate District, with its seat of government at Chai-Chai. (2) The fall in the level of Lake Nyasa, referred to on p, 30 and elsewhere, is reported (September 1918) to have ceased in the last three years, Mauttai. of Poet. E. A. CHAPTER I GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES Position — Frontiers— Area and political divisions — Namo — Natural divisions of surface — Plan of description — Coast — Currents — Drain age areas and principal rivers — Detailed description of surface (Lourenzo Marques, Gaza, Inhambane — Mozambique Company's Territory — Tote — Quelimane, Mozambique District, Nyasaland) — Geology, Position Portuguese East Africa, or the Province of Mozam bique, extends along the coast of the Mozambique Channel from Oro Point (26°52'S.) in the south to a point near Cape Delgado (10° 40' S.) in the north. In the south it includes Delagoa Bay : in the centre, the broad incurve of the coast where it is broken by the estuaries of the Pungwe (with the port of Beira) and of the Zambezi, with its wide delta, in which is situated the port of Chinde. The outcurve of the coast to the north of these extends to the port of Mozambique, whence the shoreline, running northerly, almost reaches the mouth of the river Rovuma, The territory has thus a frontage upon the sea through out its length. The seaboard, measured along the major curves, but excluding lesser indentations, is about 1,430 miles long. The breadth inland varies. In the south it is small — little more than 30 miles from the shore of Delagoa Bay westward in a -direct line to the western frontier. As the coast trends north-eastward and the frontier runs west of north the width increases to 260 miles ; then it decreases again until the distance 14 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES due west from Beira to the frontier is only 120 miles, A broad wedge of Portuguese territory, however, extends up the Zambezi from its mouth, so that about 550 miles of the lower course of the river are included in it. On the other hand a wedge of British territory (the Nyasa land Protectorate) runs south from Lake Nyasa nearly to the Zambezi, and from the coast near Quelimane to the Nyasaland frontier is only about 130 miles direct. In the north, Portuguese territory has a width of some 400 miles along the thirteenth parallel, between the sea and Lake Nyasa, Frontiers Portuguese East Africa is bounded on the landward sides by British territory throughout, except in the north, where it marches with the territory known as German East Africa, On the south it is bounded by Natal ; on the west successively by Transvaal, Southern and Northern Rhodesia, and the Nyasaland Protectorate, The territory, as thus defined, is of irregular form, and coincides with no definite natural division. Its frontiers are sometimes determined by physical features, or at least follow their general guidance ; elsewhere, purely artificial lines are laid down. The short southern frontier runs west from Oro Point to the junction of the Pongola and Usutu rivers, thence following the latter for a few miles upward. At this point it reaches the Lebombo Mountains, From here the western frontier has a general direction north by west, and follows the line of the Le bombo chain, crossing the deep valleys which break it, past Komatipoort, the pass or gate of the Komati river, which is followed by the railway connecting Transvaal with the port of Lourenzo Marques (Delagoa Bay), across the Olifants river, to the Shingwedsl, whence it runs directly NNW, to the junction of the Pafuri with the FRONTIERS 15 Limpopo, Crossing the Limpopo, it is laid down as a straight line north-east to the Sabi river at the confluence of the Lunde, From here northward the line runs through the broken, mountainous country on the edge of the high plateau of Southern Rhodesia, including that section of the frontier which in the treaty of 1891 was described as following ' the upper part of the eastern slope of the Manica plateau ', The attempt to give effect to this expression, and precisely to define this part of the fron tier, resulted, as will be seen (p. 503), in a dispute which necessitated recourse to arbitration. The frontier, accord ing to the treaty, was to be deflected so as to leave Masikesi in the Portuguese sphere : this is the point where the Beira-Mashonaland railway now passes from Portuguese into British territory. The general direction, however, is preserved as far north as the point where the river Mazoe is intersected by the meridian of 33° E. Here the frontier, in order to demarcate the Portuguese wedge extending up the Zambezi, turns westerly. Run ning at first for some miles up the Mazoe, it is then laid down in a succession of straight lines, generally WNW., across the Ruia (or Luia) river to the Mkumvura, which it follows down nearly to its confluence with the Um- sengedsi (Msangezi), It then follows another tributary of that river as far as the sixteenth parallel, along which it runs west to the Angwa river, and then turns due north to the Zambezi opposite the confluence of the Luangwa or Aruangwa, Zum bo being situated on the Portuguese, and Feira on the British side of that tributary. North of the Zambezi, the Luangwa forms the frontier as far as its intersection with the parallel of 15° S. Here the frontier turns ENE, and runs nearly as a straight line, and without regard to any larger physical features, as far as 14° S,, where it meets the frontier between Northern Rhodesia and the Nyasaland Protectorate, From this point it runs successively south-east, east by 16 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES north, south, and again south-east, following the water shed between tributaries of the Zambezi and, at first, afiluents of Lake Nyasa, and afterwards tributaries of the Shire, The watershed is followed to within 25 miles of the Zambezi above Sena, Then the line turns east to the Shire, and follows that river (the centre of its channel) northward to the confluence of its tributary the Ruo. That river and its tributary the Malosa are followed to about 16° S., after which the line runs du-ectly northward to the south-eastern corner of Lake Shirwa, follows the eastern shore of that lake, runs straight to the eastern shore of Lake Chiuta, which it follows, and then turns generally north-west, in a series of straight lines, to the eastern shore of Lake Nyasa in 13° 30' S, The shore of the lake now forms the frontier as far as 11°34'S,, at the mouth of the Kivindi stream. The northern frontier was demarcated as running up the Kivindi for a short distance ; and thence east, as nearly straight as the mountainous nature of the country would allow, to the Kipingi and Msinje rivers, which it follows down to the junction of the latter with the Rovuma river. The Rovuma then forms the frontier to within a short distance of its mouth : the numerous islands in it were agreed to be in German territory as far down as 38° 8' E., and those below that point in Portuguese, Some of these islands are of importance, being well populated. From about 10° 43' S, on the lower Rovuma the frontier runs parallel to the right bank of the river, and left a narrow strip in German territory as high up the river as the lowest ford. Afterwards it bears generally easterly to the coast at Ras Lipuu, a point on the promontory of Cape Delgado, so that the terri tory on both sides of the Rovuma mouth was German, AREA AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS 17 Area and Political Divisions The total area of the territory is about 295,000 square miles, but estimates vary. One of 426,712 square miles IS certainly based on an error. Measurement on a map of scale 1 : 3,000,000 gives a total of 294,500 square miles : the Portuguese official returns give 765,000 square kilo metres (295,300 square miles). The principal divisions of the territory are as follows : — Area, sq, m. Lourenzo (Lourenfo) Marques District . . 6,700 Gaza^ ..... Inhambane (Inyambane) District Mozambique Company's Territory Tete District .... Quelimane (Kilimane) District Mozambique (Mofambique) District Nyassa ^ Company's Territory Reckoning from the above estimates, it appears that Portugal possesses roughly 122,700 square miles of terri tory south of the Zambezi, and 172,300 square miles north of it. For the sake of comparison, it may be added that the territory known as German East Africa has an area estimated at 385,000 square miles. Portuguese East Africa is divided between three principal administrative authorities, two of them being chartered companies. The Mozambique Company ad ministers an area extending south from the lower Zam bezi to a frontier which, from the coast, follows the paraUel of 22° S, as far west as the meridian of 33° E,, and then strikes south-west to the river Limpopo, up ' Gaza is administratively included with Lourenzo Marques. ^ This name is so spelt in the title of the Company, and in most Portuguese works, * The area of 100,000 square miles sometimes assigned to this territory is probably an overestimate. 22,000 21,000 60,000 39,60039,700 33,000 73,000 3 18 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES which it runs in a general north-westerly direction to the international frontier. The Nyassa Company administers the country extending from the river Rovuma to the Lurio, and from lakes Nyasa, Chiuta, and Shirwa to the sea. The portion of the colony directly administered by the governor-general therefore falls into two parts, respectively south and north of the Mozambique Com pany's territory. The southern part consists of the districts of Lourenzo Marques and Inhambane, with Gaza, The northern part is divided into three large districts : (1) Tete, comprising the upper part of the Zambezi basin which is in Portugufese possession ; (2) Quelimane, between the lower Zambezi and Mozambique district ; (3) Mozambique, which borders the Nyassa Company's territory along most of its southern frontier. Each district is named after its chief town. The capital is Lourenzo Marques, Name The official designation of the Province of Mozambique, covering the whole territory, makes for confusion, inas much as the name is also used in the title of the Mozam bique Company, whose territory is distinct from the district of Mozambique, of which the town of Mozambique is the capital. The name of Portuguese East Africa is common in English (though not in Portuguese) usage, and has been adopted in this work. Natural Divisions of Surface The surface of that part of eastern Africa which includes Portuguese East Africa is broadly divisible as follows : (1) the coastal lowland, (2) the shelf or middle plateau, (3) the high plateaux and mountains, (1) The low coast is backed by a lowland, of gentle NATURAL DIVISIONS OF SURFACE 19 slope and no great depth inland except in the south and along the lower courses of large rivers. This coastal lowland may be reckoned as reaching an extreme altitude of 500-600 ft,, but most of it lies much lower. In the south of Portuguese East Africa the lowland is wide beyond the average, and merges insensibly into the higher shelf, about the lower courses of the rivers Limpopo and Sabi, and again, farther north, the lowland extends far up the valley of the Zambezi, Northward again, it is much narrower, (2) The shelf, of plateau form and moderate eleva tion — 800-2,000 ft. as a rule — is reached by a more marked slope from the coastal lowland. Its gently undulating surface is frequently broken by the ' island-hills ' or ' island-mountains ' ^ which are characteristic of large parts of the continent, and in Portuguese East Africa belong mainly, though not exclusively, to this particular division. These hUls occur in immense numbers and in a variety of forms and sizes, from the single kopje, a few hundred feet in height, to the mountain mass such as Namuli or Gorongoza, The summits take every shape, from the smooth dome to the rugged pinnacle ; the flanks are generally precipitous on one side or more. ' The most striking feature of these detached groups of hills lies in the abruptness of their discontinuity with the plateau. No preliminary foothills announce their sudden elevation, but all around their scored and barren sides is distributed a litter of debris, gigantic rocks, and boulders, woven together by a twining growth of scrub and thorn,' While in some instances these island-hills have no obvious rela tion with their neighbours, in others a series of them is found to be arranged along a definite line. Their origin has been much discussed, and it is by no means clear ' The German term Inselberg has been commonly adopted in English works. B 2 20 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES what relative importance is to be attributed to the three formative processes of (a) extrusion of igneous rocks through the common rock of the plateau, (6) differential elevation or subsidence, and (c) erosion. (3) The high plateaux of South and East Africa, which have a mean elevation of about 3,500 ft,, are rimmed in part by a rampart of mountains, such as are found along the western frontier of Portuguese East Africa in the Mozambique Company's territory, and again, further north, to the east of the great rift or line of depression which is occupied by the River Shire and Lake Nyasa, Plan of Description The surface-features may now be dealt with in detail, beginning with the coast, proceeding to a division of the territory according to drainage areas and a description of the principal rivers, and concluding with a closer con sideration of the relief and other physical attributes. Coast The southern limit of Portuguese territory on the coast is marked by an iron beacon on Oro peak (394 ft,), which rises behind Oro Point, about 3 miles north of Kosi River, The coast to the north is sandy, with other low hills, up to the Inyack or Inhaca Peninsula, which, with Inyack Island off" its northern extremity, Cape Santa Maria, forms the seaward (eastern) protection of Delagoa Bay, The island, which is wooded, measures about 7 miles by 4, and rises to an extreme height of 387 ft, Delagoa Bay is 22 miles broad from Inyack Lighthouse to the western shore, and 26 miles long from the same point south to the bead of the bay. For further details see p, 330, At its head, in the south, it receives the Maputo River, On the north-west is the estuary of the COAST 21 Espirito Santo or English River, formed by the Tembe, Umbeluzi, and Matolla Rivers, which come together about 8 miles from the mouth. The town of Lourenzo Marques is situated on the north shore of English River. A little farther north the Komati or Incomati River enters the bay. To the north of the Komati the coast again consists of sandhills, from 150 up to 290 ft, high ; within these there are shallow lagoons of considerable extent (see p, 348), Beyond the Limpopo River similar conditions . prevail around Zavala Point, where the coast begins to trend from a north-easterly to a northerly direction, and up to Inhambane Bay, which is protected by Burra Point, and is the principal port for the district of Inhambane, Northward of the bay the sandy coastal hills have a general elevation over 400 ft,, and rise occasionally to 600 ft, or more, as far as Burra Falsa Point : beyond this they decrease in height, and terminate some 8 miles before Cape San Sebastian is reached. From this point the coast is again backed by lagoons, and from the cape a chain of islands extends northward, called Bazaruto from its principal member, which is 18 miles long, sandy, and 370 ft, in extreme height. The islands were formerly famous for their pearl fisheries. The next important feature is the delta of the river Sabi, which enters the sea through several shallow mouths. To the north of it is the island of Chiluane, about 6 miles long by 3 broad, lying off, and partly within, the mouth of the Ingomaimo River : it is low, and some of it consists of mangrove swamps intersected by creeks, but the rest is dry and inhabited, A similar island, but uninhabited, is Boene, off" the mouth of the Gorongozi River, The coast continues very low, with marshes behind it, past Sofala River and as far as the estuary of the Buzi and Pungwe, on which is situated the port of Beira, Beyond this it turns north-east, and rises slightly, being 22 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES bounded by a range of low sandhills, which in some instances are about 200 ft, high, and are bare, in contrast with the surrounding levels, which are covered with thick jungle. The delta of the Zambezi River is now approached. It is about 43 miles in width along the coast. The bars and shores of the deltaic rivers are constantly liable to alteration (cp, p, 29), The original site of the port of Chinde has been entirely washed away, and it has been difficult to preserve the existing site from erosion. The land between the various mouths is low and sufficiently featureless to render approach difficult. Much of it con sists of mangrove swamp. As far as Quelimane River, and beyond it along the Maganja coast, there is no great change or conspicuous feature : ' the coast is low and sandy, with jungle in the background,' Off the eastern part of the Maganja coast are the Primeira Islands, and to the north-east of them, the Angoche Islands, These, with many attendant shoals, rise from the outer edge of a coral bank which fronts the shore at a distance varying from 5 to nearly 30 miles. The trees on some of the islands are useful sea-marks, and there are anchorages between the islands and the shore : otherwise they are unimportant. The coast rises slightly, but is otherwise little different, from Angoche as far as Mokambo Bay in the neighbour hood of Mozambique, Here it turns from north-east to north, and its character markedly changes. It becomes more broken, rocky at intervals, and in some parts bolder, and has several fine natural harbours, though little use is made of them. Port Mokambo (Kivolani Bay), Mosu ril Bay, with Mozambique Harbour, Fernao Velloso Bay, Memba Bay, and Pemba or Pomba Bay are all extensive and well sheltered. Those of chief economic interest at present are Mosuril Bay, at the entrance of which is situated Mozambique, the capital of the district of the COAST 23 same name, and Pemba Bay, on which Port Amelia is becoming the chief centre of the trade (such as it is) of the Nyassa Company's territory, to the exclusion of the older but inferior port of Ibo. Pemba Bay and the almost unused harbour of Fernao Velloso have each been spoken of as unsurpassed among natural harbours on the East African coast, and it is something to their advantage that they are not entered by large rivers, since they are thus less subject to silt, and more free of unhealthy marshes along their shores, than many of the ports along this coast, (See further, pp, 341, 342,) The coast of Portuguese • Nyasaland, or the Nyassa Company's territory, varies in character, being alternately sandy, rocky, or fringed with mangrove swamps. Gene rally it is low, except along a stretch of about 25 miles north from Lurio Bay, and at certain other points, such as the bluff" of North Point, north of the entrance to Pemba Bay, and the rocky northern shore of Tungue (or Tungi) Bay, which rises to heights of 80 to 200 ft. The more favourable parts of the coast are well wooded, and dotted with villages in coco-nut groves. The principal bays from south to north are Lurio, Pemba Bay, Porto Arimba, Mtep-^ezi (Montepuezi or Montepes), Mambe with Ibo Harbour, Mazimbwa (Mocimboa), Mayapa, Tungue, The coast is generally fringed by coral reefs, which south of Pemba Bay extend not more than If miles off-shore, but farther north the outer reefs lie 8-13 miles from the coast of the mainland, which is fringed with a chain of islands known collectively as the Kerimba Islands, These extend for 135 miles from Arimba Head northward to Cape Del gado, The islands number about thirty, apart from coral islets and drying shoals. They are generally low and wooded or grassy ; few are inhabited, as on the majority fresh water is scarce or absent. Some eighteen or nine teen openings between the outer islands and reefs lead into a still greater number of secure ports or convenient 24 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES anchorages for small craft. In these passes the water shoals from 100-200 fathoms to 20 fathoms or less within a mile, as the outer face of the reef falls abrujatly. Currents The trade-drift of the South Indian Ocean, moving westward and meeting with the obstruction of Mada gascar, divides in the vicinity of Mauritius, and sends one stream westward which strikes the African coast in the neighbourhood of Cape Delgado during the southern monsoon, though during the northern monsoon it is a degree or more farther north. Here it divides again southward and northward. The southward branch flows along the coast through the Mozambique Channel, with a velocity varying from 36 to 72 or even 100 miles in twenty-four hours during the northern monsoon, but decreasing during the southern monsoon until it is some times inappreciable. It is strongest at 60 to 80 miles off" shore. The tide, again, has a considerable influence on the current closer inshore (not more than 10 miles from the coast), alternately strengthening and retarding it : this condition is reported to be especially noticeable in the vicinity of Mozambique, On the whole, therefore, the varying influences at work in the Mozambique Chan nel render the currents rather uncertain. Drainage Areas and Principal Rivers The principal drainage areas of Portugese East Africa require to be classified in relation both to the relief of the land and to the political frontiers of the territory. Thus, a number of the most important rivers — e. g, the Komati, Limpopo, Sabi, Pungwe, Zambezi — rise outside Portuguese territory : in some instances by far the greater jjarts of theiv basins are not Portuguese, but Portugal DRAINAGE AND PRINCIPAL RIVERS 25 controls their outlets. As for the relation to surface- relief, a distinction must be drawn between the longer rivers which rise in the highlands of the interior (whether within or beyond the Portuguese frontier) and have a perennial flow, and those shorter streams which rise on the shelf or middle plateau zone between the highlands and the sea, and water the coastal slopes, in many cases only intermittently during the year. Further particulars concerning the principal rivers from the point of view of navigation will be found in Chapter IX, Delagoa Bay. — In the extreme south Portuguese East Africa includes Delagoa Bay, and approximately one- third of what may be termed the Delagoa drainage area. This is a territory roughly oval in form, drained by the Maputo or Usutu River in the south, the Tembe, Umbe luzi, and Matolla in the centre, the Komati in the north, and their numerous tributaries. Part of the northern district of Natal (Tongaland), Swaziland, and part of eastern Transvaal, are included in the Delagoa area. The headstreams rise in or beyond the broken ranges of the Drakensberg, the watershed, on the high plateau of eastern Transvaal, separating the eastern-flowing streams from those of the Vaal basin. Farther east, the Lebombo hills, another system of broken ranges lying south and north, is cut by the valleys of the Delagoa rivers. The Portuguese frontier lies along these ranges, so that Portuguese territory may be said, roughly, to include the lowlands of the Delagoa basin. Within this area the tributaries ofthe rivers mentioned above are unimportant, with the exception of the Uanetsi or Wanetzi, which joins the Komati on the north from the southern part of Gaza, Limpopo. — The next basin to the north is that of one of the first order of South African rivers, the Limpopo or Inhampura, and of this, again, Portugal possesses the 26 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES lowland. The Limpopo basin includes fully one-half of Transvaal and a considerable area of eastern Rhodesia ; the Rand in the south and the Matoppo Hills in the north are landmarks on its margins. Within Portuguese territory the Limpopo receives, not far from its mouth, the Chengane or Walwize tributary from the north, draining the country of Gaza, From the frontier for nearly 500 miles, down to the confluence of the Olifants (Elephantes) river from the west, the Limpopo varies greatly in depth, and in the dry season consists of a series of long deep pools, con nected by shallow channels, sometimes with only a few inches of water, meandering through the wide sandy bed. Below the Olifants, some 160 miles above the mouth, the river is at all times deeper, and in the wet season widely floods the plains of Bilene, Inhambane. — To the east of the Chengane a low watershed marks off the coastal slope of Inhambane, drained by no river of any large size, as far north as the valley of the Sabi, The principal stream is the Inyarrime (p. 347), Sahi. — The Sabi is an important rivei- (though not comparable with the Limpopo), and its basin is of peculiar form. Within Portuguese territory it receives no large tributary, and its lower valley is thus a narrow, shallow trough striking west-and-east from the frontier to the sea. But beyond the frontier it flows for some distance from the north along the inner (western) slopes of the Melsetter ranges of frontier mountains, and it collects its headwaters from a great length of the main divide of the southern Rhodesian plateau, the basin extending westward nearly to the Matoppo Hills and Buluwayo, The Sabi falls from the interior plateau over rocky cataracts some six or eight miles outside Portuguese territory. Within Portuguese territory there are no DRAINAGE AND PRINCIPAL RIVERS 27 rapids, but the width varies greatly, and the current is strong in midstream. There are numerous islands, and the bed is sandy and the channels shifting. The banks are generally steep. Buzi and Pungwe. — To the north of the Sabi, in the Sofala country, there are a few short independent rivers, such as the Gorongozi, wholly within Portuguese territory. Then follows the more important basin of the Buzi-Revue and the Pungwe. These rivers lie almost wholly in Portuguese territory : the western headstreams rise on the divide between these basins on the east and those of the upper Sabi and its tributary the, Odzi on the west, but the frontier does not follow the divide (see p, 15), The Buzi and the Pungwe reach the sea so close together that they may be regarded as having a common estuary (with the port of Beira on its northern shore) : the Revue is the principal tributary of the Buzi, The isolated high land of the Gorongoza Mountains rises in the northern part of the Buzi-Pungwe basin, but the divide between this basin and that of the Zambezi to the north is for the most part comparatively low, and, at one point at least, quite Ul-defined, This is in the depression of the Urema, a marshy lowland between the Gorongoza highland on the west and the Cheringoma plateau on the east. The Cheringoma plateau sends a few independent streams to the sea between the Pungwe and the Zambezi, Zambezi. — Of the Zambezi Basin, Portuguese territory includes t-he whole of the delta, about 550 miles of the lower course of the main river, and for the rest an area of irregular form, in great part, as has been seen (p. 15), undefined by natural features. From Zumbo on the western frontier down to Chikoa the Zambezi is broad and open, and has a gentle flow except at Dangwe near Bango and at Inyamazango, where there are slight rapids. Below Chikoa the river narrows (to a minimum width of some 40 to 60 yds. at 28 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES low water) between the Inyambonga Hills on the south and those of Chiperiziva and Murumbwa on the north, and forms the Quebra Bago or Kabroabassa^ rapids, extending for some 70 miles. These are unnavigable : the bed is strewn with rocks, and the current is fierce, whether in low water or in flood, when the rapids are largely obliterated. The steep rocky banks, for the most part of grey granite, at some points show striking colours, red or blue, and they are waterworn into curious galleries and pot-holes. Below the rapids for a long distance, down to Tete, the river is of regular depth and free of islands or serious obstructions, and from Tete down to Sungo islands are few. The width is generally about half a mile. Below Sungo the river has cut the Lupata gorge through a belt of hard rock. Approaching the gorge it has a strong current past islands. Within the gorge, which is at times not more than 600 yds, wide, it is deep and comparatively free of obstruction : the stream runs at more than 3 miles per hour in August (low water) and 5 miles per hour in February (high water). In parts it flows between sheer cliffs, rising straight from the water, and the scenery of the gorge is fine. The gorge is some 10 miles long. Below the Lupata the river widens suddenly. The bed is sandy and mobile, the banks are low, soft, and un stable. Erosion is constantly at work : the banks are fretted and undermined : islands and shoals, which are very numerous, are continually shifted or altered in size, and the main channel is neither uniform in depth nor permanent in position. Nearly all the islands are allu vial : few are rocky : some are of large size, and inhabited. The normal breadth of the river below Sena is from | to 3 miles, but in high water the floods may spread widely ' This namo appears in a variety of forms — Cabora Bassa, Kebra- bassa, Queruabafa, &c, DRAINAGE AND PRINCIPAL RIVERS 29 over the lowland : even above Sena the river has been reported six miles wide in a heavy flood (1874), The delta begins some 80 miles above the mouth. The principal distributaries are the Milambe, the Inyamis- sengo or Kongoni, the Zambezi (East Luabo or Koama), the Muselo, the Chinde with the Inyamakatiwa flowing from it, and the Inyamyona or Maria, All these ' have bars changing in depth from time to time ; the Chinde, although one of the narrowest and most tortuous, is the deepest, , , , The large body of water running out of the various mouths during the rainy season, combined with the continuous heavy ocean swell, so alters the position of the several bars, causing islands to form and to be washed away, that the entrances are never alike for two seasons ', A tidal rise and fall occurs up-river for about 35 miles, and the downward stream of the river is checked by the flow of the tide for some distance higher up. The Zambezi floods normally twice yearly : (1) in late December and early January under the influence of local rains, (2) in February-March, The second rise, caused by the rise of the headstreams in the distant interior, is the more important : the first flood (the result of local rains) reaches normally some 15 ft, above low- water level, the second over 20 ft. The rise is sudden, and is accom panied by a temporary increase in the rate of the current to 4-5 miles per hour or more at Tete, but in a few days the normal rate of 2 miles per hour is resumed, though there is not necessarily any decrease in level at the same time. (See Fig, 1, p, 31.) The Zambezi receives a large number of tributaries within Portuguese territory : some will be referred to in describing the districts through which they flow. The largest are the western frontier river, the Lungwa or Aroangwa, and the Shire, both northern tributaries. Shire. — None of the tributaries is of any great im portance to communications except the Shire, which 30 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES enters from the British Nyasaland Protectorate, At its mouth the large island of Inyangoma is formed by the Shire, the Zambezi, and the Ziwe-Ziwe or Ziu-ziu, a channel connecting the two rivers, and passing through the Manze lagoon : it was formed in 1860 during a high flood of the Zambezi, The usual direction of flow along it is from the Zambezi to the Shire, except when the Shire rises in flood before the Zambezi, In some parts within Portuguese territory, or where it forms the frontier, the Shire is deep, narrow, and sinuous, but there are difficulties for naviga tion in the Leak and Pinda rapids. Above Pinda the river passes through the Morumbala marshes, and then the so- called S bends are reached. Above Port Herald on the British shore there are islands, and the valley of the river is enclosed by high hUls, The Shire flows from Lake Nyasa, ' Of late years, for some reason unknown, the , , , rainfall over Lake Nyasa , , , which had considerable influence on the height ofthe Shire River, appears to have lost this to a great extent, , , , It is stated that the greatest rise of Lake Nyasa seldom adds more than 2 ft, to the dry-season height of the river,' This change has attracted much attention in view of its prejudicial effect on the navigation ofthe Shire, and various unsubstantiated explanations have been put forward, as that the whole region of the southern part of the lake is undergoing a process of desiccation, or even that the lake has found a new subterranean outlet. Quelimane and Mozambique. — The greater part of the district of Quelimane, apart from the extreme south which drains to the Zambezi, is watered by streams whose head waters are in the uplands or highlands towards the frontier with British Nyasaland. The Quelimane River, on the estuary of which the port of Quelimane is sjtuated, was Vasco da Gama's River of Bons Signaes (Good Signs), and still sometimes bears that name. It is formed by two principal streams, the Lualua, DRAINAGE AND PRINCIPAL RIVERS 31 IN Sim J / / .0 / raro Sa c \ < ^ ¦^ /^ ^' m \ y X / / \ \ SI ¦^ ^ \ s a> S \ (NINto CS ^ y> c \ rt -3 / / .^ ^ ,«t -- --., 0 t \ \ \ ^ .a flc3 M EH as >Mj ° » 2 2 O CO (O ^ CM P 32 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES flowing from the north, where it rises in the hills south of Mlanje, and the Kwakwa from the west, which collects the waters of a large number of streams which drain the plain of Marrabalo. These form a tortuous system of channels and lagoons, at least two of which appear to have con nexion with the Zambezi. One of them, the Mutu, now dry in the low-water season, used to afford a constant navigable channel, and it would appear that in early times the Quelimane was regarded, through this con nexion, as the principal mouth of the Zambezi, There is a network of waterways through the coastal lowland north of the Quelimane, and some of them are navigable for small craft for considerable distances up their estuaries and ramifications through the lowland (see p. 358), On the other hand, the Likungo, a larger river, which, with its tributaries the Lujella and Luo, has its headwaters in the highlands of Mlanje and Namuli, is shallower. To the north-east of the middle part of the Likungo basin a series of short ranges of hills, sometimes known collectively as Chika or Chinga, lies roughly parallel with the coast about 120 miles inland. In these hills a number of streams take their rise : they are not perennial, as the rainfall of this part of the coastal slope is not high. On the other hand, that of the interior highlands is much heavier, and those larger rivers, such as the Ligonya and Lurio, which rise in them and breach the lower ranges, flow at all seasons. Between the Likungo and the Ligonya lies the Maganja da Costa country, intermittently watered by comparatively short streams, and between the Ligonya and Lurio a similar country, which may be termed the Mozambique coast area, as it lies within the administrative district of Mozambique and includes the port of the same name. The rivers of the Mozambique area are longer than those of Maganja da Costa, and mostly rise in the middle heights of the plateau, where they are fed by perennial mountain-torrents. But in DRAINAGE AND PRINCIPAL RIVERS 33 their middle and lower courses they become wide and shallow, and cease to flow during the dry season, when their broad, sandy, and gravelly beds contain only stag nant pools, though here, as elsewhere in the country, water can always be reached by digging. These rivers flood the lowlands widely in the wet season, and show a substantial rise where confined by high banks : thus the comparatively short Mluli or Angoche in the south of Mozambique District is said to rise from 9 to 12 ft. The Lurio or Lull is little known, but it appears to be the principal river between the Zambezi and the Lujenda- Rovuma in Nyasaland, It rises in the Luasi Hills on the eastern borders of Lake Shirwa, and has a perennial course of 400 miles to the sea. It receives its principal tributaries from the south, in Mozambique District, Above Vatiwa, about 14°22'S., 37° 28' E., it divides into six channels and forms heavy rapids over a bar of hard granitic rock. Lower down it flows with a circuitous course, so far as is known, through a broad thickly- wooded valley alternating with bare rocky gorges, until towards the mouth it broadens over a wide, sandy, and muddy bed, which, in the dry season, may be crossed on foot. Nyasaland. — North of the Lurio, in the Nyassa Com pany's territory, the arrangement of the drainage slopes is not dissimilar from that to the south of it. Between the Lurio and the Rovuma a succession of comparatively short rivers (Mtepwezi, Msalu, and others) rise in the broken country of the middle plateau. They do not flow perennially. The hinterland is drained by the Lujenda, which flows from Lakes Amaramba and Chiuta on the frontier south-east of Lake Nyasa : it is by far the most important tributary of the Rovuma, to which it is little if at all inferior in size at their confluence. The name of Lujenda is not applied above Lake Amaramba, This lake has little marsh along its shores, but the connexion to the south with Lake Chiuta, and Chiuta itself, are bordered 34 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES by swampy reed-beds. Lake Chiuta, indeed, at the end of the dry season, is mainly a great swamp, with sheets of clear water at intervals, dense reed-beds, and some islands ; in the wet season there is more open water, and the lake covers a considerably extended area. The Lujenda leaves Lake Amaramba through a bed about 80 yds, wide, which has increased to a mile by the time it joins the Rovuma after a course of about 320 miles (excluding lesser windings). The stream itself, however, is seldom so wide. It has rapids at intervals, and a number of islands. It receives many tributaries on both banks : some of the larger, like the main stream, are perennial. The Rovuma, the northern frontier river, rises near Songea, From the point where it begins to border Portuguese territory it receives important tributaries from the hills east of Lake Nyasa in that territory ; these are the Msinje, Luchulingo, Majuni(Maziwa), and Usanyando, These are probably perennial, and so is the main river, but many of the smaller tributaries, especially from the north, are not. The Rovuma flows for the most part in a rather narrow valley : its width where it borders Portuguese territory ranges nominally from 70 to 300 yds, as far down as the Lujenda confluence, but at a point some 45 miles above the confluence it is constricted in a chasm not more than 8-10 yds. across, between rocky hills. Above the chasm are the Sunda Rapids, and throughout the course of the river slight falls are not uncommon, separating broad, still, and deep reaches. The principal rapids besides the Sunda are the Bandara or Kisungule at Sasavara in the upper course, and the Marumba, Upinde, or Peters falls in the lower. Below the Lujenda confluence the river flows through a flat scrub-covered valley, which in the lower part is sharply demarcated by the steep slopes of the Mavia and Makonde plateau to the south and north respectively. The DRAINAGE AND PRINCIPAL RIVERS 35 Rovuma receives in this part of its course a number of small tributaries, of which a few widen into small lakes (called by the Portuguese esponjas) just before joining the main river — Lakes Nangadi and Lidede near the right bank, Lake Chidya near the left bank, and others. The Rovuma enters the sea at Rovuma Bay through a widely branched delta outside Portuguese territory. It is esti mated that in the rains the river, below the Lujenda confluence, usually rises some 18 ft, above its dry-season level. Along this part of the Rovuma and the lower Lujenda the crystalline rocks have only a thin covering of soil, and the forest is not heavy, so that the water runs off fairly quickly in the rains, and fluctuations in the level of the river are rapid. The Nyasa highlands, west of the Lujenda-Rovuma basin, fall so abruptly to Lake Nyasa that only a strip of territory a few miles broad drains to the lake •through short streams which often form marshes at their mouths. Summary. — The principal drainage areas (omitting minor divisions) may be summarized as follows : /, Mainly out side, but vnth outlet through Portuguese territory II. Mainly vMh- in Portuguese territory Delagoa Bay area i Limpopo basin Sabi basin III. Wholly within Portuguese territory : (a) Having headstreams in highlands. (b) Coastal slopes only Inhambane coast area Sofala coast area (be tween Sabi and Pung we) c 2 36 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES Table [continued) I. Mainly out side, but xuith outlet through Portugueseterritory 67 8 9 10 111213 1415 Zambezi-Shire basin II. Mainly with III. Wholly within in Portuguese Portuguese territory : territory (a) Having (b) Coastal headstreams slopes only in highlands Buzi-Pungwe — — - basin — — Cheringoma — Likungo basin coast area — — Maganja coast area --- Ligonya basin — — — Mozambique coast area Lurio basin — — — Nyasaland coast area Lujenda-Rovuma — — basin Detailed Description of Surface Lourenzo Marques, Gaza, I^ihambane The coastal plain behind Delagoa Bay, in the district of Lourenzo Marques, is for the most part level or gently undulating, marshy in places near the coast, sandy locally, but as a whole fertile and covered with large areas or patches of thick bush. The district of Gaza, which borders the Limpopo River on both sides, and extends north from Lourenzo Marques District, is mostly a plain country. Its drainage system, LOURENZO MARQUES, GAZA, INHAMBANE 37 like that of Inhambane to the east of it, is often ill- defined, without clearly-marked water-partings, and the lower parts of the country along the Limpopo are subject to heavy floods, causing periodical migrations of the natives to the higher ground. Many small shallow lakes or lagoons occur locally. There is a chain of them extending intermittently along the coast from Lake Pati within Lourenzo Marques District eastward to the Lim popo, and again beyond that liver as far as Inhambane town. Some parts of this broken chain of lagoons have a certain importance as a line of communication (p, 348), Inland from this chain there are a number of lakes, especially in southern Inhambane, but the largest is in Gaza ; it is called Namarranka, and is 30 miles long and 7 in extreme width, with marshy shores. This lake and many others are brackish, but some are fresh. Again in the north of Gaza, between the Limpopo and the upper Chengane, many of these small lakes or pools occur, * The surface of the plain is somewhat broken in the south of Gaza, towards the coast, where in parts the country is even described as hilly. Again, where the Oli fants (Elephantes) River joins the Limpopo, in its middle course through Portuguese territory, high ground ap proaches close to both rivers : also there is somewhat broken country, reaching an extreme height of perhaps 1,000 ft., to the east ofthe Limpopo in the north of the district. At the frontier, near its junction with the Pafuri, the Limpopo flows over a level alluvial plain about 6 miles wide, with the low scarps of the plateau rising about 100 ft, on either hand. The surface of the plain, however, is mainly differentiated merely by its condition as regards moistufe, and the consequent vege tation : it is divided, on these considerations, into well- watered, moderately-watered, and dry country. The rich leafy vegetation of the well-watered lands— along the 38 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES river-banks especially — contrasts with that of those lands where there is less water, especially in the higher-lying parts of the plain, where thorny plants begin to super vene, and still more with the dry areas, where such plants predominate. The native name for these dry areas of thorny vegetation is mananga, and they occur at intervals on either side of the middle and upper course of the Limpopo through the territory, and elsewhere. The whole plain country of the Inhambane District, and beyond it northward to the Sabi River, rarely reaches an elevation of 600 ft. above sea-level, and mostly it is much lower. Southward from the Sabi through the centre of Inhambane there is a very gentle uplift, where an extreme height of 630 ft, has been recorded, decreasing southward to 300-400 ft. The country between the head of the Inyarrime River and the Chengane tributary of the Limpopo may reach 500 ft, ; on the other hand, the Chengane valley itself, at a distance of fully 100 miles from the mouth of the Limpopo, lies very little above sea-level, Lebombo Mountains. — The Lebombo Mountains extend along the frontier between Transvaal and Lourenzo Marques and Gaza districts. Rising somewhat abruptly from the plain they appear a more serious barrier than they ai'e. Their general elevation is 1,800-2,000 ft. They are broken by the valleys — sometimes profound gorges — of the main rivers which flow from British through Portu guese territory, and of many of their tributaries. They are thus not an important water-parting. Rather they form the battlements of this part of the high plateau of south-central Afi'ica. MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY'S TERRITORY 39 Mozambique Company's Territory Lowlands of the Sabi and Buzi. — The lowlands of the Mozambique Company's territory cover half its total area. They are of irregular width from the coast inland. In the south, the narrow, shallow trough through which the Sabi finds its way to the sea from its extensive basin in Rhodesia is merely part of the wide lowland which extends northward from the lower Limpopo, and is demarcated by no strongly-marked relief either to south or to north. The lowland here extends up the Sabi valley practically without interruption into Rhodesia : the altitude just beyond the Portuguese frontier, at the junction of the Lunde with the Sabi, is only 560 ft. The lowland of the Sabi in Portuguese territory is rather dry, the surface consisting largely of loose sandy deposits, with rough waterworn boulders locally. The lowlands continue uninterruptedly northward through the countries of Mossurise and Sofala, and the level varies little, except for a low scarp east of the upper Buzi basin, which is subsequently cut through by the course of the lower Buzi, This scarp, though not con tinuous with that of the Cheringoma plateau to the north (see below), and by no means so prominent, runs in the same north and south line, and may be connected with the same tectonic movement which resulted in the formation ofthe Urema depression, west ofthe Cheringoma plateau, and the Shire-Nyasa line north of the Zambezi, To the south it may be continued (but there is no evi dence) by the line of high ground south of the Sabi and east of the Chengane, in Inhambane, North-west of Mossurise the lowland is limited in width by a demarcating line along the valley of the Morungwezi, a tributary of the Buzi, and west of the upper Buzi itself, along which lies the boundary of the shelf or middle 40 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES plateau, here running south-west and north-east. The lowland widens again nearly to the frontier up the valley of the Lusite, a tributary of the middle Buzi, but after this the boundary of the upland turns nearly easterly, and approaches within 40 miles of the sea (in a direct line) at Beira, From here the edge of the upland runs fairly directly north by east to the neighbourhood of Sena on the Zambezi, The Cheringoma Plateau, and Urema Depression.— The lowland intervening between this edge and the coast between Beira and the Zambezi is interrupted by the Cheringoma plateau. This is an isolated elevated block rising above the level of the lowland to a general eleva tion of about 1,000 ft. Between this plateau on the east and the edge of the upland (in the Gorongoza country) on the west, lies the Urema depression, which is a con tinuation of the lowland northward from the lower Pungwe valley. It drains to this valley southward and to the Zambezi northward, and the divide between the two basins is lost in the marshes which fill the middle part of the depression, fed by streams from both east and west. In the rainy season lakes are formed, and there is a continuous water-connexion between the Pungwe and the Zambezi, The Urema depression is about 130 miles long and 30-40 miles wide, and in general character it is similar to the coastal plain Avith which it is continuous. As already remarked, the Urema depression forms a direct southward continuation ofthe line of fracture which is represented southward from Lake Nyasa by the valley ofthe Shire, Tlie Lowland South of the Zambezi. — As far up the Zambezi as Sena the lowland is wide : the edge of the niddle plateau is over 60 miles to the south-west of Sena itscif, but higher up it approaches the river at the Lupata Gorge and towards Tete, which place approximately MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY'S TERRITORY 41 river being rather less than 400 ft, while the land rises fairly sharply from the south bank to about 500 ft. That altitude has been taken as the rough upper limit of the lowlands, but the greater part of them lies very much lower. These lower tracts are rather featureless : they are for the most part forested, except near the coast, where considerable treeless areas occur. The coastal plains are subject to extensive floods in the wet season, and the marshes breed the anopheles mosquito which conveys malaria. The Middle Plateau in the Mozambique Co.'s Terri tory. — The shelf or middle plateau between the low lands and the frontier mountains covers an area of nearly 20,000 square miles in the Mozambique Company's terri tory. Its extreme width is about 100 miles. Its eastern limit is defined, in general, by a fairly steep slope between altitudes of 500 and 800 ft,, but in northern Gorongoza and in the Sena district the slope upward from the lowland is more gradual than it is further south. The upland is for the most part well watered by numerous swift-flowing perennial streams, excepting the northern part of the territory, in the Barue country, where the streams are generally intermittent, though they flow strongly in the wet season. The slope of the upland is generally slight ; the elevation lies mostly between 1,000 and 2,000 ft,, and the surface is level to the eye, except where it is broken by the deep valleys of the streams towards its eastern edge, or by the characteristic isolated elevations or ' island-hills ' which here, as elsewhere in Portuguese East Africa, are common features especially of the upland zone. The rivers ' practically all descend to the plains through deep rocky gorges over numerous rock bars, rapids, and small falls ', Most of the surface is forested, Gorofigoza Mountains. — The largest and most con spicuous of the isolated elevations are the Gorongoza 42 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES Mountains, They rise not far within the eastern limit of the upland, west of the Urema depression and north of the Pungwe, They cover an area about 20 miles in length from north to south, and 15 miles in extreme breadth. The flanks of this mountain mass are every where steep and often precipitous, and scored by ravines carrying perennial torrents, for the mountains, thanks to their elevation, receive an ample rainfall. For the same reason they are in parts densely forested, especially on the south and south-west. The highest summit of this mass reaches an elevation of some 6,500 ft,, and the general elevation is fully 4,000 ft, above the surrounding upland. Mountains of the Frontier. — It has been seen that where the Sabi River crosses the Anglo-Portuguese frontier the lowland extends inland into Rhodesia, and for some distance northward no great elevation is met with along the frontier. North of the upper Buzi, however, a highland region is reached in the district of Spunga- bera, which rises in its greater part to heights above 2,500 ft. It forms a part of the south Melsetter plateau of Southern Rhodesia which extends into Portuguese territory. Its limit on the western (Rhodesian) side is a scarp overlooking the Sabi valley and the lower part of the valley of its tributary the Odzi, The Spungabera region is of broken plateau form, deeply cut by narrow steep-sided valleys from 1,000 to 1,500 ft, deep. The region is fertile and promising for agricultural develop ment, but is lacking in good communications. Eastward it extends to the low range of Statonga ; northward it merges into the higher elevations of the mountain mass of Chimanimani. Neither this block of highland nor those to the north of it mark a main watershed along the frontier — a fact to be associated with the discussion between Britain and MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY'S TERRITORY 43 (see p, 500), ' A number of streams from Rhodesia cross the zone transversely through notches and passeg, changmg from wide open valleys of gentle grade on the high veld to rapid rocky descents and falls till they reach the lower shelf, where their course is more gradual again. Some of the larger streams have cut deep gorges well back into Rhodesia — particularly the Lusite [Luzite] and the Pungwe,' Others, tributary streams, run north and south (or conversely) along fault-lines. The edge of the high veld or plateau from which the highlands rise is marked, broadly speaking, by an abrupt descent from a general altitude of about 5,000 ft, to one of about 2,000 ft., which marks the western limit of the upland or shelf previously described. The Chimanimani mountains form a rectangular block reaching an extreme elevation of some 7,450 ft, within Portuguese territory. Like the Spungabera highlands it is composed in part of sedimentary rocks, whose serrated ridges and bare steep sides contrast with the forested slopes and summits of the crystalline heights farther north. The Luzite River and a number of its tributaries, notably the Great Musapa and the Harom, rise in these highlands or cut through them from the plateau to the west, flowing in deep gorges or steep-sided valleys. At the head of the Musapa the Chimanimani Pass crosses the highland at an extreme altitude of 5,130 ft. The Udzi Mountains, north of the Shimanimani mass, rise to an extreme height of about 6,000 ft, along the main north-and-south chain, the watershed between the Buzi-Revue and Odzi-Sabi basins. Most of this main chain, however, stands outside Portuguese territory. Near its northern extremity is a small tract of territory of both physical interest and political importance. This is a depression some 6-8 miles wide, lying between the two prominent summits of Vumba (4,950 ft,) on the south and Venga (5,550 ft,) on the north. The depression 44 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES contains the headwaters of the Revue and its tributary the Menini, Its western side slopes steeply up to tbe level of the high plateau, and is ascended by way of the Menini valley by the Beira-Mashonaland railway between Masikesi on the Portuguese and Umtali on the British side of the frontier. Northward again, the frontier crosses the Hondi and other tributaries of the Pungwe, and the Pungwe itself : among the frontier summits in this section Mount Panga, a salient mass with many peaks, reaches an altitude of 6,970 ft., but again the highest points are outside Portuguese territory, where (for example) Mount Inyan- gani reaches 8,260 ft. This lofty tableland is the meeting- point of the basins of the Pungwe, Sabi, and Zambezi, The highest summits are inostly covered with grass, but some exceptions, such as Mount Venga, are tree- clad. Along the frontier to the north, after it has crossed the divide between the Pungwe and Zambezi basins, and follows the Gaeresi valley noithward and downward, the country continues mountainous, but its general elevation lessens, and to the east and north-east over the Barue country the mountains soon give place to the less broken surface of the upland. There are, however, a number of prominent and strangely-shaped ' island-mountains ' in Barue (pro nounced ' Barway '), which, in general, consists of a rocky plateau with a slope upward from the foothills of Goron goza in the south-east to a greatest elevation in the north-west. In the south-east it is watered by tribu taries of the Pungwe, aud is free of marsh, fertile, and well-populated. In the centre and north-west the country is not so well watered, and as a whole is less valuable than the south-east. TETE 45 Tete By far the greater proportion of the district of Tete belongs to the middle and higher plateau regions. It is separated from the Mozambique Company's territory by the Zambezi and its tributary the Ruenya or Luenya, which joins the main river just above Massangano, The Ruenya, with many tributaries, the chief of which is the Mazoe, drains an extensive basin in Rhodesia, east and north of Salisbury, South of Tete, close to the junction of the Mazoe, the Luenya forms the falls of Kawinda : these falls may be taken to represent the descent from the middle plateau to the lowland, the altitude above sea-level being 550 ft. The surface in the south of Tete district, generally rolling, with isolated hills and ridges, slopes upward from the valley of the Zambezi towards the northern edge of the high plateau of Southern Rhodesia, To the north of the Zambezi valley there is a similar general slope upward and northward to the southern edge of the Central African plateau in the Maravia country. The hills in the immediate neighbourhood of Tete town range from 1,500 up to 2,750 ft. Westward the general eleva tion soon increases, and the Rukori Mountains, on the frontier north of the Mazoe, reach 3,550 ft. The frontier south of the Zambezi, after leaving the Mazoe, crosses its important tributary the Ruia, Near 33° E, the Ruia receives the Kanguzi from the north. The portion of the plateau north of the basin of this stream includes the Inyaterese and Inyambonga mountains, of which the latter range lies close along the Zambezi on the south, A corresponding range similarly confines the great river on the north bank, and the Quebra Baco rapids (p. 28) are formed. At Zumbo, at the westernmost extension of Portuguese territory up the Zambezi, the altitude of the river is 1,030 ft,, and the summits of the hills range generally 46 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES from 3,000 up to more than 4,000 ft. The highlands of northern Tete (the Maravia country) are deeply dissected by numerous watercourses in narrow valleys. On the northern frontier of Tete a height of 4,763 ft, is reached in the Viruli mountains. The heights on the eastern frontier of the district, on the watershed between the Nyasa and Zambezi basins, are greater: thus in the Dzalanyama range Tambanchipere peak reaches 7,242 ft,, and farther east elevations above 6,000 ft, are not uncommon. The Kirk, Marangwe, and other ranges west of the Shire decrease gradually in height from north to south, but the Kirk Mountains have a number of summits between 5,000 and 6,000 ft. The three principal tribu taries of the Zambezi which collect the drainage of the northern uplands, of Tete are the Mkanya, Luwia (or Ruio), and Revugo, each of which has many feeders. The scenery of Tete district is often beautiful, and some parts of the district are fertile and (as will be seen) show promise of mineral wealth. There is liability to drought in the dry season, at least locally, and many streams dry wholly or in part. For example, the Mazoe and Ruia, though flowing perennially over rocky beds in British territory, lose themselves in sandy beds in their lower courses in the dry season, and among other southern rivers, the Umsengedsi and Panyame dry to a chain of pools, and the Kadzi, Mkumvura, and Angwa com pletely. Along that part of the Zambezi which forms the frontier between the Mozambique Company's Territory and Tete district there is a marked contrast between the scenery on the north and south banks of the river. The Zambezi itself contracts at the Lupata Gorge from a wide bed with islands and sandbanks to a narrow deep channel between cliffs, where it has cut for about 10 miles through a band of hard rock. Below the gorge, it widens again and divides into many shifting channels. To the TETE 47 south, the monotonous level is rarely broken by any eminence. To the north, as far down as the junction of the Shire, prominent hills rise close above the river, or at most only a narrow alluvial strip intervenes, ' On approaching the junction of the Shire River, the abrupt massif of the Morumbala Mountains can be seen running northerly as a wall-like mass to the east of the Shire River, rising steeply to more than 4,000 ft., and terminating abruptly at the southern end overlooking the vast extent of the plains of the lower Zambezi,' These beautiful, richly wooded hills form the southern extremity of the wall of highlands bounding the lower Shire on the east, which culminate in the mountains of Mlanje, on the British side of the river Ruo, Quelimane, Mozambique District, Nyasaland Lowland North of the Zambezi. — The coastal lowland gradually narrows northward from the delta of the Zambezi, which forms an extensive, well-watered low land, marshy in places, in other parts richly fertile. In the region of Maganja da Costa (eastern Quelimane) the coastal plain is from 12 to 20 iniles wide : it is very low, but fairly well drained by the watercourses which inter sect it. There are some small lakes, and one of consider able size, named Arreguria, which contains a large body of water throughout the year. In Mozambique District the lowland does not, for the most part, exceed 10 miles in width. Sand-dunes and loose coral-rocks fringe the shore, and raised beaches appear, A few isolated heights appear as landmarks close to the coast, but for the most part the ground is low-lying, in some places marshy, with mangroves, in others brightened and relieved by the vegetation of the coco-nut palm. Not uncommonly there are expanses of sandy waste, with coarse gravels, which are only reached by the highest tides, and here natural salt-pans are formed. At certain points, as will be 48 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES seen (p, 54) the older rocks below the coastal sediments crop out as low bluffs. North of the Lurio River, in the Nyassa Company's territory, the coastal lowland becomes a more important feature, widening northward, and showing more varied characteristics. Its average width is about 30 miles, but in parts it may be as wide as 60 miles. The surface is in general gently undulating, but it is broken occasionally by escarpments, by isolated hills, or (as in the district south of the Msalu River) by gentler eminences capped by the pebbles of old marine or river deposits. From the Lurio northward, thick woods of palms and other trees are described, alternating with long level plains, almost treeless. Round Pemba Bay and northward to Ibo Harbour vegetation is luxuriant. South of the Msalu River is a rolling sandy district, broken by valleys which sometimes have steep sides, and flat, fertile bottoms which are farmed by the natives. North of the same river the coastal country is described as pleasant, and well cultivated in open patches araong thin forest. There are marshy areas, as, for example, above the mouth of the Msalu, and along the coastal creeks mangrove swamps occur. Middle Plateau of Quelimane and Mozambique. — Behind the costal belt the country gradually rises west ward to the shelf or middle plateau zone which, from northern Quelimane northward, has a considerably greater width than farther south. Throughout, its broad characteristics are the same. From an eminence, ' on every side the plateau is seen like a verdant sea of rolling forest stretching away to the horizon. The winding courses of the rivers are plainly mapped out by the brighter scenery of their banks, and above the varied tints of brown and green rise up the fantastic peaks and domes of the rocky island-mountains,' In northern Quelimane tbe ' island-mountains ' are on the QUELIMANE, MOZAMBIQUE, NYASALAND 49 whole fewer and more scattered than farther north, nor are they anywhere either so numerous or so high towards the east (the coast) as they are inland : thus in Mozam bique District there is no great number of them within 30-40 miles of the coast, and such as there are rise only a few hundred feet above the plateau. Farther inland they become much more numerous, and higher, and are of the most varied and often fantiastic forms. In the hinterland of Mozambique District there are imposing masses or short ranges, such as Chika, reaching nearly 4,000 ft,, Ribawe (5,000 ft,), Mluli, Mripa and Rumula, all about the same height, the precipitous Nampatiwa (6,000 ft.), and Inago, of which the highest summit is 6,490 ft, above sea-level, while the general elevation of the plateau is about 1,700 ft, in the vicinity of the Chika and Ribawe ranges, rising to a culminating height of 3,000 ft, in the vicinity of Inago, Namuli Highland. — This last mass is separated only by the upper valley of the Malema River (a tributary of the Lurio) from the more important highland of Namuli, on the frontier between the districts of Quelimane and Mozambique. Namuli is one of the dominant mountain- groups in this part of Africa. Its highest peak, an in accessible column of greyish white granite (which, before the group was explored, gave rise to rumours of a snow capped range), reaches an elevation of 8,050 ft. The high land has a plentiful rainfall, and is a hydrographic centre of first importance : the vegetation of its flanks and valleys is rich, and its scenery extraordinarily beautiful. Middle Plateau of Nyasaland. — The Nyassa Company's territory includes in the extreme south-west part of the eastern shores of lakes Shirwa or Kilwa, Chiuta, and Amaramba, Shirwa has no outlet, being separated by a low, narrow, wooded ridge from Lake Chiuta to the north, which, with Lake Amaramba, is drained by the^ Lujenda River. East of Lake Shii-wa there are hillg v.^.\. D 50 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES rising to no great height above the general level (which is here between 1,700 and 2,000 ft, or more) : between them and the lake there is a flat tract 10-12 miles wide, through which a few streams find sluggish courses. One range of these hills, under the name of Luasi, extends in a general north-easterly direction, and in it are the sources of the Lurio River, In the district east of lakes Chiuta and Amaramba, isolated hills rise from a level or gently undulating surface : some are mere knolls ; others, such as Namwero in the neighbourhood of Kwamba, form short ranges rising 800-1,200 ft, above the general level : others, again, reach greater elevations ; indeed, the bold precipitous mass of Mt. Mtungwe has been estimated, but doubtfully, to reach 9,000 ft, above sea- level, , Little is known of the country between the basin of the Lurio and the headwaters of the Msalu, and the Rariko and other streams of the Lujenda basin, but farther north the two principal river systems of the middle plateau region — those of the Lujenda and Msalu — appear to be separated by more or less well-marked ranges of hills rising above the general plateau-level, such as the Chengwari, Chawo, Kisanga, Mkukutuku, and Mkanje ranges. Their elevations run from 2,500 to an extreme of perhaps 4,000 ft. Eastward, to the south of the Msalu, ' island-hills ' ai-e numerous, and take many strange and often imposing forms, but there are no great dominant masses. North of the Msalu — that is to say in the extreme north-east of the territory — is the Mavia plateau, which rises steeply from the valley ofthe Rovuma to the north, and on its western side between the Msalu and the Rovuma, but slopes gradually towards the coast. It appears to be mostly a country of tangled bush, sparsely inhabited, with few water-courses and short of water in the dry season, though towards the coast there are many small lakes and ponds. QUELIMANE, MOZAMBIQUE, NYASALAND 51 Nyasa Mountains. — The Lujenda valley cuts athwart the Nyassa Company's territory from south-west to north, and to the west of it the plateau rises gradually from an elevation of 1,100-1,400 ft, to 3,500-6,500 ft, in the Nyasa mountains. The general direction of its slope is from west to east and from south to north, but the greatest elevations seem to be found in the north-west frontier above the lake, and in the centre of the country near the sources of the Msinje, The Nyasa mountains form a continuous chain along the lake, from Mt, Mangoche to the northern frontier. From 13° 30' S, lat, the British-Portuguese frontier follows the mountains, which form a barrier above the south-eastern arm of the lake which is only broken near Luangwa, South of Mt, Mangoche (5,450 ft.), on the British side of the frontier, the hills are lower and much broken. There is an easy ascent from the lake to the plateau up the valley of theKobwe River, and another south of Mtengula, where the mountains rise about 3,000 ft. above the lake. Where they leave Portuguese territory in the north they are about 6,000 ft, high and approach the lake shore closely, but about 15 miles south of the frontier they become lower and leave a narrow coastal strip along the lake. The southern and eastern part of the mountain region is drained by numerous tributaries of the Lujenda, such as the Mandimba, Luchimwa, Luambala, Luangwa, Luatize, The central and northern parts are drained to the north by the Luchulingo and the Msinje, both large rivers flowing into the Rovuma, and by a number of other tributaries of which the Usanyando is the most important. The valley of the Luchulingo is defined by the Msenga Hills and Mt, Ichumundo to the west and the Yao (Ajawa) Hills on the east. The valley narrows as it approaches the Rovuma, and the hills on both sides rise close above D 2 52 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES the confluence. To the south of the Msenga Hills there is an important group of limestone hills near the source of the Msinje which rise to more than 6,000 ft, at Mt, Njila. East of the river Usanyando the Wizulu (Oisulo) range divides the water-shed of the Rovuma from that ofthe Lujenda, and farther east again there are the Mkula Hills. Throughout the whole region there are numerous isolated hills, sometimes rising to a considerable elevation above the surrounding plateau. These were formerly, and still are to some extent, the centres of population and the residences of the chiefs. Such are Chisindo and Chiwegulu in the Msinje valley, the imposing double peak of Unangu (about 5,000 ft.), and the great semi circular mass of Mtonya, A great part of the country consists of high-lying plains or rolling uplands known as lichenga, intersected by numerous streams and small rivers. This is especially characteristic of the country north-east of Mwembe (Fort Valadim) and of the tract between Unangu and Mtonya, The coast of the lake, lying as it does some 2,000- 4,000 ft, lower than the highlands which border it, has its own characteristics of climate and vegetation. It is an extremely narrow strip with a large population (Nyasa and Yao) which lives by the cultivation of maize, cassava, millet, &c,, and by fishing. These people sometimes have cultivated lands both at the lake-level and on the upland above. Geology ' A broad geological division throughout Portuguese East Africa lies between (a) the sedimentary rocks, of various ages, of the lowlands and (6) the old ' base ment' rocks, principally gneisses and granites, of the ' See Map L GEOLOGY 53 middle platea,u and highlands. But It is hardly necessary to add that this broad division requires modification when the geology of the country is considered (so far as existing investigations permit) in detail. The Lowlands The older sedimentary rocks of the lowlands, especially in the southern half of the territory where the extent of the lowlands is greater, are covered, over wide areas, with the recent alluvial deposits of the large rivers, A typical example in the south is the alluvial flood-plain of the lower Limpopo. Of much wider extent are the alluvials of the lower Buzi, Pungwe and Zambezi, in the east of the Mozambique Company's territory and the south of Quelimane District. They consist of pebbly, clay, and sandy strata, the last predominating. The sands result in greater part from the disintegration of the granitic and gneissic rocks of the interior ; along the Zambezi they often contain a considerable quantity of iron. The coastal belt in Lourenzo Marques, Gaza, and Inhambane, where not overlaid with the most recent alluvial deposits, consists generally of sandy strata inter- bedded with clay conglomerates. The sedimentary rocks appear to cover the greater part of Gaza, excepting the north-west. The overlying drifts of the Sabi valley resemble those of the Zambezi : they consist of loose sandy deposits, soft sandstones and clays, with beds of gravel, and sometimes waterworn boulders, on the surface. So far as it is possible to assign an age to the underlying sedimentary rocks of the coastal lowland, they appear to be generally cretaceous and tertiary. Limestones, red grits, &c,, appear throughout the southern lowlands. The Cheringoma plateau, which rises above the Urema 54 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES depression in the north-east of the Mozambique Com pany's territory, consists of marine sediments from upper cretaceous to middle tertiary, with a miocene limestone on the top, through which streams have cut deep gullies or subterranean channels with sink holes. Cretaceous beds, again, are characteristic of the narrow coastal belt of the north, in Mozambique District and the Nyassa Company's territory, where there is not the same tendency towards their obscuration by recent or pleistocene deposits. Occasionally in the north the old gneiss of the interior reaches the coast in rugged low cliffs, as at Memba Bay (Mozambique District), Other wise, in the Mozambique coast area, the prevalent formations are limestones of various ages, sometimes alternating with shales, as in the parts about Fernao Velloso Bay, and sandstones, sometimes with calcareous bands, as about Mt. Meza, The soft limestone of Mozambique Island weathers into deep circular solution pits. The formations along the coast of the Nyassa Company's territory appear to be similar. Thus, inland from the mouth of the Mtepwezi, shales, sandstones, and limestones are all met with before the gneiss of Mount Podo is reached. Along the lower Msalu mention is made of limestone which outcrops and forms escarpments, being in part overlain by sandstone. It stores water, and springs are formed above the impervious clay beds beneath it. In the north-east a calcareous coral for mation is met with, merging above into the grey sand stone of the Mavia plateau, which is here also calcareous in places, Tlie Inland Margin of the Lowlands The neighbourhood of the junction between the sedi- mentaries of the lowlands and the ancient metamorphic i-ocks of the middle plateau is marked at some points by GEOLOGY 55 intrusions of volcanic rocks. Thus, in the Lebombo Mountains, in the south, volcanic rocks appear, and may be correlated with the lower Karroo system. In the north-west of Gaza in the vicinity of the Limpopo there are basalts and diabase. Basalts occur along the edge of the Sabi lowland, and also along the edge of the Zambezi lowland for a long distance south of the Lupata gorge. The Lupata gorge itself is formed where the Zambezi has cut a passage through hard porphyritic rocks. Above this, in Barue and Tete District, there are narrow alluvial flats and low sandstone hills, probably belonging to the Karroo system. Sedimentary rocks continue up the Zambezi valley — coarse-grained light-coloured and reddish sandstones, both siliceous and feldspathic, and usually fairly well consolidated, together with fine-grained sandy shales and carbonaceous shales, the last con taining the coal-beds of the vicinity of Tete, In the valleys south of the Zambezi — the Ruia and the Mku mvura — conglomerates, grits, sandstones, sandy shales, and micaceous mudstones are met with. In these valleys again, and in their neighbourhood along the base of the high plateau of Southern Rhodesia, volcanic rocks are well developed. The voicanics of the Ruia consist of porphyries, breccias and tuffs, and such rocks underlie the whole of the Mkumvura basin, below the steep Mavura- donna Mountains which (beyond the southern frontier of Tete) form the edge of the Southern Rhodesian plateau. In age these volcanic rocks are between the younger sedimentaries and the older ' basement ' rocks. On the north side of the Zambezi, opposite Sena, basaltic rocks are associated with red grits. Farther north, along the coastal belt in Mozambique District, basaltic lavas were extruded over a wide area, but have been mostly removed by denudation : basalt and dolerite dykes are found along a line stretching some twenty 56 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES miles north from Mokambo Bay, overlying both the gneiss and the later sedimentaries. Hot springs are associated locally with this volcanic line, in the Mozambique Company's territory and in Tete, The Middle Plateau and Highlands The dominant formations elsewhere than in the low lands are the ancient gneiss and granites. Intrusions of granite have taken place through the gneiss at different periods, and from them results the typical ' island-moun tain' scenery to which reference has been made (p, 19). In some parts, notably towards and among the frontier highlands, especially in the south, the granites even predominate. In the Lebombo Mountains they include fine-grained micro-granites. The gneiss often contains hornblende. Quartzites are not common as a rule, but conglomerates of quartzite pebbles occur along the upper part of the Limpopo in Gaza, and quartzites appear near the frontier north of the Luzite valley in the Mozambique Company's territory, and again in the Chimanimani high lands, where they belong to the Swazi system. The gneisses at times merge into schists, as, for example, in the Masikesi basin, a fractured zone of soft schists encloS|ed by granitic mountains. The Gorongoza highland consists of a vast granitic intrusion, mostly syenitic. In some parts the metamorphic and intrusive rocks form a highly complex series. In Barue and southern Tete generally, for example, the 'basement complex' consists of highly metamorphosed rock's, both plutonic and effusive, and includes biotite gneisses, schists, granites, diorltes, gabbros, porphyries, &c., of different ages and origin, with some quartz reefs in Barue, In northern Tete, in the Maravia country, ' the typical rock is coarsely crystalline and roughly gneissic or granitic, with smaller areas built up of finer-grained rocks, usually distinctly GEOLOGY 57 gneissic, and sometimes schistose', Gabbros, granites, granitic and syenitic gneiss, diabase, and biotite schists are all present. The rocks are generally less highly metamorphosed than those near the southern frontier of the district. Along the frontier of Tete with the Nyasa land Protectorate, from north to south, there appear successively granite and syenite, often much foliated, and alternating with the graphitic gneiss and crystalline limestone series ; the typical gneiss and schists, already referred to, and characteristic also of much of the Shire highlands on the Quelimane frontier ; and farther south the sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the lower Karroo system. The gneisses and granites predominate, so far as can be gathered, in western Quelimane, but around the , , frontier lake, Shirwa, there is a considerable overlying alluvial area : this shallow lake-basin, devoid of outlet, probably represents, like other minor lakes in this region, a local sagging of the earth's crust, ' consequent upon the great earth-movements which gave rise to the Nyasa trough '. Throughout Mozambique District the plateau consists of metamorphic rocks, chiefly gneiss, accompanied as usual by the intrusive granites, and this structure prevails typically, also, throughout the middle plateau zone of the Nyassa Company's territory. Mica-schists appear, though rarely, in Mozambique, and in the Nyasa territory, between Pemba Bay and the upper Mtepwezi River, both these and other rocks, such as a very old sandstone and a crystalline limestone, have been reported at ¦ various points. But the most prominent formation here appears to be granite, traversed by quartz reefs. West of the lower Lujenda and south of the upper Rovuma are extensive tracts of gneiss, with hornblende. Here, again, rounded masses of granite or syenite rise steeply above the general level, on which, in part, patches of ferruginous conglomerate occur. Along the Rovuma, 58 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES below the -Lujenda confluence, the trough between the Mavia and Makonde plateau has a floor of recent allu vium. The Mavia plateau, as has been seen, consists mainly of a grey sandstone, but where the edges of the plateau fall away on its north-west side the sandstones have been removed by denudation, and the metamorphic rocks appear. The prevailing form here is a chocolate- coloured schist : the characteristic isolated granite hills are numerous, and caps of white dolomite and diorites are found. In the Nyasa highlands, along the frontier with the Protectorate, mountains of granite as well as others of gneiss occur, and considerable quantities of mica are seen in different places. Mica-schists are met with from Mwembe south-westward, foliated with gneiss towards the lake, the rocks being much tilted. Steatite or soap- stone (the compacted form of talc) is found in immense quantities in the hills bordering the lake in the vicinity of Mtengula, Along the northern frontier, where it crosses the mountains between the Msinje valley and Lake Nyasa, mica-schists prevail above the Msinje and Rovuma, but are interrupted by a belt of sandstone with quartz. The bare topmost crest and its vicinity consist of a magnetic ironstone ; beyond this to the west there is a lower crest of gneiss, and the hills and slopes imme diately above the lake consist of argillaceous schists. The formations appear generally to belong to the Swazi system, but possibly along the uppermost course of the Rovuma, where it borders Portuguese territory, the valley is crossed by the later sedimentary beds of the upper Karroo, which appear farther north in German East Africa, As has been suggested already, there occur locally throughout the gneiss and granite regions important areas of sedimentary rocks. Some have been referred to. Among others, the Spungabera highland north of the GEOLOGY 59 Sabi valley consists of sedimentary rocks of uncertain age (Waterberg system ?) but younger than the adjacent metamorphic series, with igneous intrusions : sandstones, again, are faulted against the quartzites of Chimanimani on the west. Both in Quelimane District and in the Nyasa territory, in the Lujenda valley (though not, so far as is known, in the intervening district of Mozambique), sedimentary rocks, probably of Karroo age, have been preserved from denudation by trough-faulting. In the lower Lujenda basin sandstones and slates appear along the Rariko, and lower down the main river, about Litule, shales and carboniferous sandstones are enclosed in the surrounding gneiss and granite. In the Nyasa high lands limestone is mentioned near the source of the Msinje River. CHAPTER II CLIMATE Observations — General conditions — Coastal zone — Inland dis tricts — "tables. Observations No meteorological station of the first order exists in the territory, and the best data available refer almost wholly to the coastal zone ; for the interior only partial and unsatisfactory information is to be obtained. On this account, and inasmuch as the British Nyasaland Protectorate forms a wedge between Tete and the north eastern districts, it is found desirable to quote certain figures, for the sake of illustration of general conditions (especially in the highlands), for stations in British terri tory. Some observations wUl also be included from the mission station at Likoma off the Portuguese shore of Lake Nyasa, and also from Lindi (coast of the former German territory of East Africa), a more reliable source of information than Palma or Ibo, List of Stations altitude, ft. ^ observations Lourenzo Marques 174 Coast: Delagoa 10-17 Bay Beira 10 Coast: Pungwe 2-9 River Mopeia 80 Zambezi delta 10 region Tete 525 Zambezi River 1-2 CLIMATE 61 List of Stations {continued) Place Approx. altitude, ft. Locality No. of years' observations Boroma 613 Zambezi River 6-7 Zumbo 1,030 Zambezi River 1-2 Tuchila Plateau 1 6,000 Shire Highlands 1 Blantyre ^ 3,000 Shire Highlands 4 Zomba ^ 2,948 Shire Highlands 14-15 Mozambique 6 Coast 2-8 Ibo 5 Coast 2 Palma 15 Coast 1 Lindi 2 269 Coast 9-13 Likoma 1,570 Lake Nyasa 13 General Conditions The sun is overhead at the equator during March and September. Consequently, the limits of Portuguese East Africa being roughly from 27° S. to 10° S, latitude, the months of October, November, and December on the southward course, and those of December, January, and February on the northward course of the sun are those which comprise the hot season. From April to August the sun is north of the equator, and these months form the cooler half of the year. All other conditions of climate follow more or less directly from these con siderations. The rainy season lasts, roughly speaking, from November to March or April, The hot season is in general the wet, and the cooler season the dry. Atmospheric pressure, as usual in tropical countries, does not exhibit much variation. The oceans on either side of South Africa are centres of high pressure generally, and while, when the sun is south of the equator, these high-pressure systems recede somewhat, respectively to ^ In Nyasaland Protectorate, ^ In former German territory of East Africa. 62 CLIMATE east and west, they converge again over the land as the sun passes northward. The prevailing direction of wind is in consequence from the south-east or east, but in the northern half of Portuguese East Africa, in November and December especially, the presence of the north-east monsoon makes itself felt. This counteracts the pre vailing south-east wind, but its influence is not great inland. The period of the north-east monsoon, which is normally mid-September to mid-March, is also at once the time of stronger winds and more frequent calms. Temperature reaches its lowest point in June or July, its highest in November, December, or January according to locality. To the south, the diurnal range is greater, while the mean temperature to the north is higher. In general, relative humidity is high, but sudden and very great extremes are experienced, especially towards the south and in the higher inland districts. The diurnal variation in degree of humidity is of fairly constant jDeriodicity everywhere. The maximum falls between midnight and 4 a.m,, the minimum between noon and 4 p,m. As a rule the sky is seldom overcast for long, while in the dry season it may remain clear for months almost continuously. Coastal Zone Pressure and Winds. — In January pressure is lowest (29-82 in.) to the west ofthe Portuguese territory, rising gradually towards the coast. The upward gradient, which is steepest in the south, is continued towards the high- pressure system which lies over the south Indian Ocean, Accordingly the prevailing winds are south-east along the coast from 25° to 20° S, lat. North of this, how ever, the north-east monsoon prevails. In July the area of low pressure has moved far to the north, and CLIMATE 63 the whole coastal zone is under a slight south-to-north gradient, pressure varying from about 30-15 in, in the south to 30-05 in, in the north. The prevailing winds at this season are consequently south and south-east throughout. The following table, the result of ten years' observations, represents the relative frequency and force of the chief winds, with the circumstances attendant, at Lourenzo Marques, It is given here in full, as in all probability the description applies for the coastal zone up to about 21° S, lat, : Relative Mean force Beaufort scale Time of Air Wind frequencij per cent. inception (average) Duration Humidity Tempem- ture Sky Barometer N. 19-6 2-4 morning, or night \ day, to '4 or 5 days i day very dry hot or very hot clear falling- NE. 7-6 2.9 noon moderate variable clear falling a Uttle E. 32-5 2-7 noon i-f day generally damp fresh clear steady, or falling SE. 7-0 2-8 after S., or nooa -2- day variable variable variable, often cloudy steady, or rising S. 19-4 2-9 any hour 1 day, generally fresh overcast, rising espeeially often .3- damp ; clear in rapidly towards 8 days rarely tervals or sud evening very dry denly SW. 8-2 2-3 morning, sometimes evening iday damp; rarelydry fresh,cold variable rising w. 4-6 1-4 morning f day |day damp fresh clear steady NW. 11 1-6 morning very dry very hot clear very low Storms come up from all sides, but especially from south, immediately after a north wind, when they are more often unaccompanied by rain. Most of the rain, however, comes with a south wind. The west wind is rare, generally very feeble, local in character, and of short duration. Changes take place principally from north to east, or to south, and from south to east. The east and north-east winds are refreshing in winter ; north and north-west winds bring the greatest heat. 64 CLIMATE At Mopeia the most common wind is southerly, which blows, on an average, for 93 days in the year ; south east and south-west occur on 58 and 54 days respec tively ; calms on 30 days. At Mozambique the prevailing winds are from a northerly quarter from October to April, and from a southerly quarter for the rest of the year : land breezes occur about dawn to 11 a.m. From here northward cyclones occasionally occur, especially in January, For Lindi, the following figures are given : Wind Average no. of days per year Wind Average no. of days per year NE, E, SE. S, 89 6559 42 SW. NW. Calm 10 2 83 The mean force on the Beaufort scale ranges from 1-6 in March to 2-4 in June, Rainfall. — The rainfall along the coast is generally heavier in the north than in the south, and ranges, over most of the coast, from 28 to 40 in, annually ; but districts around the mouths of the larger rivers seem to receive a heavier fall. Thus at Beira the average approaches 60 in,, and the heaviest rainfall recorded in the coastal zone is in the Quelimane District around the Zambezi delta, as the following table indicates : 1908 in. 1909 in. 1910 in. 1911 in. Porto Bello BrigodoMballa 76-79 68.1375-15 53-43 32-21 41-49 78-89 45-55 62-98 96-3987-39 This table reveals great fluctuations in the amount of precipitation, which are also found elsewhere : thus in one year at Lourenzo Marques the total rainfall was more CLIMATE 65 than double the average for 10 years, and at Beira less than 40 and more than 90 in. have been recorded. There is also considerable uncertainty as regards the time of the season's first rains. As a rule, however, the rains begin earlier in the south than in the north (compare Table I, p, 69), Temperature. — The mean annual temperature of the coastal zone is from 77° to 80° F,, the lower figure applying south, the higher north. The hottest month in the south is January, farther north December, In January the centre of highest temperature lies over mid-south and central Africa, and between the isotherm of 90° and that of 80° to the south-east, the temperature gradient, slight in the north, becomes steeper to tbe south of about 21° S. latitude. South of that latitude the 80° isotherm follows, roughly, along the coastal zone in a SSW. direction. So that, while the mean (summer) temperature of the northern coastal zone is about 81°-82°, that of the south becomes 79°, In July the temperature of the coastal zone hardly differs from that of the lower inland districts, but the changes due to latitude are greater than in the southern summer. Thus, in the south, the mean July temperature is about 65° and in the north 74°, As already indicated, diurnal ranges of temperature are individually greater in the south than in the north, and in the south greater again in the summer than in the winter. Thus at Lourenzo Marques an extreme range of 50° has been recorded in January, and 36° in July, while at Ibo the range varies from 25° in January to 30° in July. (See, further. Tables II- VII, pp, 69-71), Humidity increases somewhat from south to north, being about 72 per cent, at Lourenzo Marques and 82 per cent, at Ibo, The monthly range is small, from 4 per cent, in the south to about 9 per cent, in the north. In the south, especially, but also elsewhere, diurnal ranges P.B.A, E 66 CLIMATE of humidity may be very great. At Lourenzo Marques, in July, daily ranges of 60 to 65 per cent, have been noticed, while in October these have risen to 78 per cent, (See, further, Table VIII, p. 71), Inland Districts Pressure and TFmcZs,— Seasonal changes and general conditions of wind do not exhibit any new feature as compared with the coastal zone. In the north, how ever, the influence of the north-east monsoon being weaker inland than at the coast, the prevalence of south easterly and southerly winds is even more marked. At Boroma in Tete District the south-easterly wind prevails throughout the year ; during the rainy season calms are frequent. Lake Nyasa is subject to somewhat changeable winds. During the dry season, from May to October, there is a south wind known locally as mivera. Along the southern part of the Portuguese shore it may blow continuously for two or three days, with a cloudy sky. Squalls of fine rain occur in the evening.' The mivera may intermit locally with an easterly wind in a manner comparable with ordinary land and sea breezes. In the rainy season the prevailing wind is north-westerly, and is known as lilinga. It is sometimes stormy, with thunder and lightning, and causes a swell dangerous for small craft. Between the rainy and dry seasons a strong easterly wind {lilolega) occurs, intermittently with westerly and occasionally northerly airs, though it may last through out the day. Rainfall. — The interior exhibits a greater variation in the amount of precipitation, and the dry months of the coastal zone are not always so in the uplands. North of 16" S, lat, (from northern Quelimane northward) there is found a tract from 100 to 150 miles wide, and CLIMATE 67 extending to within 50 miles of the coast, in which the mean annual rainfall is probably below 35 or even 30 in, A similar dry district is found along the Zambezi, roughly between Sena and Zumbo, and extending over parts of Tete District^ and the Barue country, and there is another in Gaza, north of the Limpopo, In the high lands the rainfall increases, and is heaviest in the Shire Highlands and the Nyasa Mountains : in the former, on the inland borders of Quelimane District, the Namuli Highlands, &c,, an average annual rainfall of 70 in, or more is probably reached, at least locally (compare figures for Tuchila Plateau and other stations in Table I, p, 69), For the Manica highlands no exact data exist : a year's records at Masikesi gave only 23-58 in,, but in the Revue valley, a few miles farther north, 37-62 in. As in the coastal zone, the incidence of the rainy season is erratic : thus in Portuguese Nyasaland the rains are not infrequently delayed till January, and the natives in consequence suffer from shortage of food- crops. In general, the rainfall may be termed low for the latitude, notably in districts lying north of those stretches of coast which trend south-west to north-east. Temperature. — The average yearly range in the up lands lies between 36° and 45° ; in the south it even reaches 54°. The Zambezi valley is Very hot, October and November having a mean temperature of 86°-88°, with a range of about 17°, and maxima reaching 105° or more (Table VII, p, 71), The mean figures given for stations in the Shire Highlands (Blantyre, Zomba) in Table II (p, 69) typify the moderation of temperature found in the hill districts, for which no exact data are 1 The total figure of 33-56 in, given for Tete town in Table I is for one year only : tho average for Boroma in tho same locality is only 21-89 in, E 2 68 CLIMATE available from Portuguese territory. It is stated that at an altitude of 3,500 ft, in Manica oppressive heat is not usually encountered even in the hot season, while in June and July the nights grow sensibly cold, and the days are cool. In the uplands of the north (Portuguese Nyasaland) the evenings and mornings are stated to be cool and pleasant during eight months of the year, and from May to August it may be even uncomfortably cold at night, and temperatures under 60° are fairly common in the daytime : on the other hand, during the hot season, the heat is fairly severe, especially in the valley of the Bovuma. Humidity. — No figures are available for the inland districts, except from Tete and Boroma (Table VIII, p, 71), but these con:firm the supposition that relative humidity is generally lower than in the coastal zone. It rises, however, in the Shire Highlands to a yearly mean of about 78 per cent., and is 73 per cent, at the southern end of Lake Nyasa. Heavy dews occur on winter nights in the highlands. Mists are not uncommon, both in the highlands and in the valleys, especially in February and March, but they do not last long. The atmosphere of the uplands (unless obscured by smoke-haze from burning grass) is as a rule very clear. TABLES Summary Table I. Mean Monthly Rainfall. II. Mean Temperature, III, Mean Daily Maximum Temperature, IV, Mean Daily Minimum Temperature. V. Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature, VI, Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature, VII, Absolute Extremes of Temperature, VIII. Relative Humidity. CLIMATE 69 In these tables, figures in heavy type are the highest of the monthly series, those in italics the lowest. TABLE I Lourenzo Marques* Beira*Mopeia* Tete-t BoroniatTuchila Plateaut Blantyret Zombat Mozam bique* Ibo* Palma* Lindi* Likomat Jan. in. e-oe 9-80 7-40 7-81 5-67 17-19 11-9011-34 7-91 7-61 7-34 6-17 10-35 Feh. jn,5-20 12-17 7-91 3-86 5-83 21-81 8-75 11-02 8-74 6-03 1-49 4-41 11-01 Mean Monthly Rainfall Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. Year in, 2-80 11-89 4-88 7-792-17 t-68 3-048-507-40 4-74 2-40 7-43 7-S m, 1-503-70 3-35 1-27 -51 8-42 2-34 3-824-41 7-60 12-96 5-992':45 m.•91 2-17 -87 -50 0 -15 0 •71 2-32 •60 • -03 1-40 -33 in. -28-63 •98-50 0 •&7 ¦45 •43 •79 ^36 ¦05 -02 m. -32-51 -83 0 0 -70-32•47•22 •41' m. -32 1-26 -83 0 0 0 -04 -12 1-30 -82-14¦45 0 in. 1-06 •67¦24 0 -08 00 -32-51 -16-41 •56 •04 in. 1-611-541-10 0 -59 2-30 -52 1-69 -12-77•59 -54-10 m. 3-503-90 2-99 4^52 1-93 6-526-60 5-39 -32 -85 •60 2-11 1-04 m. 3-749-29 10-83 7-31 5-12 16-56 12-04 10-71 4-92 2-63 4-77 4-65 6-75 in. 27-28 57-5142-20 33-56 21-89 77-1346-38 54-3639-50 32-82 34-5034-09 39-97 Coastal zone. t Inland. TABLE II Mean Tempebatuee Jan. Feh. Mar. Apr; May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. °F. °F, OJ, °F, °P, °F, "¥. °F. °F. °F, °F. °F. Lourenzo 79^3 77-8 77-2 73-4 68-4 65-1 65-4 67-4 70-9 73-7 76-8 78-8 Marques* Beiraf 79-8 80-2 80-2 77-2 73-7 69-2 69-0 70-7 73-5 76-0 790 80-8 Mopeia* 82-9 82-2 81-3 77-9 73-2 70-0 70-0 71-8 76-6 81-7 84-2 82-9 Tetet ? 82-9 82-3 81-4 78-5 74-5 72-8 75-7 81-4 83-3 84-2 83-9 Boromat 81-7 80-4 81-1 79-3 75-9 71-2 71-1 75-0 81-7 860 87-6 84-0 Zumbot 80-8 79-2 79-9 78-6 74-1 68-4 71-2 73-4 80-2 88-5 88-2 81-0 Blantyret 71-4 71-4 71-2 70-3 67-8 63-3 61-7 66-0 68-0 72-7 74-7 72-0 Zombat 71-8 70-7 69-8 68^5 64-8 61-9 60-6 64-0 68-9 74-5 74-5 71-8 Mozam 81-9 81-7 82-8 81-0 77-7 73-9 73-8 74-5 77-2 80-1 82-8 83-3 bique* Ibo* 82-8 82-2 81^7 79 3 76-4 74-7 74-0 74-2 76-9 78-5 80-4 82-1 .Lindi* 80-1 80-1 79-0 77-9 76-6 75-0 74-8 74-8 75-9 77-9 80-4 80-2 Tear °P, 72 76 77-978-8 78-669-3 68-579-2 78-677-7 * Coastal zone. t Inland, 70 CLIMATE Lourenzo Marques* Beira*TetetMozambique* Ibo* Lindi* TABLE III Mean Daily Maximum Temperatuke Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov °F. °F. °F, °F. °F. °F. °F. °P. °F. "¥. °F, 88-7 85-1 83-0 81-9 76.7 72-7 73-4 76-7 78-9 81-0 83-4 89-8 88-8 88-0 86-0 86-0 81-5 830 83-8 83-0 87-2 90-2 88-r 87-9 86-7 85-4 80-2 77-4 81-6 87-8 90-1 91-2 91-7 89-2 91-8 88-7 85-6 81-5 80-8 82-6 sa-s 86-5 89-8 92-4 91-5 91-3 88-3 87-4 85-0 85-1 84-9 87-5 88-0 89-7 89-0 90-0 89-0 88-0 89-0 88-0 87-0 87-0 870 88-0 900 Dec. °¥. 87-2 90-5 90-490-5 «0-5 90-0 Lourenzo Marques* Beira* TetetMozambique*Ibo*Lindi* TABLE IV Mean Daily Minimum Temperature Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. °F, °F. °F. °P. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F. °F, °F. 70-5 71-3 69-1 67-0 59-0 54-9 54-6 57-1 61-5 63-8 67-0 72-0 740 72-3 68-B 62-8 59-3 58-0 59-8 61-8 64-3 69-8 76-7 77-8 76^7 761 71-6 69-3 68-2 69^8 74-9 76-5 77-6 79.0 77-4 78-1 7.5-6 73-2 67-8 68-0 69-8 72-0 75-4 77-7 73-2 72-9 72-2 70-2 65-4 64-4 63-8 63-5 66-3 68-9 71-2 740 73-0 730 72-0 69-0 65-0 67-0 66-0 68-0 69-0 73-0 Dec °F. 72-8 77-3 79-573-6 74-0 * Coastal zone. t Inland. Lourenzo Marques* Ibo* TABLE V Mean Monthly Maximum Temperature Jan. Feb. Mar. Api: May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. °F, °F. °¥. °F, "V. °F, °F, °F, °F, °F, °F, 111-8 95^0 97.4 91-7 89-3 80-9 82,9 85-8 90-4 105-4 105-2 96-7 96-8 95.2 93-0 91-8 88-9 88-5 88-3 89-6 90-5 92-4 Dec. °F. 105-8 92-9 TABLE VI Mean Monthly Minimum Temperature Lourenzo Marques* Ibo* Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. °F. °F, °F. OJ, OJ, °P, °F. °F. °F, °F, °F. 63-8 65-0 62-3 60-8 50-6 48-8 50-0 51-2 54-5 56-3 58-4 69-7 70-2 68-5 64-0 61-4 60-8 57-0 60-0 60-9 63-4 64-2 Dec. OJ, 60-2 70-3 * Coastal zone. CLIMATE 71 TABLE VII Absolute Extremes of Temperature Max. Min. No. of °F. OJ, Years Lourenzo Marques* 116-6 43-7 10 Beira* 105-8 54 8 Mopeia* 112 43 10 Tetet 100 65 2 Boromat 107-4 55-4 51- Zombat 94-8 45-5 15" Mozambique* 108 48-2 8 Ibo* 98-6 57-5 2 Lindi* 98 56 8 * Coastal zone. t Inland Lourenzo Marques* Beira*Mopeia*TetetBoromat Mozam bique* Ibo" Lindi* TABLE VIII Relative Humidity Jan. % 72-5 74-078-5595 Feb. % 73-7 76-078-5 70-5 Mar % 763 76-0 77-0 72-0 75-0 80-3 83-2 77-2 84-7 84.-0 85-5 83-0 87-3 86-0 Apr. May June July % % % % 7b-o 73-9 73-1 69-0 77-0 78-0 79-0 78-0 81-5 58-5 75-0 83-5 60-5 78-0. 84-5 59-0 76-3 77-8 73-2 76-7 87-2 84-0 82-876-0 81-2 71-0 82-3 74-0 Aug. Sept. Oct. % % % 70-3 70-6 69-4 77-0 80-0 56-0 72-0 76-051-5 74-070-0 50-5 — 47-0 74-4 76-0 75-7 82-9 76-0 81-777-0 80-2 76-0 Nov. % Dec % Year % 69-9 71-8 72-2 73-0 70062-0 75-076-0 62-0 75-477-861-8 — — 610 76-2 77-3 77-0 77-1 78-0 80-4 81-0 82-7 78-8 41 10 2 5^ 22 9-10 * Coastal zone. t Inland. CHAPTER III VEGETATION AND ANIMALS Vegetation Practically the whole of Portuguese East Africa is forested, lightly or heavily : no part of it falls within any of the great African grass-steppe or steppe-desert regions. There are in all parts, considerable tracts clear of trees, but these are very commonly of artificial origin, where the natives have removed the timber in order to cultivate the land, which they have deserted as it became exhausted. The forest varies materially in character, from both the botanical and (more especially) the economic stand point, according to latitude and elevation, the character of the soil, and in particular its degree of moisture. Throughout the territory descriptions indicate well- defined narrow belts of richer vegetation along the watercourses. The numbers of genera and species are very large : they are far from being fully known, and no attempt will be made here to enumerate them so far as they are known ; the function of this notice ia to indicate very generally the character of the vegetation in the various localities, while leaving the consideration of the trees and plants of chief economic importance, actual or potential, to a later section (Chap, VI), The district of Lourenzo Marques is a meeting-place of different types of woodland. In the extreme south, on the border of Swaziland, the tree-flora has many relations with the forests of Kaffraria and Natal, and such South VEGETATION 73 African trees as the yellow-wood {Podocarpus elongata), wild olive {Olea verrucosa), and Pteroeelastrus, which appear hardly if at all elsewhere in the territory, are found here, while acacias are less common, and some of the trees and shrubs of the genus Combretum are more so, than in other parts. Trees are neither large nor numerous expept in the deep valleys of the Lebombo Hills, The flora of the coast dunes, again, is related to that of Natal where the conditions are similar. All along the coast of Portuguese East Africa man grove swamps, in which difierent species predominate according to latitude, occur at intervals. The casuarina only becomes typical of the coastal dimes from the Zambezi region northward. The Umbeluzi River in Lourenzo Marques forms a dividing line. To the north of this, as far as upper Gaza and beyond, ' thorn veld prevails, composed in great part of leguminous trees, scattered far enough apart to allow an abundance of grass to grow underneath and still close enough to maintain an open canopy throughout. The trees are usually of nO' great height, 30 to 50 ft, being the average except along the streams ', where, as already indicated, the trees are as usual larger and the vegetation generally richer. For example, along the upper course of the Limpopo in Portuguese territory a belt of rich forest fringes the banks, from a few yards to a mile wide, in which a tall acacia with- fragrant yellow flowers is the most conspicuous tree. As previously shown (p, 37), the vegetation of Gaza generally may be roughly differ entiated as between well watered, moderately watered, and dry areas. Lower Gaza and Inhambane have been largely cleared for cultivation, but the forest returns over agricultural land which has been deserted. The most important tree is the useful Brachystegia spicaeformis, one of several known under the general name of pau-ferro (ironwood). 74 VEGETATION In some parts land formerly cultivated but neglected for some years is covered almost exclusively with young trees of this species. It becomes less abundant farther north in Inhambane, The native, in clearing for cultivation, ' acts on a list of reserved trees — reserved by native traditional practice, and likely always to remain so — but the native's choice is exceedingly practical ; if a tree does not yield food or drink it has to go, Trichilia (mafureira) and Ana- cardium (cashew) are reserved everywhere, mango and orange where they occur, several creepers [anonas] from whose fruits wine is made are allowed to form suberect bushes in the cultivated fields, and pine-apple borders every field — reserved for the sake of the spirit distilled from its fruit rather than for the fruit itself A Ficus is also reserved, or even cultivated, for the cloth made from its bark, but a timber tree is hardly required in the domestic economy of the native, and consequently is cleared ', Taken as a whole, however, the forests of lower Gaza and Inhambane contain a wide range of species, many of which are not common elsewhere in the territory. The soil is for the most part sandy and light, and the trees are not, as a rule, of great size, ' The general character of the aboriginal forest in this locality is of a dense ever green nature,' Species common in Natal are still per sistent, especially near the coast, where the mud-flats abound in white mangrove. In many parts of the locality, and indeed throughout the greater part of Portuguese East Africa, the rubber-yielding Landolphias are common, and other plants of a lesser value for the same purpose are present. The baobab appears at Inyarrime, and becomes common from the neighbourhood of Inhambane town northward. In Inhambane District, the prevalence or the Brachy stegia (ironwood) forests appears to lessen about 23° N. VEGETATION 75 lat,, and to the north thorn veld reappears in parts : in some localities the bush is very thick : in others there is fine open forest. The inland parts of the lowland between the Sabi and the Buzi is covered with grass and stunted trees, among which acacias and wild loquats are con spicuous. The Mozambique Company's territory, except where clearing has taken place for cultivation, is almost all under open forest, though in many favoured spots the vegetation becomes fairly dense. On the coastal plains, here as elsewhere, there are treeless tracts of considerable extent. In the southern half of the district the species are more or less closely similar to those of Inhambane, but about the latitude of Beira there is a gradual change, and species typical of the lower Zambezi basin begin to appear. The Pungwe valley is thickly forested, and so, generally, are the upland valleys of the frontier high lands, excepting that of the Revue, Mount Venga (north of Masikesi) and a few other frontier peaks are tree- clad to their summits, but most of the very high ground is grass-covered, Tete District, as a whole, is ' sparsely but fairly uni- fwmly timbered. It is essentially an open grass-covered land on which is a growth of scrub timber. South of the Zambezi River are large tracts of country covered with a dense growth of thorn bush ', This, then, is the typical dry forest condition, as distinct from that of the wetter districts to the south in the Mozambique Company's territory and east in Quelimane, where for the most part thorny acacias and associated trees are rare (though there is no lack of thorn-bearing bushes). Bamboos are common along the streams. On the uplands trees are few, and a familiar moorland vegetation, with bracken, gorse and low bushes, sometimes appears. In the Zambezi lowlands and their vicinity the baobab, acacias of several kinds, Lonchocarpus (one of the 76 VEGETATION various ' Ironwood ' trees), Pterocarpus erinaceus (one of the most valuable assets among timber trees), Bomhax, Ficus, the African mahogany and teak, ebonies, and the tall Parinarium or 'hissing tree', together with some six difl'erent species of palm, are a few among many typical forms. Flowering trees, shrubs, and creepers are very numerous, and in spring these plants rush into flower with extraordinary speed. Some of the flowering and deciduous plants anticipate the coming of the rains in putting forth their blossoms and leaves while the dry season still persists. The lowlands of Quelimane are mainly alluvial culti vated lands, but the uplands are covered with good ,forest, mostly evergreen and broad-leaved. The coastal belt northward in Mozambique District has a thorn-bush vegetation, thick in some parts, which gives way to light forest and grass land further inland, ' the size of the trees increasing and the undergrowth becoming more open as one reaches the highlands of the interior ', In the Nyasa territory the general conditions are not dissimilar. In the coastal zone the vegetation is generally luxuriant. In the Ehari forest between Ibo and Pemba Bay fine African teak, alternating with bamboos, dwarf ironwood, and occasional mahoganies and ebonies, are found. In the plateau zone the trees are generally stunted, espe cially in drier districts like the Mavia plateau, and of little use for other purposes than fuel, although along the rivers there is often magnificent timber. In the south west, between the Lurio and upper Lujenda, the trees are described as generally from 1 ft, 6 in, to 3 ft. in diameter, and 10-35 ft. high, excepting the larger trees along streams. One authority, following the Pemba Bay-Lake Nyasa route, remarks upon the ' apparently total absence of thorn acacias ', Typical genera are the long-leaved Rhus, Eugenia, fig, afzelia, and creepers of the genus Combretum. In certain localities the malcruse VEGETATION 77 or African mahogany grows to a fair size. Ebonies are abundant, but they are usually gnarled and small. The Rovuma valley and the highland zone are mostly wooded. The forest is generally low and thin, often little more than scrub, but on the mountains woods of true forest trees are to be found. Livingstone described the vegeta tion of the upper Luambala basin as resembling that of Bechuanaland, with grass and trees of good size. In the lake districts many of the trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the coldest months, June and July ; in September and October foliage begins to reappear, and perennial plants begin to spring in November, Undergrowth appears to vary in different parts, but thick bushes, creepers, and high grass are frequently mentioned as obstacles by travellers. The grasses are numerous throughout the territory, and some of them form an important feature in the vege tation. They grow thickly and to a great height : in the Mozambique Company's territory, for example, on the plains and in the valleys the growth reaches a height of 6-10 ft, after the rains. At high altitudes it is shorter, but may still reach 6 ft. It is an impediment to travelling and to hunting : in travelling it is found necessary to keep to the winding native paths even when the country is open, for the sharp grass-shoots hurt the bare feet of the natives. The spear-grass, a characteristic growth by water, may with its sharp blades wound the face and hands of any one passing through it. Other grasses, again, detach irritant seed-vessels and pollen. As soon as the grass is dry enough, therefore, it is burnt off", and ' for about two months great fires, stretching for miles and miles, and extending to the tops of the mountains, are to be seen in all directions. During this period the atmo sphere is usually somewhat thickened by the smoke from these fires ', This description applies specifically to the Manica frontier region, but the practice is general in 78 VEGETATION Portuguese East Africa (and elsewhere). Much damage is sometimes done to timber : failing this, a general effect is to give the trees, in their lower parts, clean and un- branched stems. The sinister eff'ect upon the scenery during the dry season, in contrast with the natural beauty of the spring and summer vegetation, is remark able. These fires have even a perceptible physical eff'ect upon the land surface in rocky regions. The rocks are split and cracked, and the bare surface is the more easily eroded under the force of the heavy rains. Animals Mammals Many parts of the province abound in game, though it is by no means equally distributed, and some districts (for example, the east of the Nyassa Company's territory) carry only a small head of game. Elaborate game regula tions are in force, at any rate theoretically, but it is not possible always to enforce them, A feature worthy of note in the geographical distribution is that the valley of the Zambezi seems not to contain many of the animals which are found both north and south of it ; in fact some individuals which appear both in Central and South Africa, such as the giraff'e and the ostrich, are seldom, if ever, found in Portuguese East Africa, Again, the same river serves as a boundary between diff'erent species, some varieties of antelopes like the puku, lechwe, and situ- huga being found only to the north of it, others like the tsessebe and brindled gnu only to the south. Of the carnivora much the most important are the lion and leopard. Lions, as a rule, will not attack men when they are more than four or five together, but occa sionally they will raid houses, and sometimes they cause villages to be deserted. As the lioness is prolific the_ ANIMALS 79 number of lions tends to keep up, despite the war waged on them. Both varieties, the yellow-maned and the black-maned, are found, sometimes in the same herd. Log-built traps for leopards are built near villages. The leopard skin is the royal mantle of the Zulu chief, and the natives use the claws as an amulet against attack from other leopards, A species of cheeta is found in the north of the colony, but never south of Angoche, Other feline carnivora are the lynx (or caracal), very destructive to hares, partridges, and guinea-fowls, and difficult to hunt ; the wild cat {felis caffra) which resembles the wild cat of Europe, but is much bigger ; the serval, which is widely distributed, and of which there are specially large specimens in Cheringoma, where they do great damage to smaller antelopes ; and the genet, which is not common. It is the smallest member of the civet tribe, and itself yields civet, while its skin is valued by the natives for making belts, bags, and dancing ornaments. Of the canidae the chief are the wild dog which hunts in packs — it is a four-toed animal, very strong, and about the size of a mastiff" — and the jackal, of which the striped variety is very common, while the black-backed variety is found in the district of Mossurise and elsewhere. There are two varieties of hyenas, the spotted, about 2f to 3 ft, long, the more savage kind, which the natives chase and eat — it is very common, and is amongst the most powerful of animals — and the brown, the strand wolf of the Cape. Allied to these is the aardwolf {pro- teles cristatus) in the south of the colony : it is like a hyena, but has longer ears. Among the smaller carnivorous animals may be men tioned the vatel, an animal of the weasel tribe, three kinds of mongoose (an easily domesticated animal), and the otter, which is rare, though natives possess skins of the spotted-necked variety {Lutra maculicollis) . ¦ Of the monkey tribes the baboon is the largest in 80 ANIMALS the colony : there are two kinds {Papio porcarius and P. babuin). The baboon goes in bands of ten to thirty ; in the upland of Cheringoma it is very bold and will molest human beings ; it is easily tamed, when young ; one of its ways of showing its intelligence is to post sentries when gardens and plantations are being raided. There is a green monkey called pusi by the natives, and a small monkey (golo) found only in the plains. There are also some varieties of lemur. The ungulata are numerous and important. The ele phants of the province do not furnish such big tusks as those found further north. The tusks difl'er in length, but do not seem to vary proportionately to the size of the animal, the greatest height of which is from 10 to lOf ft. When an elephant is killed, the old native rights used to require one-half to be given to the chief, but as the chief used to be generously inclined to off'er it for a general meal, the custom was appreciated more than the Portu guese claim of the tusk that touches the ground, the tusks representing the greatest part of the commercial value of the elephant. The right tusk is often damaged because the creature uses it for digging. The natives catch elephants with beam traps, as the poisoned arrows which they use against other animals are inoperative against it and the hippopotamus. Most of the flesh of the elephant needs great hunger to make it palatable, but the trunk and tongue are good, and the feet are delicious. It works tremendous havoc among the trees. Females have smaller tusks than the males, but the quality of theii^ ivory is good. The rhinoceros is diminishing in numbers, and the large white rhinoceros is very rare in any part of the colony. Its so-called ' horn ' is not so fine as those found further north. The rhinoceros is very cunning and has very acute smell and hearing ; the huntsman's main chance against it is that its eyesight is not proportionately good. ANIMALS 81 The hippopotamus no longer frequents the lower Zambezi, but has been driven up-stream by the steamers. It does great damage to crops, and scares are erected to frighten it away. Its skin is in request for the manu facture of whips and other articles ; its tusks used to be very valuable because of their fine grain and unchanging colour, and were the only ivory used for false teeth, but now an enamel has been found as a substitute and their special value is gone. Its flesh is tolerable to eat, but some natives, notably those near the Zambezi mouth, refuse to touch it. Of pigs there is the ugly wart-hog, found in plains near the water, an animal with big tusks and providing good meat ; it is fierce when attacked and makes a desperate resistance. There is also the smaller red variety [Potamochoerus africanus). There are two varieties of zebra, now that the quagga is extinct : the mountain zebra, which has long ears and a short tail, like a donkey, and Burchell's zebra, the commoner type, which lives on the plains. The zebra is very gregarious, and if deprived of companions will join herds of other animals. Only slight attempts have been made to domesticate it, though it is used to some extent both in the Transvaal and in German East Africa, but it is too weak for traction, and should probably be crossed with some other member of the equine family. The buff'alo {Bos Caffer), which extends all over South and Central Africa up to the Nile provinces and Somali- land, is found chiefly in the plains, and especially in low swampy ground where a pungent grass (buff'alo grass) is growing. The herds, which number 300 head or more, are commonly beset by. lions, who prey on the young stragglers and aged beasts. The buff'alo is on the increase : little can be done to domesticate it ; when caught young, it is very tame, but soon dies in captivity. 82 ANIMALS Antelopes are the commonest game of all, and there are between twenty and thirty varieties found in the colony. In the hills are found the kudu, pala (or impala), black- buck (or kualata), kllpspringer (or kololq), duiker ; in the plains are gemsbuck (or kukama), hartebeest (or kama), tsessebe, gnu, eland, steinbuck, blesbuck, oribi, springbuck; in the swamps are waterbuck, reedbuck, lechwe, puku, nakong, bushbuck. The kontwa and nyala live in thickets ; the sable antelope in the lower parts of hills and on ground where there are not many trees. The eland is the largest kind ; it sometimes weighs 1,200 lb,, and it is said to supply excellent and delicate meat, like prime beef. It is easy to hunt, for though very swift at first it tires after a mile or so and allows itself to be overtaken. The kudu is one of the larger kinds, with a body about the size of a horse, Lichtenstein's hartebeest {Bubalis Lichtensteini) is the most abundant game in the colony ; it is difficult to shoot because its rufous colouring is pro tective ; it furnishes excellent meat, while the natives use its hide for their bowstrings and its head for their dance dresses. The other haxteb&est {Alcephalus hama) is most difficult to chase. In its company goes the tsessebe, but not north of the Zambezi, The sable antelope is one of the handsomest kinds, its flesh is hard and has a peculiar aroma, possibly owing to the resinous buds that it eats ; like it, but less handsome, is the roan antelope ; both are difficult to hunt, and both defend themselves bravely, frightening even lions. The gnu is classed among antelopes : it has the head of an ox, the shoulders of an antelope, and the mane and tail of a horse ; it is very swift and can overtake a galloping horse. Its flesh is very good. Among others which supply good meat are the reedbuck, pala, bushbuck, kontwa, and oribi. The flesh ofthe waterbuck is coarse, except close to the coast, but is eaten by Kafirs and lions ; its hide is strong and serviceable, and is used for shoe- ANIMALS 88 leather. The springbuck is much less common than it was. Among all kinds of big game the great epidemic of rinderpest in 1896 wrought devastating eff'ects. The chief edentate of the colony is the pangolin, which hunts ants and attacks anthills with its claws ; its fiesh is white, close, and fat. Among rodents the palm rat is very common ; it does much harm to the crops of the natives. Another rat {cricetomys gambianus), of which the native name is rupini, lives in burrows and destroys crops. The porcupine is very destructive of crops ; the natives highly appreciate its flesh. Near crops also will be found another destructive animal, a species of grey hare. Among reptiles the crocodile is the curse of the country, infesting the waterways, reproducing its kind with great rapidity and inflicting heavy casualties on the inhabitants. The proportion of the population that are devoured hj crocodiles is very great, and a large further number are crippled by them. Turtles are found in the Luabo Islands at the mouth of the Zambezi, There are several kinds of snakes, including the python, which is harmful but not venomous; the puff' adder, which is venomous and the most formidable of harmful snakes ; it is about 2| ft, long. Smaller than it, but equally formidable, is Causus rhom- beatus (the nachtader of the Boers), The spitting snake spits at its enemy ; it is a longer creature, being over 6 ft. Deaths from snake-bite are not common, partly because the snake is very active and flees from m^n, and partly because the natives' power of vision is usually preternaturally acute and enables them to avoid snakes. Birds Birds are very' numerous. The distribution is deter mined much more by the nature of the country than the latitude, the division into mountain, plain, and river types o-iving the readiest system of classification. Among the F 2 84 BIEDS birds of prey may be mentioned especially the warlike crested eagle, found constantly in mountainous country, and the fish eagle, which by no means confines its diet to fish. There are several kinds of buzzard, and among kites the swallow-tailed kite, which makes some compensa tion for its raids on poultry by the havoc that it works among locusts, should be specially mentioned. There are six or more varieties of owl, largest of which is the eagle owl. The ostrich is practically unknown in the province, but valuable for its plumage is the marabou, the feathers of which are thought to surpass in delicacy the larger feathers of the Cape ostrich. Flamingoes are frequent on the mudbanks of river estuaries, and among waterfowl there are three or more kinds of geese and about seven kinds of duck. Pelicans work great havoc among the river fish. Among parrots the chief variety is a small green kind which whistles as it flies; the well-known grey parrot, though sold in East African ports, is reaUy an inhabitant of West Africa. Of edible birds 'the most important is the guinea-fowl. There are three varieties, near the coast Guthera edouardi, throughout the province the common guinea-fowl, Numida coronata, and along the Zambezi valley Numida mitrata. Certain birds should be preserved as being destructive of insects, especially guinea-fowls, bee-eaters, white herons, and glossy starlings. While it is impossible to give statistics for the whole of Portuguese East Africa, it may be mentioned that da Costa enumerates 62 mammals, 25 reptiles, and 125 birds in Gaza, and Maugham enumerates 55 mammals and 310 birds in Zambezia. Insects The insect-world is too abundantly represented, and many ofthe greatest difficulties of developing the country INSECTS 85 arise from it. The tsetse fly {Glossina morsitans) attacks men and animals ; it causes death to cattle and horses, and in the extreme north-west it conveys a form of sleeping-sickness to man. The question whether the tsetse fly would be destroyed by the disappearance of game, especially buffaloes, is keenly debated. At any rate it is found in much fewer numbers where there is a large human population. Ants are numerous and destructive. The so-called ' warrior ' ant marches in serried ranks, ten or twelve abreast and often thirty or forty yards or more in length, covering everything that is on its line of march and eating and biting as it goes. The white ant or termite builds anthills up to 15 ft, high, and is especially destructive of the timbers of houses, &c. Mosquitoes, near marshes, spread fever and make sleep impossible for man and beast. Locusts and phylloxera are destructive of crops. The one kind of insect to which value can be attached is the butterfly, of which there are many brilliant varieties, which find a sale in the shops of Lourenzo Marques among collectors. Fishes Fishing in the province is comparatively unimportant. The Zulu tribes will not eat fish, and there is no great pro pensity for it among the other tribes. The purpose of fish in diet is more to act as a relish with the sorghum gruel than to serve as a separate fare. The principal fresh-water fish are varieties of chromis, English fishermen speak of catching chiefly carp, wrasse, and barbel. Da Costa enumerates nine varieties as being found in Gazaland, Another traveller speaks of fifteen as being caught in the rivers Pungwe, Konde, and Kanerezi, Sea-fishes, of which there is a large number of species, and marine products, will be dealt with in connexion with the consideration of fisheries from the economic standpoint (p. 280). CHAPTER IV INHABITANTS Population — Density and distribution — White population — Asiatics and half-castes — Native inhabitants (general survey)- — Tribes south of the Zambezi — Tribes along the Zambezi— Tribes north of the Zambezi — Eolations between Portuguese and natives — Eolations of natives with Arabs and Indians — Missions and educa tion — Health conditions. Population There is no systematic census. The figures given below are collected from a number of the latest avail able sources : Asi- Half- Year. Whites, atics. castes. Natives. Total. Lourenzo Marques District 1908 650 701 105 99,698 101,154 Lourenzo Marques city and suburbs , , . 1913 5,560 3,174 17,845 26,079 Gaza . , , . 1908 393 — "sTO 147,995 148,758 Inhambane District , ? ? ? ? 500,000 ? 500,000 ? Mozambique Co, 's territory 1915 1,912 1,025 1,576 290,124 294,637 Tete District . . . 1908 185 74 — 160,000 160,259 Quelimane District , , 1908 1,091 2,391 527,000 530,482 Mozambique District , 1914? 559 733 — 537,865 539,157 Nyassa Co, 's territory , 1915 184 272 336 520^343 521,135 Some of these figures are obviously of little value. Together they suggest totals of about 10,500 whites, a rather larger [number of Asiatics and half-castes, and about 2,800,000 natives, for the whole province, and other estimates approximate to this, but the number of natives in areas not under direct control cannot be taken into account. INHABITANTS 87 The chief towns, in addition to Lourenzo Marques (given above), had the following populations in the years stated, Inhambane (1908), 206 whites ; 539 Asiatics ; 540 natives ; total, 1,285, Beira (1914), 1,197 whites; 571 Asiatics; 327 half- castes ; 7,324 natives : total, 9,419, Chinde (1908), 218 whites; 107 Asiatics; 1,365 natives : total, 1,690, Quelimane (1911), 165 whites; 397 Asiatics; 2,182 natives : total, 2,744, Mozambique (1914), 296 whites ; 312 Asiatics ; 4,634 natives: total, 5,242, Density and Distribution Portuguese East Africa is not densely populated as a whole : the average density, possibly 9 or 10 per square mile, compares with 27 in Natal and 12 in Transvaal, Little can be said as to density in different parts. It is controlled to a considerable extent, however, by the conditions of moisture. Thus, in the southern districts the most densely populated parts lie along the coast lands of Lourenzo Marques, Gaza, and Inhambane, while the drier northern parts of the two last are more sparsely populated. In the Zambezi valley, similarly, the parts above the Lupata gorge are less densely inhabited than those below it. Locally, various causes contribute to render the popula tion more or less shifting. It is mainly agricultural, and uses primitive methods. An area cleared of forest, put under native cultivation, and never manured, is quickly exhausted, whereupon the natives move elsewhere. Only on the rich alluvial soils of the larger valleys is there any approach to fixity of tenure. Inter-tribal feuds, the custom of moving a village on the death of the chief, diseases such as smallpox, and other such contingencies, lead also to movement. 88 INHABITANTS The emigration of native labour, which has caused a considerable drain upon the population of the country, is dealt with on p. 171, White Population The number of white inhabitants, as has been seen, is not large. One ofthe best Portuguese colonial authorities has complained that neither the' number nor the type of his countrymen who go to the province is satisfactory : that they lack both ability and capital, and aim only at making sufficient money to return with a competence to the mother-country. Few settle on the land, though there has been of recent years some increase in the number doing so, principally in Lourenzo Marques and southern Inhambane districts, and on the uplands along the railway from Beira. The Portuguese Government has been in the habit of deporting criminals to the province. During the period 1906-8 their number averaged about seventy a year. In 1914 the complaint is still made ' that the colony is over run by the criminals and vagrants sent out from Portugal ', Until recently the colony, in addition to supervising and employing these convicts, had also to defray theii' passage money from and to Portugal, There are no systematic figures distinguishing the white population according to nationality. But from various computations during a few years before 1914 it appears that there were the following foreign elements in the principal ports named : Lourenzo Marques Beira Chinde British . , 668 268 31 Germans , , 106 45 24 Italians . , 80 47 — Greeks , , 149 123 — Other European elements (excluding Portuguese) were insignificant. ASIATICS AND HALF-CASTES 89 Asiatics and Hale-castes The other elements in the population of the colony besides the natives and the Europeans are as follows : 1, The Arabs were the leading influence along the coast before the coming of the Portuguese, and when Portuguese power waned, their authority became re established. The Sultans of Zanzibar had much power. The propaganda of Islam spread ; the Makwa along the coast were largely Mohammedan, and the Yao, who imitated the Arabs in many ways, brought the cult inland. The great occupation of the Arabs was the slave- trade. Their language is Swahili, a Bantu tongue with a large infusion of Arab words, a language used in written documents, (Since 19 1 6, however, a European language, and not Swahili or any other tongue, must be used in legal documents,) There is one special denomination of Arabs along the coast, known as Mujojos, who are princi pally sailors, 2, Those natives who have become blended with the Asiatic Moslems, a mixed race, who are numerous on the coast and are called Monhes. They preserve largely the native type of countenance, and in that part at any rate seem to have but a slight infusion of Arab blood. The term, however, is very variously used, some books speaking of all foreign Moslems as Monhes, others con fining the word to Indian Musulmans, others even using the word as synonymous with Banyans, '3, The Banyans are the non-Christian Hindus; they were originaUy introduced into East Africa at the end of the seventeenth century. The Banyans are small traders ; they have grasped the mentality of a native better than a European can, and they have other advantages, among them that they can easily acquire foreign tongues, that they are unaff'ected by the climate, and that the cost of living to them is almost nothing. It is easy therefore for 90 INHABITANTS them to oust the white man from competition. They add nothing to the strength of the country, as they are unfit to bear arms, and they add nothing to its revenue, though they carry a great deal out. They do not bring their womenfolk with them, and invariably retire to India when they have made enough money, 4, The Goanese have come from the Portuguese posses sions of India or are their descendants. They are Roman Catholics, They are largely clerks, employed at the ports in the customs and other Government offices, 5, In 1912 there were some 300 Chinese in Lourenzo Marques, and there are also Chinese in other southern coast towns. Native Inhabitants (General Survey) ^ The Bantu Stock : Languages The native peoples that inhabit Portuguese East Africa are all branches of the Bantu stock. The name Ba-ntu, meaning the ' people ', is applied to all those nations south of the nilotic lands and north of those of the Hottentot and Bushman who spread south of the Equator to the Cape Province, and speak languages which, although diff'ering decidedly from one another, have yet sufficient in common to be grouped together as Bantu speech. The characteristics of Bantu languages are a very subtle and elaborate system, the speech being a much more perfect instruinent of expression as a rule than would be expected of races of comparatively undeveloped intellect, considerable euphony and preponderance of vowel sounds, and an agglutinative system of prefixes and suffixes. There are said altogether to be 168 Bantu speeches with 55 dialects. The principal varieties of Bantu spoken in Portuguese East Africa are Yao, Nyanja with a, variety of dialects, the most important of which is ' See Map II. NATIVES 91 Ki-senga spoken along the Zambezi valley, Makwa with four distinct dialects, and Tonga, the language of the peoples of Gaza, Inhambane, and Lourenzo Marques, who were conquered by invading Zulu tribes (Vatua) from the south. Two other Bantu tongues have come into the land : Zulu-Kafir — which has been brought by raiders from Zululand across the whole country, so that the Magwangwara of Lake Nyasa have Zulu words— and Swahili, the Arabized Bantu speech of the Zanzibar coast, which is spoken to some extent in the north-east, while the Makonde speak a tongue closely allied to it. Physical Type The Bantu type has certain prevalent characteristics, though tribe diff'ers considerably from tribe and Bantu speech does not necessarily imply community of blood. The Bantu as a rule has a big frame, with a strong, and well-proportioned build ; the gait and bearing are good and graceful ; this is noticeably so with those women who are accustomed to carry loads on their heads. In colour there is a range from a dark chocolate brown to absolute black, some of the men on the banks of the Zambezi being extraordinarily black. The northernmost tribes, like the Nyasa and Yao, and the Vatuas of the extreme south, have the tallest representatives ; natives have been measured as tall as 6 ft, 3 in,, but the average height is 5 ft, 6 in, for a man, and 5 ft, for a woman. The hair is crisp and curly, like that of a negro, but is often longer. The shape of the head is generally dolicho cephalic : the eyes are usually big, black, and promi nent; the nose varies, being sometimes flat and sometimes fairly prominent ; it is wide-spreading at the nostrils. The face is moderately prognathous, the brow prominent, cheek-bones high, lips thick, chin weak. There is little hair on the face as a rule, and the beard does not come till the man is twenty-four or twenty-five years old. 92 INHABITANTS Baldness is rare, but some tribes shave the head periodically. The eyelashes are curly and the eyebrows usually well marked. The teeth are invariably good and kept constantly pohshed ; some tribes have a disfiguring custom of filing the incisors, w^hile others knock out the front teeth. The hands and feet are large. Eyesight and hearing are exceptionally good, but this cannot be said of the sense of smell. Tribal Marks Tattooing is usually adopted, and the devices displayed serve to diff'erentiate the various tribes or sections of them. Some tribes have a particularly repulsive form, in which charcoal is rubbed into the cuts and the whole made to stand out in relief. Two other forms of mutila tion are common : the Vatua and tribes who copy them bore the lobe of the ear, which they make to hang down, and in this hole they insert a cylinder (often a cartridge- case) in which they put snuff and other things ; other tribes farther north insert a ring {pelele) in the upper lip of the women, that makes it stand out 2 or 2| in. Circumcision is usual, but not universal. Where it occurs, it usually forms part of the initiatory rites of the boys when they approach manhood, and participation at the same time in this rite forms the strongest link between two fellow tribesmen, who will never desert one another on the battle field and will risk anything for one another's protection. On expeditions, in engaging servants and carriers, it is important to notice tribal diff'erences, and not to employ members of one tribe only, as those who belong to diff'erent tribes are very unlikely to desert together. Qualities of the Native The physical type of the Bantu is well maintained, for it is customary to eliminate at birth weaklings or those deformed in any way. Some tribes, for superstitious NATIVES 93 reasons, also destroy twins, but this is by no means universal, and the Yao and Nyasa are unconcerned by an event which others regard as disastrous. Albinos, how ever, are spared, though it is said they seldom are long lived, and xanthism is admired. The same native tribes are not often both good fighters and good workers. The hardship that the tribes of this colony find it most difficult to endure is cold ; that has been found especially in employing the tribes of the tropical zone in the colder climate of the Transvaal mines. The native is less sensi tive to pain than he thinks he is ; he will howl aloud in anticipation of a whipping, but will bear with stoical fortitude an unexpected accident. In illness he is a bad patient, for he has not sufficient resolution to help his recovery. Natives are jiot cruel by nature, but under provocation of injustice or superstition they occasionally perpetrate acts of savagery. They are indolent, without ambition, and have an aversion from any kind of regular work. Thieving and lying are not considered degrading among them. They distrust the white man and are as a rule incapable of any real aff'ection for him. Women and Children Women's position is, on the whole, inferior ; in some tribes they even have to make way for the male slaves of their own household. However, among the Makwa and other tribes, women's rights are much more fully recog nized, the woman possessing her own hut, property, and rights to the results of her labours. Among most tribes it is the lot of the women to till the land, and pro vide food and water for their Jiusbands and children. In the relations between the sexes there is a complete absence of sentiment. Single women and widows are not disgraced by giving themselves up to prostitution, and adultery can usually be atoned for by a fine. Polygamy is common : some chiefs among the Makwa are said to 94 INHABITANTS have as many as 100 wives. Along the Zambezi polyandry has been found. Brides are usually obtained by purchase. The wife normally occupies a hut near her husband's, and the proximity of the hut is in direct relation to the importance of the wife. The 'great' wife is usually married fairly late in life ; as a man advances in years he makes more and more important matrimonial alliances ; the child of the great wife is the heir. In some parts the first wife is always the chief Natives are fond of their children while they are small, and the women as a rule are good mothers, but this aff'ection ceases as soon as the children can shift for themselves. The children are as a rule bright and intelligent till puberty ; after that they become much more dull-witted. On his initiation the boy is given a new name ; it is a deadly insult to call him by his earlier name. Food, Dwellings, Furniture The main food of the natives is grain, but formed into a sort of gruel, not baked as bread ; they eat meat as a relish rather than as a staple diet, but on a hunt or some other great occasion they will gorge to repletion. Various drinks, pombe, sura, &c,, are manufactured from millet and other grains, eleusine, cashew, sugar-cane, &c. Sorghum and maize are most eaten. Nearly all the grains eaten have been introduced into the country. Of animal food the commonest is poultry, but the fowls are tough and stringy, and killed just before they are cooked. Milk is usually left to be fermented ; some tribes will not drink it at all. Various tribes of East Africa, including the Yao and Mavia, have been suspected of cannibalism, but there is probably little or none in the country, except in the revolting form in which mental degenerates (Mfiti) have a depraved taste for putrefying human flesh, which they exhume, Another curious craving in some tribes is for NATIVES 95 argillaceous clay, which they eat with painful results. A fantastic but less deleterious food is white ants, which are roasted and made into cakes. The locust too provides an alternative diet to that which it consumes. The houses differ, but the prevalent type is a circular hut of wooden frame, which is thatched : the Yao have learnt from the Arabs, and some of the Zambezi tribes from the Europeans, to build oblong houses of better construction. Generally speaking, the further north the house, the better its architecture. Two constant pieces of furniture are the fumba (sleeping bag) and the duli (mortar) for grinding. Native musical instruments include the drum, horn, flute, pango (a viol-like instrument), limba (a six-stringed guitar), katirangwe (a one-stringed banjo), and sausi, an instrument with iron or bamboo keys. Occupations The chief occupation is agriculture, done by the women mainly, where there is good hunting and fishing. It is of a primitive kind. The natives choose a piece of forest, mark out their claims, cut down the trees, and at the end of the dry season, burn their stumps, digging the ashes into the ground, and carefully weeding it. By the beginning of the wet season they can sow the land with sorghum or maize, and sometimes plant pumpkins in the furrows between the raised mounds where the cereals are planted. They exhaust the ground very rapidly, as they have no idea of manuring : so that their agriculture, tem porarily if not permanently, disforests considerable tracts of country. It is only in the rich alluvial soil of the river valleys that there is any real fixity of tenure. Their regular implement is the hoe. In the south of the colony pasture is more important than agriculture. Other occupations are hunting and (to a less extent) fishing; iron-working which is carried on largely among the^Nyasa and Lomwe, in whose land the iron-smelting works and 96 INHABITANTS smithies are commonly seen, while in Gaza many weapons of war are manufactured ; manufacturing delicate articles in gold and silver (along the Zambezi) ; collecting salt from salt-pans in various localities ; weaving coarse fabrics from cotton — the best weavers are the Lomwe— ^but this industry has suff'ered much from European competition ; collecting honey and wax, as among the Makonde ; pottery has been an art known through the land from the earliest time ; along the Rovuma mats are plaited, and in various parts of the country bark-cloth is made by stripping the bark from the trees, soaking it in water, and beating it out with wooden hammers. Native Government The power of the chief is no longer what it was, and no one now has the paramount position occupied by such a leader as Gungunyana in Gaza, But even now tribes are often known by the names of the rulers, which are hereditary as a rule : e, g, the Machengas of Gaza are known as Ki-kwala-kwala, and the name Gaza itself is that of a prince contemporary with Chaka, Fidelity to the chief is the leading virtue of the native : a man who could not be induced to work in his own garden will labour for his chief, and the killing of a tribesman means a wrong done to the ruler in robbing him of a man, for which compensation must be made. It is customary for villages to be moved at the chief's death : thus along the Limpopo all the villages have changed their positions, A native chief expects permission to be asked of him by anybody who passes through or encamps in his land, and presents of satisfactory value to be offered him ; if he makes presents to the visitor, it is on the understanding that he shall receive presents himself of similar or greater value. It must not be supposed that a chief is an unbridled autocrat ; he can only rule if he carries the feeling of his tribe with him. Among many tribes there NATIVES 97 is no chief of paramount authority, but the headman of each village is independent, and in those parts of the country which are most accessible the headmen are directed by government authority. Among the Makwa the system of justice is well organized, and the milando (village trial) is formal and judicial. Some General Customs One horrible custom, very prevalent, is the poison-ordeal, which consists in making the man suspected of crime drink a decoction of the inner bark of a tree, called the mivavi. It is compounded for him by a special functionary, on whose good graces his life largely depends, for if he vomits the drug, he is adjudged innocent ; if guilty, he wUl be unable to do so, and will die in agony. Sometimes the poison is administered instead to the dogs of contest ing parties. Witchcraft is generally believed in, and an accusation of witchcraft is the worst that can be brought against a man. The death of man and beast is commonly laid at the door of such influences, and a charge is readily believed that people have changed themselves into wild beasts. Tribal Divisions The tribal divisions of the natives are confusing. Hardly any tribe has one name only : some have six or seven. It is difficult therefore to know whether we are dealing with accounts of diff'erent tribes or the same under a variety of names. How discrepant the authorities are may be judged from the fact that the lists of Keane and Feio have not a single name in common. A further con fusion arises from the variety of affixes by which a tribe is known. The tribal name has the prefixes A-, Ba-, Ma-, Va-, Wa- with diff'erent writers or is given simply without any of them : sometimes even the prefix Ki- (Ci- or Chi-), which denotes the language, is used when P.E.A. Gr 98 INHABITANTS speaking of the people. Some tribal names have passed into conventional usage with a particular prefix (e, g, Barue, Vatua, Angoni), and in the present chapter no attempt has been made to introduce a systematic nomen clature, but names are given as they most commonly appear. It may be stated with some degree of certainty that there is not in South Africa at present a single tribe with the same name, territory, and degree of relative importance that its ancestors possessed four hundred years ago. Tribes take the names and copy the customs of their con querors ; slave populations amalgamate with those who enslave them ; freed slaves become in their turn the leaders of the population among whom they settle. Even characteristics of language become imported : the Zulus, owing to marriage with Hottentot women, adopted the characteristic ' click ' of the Hottentots, and it has travelled north of their borders ; further north Zulu vocabulary has spread owing to invasions, but without the ' clicks ', and the custom by which a woman may never mention certain male relatives, and so has to avoid the use of the word even when it is not a proper name, has led to an invention of new words which disguise the history of a tribe. A wandering population in an imper fectly known land, where identity of name is no positive evidence of identity of blood, naturally gives more oppor tunities for speculation than for accurate statement. Tribes South oe the Zambezi Zulu Invasions The most important event in determining the position and relations of the tribes in the south of the province was the movement of Zulus northward that took place in the beginning of the nineteenth century, A great Zulu chief, Chaka, had made his rule intolerable ; consequently TEIBES SOUTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 99 two invasions of the territory of their northern neighbours were made by Zulu chiefs. The first, under Manikusa, son of Gaza, consisted of those who were afterwards called Vatuas or Abagaza ; the second consisted of those who were afterwards called the Angoni, Both settled near the headwaters of the River Sabi, and came into collision. There the Angoni were conquered and went north of Lake Nyasa to be the scourge of surrounding tribes ; the Vatua retreated southwards and raided from their new positions the east and south portions of Mashonaland, till the Boer trek drove northward another formidable tribe, the Matabele, who devastated such of the country as the Angoni and Vatua had spared. The real Angoni are only found in a small portion of Portuguese territory in the Tete district near the Mahuna Hills. The history of the Vatua is outlined in Chap. XI (p. 463), The districts of Lourenzo Marques, Gaza, and Inhambane are inhabited by Vatua tribes or tribes that have become Vatualized, The characteristic mark of the Vatualized tribes is the hole pushed through the lobe of the ear. Among all the Zulu peoples a distinguishing mark is a small disk of wax on the head. Another name for the tribes which have been conquered and assimilated by Vatua is Matshangana, sO-called from Shangan (or Sotshangana), a name adopted by Manikusa, Vatua The Vatua, though by no means the largest, are the predominant eleraent in the population of the southern districts (Lourenzo Marques, Gaza, and Inhambane), for they have been able to impress their customs and mental attitude upon the populations that they found there. They have preserved their own purity of race much more than the Angoni of the north, and have much to diff'erentiate them from the tribes described before. They are a proud, warlike nation, fond of com- G 2 I(|0 INHABITANTS maind. Their potentates have shown much administrative ability, and with the assistance of their indunas (chiefs) organize their armies very well. The Vatua fight cruelly, killing men, women, and children, and living up to their motto of warfare, ' kill everybody ', whereas the former owners ofthe soil, the Tonga, were content if the victorious host could return after slaying two or three of their opponents, though they would describe such a victory by declaring that ' none of the enemy is left '. The war- tactics of the Vatua resemble those of the Sudanese and other peoples of North Africa, Although they have the ugly custom of boring and mutilating the ear-lobe, they do not disfigure themselves by tattooing to any con siderable extent. The decoration of their head is nearly always three feathers of the ' widow-bird ' adorning three separate tufts of hair ; more elaborate decoration is vested on a special wooden head-rest, which they carry about with them, a specially Zulu institution. Round the waist is a belt with tails of animals or strips of skin reaching to the knees, called a munjoro. Their weapons and armour are shield, assegais, battle axe, dagger, and knobkerris, the last being used not merely in war, but also to kill snakes or bring down quails when they travel. Pasture is more honourable than agriculture to the Zulu, and it was the opportunities of annexing at once good pasture and cattle that brought him into Gaza. To look after cattle is the fitting work for men, but agricul ture is mainly left to women. The Zulu does not keep swine or eat them ; it has been thought to suggest residence with or near Mohammedans in a distant past ; another prejudice is against fish, which they will not eat, and these prejudices are acquired by their Vatualized neighbours. So too the tribes of the south will not touch eggs, though they will eat with avidity snakes, monkeys, birds of prey, field-rats, leaves, and roots of every kind. TEIBES SOUTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 10 1 The word Kaffir (Kafir) commonly a,pplied to the southern Bantu and especially to the Zulus is an Arabic word, meaning ' unbeliever ', and was applied generally to those who did not accept the Koran, The Term ' Landin ' The name Landin (= courier) is applied by the Por tuguese to all the tribes which are of Zulu origin or have come under Zulu influence, but more especially to the Tonga tribes of the south, whose dialects also are at times called Landin. Sometimes even the northern tribes, like the Maviti and Angoni, are called Landins, and the name is applied commonly to the tribes along the south side of the Zambezi, In most cases it represents a very small racial element that is Zulu, but a great deal of Zulu influence in ways of life and in military organization. The ' Landin ' speech is musical and abounds in vowels, but is made difficult to pronounce by the importation of ' clicks ' which the Zulus have passed on from the Hottentots, When the Zulus came into the south part of the Portu guese colony they found it occupied by a group of tribes, called by the general name of Ama-Tonga, applied to them in contempt by the invaders. They had been for a long time in the country, and had entered it with a series of peaceful immigrations, and not witb a great warlike wave of invasion like the Vatua, Most of them were closely allied in speech and customs, though they had only the loosest political coherence, Chope and Mindongwe Certain elements in the population were more distinct, though nearer allied to the Tonga than to any other Bantu tribe. These were the Chope (or Mchope) and their northern neighbours the Mindongwe. The Chope live along the coast north of the mouth of the Limpopo, 102 INHABITANTS between the course of the Inyarrime and the sea. They have become much less Vatualized than any of the neigh bouring tribes ; they do not bore the ears, and, unlike the Zulus, they tattoo horribly the face, chest, and stomach, and they file their incisors. Their tongue is very diff'erent from the ordinary Landin speech. Another diff'erence is their system of inheritance, for whereas' among the other tribes sons are the heirs, the succession among the Chope passes to brothers and nephews. In their villages instead ofthe promiscuous arrangement of houses within a circular fence, there are something like straight streets. The Chope women were enslaved by the Vatua ; many of them are living in Lourenzo Marques, and are recognizable by their broad, coarse features. They are a very industrious tribe. One of their special manufactures is a fabric made from the bark of the mjpama, a kind of fig-tree, which grows widely in the country and is planted for the purpose. They beat the bark and make it very soft, so that it can easily be strung together ; they sell it largely to the Tonga tribes, with whom it is very popular, though they do not know how to make it themselves. North of the Chope live the Mindongwe (Ndongwe or Wazongwe) ; they inhabit Chikomo, the old district of Guilala, and part of Paiiza and Inyarrime, Ma-Buingella and Machenga The name Ma-Buingella is sometimes given to the last invaders of this territory before the coming of the Zulus, They belonged to the old empire of Munyane, who pre ceded the Vatua in the conquest of this territory. They live on the right bank of the Limpopo, especially thickly near the confluence with the Olifants, and have adopted the uses and customs of the Vatua, Their villages are divided from one another by settlements made under King Gungunyana of the Butongas, Mujaus, and other tribes who had been compelled t6 leave their old homes TRIBES SOUTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 103 on the Sabi, Buzi, and Pungwe, but after the downfall of that monarch most of these returned to their old home, and the remnant left is insignificant. The Ma-Buingella are the people to whom especially the Boers applied the name of ' Knob-noses ', owing to the black pimples that they (and the Tonga tribes) make on their foreheads and noses by tattooing. The Machenga inhabits the left bank of the Limpopo from opposite the mouth ofthe Pafuri to the Chengane and the intervening plateau. These two tribes are much less rich than the other Landins ; they live in poor huts that scarcely keep out the weather, dress in rough skins, possess no flocks and herds, and in fact very little of value. In some ways they suggest Bushmen rather than Bantu, Tonga It is not easy to diff'erentiate the tribes of the south of Portuguese East Africa whom the Vatua conquered. The general name for them is Tonga (Ama-tonga, Ba- Ronga) and they are found in two chief groups, one south ofthe Sabi (described below as the Tonga group proper), the other in Manica and Barue, but as words like Tonga simply mean among the Bantus the ' Southerners ' it is often used in one form or another applied to widely separated peoples, as the Batonga in the Barue country, the Butonga on both sides of the border north of the Limpopo, and the Bitonga of the coast near Inhambane. The Southern Tonga Territory and Language. — For the Tonga group proper there is a better supply of information than for any tribe in Portuguese East Africa, for it has been carefully studied by Henri Junod of the Swiss Romande Mission, who has given a full account of its customs, institutions, and folk-lore in his work. The Life of a South African 104 INHABITANTS Tribe. These Tonga are a Bantu people, who have affinities with the Basuto and Bechuana, and inhabit the country from the Sabi south to the St. Lucia Bay, beyond the southern frontier of Portuguese territory. The word Tonga was applied to this people by the Zulus when they conquered their clans : it may be a mispronunciation of Ba-ronga (Eastern or people oif the dawn), or like Djonga, one of the groups of the tribe, may mean ' southern ', On Zulu lips it came to mean ' slave ', and, like the word ' slave ' in Europe, became generalized from the name of one people. With these associations it is naturally dis liked by the tribes themselves, who never call themselves by it. Junod divides the tribe into six divisions with differ ences of dialect : (1) the Ronga group round Delagoa Bay, extending nearly to the Limpopo, (2) the Djonga ( = southern), who extend from the Olifants River to the sea, while one portion, the Hlabi, live east of the Limpopo, (3) the Nwalangu ( = northern), who live on the right bank of the Limpopo, north of the Olifants ; they include the Ba-Maloi (also called Mo-lojos, from the name of an ancient chief of the tribe) and the Maluleke, who have broken off" from a clan the other side of the Limpopo, and have extended into Transvaal, (4) the Hlanganu, whose tongue is closely allied to that of the Djonga ; those in the plain of Delagoa Bay are called Nwamba, and those in the Lebombo Hills Mabila and Hlanganu : these scatter into the Transvaal and are mixed with Basuto and Swazi tribes, (5) the Bila inhabit the fertile plain of Bilene on the lower Limpopo, (6) the Hlengwe ( = wealth) extend with many clans to the Sabi and In hambane (about which is a group specially called Tonga) ; they include among other clans the Batswa near Inham bane and the Makwakwa, a portion of that same clan Nwanati, from which the Maluleke broke off. Type and Characteristics. — The Tonga are a race of TRIBES SOUTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 105 fine physique ; their complexion is dark-brown or some times quite black. There are two types among them, which are much intermixed. One shows typical negro faces, broad lips, flat noses, and prominent cheek-bones ; the other type has narrow faces, thin lips, and pointed noses. It may be suggested that Arabic influence is strong in some of the clans. They were not naturally a military people, but took readily to warfare under Zulu organization, and adopted the whole of Zulu military terminology. They have good memories and powerful imagination ; fluency and power of elocution are universal among them, but there is little order and arrangement in their oratory ; their arithmetical sense and numeral system are very defective : their only numerals are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, and 100, and all their numbers are made up of combinations of these. The Tonga are less disfigured by mutilations than most tribes of the colony. It is true that the Vatualized peoples bore their ears in the ugly manner mentioned above, but tattooing is much restricted. It used to have a ritual value, when it was more in use, and then was common down the middle of the face, giving rise to the name Knob-noses applied to some of these tribes by the Boers ; now tattooing is mostly on the stomach in rows of small pimples ; tattooing of the face is rare. The filing of the incisor teeth used to be obligatory on all the girls, but the custom is now falling into disuse. Circumcision was being given up even before the coming of the Zulus ; Chaka, the Zulu king, had prohibited it for military reasons, and it is now continued only among those Tongas who have migrated into the Transvaal, Clothing. — The Tonga haye a strong taste for European costume, though without much idea of its ordinary use, and they often combine single articles of it strangely with native attire. The old native costume used to consist of a belt, of stitched palm-leaves in the case of 106 INHABITANTS men, and of softened skins in the case of women. But from the Zulus they adopted the munjoro hung with tails or strips of skins of animals, in every part of the country except remote parts of the Hlengwe territory. The natives regard the taste for European costumes as the cause of their loss of independence ; some of them would never give them up, and in the hope of obtaining them would make alliance with Europeans, so that their power of resistance was broken. Food. — As with most tribes the main food is farinaceous, but meat is also eaten. When the headman of a kraal kills an ox for feasting, the parts of the animal are dis tributed according to very strict rules among his kinsfolk and the rest of the village. The oil of the ground-nut is their constant seasoning. They have two meals, a morn ing and an evening repast. They make drinks from cereals, fruits, and the sugar-cane. Dwellings. — They live in settlements, usually on the borders of forests, where they can be sheltered from the prevalent south winds, A circular fence surrounds the huts, having two entrances, the principal gateway being closed at night by th& boys of the lao (or boys' hut) which is near it. In the centre is the kraal of the cattle ; there ~ are always trees to give shade, and one special feature is the space near the huts ofthe headman's wives, called the ' place of jealousy ', where the mutual recriminations of these women take place. The huts are circular, less well- built than in the north, but better than the Zulu huts in the same part of the country, and are re-thatched each year. House-building is among the male occupations, and the fixing of the roof is a great event attended by special ceremonies. The roof is made before the house is built. The doors are very low. It is taboo to sit on the threshold of the headman. Each hut has a small plot of ground with it, Occufiations. — The country is pastoral, as well as TRIBES SOUTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 107 agricultural, and, like the Zulus, the Tonga feels it com patible with the dignity of the masculine sex to herd cattle ; in the work of agriculture he helps his wife or wives, who do the main part of the work. He will sow, but they must hoe. The chief crops of the Tonga are, among grains, maize, millet, sorghum, and rice, and among others ground-nuts, Kafir peas and beans, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, tomatoes, onions, sugar cane, pine apple, tobacco, and manioc. The animals kept by the Tonga are cattle (but they make little use of milk), goats, sheep (but these are rare, and mostly without wool), pigs, one or two in each village, and poultry, whose houses, perched on piles to protect them from snakes, can be seen in each village. Hunting is common, and the village has to observe certain customs and taboos while the hunters are away. The chief industries are pottery-making, an excellent clay being found at Chibinji, near Lourenzo Marques ; basket-work, which is done principally with the leaves of the milala palm— basket-making is essentially men's work ; wood-carving, for which they use especially the wood ofthe nkhidu, the mafureira tree, while the same art is applied with great skUl to the calabashes (gourd shells) which constitute so many of their household articles, and the head-rests which they, like the Zulus, constantly use ; iron-working, which has come to them late in their history, both from oversea when traders introduced iron tools, and from the Transvaal mountains where iron ore had long been worked. The Tonga have a natural inclination for trade, and were accustomed to barter their primitive produce long before they knew anything of cur rency, exchanging skins for powder and other European produce. Their most special form of labour has been work in the Transvaal mines, where they have been'found to be the best mining boys, and rapidly to acquire suffi cient wealth to allow them to lead a life of leisure and polygamy on their return to their native land. 1 U» IJN ±1 A131TA1N TO Social Institutions.— The chief rules in virtue of certain semi-magical properties that he is supposed to possess. He has in theory autocratic power, but in practice these powers are limited, and he is expected to rule as the father of his country and not as a tyrant, and can be deposed if he rules selfishly. He is regarded as the power that gives life and vitalizing force to the com munity : symbolically he is the ' earth ', and it is in virtue of this symbolical relationship that his subjects are bound to pay him taxes. Taxation is of five kinds : the chief takes part of the harvest (a basket of mealies is usually contributed by each village) ; he takes a share of the wild beasts killed, especially the elephant's tusk, which is his because it touches the earth ; he makes his people work for him ; he taxes the revenue of those who go away to work for the white people ; he imposes fines in judicial cases. One of the dangers to his position is owing to the peculiar law of succession by which the younger brothers reign (as regents) before the eldest son : this leads to internal disputes and civil wars. He is assisted in his government by his counsellors {indunas). Mystery is attached to the birth of an heir, and his death is kept secret for a year, when the public mourning coincides with the installation of his successor. Then the village moves to another site, similar migrations taking place also when the Imbo (or village square) is struck by lightning, or when the soil has become ' tired ', There is little in the chief's costume and accessories to distinguish him from his subjects : it is not even always the case that his hut and village are larger than others. The land belongs to the chief, but it is gratuitously assigned to any one who settles in the country, though it is not bought. The mere fact of obeisance {kondza) to the chief entitles the native to as much land as is necessary for his subsistence. Polygamy prevails, the standard of wealth determining TRIBES SOUTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 109 the number of wives. The wife is purchased by lolola, the lobola which is given for the girls being generally used to purchase wives for their brothers. War System. — The Tonga have been apt pupils of the Zulu in all that pertains to war. They had been a peace ful people till the coming of the hordes of Manikusa, who defeated them easily, and even now, though they have absorbed the Zulu system and are proud of it, they do not show themselves ardent fighters when fighting is serious, and their warlike rage is evanescent. When the fighting forces are mobilized, they are summoned by a trumpet at the order of the chiefs and sub-chiefs. The costume of war is based on the idea of making the warrior look like a wild animal, and the various battalions that make up the Tonga army {yimpi) are named after diff'erent animals whose qualities they are supposed to possess, and whose special noise they imitate by their war cries. The prelude of war is the formation of the war circle {muk- humbi) when war songs are chanted and war dances performed, A magic potion, the war medicine, guards the warrior in the fight. During the campaign the whole clan is subject to many taboos. Massed formation is not adopted against white troops, as offering too big a target against modern artillery : on the whole the natives prefer sudden descents on unsuspecting inhabitants to anything like a pitched battle, A defeated yimpi returns silently and disperses to its several villages quietly before reach ing the capital ; not much public lamentation is allowed. The victory of a yimpi is attended by many celebra tions : a native who has killed a foe is entitled to com memorate his exploit by executing a war-dance in front of his chief ; so also are the next two warriors who have stabbed the dead or dying man. Native commissioners have put an end to tribal wars and largely curtailed the power of the chiefs. Natives can no longer indulge their fighting propensities, unless no INHABITANTS a conflict between two European nations in Africa gives them opportunity. But the greater peace and prosperity have been accompanied by further tribal disintegration, and lack of patriotism has impoverished the native mind. The account of the Tonga, though primarily applicable to the Ba-Ronga, is mainly true of all who have the Tonga name, and in many respects is true of other Bantu peoples, A good deal of the information here given is true of those tribes between the Zambezi and Sabi, of which the accounts given by travellers and ethnologists are inadequate. The Northern Tonga {Barue, dsc.) The northern group of Ba-tonga have been divided into the Aba-tevi in the east of Manica, the Ba-rue, who have given their name to the district of Barue, their near neighbours the Ba-lempa (apparently much blended with Semitic stock, to judge from their Jewish appearance and their rigid adherence to the custom of circumcision), and the Ba-toka, who live north of the Ba-rue, The most important of these are the Ba-rue ; they are of the same type physically as the Makalakka, a tribe of the British dominions whose name is thought to be connected with Mocaranga, the people over whom the great Monomotapa used to rule. It is probably safe to suppose that they, like the Banyai, who are closely allied to them, are the survivors of the tribes ruled by that monarch. Their district extends from 30° W, long, to Gouveia, and as far south as the River Pungwe, They are an industrious people with fine, well-built frames, and are probably the oldest inhabitants of the country. The population is very unevenly distributed through the district, and the dispro portion of the sexes has been noted, the women consider ably outnumbering the men. They are clever workmen, both in iron and wood. Agriculture is primitive in the district now, but there are traces of a great system of TRIBES SOUTH OF THE ZAMBEZI III agriculture in the past. They trade, but not much with themselves, though a great deal with the Monhes, dealing both in money and kind. They are found to make good servants. Their main food is sorghum, also millet and rice and the many fruits of their country ; they manu facture, besides, various drinks. They were largely driven out ofthis district in 1902, Other Tribes South ofthe Zambezi Of the other tribes between the Zambezi and the borders of Inhambane little is said by ethnologists, Feio in his book Indigenas de Mogambique attempts to fill the gap, but his statements must be received with caution. He places in this district (1) the Watanga in Barue and Massagano, (2) the Bitonga between Bazaruto and Mambone at the mouth ofthe Sabi, (3) the Wagengoe in Chiluane, (4) the Makololo on the banks of the Sabi in Madanda now absorbed in other tribes, (5) the Vahoca along the coast from Ingovane to south of Cape St, Sebastian, (6) the Munhai in Mambone and on both banks of the Sabi, (7) the Vadanda in Madanda, south of Sofala, and (8) the Muteve in Quitere the district west of Sofala, Negreiros also mentions (1) the Mocaranga be tween the Pungwe and Sabi : it may be taken as a group- name for those tribes south of the Zambezi which survived from Monomotapa's empire, (2) the Manico, inhabitants of Manica, between whom and the Muteve he sees various points of contact, (3) the Bitonga in the Barue District, (4) the Babuende on the coast near the mouth of the Guvuro, south of the Sabi (these seem to be another name for the Vahoca), (5) the Machengwa in Chiluane, who seem to be the same as Feio's Wagengoe, The unfortunate Captain Wy brants, in his ill-fated expedition of 1881, speaks of a short stunted people up the river Sabi whom he calls Mangi, Other writers speak loosely of all these tribes as Landins or Tonga, 112 INHABITANTS Feio has little to say of any of these tribes. Of his Bitonga he says that they are industrious, thrifty, and very intelligent, and having suff'ered from neighbouring tribes adopt precautions against them. The Wagengoe are honest and punish theft severely ; they are courageous and excellent huntsmen, but also practise trade on a great scale. The Vahoca are a hard-working, loyal and well-disposed people, who live subject to hereditary rulers. Of the Vadanda he has more to say : they are armed with bow and arrows, assegais and knives ; the men wear skins, the women cloth anointed with palm-oil ; formerly much ivory came from their district^. They rob the white man, or at any rate the Portuguese, but regard their depredations as an indemnity for a peculiarly cruel requi sition made by a Portuguese governor in 1823, Tribes along the Zambezi The conditions along the Zambezi differ considerably from those found further north. Instead of large and important tribes like the Yao, Makwa, &c, (below), there is little of the tribal system. The position ordinarily taken by the tribal chief, here and in neighbouring countries, e.g. Gorongoza, is taken by the half-castes, who have usually assimilated the bad and not the good qualities of the blacks. Again , the territory of the chiefs, whether native or half-caste, is personal ; hence migration is easy, and the primitive methods of agricul ture lead to frequent migrations, which are in any case frequent where the population is pastoral. Another thing to notice is that there has been a much longer acquaintance here with European civilization, which has modified many native customs and habits of mind. It is very difficult for these reasons to define accurately the ethnographical boundaries along the Zambezi basin or to attribute very definite characteristics to this or that tribe. There is a good deal of uniformity of custom, and, TRIBES ALONG THE ZAMBEZI 113 to a considerable extent, of uniformity of language, the Ki-Senga tongue being generally understood and spoken along the Zambezi and in the northern part of the districts of Cheringoma and Gorongoza, Ki-Shona is also spoken. These dialects are pleasanter in sound than the real Zulu speech : they are less guttural and are full of labial sounds. The tribes along the Zambezi have better built houses than the Landin tribes farther south : long contact with European civilization has made them build good rect angular houses in the Sena district, with sawn timber doors, sometimes with verandahs, and often with glazed windows. Many of their houses are raised on piles as a defence against beasts and fioods. They often adopt European costume. The arms that they manufacture are better wrought and more artistic, but less powerful, than those of the Zulus, The more prosperous among them speak Portuguese, and, it is said, raise their hats to one another, (The raising of the hand to the head as a token of respect to the white man is very common, especially farther south, having been taught by the Boers, the implication in the native mind being that the white man was to be compared to One above,) Among the occupations of this region are the collection of gold from the sand, which both here and in Manica is done by women, and the manufacture of gold and silver articles, executed with great care, these tribes apparently having an innate skUl in metal-working, which they exhibit also in working copper. There is little cattle-rearing, but only a few goats, sheep, pigs, and poultry are kept in the villages. It is difficult to persuade them to plant trees, owing to the conviction that whoever plants a tree will die soon after : so this superstition fights against the possible progress of the country of the Lower Zambezi, Fishing is common on the river, and the natives are P.E.A. , H 114 INHABITANTS clever at handling boats : women never row. Neither rudder nor, unless under European influence, sails are used. An Arabian type is spread all along the Zambezi valley, characterized by fine nose, thin lips, high fore head, and clear skin ; this type is found as far from the coast as the district between the Kafue and the Luangwa, where especially it abounds. The Senga (A-Senga or Wa-Senga) inhabit the district north of the Zambezi, between the Luangwa on the west and the Luwia on the east. It was a country of many elephants, and the Senga traded in ivory, sending it to Tete, Zumbo, and Quelimane, They are also clever at manufacturing things in iron,- which they extract from ore. The Maravi are a widely-spread tribe, the largest portion of whom live along the tributaries of the Kapoche River from the Zambezi up to the northern frontier of the Portuguese possessions, while another group is in the high ground south of the town of Tete, The old capital of Undi was the centre of their tribe, but for political reasons the chief Chakanikira abandoned it and planted the Maravi of the west among the Pimbe, a Chewa tribe, who lived near Chikanga, The Maravi have not adopted the customs of the Pimbe, but have retained their own. One noticeable custom is that the chief is succeeded by his sister's son, the reason being the desire to make sure that the successor is really a member of the family. Human sacrifice was known among them, but is now obsolete, Montagu Kerr, travelling among the Maravi, found them sulky and difficult to deal with as servants. The Ba-Dema (Wa-Dema) live north of the Zambezi, about the mouth of the Kapoche, They dwell in river valleys, where they cultivate maize, tobacco, and cotton in the available hollows, and some sorghum on the TRIBES ALONG THE ZAMBEZI 115 slopes of the hills. They hunt antelopes and zebras by driving them into strong nets of baobab bark, and catch fish by means of cast-nets. They spin and weave cotton of good quality. The insecurity of their existence has made them suspicious. They are said to bury their grain in cylindrical vessels covered with a bark of bitter taste, which mice and monkeys dislike. The Makanga, farther north, occupy the region between the Kapoche and the Revugo, They are a predatory tribe, very hostile to the Landins who come into their neighbourhood. They are spoken of as treacherous. Human sacrifice survived, at any rate recently, at the burial of their chiefs. The Muzimha (Azimba) used to inhabit the right bank of the Zambezi in the Tuloma prazo as far as Cachoimbo ; but, being expelled by the Tavala, crossed the river and established themselves in the country between the Revugo and Shire, which was previously inhabited by Nyasa, The population is now very much mixed. They are a warlike and hardy people, always at war with some one, their principal foes being the Makanga, who raid and enslave them, and the Landin tribes. They have attained a deadly accuracy with the bow. Their language is like Ki-Nyanja, but is mixed with words of other dialects ; e. g, Chekmenda and Ki-peta. Angus (1898) describes them as friendly to the British, but not to the Portuguese. He found among them the use of the poison-ordeal and human sacrifice on tombs. The Angoni are almost entirely resident in British dominions, but a few are found in the Portuguese colony, south of the Maluma Hills. They came in a big invasion from Zululand early in the nineteenth century ; after a struggle with the Vatuas, who occupied Gazaland, they came up to Lake Nyasa, and some of them going round to the east side became the Wangoni of the German protectorate. The Angoni of Angoniland have h2 116 INHABITANTS kept their stock much less pure than the Vatuas (Umgoni) of the south. Like all Zulu or Zuluized tribes they are called Landins by the Portuguese. The Angoni are warlike and mostly equipped with bow and arrows. The Wa-Nyungwe live about Tete, on both sides of the river. The Tete people have great vitality. They are very black. The chiefs are said to have fifty or more wives and to be extremely autocratic with their subjects, whom they look on almost as slaves. South of the river the first tribe found within Portuguese territory, descending the stream, is the Ndande, whose territory is west of Umzengezi River. The Banyai (probably the Munhoes of some travellers are the same tribe), who live east of the Ndande and whose territory is somewhat broken up by the interpolation of other tribes, were great blackmailers of travellers in Livingstone's days, being extremely exacting in their demands of ' presents ', They are mentioned there also as being proud of their comparatively light complexion. They are the predominant tribe in the district between the Zambezi and the Mazoe, They seem to be the descendants of the great rule of Monomotapa, with which early Portuguese explorers came so often in contact. They are now a quiet, industrious people, cultivating the land. Women have a high position among them. The Tavala (Mtavara) extend between the Ruia and Zambezi ; like the Banyai, they represent the old kingdom of Monomotapa, many of the chiefs claiming to be his descendants. Vasconcellos attributes to them a special method of succession which somewhat resembles that among the Tonga : sons who are grown up can succeed on their father's death, but, if they are under age, their uncle (the king's brother) has power, and only on his death does the eldest son of the chief wife succeed. These tribes are constantly changing their villages, as the soil is poor and quickly exhausted. TRIBES NORTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 117 The Muzuzuro (Wazezuro) border on them, inhabiting the district between the Mazoe and Ruenya. They are said to be a Mashona people, which probably means that they represent the fugitive remains of several diff'erent peoples. Their lands are fertile and rich in minerals, but they have not been able to hold their own against the Landins, owing to the lack of central authority and co-ordination. Above the Lupata gorge the population of the Zambezi valley is scanty ; below that point it becomes more numerous. Along the north bank east of Tete are found the Chikunda, who are not a homogeneous people, but are compounded of slaves and their descendants brought from many parts of Central and East Africa, Other tribes to be mentioned, mostly in Quelimane, are the Mazinjiri (Machinjiri) to the east of the River Shire, who fought against the Portuguese in the war that takes their name, and the Mapodze of the Zambezi delta. These last are hippopotamus hunters and form a separate tribe, which hardly ever intermarries with other tribes (the men seldom, the women never). The horror which some of their neighbours feel for hippopotamus flesh is extended to those people who are addicted to it. They are a rather good-looking tribe, with black, smooth skins, and not artificially disfigured. Tribes North oe the Zambezi Makwa {Wa7nakua) The Makwa extend over the country between the Lujenda and the Indian Ocean, between 11° and 17° S, lat. In 1912 they migrated to a considerable extent into German East Africa. They are one great tribe with sub divisions, distinguished by their tattoo marks. Language. — Most Bantu peoples find great difficulty in pronouncing the Makwa tongue, but the Makwa, though they can usually speak Yao, as a rule employ their own 118 INHABITANTS speech for purposes of trade, and not much Swahili is spoken among them, though it is said to be generally understood in the Lindi District (north of the Lower Rovuma), There are four chief dialects — I-medo, I-lomwe, I-tugulu, and Anguru — but the dialectical differences are seldom great. The Lomwe dialect, however, has distinc tive features of its own. Type and Characteristics. — The average height of the men is from 5 ft, 6 in, to 5 ft, 8 in. Their physical development is inferior to that of other native peoples. Their complexion is very dark. They show prognathous tendencies. Though the Makwa of the Lindi District (north of the Lower Rovuma) are said to be warlike, they are elsewhere a quiet and, as a rule, sedentary people, thrifty and industrious, but somewhat stupid and dull. They contrast favourably with the Yao in their standard of truthfulness and morality. They also exhibit more aflfection for wives and children than is found farther south. Woman occupies an exceptionally favoured position among them ; not only has she her own hut and her own plantation, but she has rights to the control of her own time and labour, which make her more than the chattel of her husband. The Makwa ofthe coast affect Mohammedanism. The men wear waistcloths of bark or trade cloth falling down before and behind. The women wear petticoats of the same material from the bosom to the knee. Different methods of tattooing are found in different tribes ; the men are tattooed to a smaller extent than the women ; but among the Makwa is found the horrible practice of cicatrization, A common tattoo device that stamps the Makwa men is a half-moon. The tattoo marks are less prominent among the tribes of the interior ; among the Lomwe they have almost disappeared. The women wear the pelele. Chieftains and their wives have the special privilege of wearing bracelets of brass on their limbs. TRIBES NORTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 119 Dwellings. — The Makwa live in small settlements, established in low-lying places. Their houses are usually circular and thatched ; sometimes they are rectangular and occasionally plastered, but there is no capping-piece or apex to the roof The better houses contain two or three rooms. The Medo Makwa use a particular grass, closely bound together, for building their walls, with strips of bamboo encircling the house. Some of the Lomwe have much superior dwellings, oblong, with a frontage of 15 or 20 ft,, strongly constructed, and with verandahs. Occupations. — In war their weapons are bows and arrows, stout spears about 4 ft, long, and axes, A large proportion carry muzzle-loading guns. They are an industrious people. Much of their soil is very fertile ; in Medo district a second crop of beans is raised in the year independently of the rains. They cultivate the cashew to extract from it a spirit, arapa, which is taxed by the Portuguese Government with the hope (by no means realized) of preventing drunkenness. They cultivate millet, maize, manioc, rice, oil-seed, amendoin, and fruit, especially bananas, in which they trade. Cloth and grain are their usual standard of exchange ; money is less acceptable away from the coast. Local fashions vary much in the use of beads, and they are a precarious investment for the trader unless he is quite certain of the taste of the particular district he visits. The Makwa are clever artificers. In some parts they are occupied in fishing. They have a special love for hunting, and are very good shots. Social Institutions. — The Makwa are for the most part under numerous petty chieftains with absolute authority, A notable feature (especially among the Lomwe) is the orderly and judicial manner in which they conduct a trial {milando) ; oratory is cultivated and recognized, and there seems to be a real attempt to give a just verdict. Only 120 INHABITANTS when the crime cannot be established do they resort to the poison-ordeal {mwavi). There is, however, a con siderable variety of usages among the Makwa tribes, some of whom, like the Mawa, are a long way behind the others in civilization. The Mawa are said to be cannibals. Last (1887) describes a method by which the intended victim was first intoxicated and then speared, Mavia {Mawia, Mabiha) The Mavia inhabit the plateau south of the Rovuma and east of the Lujenda, their chief settlement being Nikoche. They also occupy the plateau between the Rovuma and the Msalu, Physically they are slender and well made. They appear to be a branch of the Makonde, but are not unlike the Makwa, They have had a reputation for being extremely exclusive, but it appears to have been due mainly to a not unnatural suspicion of their neighbours. When their distrust has gone, they have been found a simple-minded, harmless folk. Their dress is a single strip of cloth. One special feature is that the men as well as the women wear the pelele. They tattoo themselves like the Makonde, They live in villages surrounded by a big boma (or enclosure of trees and thorny underbush), the gates of which are shut by night. There are about forty or fifty huts in an enclosure. According to another account, however, they are said to live apart, not forming villages. Their houses are built in circular fashion. They keep goats and poultry in abundance. Some of them go down to the coast trading in gum copal and rubber, but they are not very ready to receive the Arabs in return, who were said not to be able to penetrate beyond the outskirts of their country. TRIBES NORTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 121 Mata/mbwe These are a remnant of an almost extinct tribe on the Rovuma, and up some of its southern confluents, especially the Mtambwe (Mtumbwi), They are almost merged in the Makonde, and, it is thought, will soon be extinct. They lead a miserable existence, living mainly on fish, and sending a certain amount of ivory and gum copal, and formerly slaves, to Ibo, They are unwarlike, and have no tribal organization or fixed dwellings. They are armed with muzzle-loaders, spears, and axes. They are very dark in colour ; the women are described as comely, but they wear the pelele. Tattooing is done with wavy lines, and the incisors are filed. They speak a tongue slightly diff'erent from the Makonde, but they can understand them ; Swahili also is generally understood, Makonde {Wamakonde) This people live mainly in German East Africa, on the Makonde plateau, but they are found in a small number of settlements in Portuguese territory, south of the Rovuma, scattered among those of the Makwa and Matambwe, Type and Characteristics. — They are described as ugly, especiaUy the women, with squat figures and naturally repulsive features, made still uglier by the pelele. The Makonde have narrow, rather low foreheads, nostrils expanding laterally, lips full, but not excessively thick, hands and feet small. Their colour is dark or light brown, their height medium ; the men's bodies and limbs are well formed, and their bearing is described as indepen dent. They have long hair, which they seldom cut, and the men grow long beards, A good many understand Swahili, They formerly had a reputation as treacherous robbers, but of recent years they have suffered more from the 122 INHABITANTS depredations of others. They have been incapable of any organized resistance to more aggressive tribes, and have suflfered especially from the raids of the Maviti, They have muzzle-loaders, spears, axes, and poisoned arrows. They are described as a quiet, peaceful people now, somewhat stupid, timid and dull, but difficult to deal with when they have been successful in their commerce with Arab traders. Their moral standard is particularly high, and the bride in marriage has more choice than is customary among African peoples. Both sexes wear the simple loin-cloth, and are cicatrized with hideous tattoo marks. Women wear the pelele ; it is made for the bride by her husband in early years, and takes the place of the wedding-ring. Dwellings. — Their houses are circular, built of thick poles about 9 ft, high, and of clay, with straw roofs. Their fear of the Maviti made them live on sandbanks in the river. Their huts are close together, with the inter mediate space cleared and weeded. The headman of each village is practically independent, and there is no para mount tribal chief. Livingstone mentions the platforms about 6 ft. high which they use not only for purposes of observation but also to sleep on, protecting themselves from the mosquitoes by the fires which they light below. He describes their villages as remarkably clean. Food. — They are despised by the Yao for eating a green serpent which is common in their locality. They refuse to eat the flesh of the leopard because it is a man-eater. They greatly appreciate the sugar extracted from the stalk of the sorghum saccharatmn. They are inordinately fond o{ pombe, the native beer, into which they turn their surplus grain. Occupations. — They cultivate the land extensively, growing fields of mtama, rice, sorghum, maize, and cassava. They also collect i-ubber, gum-copal, and other forest TRIBES NORTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 128 produce, selling them to the Arab traders, intercourse with whom has made them know a certain amount of Swahili, to which their own tongue is allied. They keep beehives in trees, binding the tree with a rag or rope, which is a sufficient deterrent to any possible thief, for superstitious reasons, Maviti The Maviti are a tribe of raiders who have crossed the Rovuma into the north-east portion of the colony. The name means Zulu, but is only correctly applied to this people in the sense that they have copied the Zulu mode of warfare ; they are really Waninde, and are variously known as Wandonde, Wagindo, Wangindo, Mazitu, Mwangoni, They owe their origin as a raiding tribe to a great Zulu raid which swept over their country, and inspired them with a deske to abandon their peaceful agricultural pursuits for buccaneering. They adopted therefore the head-dress and war cry of the Zulu, and inspired similar terror along the Rufiji and Rovuma and farther south where they came in 1878, Their principal abodes are the plateau country east of the confluence of the Rovuma and Lujenda, and the islands of the latter river. They are very dark and of a low type. They have ceased to be the formidable and restless people that they were, and appear to have returned to their original occupation of tilling the land. Travellers have reported on them as being fi:'iendly and docile. Their dress usually consists of a small piece of cloth, held up by a waistband. They do not tattoo themselves or wear the pelele. They live in small villages, far apart. Their houses are not uniform in type, but are built in all kinds of East African styles. 124 INHABITANTS Yao {Wayao, Ajawa) The Yao inhabit the region between Lake Nyasa and the Rovuma and Lujenda Rivers ; they have extended south west to the Shire region (probably owing to the pressure of the Angoni), where they largely dominate the inferior Nyasa people. Their principal divisions have been Machininga on the Lujenda, Mazaniga on the hUls, Mtarika was a chief of the former, Mataka of the latter. They have migrated of recent years (especially in 1912) into German East Africa, and are found in considerable numbers east of the Lujenda among the other populations. They seem to have come inland from the coast. Language. — Their language is very difficult and com plicated. They are conscious of this themselves, and use Swahili and Ki-Nyanja to a great extent in their trade transactions. The Yao tongue is spoken in four dialects. Type and Characteristics. — They are a remarkably fine race, tail, strong, and capable of enduring great fatigue, and are the best athletes and acrobats of Central Africa, They were originally an aggressive people, but have now become much more quietly disposed. They take naturally to trade and have considerable business capacity, some of which they devoted to the slave trade, wherein they acted for a long time as intermediaries between the tribes of the interior and the Arab traders of the coast. Contact with the Arabs has modified much of their ways of life, costume, and religion. They are fond of travel and make good guides, and are valued as servants and carriers. The Yao porter will carry 55 or 60 lb, for 18 or 20 miles a day without undue fatigue. They are, generally speaking, enterprising and intelligent, but incline to be cunning and treacherous. Some who have visited the coast have acquired vices of civilization. They have negroid faces, remarkably round, and for Africans have fair skins. Their foreheads are compact. • TRIBES NORTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 125 but not particularly receding ; their lips are full. The Yao are often Mohammedans, but their religion has little effect on their life and conduct ; it does not modify their methods of eating and drinking, nor the way in which they treat their women. In most respects they cling to paganism. An authority of 1887 states that their chiefs practised cannibalism in secret. Having come under Arab influence, they wear white turbans, and white robes reaching to the knee. They do not tattoo to the extent of some of their neighbours ; they only have a sort of rosette as a tribal mark on the forehead and three or four scars about 2 inches long midway between the eye and ear, or on the forehead above the nasal bone, the angle showing to which tribe the man belongs. The pelele is probably only found among those women who are of Nyasa origin. They also file the teeth to points. A better method of adornment that they employ is beadwork. Dwellings. — They live in somewhat large settlements. Their houses, owing to Arab influence, are oblong, well thatched, with good-sized doors and often with windows ; they are carefully plastered ; sometimes they are enclosed with a fence. In the centre of the villages is a roofed space for meeting. Food. — Milk is disliked or ignored ; eggs are only eaten when they have been sat on for some time and deserted by the hen. Fish are usually split and roasted. The Yao also eat the flesh of monkeys. Occupations. — As warriors they prefer bush fighting and not assailing fortified places ; they are skilful tacti cians and know how to take advantage of cover. The spear was their national weapon, but now they are usually armed with the trade gun. They are the best native soldiers in the north of the territory, combining obedience with some degree of self-reliance, but are apt to be cowardly in open fight. 126 INHABITANTS They have little love for agriculture, but they raise peas and tobacco by irrigation, plant cassava, maize, and sweet potatoes, and cultivate mangoes and palms. Their few cattle are a small breed and their sheep of a large- tailed variety, usually black ; goats are also kept. Nyasa {Wanyasa, Any anj a) The Nyasa live in the Rovuma country, on the shores of Lakes Nyasa and Shirwa, and along the left bank of the Lujenda River to its confluence with the Luambala ; also in British territory to the south, people of Nyasa stock extending down the Shire to the north bank of the Zambezi, In the north they are much mixed with the Yao, who have long terrorized and victimized them. Language. — They belong to the Nyanja group of the Bantu, whose languages are spoken about the basin of the Zambezi, the Shire, and Lake Nyasa. Their speech is dosely akin therefore to the Ki-senga and Ki-maravi. It has been loosely described as intermediate between Swahili and Zulu-Kaffir. In comparison with the speech of the Makwa and Yao it is easy to acquire. The differences of dialect become pronounced, because the Nyasa are not great travellers. Type and Characteristics. — They are very much darker than many other tribes. Their profiles have little prognathous tendency. They are well made, and the faces of the men are often pleasant and intelligent- looking, with well-shaped heads and high foreheads. They have great masses of hair and take pride in the various ways of adorning it. The women are plain. The Nyasa are an industrious people, assiduous in culti vating crops, quiet and timid. The Nyasa are desirous of dressing like Europeans, if they can afford it. They tattoo their foreheads and cicatrize their faces, and the women disfigure themselves TRIBES NORTH OF THE ZAMBEZI 127 with the pelele. A great number of rings, bracelets and anklets are worn. Dwellings, — The largest Nyasa village has over 100 huts, i. e, about 500 people. Most of their settlements are considerably smaller. Both types of house, rect angular and circular, are found among them. Food. — They have the same peculiar dislikes that have been recorded of the Yao ; but in meat-eating they have certain tastes that are not general, e, g. they will eat the leopard and hyena. They have a great fondness for pombe. Occupations. — They are essentially an industrial people. They cultivate crops, fertilizing the ground with ashes and burnt soil. Their chief crops are sorghum, millet, beans, ground nuts, yams, rice, pumpkins, cassava, sweet potatoes, tobacco, hemp, bhang (which they sell to the Banyans), maize (which is grown all the year round), and three varieties of cotton. They manufacture cotton into coarse fabrics. For a long period they have practised the arts of the potter and smith. On the lakes they have the further industries of fishing, net-making, and canoe- making. In house construction the men do the building, and the w^omen the plastering, Magwangwara The Magwangwara live along the east side of Lake Nyasa ; they have recently moved farther north. Their history is much the same as that of the Maviti (above) ; being a non-Zulu tribe, they have become enamoured of Zulu ways as a result of the Angoni invasion of Nyasa land, absorbing some of their invaders, and have copied their models by raids on their more peaceable members. There are Zulu words in their vocabulary, but for talking with them the Yao speech is most serviceable. They are light coloured, with a reddish skin. The women have a regularity of feature and comeliness rare 128 INHABITANTS in Africa, They are a race of robbers and fighters, and go to fight at a very early age. Their manner is truculent and bullying, A combination of Magwangwara and Maviti would have been very formidable, but, fortunately for the other natives and the white settlers, these two tribes have been hereditary enemies. Relations between Portuguese and Natives ' Whilst in our own colonies we have educated the native . . , the Portuguese, throughout the centuries of their occupation of East Africa, have never viewed him in any but a proper and practical light ; for them he is first and last the mdo d'obra (labouring hand), and any proposition tending to lessen his value in that capacity would never, and will never, be entertained by them , . . I have always observed, over a considerable number of years, that in whatever direction the Portuguese may have achieved but qualified success, they have always known how to deal with the negro ; and want of respect on the part of the latter is scarcely ever seen, I do not mean that this respect is extorted by cruelty , , ,' Such is the view of an authoritative British writer (R, C. F, Maugham, Portuguese Bast Africa) : it is obviously debatable. Other writers (not excluding Portuguese) attack the system, and it is pointed out that generations of slavery have left their mark on the relations between Portuguese and native, and that the leading virtues of the latter have often been extinguished ; also that the Portuguese seldom know much of the natives, neither studying their ethnology scientifically nor regarding their customs sympathetically, and rarely taking pains to learn their language. Moreover, it is asserted that an appeal to the Portuguese authority is a difficult matter ; it has been Portuguese policy in the past to play off one chief against another, and there have been RELATIONS WITH NATIVES 129 cases where different Portuguese governors have been supporters of rival chiefs. On the other hand, even though the attitude of the Portuguese be still as stated above towards the native in the mass, the value of education and more sympathetic treatment has been recognized in recent years (compare p. 132), Dr, Alvaro de Castro, the Governor-General in 1917, is quoted as urging a larger point of view in education, on the ground that upon it depends all those other efforts that may be employed in the civilization of the native. It is con sidered that the extension of railways forms an additional and effective guarantee of the loyalty of the native. In the troubles before 1895 it was noted that the chief of Matolla, whose territory was crossed by a railway, was the only one who remained loyal to the Portuguese. Relations oe Natives with Arabs and Indians In former times the trade relations of the native with the Arab were as an article of merchandise rather than as a vendor or purchaser. But the native takes readily to trade, and has done a good deal in bringing ivory, gum-copal, rubber, and other produce of the interior to the coast. Some natives, like the Yao, have come much under Arab influence. The Banyan has had a greater hold over the trade with the natives than the Portuguese has ever had. There has been a great amount of inter breeding with Asiatics, and the lighter complexion of many of the tribes has been ascribed to the Asiatic blood in their veins. Inherited African physique and Indian sagacity makes a type well adapted to life in these parts. Missions and Education A large part of the territory has been covered by missionary activity. There are Roman Catholic, Anglican, Methodist, and other non-conforming bodies at work. 130 INHABITANTS The principal foreign missions are the Swiss Romande Mission (Anabaptist) in Lourenzo Marques District (Rikatla and elsewhere) ; the American Methodist and other missions in Lourenzo Marques, but principally in Inhambane, and in Mossurise ; the English Mission in the same districts ; the Scottish Mission in Quelimane District, and the Universities' Mission to Central Africa (Anglican) in the territory bordering Lake Nyasa, There are, or were, Portuguese missions (Roman Catholic) in most districts as far north as that of Mozambique. They were subsidized by the State, but the Portuguese law of separation between Church and State has recently affected them seriously. Provisions were made in 1913 for the gradual extinction of religious missions, and the secularization of the priests' seminary at Sernache is said to have ' given the death-blow ' to Portuguese missionary work in the province. It appears that the missions have not been able to conform with the provisions of the law under which alone they could receive any State support since the beginning of 1915, and that although priests in office have been in some measure compensated, their work lapses when they leave it unless further legislation or other steps are taken to maintain it. Meanwhile, in some instances, the Portuguese missions — notably in the Zambezi territory, as at the important mission of S, Jose de Boroma — were worked by German and Austrian priests. On the other hand, secular missions {missaoes civili- zadoras) have been encouraged: in 1915 it was decreed that two should be established in the province, and one was actually sent. Some Portuguese writers deplore this situation, though not necessarily on religious grounds. The political aspect weighs strongly. The Portuguese have fallen out with foreign missions at various times. Their writers appear to entertain special animosity against the Swiss Romande MISSIONS AND EDUCATION 131 Mission, whose representatives they accuse of inculcating in the native mind a greater respect for the ' foreigner ' than for the Portuguese, and even of having, on certain occasions, fomented rebellion, though this charge is denied. Again, the relations *of the Portuguese au thorities with the Universities' Mission in the Nyasa country have not always been happy. The exceptional position of the headquarters of the mission in this locality, on Likoma Island in Lake Nyasa, close off the Portuguese shore, has resulted in some tendency on the part of the natives to regard the island as a place of refuge for those who have a grievance against the Portuguese administra tion. In 1911, when the African Lakes Corporation had opened a store on the island, the Portuguese authorities feared that smuggling would take place from it into their territory, and the corporal in charge of the post at Kobwe seized one of the mission boats and imprisoned its crew. In the course of a dispute which followed, the corporal killed one of the missionaries, the Rev. A. J. Douglas. Another source of dissension has been the nominal obligation upon foreign missions to teach the Portuguese language in their schools. But setting such incidents apart, the Portuguese authorities tolerate the foreign missions, and some of their writers admit the superiority, generally speaking, of the mission workers, in training and in ability to deal with the native, over their own officials. They desire to see the missionary devoting his chief efforts to teach ing the native to work and training him in agriculture and handicrafts, and are prepared to welcome missionary collaboration so long as it is confined to such a sphere : though one body of opinion supports the maintenance of Roman Catholic teaching (if mainly on political grounds), another asserts that it matters little under what creed the native is instructed, as he cannot (in the mass) be brought to so full a conception of the Christian I 2 132 INHABITANTS faith as to distinguish between the claims of the churches. In addition to mission schools and a few so-called parochial schools, the provincial government or local authorities maintain a considerable number of schools. The majority of these are probably of post-republican creation, but the general situation down to 1915 was bad. Education, however, is stated (1917) to be ' stUl in the process of organization, though it has latterly made great strides '. It is controlled by a Council of Education consisting of nominated members, under the presidency of the Governor-General. Educational activity is greatest in the south (Lourenzo Marques, &c.). The most important school in the province is the 5th of October Secondary and Technical School at Lourenzo Marques, and other schools in the capital are maintained by the 1st of January Society and by the Institute of Joao de Deus, There are special schools for native nurses and midwives, and a school in connexion with the survey department. In certain other municipalities schools have been established by the municipal authorities. There are also a number of local primary or elenientary schools {escolas de edili- dade)— some thirty in Lourenzo Marques District — frequently under native teachers. At the end of 1915 the scholars in the various schools in the province amounted to 8,338. The number of white children educated in the province is said to have largely increased in recent years. Some attempt has been made to deal with the children of the considerable poor white popula tion of Lourenzo Marques, The Mozambique, Zambezia, and Nyassa Companies have established a few schools, the first and third being bound to do so by the terms of their charters, and in the Zambezi districts there are schools connected with some of the prazos. HEALTH CONDITIONS 133 Health Conditions The whole coastal belt bears a reputation for unhealthi ness, but this dates from a period when precautions against tropical diseases were less fully understood by Europeans than they are now, and bad conditions have been to a considerable degree countered of recent years. While there is a marked contrast between conditions at the coast and on the middle plateau and highlands, the moist heat ofthe summer months is trying and weakening, and predisposes the European to disease, over a large proportion of the territory. The end of the hot season is the most dangerous period. The two serious sources of danger to the health of Europeans are malaria and dysentery, but the second is not common. Malaria has been diminished by preventive measures, such as the drainage of marshes and the pro vision of two-storied houses in which the upper story has a verandah protected against mosquitoes. Black- water fever is rare, A few fatal cases of pneumonia and other chest complaints occur. Epidemics of smaU-pox, cholera, &c,, have attacked the natives, who also suffer fairly commonly from skin diseases, rheumatism, and other diseases which rarely attack Europeans in the province. Venereal diseases attack many persons among the immigrant population in larger centres and among returned native labourers, but it is said that some success has attended regulations recently made in this connexion, A form of sleeping sickness carried by the tsetse fly, glossina morsitans, and more severe than the better- known variety communicated by glossina palpalis, has appeared from German East Africa across the border in the north-west of Portuguese territory. It is not known to have infected a white man. Sleeping sickness seems also to have occurred sporadically in the hinterland of 134 INHABITANTS Quelimane District and in Tete, but none of these terri tories is gravely affected. Conditions at Lourenzo Marques have been much improved of recent years by the filling of marshy ground, the provision of a proper water-supply and sanitation, the laying of good roads, &c,, and fatal cases of malaria are not numerous in proportion to the population. There are many cases of tuberculosis, though the number tends to decrease, among both whites and, more especially, natives. The death-rate per thousand of the population of the town is about 21 : among Europeans alone it is generally less. From 1908 to 1916 the number of deaths among Europeans fell from 197 to 102, almost steadily, but the lowest number was 82 in 1914, The deaths in 1916 included 11 from tuberculosis, 9 from pneumonia, 8 from enteric, 6 from dysentery, 4 from malaria, and 26 from other fevers. White children appear to flourish at Lourenzo Marques now, though this was not the case formerly, Inhambane has the reputation of being the healthiest station on the coast, Beira, notwithstanding its low- lying situation near marshes, is said to be practically free of malaria. While in the delta of the Zambezi and its valley generally fever is common, Chinde and Quelimane towns are conspicuously free of it, Mozambique town, on the other hand, in spite of its insular situation, is very unhealthy. From the frequency with which officials are reported absent on sick leave, and the fact that the Universities' Mission grants a holiday in England to all workers on the completion of two years' residence in Africa, conditions in the north of the terri tory appear to be, on the whole, trying for Europeans, Returns for the year 1915 from hospitals at Ibo and Port Amelia showed the commonest complaints among the small white population to be malaria and syphilis : dysentery was absent. CHAPTER V GOVERNMENT AND TRADING COMPANIES • Introduction — Territories directly administered — The Eevolution and Law of 1914 — The Governor-General and Councils — Administra tive departments and of&cials — District government — Municipal and other forms of local government — Prazos administration — Military organization — Justice — Finance — Currency — Foreign Consulates — Mozambique Company — Zambezia Company — Nyassa Company — Labour and Emigration (Labour in Transvaal — Eegulation of emigra tion to Transvaal — Mutual interests of Transvaal and the Province — Numbers of emigrant labourers — Closing of recruiting areas — Death- rate in Transvaal mines — Moral effects consequent upon emigration — Eecruiting in Companies' territories — Eecruiting for Ehodesia — Ad ministration of emigration — Witwatersrand Native Labour Associa tion — ^Labour within the province). Introduction Of the main divisions of Portuguese East Africa, as detailed on p, 17, only the districts of Lourenzo Marques (with Gaza), Inhambane, Quelimane, Tete, and Mozam bique are directly administered by the State, The tenitories of the Mozambique and Nyassa Companies, though under the supervision of the Governor-General, have administrations of their own, controlled by the chartered companies to whom the territories have been leased. Economic and administrative activities are so closely correlated in the province that it is convenient to review them together in this chapter, and to include notices of the Zambezia Company (which has no charter) and of the problems connected with native labour and its regulation. 136 GOVERNMENT Territories directly administered Until quite recently the Portuguese constitution treated the colonies as provinces {provincias ultramarinas) of one centralized state. The negroes of Mozambique, like the Chinese of Macao or the Indians of Goa, were styled Portuguese, citizens and in theory enjoyed the same political rights as the inhabitants of the mother-country. In practice, however, they were subjected to the despotic government of the capital with no voice in the manage ment of local affairs. In fact, the whole trend of colonial legislation was not so much to develop colonial resources as to create markets for Portuguese agriculture and industry, and artificiaUy to maintain these markets by high protective tariffs calculated to eliminate foreign competition. Each colony had the duty of preparing an annual budget, but that budget, when submitted to the home government for ratification, could be revised and altered in the most arbitrary fashion. Colonial items could be suppressed and replaced by handsome subsidies to various institutions at home. The colony had no voice in fixing either the number or the salaries of officials sent out from the mother-country, with the result that sine cure posts were created and the services were generally overstaffed, while candidates often owed their appointment not to any special qualification but to favouritism or political influence. Politics played an important part, and the fall of a minister at Lisbon often entailed the recall of colonial governors. Constant changes of this kind necessarily had an unsettling influence on the colony, and prevented the prosecution of a definite and progressive policy. In spite of these defects, the system, in the hands of a strong and able man like Freire d' Andrade (Governor of Portuguese East Africa 1907-10), gave promising results. GOVERNMENT 137 The Revolution and Law of 1914 The political ferment which accompanied the Revolu tion, a rapid succession of governors, some of them unqualified by administrative capacity to give effect to their ideals, plunged the colony into a state of confusion from which it is only now slowly recovering. On the other hand, the whole theory of colonial government was freely discussed, and an honest resolve was made to decentralize the administration and grant the colonies a measure of local and financial autonomy. The result was the law of August 15, 1914, The principles laid down in this law will be embodied and finally adapted to the needs of each colony by special charters (art, 2), So far, how ever, Portuguese East Africa has not yet received its carta organica. Under the new law the supervision formerly exercised by the home government is considerably relaxed, but the colony is still in a sense a province of Portugal, and as such is represented in the home parliament : according to a law of June 1, 1915, the colony elects two deputies on the Camara dos Deputados in Lisbon and one senator in the Upper Chamber, The franchise is extended to aU Portuguese subjects of European descent, to civilized natives, and to foreigners having resided for at least five years in the country. For municipal elections foreigners are entitled to vote after two years' residence. The conditions on which they may be elected on local bodies have not yet been determined, but only Portuguese born or naturalized subjects of at least five years' standing may sit on the Government Council, The Governor-General and Councils The Central Colonial Government has its seat in Lourenzo Marques and is vested in a Governor-General, assisted by a Government Council, The Governor-General 138 GOVERNMENT {Governador Geral) is appointed by and directly respon sible to the home government. He holds the rank of a minister of state and is ex officio commander-in-chief of the colonial troops by laud and sea. He appoints officials (except judges and certain heads of departments directly nominated by the home government), and with the assistance of the Council discusses the annual budget and generally directs the administration of the colony. The Governor, however, has no right to interfere in questions affecting foreign politics, customs dues, land concessions, or mining rights. He may not override the sentence of a judge unless natives are concerned, FinaUy, he cannot sanction any expenditure not provided for in the budget, nor alter the destination of any sums without the consent ofthe home government. His power is further limited by the action of the Minister of the Colonies, who, on his own authority, may veto any measure taken by the Governor, and even relieve him of his office. On the other hand, the Director of Finances {Director de Fazenda) not only prepares the budget, but controls the finances of the whole colony, his vise being required in the case of all disbursements. Although deprived of some of the powers formerly possessed by the Inspector de Fazenda, this official retains a practically independent position. He is entitled to communicate directly with the home government, and has it in his power seriously to hamper the freedom of action of the Governor, The Government Council {Conselho de Governo), accord ing to art, 3, base 23, is an elective body consisting of officials and private citizens residing in the colony. The proportion of the latter must not exceed two-thirds of the total. In 1917 the CouncU consisted of 17 members of whom only 7 were elected, the others being officials. The Governor-General is ex officio president and con vener of the Council, He has a casting vote and can suspend the execution of any measure which in his GOVERNMENT 139 opinion is detrimental to the country. In such a case he must communicate at once with the home government. The Council meets once or twice in each year ; in the interim it may delegate its powers to a Permanent Com mittee {Comissdo Permanente). The Governor-General is further assisted by a small executive composed of a Chief of Cabinet and two aides-de-camp, who deal with some of the routine matter. In addition there is a Provincial Council {Conselho de Provincia) whose powers, formerly ill-defined, are now those of an administrative and account tribunal. It is composed of the judges of the Provincial Court of Appeal {Relagdo de Mogambique), two members elected by the joint associations of business men, manufacturers and landowners, and one member appointed by the Govern ment Council. It is presided over by the Chief Judge or President of the Provincial Court of Appeal. Administrative Departments and Officials The administration proper is entrusted to officials and divided into a number of departments {Repartigoes), each directed by a responsible head {Chefe de Repartigdo). The departments are as follows : Secretary-General's Department, MUitary Department, including permanent staff, mUi tary court, &c. Maritime Department, with Port Captains' Offices at Lourenzo Marques, Chinde, Quelimane, Mozambique, and District Offices at Inhambane, Inhampura, and Antonio Enes (Angoche), With this department is also connected a Fisheries Commission, Department of Justice (see below, p, 147). Treasury Department {Fazenda), at the head of which is an Inspector (to be replaced under the new law by a Director). The department is responsible for the keeping 140 GOVERNMENT of all accounts. It has offices in Lourenzo Marques, Chai-Chai, Inhambane, Quelimane, Chinde, Tete, and Mozambique, Public Works Department, with offices in Lourenzo Marques, Inhambane, Quelimane, Tete, and Mozambique, Port and Railway Department, Customs Department, with offices at Lourenzo Marques, Chinde, Quelimane, Mozambique, and Inhambane. Post and Telegraph Department (see p, 437), Agricultural Department, with experimental station at Umbeluzi, agronomical and zootechnical offices at Inham bane and Gaza, nurseries at Namahacha, a veterinary section, and a Council of Agriculture, Survey Department, with head office at Lourenzo Mar ques, sub-offices at Quelimane and Tete, Public Health Department.' Chief hospital with labora tories in Lourenzo Marques ; hospitals also in Chibuto, Chai-Chai, Inhambane, Quelimane, Chinde, Tete, Mozam bique, Angoche, and Memba. Native Affairs Department and Emigration (see p. 181). Council of Education (p. 132). In addition there are a number of Improvement Com missions {Cohiissoes de Melhoramentos) , supervising the construction of important public works, especially har bours and railways. Such commissions exist at Lourenzo Marques (Conselho de Administragao do Porto e Caminho de Ferro), Quelimane (Quelimane-Shire Railway), Mozam bique (Mozambique-Nyasaland Railway), and for the Gaza Railway, These commissions consist of officials and co-opted members, the deliberations being subject to the approval of the Governor-General, District Government The territory directly administered by the State is divided, as already stated, into five districts, Lourenzo Marques, Inhambane, Quelimane, Tete, and Mozambique, GOVERNMENT 141 At the head of each district there is a District Governor {Governador de Distrito), appointed by the home govern ment upon the recommendiation of the Governor-General, except at Lourenzo Marques, where the Governor-General acts at the same time as District Governor, According to the law of 1914 the District Governor holds the rank of a general or a rear-admiral. His powers, subject to the approval of the Governor-General, include the supreme civU, mUitary, and naval command within the district, the drafting of the budget of the district, the appointment of minor officials, and the disciplinary control of all district officials (except judges). In the discharge of his office he is assisted by a District Council {Conselho de Distrito), consisting of officials and elected members. The administrative work of the district is allotted to various departments (i2epari«f6e&-), each directed by a Chefe de servigo distrital. Municipal and other forms of Local Government According to the law of 1914 colonial districts are sub divided into the foUowing groups : (1) Concelhos, including areas with important white settlements and native popula tions who have reached a high standard of civilization ; (2) Circunscrigoes Civis, areas inhabited mainly by natives who, although completely pacified, are still uncivilized ; (3) Capitanias-mores or Comandos Militares, areas in habited by natives not fully pacified. A larger measure of self-administration is granted to concelhos, but, as in the case of the circunscrigoes civis, the government is entrusted to civil Administradores or Chefes appointed by the District Governor. The capi tanias-mores, on the other hand, are under a military regime, which, however, is replaced by a civil administra tion as soon as internal conditions permit. It is the duty of the Administrador, Chefe, or Capitao-mor to familiarize 142 GOVERNMENT himself with the laws and customs of the natives, direct their politics, intervene as arbiter or peacemaker in cases of disputes, and assist in applying the regulations affecting recruiting and emigration of natives. His chief duty, however, is to collect taxes imposed on natives, particu larly the hut-tax. The law further provides for the subdivision of the concelho into wards (bairros or aldeias) or parishes {freguesias or localidades), each with a small civil ad ministration of its own ; of the circunscrijao civil into delegagoes, divisoes or postos civis ; and finally of the capitania-mor or comando militar into postos militares, including one or more ethnical or political native groups, whose chiefs, whenever possible, are to receive some administrative powers. At the present time (1917) the«district of Lourenzo Marques consists of the concelho of Lourenzo Marques and 11 circunscrigoes: Marracuene, Manhiga, Sabie, Magude, Maputo, Bilene, Chonguene, Manjacaze, Chibuto, Guija, and Namahacha, The district of Inhambane includes 10 circunscrigoes : Vilanculos, Massinga, Mocodoene, Murrumbene, Homoine, Maxixe, Panda, Cumbana, Inharrime, and Zavala, The district of Tete includes 6 circunscrigoes : Barue, Maravia, Makanga, Mutarara, Zumbo^ and Chicoa, The district of Quelimane is almost wholly under the prazos administration (see below, p, 144), It has one circunscrigSo, however, in Maganja da Costa, Localities of sufficient importance, such as capitals of districts or centres of concelhos, may be administered by municipal councils {Camaras Municipais), elected bodies, or municipal commissions {Comissoes Municipais), com posed of the chief official and two elected members. All Portuguese residents who can read and write Portuguese are electors and eligible. Under the law of 1914 the franchise may be extended to foreigners who have resided GOVERNMENT 143 five years in the country, but their number on any council shall never exceed the proportion of one out of a body of three, or two out of a body of five. Smaller localities of at least 20 electors may appoint local com mittees {Juntas Locals) of three members, including the schoolmaster (if there is one). These committees have taken the place of the parish committees {Juntas de Paroquia), formerly presided over by the parish priests. In most towns, however, the power is still wholly centred in the hands of the chief official, known as Administrador de Edilidade. But the law of 1914 insists on the early suppression of administrations on which the resident population are not represented. It is the duty of these local bodies to maintain roads, bridges, and waterways, open weUs or build reservoirs, regulate the social and economic conditions of the locality, establish markets and fairs, create and maintain infirma ries, and prepare- the local budget. Their income is derived from their own capital or property, taxes on imports (levied on their behalf by the Customs), various small imposts, and trade licences. In 1910 the practice was also started of remitting local bodies 12 per cent, of the yield of the hut-tax. The introduction of the system of municipal administra tion has not proved an unqualified success, its comparative faUure being due, on the one hand, to the opposition of officials who endeavour to retain all the power in their own hands, on the other to the apathy of Portuguese colonists, who with rare exceptions have taken little interest in local politics. Even in Lourenzo Marques the municipal council was for many years quite powerless, and in 1897 was replaced by a Commission of five members chosen by the Governor-General, The present municipal council of five members is elective. In 1916 the following municipal administrations were in existence : 144 GOVERNMENT District of Lourenzo Marques : Camara Municipal at Lourenzo Marques ; ComissSo Municipal at Chai-Chai ; Edilidades at all the centres of circunscrigoes (see list above). District of Inhambane : ComissSo Municipal at Inham bane ; Edilidades at all the centres of circunscricoes. District of Tete : ComissSo Municipal at Tete. District of Quelimane : Comissoes Municipais at Queli mane and Chinde, District of Mozambique : ComissSo Municipal at Mozam bique ; Edilidades at MosurU, Memba, and Angoche. Prazos Administration A considerable part of the province, especiaUy in Zambezia, is still administered under the so-called Prazos system, a survival of early Portuguese colonial methods. The first prazos de coroa were established in the early part of the seventeenth century, when Zambezia was leased to holders invested with unlimited powers, who became regular feudal lords and often defied Portuguese authority. Quite early the practice was started of bestowing these prazos for three generations upon young women, sent out from Portugal, the succession of the property going in the female line instead of through their sons. These women and their successors were under the obligation of marrying pure Portuguese ; nevertheless many prazos fell into the power of half-castes. The prazos were a useful means of penetration into the interior of the country and very effective in helping to establish some form of Portuguese suzerainty, at little or no expense to the Government, Most of the holders lived on the product of poll-tax {mussoco) and the profits derived from the slave traffic ; but after the abolition of slavery some attention was paid to the development of agri culture. The system, however, was strongly criticized. GOVERNMENT 145 and by decree of August 13, 1832, it was abolished, but the prohibition was not applied to Mozambique until 1854, Even then it remained a dead letter. Only during the period 1880-90 did the State attempt to administer prazos directly. The attempt, moreover, proved so unsuccessful that in 1890 the prazos system, with certain important modifications, was restored. The prazo became now little but a land concession (usually for a period of twenty- five years) granted to the highest bidder. The upset-price was put so high that it became impossible for the holder or lessee to live merely on the difference between the taxes he collected and the rent he paid to the State, (In 1916 the share of the holder was fixed at 30 per cent, of the amount of tax collected.) The holder is now compelled to put under cultivation a fixed proportion of the land he leases. He acts as magistrate and tax-gatherer to the natives, but at the same time it is his duty to look after their welfare, provide them with seeds and agricultural implements, educate the children, and minister to the sick. He is entitled to maintain a number of cipaes or native soldiers for police purposes. It is the duty of district governors and special inspectors, created for the purpose, to see that prazo-holders fulfil their obligations. The system in its present form allows scope to individual enterprise and energy, and under it agriculture is making consider able progress in lower Zambezia, The size of prazos varies considerably ; some are but a few hundred square mUes, others half as large again as the county of York, Many are situated in Zambezia, in the districts of Quelimane and Tete, and the majority of these have been handed over to the Zambezia Company, which in its turn has sublet several to indi vidual leaseholders or to smaller companies. Others are included in the territory controUed by the Mozambique Company, the Company being by its charter expressly P.E.A. K. 146 GOVERNMENT bound to uphold the prazos administration. In 1897 it was proposed to divide the district of Gaza (now part of the district of Lourenzo Marques) into ten prazos, but the scheme appai-ently never materialized. Military Organization In military matters the Province of Mozambique and that of. Angola constitute together one of the three groups into which the Portuguese colonial army is divided. The peace establishment consisted of European and native troops, and included for Mozambique the foUowing units : War Material Depot {Deposito de Material de Guerra). One Mixed Battery, The Republican Guard of Lourenzo Marques, Twelve companies of Native Infantry {Companhias Indigenas). One Disciplinary Company {Companhia Disciplinar). Five Depot and Recruiting Companies {Companhias de Depdsito e Recrutamento). A convict d^p6t {Deposito Geral de Sentenciados). A military prison {Casa da Reclusdo). In 1916 the staff, officers, and men in the pay of the colony numbered 5,095, The Governor-General of the Province, assisted by a permanent staff, is by virtue of his office Commander-in- Chief of the colonial forces. Disciplinary questions may be settled by him or referred to the permanent Military Tribunal, According to Portuguese critics the colonial army was not provided with adequate quarters and armaments, and the European officers and N,C,0.'s were paid less than those serving in the home forces. The natives, especially the Landin, have the reputation of being good fighters, but they are naturally averse from military service. In GOVERNMENT 147 addition to the units referred to above, native soldiers are employed in considerable numbers by the chartered companies and the holders of prazos. The duty of maintaining order, preventing smuggling, &c,, is entrusted to a Corpo de Policia e Fiscalizagao. In 1910 it was proposed to raise its strength to 14 officers, 354 European N,C.O.'s and privates, 266 natives, and 110 horses. On the coast and on the Zambezi River the Customs officials are assisted by a Policia Maritima provided with patrol boats. Justice Portuguese East Africa constitutes one of the three Distritos Judiciais into which the Portuguese colonies have been divided. The administration of justice within the territories of the chartered companies, as well as in the rest of the province, is directly controlled by the home government, the interference of governors with the action of judges being iUegal, In theory the law makes no difference between the European and the native ; both are tried in. the same courts and judged according to the same standard. In practice, however, officials have ofiten discharged the duties of judges in cases in which natives only were concerned. The law of 1914 has legalized this practice. Native customs are to be codified, native chiefs to be given some voice in the administration of justice, and no European judges are to be appointed who do not possess the knowledge of at least one native language. These changes, however, do not appear to have taken place yet. In 1916 the following courts were in existence: The Provincial Court of Appeal {Tribunal de Relagdo), established in the town of Mozambique, It was com posed of five judges (one of them acting as President), K 2 148 GOVERNMENT and an Attorney-General, In 1914 the Court dealt with 198 lawsuits. The Civil and Commercial Court {Juizo Civil e Comercial) at Lourenzo Marques, which consisted of one judge, one state prosecutor {Delegado), a registrar of deeds {Conservador), clerks and secretaries, and a jury of fifteen members, ' The Criminal Court {Juizo Criminal) at Lourenzo Marques, which included one judge, one state prosecutor, and one warrant officer {Auditor Juiz do Tribunal Militar). Local Courts {Comarcas), divided into two classes : Comarcas de primeira classe existed at Lourenzo Marques, Beira, and Quelimane ; Comarcas de segunda classe at Cabo Delgado, Inhambane, and Mozambique, A jury of fifteen members was elected in connexion with each of these courts. Petty Courts {Julgados) have been created in various parts of the colony, especially in the territories of the chartered companies. In 1915 a Julgado was established at Chai-Chai. Finance Before the advent of the Republic the finances of all the Portuguese colonies were administered from Lisbon, by means of finance inspectors {Inspectores de Fazenda) who controlled every item of income and expenditure, and had the power to veto any measure of the Governor affecting finances, and to report direct to the home government. Although the accounts of the various colonies were to some extent kept apart, yet their balances were pooled, the surplus of one colony being utUized to make good the deficit of another. The budget of each colony was revised by the home government. The colony was obliged to defray the expenses of its administration, to contribute its quota to the upkeep of the naval and GOVERNMENT 149 colonial ministry, and in addition to subsidize navigation companies, educational institutions, and hospitals estab lished in the mother country. The object of this policy appears to have been to create the impression that the colonies were a burden to the State and the cause of the unsatisfactory financial conditions prevailing in Portugal, At the persistent demand of the colonies some remedy was granted in 1907 and 1910, but it was not until 1914 that the whole scheme was revised. By the provisions of the new law each colony shall manage its own finances, under the general supervision of the home government, the Inspector de Fazenda being replaced by a Director whose powers will be those of a chief accountant, without ability to interfere in the policy of the Governor-General, The law further determines that in future the colony shall only be responsible for the expenses of administra tion incurred by officials residing in the colony. The colony may dispose of any surplus money available, and wUl not be expected to contribute to any institution established outside its frontiers, except with its consent. If, however, the safety of the colony requires the inter vention of the Portuguese army or navy, the colony will be expected to bear its share of the expenses, the maxi mum being fixed at 23 per cent, of its total income. The colony is authorized to levy loans for productive enterprises, or with a view to develop natural resources. The sanction of the home government is required in the case of important loans or loans spread over a period of more than five years. By the law of 1914 the colony is entitled to keep for its own requirements (1) all moneys derived from impositions and taxes, raised on its behalf within the territory or outside, (2) profits on local railways, post offices, telegraphs, and telephones. The chief imposts consist of : (1) Customs dues (see below, p, 308) 150 GOVERNMENT (2) Taxes on emigration (see below, p, 174), (3) Hut-tax {imposto de pilhota, sometimes caUed mussoco, although the latter term properly denotes a poll-tax levied in the prazos). This tax was first estab lished by a decree of 1851, and imposed at a uniform rate on each hut in substitution of the arbitrary forced labour to which natives were previously subjected. The amount, payable in money or in kind, was graduaUy raised and stood in 1910 at £1 in the territory to the south of the Sabi, and at 10s. elsewhere. It constitutes at present the chief source of revenue of the province, aU the more profitable as, in the southern districts especiaUy, it is often paid in English gold. In concelhos and circun scrigoes the tax is coUected by the administiador or chefe, engaged at fixed salaries, but in districts under mUitary administration the capitao-mor usually receives a commission on the amount he collects. Under the prazos system the holder or lessee of the prazo coUects and retains the poll-tax or mussoco in return for a fixed rent. Further discussion of these taxes wUl be found on p, 145, Under certain conditions they may be com pounded for by labour, (4) Commercial and industrial tax {contrihiigdo com mercial e industrial), imposed chiefly in the form of trade licences. Except on establishments selling intoxicants, the tax has been considerably reduced, especiaUy in the disti'icts to the south of the Sabi, In many cases it amounts to a mere stamp' duty, and is levied with a view- to check smuggling rather than to raise revenue. For the same reason the tax is generally higher on shops set up in the bush than on those situated in towns or villages, A tax has also been imposed on Asiatic traders by compelling them to provide themselves with a pass port Avhich must be renewed annually. In 1908 it ^^"as proposed to fix the fee at £3, (5) Stamp duty payable on cheques, promissory notes, GOVERNMENT 151 contracts, powers of attorney, receipts, bills of ex change, &c. The revenue of the Province, as estimated for the year ending June 30, 1917, is 7,507,979$ 00, The normal rate of exchange (see p, 152, below) is 4$ 50 to the £ sterling, the actual rate about 7$ 50 (December, 1916), The revenue is the highest recorded in the currency of the country, but it includes the greater part of a loan of 500,000$ 00 for public improvements. The following are the leading items of revenue : Source of Revenue Native hut-tax , Railways .... Customs Emigration of natives Loan raised for developments and improvements Miscellaneous , Commercial tax District and municipal contributions for new Service of Health Rents from the Prazos Reserve funds from Harbours and Railways Post and Telegraphs . Revenue Stamps Property Tax , Industrial Tax . Income from the Wharf (Lourenzo Marques) . ... Amount in Hscudos 1,170,000$ 00 1,158,000$ 00 1,126,000$ 00 700,000$ 00 470,000$ 00 400,000$ 00 270,000$ 00 189,033.$ 00 170,000$ 00 130,000$ 00 125,000$ 00 120,000$ 00 100,000$ 00 100,000$ 00 100,000600 The expenditure is just covered by revenue. The chief items are under the heading of administration. This is not surprising considering that there were over 10,000 people in Government pay. 152 GOVERNMENT Currency By a law of 1896 only Portuguese coins and notes of the Portuguese Banco Nacional Ultramarine are legal tender in the districts directly administered by the State, but British gold and silver are used extensively on the coast, especially among the fioating population of Lourenzo Marques, and British silver circulates in the Lake Nyasa districts. For commercial purposes the law has always been more or less in abeyance, owing especially to the scarcity of Portuguese silver (the supply of which is con stantly reduced by officials, soldiers, or emigrants re turning to Portugal with their earnings in cash), but Government offices accept payment in Portuguese cur rency only ; English silver is therefore exchanged at the banks in considerable quantity, and thence sent back or smuggled into Transvaal (smuggling being a profitable' operation as the Government charges an export tax on silver of 2 per cent., and an industrial tax ofl per cent,). An exception is made, however, for natives returning from Transvaal, who are allowed the privilege of paying their taxes in English gold. In 1908 the Governor- General (Freire d' Andrade) tentatively suggested that the law of 1896 should be rescinded, and that the free circulation of English money should be authorized. Such a measure would have greatly reduced the evil arising out of a constantly varying rate of exchange and the marked depreciation on the Portuguese bank-notes. But for political reasons the change did not commend itself, and in 1916 even the toleration previously extended to English money was withdrawn, the circulation of all foreign coins (both gold and sUver) being prohibited. The present unit of the monetary system is the gold escudo, worth normally about 4s, 5\d., but, as indicated above, the rate varies. 100 centavos = 1 escudo. The gold escudo is equivalent to the -milreis (1,000 reis) GOVERNMENT 153 of the old coinage which was abolished in 1911, 1,000 escudo are called a conto. Gold coins are 2, 5, and 10 escudos pieces ; silver coins are 1 escudo and 50, 20, and 10 centavos pieces (the 10 centavos piece corresponding to the former tostdo) ; there are bronze and nickel coins of 4, 2, 1, and |-centavo (the 2 centavos piece, also known as vintem, corresponds approximately to the English penny). The gold" coins and the sUver escudos are -900 fine ; the other silver coins are -835 fine. The exchange between gold and escudos follows the bank rates of Mozambique, but is usually about | per cent, dearer for notes. For exchange into silver and copper about 2 per cent, extra is usually charged, and about 1 per cent, is charged for cashing foreign drafts. The Banco Nacional Ultramarino has hitherto enjoyed the monopoly of issuing notes in the colony (including the territories of the chartered companies), but the original contract lapsed in 1911, and although it was temporarUy renewed the fate of the bank does not appear to have been finaUy settled. The Banco Nacional Ultramarino has a branch {filial) at Lourenzo Marques and agencies {agendas) in the more important coast towns. Foreign Consulates In 1917 the following foreign Powers were represented in the colony — at Lourenzo Marques except where other wise stated : Great Britain by a Consul-General and a Vice-Consul at Lourenzo Marques ; Acting Vice-Consuls at Beira, Mozambique, Quelimane, and Port Amelia ; a Consular Agent at Tete. France by a Vice-Consul. United States by a Consul and a Vice-Consul-Com mercial. 154 GOVERNMENT Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Italy, Spain, and China each by a Consul-Commercial. Belgium by a Vice-Consul. Russia by the Vice-Consul of France. Holland by a representative under the jurisdiction of the Dutch Consul-General at Pretoria. Before the war there were a German Consul and a Consul Commercial for Austria-Hungary at Lourenzo Marques. Mozambique Company The Mozambique Company {Companhia de Mogam^ bique), the more important of the two chartered com panies administering in Portuguese East Africa, was incorporated by a charter of March 8, 1888, for the purpose of acquiring a concession of the mineral rights over the country comprised in the hydrographical basins of the rivers Pungwe and Buzi, It began with a capital of £40,000 in shares of £1, the whole of the money being available for working capital, as nothing was paid for the concession. In the later part of 1889 the capital was increased to £80,000, On February 11, 1891, the Govern ment granted the Company, by royal charter, sovereign rights over the provinces of Manica and Sofala, The - authorized capital is now £1,500,000 in shares of £1, of which, down to 1916, £1,222,221 had been issued and paid up. The conditions set forth in the charter were modified by decrees of July 31, 1891, December 22, 1893, May 17, 1897, June 27, 1900, and July 27, 1900, The statutes of the Company were approved by decree of June 14, 1902, and modifications thereof were instituted by decrees of August 17, 1905, and May 19, 1909, The bases for administration of the territory were approved by decree of May 7, 1892. MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY 155 Limits of Territory. — The territory is limited (Decree of May 17, 1897) : To the north by the course of the River Zambezi, from its most southern mouth up to the confluence of the River Ruenya, including all the islands which, up to 1891 , formed part of the prazos on the right bank of the River Zambezi ; to the north-west by the River Ruenya ; to the west by the frontier of the Province of Mozambique, in the part lying between the rivers Ruenya and Limpopo, and by this latter river to the point where it is cut by the 32nd meridian ; to the south by a line drawn from this latter point up to the inter section of the 33rd meridian with the 22nd parallel and thereafter by this parallel to the coast, with the devia tions necessary to avoid dividing the land of any one chief and so that the areas thus acquired by the Company or allotted to the Government may be as near as possible equal ; and to the east by the ocean, '^, Duration of Lease. — The Company's concession is limitec to a period of fifty years, but may be rescinded in case of the insolvency of the Company or its failure to fulfil the stipulations agreed upon. The provisions of the decrees may be modified or revoked at the end of fifty years and thereafter at the end of each period of twenty years, so far as they relate to exclusive rights, dominions of lands, and State attributes, (The first concession was for a period of twenty-five years,) Character ofthe Company. — The Company shall have the character of a joint-stock company with limited liabUity, its statutes being subject to the approval of the Government. It shall be considered Portuguese for all effects, and shall have its head-quarters and principal office in Lisbon, The majority of directors shall always consist of Portuguese citizens domicUed in Portugal, Powers. — Under the charter and the various decrees the Company exercises the following powers : 156 MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY (1) The administration and exploitation of the terri tories. (2) Exclusive right of constructing and working rail ways, roads, canals, sea or interior ports, wharves, docks, bridges, telegraphs, distributions of water, and other works of public or private utility. Subject to the ap proval of the Government the Company may grant concessions for such constructions to financial syndicates, and by decree of May 17, 1897, raUway concessions so granted may cover a period of ninety-nine years. (The concession for the construction of a railway from Beira to the British sphere was granted to a group of British capitalists : see p. 402.) (3) The right of navigation on rivers in conformity with art, 12 of the treaty of May 28, 1891, and the transit of passengers and merchandise on the Pungwe, ,iie Buzi, and the Sabi, and their tributaries, and also by the land roads where the rivers are not navigable, (The Company was first granted the ' exclusive ' right of navigation on the interior rivers, except the affluents of the Zambezi and Sabi, but by the treaty of 1891 it was agreed that the navigation of the Zambezi and Sabi and their branches should be entirely free to the ships of aU nations, and, further, the Portuguese Government engaged to permit and facilitate transit for all persons and goods over the above-mentioned routes.) (4) Liberty to engage in all branches of commerce and industry permitted by laws. By the decree of May 17, 1897, the Company has power to reserve to itself the monopoly of any industry or branch of commerce or of subjecting the exercise of such industries or branches of commerce to special regulations, its resolutions in this sense to be subject, in either case, to the approval of the Government, (The regulations for the traffic in alcohol and in arms and explosives must be made to harmonize with those MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY 157 that may be adopted in the territories directly ad ministered by the Government.) (5) The right to issue shares, &c,, and to establish banking concerns, which, however, may not issue notes during the continuance of the privilege conceded to the Banco Nacional Ultramarino, (6) Dominion over all lands belonging to the State and right to acquire land within and without the Company's territory, without prejudice, however, to the special regi men applicable to prazos. At the termination of the Company's concession all lands cultivated by them remain their property. Although the Company may transfer its land, the Government on the termination of the Com pany's concession shall receive an annual rent of 10 reis per annum per hectare, with the exception ofthe alternate blocks of land along any railway lines. The Company may not transfer more than 5,000 hectares of contiguou.^ land to any one person or company, (The Company is bound to give gratuitously to the Government the land it may require for fortifications, mUitary posts or quarters,' and residences for judges and officials. The Government also retains dominion over half the vacant land comprised in a zone of 5 kilometres wide, drawn round towns existing in 1891.) (7) Exclusive right of exercising and authorizing the exercise of the mining industry, such concession to endure indefinitely while the mines are wofked, (8) Exclusive right of coral, pearl, and sponge fishing on the coast ofthe territory. (9) Exclusive right of elephant hunting direct or by concession of licence, (10) Collection of all contributions and taxes already in force. In addition the Company may levy contribu tions of money or labour for works of public utUity, but regulations relative to new contributions and taxes must be submitted to Government approval. 158 MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY (11) The right to collect licence taxes for the entry, dispatch, or transit of merchandise, subject to certain conditions, the most important of which is that there shall be a preferential tariff of not less than 50 per cent, on goods produced in Portugal or its oversea possessions. Duties of the Company. — The Company must bear allegiance to the Portuguese Government, and use the Portuguese flag. Within the whole territory of the con cession the Government retains political supervision and reserves the right to intervene whenever it may consider such course indispensable to the safety of Portuguese dominion or the maintenance of order in conflicts of a political character. The Company is bound to comply with the clauses and conditions of treaties, conventions, or agreements which the Government has made or may make with any foreign State or Power, Regulations of general interest must be submitted to the approval of the Government, Such regulations shall be considered as approved if no definite resolution shall have been taken in respect of them within the period of four months. The Government undertook to abstain during twenty- five years from collecting direct or indirect taxes in the territory of the concession ; it was, however, to receive 10 per cent, of the shares of the Company, and 7-2- per cent, of the total net profits of the Company, to be increased to 10 per cent, whenever the dividend on the Company's shares should be 10 per cent, or more, (All disagreements that may arise between the Govern ment and the Company are to be submitted to an arbitration board, composed of two arbitrators nominated by the Government, two by the Company, and a fifth appointed by agreement between the former, and in MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY 159 default of agreement, by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice,) The Company must organize and sustain land and sea police forces, but the Government retains full liberty to garrison with military forces any points on the frontiers of the territory. The transport of troops and material of war ofthe State, on the railways or in the ships of the Company, must, in time of peace, be effected with an abatement of 75 per cent, ofthe ordinary rates. In the event of internal or external war the Company must place at the disposal of the Government the provisions, supplies, armaments, and mUitary material that it may possess. The Company is bound to respect all religious creeds and beliefs, as also the manners and customs of the natives when not contrary to humanity or civilization. Municipal organization must be maintained in the districts of the territory where they at present exist, and shall be established in all towns of over five hundred houses, with one hundred families at least of Portuguese, European, or Indian race. Schools of primary instruction must be established in all towns of over 500 inhabitants, and the Company undertook to establish agricultural and technical schools in the locality that might appear most appropriate for the purpose. Administration. — The Company is administered by a CouncU of Administration consisting of not less than eleven and not more than seventeen directors, the majority of whom must be Portuguese citizens. Three of the directors are nominated by the Government, the others being elected by the general meeting of shareholders. It is further stipulated that the managing director shall have the confidence of the Government, The registered office of the Council of Administration is in Lisbon, but foreign delegacies or committees have been established in London and Paris (and formerly at Brussels). The Fiscal 160 MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY Council or Board of Control is composed of not less than three or more than five members, elected every three years at the ordinary general meeting. In addition to the three directors mentioned above, the Government is represented by a Commissioner who attends all the meetings of the administrative and fiscal bodies. The Governor of the Company must be a Portuguese domiciled in the territory of the Company in Africa. He represents the Company, carries out the orders of the Council of Administration, and has the same powers as the colonial district governors in administrative and fiscal affairs, without prejudice, however, to the powers pertaining to the Governor-General of the Province of Mozambique. All the employes of the Company residing in the terri tory in Africa are directly subordinate to the Governor. The head-quarters of the administration are situated at Beira and comprise the following departments : The Secretariat of the Governor with a Secretary- General at its head, responsible also for the management of native affairs, health, and public instruction. The Fazenda or Treasury, with a Director, The Ports Department, with a Harbour Master. The Custom House : chief office at Beira ; sub-offices {delegagoes) at Masikesi, Mossurise, Sena,. Bartholomeu Diaz, and Chiluane ; fiscal posts {postos fiscais) at Moribane, Alto Save, and Sofala, Post offices and Telegraphs, Public Works (including railways). Survey Department, Agriculture and Mines. On the other hand the Government (not the Company) organizes the judicial service in the territory of the Company, and appoints judicial magistrates, the expenses being shared equally by the Company and the Govern ment. By a decree of December 23, 1897, the territory MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY 161 was divided into julgados or judicial circumscriptions. The milandos of the natives are there judged according to local usages and customs, the territorial judge being assisted by the native chief and two of his councillors or indunas. The service of supervision on the part of the Govern ment is entrusted to the Intendencia do Governo at Beira and the sub-intendencia at Masikesi. To them are com mitted the public functions of a non-political character, the registry of births, marriages, and deaths, and the duty of aiding the judicial service, but they must not interfere with the policy of the Governor. For administrative purposes the territory is divided into circumscriptions {circonscrigoes administrativas) , some of them comprising sub-circumscriptions {sub-circon- scrigoes). In 1912 the territory was divided as follows : Circumscriptions Centres of administrati Beira Beira Sena Sena Gorongoza Vila Paiva d'Andrada Neves Ferreira Vila Machado Chimoio Mandigos Manica Masikesi (Macequece) Buzi Nova Luzitania Sofala Sofala Chiluane Chingune Mossurise Spungabera Govuro Bartholomeu Diaz Mucoque Alto Save Massangena Of late years the administration of the Company has been marked with considerable success. By giving a comparatively free hand to the Governor, supporting his policy at Lisbon, and reducing the number of officials to a minimum, conflicts of power and irksome bureaucratic 162 MOZAMBIQUE COMPANY interference have been avoided to a much greater extent than in the parts of the province directly administered by the State, The clause by which any decision of the Governor and Administrative Council acquires the force of law unless the home government intervenes within a period of 120 days has contributed largely to expedite matters and to make reforms and innovations compara tively easy, while the security of tenure enjoyed by the Governor has lent the Company's policy rtabUity and continuity of purpose. Dividends.- — The first dividend was one of 7| per cent, for 1897, but from that date untU 1910 no dividends were paid. In 1912 the payment of dividends again ceased, Sub-concessio7is. — The principal sub -concessionary agri cultural enterprises now operating in the territory are the Sena Sugar Factory, the Companhia do Luabo, the Com panhia Colonial do Buzi, and the Beira lUovo Sugar Estates, The first two of these companies are mentioned on pp, 166-7, The Companhia Colonial do Buzi, which is engaged in growing sugar on the Buzi River, is a success ful concern, paying dividends. The Beira lUovo Sugar Estates was formed in 1914 to take over the assets of the Beira Rubber and Sugar Estates, Several other companies formed for mineral or agricultural exploitations are either in liquidation or in course of reconstruction. The chief mining companies are the Andrada Mines, with a capital of £250,000, and the Braganza Mozambique Gold Mining Company, The work of these companies will be referred to more fully in following chapters. ZAMBEZIA COMPANY 163 Zambezia Company The Zambezia Company {Companhia da Zambezia), unlike the two other great concessionary companies in Portuguese East Africa, has not received a charter from the Portuguese Government, and therefore is not re sponsible for the administration of the territory comprised within its concession. This territory covers an enormous area in the Zambezian region, corresponding to the districts of Quelimane and Tete, comprising nearly 80,000 square miles, and containing some of the best agricultural land in the province, and about 1,000 miles of more or less navigable waterways. The Company's territory is practically divided into two unequal zones, connected by the River Zambezi, which runs through the western portion and borders the eastern portion on the south. The eastern part of the territory contains the richest agricultural lands occupied by the Company and its con cessionary oflfshoots, and the western portion is mainly a less fertile mineralized area, at present little developed for agricultural purposes. The Zambezia Company was formed in 1892, primarily to acquire the mineral concessions granted to Joaquim Paiva d'Andrada, who, having undertaken mineral ex plorations in the Tete district, obtained from the Portuguese Government the right, on December 26, 1878, to possess and direct the exploration of the coal mines and forests within the hydrographic basin of the Zambezi as far as the eastern side of Lake Nyasa, The actual mineral exploitation corresponding to this con cession was confined, however, to the country around Zumbo and Tete, In order to carry on the work of exploitation a Company, entitled Societe des Fondateurs de la Compagnie Generale du Zambeze, was recognized on July 26, 1880, and was reconstituted by a decree of AprU 28, 1892. To this body was given the right to L 2 164 ZAMBEZIA COMPANY maintain the concession within the Portuguese territory recognized by the treaty, of June 11, 1891, with Great Britain, As auxiliaries the Central African and Zout- pansberg Exploration Company, and other elements, were formed into the present Zambezia Company on May 20, 1892, The capital ofthe Company thus formed was $540,000 (£108,000), and apart from that supplied by the Central African and Zoutpansberg Exploration Company, which held 25,000 ofthe 120,000 shares ' issued, was mainly supplied from Portuguese, French, and German sources. The principal holders of shares at that date were the Zoutpansberg Company, the Imperial Ottoman Bank (5,000 shares), Karl Wiese (3,000), Paiva d'Andrada (2,950) and other members of the d'Andrada family, and Vernet Lovett Cameron (2,640), In addition the Com pany retained 38,000 of its own shares, and 12,000 were allotted under the terms of the concession, to the Portu guese Government, At various times there were further accessions of capital. Shortly after its formation the nominal capital of the Company was raised to $1,080,000 (£216,000) and 3,580 bonds of $90,000 each, equalling $322,200, were issued. The Government then held 99,000 shares. On May 25, 1898, there was another issue of 144,000 shares, and at the present date the capital of the Company consists of 500,000 shares of the nominal value of $2,250,000 (£450,000) and 1,601 bonds for $144,000, Among companies which became interested were the Oceana Consolidated Company, which acquired 24,000 shares and subsequently 44,940, and the North Charterland Exploration Company. The head-quarters of the Company are in Lisbon and Paris, The initial capital of the Company was obviously too small for the exploitation of so large a territory, and the Company entrusted the development of portions of Its concession to subsidiary bodies. Mineral concessions ZAMBEZIA COMPANY 165 were granted to various concerns, such as the Gold- fields of Zambezia, which entered into a contract on December 21, 1894, and the Companhia Hulheira da Zambezia, while the exploitation of some of the numerous prazos, which had been granted to the Com pany for purposes of agricultural development, was entrusted to various concessionaires, such as the Com panhia do Luabo and the Companhia do Boror, Further, the right to construct a railway to the River Ruo was entrusted to the Companhia dos Caminhos de ferro da Zambezia, and contracts were entered upon with the African Trans-Continental Telegraph Company for the construction of the international telegraph line across the territory of the Company. The agricultural and mineral development of the Company's concession are dealt with In the chapters relating to those subjects, but it must here be stated that on April 19, 1894, the Company received a con cession of the prazos east of the River Shire, and that it was Invested with the numerous derelict prazos in other districts which were not then in the occupation of any authorized holder. The condition of the greater part of the territory was at the period in question much dis turbed. Actual occupation of the prazos had not been possible owing to the hostile attitude of the natives, and the first consideration of the Company was to introduce some order Into the existing chaos. The operation of the prazos and the establishment of civil and military posts occupied some years, particularly In the districts north-west of Tete, but at the present time many of these are either In the control of the Company or are being worked by concessionary holders. The Company Itself works the prazos of Andone and Anguaze, extending from Quelimane to the River Nameduro on the north and the River Muanange on the west, and bounded on the east by the ocean ; portions of the Immense Masin- 166 ZAMBEZIA COMPANY jire prazo, to the east of the Rivers Ruo and Shire ; the Maganja-d'alem-Chire prazo, including the Island of In yangoma ; and other prazos in the Tete district. The work of developing the resources of the territory was scarcely begun before the year 1897, when there was a profit of $104,634 (£20,926) on the year's working. But since 1899, when a dividend of 270 reis per share was declared, it would not appear that any dividends have been paid. Nevertheless, the development that has taken place in the Zambezian region, restricted mainly to the coastal districts, is chiefly due to the efforts of the Company and its subsidiary concessions. Among these the principal are the Companhia do Boror and the Companhia do Luabo. The first was formed on August 3, 1898, with head-quarters at Lisbon, to take over a concession acquired by Messrs. Eigenmann, Pereira, and Stuckey, with a capital of 1,500,000 francs divided into shares of 100 francs. The Company was largely financed In Germany, Its territory comprises the prazos of Boror and Tirre, which had» belonged to the firm men tioned, and the prazos of Nameduro, Macuse (Makuzi), and LIcungo (Likungo), The agricultural operations ofthis Company, described on pp, 196, &c,, have resulted in a con siderable development in this part of the territory, but up to the present the financial results have not been good. In 1899 a dividend was declared, A period of crisis followed, and it was not until 1915 that it again appeared possible to pay the shareholders,^ The Companhia do Boror is actively engaged In the cultivation of sugar, coco-nuts, and sisal, with considerable success, but its experiments on coffee plantation were a failure. The Companhia do Luabo holds the prazo of Luabo in the delta of the Zambezi, on both sides of the Zambezi up to Maromeu, covering perhaps 3,000 square miles of ' Bevista Colonial, January 25, 1916, ZAMBEZIA COMPANY 167 territory. The Company also worked the Marral prazo on both sides of the Quelimane and Lualua Rivers and the small Island-prazo of Timbwe at the mouth of the Zambezi, It was formed In 1894, and the concession approved on February 11, 1895, and possesses coco-nut, sisal, rubber, and sugar plantations. The last product has been grown by a subsidiary concern known as the Marromeu Company, A dividend of 7 per cent, was distributed In 1913, 1914, and 1915, Other companies at work in the Quelimane District are the Sena Sugar Factory and the Socidt^ du Madal. The former was registered in London In February 1910, and Is described on p, 201, Apparently it now controls the factory and sugar estates of the former Companhia do Assucar de Mozambique, a company with a capital of about £270,000, which had been in operation for about thirty years. The factory of the Company is situated at Mopeia, where the sugar-cane grown on the prazo of Maganja-d'aquem-Chire is crushed. The Socldte du Madal (Chr. Thams & Co,), with a capital of about £150,000 and head office In Paris, works the prazos of Madal, Tangalane, Cheringome, and Mahindo, where there are large coco-nut plantations. It has establishments at Mozambique, Angoche, and Quelimane, and acts as the agents for the Union Castle Steamship Company at those ports. Another company, the Empreza Agricola do Lugella, is engaged in the growing of coco-nuts, sisal, cotton, and rubber, and possesses a cotton ginnery at Lujella, Nyassa Company In 1891 the firm of Bernardo Daupias & Co, was authorized to constitute Itself Into a Portuguese company, under the name of Companhia do Nyassa, for the general administration of the territory bounded on the north, east, and west bythe provincial boundaries ofthe Agree- 168 NYASSA COMPANY ments of December 1886 and May 28, 1891, and on the south by the River Lurio from its source to its mouth. Including the adjacent Islands in the respective maritime zones. The Charter granted by the King of Portugal was published on September 28, 1891, but the Company was not definitely constituted until March 16, 1893, Duration of Lease. — The concession Is for a period of thirty-five years (originally twenty-five years) to be reckoned from the date of the definite contract (March 1 6, 1893), but the Government reserved to itself the right to rescind It if the Company revolts against the authority of the State, fails to fulfil the stipulations agreed upon, or neglects to make use of the agricultural, mining, com mercial, and industrial rights conferred by the concession. The provisions of the decrees may be modified or revoked at the end of thirty-five years and thereafter at the end of each period of ten years so far as they relate to exclusive rights, dominions of lands, and State attributes. In other respects the charter Is practically identical with that conferred upon the Mozambique Company (see p, 155). The character of the two companies, their powers to administer the territories, construct and work railways, roads, canals, &c., engage in all branches of commerce and industry, issue shares, establish banking concems, acquire and transfer land, exercise exclusive rights of mining, coral, pearl and sponge fishing, and elephant hunting, and levy taxes and customs dues, are with very slight variations exactly alike. The Nyassa Company, however, apparently still possesses the exclusive (though practically valueless) right of navigation on the Interior rivers, and to the exclusive right of coral, pearl, and sponge fishing, &c,, is added that of gathering amber and collecting rubber and other forest products. The Company Is allowed to levy customs dues, but the rates must be the same as in the districts of Lourenzo Marques and Quelimane. NYASSA COMPANY 169 The authorized capital of the Company consists of £1,000,000 in shares of £1 (4$ 50), of which the Govern ment holds 2,000, During a period of thirty-five years the Government abstains from collecting taxes in the terri tory of the concession, but (as In the case of the Mozam bique Company) It will receive 7| per cent, of the total net profits of the Company, to be Increased to 10 per cent, whenever the dividend on the Company's shares shall be 10 per cent, or more. The administration in Europe Is carried on by means of a Council of Administration, consisting of ten directors, four of whom sit in London and form the foreign section of the council. The Government reserves to Itself the right to nominate three of the directors, and is repre sented at all meetings by a commissioner. The majority of the directors must be Portuguese citizens domiciled In Portugal, The administration in Africa is entrusted to a civil and mUitary staff, at the head of which is the Governor, who, aided by the general secretary and his staff, is directly responsible to the Council of Administration in Europe, Subordinate to the Governor are the various administrative departments, such as those of finance, customs, civU and mUitary police, port service, health, public instruction, and posts and telegraphs. As in the case of the Mozambique Company, the Portuguese Government exercises general supervision of the administration in Africa by means of an Intendencia do Governo (consisting of an Intendente and staff) with its seat at Ibo, Magistrates and officials of justice must be nominated by the Government, For administrative purposes the territory Is divided into eleven concelhos or districts as follows. The names are spelt as in Portuguese, and transcriptions into English form (where this diff'ers) are given in brackets. The dates are those of the formation of the concelhos. 170 NYASSA COMPANY Ibo, capital Ibo, Mocimboa, capital Mocimboa (Mazimbwa), Quissanga, capital Quissanga (Kisanga), Tungue, capital Palma. These were the four original concelhos established by the Company In 1894 on the basis of former military commands, Pemba, capital Porto Amelia (Port Amelia, 1898), Medo, capital (provisionally) Montepuezi (Mtepwezi, 1899), Lago (Lake), capital Mtengula (1901), Mtarica, capital Mtarica (Mtarika, 1901), Amaramba, capital Kuamba (Kwamba, 1901), Lurio, capital Mucufi (Mkufi), This concelho was formed in 1907 out ofthe southern part of Pemba, Mucojo, capital Mucojo (Mukoyo, Mkoju), Formed in 1910 out of the continental portion of the concelho of Ibo. At the head of each of these districts is a chefe or administrator who is directly responsible to the Governor, The control and administration of the district are effected through a number of military and administrative posts. These were formerly almost always in charge of a member of the military police, usually a European non-com missioned officer, but since the military occupation of the territory has been effected, the majority of the posts, especially those In the coastal region, have passed under civilian control, Cipaes or native police are generally employed in garrisoning the posts and collecting hut-tax, &c,, from the natives. The official seat of the Governor is Port Amelia, where also are the head-quarters of the secretary-general, the labour department, the treasury, the posts and telegraphs, and the military police, but the chief officials appointed directly by the Portuguese Government, such as the Intendente, the judge of first instance, the Conservador (or registrar of deeds), &c,, stUl reside at Ibo, which is NYASSA COMPANY 171 also the seat of the departments of public health, ports, and customs. The Nyassa Company has never been in a position adequately to support Its responsibilities : neither Its economic nor its administrative achievements have been satisfactory, and a former governor of the province stig matized it as a disgrace to the country. The agricultural resources of the territory are almost entirely undeveloped ; only a small number of agricultural concessions have been granted in the coastal districts and the Lake and Ama ramba concelhos. In view of the possible construction of a railway from Port Amelia to Lake Nyasa, no con cessions have recently been granted in the districts through which the railway would run. No systematic mineral survey of the territory has been made, and not much prospecting work has been done, nor do the results claimed for the little work accoraplished inspire con fidence in every case (cp, p, 278), Ofthe total shares issued by the Corapanhia do Nyassa, more than one-half are held by a British Company, the Nyassa Consolidated, and some six-sevenths of the Portu guese Company's total debt in December 1916 was due to the Consolidated Company, Out of a total number of 368,840 shares Issued by the Consolidated Company, however, 229,590 were acquired in or about July 1914 by a German financial group. Labour and Emigration Although the province is by no means densely popu lated, there has been for many years a continuous emigration of native labourers to the mines of the Transvaal and Rhodesia, to British Nyasaland where the pay Is higher than in the Tete district or In Portuguese Nyasaland, and, lately, to the mines of Katanga and the cocoa plantations of San Thom^, the last under 172 LABOUR AND EMIGRATION conditions which have given rise to much criticism, A considerable number of these natives, who are naturally the best type of worker to be found in the country, never returns, from various causes, to the province. It would naturally be imagined that this emigration of the most active of the native male population to countries beyond the borders of Portuguese East Africa presupposes that the province does not Itself possess agricultural or industrial possibilities of a high order, but this is not so, Corapared with a military people like the Zulus, a purely pastoral people like the Hereros, or the aboriginal races of the sub-continent, the population of Portuguese East Africa provides a better nucleus from which the pro vincial government can develop an actively productive native agricultural community, under European super vision, than exists In other undeveloped portions of southern Africa, But such agricultural development has been retarded by economic causes not imraediately con nected with the natives themselves. The utilization of the available labour supply to a large extent has been subordinated to the Industrial needs of other portions of Africa, and consequently the exploitation of large areas by means of native cultivators. In such a manner as to produce more than mere local requirements, has not received the consideration which the nature of both peoples and country appears to warrant. The com paratively scanty native production can be attributed in no small raeasure to the fact that a considerable pro portion of the male population is continuously absent from the country. Labour in Transvaal With the development of the mining industry in the Transvaal there arose the need to obain an adequate labour supply. For this purpose the labour resources of the Transvaal were Inadequate, and those of the LABOUR AND EMIGRATION 173 neighbouring British colonies were either not available or not sufficient. In Cape Colony the Glen Gray Act had Imposed a tax of 10s, annually upon each native not possessing land under quit-rent or in freehold, or in default labour for three raonths each year outside his own district ; but the agricultural and other industries of the colony were sufficient to absorb all the available labour supply. In Natal, with Its large Zulu population, warlike and disinclined for prolonged labour, there were probleras peculiar to that colony which rendered the territory unsuitable as a .reserve for the Transvaal mines. Regulation of Emigration to Transvaal In 1896 the average number of natives employed In the mines was 53,967, and it was difficult to maintain even this force at work In the Transvaal, It therefore becarae necessary that sorae outside source of labour should be made avaUable, and to supply their Immediate needs the raining community looked to the neighbouring Portuguese territory. Accordingly on Noveraber 18, 1897, in view of the eralgratlon of native labourers to the Transvaal, the provincial governraent issued regulations with respect to the eraployraent of labourers In the Transvaal, and otherwise took steps to safeguard Its own Interests in the South African Republic, Later, after the British had undertaken the adrainistration of the colony, the Modus Vivendi of Deceraber 18, 1901, regulated the engageraent of native labourers from Portuguese East Africa for the Transvaal, whUe the Convention of April 1, 1909, defined further the arrangements between the British and Portuguese authorities. Under these arrangements free recruiting of labour was abolished in the province, and in order to remedy the evUs of the touting system and to allow a more methodical canvassing of all available areas, the Wit- 174 LABOUR AND EMIGRATIO'N watersrand Native Labour Association was entrusted with the task of obtaining labourers in the districts of Portuguese East Africa thrown open to recruiting. Under the terms of the Modus Vivendi, for each labourer re cruited in Portuguese East Africa the sum of 13s, was to be paid to the provincial government, with a further fee of sixpence for each month after the contract of one year's service had expired. The subsequent Convention increased this payment by the sum of 7s, 6d., which was payable by the Transvaal Government for each raan returning to his original home, ostensibly as compensa tion to the provincial governraent for the loss of revenue entailed by the waiving of the coUection of customs dues on the goods brought back by the natives, who were allowed to introduce goods Into the province If the duties on such did not exceed 10s, In reality, however, this was an arrangement to the mutual benefit of the two parties : traders in the Transvaal were enabled to seU more goods and the provincial government received an increased revenue from the recruiting business. Stringent provisions were made that natives faUing to return at the expiration of their authorized service should be regarded and treated as clandestine immigrants. Mutual Interests of Transvaal and the Province The reasons that prompted the Provincial and Trans vaal Governments to conclude these arrangements are not difficult to determine. On the one hand there was thrown open to the mining interests a large source of labour which would be of the greatest benefit in the exploitation of the mineral resources of the country — labour that was cheap and, probably, more Industrious than that of the more pastoral peoples of other portions of South Africa, On the other hand the provincial government stood to derive a considerable Income from this traffic in its native LABOUR AND EMIGRATION 175 manhood, and was able to secure substantial advantages both as regards the transit traffic and general freedora of trade. But although the provincial government, as such, derived considerable pecuniary advantage, It is doubtful whether the country as a whole can be held to have benefited by the emigration of labour. On the one side there is the fact that the returning ' boys ' bring back considerable sums of money, and in many districts introduce the only gold that obtains circulation ; ^ but on the other side there Is no doubt that the returning immigrants become disinclined for labour after they have purchased their wife or wives and settled in what to them are fairly comfortable circumstances. Moreover, the absence ofa large body of labourers at any one time and the continuous loss of the potential labour resources of the province is a serious evil in a country that primarily depends upon the development of agriculture for Its future prosperity. This annual loss in population through the recruiting system has been considerable. Numbers of Emigrant Labourers It has been computed that the provincial treasury benefited each year to the extent of about £100,000 ^ through the various fees payable by the Transvaal Govern ment, the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association, and the natives themselves. The largest nuraber of natives employed in the Transvaal mines was 204,489 in the year 1912, Of these It Is probable that nearly one-half were natives of Portuguese East Africa, In the previous ' The Governor of Mozambique, Joaquim Machado, stated in 1915 that each labourer returning from the Transvaal brought back about £15, and that the annual import of gold from this source was about £900,000. ^ During the three months ending on March 81, 1914, the province benefited to the extent of £34,707, 176 LABOUR AND EMIGRATION year the Transvaal imported from the province 56,224 'boys', as against 61,608 in 1910 and 49,492 in 1909, whilst In 1912 the number was 66,501, and In general terms It may be said that the number of natives from the province employed at any one time is about 100,000, although Lord Selborne In his Memorandum speaks of 90 per cent, of the labour as coming from Portuguese East Africa, These figures show what a large proportion out of an avaUable population of not much more than 2,000,000 is sent to the Transvaal mines. When it Is considered that out of this population not more than 400,000 can be males able to labour in the mines, and that at the period in question considerable portions of the Mozambique District and Portuguese Nyasaland could not be considered as being under efficient control, the number of emigrating natives becomes yet more striking. Moreover, in addition to the natives who are engaged for work in the Transvaal mines, during 1916, 5,297 natives were supplied with passes by the Intendencia of Emigration In Lourenzo Marques and 2,447 by the Administrator of Maputo to proceed to the Transvaal for other employment, while during ten raonths ending June 30, 1916, 3,583 men were sent from Quelimane and 3,571 from Mozambique for work on the cocoa plantations In the island of San Thora^, During 1916, therefore, so far as the figures accurately represent this leakage of labour, no less than 62,428 natives were permitted to leave the country for work elsewhere. The following are the figures for that year : Transvaal mines . , . , 45,494 Rhodesia 2,036 Transvaal, other employments , . 7,744 S, Thom^ 7,154 62,428 1 ' Military requirements in the Province have more recently reduced the numbers. LABOUR AND EMIGRATION 177 These figures do not represent the total number of male natives away from the province but only those who left during that year. It is probable that at least 100,000 were away from the province. It is possible to arrive at an estimate of the loss of labourers over a period of eight years so far as the Transvaal alone Is concerned. The following table gives the figures of native labourers employed on the Transvaal mines, the numbers sent from Portuguese East Africa, the numbers returned, and the consequent shortage : Year Natives employed Sent from P.E.A. Returned to P.E.A. Shortage 1905 40,758 27,735 13,023 1906 93,628 40,878 34,613 6,265 1907 — 48,225 30,071 18,154 1908 150,317 51,997 1 38,218 13,779 1909 — 49,262 41,499 7,763 1910 195,246 63,173 45,726 17,447 1911 — 57,629 57,356 273 1912 204,489 66,501 56,124 10,377 — 418,423 331,342 87,081 Closing of Recruiting Areas A loss of 87,081 able-bodied men, during the years 1905-12, whether due to death or permanent absence, can have no adequate cash indemnity, especially as it is ^ The number of natives from Portuguese East Africa employed on the Transvaal mines in February 1908 was as follows : From Nurriber South of lat, 22° S 71,213 Beira and Chinde MozambiqueNyasaland , Quelimane and Tete 306 4,867 764 2,393 79,543 M 178 LABOUR AND EMIGRATION also accompanied by a corresponding loss in the potential birth-rate of the country. This continuous drain upon the adult male population, which was due. In part at least, to the high mortality on the Rand among natives taken from the tropical portions of the province to con ditions and employments to which they were unused, determined the recruiting association in conjunction with the provincial administration to abandon the regions north of parallel 22° S, as a recruiting ground for the Transvaal mines. This occurred on May 8, 1913, when the Union Government prohibited the employment in the mines of natives from the tropical territories. In that year, out of 195,614 natives employed in the Transvaal mines, 42,322 were sent from Portuguese East Africa, and 56,538 returned, so that there was a balance of 14,216 In favour of the province. Death-rate in Transvaal Mines The decision to abandon the tropical territories was supported by the investigations of Sir Almoth Wright and a Commission who had been engaged upon an investigation of pneumonia among the native miners, and by the reports of Colonel Gorgas, Dr. Darling, and Dr. Noble, who, fresh from their experience In Panama, had been asked In 1913 to advise upon sanitary and health conditions not only on the mine compounds but also at the largest mustering compounds In Portuguese territory. The death-rate per thousand per annum amongst the natives north and south of 22° S. lat. during the years 1906-7 was as follows: 1906 Jan. Feh. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.79-026-7 Dec. Arer- age. North of 22° S. lat. South of 22° S. lat. 90-5 38-9 71-328-7 79-325-6 63-325-1 70-3 26-5 44-0 29-7 67-126-2 57-6 26-3 47-8 27.4 46-0 33-0 50-8 27-9 68-9 28..'-. LABOUR AND EMIGRATION 179 1907 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June, July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Aver age North of 22° S. lat. South of 22° S. lat. 68-128-2 84-8 284 94-6 23-6 76-0 27-2 884 30-3 67-629-9 79-5 30-1 67-0 31-0 63-0 24-0 57424-5 37.223-5 63-525-1 69-9 26-7 The death-rate per thousand per annum among natives from different districts varied enormously. There was subsequently a marked iraproveraent, and in 1915 the general death-rate for natives was stated to be 19-67 per thousand. Moral Effects consequent upon Emigration It is, further, undoubted that on the Rand the natives have acquired practices to which they would not be addicted in their kraals. Returning to their own homes they have frequently brought with them many of the vices of civilization. Although syphilis has long been prevalent among the natives in the coastal districts, especially at the ports, and probably in the first Instance was introduced by Europeans, undoubtedly It has been increased largely by natives returning from the Transvaal who have spread the Infection over wide areas. The same is true of drunkenness, immoral practices, and various diseases resulting from them, some of which were formerly- unknown among many of the native tribes. Recruiting in Companies Territories The two chartered companies, which possess full control over the labour supply in their respective territories and are not bound by the arrangements of the pro vincial government, have pursued opposite policies with regard to the emigration of natives. The Mozambique Company has refused to permit recruiting in Its territory, being proof against the temporary financial gain from the recruiting system. The Company considers that M 2 180 LABOUR AND EMIGRATION natives who have crossed the border without perraission have committed the offence of clandestine emigration, which is punishable by a maximum fine of twenty months' gratuitous labour. The Nyassa Company on the other hand has allowed recruiting and has derived considerable financial benefit therefrom. The right to recruit labour in Portuguese Nyasaland was granted to the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association in 1903 and In 1911 to the Nyassa Consolidated, Limited, which entered into an ari-angement to hand the natives over to the Witwatersrand Association on their arrival at the coast. This step was taken owing to complaints as to the proceedings of the recruiters em ployed bythe Association, So far as Portuguese Nyasaland was concerned, in the undeveloped state of the country there was no remunerative employment open to the popula tion. It has been computed, moreover, that the returning natives brought with them an annual influx of gold amounting to some £20,000. The cessation of recruiting for the Transvaal mines in this territory was, therefore, a severe blow to the Nyassa Company, and on October 10, 1913, arrangements were made for the engagement of natives for agricultural work on the plantations of the Companhia do Boror in the Quelimane district — which incidentally demonstrates the shortage of labour in that region. The want of labour is further illustrated by the fact that In 1907-8, 1,400 natives were sent from British Nyasaland to the Mopeia sugar plantation and that large numbers of natives from the Protectorate were eraployed on the construction of the Port Herald-Chindlo railway. On October 16, 1913, a contract was made for the sending of natives from Portuguese Nyasaland to the mines in Katanga ; but the arrangement was suspended by the administration of the mines and the survivors repatriated. In 1915 the engagement of natives for work outside the territory was stopped. LABOUR AND EMIGRATION 181 Recruiting for Rhodesia So far as the rest of the province is concerned, always with the exception of the Mozambique Company's terri tory, rights were granted for recruiting for the Portuguese West African colonies and for the Rhodesian mines, so that the action of the Union Government was In part nullified by the attitude of the provincial administration. The number of natives from Portuguese East Africa employed on the Rhodesian mines was 6,925, 6,926, and 6,608 in the years 1910, 1911, and 1912 respectively. These natives are recruited by the Rhodesian Native Labour Bureau, which is permitted to recruit up to 15,000 natives from the Tete area. During the ten months ended June 30, 1916, the Portuguese office in Salisbury (Rhodesia) registered 2,036 natives who had arrived frora Tete to seek work on the raines and farras of Rhodesia and repatriated 1,565 during the same period. Administration of Emigration Recruiting agents are placed under Government super vision. Engagements are by contract drawn up In simple language and signed In the presence of a Portuguese official who ascertains previously whether the terms are clearly understood by the native. In order further to protect the natives and ensure the fulfilment of the terms of contract the Portuguese office of Intendente da emigragdo was created in 1902. In 1 910 the office was amalgamated with that of the Secretary of Native Affairs, but the services were again separated in 1914. The Intendente, assisted by a staff of clerks, resides at Lourenzo Marques, but is represented at Johannesburg by the Curadoria dos Indigenas Portugueses no Transvaal, consisting of a Curador, with the attributes of a consul, directly responsible to the Governor-General, but receiving his 182 LABOUR AND EMIGRATION orders through the Intendencia, and a considerable staff, including seven Inspectors and five assistant-inspectors. For purposes of inspection Transvaal is divided into eight districts. In order to check unauthorized emigration an administrative post was opened at Ressano Garcia in 1915, In connexion with Rhodesian recruiting a cura doria Is established, as already indicated, at Salisbury, Witwatersrand Native Labour Association The Witwatersrand Native Labour Association, the co-operative society holding the recruiting monopoly for the southern portion of Portuguese East Africa, and formerly for the whole territory with the exception of the districts administered by the Mozambique Company, is in some respects the most remarkable organization of its kind. Acting entirely in the interests of the Trans vaal mines, it has also been its interest, from the purely economic point of view alone, to safeguard the supply of labour and to prevent undue losses by deatli and disease. The native who is recruited is naturally regarded as a valuable asset. It costs some £5 simply to persuade him to leaA^e his home and to transport him to the mines and back. As the supply of labour is limited, the death of a labourer means that it will take seventeen years to replace him, and as a result the native is handled with care from the moraent that he leaves his home until he is brought back at the end of his period of labour, though he is subjected to the disastrous influences to which allusion has been mad^- Within the province there are thirteen main receiving caftnps and sixty-four receiving stations south of 22° S, lat. These are constantly in spected and kept in a good state of sanitation. The chief receiving centres are at Inhambane and Chai-Chai, and of the natives sent to the Transvaal at least two-thirds are brought by steamer from Chai-Chai, Inhambane, and, LABOUR AND EMIGRATION 183 other ports to Lourenzo Marques, whence they are sent by raU to the mines. Engaged In the work of the Associa tion in Portuguese East Africa there are 28 European and 262 native employ ds, while a considerable staff" is maintained in the "Transvaal, As for the class of men who are employed In recruiting, there have been com plaints as to their proceedings, particularly in Portuguese Nyasaland, but on the whole it has been to their interest to treat the natives well, and they are chosen, therefore, as a rule, from those who are able to control and handle successfully large bodies of raw and untrained men. Many of these recruiters have been the first to penetrate many regions, and in times past they have occasionally been sent into unpacified country. Labour within the Province It is arguable that Inasrauch as the agricultural and mineral resources of Portuguese East Africa are far from being fully developed, there would be no strong economic objection to the temporary emigration of labour, provided that there were no permanent loss in the manhood of the country. But the shortage of agricultural labour is a constant complaint in the province, particularly In the territory of the Mozambique Company and in the Queli mane District, and it Is due to scarcity of population as much as to other causes. The density of population In Portuguese East Africa is probably about the same as that in the Cape Province, including Basutoland, Under such circumstances, in view of the uneven distribution of this population, there can be no doubt that eventually, instead of sending emigrants out of the country, it will be necessary to arrange for a better distribution within the province of the available labour resources. To some extent this is being done already with regard to the plantation areas 184 LABOUR AND EMIGRATION in Quelimane, which, as already stated, are obliged to draw upon other districts for labour. The disinclination of African peoples to work for Europeans without corapulslon is probably as pronounced in Portuguese East Africa as elsewhere. In the days of slave-holding it was possible to obtain the required labour by force. At the present time the form of compulsion is more subtle, but nevertheless as real. The hut-tax and poll-tax {palhota and mussoco) Imposed In the different districts of the province are in reality a compulsory contribution to the labour resources of the State, As a complement to this taxation elaborate labour regulations have been made. Those of the Mozambique Company, of July 26, 1907, may he taken as an example of these provisions. These regulations provide that natives who do not properly cultivate their own small properties, or do not off'er themselves for work in the ordinary way, may be urged to enter into contracts with the Company or with individuals to work for fixed wages and for a period to be agreed upon, which is not to be less than three months. Failing compliance with these regulations they raay be sentenced to correctional work for not less than a fort night nor more than a year, at one-third of the ordinary wage, to be paid in kind. The obligation to labour is deemed to have been satisfied («) by those natives who possess a capital or property the revenues of which assure sufficient means of existence, or who habitually exercise some employment ; {b) by those who plant and cultivate a certain number of trees or plants producing articles contributing to the exports of the province, or those who raise domestic animals : the local regulations specifying the numbers and kinds of plants and animals ; and (c) by natives who work during a portion of the year and receive wages. With regard to the occupation of land by natives for LABOUR AND EMIGRATION 185 purposes of cultivation, the benefit of exemption from compulsory labour Is only conceded to those who possess a property of a value superior to 5,000 centavos. In this connexion natives are permitted to occupy vacant land to the extent of not more than one hectare, for which during five years no rent will be charged ; but rent must after wards be paid in money or kind. After twenty years the native may become the owner. Such native agriculturists are dispensed from service in the army or police and from forced labour, but must accompany their chiefs when required for military service. All natives may enter into contracts for their labour under conditions safeguarding their interests. With respect to the mussoco and part of the palhota taxes, the regulations provide that they may be paid by agricultural or industrial work performed by the natives ; or the native may pay his tax in kind when he has proved that he has laboured during a period corresponding to the time that it would be necessary to labour in order to pay the tax. Natives who do not perform their labour voluntarily may be invited to work for the Company or ¦ individuals, and In case of refusal and' resistance may be condemned to correctional work under the surveillance of the police, during which they will be lodged and fed and will receive a wage in kind corresponding to one-third of that paid to other labourers. The services of labourers may be requisitioned by the local authorities and holders of lands, and by merchants and others, and will so far as possible be supplied, for a period of not less than three months, for which the employer must pay the wages fixed by the public tariff and furnish sufficient food and lodging. Such contracts to labour must not exceed five years. In the same manner natives condemned to correctional work may be requisitioned by employers. In the parts of the province under the direct adminis tration of the provincial adrainistration similar reguia- 186 LABOUR AND EMIGRATION tions are In force. These were revised and codified in 1915, and entail the obligation to labour for all males over 18 and under 60, with certain specified exceptions. Natives, however, have the right to contract freely for their labour, with or without the intervention of the authorities, whilst the heads of industrial and agricultural enterprises employing over 500 natives are permitted to organize their own police forces to maintain order In their undertakings. Contracts cannot be for raore than five years, and fiogging, except by adralnistrative order, is not permitted. Labourers are not required to work for more than nine hours a day, and provision is made for at least four days' rest during the month. Moreover, labourers entering upon a new contract are entitled to have their wages raised by 5 per cent, from year to year, I n the territory of the Mozambique Company a Native Labour Department was organized in 1912, the chief work of which is the recruiting of native labourers and their supply to the Company and to private firms and individuals, the organization of labour statistics, and the payment of the native labourers. The heads of the various districts and sub-districts act as delegates of* the department in so far as questions of labour-supply are concerned, except in the district of Manica, where a special delegation is established. In addition private individuals, under special licence, may recruit natives within, and for service in, the territory. CHAPTER VI AGRICULTURE, ECONOMIC PLANTS, AND LIVE STOCK General position of agriculture — Agricultural areas — Experimental farms — Sugar — Coco-nut plantations — Vegetable oils — Timber re sources — Eubber — Fibre plants (sisal, Mauritius hemp, kapok. New Zealand flax, &c.) — Cotton — Coffee — Maize and millet — Rice — Tobacco — Fruit-growing — Spices — Beeswax — Gums — Beans — Wattle plantations — Cassava — Local food-supplie^ — Fermented drinks — Native drugs and medicines — ^Live stock. General Position of Agriculture ^Agriculture in many respects is not out of the experimental stage of development. Apart from native cultivation a comparatively sraall area of the available ag-rlcultural land has been utilized, and even the areas that have been taken up by the large concessionary com panies are only in part cultivated, Agi-icultural enterprise in Portuguese East Africa has suffered In the past from the disabilities imposed by an effete political system, from the Incubus of the prazo systera, and frora numerous vexa tious restrictions regarding land tenure and other matters that have retarded the economic gi'owth of the country. Moreover, the inherent difficulties inseparable from agri culture In all new countries have been present to a marked degree in the province. Difficulties of climate and rainfaU ; the presence of extensive fly-belts in certain sections of the river valleys and other districts, parti cularly along the Sabi, Limpopo, and Komati, and in certain areas in the Quelimane District and In Portuguese 188 AGRICULTURE Nyasaland, and difficulties of transport occasioned by these pests ; epidemics of East Coast fever which have destroyed much of the cattle ; the ravages of pests such as locusts, grasshoppers, and rats ; and, above all, the fact that certam crops have been attacked by the diseases and blights peculiar to them, have discouraged the agriculturist and prevented the investment of capital in agricultural enterprises. Nevertheless Portu guese East Africa may be considered as a country of considerable agricultural opportunity. Although the rainfall is uncertain or deficient over considerable areas (cp, pp, 64, 66), the larger rivers, of which details are given on pp, 24 seqq., afford oppor tunity for irrigation, and, in their lower courses especially, fiow through extensive tracts of rich alluvial land. In times of flood, large areas are liable to inundation which if lasting for too prolonged a period is detrimental to agriculture ; but there are other regions where practical schemes of drainage and irrigation will not only carry away the fiood waters but provide a permanent supply for the surrounding country. Irrigation is as yet little practised in the province, but its possibilities are enormous. In Portuguese East Africa the most fertile regions are within easy distance of the coast, with the exception perhaps of certain areas along the Shire, and are thus well placed, when light railways have been built, for supplying the markets of the world with their produce. Moreover, the Union of South Africa and Rhodesia, as they become more highly developed, will provide an increasing market for the produce of Portuguese East Africa, Under present conditions this applies particularly to the parts about Lourenzo Marques, in which connexion the subject will be further discussed (p, 190). AGRICULTURE 189 Agricultural Areas ^ Southern Districts. — The agricultural areas of the pro A'ince are naturally to be found chiefly along the valleys of the rivers. In the south the Komati, making a great curve from the point Komati Poort, where it enters the province, to its outlet at the north of Delagoa Bay, flows through a rich alluvial plain. At Manhiga tbe river occa sionally overflows Its banks, and floods the plain to a depth of 2 or 3 ft., and this happens more frequently further down ; but there are considerable areas of high and dry country at Marracuene, Magude, and elsewhere. This plain is on the whole most suitable for agriculture. It is cultivated to a large extent by the natives, and the rich soil supports a dense population. Similar conditions are to be found in the valleys of the Maputo, Tembe, and, especially, the Umbeluzi, but the region traversed by the railway to the Transvaal Is not specially suited for agriculture. Farther north the valley ofthe Limpopo forms a raost fertile plain, although large portions are subject to pro longed inundations. Here It should be possible to provide drainage for the overflow. In any case there exist areas of land above the periodic visitations of flood-waters that for depth and richness of soil are stated to be unrivalled in South Africa, The Inharabane District contains another fertile centre, and may be divided into two zones, the raore fertile being close to the coast. Within the south-west corner of the district, which Ls w^ell watered by small streams, resides the bulk of the native population, but west and north of this region there is an area of forest and of country offering little inducement to the agriculturist, Lourenzo Marques and South African Markets. — It 1 See Map III, 190 AGRICULTURE cannot be said that agriculture has made much progress in the immediate neighbourhood of Lourenzo Marques, This Is the more surprising In view of the fact that the proximity of the Transvaal markets seems to offer an opportunity for the cultivation of fruits, winter vege tables, and the various other products that can be grown on the coast but not inland, at least at the sarae season. With the exception of a fine farra at the Urabeluzi and a few other ralnor enterprises little is done, and not only is the local market badly supplied, but Lourenzo Marques itself frequently has to obtain its supplies from Natal or the Transvaal instead of supplying the latter country. In this connexion it may here be stated that the following food products were imported during 1913 into the Union of South Africa and Rhodesia, all of which could probably be produced in Portuguese East Africa, and some of them certainly in the southern portions of the province. Economic competition has prevented the successful cultivation of some of them, such for Instance as rice, but there is no reason why others should not be cultivated for the South African markets. The following are the products in question : Vegetables . ButterCheeseMilk (condensed) Fruit . Dried fruits Maize , Eggs . Beans and peas Fish . Tobacco SugarRice . Pepper £ 105,502 257,836 171,015 475,752 79,639 103,020 123,799 77,560 73,437 296,537 50,790 507,187464,546 13,877 AGRICULTURE 191 £ Castor oil 22,182 Coco-nut oil 35,456 Cotton-seed oil 34,828 Tapioca 9,676 Coffee 710,989 With the exception of sugar to the value of £108,396 and nuts to the value of £14,628 (£24,976 in 1912), and small quantities of maize already exported to British South Africa, none of this market, worth at least £3,600,000 annually, is supplied by planters and farmers in Portuguese East Africa, Komati and Umbeluzi. — The Umbeluzi and Komati regions in particular (besides offering opportunities for mixed agriculture) and also considerable portions of Gaza are suitable for cattle-raising, and there should be no difficulty in producing plenty of butter, milk, and cheese for local consumption and for export, ' My journey on the Incomati [Komati] to Manhiga convinced me of the great possibUities existing here for agricultural operations such as the breeding of cattle . , , From the Residency at Manhiga, which is situated at a point above the River Incomati, one gets a fine view of an extensive plain, very suitable for cultivation by a syndicate employing modern machinery or as pasture land for some thousands of cattle, I was informed that the region traversed contained 6,500 cattle. Those we saw were in excellent condition, and I was told that there had been no epidemics since the rinderpest of 1897 8,' ^ The region thence to Magude is described as exceedingly fertile, with excellent pasture land much superior to the districts usually chosen by the Transvaal farmers for grazing their flocks in winter ; whilst the country Is peopled by a large native population, growing maize, 1 F, T, Nicholson, President of the Agricultural Society of Pretoria, in Bol. Soc Geog. Lisb., 1910, p. 112. 192 AGRICULTURE millet, and a little rice. It should be mentioned that in the region between the Komati and Urabeluzi, near to the railways to Ressano Garcia and Swaziland, the African Agricultural Estates Company has received a concession of 150,000 acres with the right to utilize the waters of the Komati both for Irrigation and motive power. The region between Magude and Chobella in particular has a dense native population who have a great aptitude for agriculture. Their maize fields are stated to be carefully cultivated and to produce two crops in a good season. Here, too, the natives have small patches of tobacco, which could doubtless be cultivated throughout the region with success, Limpopo Area. — From Chobella to San Paulo de Messano the fertility of the ground decreases greatly, and thence to the neighbourhood of Tnchobane the soil is not good and the actual area of cultivation is small. But as the Limpopo is approached the fertility of the soil constantly increases. From Chibuto, at the junction of the Limpopo and Changane rivers, southwards and also for a consider able distance to the north and west, there Is a flat alluvial plain with soil of great depth* and of first-rate quality, level enough throughout for steam cultivation, for surface irrigation, and for tram transport, Chibuto itself is the centre of a plain, containing at least 500 sq, miles, which is speciaUy suited for cattle-breeding. In the immediate neighbourhood maize, millet, lucerne, rice, and even wheat, oats, and barley are cultivated ; whilst the district is stated to be excellent for the culti vation of citrus fruits and bananas. Further down the river, at Chai-Chai, there are large areas suitable for lucerne, and it is believed that the sandy foothills of the neighbourhood could give the district a value corre sponding with that of Oudtshoorn and other small Irri gated lucerne fields of Cape Province — especially for AGRICULTURE 193 ostriches and stock. But the region Is also suitable for sugar, and the neighbourhood has been compared on an enlarged scale with the few best spots on the lower Umhlatuze valley in Natal, Inyarrime and Inha'mhane. — Along the coast in the neighbourhood of Quisico and Inyarrime there exists an area of light sandy soil of great depth, usually without surface water, but sufficiently moist to carry full crops of mealies, millets, and cassava. The River Inyarrime, flowing through Lake Poelela and linking up a nuraber of other lakes lying parallel to the coast, constitutes a navigable waterway for sraall craft which will be of great value to agriculturists. It Is on the sandy' loam of the neighbourhood that the Inyarrime tobacco Is grown. At Inhambane, a little further north, the conditions are excellent for sugar, though the area for this product is somewhat limited : there are also extensive coco-nut plantations, and rubber and sisal are grown. This region is particularly suitable for citrus fruits, and with better means of transport to the Transvaal a large trade in oranges should be established. Experiments in this direction have given excellent results, Mozambique Company's Territory. — In the territory of the Mozambique Company the agricultural belt lies along the course of the railway in the Neves Ferreira and Manica districts. Here, especially around Chimoio, are to be found farming districts, claimed to be in no wise inferior to the best land in Rhodesia, where maize and other crops are grown by farmers. The principal farming centres are at Bandula, Vandusi, Mandigos, Gondola, Siluvu Hills, Vila Machado, and Muda, the first four being on a plateau with an average altitude of 2,200 feet, covered with deep and fruitful soil. Here the staple product of the territory, maize, Is cultivated on a con siderable scale, not less than 32,000 acres being under this crop. It is stated that several farms are producing p. K.A. N 194 AGRICULTURE as much as 10,000 bags of maize. In addition citrus fruits are extensively grown, and several thousand Washington Navel, Valencia Late, and Jaffa trees have been planted in portions of this agricultural area where Irrigation is available. The coastal districts, however, are either swampy, as along the Urema River, or suft'er from a deficient rainfall, as in the Chiluane and Sofala regions ; though as the Zambezi valley is approached good lands are available and large plantations are established. In view of highly favourable statements regarding the advantages offered by the coast zone to the settler and agriculturist certain factors influencing the pursuit of agriculture should here be noted. While important rivers such as the Zambezi, Pungwe, Buzi, and Sabi, should render it possible to combat, by raeans of irriga tion, the long periods of dryness and to provide against seasons of irregular or deficient rainfall, the fact must not be lost sight of that the influence of the sea is felt along certain waterways as far as 40-50 miles from their mouths. Moreover this zone is unfavourable for cattle and is not seldom invaded by grasshoppers and occasionally by locusts, as is the rest of the Company's territory. In the zone intermediary between the littoral and the plateaux, the marshy district of the Urema (p. 27) is practically useless, unless it be for rice. In the neigh bouring prazo of Gorongoza, however, considerable quanti ties of millet, cotton, sugar, and ginger have been cultivated by the natives. To the south the zone con tains stretches, relatively considerable, of dense forest, broken by expanses of buffalo grass and bamboo, but the region has a trying climate and is infested by tsetse fly,' Of the plateau districts, Barue, to the north, between ' Eeport by Bonnefont de Varigny, 1899. AGRICULTURE 195 the Zambezi and Manica, is well watered In certain districts but more sterile in others, and covered with vast natural pastures which in the future may afford food for cattle. The same conditions apply to the central regions of Manica and to a lesser extent to Mossurise in the south. All this upper zone contains regions where maize flourishes, and where coffee could probably be successfully cultivated. Water is sufficiently abundant when proper provisions have been made for conservation, and the climate is tempered by the altitude ; nevertheless, occa sionally it is unhealthy, and both rinderpest and horse- sickness have prevailed in the past. The territories of the Mozambique Company possess a great advantage for the settler in the railway passing through the most fertile districts of the region (p, 404), Zambezia. — The region of the Zambezi delta and of the estuary of the Buzi River is pre-eminently associated with the sugar-planting industry described on pp, 199 seg*., but for plantation purposes much of the land through which the Zambezi passes is too sandy to be classed as good sugar-land, although rich argillaceous deposits occur and form considerable areas. Further up the river, especially in the neighbourhood of the island of Inyan goma, at the junction of the Rivers Shire and Zambezi, there is an area of rich soil specially suitable for sugar, and the same may be said of the valley of the Shire, which is well populated and extensively cultivated by the natives. The whole region, however, is essentially one for the capitalist and large planter rather than for the small settler. Under present conditions, without efficient co-operation between the smaller settlers, there can be no hope of the district becoming suitable for the small investor, Tete District is regarded as being in the main a dry and somewhat inhospitable region, although in the Angoni country, bordering upon British Nyasaland, and in certain places along the banks of the rivers, good land N 2 196 AGRICULTURE is to be found ; but it Is distant from present means of external communication. Although this country on the whole is unsuitable for agriculture, it produces nevertheless some wheat, tobacco, rubber, and cotton, and cattle-breeding is stated to succeed. Apart, however, from the plantation of sisal by the Zambezia Company, there were down to 1912 only two plantations in private hands. Quelimane. — Probably the most fertile region of the province Is in Quelimane District, Here the rainfall Is for the most part abundant, and the country is inter sected by numerous streams and rivers which provide facilities not only for irrigation but also for transport to the coast. The fertile uplands towards the Shire River seem to be specially suitable for plantation products, more particularly fibre-plants, tobacco, and manioc. In the immediate neighbourhood of Quelimane town, however, there are considerable areas of land that can only be successfully utilized after extensive systems of drainage have been undertaken. This country around Quelimane and extending north wards through the concession of the Boror Company is primarily a plantation area. As the various products gi'own in this district will be dealt with in further detail, it is only necessary to say here that apart from the Zambezia Company three large concessionary com panies are operating in this region — the Companhia do Boror, the Corapanhia do Luabo, and the Society du Madal, Here there are plantations of coco-nuts, cotton, sugar, cofi'ee, and sisal. Considerable quantities of rice are also grown but hitherto little has been exported. In this region the prazo systera, described on pp, 144 seq., is in operation, the prazos around Quelimane being worked by the various concessionary companies established in that district. These prazos are not directly administered by the Zambezia Company, as is the case with those AGRICULTURE 197 In the territory of the Mozambique Company, the former Company only reserving to itself certain prazos for direct exploitation, such as those of Masinjire, Maganja-d'alem- Chire, and Andone and Anguaze ; and the prazo system, which elsewhere cannot be regarded as benefitting modern agriculture, is, under the conditions prevailing In this district, not unsuccessful, Mozambique District and Portuguese Nyasaland. — Further north, extending about 120 miles inland from the town of Mozambique and the coast of that district, is a region of deficient rainfall, watered comparatively poorly, which, except In a few favoured spots, does not appear to be specially suitable for plantation purposes. The more fertUe interior, however, may eventually be opened for agriculture. Beyond the borders of the Mozambique District, where the Lurio, Lujenda, and Rovuma flow north-eastward from the comparatively rich soils of the mountainous districts east of Lake Nyasa, the territory of the Nyassa Company offers certain oppor tunities for the planter and agriculturist, particularly in the western portion (Nyasa Hills) and In the basins of the tributaries of the Rovuma, but development attempted has met with very little success (cp, p, 171), Experimental Farms For the encouragement of agriculture the two large companies of Zambezia and Mozambique have established experimental farms. Those of the latter are at Zimbiti, so called from the native name of the most charac teristic tree {Androstachys Johnsoni) of the district. In the low country about 22 miles from Beira ; at Vumba; and at Chimoio, The principal experimental station of the former company is at Bompona, In addition, the Government of Mozambique maintains three experimental farms, of which the best Is that on the Umbeluzi, 20 mUes 198 AGRICULTURE from Lourenzo Marques, where work was commenced on a farm of about 1,000 acres in 1910, The other two stations are at Inhambane and Chai-Chai. These are under the direct control of the Agricultural Department at Lourenzo Marques, In addition to these stations the Mozambique Company has granted considerable monetary assistance to farmers, has hired machinery to them, supplied them with seed for experimental purposes, and sold them the necessary seed for permanent crops. So far as monetary assistance Is concerned the National Bank of South Africa has now taken over these operations oft its own account, and guarantees to the Company the payment of the debts of the farmers up to a fixed limit determined by the guarantee offered by those to whom the assistance is given. Sugar The sugar industry of Portuguese East Africa con stitutes the most Important, the most successful, and the most promising of the export Industries of the country. Although for many decades sugar has been extensively cultivated by the natives, and usually formed one of the products raised upon the various prazos. It is only within the last few years that progress has been made with the organization of the industry upon an export basis. Until recent years the greater part of the sugar produced was consuraed by the natives themselves in the form of a fermented drink called Sope or Shiwayawaya, but at the present time from 40,000 to 50,000 tons of sugar can be produced annually for export, and there is every reason to believe that this amount can be largely extended. SUGAR 199 Productive Areas The present sugar-producing areas are around China- vane on the River Komati ; at Movene In the district lying between the lines of railway to Swaziland and the Transvaal; in the neighbourhood of Mutamba and Magola, near Inhambane ; on the Pungwe flats near Vila Machado ; in the alluvial flats along the Zambezi and Buzi Rivers, at Vila Pontes, Mopeia, and Maromeu, and at Inchanguovo and ZIndoga ; in the neighbourhood of Quelimane, especi ally at Nhamacurra (Inyaraakurra) ; and at Matadane, near Angoche, In addition to these districts others have been indicated as specially suitable for the growth of sugar-cane. Such districts include the extensive valley of the Limpopo (hitherto avoided by sugar planters owing to the floods to which It Is periodically subject), the island of Inyangoma in the Zambezi, the valley of the Shire River, and certain parts of Maganja da Costa, The most serious pests from which the industry suffers are locusts, the sugar beetle, and hippopotami, Chinavane Estates.— -The Chinavane estates, situated on the Komati River north-east of Lake Marianna, com prise an extensive district surrounded by the river, which here divides into two sections which again unite about 6 miles north of Manhica, The estates are connected by rail with Moamba, a station on the main Lourenzo Marques- Transvaal line,and are the property of the Komati Estates, Limited, a company registered In London on February 6, 1914, The estate consists of 45,000 acres, of which in the year 1914 about 1,500 acres were planted with sugar. There is a mill with an annual capacity of 2,000 tons. The proximity of this area to the Transvaal guarantees a ready sale for the product of the local factories, Movene Estates. — Further to the south-west, but in a district equally suitable for export purposes, are the Movene Estates, consisting of 40,000 hectares of land, the 200 AGRICULTURE property of the African Agricultural Estates, Limited, of which a large portion is Intended to be utilized for sugar production. Contracts were signed in November 1914 for irrigation works involving the erection ofa dam across a narrow valley In the Little Lebombos and the construction of a large canal through the Company's lands. Mutamba Estates. — In the neighbourhood of Inham bane there Is one considerable sugar estate at Mutamba, 15 miles south of the port, and another smaller one at Magola, The foi-mer, which is the property of the Mutamba Sugar Estates, Limited, a company registered in London on July 5, 1912, consists of about 6,000 acres, of which about one-sixth is planted with sugar-cane. The factory is situated at Dudune, about 1| miles from Mutamba, and has a capacity of 25- tons daily. Buzi Area. — The chief centres of sugar production, hoM'ever, are on the Buzi and Zambezi Rivers, in the low alluvial plains above the limit reached by the brackish waters of the estuaries, and the periodic- flood's. Of the plantations on the Buzi River, the Inchan guovo Estate, worked by the Beira-Illovo Sugar Estates, Limited, is the first in point of production. It contains some 5,000 acres under cane. The estate is extensively irrigated, transport is organized by means of a light railway on the estate- and a service of tugs and lighters, and the factory has a capacity of 12,000 tons of sugar and produced some 6,000 tons in 1916, Com munication with Beira is maintained by means of motor- boats and small schooners. The Company, which holds its lands from the Companhia do Buzi, paid no dividends in 1912-13, but the financial position of the estate has greatly improved since that date. On the northern boundary of the Inchanguovo plantation is another smaller estate at ZIndoga, Across the river the Com panhia do Buzi own some 300,000 hectares of land, a large portion of which is said to be suitable for sugar. SUGAR 201 At present, however, only about 2,000 acres are planted with this crop, and the mill has a capacity of only 3,000 tons, Zambezi Area. — In the Zambezi valley there are three main centres for the production of sugar, at Vila Pontes, Maromeu, and Mopeia, Here are the extensive sugar factories owned by the Sena Sugar Factory, Limited (Messrs, J, P, Hornung & Co,, Limited), a corapany formed in 1910, The first of these factories, that at Vila Pontes, prepares the sugar grown on the Cala prazo opposite the Island of Inyangoma, The plantation consists of 7,500 hectares of land, of which fully 6,000 hectares are under cultivation, and the total production of sugar in 1914 was 9,002 tons. The second estate situated lower down the Zambezi on the right bank of the river has a larger production ; the Maromeu factory producing 10,435 tons In the year 1914, It has been shut down three times owing to lack of capital, but since Its acquisition by the Sena Sugar Factory it has becorae a paying concern. In conjunction with the factory at Mopeia, which Is situated about 3 miles from the left bank of the Zambezi and about 80 mUes above Chinde, the mills can deal collectively with 2,800 tons of sugar daily, the actual return from Mopeia during the season being about 7,500 tons. Two of these estates are extensively irrigated, but Maromeu hitherto has not been placed under irrigation. For purposes of transport a fleet of ten stern-wheel steamers and some fifty barges are employed. These take the sugar to the nearest port, Chinde, from which the factories are respectively distant 100, 60, and 80 mUes, The steamers are the joint property of the Sena Sugar Factory and the Zambezi Navigation Company, About 8,000 natives, supplied from the prazos of Luabo, Marral, Goma, MugOvi, and Angonia, and by the Mozambique Company, are employed on the estates, as well as about 100 Europeans and 202 AGRICULTURE 200 Mauritians and West Indians, The mill at Mopeia crushed the cane grown on the plantations of the Companhia do Assucar de Mozambique, an association which was founded more than twenty years ago, and has been exclusively occupied with the cultivation of sugar cane, the manufacture of sugar, and the distillation of alcohol. The principal prazo, Maganja-d'aquem-Chire, has 1,550 hectares under sugar. In addition to the above plantations the Zambezia Company has started a sugar-plantation at Bompona, in the prazo Maganja- d'alem-Chire, on the island of Inyangoma. Here 35 hec tares have been planted with cane, and it is proposed to erect a factory, Quelimane and Angoche. — In the Immediate neighbour hood of Quelimane the Inyaraakurra Estate, belonging to the Compagnie d'Exploitation Sucriere de Nhamacurra, founded at Paris on October 29, 1913, in which the Boror Company Is interested, produced 700 tons In 1915, but the plantation is expected to return about 4,000 tons annually within a short period. The Boror Corapany itself, having abandoned its distillery owing to the restrictions placed on the manufacture of alcohol as the result of the Brussels Conference, produced 700 tons of sugar in 1915, but an extension of the industry Is con templated. Sugar Is also being grown farther north at Matadane, near Angoche, Here in 1912 an English company, the Selwyn Syndicate, obtained a concession of 50,000 hectares for plantation purposes. Varieties of Sugar grown. — One of the chief varieties of sugar grown on the Mozambique estates is the Yuba cane, which has been so successfully cultivated In Natal, but between thirty and forty other kinds are In cultiva tion. The Yuba cane is specially adapted for free and open soils and for land that cannot be easily irrigated. For this reason, on some of the estates, especially In the Zambezi and Buzi vaUeys where the heavy alluvium SUGAR 203 permits of more luscious canes giving heavier crops, some of the other varieties predominate. Thus along the Zambezi the kind known as Green Natal Is chiefiy grown, although Yuba is also in evidence, whilst at Inhambane the variety known as Inhambane Green is the principal crop. It there averages from 25 to 38 tons per acre, and m 1910 it averaged as much as 40f tons, which is equi valent to 4 tons of sugar per acre. At Inchanguovo the yield of Yuba cane averaged 38-6 tons per acre. Sugar Exports From the economic point of view the Portuguese Government appears to have done much to foster the growth of this promising industry. Not only has it permitted colonial-grown sugar to enter Portugal at halfi rates, but it has also recently arranged for an annual increase of 10 per cent, in the amount of colonial sugar that may be imported into Portugal under the preferential rates. Of the 36,000 tons of sugar consumed annually in Portugal, 6,000 tons come from Mozambique, 4,000 frora Angola, 4,000 frora Madeira, and 2,000 from the Azores, leaving 20,000 tons obtained from foreign sources. It is to be doubted, however, whether the large preference men tioned above Is as valuable as It seems, Freire d' Andrade has stated that the rebate in question is fictitious because ' difficulties are placed in the way of colonial exporters, owing partly to the private Interests of the dealers and partly to the desire of the Portuguese Government that the customs revenue should not be diminished unduly. With regard to the first matter, It Is stated that sugar is taxed in Portugal in accordance with the Dutch scale, i,e, by colour and not by degree of sweetness. Hence importers colour the pure sugar, and then remove the colour after it has passed the customs. The Portuguese customs in this manner have lost a considerable s„.m 204 AGRICULTURE annually, estimated by D'Andrade to be not less than 200 contos. Moreover, in order to secure the rebate at all colonial sugar has to be carried on Portuguese boats, which, in 1909, charged $10 per ton against 23s, on foreign lines. In other words, in order to secure the supposed preference, colonial sugar had to pay about 37s, per ton more in freightage than would otherwise have been the case. When to this sura is added the transport to the port of Chinde, which was then at least $3 per ton, it will be seen that these heavy charges added greatly to the cost of colonial sugar in Portugal and tended to prevent the natural expansion of the industr}-. Nevertheless, the sugar industry has made great progress, aided by the privUege accorded under the Mozambique-Transvaal Convention, whereby Mozambique sugar may be imported free of duty into the Transvaal. This action has provided an open market for the producer within the immediate neighbourhood of the sugar-pro ducing regions. Some thousands of tons are now ex ported yearly from Portuguese East Africa into the Transvaal, but It is only within recent years that this large export has been rendered possible. In 1908 the sugar imports into the Transvaal from Mozambique Pro vince did not amount to 2 tons. From 1909 to 1913 they were 451 ; 1,214; 2,921 ; 4,559, and 4,651 tons respectively, 'whilst in 1914, 8,600 tons of sugar, valued at £120,000, were exported from Portuguese East Africa Into the territory of the Union, The following figures^ give the export of sugar from the various ports during the years 1910-14 : ' From the American Consular Keports, SUGAR 205 1910 1912 1913 1914 £ £ £ £ Lourenzo Marques — 76,230 80,160 51,289 Inhambane , , — 5,276 4,395 7,939 Chinde , . 56,259 39,940 12,268 18,733 Quelimane . . — 707 1,078 4,719 Beira . , . 142,240 367,887 320,154 256,093 — 490,040 418,055 338,773 The following are the quantities exported from the ports of the Province directly administered by the Government during the years 1910-14 : 5,241 tons 5.145 „ 1910 191119121913 1914 7,238 6,159 9,059 The production of sugar in the territory of the Mozam bique Company during 1914 was as foUows : Company Quantity of cane crushed, in tons Sugar produced, in tons Sena Sugar Factory MarromeuCompanhia do Buzi Beira-Illovo Sugar Estate 153,679 132,543 29,564 54,201 white 3,371 yellow 5,506 white 10,309 white 157] yellow 2,092 [ white 991] yellow 3,278J 8,877 10,309 2,249 4 269 369,987 white 14,828] yellow 10,8761 25,704 Coco-NUT Plantations Opinions vary as to the possibilities of coco-nut jjlanting in Portuguese East Africa, On the one hand, the exports of copra frora the principal coco-nut centres, 206 AGRICULTURE Inhambane and Quelimane, are by no means extensive : on the other, the various plantation companies claim that they possess an immense number of trees, a consider able proportion of which have reached the bearing stage. There seems good reason to believe that the coco-nut industry In common with the rubber and other industries in Portuguese East Africa, has suff'ered from inefficient management. Supervision has been lacking, methods have been crude, trees have been planted In unsuitable positions. This is, of course, a general statement, but it may be substantiated on certain plantations where the yield of coco-nuts is by no means commensurate with the number of trees. The soil of the area at present planted with coco-nuts varies considerably, and this in part accounts for the diff'erence In the yield from various localities. In the Quelimane District in particular the change from dry, sandy soil on the coastal ridges to wet, argillaceous swamp on the Intervening depressions is frequent. It is this iswampy ground which, even when drained, makes very poor coco-nut country : yet hundreds of acres of swampy country have been planted with trees, under the impres sion that by cutting canals the water might be drained off. The trees have as a consequence become water logged, and failure has followed. It should not be deduced, however, that, because the industry has been mismanaged and the trees neglected in the past, Portuguese East Africa should be regarded as unsuitable for the production of copra. On the contrary, given proper attention, there is no adequate reason why a considerable section of the coastal districts should not be far more productive than they are at present, and that eventually the production of copra may become an industry Inferior only to the sugar, oil-producing, and maize-growing industries. COCO-NUT PLANTATIONS 207 Although, with the exception ofa few favoured districts, such as the neighbourhood of Angoche and possibly Tungue Bay and the sandy estuaries of the rivers, the northern coasts are not specially suited for coco-nut culture owing to the coraparatively small rainfall, there are other con siderable districts to the south of this area that are more suitable for the Industry. At the present time the coastal strip chiefly occupied with coco-nuts extends from the delta of the Zambezi north-eastward, as far as the Maballa (Mwabala) River in the Quelimane District, a few miles beyond the raouth of the Likungo, Throughout this region there is an average rainfall of 50 to 60 inches. Further north the area suitable for coco-nuts raay be extended for perhaps another 130 miles along the Maganja da Costa ; but beyond this region, except perhaps In the districts already indicated, coco-nut planting must be inter mittent. In the south the farthest point where the in dustry can be carried on profitably Is around Inhambane, Here coco-nut cultivation has been extended recently, and there are now some plantations having more than 20,000 trees. An estimate, based upon the export of copra from Inhambane, gave in 1913 the number of 194,000 trees In the district that had reached the bearing age, with probably 75,000 young trees ; and It was stated that as comparatively little capital had been sunk in the industry the majjorlty of these trees must have been planted by the natives, Quelimane District. — In the Quelimane area the coco nut plantations are rauch more extensive, although here, owing to the selection of unsuitable sites, much com paratively useless planting appears to have been under taken. The Companhia do Boror claims to have planted some 800,000 coco-nut trees, and further states that its plantations are the biggest in the world, the second In size being those of a German firm in Samoa, 208 AGRICULTURE North of the estuary of the River Quelimane the Societe du Madal occupies another extensive coco-nut area, including the large and important prazos of Madal, Tangalane, Cheringome, and Mahindo, the last of which lies on both sides of the River Linde, south of the Quelimane estuary. These prazos comprise an area of some 700,000 acres. Here, it is stated, are some 225,000 coco-nut palms, of which considerably more than half are bearing. The Companhia do Luabo is in occupation of two immense prazos, those of Luabo and Marral, the latter of which extends Inland for a considerable distance to the north of the River Quelimane, Here are sorae 100,000 coco-nut trees, the majority of which are bearing. The company probably controls a territory of not less than 3,000 square miles, including practically the whole delta of the Zambezi and the islands thereby created. In addition the Zambezia Company has two large prazos, Andone and Anguaze, lying between Quelimane and the River Makuzi, that is between the territories of the Societe du Madal and the Companhia do Boror, where, it is claimed, are some 91,365 palms in bearing, 136,947 palms more than three years old, and 93,501 palms in the nurseries, or a total of 321,813 trees. These are distributed In the following plantations : Coalane (the central station), Novilembo, Rafael, Makivale, Tonge, Marrongane, Idugo, Namerrumo, and Inyamgombe. In addition, other plantations exist at Karungo, south of the River Quelimane, where there are 84,000 trees ; at the neighbouring prazo of Inyassunje, where about 15,000 palms are In bearing ; at Pepino and Quelimane do Sui, both immediately south of the estuary of the Quelimane River, where there are about 50,000 palms, Mozambique Company's Territory. — In the territory of the Mozambique Corapany there are also coco-nut planta tions, the most Important being that at Cherinda, where there are about 78,000 trees. The others are situated at COCO-NUT PLANTATIONS 209 Mechanga, Bue, Buene, Inyamunaze, ChUuane, Danga, Mambone, and Mananlse, The value of the copra exported from Portuguese East Africa during the years 1913-14 was as foUows :^ InhambaneChindeQuelimane 1913 £ 4,654 326 49,115 1914 £ 5,104. 52.866 54,095 57,970 The following are the exports sent from the portions of the province under the direct administration of the Government during the years 1910-14 : Tons Value 1910 3,205 £42,266 1911 3,872 £48,066 1912 4,642 £56,941 1913 4,313 £49,821 1914 5,208 £53,677 The greater part of the copra has hitherto been sent to Marseilles, where it has been utilized In the manu facture of soap. Vegetable Oils Closely aUIed to the coco-nut industry Is the cultivation of the various oil-producing trees and plants, Portu guese East Africa seeras to offer much better prospects in connexion with these than with the copra industry, mainly because the area of the latter is restricted whilst oU-producing trees of many kinds exist throughout the greater part of the province. Although the oil-palm itself is not Indigenous to the country, it has not yet been proved that it cannot be grown with advantage in ^ American Consular Reports. P.E.A. O 210 AGRICULTURE Portuguese East Africa, It Is true that the plantations of oil-palms started some years ago by the Mozambique Company were unsuccessful and were subsequently abandoned. Since that date, however, further experi ments have been raade, especially at Quelimane and at Mutarara, a station of the Zambezia Company, situated on the Zambezi at the western side of the entrance to the Ziwe Zlwe River, opposite Inyangoma Island, Many other oil-bearing plants occur. Little attempt has been made to utilize these resources, and in this respect the territory offers considerable opportunities for the employment of capital. Ground-nut. — The ground-nut, though not indigenous, Is cultivated largely by the natives In every part of Portuguese East Africa, both for their own use as a food and for export to France for the expression of the oil. This is essentially a native industry, and the nut is grown in districts such as the Maganja da Costa, where there is no European supervision. Moreover this plant, known to the Portuguese as amendolm, can be cultivated at once on ground newly cleared of scrub and forest, and yields a large return for comparatively little labour. The export of ground-nuts In 1912 was valued at £81,000, and of this large production the most considerable por tion came frora the country around Mozambique and was exported through that port, although large ship ments were also made through Lourenzo Marques and Inhambane, The exports from the portions of the province under the direct administration of the Government were as follows during 1910-14 Tons 9,193 8,144 1910191119121913 1914 8,5315,622 7,556 Value £80,976 £65,114£75,515£50,670£64,019 VEGETABLE OILS 211 Mafureira. — Another product which is extensively gathered in Portuguese East Africa is the seed of Trichilia emetica, known as mafureira. The oil or fat (mafura), which is obtained frora the seed itself and also from the aril by which it Is nearly enclosed, has long been used by the natives for rubbing on their bodies and also for food. Recently, however, it has been utilized as an article of commerce, particularly in the manufacture of soap. At present almost the entire supply is shipped to Marseilles, as although the seed contains a very high percentage of oil, which has been estimated at 33 to 40 per cent,, and by some authorities as high as 65 per cent., it does not appear to have found favour with British soap manufacturers. The tree from which the mafureira seed is obtained is distributed abundantly south of Inhambane, and is also to be found, though not so largely, in the tropical portions of the province. It Is known as Cape mahogany, by a number of variants of the Kafir name umkuhlu, in the Quelimane District as muterl and moreka, and In the Swahili dialect of the northern coasts as mutumbe. It grows both on sandy ground and on the alluvial river flats and is one of the commonest trees of the province. As an article of export, however, the mafureira seed is almost exclusively obtained frora the Lourenzo Marques and Inharabane Districts, and here the production varies largely. If the season has been wet the output is restricted, but If it has been more than usuaUy dry there Is an increase in the export of this commodity. In the latter case, when the ordinary crops fail to sustain the large native population, in order to increase their earnings the natives enter the forests to gather larger quantities of the seed of the Trichilia emetica for export purposes. The annual export may, therefore, in some degree, be looked upon as a kind of economic barometer, indicating the particular years that may be regarded as, o 2 212 AGRICULTURE in other respects, lean. Thus during 1918, when the drought was speciaUy severe, the export of mafureira seed rose from £9,070 to £58,085 In value, and fell during the following year to £6,513, But It must also be noted that the actual crop Is soraewhat uncertain and naturaUy varies in quantity from year to year. What may be termed the trichilia belt extends for some 250 miles, and the tree is especially thick in the neighbourhood of Inhambane. It has been roughly estimated that there are no less than 2,000,000 trees,^ but at present it would appear that not more than two or three per cent, of the crop is gathered, as the price hitherto has scarcely been sufficient in normal times to tempt the native to collect the seed or the European to organize the industry,^ There is satisfactory evidence that each female tree yields 25 lb, or more of oleaginous seed, valued on the spot at £7 to £8 per ton. Castor-oil. — Of other oU-producIng plants, the castor- oil plant is comraon throughout Portuguese East Africa, This product also requires comparatively little care or expense In its cultivation, for hitherto, although the bean fetches from £10 to £12 per ton on the European market, the plant has been regarded as a tiresome weed, and the total export of the province has not been worth much more than £500, Nevertheless, in view of the proximity of a considerable market in the Union of South Africa, It seems probable that this and other oil-bearing plants will be utilized if oil factories are established in Zambezia and elsewhere. Vegetable oils to the value of £224,075 were imported into South Africa in 1911, Sesame. — Sesame, known to the Portuguese as gergelim and in the Echubo language of the Quelimane District as 1 Brit, Cons, Kept. 1911, 2 Bul. Imp. Inst., v, 11, p, 106, 1913, VEGETABLE OILS 213 mpiza, is also cultivated to some extent for the sake of the oil, more particularly in the Mozambique District, the export ofthis product being valued at about £5,000 in the year 1914, An experiment with Sesamum indicum is being made by the Boror Company on 160 hectares of land in the neighbourhood of Quelimane, Cashew. — Amongst minor oleaginous plants the seed of the cashew tree {Anacardium occidentale) Is exported In small quantities. This tree, originally introduced from South America, is widely distributed, and Is one of the few trees protected by the natives, to whom it supplies both food and drink. It is found In many large areas of abandoned lands, and is always an evidence that the district has formerly been populated. It Is stated to be more common than the mafureira-tree. In the Inhambane District, especially at Maxixe and the country beyond, where it exists in large quantities, there Is little doubt that it could be profitably exploited, as the cooked kernels are worth at Bombay as much as £24 per ton. The cashew-nut also abounds In the Mozambique District, In the Maganja da Costa, and in fact wherever cultivation has been carried on. The profitable utilization of the nut, as of other oleaginous seeds, depends largely upon the provision of mechanical decortlcators. The timber is used for packing-cases and for building sraall boats, the bark yields an indelible ink, the fruit supplies a spirit, the shell of the nut gives an essential oil, and the kernel Is used in confectionery. Other Oil Plants. — In addition to the foregoing there exist numerous other oil-bearing plants that have not yet been put to any economic use In Portuguese East Africa, Among these a large creeper {Telfaria pedata), known to the natives of the Zavala district, where it is abundant, as makungu or jekungu, is cultivated round the kraals for the sake of its large and nutritious seeds, sometimes known as Inhambane nuts, which are said to 214 AGRICULTURE yield 60 per cent, of their weight as oil ; ^ and the candle-nut also occurs throughout the province. The latter tree grows abundantly south of the tropic and is a commercial export elsewhere, as considerable quantities of oil can be expressed from the seeds. In Portuguese East Africa the natives string these seeds on grasses, dry them in the sun, and then burn thera as candles. The tree Is known variously throughout the province as shimbangana, larabu, maluku, gwandafuta, and nicorwa. The Moringa pterygosperma, yielding the ben or behen oU of commerce, is also found In the province,^ as Is a species of balanites, probably the Balanites egyptica. The latter grows in the Lourenzo Marques District and is said to yield from 40 to 50 lb, weight of nuts, containing about 60 per cent, of oil resembling the best olive oil,^ Export of Oil-seeds The following table gives the comparative value of the oil-seeds exported from Portuguese East Africa : * 1912 1913 1914 £ £ £ Cashew 389 2,276 — Cotton 216 288 414 Mafureira , 9,070 58,085 6,513 Ground-nut . 81,378 67,609 69,140 Castor-oil bean . 376 380 563 Sesame 5,220 5,724 4,946 Others 2,357 99,006 636 577 134,998 82,153 1 The difficulty in utilizing this product is due to the fact that no efficient machine exists at present for decorticating the nut, Messrs. Lever Brothers in 1910 found the kernel to contain 64-64 per cent, of oil, but husk and shell -were not easily separated from the kernel. 2 Bul. Imp. Inst., vol, v, p, 59, 1907, 3 Brit. Cons. Report, 1911. * American Consular Reports, VEGETABLE OILS 216 The greater portion of these oil-seeds, with the excep tion of mafureira, are exported through the port of Mozam bique, but considerable quantities are shipped at Lourenzo Marques and Inhambane, The collection of these seeds has hitherto been largely In the hands of German firms, and the seeds have been almost entirely carried on the boats of the German East Africa Line, In 1914 the exports of oU-seeds through the port of Mozambique were as follows : £ Castor-oil , , . , , 534 Ground-nut 28,508 Sesame ,.,... 4,816 Others , , . . .364 £34,222 Timber Resources With the exception of the mangrove forests, and one or two other trees, such for instance as the so-called African ebony, not much economic use has been made of the forest resources of Portuguese East Africa, The difficulty of transport In a country where ordinary haulage is not possible and where the waterways do not afibrd much scope for the moving of heavy timber, the cost of fi^eightage, and the absence of markets — except In the case of the Transvaal — have retarded the erection of saw-mUls and the general commercial exploitation of timbers. Further, though there undoubtedly exist great stretches of country which may be regarded as weU •timbered, it does not appear that, as a general rule, large quantities of any specially valuable timber are to be found in any one district. The timbers are scattered and the forest areas contain a great variety of trees, but there are few areas covered by any specially valuable timber. For this reason the working of the forests would appear 216 TIMBER RESOURCES to be a more difficult and expensive process than would otherwise be the case. As has been seen In Chapter III, the greater portion of the surface of the province Is timbered. There are considerable districts where the forest is of a very hght nature, and others where practically no timber trees are to be found, or where the timber has been destroyed by the native population in order to carry on their own agricultural work. But, considered as a whole, Portuguese East Africa raay be regarded as a well timbered country, possessing many species valuable to commerce, though Its value as a forest-country varies very greatly and it is doubtful whether the expectation of finding paying quantities of any specific timber is altogether justified. It would seem rather, judging frora the existing data, that the timber will be chiefly valuable in providing wood for fuel and for domestic uses within the country, for building, cordage, wagon-making, and furniture, and in railway-construction, as well as for mining purposes. But as settlement advances and the forests are sacrificed to the necessity of providing good agricultural land, the present wasteful system of burning down the timber should be replaced by a more intelligent policy of utiliza tion and conservation. In the neighbourhood of the raUways most of the available material has been cut down for the purpose of supplying the Transvaal mines with pit-props, but in order to prevent the coraplete denudation of these districts, especially along the Swazi land border, the Government now only allows the timber to be cut on licence. The Zambezia Company Is opening up a timber busi ness in Its Masinjire forests, which extend north of Mopeia and along the Shire River in a north-westerly direction ; the Luabo Company is working In the exten sive forests of Marral along the Quelimane and Lualua Rivers, and Is utilizing the tiraber for the construction of TIMBER RESOURCES 217 small boats and lighters ; and the Boror and Madal Companies also utilize a small amount of tiraber from their lands in the Zarabezi estuary. The interior of Quelimane District, where these beginnings have been made, contains forests of high technical value and of much botanical interest, but the density of the timber- lands varies greatly. The valleys along several rivers, such as the Raraga and the Likungo, contain fine material In enormous quantity, of which very little has been cleared. This territory may be regarded as a great reserve of high potential value should the initial economic difficulties in the way of exploitation be overcome. Throughout the whole of this region rubber abounds, both Landolphia Kirkii and Mascarenhasia being present In quantity. Amongst the more valuable timbers, the imbUo {Pterocarpus erinaceus) is present everywhere, though especially in the Maganja da Costa around Arenga in the Robe forest ; the magundo {Milicia africana) is seldora absent, and grows to an enormous size ; many hardwoods, generally known as pau-ferro or ironwood, abound ; Brachystegia, Parkia, Bauhinia, and Cordyla are common, and grow to a considerable size ; while the tamarind and the mango are to be found throughout the forests, and the exotic kapok and Bombax are rapidly spreading through the country. Along the Zambezi, especially in the neighbourhood of the Lupata Gorge, the baobab predominates. Economic Timbers It is not possible here to Indicate all the timbers of economic value, and a selection only of the raore im portant can be named. Without attempting any botanical order, and regarding the trees merely from the economic standpoint, it may be said that the three most Important tiraber varieties are Pterocarpus erinaceus, Brachystegia spicaeformis, and Milicia africana. 218 TIMBER RESOURCES Pterocarpus. — The first, which is known in the Queli mane District as imbllo, in the SW^hili dialect as mokombire-bire, and around Lourenzo Marques as thondo, is probably the raost valuable timber asset in the tropical forests of the province. It is of special use because not only is the wood exceedingly hard and durable, but it is proof against ants, and may thus be used for building purposes and as sleepers for raUways, Though not abundant in the extra-tropical portions of the country, it is comraon north of the Zambezi, especiaUy in the Maganja da Costa and the region northward of that area. This tree is also fairly common in the territories of the Mozambique Company, where it is known as mbUa, It forms one of the sources of the African gum known as kino, Brachystegia. — ^The second tree, Brachystegia spicae formis, one of those caUed ironwood, is known in Gaza and the Mchope District as tzonto and tondo, in Inhambane as mtamba. In Quelimane as marotta, and in the SwahUi dialect as macarara. This tree, under present circum stances, is perhaps the most important in the province, for not only Is it widely distributed from the Limpopo to Inhambane and frequently much further north, but it is utUized for a variety of purposes apart from its timber, which is hard and durable. In the northern districts the natives make all their cloth from the bark of this and other species of the genus, and use the timber In all kinds of domestic woodwork construction. Their water- baskets are made out of the bark, which contains a large amount of tannin that might be extracted and shipped with profit. It Is believed also that the large beans of Brachystegia, which ai'e produced In enormous quantities, might be utilized for this product. Milicia. — The third ttee, Milicia africana, known generally as inthull and magundo. Is the largest Indi genous tree In the forests of the LIrapopo, and grows TIMBER RESOURCES 219 throughout the province, but especially in the Maganja da Costa and Inyaraakurra districts. On account of its size it is generally selected by the natives for their large dug-out boats, which are known generically as magundo, whether made of this timber or not, the smaller boats being called mandea. Other Timbers. — In addition to these three timber trees, many others are found, though not in such large quantities, throughout the province. The baobab is com paratively useless for timber purposes, but Dalbergia melanoxylon, known as ebony and grenadilha, is said to be one of the best timber trees, although comparatively scarce outside the territory of the Mozambique Company, Parhia also is a durable timber easUy worked, whUe the mwangele of the Sena district {Adina microcephalia) grows to a gi-eat size. It is of distinct value, and is also abundant in the Maganja da Costa and Inyaraakurra districts. Excoecaria africana, muconite, or African sandalwood, has been exported in smaU quantities as sandalwood. The timber, which is nearly black and sraeUs strongly. Is stated to be exceUent for the making of furniture and for the construction of wagons. The tree is found throughout the territory of the Mozambique Company, and grows usuaUy in moist flats. It Is also common around Delagoa Bay and the Umbeluzi, near the lakes in Gaza and along the Limpopo, and exists in certain forests in Maganja da Costa and Inyaraakurra. The African mahogany {Khaya senegalensis), although it cannot be compared with the American timber, is, never theless, a valuable wood ; but it is not common, though growdng throughout the Zambezian forests and said to be present in the tropical forests south of that river. Another so-called mahogany, Azelia quanzensis, the om- pow of the Portuguese and known generally to the natives as Inchenu, sina, or xina, occurs throughout the province, but appears only to be utUized at present 220 TIMBER RESOURCES for Its seeds, which are sold as ornaments, A similar hardwood known, like Lonchocarpus mossambicensis, as pau-ferro (Ironwood), Is Swartzia madagascariensis, known to the Portuguese as scopira, which is abundant In most of the forests north of the Zambezi, and Is also stated to be present In the Mozambique Company's terri tory. This timber is specially recommended for the manufacture of pianos and furniture. Another hardwood known as zimbiti {Androstachys Johnsonii), at present only reported from the Mozambique Company's territory, Is stated to be exceptionally good for raUway sleepers, and, as It hardens In salt water, to be useful for pUes, It is impervious to white ants. Large forests of this tree are stated to occur at mUe 23 on the Beira-Mashonaland RaUway, at Madanda, Mossurise, and Cheringoma, Cor dyla africana, the boboti of the Lourenzo Marques District, the moanjwa of Mchope, and the moroanda of Quelimane, gives a light and soft wood used in the construction of native musical Instruments, Mangroves The mangroves are of various kinds. The best are probably Rhizophora mucronata, the red mangrove, and Bruguiera gymnorhiza, a species practically Identical with the forraer, but, unlike that tree, extending well Inland, Other varieties are Ceriops Candolliana and the coramon Avicennia officinalis, or white mangrove, which is of comparatively little use and frequently encroaches upon sites that might be occupied by the more valuable red mangrove. The trees until comparatively recently have been indiscriminately denuded of their bark, with the result that an Industry which, with careful super vision, might have continued to be profitable has for the time being alraost ceased to exist. Until the Govern ment intervened and protected the best varieties of the trees, the mangrove forests were being systeraatically TIMBER RESOURCES 221 destroyed. Recently, however, raeasures have been taken to close certain areas against further depredation, and in the future, by a more careful stripping of the bark. It may be possible to preserve the trees. Mangrove bark is in great demand for tanning pur poses. It was formerly exported from practically every port and sraall harbour In the province, but recently it has only been shipped frora Quellraane, Mozambique, Beira, and possibly Port Amelia, Before the war almost the entire output was sent to Hamburg, whence much of the bark found its way to the United States, The industry w^as largely in the hands of one firm, Messrs, E, Becher and Co., which held a concession for gathering the bark from the Mozambique Corapany, but had no exclusive privilege in other portions of the province. These rights were subsequently acquired by the Mozam bique Trading and Plantation Company, The foUowing quantities of the bark were exported from the portions of the province administered by the Government : Tons 1904 4,321 1905 190619071911 3,1485,043 13,023 10.317 and in addition the following quantities were shipped through Beira : Tons 1909 501 1910 2,854 1914 3,860 Palms Of the four principal species of palms, in addition to the coco-nut palm (p. 205), Borassus fiabellifer, which 222 TIMBER RESOURCES often grows to a height of 60 or 70 feet and is dis tinguished frora the other palms by a peculiar globular swelling on the trunk or stera, is not believed to be indigenous. This palra at present Is used by the natives for the production of surra, a fermented liquor ; but in German East Africa it also furnishes thatch, rope, and other similar articles. Hyphaene, a very similar palm, yields an excellent fibre, as does Raphia, the bamboo palm, from which Is obtained the useful fibre known as Raffia grass. The fifth variety. Phoenix reclinata, or wild date, provides the native with cordage for aU pur poses, and Is esteemed for the palm-wine which it yields when tapped. The date palm is only found in Portu guese East Africa as an exotic, and there is no reason to believe that it would thrive anywhere in the country. Rubber There Is considerable diversity of opinion regarding the possibUity of ultimate success for the rubber industry. Upon no industry, unless it be the cultivation of cotton, have greater hopes been founded, and no industry has yielded such uncertain and Indecisive results. In con sidering both the cultivation and exploitation of rubber in Portuguese East Africa, two broad facts raust be borne In mind. In the first place, hitherto the greater portion of the rubber produced in the province has been obtained from the native Landolphia and other indigenous vines. These have been exploited in two diff'erent ways, both suited to the particular districts in which the forests are found — by extracting the rubber from the stems and by separating It from the roots. The difference between the secretion of the stem-rubber and the root-rubber has an important bearing on the economic value, not only of the two classes of rubber produced, but also, at any rate at present, on the value to the country of the two classes of RUBBER 223 forest, as the one requires diff'erent methods of manage ment from the other. In both cases, however, it would appear that by the methods employed the forests are denuded, perhaps not permanently but certainly for a prolonged period, of a product that under better con ditions might be renewed more quickly than is at present the case ; although- it would appear that in the territory of the Mozambique Company considerable care Is now exercised to prevent the destruction or even weakening of the creepers. The second fact to be kept in mind is that In addition to what may be termed the native rubber industry, attempts have been made, and are still being made, to establish a large plantation industry. This Industry Is unconnected with the exploitation of the natural forests of the country, and must in reality be considered as a separate undertaking. Rubber Resources Various estimates have been made as to the value of the rubber contained in the forests of the province, none of which can be considered as satisfactory or conclusive, Mr, Lyne, a former Director of Agriculture of Portuguese East Africa, has estimated that there are probably a million hectares of Landolphia forests, containing rubber of the value, at £10 per hectare, of £10,000,000; but this estimate, under the existing circumstances both of extraction and exploitation, can be nothing more than a rough guess as to the rubber resources of the country. Moreover, the decrease in the value of forest rubber owing to the competition of the plantation rubbers of Malaya has prejudicially aff'ected the collection of native rubber both In Portuguese East Africa and elsewhere. It may be considered doubtful whether, in the absence of cheap and abundant labour, much forest rubber can now be extracted at a profit. It can, however, be asserted 224 RUBBER that throughout most portions ofthe province, Landolphia and other rubber vines are to be found, growing from within a few yards gf the seashore up to elevations as high as 4,000 feet above sea-level. Undoubtedly vast reserves of rubber exist in the forests of Portuguese East Africa, but the districts in which the rubber under present circumstances can be profitably worked are limited in area. Before considering the chief rubber areas ofthe province, it is desirable to give some account of the different plants producing rubber that are to be found in the country. By far the most important is Landolphia Kirkii, which until recently was the only indigenous plant exploited for rubber. This Is a scandant shrub, or a rampant climber, in accordance with its surroundings, and is one of the ten rubber-yielding Landolphias found within Portuguese East Africa. Like most of the species, it Is a dweller In moist forests and rocky mountainous ravines, where its growth Is strengthened and Increased by the dense tree growths and the constant irrigation of the torrents from the marshy plateaux above. The typical Landolphia Kirkii prospers best in the thick jungle. The plant, in comraon with Landolphia Watsoni, is known to the natives as mhuungo, and they give to the fruit, of which they make a fermented drink, the name of mulungo and mango. Landolphia Watsoni and Landolphia Thollonii also yield marketable rubber, but Landolphia florida only gives a resinous product of no present comraerclal value. Of these, Landolphia fiorida and Landolphia Petersiana are the dry-country species. The former is common in Lourenzo Marques District, and the latter In Mozambique District and also in Zambezia generally, Landolphia Thollonii mainly occurs In the forest region between Inyamakombe and Tambara, Of other rubber-producing trees, Mascarenhasia elastica grows throughout the Maganja da Costa and Inyama- RUBBER 225 kurra and also In the Mozambique Company's territory, and probably supplies about half the rubber produced north of the Zambezi, It is claimed that the rubber produced from this tree is only slightly Inferior to that obtained from Landolphia Kirkii. Ficus Vogelii, which is common In Manica and Sofala, is claimed by Mr. W. H, Johnson, the Director of Agriculture of the Mozambique Company, to yield a large amount of latex which raight be utilized profitably. Another tree, Diplorhynchus mossambicensis, which only occurs in the tropical dis tricts of the province, also yields a large amount of latex, but Its commercial value has not yet been ascertained. Distribution of Rubber Manica and Sofala. — The principal rubber-forests as a rule are not far frora the coast, and are thickest where there is the raost abundant and regular rainfall. With respect to the territories of Manica and Sofala, the rubber-producing areas are fairly well known, as the Mozarabique Corapany during recent years has syste matically studied the possibUities of their concession as a rubber-producing area. The principal rubber regions are Mossurise and Moribane, Here the plain, termed the Madanda, which Is crossed before the higher regions are reached, Is, unlike the coastal district of Chlloane, well-watered and, moreover, Is covered In some districts with dense forest. The principal forests are those of MapusI, Marlnga, Mutani, Mutanda, and Arucato ; and such exploitation as has already taken place has been done by zones, each district being closed to further denudation so soon as there are signs of exhaustion. In this way It is believed to be possible that the rubber areas may be conserved for many years for profitable exploitation, Johnson estimates that the forests here 226 RUBBER cover 35,000 hectares (130 square miles) if the clearings are omitted from the calculation. In the neighbouring Moribane region he estimates that there is another 40,000 hectares (150 square miles) covered with creepers out of a forest area of 100,000 hectares, and he states that the Landolphia district extends north-westwards to Masikesi and beyond. In Moribane the principal forests are Zomba, Maronga, Mabate, Menahira, Mpunga, and Bunga ; and here again the district is worked by zones. Throughout the whole of this region it is to be noted that the collecting is done at the end of, and even after, the rains, on account of special conditions of climate. In the southern district of Govuro, which lies to the south of the River Sabi, large forests exist which hitherto have scarcely been touched, partly because the means of communication are difficult and partly owing to the lack of a plentiful supply of labour. Amongst the forestal areas are Inyamokea, Sangazlve, Sangane, Inyadanda, Brometo, Inyakane, Makovane, Chatuko, Chidihdo, In- yapelle, Ingoko,and Mangarrere, covering raany thousands of hectares, but probably less rich in rubber than those of the districts further north. In the district of Sofala the principal forests are Sororojo, Dovenye, Chivenne, and Munyembwe, and various important forests in the concession belonging to the Companhia do Buzi ; and in the adjoining districts of Neves Ferreira and Beira, there are the Teu-Teu prazo, lying to the north-east of Cherin goma, which Is in reality one immense rubber forest, largely exhausted and closed for recovery, and other less Important forests. Further north, In the Zambezi region, there are the forests of Chupanga, exploited by the Luabo Company ; the Nheuze (Inyuze) woods in the Caia prazo, and the forests of Inyamunyo, Santa, and Abslntha, The last district, although it has a large native popula tion and excellent means of water-communication, hitherto has exported little rubber, but is nevertheless, from the RUBBER 227 economic point of view, one of the richest areas of this part of the province. Other Districts. — In the other provinces of Portuguese East Africa, the data for a study of the rubber resources are not so abundant. Nevertheless, large rubber forests are known to exist. Thus the Matadane forest, in the district of Angoche, lying between the Rivers Lardi and Moma and extending Inland for about 30 miles, is stated to be the only rubber forest, outside the territory of the Mozambique Company, under systematic management. Here, owing to the small rainfall, root-rubber alone is extracted. The latex apparently, under present con ditions, can only be obtained by digging up the roots, as it does not flow from the stem. North-east of Angoche is the Marigi forest in the Capitania-mor of Mosuril (Mozambique), and other rubber forests exist In the neighbourhood of Moginkwal and throughout the Maganja da Costa, though not so abundantly as else where. Nevertheless It is estimated that in the whole of this district there are considerably over a quarter of a miUion hectares of rubber-forest land. Through out Portuguese Nyasaland extensive rubber areas are found, but here, unless it be in the neighbourhood of the Rovuma River and to the west of the Lujenda, rubber does not appear to be so abundant as south of the Zam bezi, At present the chief collecting areas are at Mako- pira, Mwanga, Mpone, and Mbiko, from three to four days' march to the coast. With regard to the south of the province, It Is impossible to Indicate here the chief rubber areas. Rubber regions exist along the Maputo, throughout Zavala and the Mchope region, and in the Inhambane District, but here Landolphia does not attain the growth observed further north, and It Is doubtful whether these regions can be considered profitable from the point of view of European exploita tion, although extensive forests of Landolphia Kirkii p 2 228 RUBBER extending in a north-westerly direction from Massinga, which has the greatest rainfall in the district, are un doubtedly available for utilization. The real value of these reserves has yet to be tested, and probably much depends on the results obtained from working similar forests In Zululand, where attempts are being made to exploit the forests of Landolphia Kirkii, apparently without much success,^ Methods and Conditions of Extraction Rubber was an article of commerce In Portuguese East Africa long before European companies turned their attention to the exploitation of the forests. For many years it was monopolized by the Banyans and Monhes, who bought It from the natives In exchange for trade goods and sold It In the markets of Europe, The native collector, however, produced as much or as little as he desired, and, moreover, eraployed raethods of collection not only crude and unsatisfactory, but calculated in the long run to destroy the rubber resources of the country. As a rule the natives obtained the rubber from the roots of Landolphia and other vines, and took no particular care to see that it was free from dirt and grit or properly separated frora the bark, Mozarabique rubber was there fore classed very low as a marketable commodity. At the present time two native methods of extracting rubber are in use. The first, that of incision or tapping, Is followed by all natives south of the Zambezi, and produces a high-grade rubber known as Mozarabique pink, second only to the best Para on the European market. This result has mainly been obtained owing to tbe steps taken by the Mozambique Company to Improve 1 The Pongola Rubber Estates, Ltd,, which acquired 640 sq, m, of rubber country south of the Portuguese border, has since been wound up. RUBBER 229 the methods of extraction In their territory. Although no complete superintendence Is at present possible, the method by which the forests are now worked by zones at least prevents the premature exhaustion of the rubber areas. The other method, which Is general throughout the drier districts, where the latex does not flow easily from the stem, and in districts where there Is no effective supervision, results In the production of an Inferior rubber, and also, unless steps are taken to preserve the whole root from destruction. In the ultiraate death of the vine. This raethod Is knovsni as pounding. The bark Is stripped from the roots of the vines or from the vines themselves, or both, and is cooked over a small fire and pounded untU the bark Is more or less crushed out, leaving a raass of rubber in all stages of crudity, generally raixed with grit and dirt. This variety is known as Mozambique rooty, and Is usually classed very low, although In the Matadane District, whence rubber has been exported for many years, greater care Is exercised by the concessionary company, and the root-rubber thus obtained has a higher value than that obtained elsewhere. In this connexion It has been claimed that whUst the vines are frequently killed by incision, this seldom happens when the vine is cut down almost to the ground after maturity, and that the extraction of a large proportion of the roots does not necessarily kill the vine ; but this is a matter of con troversy. In certain districts machinery Is now used, and the work of the native consists simply of gathering the roots and vine. With respect to the exploitation of the rubber areas, the promulgation of the law of September 2, 1909, gave an Impetus to private enterprise. Large areas were taken up by various companies or individuals, although owing to lack of capital these areas have only been worked on a small scale or not at all. In the terms of 230 RUBBER the law above mentioned, which applies to the portions of the province under the direct administration of the Government, It is difficult for a foreign capitalist to acquire directly a tract large enough to give satisfactory returns on a big investment. By means of corabining several adjacent properties, there is a possibility of over coming this difficulty, but it is evident, nevertheless, that an Industry that certainly requires a large capital is not likely to attract the ordinary investor unless he Is con vinced as to the ultimate profits — ^and this under present conditions Is by no means the case. In the territory of the Mozambique Corapany, rubber raay be collected from specified districts under licence, and subject to an export tax of 12 centavos on each kilogramme of rubber collected, A similar duty is levied in British Nyasaland and other countries. Plantation .Rubber The industry of rubber-plantmg is in an experimental stage, and the question whether it has a future in the province remains unsettled. There exist in the districts of Lourenzo Marques and Inharabane; in the Sena district, at Guara-Guara and Massanzane on the banks of the Buzi river, and at Chibabava, in the territory of the Mozarabique Company ; and at Mutarara, Makanga, and elsewhere in the Zambezia Company's concession, several plantations containing trees that have reached the producing stage ; but on the whole, for various reasons, these do not appear to have been successfully worked. The Mozambique Corapany carae to the opinion In 1906 that the working of Ceara rubber was not sufficiently rerauneratlve, because It only produced a small quantity of latex difficult to extract. Nevertheless the Company, whilst then refusing to undertiake further cultivation and RUBBER 231 encourage the natives to practise plantations by dis tributing seedlings from their experimental farms in the circumscription of Sena and at Chibabava In Mossurise, subsequently started another experimental station at Zimbiti with young Ceara plants transferred from the Chimoio garden. Again, the experimental plantation of the Zambezia Corapany at Mutarara has apparently been abandoned. These facts and the opinions of experts indicate, not necessarily that Portuguese East Africa is unsuited for plantation rubber, either of the Ceara {Manihot Glaziovii), Castilloa, Hevea, or other varieties that are being tried, but that the selected areas have been unsuitable, the technical knowledge required has been wanting, and that. In a number of cases, too little attention has been devoted to the health and general condition of the trees. There are several other plantations in the country, and the economic possibilities of this Industry in Portuguese East Africa remain to be demonstrated,^ Rubber Exports The exports of rubber frora the province have varied considerably from year to year. This variation has been due partly to varying prices In Europe and partly to the fact that certain areas have been closed to exploitation. In 1913 there was a large decline, and the exports were valued at £11,550 and in the following year at £3,682 only (excluding Port Amelia), This decrease has been due to the extremely low prices prevailing in the Euro pean raarkets, which have not raade it profitable for the 1 Thus the Boror Company has large rubber plantations in the Quelimane District, but Johnson reported that ' no one understood how to tap or properly manage a rubber plantation ', but he believed that under proper management the trees should yield well. 232 RUBBER natives to coUect the rubber. The foUowing are the exports of rubber from Government territory:^ Tons 1905 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 43 75 62 8158 and from the territory of the Mozambique Corapany, gathered on account of the Company : Tons 40 52 19011902 19031904 1905 19061907 Tons 9 15 16 18 20 24 19 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1914 59 47 22 5 The value of the exports of rubber from the diff'erent ports since 1909, so far as can be ascertained, has been as follows : ^ Port 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 £ £ £ £ £ Lourenzo Marques 6,090 723 1,873 403 183 Inhambane 17,849 14,874 4,557 2,033 1,312 Chinde 460 394 530 260 — Quelimane 2,014 1,790 1,337 2,320 — Mozambique 18,694 4,519 8,380 3,914 719 Beira 27,405 18,596 11,063 2,620 1,448 Port Amelia — — — — 3,682 72,512 40,896 27,740 11,550 7,344 ' The figures do not correspond with those given in the Anudrio Colonial for 1916 (see below), ^ From American Consular Reports, The Anudrio Colonial gives the quantities and values of the rubber exported from FIBRE PLANTS 233 Fibre Plants Sisal There can be little doubt that the country Is eminently suited for the cultivation of certain fibre plants, particu larly sisal. Although until recently only experimental shipments of sisal have been made, large areas are under cultivation, and the reports received on the quality of the fibre indicate that sisal of the best quality can be grown In the province. Although sisal can probably be grown successfully throughout the province, with the possible exception of the most southerly portions, it would appear that the interior of the Quellraane District, away from the littoral portions of the Maganja da Costa and Mozambique Districts, the less humid portions of the Mozambique Company's territory, and the Inharabane neighbourhood are best suited for its cultivation. This opinion, how ever, is based upon the condition of the existing planta tions, and if further areas are placed under sisal there may be reason to modify the stateraent. Present Areas In the immediate neighbourhood of Lourenzo Marques, a small syndicate, with a plantation near Port Matolla, planted both sisal {Agave rigida sisalana) and Furcraea gigantea in 1907, and sample shipments of both are stated to have proved exceedingly satisfactory. Further north there are a plantation and fibre factory at the portions of the province under the direct administration as follows (the weights given appear to be wrong) : — 1910,-294,557' kilos,, value 206,784$ [£41,846]; 1911.-123,154 kilos,, value 108,433$ [£20,686] ; 1912.-164,168 kilos., value 77,227$ [£15,445] ; 1918.-991,257 kilos,, value 41,856$ [£8,271]; 1914.-106,047 kHos,, value 41,550$ [£8,310], 234 FIBRE PLANTS Mutamba, and an estate of 40,000 acres at Ravene, of which about 1,000 acres are under fibre plants. On the latter estate there is at present no machinery for extracting the fibre. The Mozambique Company is also growing sisal near the Zarabezi, in the Chupanga forest area, where by March, 1916, 2,500 acres had been planted. Practically all the large concessionary cora panies In the Zambezi area have extensive plantations of sisal. Thus the Corapanhia do Boror is stated to have alraost three raiUIon sisal plants (1913) and to be raaking preparations for planting as raany as ten ralUions, From this plantation 212 tons of fibre were extracted in 1914, As the Companhia do Boror was largely financed in Germany, special efforts have been made to emulate the success attained on the sisal plantations in German East Africa, The Companhia do Luabo also possess large sisal plantations containing some 660,000 plants, and further plantations in this region are being worked by the Zambezia Company at Bompona in the prazo Maganja- d'alem-Chire and at Aguas Quentes, near VUa Bocage, in the Masinjire prazo which extends along the Shire River frora the Zambezi to the Ruo, Here on a planta tion of 1,045 hectares there were, at the end of 1915, 1,866,068 plants which produced 154,794 kUos of fibre extracted at the factory at Vila Bocage and valued at £2,769 (13,749$), Fibre was first extracted during 1914, and the result of this first experiment is satis factory, Mauritius Hemp, Kapok, and Neiv Zealand- Flax Other exotic fibres that are being tried in the province Include Furcraea gigantea, or Mauritius hemp, Erio- dendron, or kapok, and Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax. The first, which is grown on nearly pure sand at MatoUa and on similar soil at Quisico, as well as in many FIBRE PLANTS 235 other places, seems to be suited for the southern portions of the province. The second product, Eriodendron anfractuosum, although not Indigenous, having been imported long ago Into Quelimane, Is now spontaneous In many parts of that district. The tree grows to a height of 60 to 100 ft,, and the seeds, iDedded in a white cottony wool, furnish the product known as kapok and exten sively used for packing, bedding, pUlows, &c. The pro duct Is of low value, but the tree. It Is stated, proves useful when it Is planted between rows of sisal as a pro tection for the latter. The third fibre-plant, Phormium tenax, is specially suited for moist places, where It grows luxuriantly and produces a large leaf supply containing fibre of high value. In addition coco-nut-fibre or coir, known to the Portuguese as cairo, is extracted by the Zambezia Company at Quelimane where, in 1914, 186 tons, and In 1915, 109 tons were produced. Owing, however, to the heavy freights the export was carried on at a loss. Indigenous Fibre Plants Of fibre-producing plants which grow wild but have hitherto not been put to any practical use for export purposes there is a large variety in Portuguese East Africa, Of these Sansiviera, which yields a fibre of slightly higher value than Furcraea, grows in various districts but nowhere in large quantities. Several species of Sida are also scattered through the province but are not utUized ; and various kinds of Abutilon, a shrub known In the Mchope district under the name nytebasian and In Lourenzo Marques as nuce, are used by the natives for cordage, A similar under-shrub called sosowa {Urena lobata) in the Mchope district Is also used for cordage, whilst several species of hibiscus, particularly Hibiscus cannabinus, which possibly raay have been introduced from India and is now found near 236 FIBRE PLANTS cultivated lands, produce useful fibres which In India are considerable articles of commerce. Another plant, abundant In Zambezia but apparently not utilized by the natives. Is quisanana {Corchorus tridens). In Angola the natives manufacture a kind of silk-stuff from the stem and leaves of the plant, 'and soften the material with palm oil. Native ' Cloth ' Here it is desirable to indicate the use made by the natives of certain plants for the purpose of cloth manu facture. Although in the Lourenzo Marques District and around the chief sea-ports the natives generally buy Imported cloths and cottons, that is not the case in the remoter areas, where materials are manufactured by native processes from the natural products of the country. It is hardly correct to use the term ' cloth ' for the various unwoven materials used as clothing and blankets by natives In many parts of the province, for these articles are not woven fabrics but are siraply the cambium layer of the bark of various plants, stretched and beaten untU it is clean and dry and consists of the fibre only. This material is not manufactured throughout the province, but certain districts have practically a monopoly of the industry and supply the other areas with the manu factured article. This is especially the case in the Mchope region. In the neighbouring districts no cloth Is made, but there Ficus utilis, known as Mpama, Mpaam, Chailo, and Mpai, Is utUized for the raanufacture of cloth. The bark of Brachystegia spicaeformis Is used elsewhere : in this case, the raaterial being stiffer, the women chew It bit by bit until it becomes pliable. COTTON 237 Cotton Cotton until recently has been largely a faUure, Great hopes had been buUt upon the success of this industry, chiefly based upon the fact that the cotton plant occurs frequently throughout the province In a more or less naturalized condition and that the Zambezi region seemed to offer excellent terrain for Its systematic cultivation. It Is not established that cotton cannot be cultivated successfuUy In the province, but the majority of the experiments already tried have not led to the anticipated results, although it is possible that initial difficulties may be overcome and a cotton suitable to the cliraate and other conditions may be evolved: The ultimate success of the industry, which some think assured, in large raeasure depends upon the selection of suitable zones and the choice of the right species of cotton. Unfortu nately, however, the raany Initial failures have dis couraged the employraent of capital In further ventures, and the chief object of the larger companies seeras to be to leave the cultivation of cotton to the natives. So long ago as the beginning of the sixteenth century, Duarte Barbosa wrote that at Qofala (Sofala) ' they now make a large quantity of cotton and weave it, from which they make much white cloth'. In 1855 Livingstone reported that at Sena ' the natives would willingly culti vate large quantities of cotton could they find purchasers ', and stated that they had in former times exported largely both cotton and cloth to Manica and even to Brazil, He further reported that a sraall araount of first-rate cotton was cultivated by the natives for the raanufacture of a coarse cloth. Other travellers have constantly alluded to the presence of Gossypium, but Sim thinks that the only Indigenous species is a form of Gossypium herbaceum having short brown cotton, which is not uncommon in the forest glades of Maganja da Costa, and that the long- 238 COTTON shafted white cotton Is only to be found In the neigh bourhood of kraals or where it has been introduced by the natives. Moreover, he states that what is usually taken for wild cotton Is a convolvulaceous creeper, Ipomoea albivenia, worthless as cotton, so far as is at present known. Mozambique Company's Territory. — With respect to the territory of the Mozambique Corapany, It was. not until 1901 that a few trial cultivations were coraraenced. Shortly afterwards the company started a series of scientific studies on its two experimental gardens at Mambone and Chimoio, and as the result of these ex periraents established a plantation at Nova Fontes- vUa, on the railway about 60 mUes from Beira. Later another plantation on a larger scale was estab lished at Cherinda, in the Chiluane district. Cotton- growing was taken up in other districts, and by 1905 plantations were established in the Beira, Govuro, Neves Ferreira, Chimoio, Buzi, Mossurise, and Sena districts by private Individuals and companies who had planted 512 hectares, whilst the Mozambique Company itself had sraall plantations at Cherinda, Nova Fontesvila, Cheringoraa- Mazaraba, Sena, Chimoio, and Govuro. The result of these experiments did not establish the reputation of the territory as a cotton-growing area. The Oceana Con solidated Company, which undertook cotton-planting on a large scale at Chiromo and Govuro, where 1,800 acres were planted with Egyptian cotton, abandoned the plantation In 1907, owing to the irregular rainfall and a disinclination to spend large sums on the provision of irrigation works ; and this event proved a serious set back to the industry, Zambezia. — About the same period the Societe d'Etudes d'Entreprlses cotonleres au Zambeze abandoned Its planta tions in the neighbouring territory of the Zambezia Company, on the island of Inyangoma, owing to the fact COTTON 239 that the crops were attacked by the green-leaf blight {Malvacearum) and entirely destroyed. The experiment was carried on by the Zambezia Company, and after a series of failures due to insect pests the 1914 crop was expected to reach 300 tons, but was attacked by a plague of rats which destroyed nine-tenths of the quantity,^ These disappointments, however, have not entirely deterred cotton-planters In Portuguese East Africa, On the Company's plantation at Bompona 55 tons of cotton were produced from 500 hectares in 1914 and 45 tons frora 371 hectares In the following year, and at ChUorao 26 tons of cotton on 100 hectares in 1915 against 58 tons on 93 hectares In 1914, Cotton Is also grown by the Company on the prazo of Benga on the river Revugo, in the district of Tete, where in 1914, 10 tons were produced on 150 hectares. In the same territory cotton was extensively cultivated by the natives and considerable quantities were produced, but nowhere has the result yet been wholly satisfactory. Both the Zambezia Company and the Mozambique Company supply the natives with the seed and purchase the cotton from them at a fixed price. In the territory of the Mozambique Company the cotton Is ginned and baled at Vila Pontes and at Chemba. During 1916 about 600 tons were produced from, it is estimated, 6,000 acres. Other Districts. — Cotton has been grown in Gaza and along the Umbeluzi river. In the Amaramba concelho of the Nyassa Company's territory a few concessions have been granted, and In 1913 sorae 525 hectares in all had been planted. Various reports have been raade on the quality of the Amaramba cotton, and It has been stated that Nyasaland is eminently suitable for the cultivation of this product. At the International Cotton Conference, ' Report of a journey from Chinde to Tete [Cd. 7049-1], 1914, 240 COTTON held at The Hague in 1913, Nyasaland cotton was awarded a first prize. The natives have been encouraged to grow cotton. The Socledade Agricola de Quissanga, established In the region of that name, distributed along the^ coast seeds from Egypt, The Governor, In a report to the Exposi9ao Colonial, held at Lisbon In 1906, reported that as a result of this measure ' the cultivation of cotton was rauch developed ', In the Tungue district, on the other hand, the experiment proved a faUure, nor is indigenous cotton coramon In^ this region. In the districts of Medo, Mwalla, and laparata cotton grows in great abundance, as well as along the Lujenda, but is not cultivated by the natives. In the Lurio region cotton grows freely, but Is little cultivated. Varieties of Cotton. — The cotton grown in Portuguese East Africa is almost entirely that known as Nyasaland Upland, a long-staple kind forming a localized variety of an American cotton. The particular variety which is the progenitor of Nyasaland Upland is Floradora, Other kinds have been tried, especially Egyptian and West African cottons, and also Caravonica, but without success. At present most of tbe cotton is grown in the Zambezi region, but Lyne is of the opinion that the dry belt of the Mozambique region would also prove suitable for cultiva tion, Sim thinks that the Maganja da Costa raay prove a suitable region, whilst Nicholson believes that the higher regions raay eventuaUy prove the best districts for the plant. In any case the various adrainistrations seera desirous that every encourageraent should be given to the natives to cultivate cotton, and the Minister for the Colonies has recently approved a proposal eraanating frora the Governor-General of Mozarabique that the natives should be allowed to pay their taxes in seed- cotton wherever they choose to do so. It has been announced that the authorities will buy frora the natives COTTON 241 their surplus production of seed-cotton and that native planters, whose output should reach a miniraum of 200 kilogrammes (441 lb,) of cotton lint, and its equivalent In seed cotton, will be exempted from the head-tax for the year,^ Export. — The following have been the values of raw cotton exported during the years 1912-14 ^ : 1912 1913 1914 £ £ £ Chinde 1,950 7,078 4,305 Beira , 4,169 555 4,136 Quelimane . — 548 — COFEEE Coffee for many years has been cultivated In Portuguese East Africa on a small scale. The plant Coffea stenophylla differs only slightly from the West African species, and is now found wild in raany parts of the province, although it is believed to have been introduced originally by the Arabs, In the Inhambane District it occurs as a forest product, notably in the Coguno (Inyarrime) and Massinga regions, where it Is widely distributed. It has also been grown there by a few^ agriculturists. The coffee Is known on the market as Inhambane coffee, and has a flavour, different from the ordinary variety, which is generally regarded as an acquired taste on the part of the drinker. Small quantities are exported from time to time, and in 1912, 6,550 lb,, worth £216, were iraported into the Union of South Africa, though whether of the Inharabane or Ibo variety it Is not possible to deterraine. The latter kind has long been cultivated around Ibo, whence it has been exported for many years. Coffee Is also being grown in the Lake Concelho of Portuguese Nyasaland, 1 Eevista Colonial, April 25, 1915, 2 American Consular Reports. P.E A. Q 242 COFFEE but hitherto, apparently, without rauch success, although large quantities are cultivated in the neighbouring terri tory of British Nyasaland, Although It has been stated that ' coffee is like grass ' in raany parts of the territory under the administration of the Nyassa Company,^ it would not appear to have been cultivated successfully when tried on a large scale. Thus the Corapanhia do Boror had a large plantation of nearly 1,000,000 coffee plants, but as these were attacked by the Hemeleia vastatrix it was found necessary to burn the whole planting,^ SimUar troubles were experienced by the Zambezia Company, which established a plantation on the slopes of Morumbala Mountain, where for a time there were moderately successful results ; but this plantation has since been abandoned,^ In spite, however, of these faUures, experi raents are being raade by the Mozambique Company at altitudes varying from 1,700 to 4,200 ft,, and on diff'erent classes of soil, in the districts of Manica and Chimoio, At the Vumba experiment station and at other nurseries 250,000 plants from selected Nyasaland and Nairobi seed have been planted. Maize and Millet Some reference has already been made to the cultiva tion of maize and other cereals. In. every part of tbe province the natives cultivate large quantities of maize and millet for their own use, but hitherto, although markets are close to hand, little has been exported, save from tbe territory of tbe Mozambique Company, Although the Union of South Africa imports over £100,000 worth annually, not more than £1,684 worth was imported from Portuguese East Africa in 1913, and ' Vicente Almeida d'E9a, 1899. " African World, Dec, 1915, ^ Report of journey from Chinda to Tete [Od, 7049], 1914. MAIZE AND MILLET 243 practically none during the previous year. The surplus production from the territory of the Mozarabique Com pany found its way to Europe and realized the highest price for white flat maize at all European ports. This result has been attained largely through the action of the corapany ii} grading and cleaning the product at Beira, The following table shows the amount of cereals exported from the various ports during the years 1913-14 : Cereal Lourenzo Marques Mozambique Beira Total UnspecifiedMillet Maize £ 3,591 1 2,685 £ 5,6661^2 19,680^.2 £ 568 35,867 £ 568 9,257 58,232 On the high plateau in the Mozambique Company's territory the average yield per acre during the last five years has been 14 bags of 203 lb, each, but in some years it has been as high as 23 bags. The cultivation of this crop Increases yearly, and, apart from the local con sumption (which is considerable throughout the province) in the Mozambique Company's territory, it is estimated at 40,000 to 50,000 bags annually. The above figures show that the industry is now established upon an exporting basis. The maize is chiefly grown in the Revue valley and around Chimoio, where it 'has been a source of great profit to the farmers, who are now cultivating this grain in a more modern manner and, where means are possible, are buying agricultural implements and are doing away with the priraitive methods of simply burning or cutting down the trees to within a few feet of the surface of the gi-ound and hoeing between the stumps with hand labour. The land, it is stated,^ is being ^ From American Consular Reports: the rest from British Con sular Reports, ^ Figures for the year 1914, =* British Consular Report, 1910, Q 2 244 MAIZE AND MILLET properly cleared, and ploughs drawn by oxen are coming into use. Apart from the districts suitable for cereals raentioned on pp. 189-197, it would appear that the Maganja da.Costa is well suited for raaize or raealles, as there it can be sown any tirae between the ends of October and April, and it is possible to obtain five successive crops, two of them from the same land. Farther north in the Mozambique District maize is also grown by the natives for export purposes, whilst extensive areas suitable for raaize and millet are avaUable in Portuguese Nyasaland, The latter crop, known to the natives as mapira, and generally to Europeans as Kafir corn, forras one of the chief native products, but is only exported in small quantities from the districts of Lourenzo Marques and Mozambique, Rice With respect to rice, which In Portuguese East Africa is not extensively eaten by the natives, although It Is con suraed in considerable quantities by the Indian and Arab elements. Imports largely exceed the exports. In 1914 rice to the value of £57,927 ^ was imported into the province and tothe value of £46,300 (£73,357 In 1913) in transit for the Transvaal, whilst only £1,440 worth was exported. Rice is cultivated to a small extent by the great con cessionary companies, and a large plantation -was started in 1908 In the Chinde district, but was subsequently abandoned on account of the low prices obtainable owing to the competition of Indian rice. The greater part of the rice cultivated in the province, however, is grown by the natives In the coastal districts and around Chibuto on the Limpopo. In that district, in particular, there are ' Including £7,300 worth imported into Mozambique during 1913, ihe figures for 1914 not being available. RICE 245 large tracts available for Its cultivation that can be put under irrigation by natural gravitation. In the Quelimane area the rice districts can be irrigated by pumping from the rivers. But some of the finest rice lands in the latter neighbourhood are without fresh water, and could only be put under rice cultivation if the land were irrigated either by sinking wells or by constructing canals,^ The Zambezia Company has a factory for the hulling of rice. Here, in 1915, 315 tons of rice were dealt with, of which 27 tons were hulled for the company and 288 tons for other persons. The factory, hitherto, has been worked at a loss. One of the points in favour of rice cultiva tion is that the work of transplanting can proceed in wet weather when other work is held up. Tobacco The tobacco Industry in Portuguese East Africa Is hardly established upon an export basis, although tobacco has been gi-own for many decades by the natives for their own consumption — mainly in the form of large cigars which both sexes smoke, but also in the form of snuff, which is exceedingly popular. With the natives the habit of smoking hemp, however, is very common, and in some districts largely supersedes the use of tobacco. At present tobacco culture for export purposes is carried on upon a comparatively small scale, in spite of the fact that tobacco from Portuguese East Africa may be im ported free of duty Into the Transvaal and Rhodesia, though not Into the Cape Province, Natal, or the Orange Free State, Into the first country, tobacco in the form of the raw product and as cigars and cigarettes, and also in the forra of goorac and hookah tobacco, to the value of £6,154 and £9,082 In the years 1914 and 1913 respectively was Imported from the province ; and ' British Consular Report, 1910. 246 TOBACCO tobacco to the value of £2,828 was exported through Lourenzo Marques and Chinde in the latter year. The imports of tobacco Into the Union of South Africa, repre senting the excess of consumption over production, w^ere valued at £184,751 In 1913, so that a considerable market close to hand is available for the Portuguese product. On the other hand, tobacco to the value of £34,473 was imported Into Portuguese East Africa, or for transport to the Transvaal, so that a considerable local market is also available. Tobacco is cultivated in a sraall way in practically every portion of the province. The best is stated to be grown in the iraraediate neighbourhood of Inharabane and also at Inyarrirae and Maxixe, as well as in the Urabeluzi valley, but considerable quantities are produced in the Quelimane and Tete Districts. The latter region in particular seems to be well suited for the crop, although the occasional failure of the rainfaU Is a serious drawback to any extensive cultivation. Local opinion Is Inclined to place the Tete tobacco on a higher level than the hitherto favoured Inhambane variety,^ The wide range of soil and climate provides oppor tunities for growing a large number of varieties, Turkish, Araerican, Sumatra, and Havannah tobaccos have already been cultivated, but recent experiments at Bompona- have been concerned mainly with Araerican types of tobacco. Here the Zambezia Company has Introduced a notable improvement In the industry by erecting the first flue- houses in the province, so that the tobacco is now properly flue-cured instead of being air-cured as has hitherto been the case. At Bompona 36 tons were grown in 1913, the product per hectare being 818 kilogramnles ; but in the following year, owing to the failure of the rains at the period of transplanting, only 4i tons were produced, or slightly less than 107 kilogrammes per ' British Consular Report, 1914. TOBACCO 247 hectare. Tobacco cultivation has also been started by the Sena Sugar Company at Sinyal, on the Zarabezi to the north-west of Mutarara,^ and has also been grown by European planters in the Vuraba Hills, near Masikesi, while ' magnificent plantations ' have been seen in such remote localities as the banks of the Ruenya and Mwira in the Barue region. In the territory of the Nyassa Company the banks of the Rovuma and Msalu are the main sources of tobacco, and It is stated that on the fertile plateaux around Mtengula tobacco has been successfully grown. In this connexion it is worthy of note that the cultivation of tobacco forms a considerable industry In British Nyasaland, and that It will grow well on most of the upland soil. Fkuit-growing In 1913 fresh fruits to the value of £2,537 were Imported into Portuguese East Africa from the Union of South Africa, The greater part of this fruit, if not the whole, was sent to Lourenzo Marques. As many kinds of fruit can be cultivated successfully in the district, it Is clear that there has been want of enterprise in this direction, fbr instead of exporting fruit to supply the Transvaal markets the province hitherto in some measure has been dependent upon the Transvaal for its own supplies. For all practical purposes for some time to corae the district of Lourenzo Marques, the highlands ofthe territory of the Mozambique Company and possibly the iramediate neighbourhood of Quellraane are the only parts of the province that off'er any scope for the fruit-grower, parti cularly as the only market at present open to the producer is in connexion with passing steamships at the various ports and the local raarkets at the sea-ports. But there ' Report of Journey to Tete [Cd, 7049], 1914, 248 FRUIT-GROWING should be scope for the development of a fruit industry in the southern districts of the province : with a climate capable of producing such garden crops as cannot be cultivated In most parts of the Transvaal during the winter, and a season considerably in advance of those of Natal and the Cape Province, the district of Lourenzo Marques should be able to supply the early Transvaal market, and possibly export to Europe at a period when the market there is badly supplied. Fruit-growing should be undertaken on small well-selected areas of ten to twenty acres, and as a primary Industry rather than as one subsidiary to other agricultural pursuits. The condi tions are such that the producer must devote his attention to fruit-growing almost entirely, in connexion possibly with poultry-farming, and not to agriculture generally. The fruits that may be grown include oranges, naartjes, lemons, pine-apples, avocado-pears, guavas, peaches, man goes, persimmons, pawpaws, loquots, and bananas, though not all of these could be cultivated successfully in the Lourenzo Marques region. To these may be added the grenadlUa, sapodiUa, shaddock, egg-plant, and anonas, of which the custard apple or sweet sop {Anona squamosa) is the best known. With regard to oranges, which forra the most Important fruit capable of cultivation, a few trees are frequently found In the neighbourhood of kraals, and one or two orchards have been started on the Urabeluzi, near Masi kesi, and In the neighbourhood of Quelimane, At the latter place the mandarin orange grows to perfection. During the last few years 8,700 fruit trees, most of which are citrus fruits, have been planted in the Manica District, especially at Chimoio, and a sraall exportation into Southern Rhodesia has been established. SPICES 249 Spices Capslcuras and chillies are cultivated experiraentally by the Zambezia Company at Bompona. The cultivation of cinnaraon, vanilla, and the nutmeg has been suggested as possible in the Quelimane District. Beeswax In a country so rich In flowering plants as Portuguese East Africa it is natural that one of the small native industries should be connected with the collection of honey and wax. The former is regarded as a delicacy by the natives, whilst the latter is exported In consider able quantities. In the Zambezia regions large quantities of both are obtained, while a considerable export of beeswax comes from the Barue region, where the natives attract the bees by using the outer part of a tree made into a hollow tube and smeared with the juice of the sugar-cane. The same process is followed in the Chupanga forests and elsewhere In the province. The exports of wax from the chief ports during 1913 were as follows : ^ £ Inhambane ... / iw 4,373 Beira . . , , 6,704 Chinde , , , , 2,710 Quelimane 1,555 Mozambique , 546 16,598 From the portions of the province under the direct administration of the Government the exports have been as follows : ^ American Consular Report. 250 BEESWAX Quantity in tons Value 1910 101 £9,690 1911 113 £11,359 1912 207 £18,636 1913 98 £8,983 1914 24 £2,156 Gums In addition to beeswax a small amount of copal is exported annually. Many of the trees of the province yield considerable quantities of gums and resins which, however, are scarcely put to any profitable use, except perhaps the gum of Sorindeia trimeira, a valuable timber tree, which Is used In the Maganja da Costa and else where for caulking boats. Other gum-yielding trees are the various Commiphorae, of which Commiphora africana is said to yield the gum known as African bdelium, Eriodendron, Bombax, Sterculia, Adansonia, and Euphorbia, The last, especially Euphorbia grandidens, is not uncomraon from the Limpopo to Inhambane, but less comraon farther north, and yields an abundant latex, as do several species of MImusops or red milkwood. Beans In addition to the products mentioned above, various others are cultivated in larger or sraaller quantities in different parts of the province. In the Lourenzo Marques District, In Gaza, in the uplands of the Mozarabique Company's territory, and elsewhere, the natives cultivate large quantities of beans, which are mainly used for their own consumption or are sold locally. Small quantities of butter beans, haricot beans, Canadian Wonder, and other well-known varieties are sent to the Transvaal market or to Rhodesia, The Phaseolus vulgaris and Phaseolus trilobus In particular are much cultivated. WATTLE PLANTATIONS 251 Wattle Plantations Another industry, which might well become one of the more Important of the minor forest industries of the country, has not yet been established in the province, although in Natal it is a successful enterprise. This is the plantation of the wattle-tree, the bark of which yields tannin. Experiraents have been raade to Intro duce this Industry into Portuguese East Africa, and in 1912 a German firm acquired an estate of 12,000 acres in the Vumba Hills for experimental purposes. The opinion has been expressed that on the Little Lebombos also, and on the low hills that intervene between them and the coast, the black wattle would prosper, but this Is , a rather dry area. In the Great Lebombos, however, especially around Namahacha, where the elevation Is greater, the rainfall heavier, and the soil richer, condi tions seera to be more favourable for experimental planting. Cassava Cassava or manioc is extensively cultivated by the natives, and in the neighbourhood of Inharabane a factory was at work in 1909. raaking cassava flour. The plant forras one of the principal foods of the natives, who when engaged on transport work frequently live only on the manioc obtained as they go along. Local Food-sqpplies The export of labour to the Transvaal seems to have had an unfortunate effect upon native cultivation, especially in certain districts. Though the natives usually cultivate sufficient land to supply their own immediate needs, and in some cases grow ground-nutsy mealies, sesame, and other products for export, they 252 LOCAL FOOD-SUPPLIES seldom have a sufficient stock of foodstuffs In hand to meet any sudden crisis caused by the faUure of the rain fall. For this reason local famines are not uncommon, even In parts of the country regarded as well cultivated, and are frequently preceded by the undue consumption of edible products in the form of fermented or distilled liquors. Travellers in reraote parts of the province have not seldom complained of the difficulty of procuring food. In 1912, for example, the work of the Geological Survey in the territory of the Mozambique Company was much Impeded owing to the want of native foods in the Mossurise and Moribane districts, consequent upon the failure of the rains during the preceding season. As pointed out elsewhere, this failure in the native food- supply is generally indicated In the export returns by the ^ increased exportation of mafureira and by a decrease in the exports of wax and similar products. To obtain the necessary money to purchase food, the natives are obliged at such times to undertake work, such as the collection of mafureira seeds, which in ordinary times they would not perform ; while, naturally, the output of Vax is dependent upon a good season. Fermented Drinks With regard to the manufacture of fermented drinks, mentioned above, there is hardly a useful plant in the province from which the natives do not manufacture some kind of liquor. Although the distilling of spirit is illegal, except under certain conditions, throughout the province, as It clashes with the trade in low-grade Portuguese wines, illicit stills are to be found all over the country, Araong the favourite substances used for the production of spirits are the fruits of the pineapple and cashew and the various anonaceous fruits known as shangala, tinta, ' mkaloga, &c,, and almost every other FERMENTED DRINKS 263 edible fruit. Cassava, sweet-potatoes, coco-nuts, and mangoes are all used for this purpose, and an enormous quantity of the drink thus produced Is consumed in the province, Sorae of the liquors are partly in the nature of foods. Thus f;he surra made from coco-nut railk is of this nature ; and the liquors raade frora the various grains, and the palra wine manufactured from the sap flowing from the cut crown of Hyphaene and other palms, wUl help to sustain life in times of famine. From Zizyphus jujuba, the English jujube, the Portuguese masonje, and the native masawa, a fermented drink is made by the natives. The shrub is widely distributed and Is comraon In the tropical districts of the province, where it is frequently found in semi-cultivation. Native Drugs and Medicines Among the large variety of Indigenous plants, there are many that are of use as drugs and for medicinal purposes. For cuts, blisters, sores, and bruises the heated leaves of Aloe mctculata are in comraon use. In Manica and also in the districts bordering upon Lake Nyasa the Calumba root {Jateorhiza calumba) is in con siderable demand and is being exported as a drug. It is common in the Ibo district, along the ^ Zarabezi, and also around Memba Bay.^ Samples fetch about 22s, for 50 kilogrammes In Europe, The drug has tonic properties. Experimental shipraents of the seeds of Strophanthus Kombe have been made bythe Mozambique Company. This plant is coramon in the Gorongoza district and is known for Its medicinal properties. The dorraideira {Papaver somniferum) is common in Zambezia, especially along the margins of the Kwakwa, In 1874 a corapany was formed at Lisbon especially for the cultivation of this plant, for the extraction of opium, and ^ Plantas uleis da Africa Portugueza, pelo Conde de Ficalho, 1884, 254 NATIVE DRUGS AND MEDICINE a factory for this purpose was established at Mopeia.^ Another shrub useful in cases of fever is mutune {Harongia madagascariensis), which is common in the same region, especially in the Boror prazo. It exudes an abundant resin, of a brUliant vermilion colour, and for medicinal purposes is stated to be superior to Psorospermum febrifugum. The latter is found in the Manganya HUls, Both Ximenia caffra and Ximenia americana are abundant in tbe province. The former is found in the Lourenzo Marques District and is comraon in the Leborabo Mountains, The latter is more frequently found in the Zambezian regions and is known to the natives as kolotchan and to the Portuguese as muhinge. The plant contains an oil which the natives of certain portions of Africa use for the body and hair. The Magnifera indica, or mango, is widely distributed in the tropical forests of the province. The bark of the root is used by the natives of Angola, and probably also by those of Portuguese East Africa, in eases of dysentery and colic. Cassia angustifdia is eomimon In the Tete District, and in other countries is used for the production of senna, Bauhinim reticulata, the mulolo of the Portu guese, is found in the valley of the Shire and in portions of Zambezia, The bark is astringent and is used in cases of fever and for external application to ulcers, A strong purgative used by the natives is Jatropha curcas, the purgueira of the Portuguese colonists. This Is more or less naturalized throughout the province and is common in the Komati, Sena, and Tete districts. It frequently forms a rough hedge round the native kraals. In other parts of the Portuguese possessions the bush is specially cultivated for export purposes, notably In the Cape Verd Islands. Cannabis sativa, the hemp of comraerce, is cultivated by the natives for the sake of Its intoxicating properties. 1 Plantas uteis da Africa Portugueza, pelo Conde de Ficalho, 1884, LIVE-STOCK 255 Live-stock Cattle Experience In Portuguese East Africa has been par ticularly unfortunate in the matter of cattle. In the Mozarabique province such cattle as the natives possessed were ruthlessly slaughtered by order of the Governraent in the endeavour to stamp out East-Coast fever, an attempt which has been successful in the whole of the district south of the Limpopo;^ though considerable parts of the regions to the north are stated to be infested with the disease.^ The question of cattle-breeding in Portuguese East Africa, therefore, is largely connected with the re stocking of those districts that have been denuded of their stock, and this more particularly applies to the district of Lourenzo Marques, stretching frora the basin of the Limpopo to the Great Lebombos, pre-eminently forming a cattle country, and. It is stated, one of the best grazing areas in South Africa, =* A large portion of this area is semi-forested low veld that would pasture eight or nine head of cattle per 100 acres, and In round numbers it is estimated that this territory could graze a million head of cattle, although at present only 5 per cent, of that number is carried.* The grazing lands of this district are estimated at some 16,000,000 acres,^ but in 1913 there were only 47,763 cattle, which increased to 67,862 in the following year,« If this esti mate refers to horned cattle and not to cattle generally, there has been a considerable improvement in the last few years. 1 Bul. Imp. Inst., vol, xi, p, 102, 1911, * Lyne, p. 138, 1913. 3 On this point see ante, p, 191, * Bul. Imp. Inst, vol, xi, p, 102, 1911, « Brit. Cons. Report, 1912. « Ditto, 1913. 256 LIVE-STOCK Cattle-breeding In the province must be viewed from two standpoints : that ofthe breeder In Lourenzo Marques and Gaza, and that of the planter in the tropical areas, for whom in most districts cattle-breeding can never be more than a subsidiary industry. Moreover, one factor of enormous importance to the welfare of the country must be taken into account — the breeding of cattle for draught purposes in order that methods of communica tion, which at present are almost confined to such railways and waterways as are available and to native transport, may be improved. At present whole districts are in accessible for aniraal transport owing to the presence of fly -belts. Throughout large districts horses are subject to horse-sickness unless stabled at night and otherwise cared for, mules are not immune from the same trouble, and donkeys are too light for the mud and sand, whilst cattle are entirely absent.^ Apart from Lourenzo Marques and Gaza, no part of Portuguese East Africa can be considered specially suitable for cattle, with the exception, perhaps, of the Inhambane country, when that region shall become free of East Coast fever. This statement, however, refers to the European herds, or to native cattle crossed with European varieties. It is probable that the hump-backed cattle, known as zebus, which inhabit India, East Africa, and Madagascar, are specially suited for the more tropical regions and may be used with advantage for Improving such local herds as remain. Experiments In this direction, undertaken by the Mozambique Company, have met with some success. The Zambezia Company, however, has experimented at Bompona with Hereford bulls. Here, or in the district, there Is a herd of over three thousand cattle. The number of cattle in the possession of the Company has fluctuated, and It Is clear that attempts at '¦ Sim's Forest Flora of P. KA., p, 2, 1909, LIVE-STOCK 257 breeding have not succeeded In establishing a regular increase. In the territory of the Mozambique Company It Is stated that the Company sell annually about 1,000 head of cattle from their herds by public auction, in order that farmers may obtain Improved breeds. The Company is said to possess about 5,000 head near the Zambezi River and 3,000 in other parts, and in the territory there were about 34,000 cattle at the end of 1915, The following table gives the numbers of horned cattle in this region and shows that a considerable Increase has taken place : 1905 1908 1912 1913 1915 Property of the Company Owned privately 2,035 2,987 3,779 6,147 6,004 15,696 6,348 18,464 7,609 26,818 5,022 9,926 21,700 24 810 34,427 The Mozambique District is almost destitute of cattle, while in the territory of the Nyassa Corapany, at a few places near the coast, there are stunted herds of Mada gascar cattle ; but most of the country is unsuitable for cattle raising, owing to the wide distribution of tsetse fly. However, near Lake Nyasa there are considerable herds of the heavier Angoni cattle owned by the natives and by a few European settlers,^ Sheep, Goats, &c. For sheep, goats, and other domestic aniraals Portu guese East Africa would appear to off'er very little scope. The figures for the Mozambique Company's territory give (1915) 9,142 sheep (18,220 in 1911), 21,822 pigs (33,155 in 1911),34,908 goats(60,224 in 1908), 24 horses, 70 mules, 1 Consular Report on Porto Amelia, 1912. P.E.A. R 258 LIVE-STOCK and 301 donkeys. These figures" include the Company's property and animals in private ownership. They show that there has been a considerable loss during recent years owing to disease. In the territory of the Zambezia Com-' pany the figures are even more discouraging, for the Company possessed only 135 sheep, 305 pigs, 49 donkeys, and one mule. Figures are not available for other parts of the province. CHAPTER VII MINING AND OTHER INDUSTRIES Mining : Mineral Areas — Manica — Tete — Southern districts- Northern districts. Other Industries : Whaling — Fishing — Salt. Mining Mineral Areas ^ Broadly speaking, the exploited mineralized areas of Portuguese East Africa constitute, so far as is at present known, two separate and distinct regions. One of these consists of an irregularly-shaped area on both sides of the Zambezi, but chiefly to the north of that river, and comprising a number of isolated fields and alluvial water courses, all within the district of Tete, The other is in the Manica country of the Mozambique Company's terri tory : Masikesi forms Its centre. It is much better defined and more compact, and extends over the border Into Rhodesia, where it is known as the Umtali gold-field. Much the less known of these two mineral areas is that of Tete, while the value of mineral resources in other parts of the province, as will be seen later (pp, 277 seq?), is alraost wholly unproved, Manica In this region a number of minerals of comraerclal importance occur, and both gold and copper are profitably worked. ' See Map IV, R 2 260 MINING Gold The district Is drained by the Revue and its affluents. These streams descend from granite highlands and flow over a series of metaraorphic rocks consisting of quartzites and schists, which are traversed by numerous veins of auriferous quartz. Samples of the latter have been found to yield as much as thirty ounces of gold per ton, and the average yield of the richer veins is stated to be from six to seven ounces per ton. The alluvial deposits of the district are all more or less auriferous, and veins of talc (French chalk) and asbestos are also stated to occur. Except In the immediate neighbourhood of Masikesi (Macequece) little prospecting has been done, although the country Is filled with ancient workings and Is known to have produced considerable quantities of gold during the early period of the Portuguese domination. The mineral ized zone in this area extends along the line of hills on and near the Rhodesian boundary from the Ruenya and Mazoe Rivers on the north to the Sabi on the south, and includes about midway the Masikesi field. Evidence for this Is to be found in the alluvials of the rivers in the districts of Barue, Manica, Moribane, and Mossurise, which flow from these highlands ; and some of these auriferous deposits, such as those along the Luzite, Zambuzi, and Inyamukarara, have been successfully worked. The fact that most of these rivers contain alluvial gold points to the existence of gold reefs in the frontier mountain chain from which they flow, but at present the principal reef claims lie not more than 10 miles north, and not raore than 12 miles north-west of Masikesi, This region is at present, therefore, the only area in which reef-mining has been carried on during recent years. That the Manica gold-fields have not fulfilled their early promise is shown by the number of failures of mining companies and syndicates which have been engaged in this district. Through faulty management and from MINING 261 other causes a number of mines, at first thought to be rich in gold, have remained shut down, and so have ceased to contribute to the output. By far the greater amount of gold Is secured from the alluvial diggings belonging to the Andrada Mines, Limited, Two companies only appear to be actually interested in the Manica region. The first of these, the Andrada Mines, was registered on September 11, 1911, to acquire the properties of the Mozambique Mines, Limited, as well as certain concessions from the Mozambique Company, with an authorized capital of £250,000, This company owns a large number of alluvial claims along the Revue River, as well as the only producing mine of any impor tance — the Braganza mine. With respect to the former the prospecting was so satisfactory that a dredger and machinery for the erection of an electric generating station was procured and operations begun at the end of 1913. On the quartz property crushing wals re-started in January 1913. The second company is the Mozam- bique-Macequece, Limited, which was registered on May 11, 1903, with an authorized capital of £175,000, This company owns the Guy Fawkes mine, formerly known as Pardy's, which after 1900 ceased to contribute to the production, but was re-started in 1906, and though in 1913 operations again ceased, this mine was responsible for nearly half the total reef output In 1916, The following table gives the gold output of the territory since 1905 : 1905 19061907 1908 1909 19101911 1912 oz. £ 1,712 7,197 2,284 9,623 2,591 10,925 3,464 14,605 3,866 16,235 6,303 24,491 10,111 262 MINING oz. £ 1913 — 23,955 1914 — 63,733 1915 — 53,571 1916 11,217 46,501 The following were the producing mines in the year 1916: Reef oz. Cyanide Braganza , . . . 184-94 Guy Fawkes . 493-62 Central ,, . , 27-39 Chimeze Banket 14-09 Great Gold Pot . 94-25 Pardy's West . 109-59 South Firenza , 56-96 Firenza , . . 3-34 Saxonia , , , 11-71 Wednesday . , 24-35 London , , , 24-60 Braganza , oz. 172-89 Alluvial Manica Alluvial 9,999-06 Total 11,216-79 1044-84 Value £ s. d. Reef gold , 5,047 4 7 Alluvial gold 41,454 5 8 Total £46,501 10 3 Ancient Workings. — In the course of his prospecting work In Manica, Colonel d'Andrada verified the enorraous extent of the ancient workings which are raet with in all the valleys and often on the sides and suraraits of the hills. In the alluvial deposits these ancient, mines con sist of shafts sunk to the bedrock, or as far as the level where water was encountered. The shafts are almost all of cylindrical shape, often widening towards the bottora, and in certain cases galleries were driven close to the bedrock, following what was probably the course of some lead that was richer than the rest. Side by side with these gold-workings others are to be met with which by the ores used prove that iron was produced on a large scale. Large quantities of ferruginous slag are found in heaps, and nuraerous well-built furnaces In fire- MINING ^63 proof clay are to be seen everywhere,. In the Inyamu- .karara valley, on a spur ofthe Vengo Mountain, thousands of tons of slags and traces of large villages aro tq , be met with. Of the numerous ruined buildings which, d'Andrada found, sorae are attributed to the supposed Arab-Sabaean colonists and others to the Portuguese. The majority of these remains are In the neighbourhood of Masikesi, but others have been found in the Bandiri area, about 66 miles south-east of Masikesi, and at Inyamgwena at a place called Baboon's Kop. The Inyaragwena workings lie near to the frontier between the Bonde and Inyamgwena rivers, and prospecting trenches within recent years have been put down here at an elevation of 4,800 feet ; ..but it, does not appear that there has been any output of gold. . , Copper. — In addition to gold, considerable quantities of copper have been produced in the Company's territory, especially from the Edmundian mine, which was mainly owned by the Consolidated African Copper Trust, and subsequently acquired by the South African Copper Trust, which has since been in liquidation. These raines, which are now closed. on account of a breakdown of raachlnery in 1910, are situated along the upper waters of the Zarabuzi, from 7 to 1 0 miles w-est of Masikesi and close to the Rhodesian border. The value of the output of copper during the years 1906-10 was as follows : £ £ ¦ £ 1906 172 1908 3,495 1910 20,585 1907 2,588 1909 22,111 , Traces of copper have been found . in other .portions of the Mozambique Company's territory, especially near the confluence of the Sabi and Lundi Rivers,, where It Is reported that ancient copper workings of. considerable size exist. , U . - Other Minerals. — Although there are no positive evi dences of coal, the existence of this mineral In the 264 MINING Melsetter District at no great distance frora the frontier suggests the possible presence of coal in the neighbouring Mossurise District, whUst the formation of the country around Sena is also stated to suggest the extension of the Tete coal area in this direction. Graphite has been reported from the highlands of Gorongoza and the southern slope of the Vengo Mountain, and galena, chromate of lead (crocoisite), malachite, and azurite from the Masikesi region. Geological Survey. — A systematic survey ofthe mineral possibilities ofthe territory was begun in 1911 on behalf of the Company under the direction ofthe Imperial Institute, At the same time the Company started the publication ofa quarterly mining journal. The territory investigated by the Geological Survey in 1911 included the districts around Spungabera, Zinyumbo, parts ofthe Buzi and Sabi valleys, some country between the Buzi and Luzite Rivers, and part of the Luzite valley, or roughly part of' tbe country that forms the western portion of the district of Mossurise, lying between the Rivers Sabi and Luzite and immedi ately to the east of the Rhodesian border. In 1912 the Munyinga valley up to the frontier, where the country rises to a height of 6,000 ft, above sea-level, and the country around the Makuta range and the Munyinga valley as far as its junction with the Yamamanda, were investigated. The region between the Inyaragwena and Bond! Rivers, including the ridge known as Baboon's Kop, the Bandiri District, and certain strearas flowing from the Mabati highlands were also visited, and the ancient workings at Bandiri thoroughly studied. In addition portions of the Revue valley, part of the Zumbo region, and the southern part ofthe Chimanimani range, including the upper portions of the Merere and Mafusi valleys, were visited. The survey was Interrupted by the war. MINING 266 Tete A large portion of the Tete District is reported to be highly mineralized, but hitherto little has been done to develop the resources of this region. Owing to a variety of causes, mainly connected with difficulties of transport, want of sufficient capital, and inadequate labour supply, most of these efforts have had no decisive results, and the mining companies have had to suspend operations. Owing to these initial drawbacks foreign capital has not been foi-thcomlng for the development of northern Zambezia, and a region that Is undoubtedly rich in mineral deposits has been neglected by the investor. Gold. — Whatever may be the economic future of the region, there can be no doubt that in the past large quantities of gold, and probably silver, have been pro duced in the country. As is the case with Manica, considerable areas of the Tete District are honeycombed with old workings, some of which are attributed to very ancient times, whilst others are of a rauch later period. From' the sixteenth century onwards the native miners would appear to have bartered considerable quantities of gold with the Portuguese, and later to have worked as slaves under their direction. In more recent times a few Portuguese have worked their own gold-diggings with the aid of native labour. Apart from these efforts, however, little systematic prospecting was undertaken until the Zambezia Company acquired in 1892 mineral rights over the whole of the Tete District and also within the district of Zambezia west of the Likungo River, although the Societe des Fondateurs de la Compagnie Generale du Zambeze had been formed In 1880 mainly for the purpose of exploring the concessions acquired by Sr. Joaquim Carlos Paiva d'Andrada in 1878. Yet though a consider able amount of prospecting bas been undertaken, there 266 MINING are, fievertheless, many districts in which the mineral resources are Imperfectly known, and others in which operations have not been carried sufficiently far to demonstrate either the value or the worthlessness of the mineralized areas. It Is premature, therefore, to express any opinion as to the future mining possibilities of the "Tete District further than to observe that, corapared with other regions in Africa, such, for instance, as the Katanga area, at first condemned as worthless frora the economic standpoint, the Tete District deserves more systematic investigation than it has received, • Ancient Workings. — Before considering the chief miner- filized areas In the territory it is desirable to examine the reason for considering that a proportion of the gold exported frora Portuguese East Africa carae from the Tete region. Although the larger amount doubtless was sent from the Manica District to Sofala and a considerable portion came from the Mazoe region, through Zumbo and down the Zambezi to Quelimane and Mozambique, a certain amount was produced by slave labour under Portuguese supervision, and possibly by, independent native labourers, working in the Tete District, and was sent to Tete either frora the north or from the districts immediately south of that centre, Joao dos Santos, in his Ethiopia Oriental in 1609, says ' I do not mention gold as there is a great quantity of it In all parts of this territory of Fura ; I shall not mention either the fine silver of Chicova, where it is well known that there are nilnes of It, as I shall refer to it later ', The Chicova silver mines here raentioned attracted the attention of the Portuguese Government, which sent out an expedition under the command of the Governor, Francesco Barreto, to gain possession of the mines. The fabled riches of Chicova (Chikoa) have not yet been located, although Mr. S. J. Lett, who has made a study of the Zambezian piineral areas, believes that they are still known to the MINING 267 natives. What Is definitely known about the district is that at the end of the eighteenth and early in the nineteenth century there was a recrudescence of mining In the Tete area. Gon9alo Caetana Pereira, who acted as guide to Lacerda and was known to the natives as Dumbo-Dumbo, worked his gold-diggings at Marenga ; and other Portuguese employed slaves In the same region. • Distribution of Gold. — The opinion of Livingstone regarding the mineral areas of the Zambezi Is as follows : ' If we consider Tete as occupying a somewhat central position in the [Zambezi] coal fields and extend the leg of the compass about 3| degrees, the line which may thus be described from north-east round by west to south-east, nearly touches all the districts as yet [1857] known to yield the precious metal. We have five well- known gold washings from north-east to north-west. There Is Abutun, not now known, but it must have been on the' west or south-west, probably on the flank of the eastem ridge ; then the country of the Bazlzulu or Mashona on the south of Manica or the south-east ; the Rivers Mazoe, Ruia, and Ruenya In the south, and several rivulets In the north, bring gold into the coal fields with their sands, but from much trituration It is generally in such minute scales as would render amalgamation with mercury necessary to give it weight in the sand and render the washing profitable. The metal in some parts of the north Is found in red clay-shale, which is soft enough to allow the women to pound it in wooden mortars previous to washing. At Mashinga it occurs In white quartz. Some of the specimens of gold which we saw In Manica , , , were as large as grains of wheat, and those from Tete extremely minute dust only, . , , This province [Tete] is rich in gold, Tete carries on rauch trade with the country of Maravis, an Industrious people inhabiting a fertUe and healthy district, abounding in 268 MINING many places with gold, especially about Java and the river Bua,' The gold thus aUuded to by Livingstone was still being worked at Pamba, Matemwe, Chifumbadzi (Mano), and Misale, by rudimentary processes during the first quarter of the last century, chiefly by white men or Indians with a large number of slaves at their command. Subsequently the country was devastated by the incur sions of Mpesene's hordes, and the history of the Tete region, so far as the production of gold is concerned, corresponds with the position of Rhodesia under the Matabele, The mines were abandoned, and when com parative peace was restored the absence of slaves made gold-mining an unprofitable occupation. The chief gold areas of the Tete District lie mainly to the north of Tete and particularly in the elevated region bordering upon British Nyasaland. In this region the principal centres are in the neighbourhood of Pamba, in the extreme north-west ; Chlnkoko, 40 mUes north-west of Chikoa ; Chifumbadzi (or Mano), 140 miles north of Tete and about 40 south of Misale ; Misale near to the River Luwia on the northern border ; Chindundo and Chawa, lying to the west of the Luwia ; Machinga lying between the Rivers Mavuzl and Pom we about 77 miles due north of Tete ; and Chlmblnga or Chibinga, about 83 miles SSE, of Zumbo, on the Masingwa River. Gold is also found along the watercourses of the Ruenya and Mazoe, flowing into the Zarabezi from the south ; and along the Revugo, Luwia, and other streams on the north. South of the Zambezi to the point where the Mazoe River crosses the Rhodesian frontier the formation changes from sandstone to various crystalline schists and then to melaphyre. Much of the gold In the Rivers Ruenya and Mazoe comes from British territory, but not all, as float gold quartz of good quality has been found on the hlUs MINING • 269 near Katandika's village in Portuguese territory. The gold obtained from the Ruenya is light and flaky, whilst that of the Mazoe Is heavier. The latter river was selected by the Zambezia Goldfields Company for dredging operations. Along the Revugo are evidences of extensive workings. About four railes east of Kakanga, and close to the confluence of the Moatizi River with the Kansuna River, upwards of 700 stone haramers have been coUected off the claims. About fifteen miles north are the exten sive gold workings of Inyamtamula, Inyamakopa, Inyanoro Hill, and Chlkarabi's village. The digging here was carried on by a Portuguese naraed Joao Figelo, known as Dinizu, who was subsequently killed by Chikusi's Angoni. Farther north, near Muchinga, in a region in which Campbell's Zambezia Minerals Corapany has been interested, gold has recently been worked in a primitive manner, whilst in the district between the Zambezi and Inyarawera's village, in the Magassa prazo, stated to be worth the attention of gold prospectors, the same Company has also done some work. Proceeding up the main road to Misale an extensive gold-field is met with in the neighbourhood of the Mwendi River, where there are numerous remains of old workings. Here mining rights were acquired by the Zambezia Goldfields and by Obrist and Co, About five miles north from the Muendi River are the old workings of Chifumbadzi, rediscovered by Mr, Karl Wiese, to whom 2,500 claims were granted at this place. Subsequently a company under the style of the ' Zambezia Bergbau- gesellschaft ' was formed In Berlin with a capital of £7,500 for development expenses. A considerable amount of work has been done here, and at the ' Maggie's Luck ' mine a large body of gold quartz was extracted and a crushing-mill set to work, but operations were sub sequently abandoned. Near to Chifumbadzi, in the Vubwe River, coarse gold has been obtained by sluicing, as also 270 MINING In the Luwia and Mlavl Rivers In the same neighbour hood. At Misale a large number of claims were pegged out on the old surface workings, and three companies — Zam bezia Goldfields, Obrist and Co,, and CampbeU's Zam bezia Minerals — commenced operations ; but here again, after a short period of activity, the claims were abandoned or the mines closed down. This region was reported "upon in 1908-9 by the Mineral Survey of British Nyasaland, and the country was described as consisting of talcose, chloritic, and quartzose schists, wdth granite hills. The Chabuino reef, which was stated to offer good prospects, has also been abandoned by Its owners. The Machinga mine, owned by Captain Campbell, where some work was also done, has since been closed down, and apparently the only mine worked within the last three years in the Tete District is the Molelelo (Mololela) mine, situated sorae 150 miles north of Tete In the neighbourhood of Chindundo, about 15 miles from the Nyasaland frontier, and about 8 railes from the foot of the range Zala-Nyama, Here a large auriferous lode, 25 ft, thick, and showing 8 dwt. to the ton, was discovered, and a syndicate, known as the Mololela Syndicate, was formed in London with a capital of £50,000, of which £20,000 was voted to development work,^ From the foregoing particulars it would appear that gold-raining in the Tete District has not hitherto met with success. Most of the various companies and syndi cates that have been formed either have been forced into liquidation or have been voluntarily wound up ; and very small results have come from the preliminary work of development. The Zambezia Company, which acquired Colonel Paiva d'Andrada's concession, did little practical work on its own account, and the Mining 1 Bevista Colonial, Feb, 25, 1914, MINING 271 Department presided over by Sr, Albano de Portugal Durao failed to fulfil the hopes that had been based upon it. In spite of the excellent work of Its director. In the middle of 1912 the mineral exploitation of the Tete Dis trict was entrusted to the Zambezia Mining Development, Limited, with a capital of £250,000, which undertook to survey the mining regions and to provide for their active development. This company was about to be recon stituted at the outbreak of the war. Copper. — There are several areas in the Tete District In which traces of copper have been found, Lett states that northern Zambezia is ' a great copper field ', but hitherto little development work has been undertaken. Copper exists in the Mazoe country, along the Revugo River, around Chikoa, and in the district between Zumbo and Pamba, At Kakanga, in the prazo of Marabue, near the confluence ofthe Revugo and Moatizi Rivers, two shafts have been sunk and an adit started, and similar preliminary works have been undertaken at Pandamakwa, on the right bank of the Zambezi, between the rivers Mezanangwa and Chikakomo, where claims have been pegged out and shafts and tunnels constructed. The ore occurs In beds of crystalline micaceous limestone, overlying beds of micaceous schist. In the forms of metallic copper, bornlte, cuprite, and copper glance. There are indications of copper over a wide area at Inyasanga, to the west of Tete, and along the Inyam^ bunado River at Inyondwe, on the left bank of the Zambezi opposite Boroma, Here Campbell's Zambezia Minerals Co, have done some preliminary work. In the Morinde prazo, farther up the Zambezi, a copper reef, discovered by Colonel Paiva d'Andrada, has been traced for about a mile, and along the banks ofthe Mavuzl River, on the left side of the Zambezi, many old copper workings are to be found, as well as at Panzo, in the district be tween the Mezanangwa and Chikoa, and a few mUes east 272 MINING of Chiperi, about 25 mUes from Tete on the main road to Misale, This district Is considered by Mr, Lett to be the most promising area for copper developments, ' The indications of copper within the square enclosed by long, 33° and 34° E, and lat. 15° and 16° 10' S. are so numerous ', he states, ' that there seems every probabUity of there being several big workable deposits found : it seeras contrary to nature for the raineral not to have been concentrated into workable deposits when It is so abundantly distributed.' Writing on the same subject Mr. R. C, F, Maugham says : * What I look upon as a source of more assured mineral wealth in this portion of Zambezia than all the gold , , . is the copper which has been found to exist between the Lupata Gorge and the Coroabassa rapids, Pandamacua is a name which has been given to an extensive rocky mountain chain situ ated within this area, and the name in the local dialect of Chi-Nyungwe is said to mean " fill yourself with copper ". , , . Very iraportant discoveries of this valuable metal have been raade in the ralca-schlstose forraation presented. It occurs In several forms, those of cuprite, malachite, native copper, and several others. Ancient workings in two long lines show plainly that of old considerable development by rudimentary means was here carried out, , , , Much work of a prospecting character tends to show that copper is, without doubt, very extensively deposited hereabout The fields are only about two miles frora the Zarabezi.' Other Minerals. — Other minerals in the Tete District of which indications have been found are magnetite, wolfram, galena, tin, mica, graphite, corundum and coal, and It is stated that petroleum has been found close to the Anglo-Portuguese border on the telegraph route, at Kombezi, Magnetite Is present along the Revugo River in segregated raasses varying in size from sraall grains to huge blocks, and between Majassa and Chltakli, near the MINING 273 borders of the two prazos MItondu and Inharaotupleo, close to the. River Inyamadzi. Wolfram has been met with at the Kakanga copper mine. Galena is found in the old workings in the sarae neighbourhood. Tin has been discovered on the Portuguese side of the Luangwa, and raica is plentiful in the Macanga prazo and has been exported via Tete In small quantities ; but the cost of transport proved too heavy for a profitable enterprise,^ In British Nyasaland graphite is reported to be widely distributed and to occur in various forms. At Ngara, along the sides of the Bua River, graphitic deposits occur in a micaceous schist, but the mode of occurrence defies successful treatment at present, and across the boundary In Portuguese Angoniland, and in the vicinity of Mtem- blami (Mbalama-wa-Mtengo, 8 miles south of Fort Mlangeni) and the Revugo River there is a highly graphitic zone.^ Here, it is stated, a mine Is at work controlled by Portuguese capital. The ore occurs In a white kaolin and is of good quality and quantity. There are two well-defined vein-systems, one kilometre in length, in which the graphite is found In all Its forras. Three railes to the south of Mtemblami is a huge graphitic schist, plainly visible and outcropping all along the road from Mtemblami to Mtenga Modzi, a distance of twenty miles, but the great difficulty of obtaining transport and its consequent cost at present prevents the profitable exploitation of these deposits on a large scale. Corundum occurs on the Anglo-Portuguese border near Mjala, At this locality the international boundary runs in a straight line frora TarabanI Hill (Beacon 38) to Beacon 39, and the most conspicuous occurrences of corundum lie on the Portuguese side of the boundary. The economic value of this deposit has not yet been proved, 1 Journey from Chinde to Tete [Cd, 7049], 1914, 2 E, R. Bawden, South African Mining Journal, 1912. 274 MINING Diamonds have been reported in the south of the Tete District, but their value is not confirraed, even if they Occur, Coal. — The presence of coal in the Tete District, if the deposits should ultimately be found to be of sufficient depth and quality to warrant mining operations, will prove a factor of great Iraportance In the development of the country. It would appear that tbe coal-bearing area is of great extent along the Zambezi, stretching from the Shire River to Zumbo on the Rhodesian border, and extending northwards, over detached areas, into British Nyasaland. In the latter country the coal-bearing formation is found in the North Nyasa District, where claims have been pegged out by various companies, and in the West Shire District, where the formation consists of a great thickness of sandstones with coal seams and shales. The southern extension of these carboniferous areas is to be found chiefiy in the neighbourhood of Tete, where Livingstone reported its presence in 1858, ' Plenty of magnetic iron-ore is found near Tete,' he wrote, ' and coal also to any amount ; a single cliff seam measuring 25 ft, in thickness. It was found to burn well in the steamer on the first trial. The ash showed a large quantity of shaly refuse, but , , , we drove a shaft of some thirty feet and the mineral was found to improve the farther we went in,' Although, with the exception of a shaft sunk at the Moatizi River, opposite Tete, and a small drive with a cross-cut and certain works at Goma, no extensive borings have as yet been made, it is reported that the coal is ' of a singularly promising quality ',i for having been obtained from near the surface it Is probable that its quality will improve when the coal Is obtained from a greater depth. The known coal areas, apart from various small out- ' Maugham's Zambesia, p. 133. MINING 275 crops discovered In isolated places, extend from Sinyal, where coal of an Inferior quality has been found,^ to Chikoa, over a stretch of 190 miles. In this region there are broken areas, notably in the neighbourhood of Bandara ; but another coal region has been discovered to the north of the Kansunsa River beyond its junction with the Moatizi, and float coal has been found in this district. Coal has also been reported from various districts south of Tete, along the Inyampumpa and south of that river ; as well as in the Karroo beds of the lower Shire River in Portuguese territory at Zimbawe, and at Nkorabedzi and Namalundo in British territory. In the first district the coal deposits are situated In the bed of the river Ngoma, about 15 miles from the Zambezi and about 5 mUes from the Anglo- Portuguese frontier. The coal is interbedded with shales and overlain by sandstones, and the sediments are suc ceeded by volcanic rock. The shale and sandstone series is stated to be probably over 4,000 ft, thick. The bright seams of coal are never more than an inch thick, but when separated from the shale the coal burns well. In the Nkombedzl area, in the north-west of the Ruo District, close to the Anglo-Portuguese boundary, the formation reserables closely that at Zimbawe, and the sedimentary beds are about 4,000 ft, in thickness. In the Namalundo area, near Chiromo, the thickness of the shale beds is only about 500 ft, but the underlying beds are concealed by a fault. In order to work and explore these deposits a sub sidiary company, the Companhia Hulheira da Zambezia, was formed in 1895 upon the condition that within three years three thousand tons of coal should be extracted. The company began operations in the neighbourhood of Tete, at Kakanga, and at Goma, about 8 miles from ' Journey from Chinde to Tete, 1914, s 2 276 MINING Port Herald, but the stipulated conditions were found to be impossible of fulfilment on account of difficulties of transport, and a fresh arrangement was made in 1898, The company, however, failed - to fulfil the conditions ofthe contract and the arrangement lapsed In 1913. Although Livingstone was the first to draw the atten tion of the British public to the coal deposits on the Zambezi, the coal areas were well known to the Portu guese before his time. The deposits at Moatizi were located in the years 1836 and 1840 by Izidro Manoel Carrazeda and Gualdino Jose Nunez, that at Macare was discovered In 1836, and those at Murungoia and Inyana at about the same period,^ In 1838 the then Governor of Sena, Manuel Carrazedo, sent samples to Portugal,^ and trials were made on the British steamer Nemessu, when the coal mixed with other coal was reported to burn with good results. In 1844 and 1845 specimens were tried at Lisbon and Goa respectively ; and since that date the coal has been used on various boats navigating the Zambezi, Lieut, Leotte do Rego states that 'when we went up the Zambezi in 1889, in the small stearaer Maravi, as far as the Queruaba9a water falls, we nearly always burnt Revue (Revugo) coal, which had previously been sent to different spots on the banks, and , , , It always gave a most satisfactory result ', The coal thus used had been stacked at various places for about twenty years. On the other hand tbe Admiralty Pilot reports that the coal taken from the mine close to InyamakazI, on the Moatizi, at Its confluence with the Revugo, gave unsatisfactory results when tried, ^ Elementos para um Biccionario Chorographico, by J, J. Lapa and A. B. C. de Castro Ferreri, 1889, ^ Guide-Book and Sailing Directions, by L, do Rego, 1904. MINING 277 Southern Districts Lourenzo Marques andGaza. — The districts of Lourenzo Marques and Gaza do not appear to contain any minerals of economic value, with the possible exception of coal, which is stated to be present on both sides of the Lebombo range. With respect to these deposits, the opinion has been expressed by Mr, S. T, Ryan, who reported on behalf of a syndicate which acquired mineral rights over an area of 3,500 sq, miles on both sides of the Lourenzo Marques-Transvaal railway, that the coal measures might extend In the direction of Delagoa Bay along the numerous fault lines which run north and south through the district. Some years ago It was reported that coal had been discovered on Inyack Island, where there are good stone-quarries, and borings were made on behalf of Baron d'Inhaca, with the result that coal seams were discovered, but apparently not of economic value since nothing else appears to have been done,^ Gold, tin, and other raetals are stated to be present in the Lourenzo Marques District, but their econoraic value has not yet been deraonstrated. In 1901 a certain araount of prospecting was done in Gaza, and gold was discovered In the Manetzl District, where some ten miles of country were pegged out. The locality In which these discoveries were made was some four days' wagon ride frora IncoraatI station and near to the Transvaal border. Towards the end of 1916, while dredging opera tions were proceeding near the Machaquene foreshore, a deposit of galena was discovered, and investigations Into the value of the find are being undertaken. Coal Is also present beyond the Rhodesian border at the confluence of the rivers Lundi and Sabi, but whether it extends across the border into Portuguese territory Is not yet ^ Jessett's Key to South Africa, p. 141, 1899. 278 MINING known. It has also been reported north of the Olifants River on both sides of the Transvaal Portuguese border, Inhambane District. — In Inhambane District indica tions of coal have been observed at Burra Point, but those of mineral oil are of greater Interest, Prospecting for oU took place In the Inyangela lake region In 1905-11, but was abandoned for lack of funds. Borings were carried to a depth of 800 ft,, but it was anticipated that profit able results could not be expected at less than 2,500 ft. Nevertheless, the prospects of finding oU in paying quantity were favourably regarded. Northern Districts Mozambique District. — In the Mozambique District the Memba Minerals, Limited, a British concern, was registered In 1909 to explore an area of about 20,000 square miles in this district, with exclusive right to prospect for minerals and precious stones for five years, and to locate mining claims, which should become the property of the Company in perpetuity, A considerable area of the territory was examined by a strong British expedition, but the investigations did not show proraising prospects, and the Corapany was liquidated. Very small indications of alluvial gold, and some of graphite and other minerals were discovered : the natives sraelt local iron ores in several localities, Portuguese Nyasaland. — ^Farther north in the territory of the Nyassa Company comparatively little prospecting work has been done, and no systematic survey of the country has been attempted. In 1894 In a report on the proposed railway to Lake Nyasa an enthusiastic view was taken of the mineral resources of the territory. It was stated that the route of the proposed line passed two coal areas, one of which was located about 12 miles from the coast of Pemba Bay and the other on each side of MINING 279 the Lujenda River in the neighbourhood of Itule (Litule). The former was estimated to be about 20 miles across and the latter to cover an area of about 500 square miles. Subsequent reports appear to confirm the presence of coal in these regions and also on the Rovuraa River, but tbe quality and economic value of the deposits have yet to be proved, Arab traders, however, are said to use coal from the Litule field. Deposits of magnetic iron ore have been located, and extensive fields of graphite are said to exist a few miles north of Mwalla. None of these deposits has been tried, but in 1913 it was again stated that a prospector had located deposits of graphite in Portuguese Nyasaland, In 1900 a succession of large lodes of Iron ore were reported near the middle Lujenda River, from 50 to 200 yards in width, and the iron is worked by the natives In rough forges. Corundum occurs, and fine specimens of gems are said to be found in the Rovuma districts. In the country between Kisulu and Mocimboa de Rovuma the presence of graphite has been reported. Gold has been located In the Mandimba Hills, in the neighbourhood of Mwalla (where silver has also been found), and generally along the rivers running into the Lujenda (especially the Rariko) and along the Msalu, as well as in the hills north of tbe Lurio ; but nothing has yet been done to test the value of these discoveries, or of the reef of copper ore reported from the Lujenda district in 1913, Other Industries A few industries apart from agriculture and mining, and from those native Industries which have been men tioned In Chapter IV, call for some attention. 280 WHALING Whaling In 1913 seven whaling concessions had been granted In the province, of which five were in active operation. The results of the whaling operations to that date were as follows : District Concessionaire Station Whales landed Steamers employed Lourenzo Premier Xefina 126 4 Marques Whaling Co, Island Inhambane Inhambane Whaling Co. LingaLinga floating factory 185 3 )» Johan Bryde jj 575 6 Quelimane T, A, Lauvig Floating factory 181 1 Mozambique H, Verik Angoche 240 2 The export of whale oil has entirely ceased from Quellraane owing to the closing of the fioating factories, and at Lourenzo Marques it decreased frora £17,039 in 1913 to £5,981 in 1914, The plant at Inhambane increased its output from £19,770 in 1913 to £46,983 in 1914, bringing up the total exports of whale oil from the province to £52,765 as against £44,091 in 1913. It Is announced, however, that the whaling concern at Inhara bane Is also closing. This concern, a Norwegian cora pany, was the last to continue to operate. Its catch for 1914 being 412 whales compared with 501 in 1913, It would appear, however, that the whale has been driven away from the neighbouring seas, and there seems little prospect of any renewal of the Industry. Fishing Among the Industries of Portuguese East Africa that hitherto have been greatly neglected are the fisheries. Little has been done to utilize the great quantities of FISHING 281 fish to be found In the Indian Ocean, Along the coasts of Natal and the Cape the number of recorded species Is nearly 400, Markets for Fish. — It is surprising that no effort has been made hitherto to develop a trade In fish with Rhodesia and the Transvaal. Not only does dried fish sent from Portugal and formerly Germany represent a considerable Iraport for the consumption of Europeans,^ but it is popular with some of the natives, and especially with the Indian trading community. So numerous are the fish found along these coasts, and so large undoubtedly would be the market for them, that if started upon a sound basis an industry of great iraportance would becorae established. At present the local raarkets only are sup plied. In Lourenzo Marques the fishing is done Tay Italians and Greeks, who have stations on Inyack and Xefina Islands, and employ natives to use nets on or near the shoals. The Malays, who have a practical monopoly of this trade along the Cape coast, do not appear to have turned their attention to the Portuguese coast. Native line-fishermen or owners of fish-kraals earn a precarious living in the neighbourhood of the chief ports. The encouragement of a fishing industry is to be facUitated by the provincial government granting licenses for fishing in territorial waters to corapanies or private individuals prepared to risk sorae capital. Judging frora the success of the steara-trawlers employed in South African waters, where there are now some twenty steam or motor trawlers and about 500 saUing-boats engaged in fishing, there seems no reason against the establish ment of a siraUar industry on the Portuguese coast. Varieties. — In addition to the ordinary fish such as rock-cod, ' springer ', and king-fish, which Is somewhat sImUar to the common Gape snoek, the coasts abound in ^ The imports into the Union of fish, fresh and dried, were valued at £283,62f " " 282 FISHING trepang or beche-de-mer, turtles, amber, corals, sponges, and raany varieties of beautiful shells, Trepang, known along the Mozambique and Nyasaland coasts as macojojos, when cooked and dried, find a ready sale on the Chinese market. Turtles are abundant north of Mozambique, Two varieties are caught by the natives, one of which is used for food and the other for tortoise-shell, which is sent by the native dhows to Zanzibar where it finds a good market. Amber has been found in several localities, but not in sufficient quantities to be of much economic value, whUe the various sponges have not yet been proved to be useful as articles of commerce. Large quantities of shells and coral are exported from Mozambique, Pearl-fishery. — In the north of the province the most valuable product of the seas Is probably the pearl-oyster, which Is distributed along the coast, particularly near Tungue, Makaloe, the islands of Keramimbi and Kero- nyurabl, the mainland near Ngerema, the southern end of Kerimba Island, KUalia Island, and other places, Dr, J. J, Simpson, who investigated the fisheries of the Nyasa coast in 1907, reported the above regions as suit able for oyster culture, but the natives have largely depleted the supplies along the coast by indiscriminate collecting, and careful nursing is required to place the industry on a profitable basis. The quality of the pearls is reported to be excellent, and the colour and lustre to be of a high standard. Rose-coloured and black pearls are not infrequent, and golden pearls are coramon. Farther south the Sofala (or Bazaruto) pearl-fisheries were at one time of considerable value, but pearls and mother-of-pearl are now only occasionally raet with. The trade from the principal establishment on Ilha Santa Carolina (Marsha), where there is a small garrison and whence the produce Is conveyed In boats to Chiluane for shipment, has now practically ceased. FISHING 283 Angling. — So far as sport is concerned, the Polana beach, near Lourenzo Marques, offers excellent oppor tunities for fishermen. Here there is a submerged reef of rocks much frequented by rock-cod and other large fish up to ten or more pounds in weight. The ' springer ', one of the giant herring tribe, weighing from four to twelve pounds, is frequently caught, as well as the king- fish mentioned above. During December and the early part of January large sandsbarks or shovel-nosed skate {Mynchobatus djeddensis) frequent the Polana beach, and blue sharks are occasionally hooked from the Polana pier. It should here be mentioned that dried shark forms a favourite dish with some of the natives of the Interior and is to be found exposed for sale in many native villages. Salt The production of salt Is one of the minor industries of the province, A few salt-pans are to be found on the coast, in which sea-water Is evaporated to produce a crude salt, which is a favourite article of barter with the natives of the Interior, This is especially the case along the coasts of Portuguese Nyasaland, whence the salt is exported to Beira and Lourenzo Marques. From the territory of the Nyassa Corapany 215 tons were exported in 1912, In the territory of the Mozambique Company the best salt, i, e, the richest in sodium chloride, Is stated to be found on the Nyakapanda plain behind the village of Chikari, The natives of the Gorongoza country carry on a considerable bartering trade with the inhabitants of the uplands with salt as the medium of exchange, A native salt factory also exists at Bijon in the Maganja da Costa, In which district also, farther up the river, gunpowder is raade. CHAPTER VIII COMMERCE Transit trade — Lourenzo Marques — Out-transit trade of Lourenzo Marques — Exports from Portuguese territory through Lourenzo Marques — In-transit trade of Lourenzo Marques — Imports into Portuguese territory through Lourenzo Marques — Indian traders — British goods — Principal articles imported, Inhambane — Beira — Chinde — Nyasaland transit trade through Chinde— Quelimane— Mozambique — Nyassa Company's territory- — Summary tables. Customs duties — Pref erences in favour of Portugal — ' Nationalized goods — The Customs Union — Export duties. Transit Trade Hitherto the prosperity of the two principal ports of Portuguese East Africa has depended mainly upon the transit trade to and from British territory. In respect to this traffic Lourenzo Marques and Beira occupy a geo graphical, economic, and political position analogous to that of Rotterdam and Antwerp, in so far as they are dependent upon a foreign country for rauch of their raari tirae trade. There, however, the simUarity ceases, for neither Lourenzo Marques nor Beira is as yet fed to any large extent by a productive hinterland within national territory, althpugh In the case of Beira there has been a continuous productive iraproveraent within recent years, and with respect to Lourenzo Marques the agricultural resources of the immediate neighbourhood promise to be put to economic uses. LOURENZO MARQUES 285 Lourenzo Marques In spite of its natural advantages as the port of the Transvaal, Lourenzo Marques In the past has suffered under five disabilities. The port has been handicapped by {a) political factors operating in favour of the Union harbours, and only overcorae to a certain extent by the arrangeraent of a modus vivendi and convention with the Transvaal, the conclusion of which was only brought about by the need of the Transvaal mines to draw upon the labour resources of the Portuguese province ; {b) the differentiation of ocean freights imposed by the shipping companies in their own Interests ; (c) the fact that Portuguese East Africa has remained outside the South African Custoras Union owing to the inability of the province to make her own tariffs without the consent of the mother-country ; {d) the extreme centralization of administration at Lisbon, which until recently has over ruled proposals eraanating from Lourenzo Marques and maintained a strict control over the finances and general legislation of the province ; and (e) the recent failure to observe the terms of the Transvaal-Mozambique Con vention and to revise, as agreed upon, the basis of the competitive traffic. These questions are referred to in other sections of this book (see especially pp, 315 and 379), On the other hand, Lourenzo Marques has been directly benefited by the establishment of a Transvaal Customs Office In the city, which prevents the delays that other wise would have become a serious factor when dealing with the through goods traffic. A similar concession has been allowed at Beira, The frontier custoras stations now only deal with passenger traffic, as, under the Transvaal- Mozambique Convention of 1909, free trade In the natural products of the two countries practicaUy exists, and there is therefore no need for large customs establishments on the frontiers. The result of this measure has been that 286 COMMERCE the delays that were formerly characteristic of the Portuguese customs administration have ceased. Out-transit Trade of Lourenzo Marques Copper. — With regard to the transit traffic from the Transvaal, by far the most important item in value is copper ore and regulus, the greater portion of which comes from the mines of the Messina (Transvaal) Development Corapany in the Zoutpansberg District of the Transvaal. The tonnage and value of this mineral during 1912-16 will be found In the table on p, 289, Coal. — But so far as any primary benefit to the port is concerned, the export of coal has within five years become the most important item of transit traffic, and Lourenzo Marques seems destined to become the centre of a large export trade actively corapeting for the capture of the coaling business in the Indian Ocean. As the only export outlet on a large scale for the vast coal regions already known to exist in the Transvaal and SwazUand, the port ought to grow rapidly in iraportance for both the export and the bunkering trade. Of the exports of coal from South Africa In 1913, 2,310,764 tons, 508,023 tons passed through Lourenzo Marques, Although the export of South African coal (from all ports) shows a considerable reduction for the year 1916, due to the abnormal condi tions then prevailing, the destination of the coal exported shows how largely South African coal is used in the markets of Asia and East Africa. Of 565,636 tons exported as cargo in 1916, 400,051 tons were exported to countries bordering upon the Indian Ocean, the rest being sent to Argentina, Australia, Egypt, Portuguese West Africa, and various French colonies. Of this amount 399,167 tons passed through Lourenzo Marques, In 1913 the principal exports of Transvaal coal from Lourenzo Marques were as follows : Karachi, 144,880 tons ; Bombay, LOURENZO MARQUES 287 103,780 tons ; Colombo, 41,531 tons ; New Zealand, 28,376 tons ; Kilindlne, 10,310 tons ; and Singapore, 9,620 tons. The following table illustrates the value and quantity of the coal exported frora the port since 1904 :— Tons Bunker Cargo Value 1910 166,000 — — — 1911 134,000 « — — 1912 316,038 136,601 179,437 — 1913 577,248 202,466 374,782 — 1914 516,479 192,051 324,428 — 1915 430,9201 — — £121,055 1916 356,4001 — £199,645 The first efforts of the Transvaal collieries to find a raarket through Lourenzo Marques date back to 1905. Since then it has been deraonstrated that it is possible to land South African coal at Indian ports at £1 per ton and thus to compete with the coal sent by rail to Bombay frora the mines of Bengal, In order to cope with this Increasing trade, a coaling-plant of the American McMyler type has been erected at the port, which considerably increases the facilities for handling coal for export. Previously, to load five or six thousand tons of coal took four or five days, during which the natives carried the coal In baskets to the hatchways. This quantity can now be shipped in a single day by emptying the coal trucks directly Into the shoot. Maize. — The third Iraportant export from the Trans vaal passing through Lourenzo Marques Is raaize and raaize meal, Corapared, however, with the other South 1 The figures for 1915-16 are taken from Union Government reports and reduced to long tons of 2,240 lb. The earlier figures are from British Consular Reports, It should be stated, however, that where figures from both sources are available, they are not in exact agreement. 288 COMMERCE African ports, the export does not bulk very largely. It Is less than one-fifteenth of the amount shipped from Durban and less than one-tenth of that sent from Cape Town, and does not exceed one-thirtieth of the maize exports from the territories within the South African Customs Union, Nevertheless during 1916 5,372 tons were exported through Lourenzo Marques, and It is probable that, with the opening of new areas in the Transvaal and the export of maize In bulk, which was first tried in 1915, there will be a considerable Increase in this traffic. Statistics will be found in the table below. Tin and Asbestos. — ^Both tin and asbestos are being exported through Lourenzo Marques in increasing quan tities. The former mainly comes from the Waterberg and Zoutpansberg Districts of the Transvaal, The latter is sent from the district around Carolina, The following table i gives the South African Union products exported frora Lourenzo Marques, and demon strates the continuous increase in the out-transit trade during 1912-16, It will be seen that the value of the out-transport trade has more than doubled during this period. This, however, does not Indicate any corresponding increase in the prosperity of the port, as tbe total tonnage carried over the railways shows a serious decrease, as will be seen In the table on page 401, ' From figures of the Union Government, Goods Living animals ' AsbestosCoaP.Copper Maize and maize meal Kafir corn . Eggs , Vegetables , Grold concentrates or slag , Lead . H Tin . TobaccoCalabashes Other goods Imported goods re-exported , Total , 1912 12,510 33,801 74,967 1,072 2,298 6,348 15,890 2,516 246,076 4,313 16,257 418,811 42,984 1913 9,741 492 124,592 132,719 'Value, £, 1914 1915 16,201 20,364 1,221 2,280 111,425 121,055 343,232 362,703 2,4085,231 7,4331,837 370,172 1,996 12,069 1,422 7,866 1,341 8,585 622 — 360,976 201,682 — 4,245 1,650 — 16,810 34890 692,486 47,938 80,714 67,123 1916 16",571 4,150 199,645573,423 23,796 11,036 16,822 33,987 9,555 98,624 4,777 52,719 872,461 775,967 993,451 97,953 461,795 740,424 953,175 843,090 1,091,404 ' Imported into the Province. * The figures of coal exports do not in tons of 2,000 lb. 1912 11,734 114 1,258 1,920 1913 — 24 — 508,023 1,276 5,097 2,634 ity, Tons 1914 1915 29 454,635 14,014 2,011 41 482,631 13,063 3,192 919 2,692 lb. 39,350 — 2,990 1,893 lb. 83,128 1916 76 399,167 11,790 5,372 959 lb. 102,839 correspond with those given in the British Consular report. The figures here quoted are ocl o > C/2 to 00 290 COMMERCE Exports from Portuguese Territory through Lourenzo Marques The exports from Portuguese territory through Lourenzo Marques, with the exception of sugar, which in 1914 formed more than one-half of the total value, are almost negligible. They indicate how little the surrounding territory Is developed, and confitm the view that the importance of Lourenzo Marques is founded upon the transit trade with the Transvaal, The following were the chief products exported during the years 1909, 1911, and 1913 : — Goods 1909 1911 1913 £ £ £ Mangrove bark , 3 1,800 1,903 Beans 4,581 11,267 13,383 Ground-nuts 5,770 9,155 10,180 Maize 6,334 5,729 1,791 Rubber — 671 312 Skins and hides 2,942 3,224 3,371 Sugar — 18,476 61,855 Wax 293 244 422 Whale oil , — 6,046 All others , 30,723 40,331 63,187 The following are the of re-exports (as distinct years 1905-14 : — total values of local exports and from goods in transit) during the ExportsRe-exports 1905 £ 41,.511 92,132 1906 £ 34,968 174,915 1907 £ 36,439 t23,683 1908 1909 £ 42,895 781,668 £ 50,646 602,109 1910 £ 75,461 651,583 1911 £ 90,897 265,041 1912 £ 160,160 411,652 1913 £ 162,450669,325 1914 £ 107,723632,830 In-transit Trade of Lourenzo Marques The in- transit trade is dealt with in the section relating to the railway competitive areas on pp, 372 seq., but it is LOURENZO MARQUES 291 necessary here to indicate the nature of the goods passing to the Transvaal, By far the largest Item Is the goods used in connexion with the mining Industry — that is, there Is a tendency for the Lourenzo Marques-Transvaal railway to be used for the transit of the heavier merchandise and machinery, as explained on p, 376. Thus, In 1913, iron and steel raanufactures, electrical and raining machinery, cyanide of sodium, and timber, raade up about one-third of the total value of the imports into the Transvaal via Delagoa Bay. The following table illus trates the principal items in the in-transit trade during the years 1912, 1913, and 1916 i :— Goods Value 1912 1913 1916 £ £ £ Apparel 56,008 46,111 16,747 Coal-bags, &c. 67,841 89,715 86,816 Cotton goods 131,964 128,373 112,242 Cyanide of sodium 343,315 375,075 95,633 Coffee , 62,189 57,282 9,322 Flour . 134,548 234,127 49,947 Preserved fish 43,896 45,330 18,801 Condensed milk , 148,902 155,359 55,589 Rice , 73,034 66,195 31,675 Sugar , 100,755 116,923 38,427 Golden syrup 69,165 80,501 3,977 Glycerine . 83,631 18 — Hardware . 74,843 225,994 91,449 Iron and Steel manu factures , 487,476 482,275 236,096 Electrical machinery 63,772 183,746 5,687 Mining machinery 299,288 284,776 226,728 Oils , 145,221 177,261 189,831 Wood and Timber 275,899 238,453 115,848 Zinc , 113,625 119,752 5,373 Other goods 1,771,714 1,368,711 750,250 £4,547,086 £4,475,977 £2,140,438 1 From figures of the Union Governinent, T 2 292 COMMERCE The following is the total value of in-transit trade during the years 1905-14 : — 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 £4,506,467 £4,606,440 £4,258,606 £4,616,398 £5,952,279 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 £6,559,308 £5,333,343 £4,547,086 £4,475,977 £2,983,869 Imports into Portuguese Territory through Lourenzo Marques The Imports into Lourenzo Marques for local consump tion in the province vary considerably from year to year, Tbe years In which the figures have reached maxima since 1904 have been 1905 and 1912, when the Imports were valued at £1,042,507 and £1,083,563 respectively. The minimum was reached in 1909, when they were valued at £612,446, These Imports Include a considerable number of items that could be produced within the province, such, for example, as butter, cheese, coffee, maize, fish, fruits and vegetables, milk, meat, ground-nuts, potatoes, rice, sugar, and tobacco. The large quantity of wine imported comes frora Portugal, and is mainly consumed by the natives in the form of ' vinho colonial ', This trade, has been encouraged by the Portuguese Government, a heavy tax having been placed upon foreign wines. During 1913 the import into Lourenzo Marques of the ' vinho colonial ' was 1,620,799 gallons valued at £105,700, as against 1,859,198 gallons valued at £146,846 during the pre ceding year. In other parts of the province rauch smaller quantities of the ordinary Portuguese wines are consuraed, Indian Traders. — A large portion ofthe goods iraported into Lourenzo Marques is traded with the Kafirs by Indians, both British and Portuguese, This Kafir truck trade as a rule is avoided by the British raerchants, and ' Including exports (out-transit). LOURENZO MARQUES 293 the Indians raalnly obtain their supplies of cotton goods, beads, hardware, and other articles likely to appeal to the native taste, from various Indian houses, from local com mission agents acting as the representatives of foreign houses, and from Portuguese firms. This trade received a set-back under the Transvaal-Mozambique Convention, which allows natives returning to the province to intro duce goods without the payment of customs dues when such dues would not amount to more than ten shillings, British Goods. — It is not possible to state definitely the proportion of British goods used in this trade, as a considerable proportion shown as being exported from Portugal is only ' nationalized ' In that country under the arrangement existing for ' nationalizing ' such goods (see below, p. 311). This applies to many other goods, but as a general rule the greater part of the following imports come frorri British possessions : — agricultural and indus trial implements, butter and lard, cloth, maize, flour, hardware, Iron and steel, machinery, and rice. Germany sent the largest proportion of cement, cutlery, glassware, and raUway material, Portugal supplied the greater part of the boots and shoes, candles, fish, fruits, meat, soap, tobacco, and wines. Principal Articles Imported. — The following table illustrates the principal imports into Lourenzo Marques during the years 1909, 1912, and 1913 :— Goods^ 19091 19121 19131 £ £ £ Agricultural and industrial implements 12,581 33,460 15,354 Living animals 7,032 30,543 18,083 Boots and shoes 7,397 8,442 7,190 Butter and lard 12,553 14,945 16,805 Cement , , , , 10,659 21,991 11,093 Cloth , . , . 147,715 74,147 134,244 ' From British Consular Keports, M COMMERCE Goods 1909 1912 1913 £ £ £ Flour . 25,334 24,013 19,961 Hardware 6,015 6,825 5,324 Iron and steel 7,069 16,807 27,265 Maize and maize meal 5,446 67,948 25,193 Machinery 10,775 30,684 8,697 Milk, condensed 6,733 11,098 7,584 Meat, preserved 8,054 11,144 10,626 Potatoes and onions 7,358 8,684 8,089 Rice 20,248 42,107 34,218 Soap 7,914 8,539 6,801 Sugar . 2,914 10,203 2,703 Wines , 117,080 160,926 116,654 Wood . 13,263 16,015 23,421 Others . 176,306 484,042 451,033 Not included in the above table were the following articles during 1913 1 : — building material £45,817, electri cal material £9,012, raedicines £8,396, mineral oils £8,690, railway riiaterlal £40,546, telephone material £9,336, and wheat £1 6,240, The following were the values of Imports, exclusive of bullion and specie, during the years 1905-14 : — £ £ £ 1905 1,042,507 1909 612,446 1913 980,554 1906 962,089 1910 819,133 1914 767,407 1907 747,684 1911 916,668 1908 778,982 1912 1,083,563 Inhambane The trade of Inhambane has increased considerably during the last few years, and the exports of local produce have occasionally exceeded those of Lourenzo Marques, The whaling industry and the collection of oil-seeds, chiefly mafureira and ground-nuts, account for the larger proportion of the exports, but the export of ' From American Consular Eeport. INHAMBANE 295 sugai- and coco-nut products Is Increasing, The following were the principal articles of export during 1912-14 1 : — Goods 19] 2 ] L913 1914 £ £ £ Coco-nuts and copra 626 i,654 5,105 Fish . 666 1,602 1,233 Oilseeds 8,973 42,771 18,680 Whale oil 56,452 19,770 46,983 Rubber . 4,553 2,033 1,312 Sugar , 5,276 1,102 7,939 Wax , 7,403 4,395 1,207 All others 7,009 2 1,369 7,315 ¦ The total trade during the years 1905- -14 was as follows : — ! 1905 j 1906 1907 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 £ ' £ £ £ £ £ £ £ Imports 81,293 87,131 95,692 121,6311 157,747' 210,972' 139,0521 126,040' Exports 27,577 ' 29,129 49,620 91,113^ 66,676« 90,9581 97,6961 89,774' Beira During the last ten years the export trade of the Mozambique Company's territory has increased sixfold, the imports have trebled, the transit trade to Rhodesia has more than doubled, and the out-transit trade has Increased threefold. As explained elsewhere, the pros perity of Beira was in the first instance due to the fact that it became the eastern gateway into Rhodesia, But during recent years the agricultural developraent of the .territory of the Mozambique Company has steadily advanced, and to-day Beira occupies a far raore important From American Consular Reports. 296 COMMERCE position as an exporting port for local produce than does Lourenzo Marques, A considerable portion of the out-transit traffic consists of minerals from Rhodesia and Belgian territory. As shown on p, 297, Beira now receives a proportion of the copper output from the Katanga mines and frora the Bwana Mkubwa and Kafue raines in Northern Rhodesia, as well as chrome Iron and coal from Rhodesian mines. The chrome iron coraes frora the Immense deposits In the Selukwe District, south of Gwelo, and the coal from the Wankie coalfield. With respect to the export of chrome ore through Beira it should be noted that this Is at present the only export that is largely sent to the United States, In 1910 out of 37,235 tons sent from Beira the United States took 18,800 tons, and in 1912 the United States took 32,500 tons out of a total shipment of 56,794 tons. It is 'highly probable, however, that a con siderable proportion of the chrome ore credited to Euro pean ports was transhipped for Araerica, as the Gerraan East Africa Line used to purchase the ore outright for the sake of the freight. The out-transit trade during 1912-16 is show^j fairly accurately (although it does not correspond with the figures supplied by the Mozarabique Company) in the following table, compiled from the figures of the Union Government, which, however, Include goods destined for the Belgian Congo, For this reason the exact proportion of exports going to Beira does not appear, but it may be taken that the following are exclusively out-transit traflic : — asbestos, coal, copper, cotton, maize, gold, and chrome iron. The exports from British South Africa via Beira, Feira, and overland (i, e, for Portuguese East Africa, South-West Africa, and Nyasaland) were as foUows : — CQ «, CO (M ,-( n? fi I .-( as ** CD -" 00 I I U5 00-* CO 23 .,* CO O .S °° ^ CO O^CD .T) "^ ^ "^ o00 Ido H O' lO l^- T** , CO rH 00 o .Q "-t EQ C^ o ^di CO tfi IO ^. 00 CO OJ o c- o rn" oo"Od oo4 CDCO COco" 05 oa rH ¦*CO CO oa Ooo ¦* t- •<* tH rH lOl rH O <>• 00 Oi co" o"i>r T-roo"cd",-r IO CO t— I rH T^^ C^ Oi -^ t- rH ,—1 00 Oi CO o rH . CO O^O CO ca uo CQ ,-H io Oi00 CO CO Oi Oi W3 rH ¦*"oi" IO CO Oi o ¦*ooIO .^ rHO" CO CO CO CO ¦^rn" CO o oo a o «i 4S § ^ S-S ¦ 53 a 3 SrH 1 o •=.0 ca a > 157,747' 139,052' 27,577 49,620" 66,676' 79,898' Cl Beira >¦» 131,202* 340,8984 560,675* 701,915 164,724* 297,829* 579,958* 641,453 In-ti-ansit and out- transit trade 508,380* 671,402* 1,523,884* 1,713,416* 59,274* 191,759 *.« 393,988*.' 751,928' > Chinde' 89,633 84,615 124,960 198,040 64,313 98,121 84,570 46,610 In-transit and out- •^ transit for Nyasa landForwarding trade in and out, with Mozambique Co.'s territory — 105,600 « 242,573 211,.534 92,168 6 179,075 •« 183,986 264,340 '» 197,569 1-3 td CD Quelimane 42,010 54,553 84,1431 153,199' 81,000 38,516 57,517 » 79,517' Mozambique 90,058 111,983 181,011' 194,615' 76,531 78,708 73,947' 60,021 ' ' Exclusive of re-e: 2 1907. ' U. S, Consular B sports,sports. * Mozambique Co.'s figures. * 1909. ^ Trade of Mozambique Co.'s ' 1912. territory, including Beira. ' Portuguese Customs House, » 1910. '° Exports and imports. O 308 COMMERCE The following table, compUed mainly frora the returns given In the American Consular Reports, shows the Imports into the various ports and the countries from which they came. It raust be noted that the figures for Portugal Include foreign goods ' nationalized ' In that country, and are not therefore a true index to the trade with the mother country : 1913 Port Total Great Britain Germany Portugal France Belgium U.S. others £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ Lourenzo Marques . 1,101,353 420,457 152,890 366,557 35,300 11,999 50,579 63,571 Inhambane . 139,047 38,426 11,121 73,597 3,710 1,137 4,181 6,875 Beira . 446,578 1 [205,827] [85,901] [139,308] . — — [45,080] [20,457] Chinde . 222,635 107,379 18,310 85,427 2,444 2,176 2,136 4,763 Quelimane . 153,197 27,275 21,790 86,307 6,201 5,303 1,821 4,500 Mozambique . 196,966 40,580 10,773 132,350 5,787 42 3,840 3,644 Totals . 2,259,771 839,944 250,785 883,546 53,392 20,657 107,637 103,810 1914 Port Total Great Britain Germany Portugal France Belgium U.S. others ¦ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ Lourenzo Marques . 994,556 425,506 106,187 338,717 11,982 12,093 43,228 56,843 Inhambane . 126,035 6,912 38,348 57,958 4,533 280 8,161 9,843 Beira . [331,173] [148,187] [15,085] [180,880] — — [27,154] [14,917] Chinde . 267,461 165,000 6,507 81,800 6,597 219 2,449 4,889 Quelimane . 138,891 28,498 25,773 72,923 5,981 2,198 4,182 4,336 Mozambique . 195,713 27,468 35,165 120,709 5,687 — 3,340 3,344 Totals . 2,053,829 791,571 227,065 802,937 34,780 14,790 88,514 94,172 Customs Duties The question of tariffs upon goods Imported into Portuguese East Africa is complicated. The customs dues are subject to numerous obligations and restrictions imposed by the mother country, and are rendered intri cate by the taxes imposed for ' commercial contribution ' over all territory south of the river Sabi and the impostos ' Figures in brackets are from British Consular Eeports. CUSTOMS DUTIES 309 municipaes levied on goods for local consumption at Lourenzo Marques. The customs tariff in the districts of Lourenzo Marques, Inhambane, and Mozambique differs from that In Quelimane and Tete, ad valorem duties, which do not as a rule exceed 10 per cent, in the Queli mane and Tete Districts but are occasionally higher in other districts, largely predominating In Tete and Queli mane, Moreover, both the Mozambique Company and the Nyassa Company exercise the right to impose their own customs duties, which, without the consent of the Government, must not exceed or be less than those In force In the districts of Lourenzo Marques and Quelimane, The subject Is further coraplicated by the special arrange ments relating to transit trade, the agreement existing between the Transvaal and Portuguese East Africa, and the preferences granted to the mother country and to so-called ' nationalized ' goods. In the Lourenzo Marques District Imported goods pay various duties ; the ad valorem duties being Imposed according to the value at the port of importation, and ranging from 1 per cent, as high as 25 and 30 per cent. In addition, what Is termed a commercial contribution, ranging from 1 to 15 per cent, ad valorem, Is levied on goods imported into the territory south of the Sabi River, half of the proceeds being handed over to the munici pality ; and further taxes are charged on behalf of the municipality of Lourenzo Marques on goods iraported for local consumption within the boundaries of the municipality. Preferences in favour of Portugal As mentioned above, special arrangements exist with regard to the importation of goods from the mother country. These have been made under pressure from Portugal In order to grant Portuguese products and 310 COMMERCE manufactures a substantial preference in the colonies. Under these arrangements the merchandise and industrial products of Portugal and Portuguese possessions, as well as goods ' nationalized ' In the Customs there, pay only half of the ordinary customs dues, with the exception of tobacco, wine, and certain other products for which special terms have been granted. These preferences, excellent from the point of view of the mother country, have operated, in reality, against the interests of the colonies, because they have reduced the revenue of the colonies without bringing about any appreciable reduction in the cost of living — the difference in the prices of foreign and Portuguese going into the pockets of the importer and seller rather than into those of the consumer. Moreover such arrangements as have been raade In favour of colonial goods have had little effect. If any, in fostering the planting and other Industries of the colonies, because the concessions have been accompanied by conditions which not Infrequently have robbed them of any real value. The position in this respect Is well Ulustrated In the case of sugar, mentioned on p, 203. But also It may be shown with regard to maize, which, although one of the products of Portugal itself, has been admitted into the mother country on the usual rebate of 50 per cent. Apparently this arrangement is generous. In reality, however, the benefit to Portuguese East Africa Is Illusory. D'Andrade shows that In Portugal the duty on Indian corn was 18 reis per kilo. This duty as it stood was prohibitive, being superior to the actual value of the product. Even the reduction of 50 per cent, in favour of the colonies leaves the tax a heavy one, and the cost to the consumer In Portugal Is further increased by the heavy freightage on the Portuguese steamers of the Empreza Nacional, by which company the goods must be carried in order to secure the preferential rate, D'Andrade shows that in 1909 the charges upon one kUo of maize landed in CUSTOMS DUTIES 311 Portugal amounted to 20 reis, and that the charges were arranged so as to rob the colony of any advantage it might derive from the 50 per cent, rebate. In order to secure these supposed advantages Portuguese wine Is admitted Into Mozarabique at practically free rates, the duty being only 3 reis per litre, and special terms are given to other products. ' Nationalized ' Goods But the chief anomaly In the customs dues is to be found In connexion with 'nationalized' goods. Under the custoras rates agreed to on December 29, 1892, an arrangement was made whereby goods re-exported from Portugal, the adjacent isles, or other colonies, should pay only 80 per cent, of the rates applicable to foreign goods. The intention was not only to increase the volume of traffic from the ports of Portugal and to attract thither foreign shipping, but also to stimulate navigation between the mother country and her colonies. It is doubtful, however, whether a single foreign ship has been attracted to East Africa by this advantage ; for the foreign lines call at Lisbon and Oporto for reasons more cogent than would be supplied by the concession of a rebate of 20 per cent, on foreign goods re-exported from the country. As a matter of fact the mother country derives no advantage, whUe the colonies lose a considerable revenue over the transaction. If the practice were to land the goods, destined for re-exportation, at the Portuguese ports, and by this raeans to increase the work of the ports, more might be said for the concession ; but all that is done is to charge certain trifling traffic dues (taxas de trafego), the ships not being obliged to break bulk. During five years, from 1904-08, D'Andrade reckoned that the actual loss in revenue to Portuguese East Africa owing 312 COMMERCE to the system of admitting re-exported goods at pre ferential rates was as follows : Year lourenzo Marques p>^t ^f p^Svince Total atone •' 1904 3,257 18,481 20,738 1905 1,913 19,750 21,664 1906 5,269 26,302 31,571 1907 19,806 46,405 66,212 1908 33,379 41,869 75,249 62,625 152,809 152,809 Since that date the imports of ' nationalized ' goods have largely increased. It must further be noted that the custom of nationalizing goods at Beira previous to their importation into Lourenzo Marques has also increased. By this siraple process such goods receive the preferential rates without any corresponding advantage to Beira or Lourenzo Marques, Further, until recently there were other absurdities In the systera. The pro ducts of any Portuguese colony imported into Mozam bique were obliged to pay full duty, as if they were of foreign origin, but similar products of foreign origin re exported from a Portuguese port, or frora those very colonies, secured the 20 per cent, rebate. For example, food-stuffs and other products Imported for the large Asiatic community settled in Portuguese East Africa paid full duty If they were sent frora Portuguese India, but If produced in British India and sent via Morraugao or Goa were entitled to the rebate. Conversely the sugar or maize which Mozambique might export to Portuguese India had to pay full duty there, but the same goods from Natal or other countries re-exported from Lourenzo Marques secured preferential rates. This anomaly was remedied on August 15, 1914, when it was enacted that ' all goods produced in the mother country CUSTOMS DUTIES 313 shall have the advantage of a reduction of 50 per cent, in the corresponding duties of the colonial tariff In force at the time being ; reciprocally the goods produced in any colony shall enjoy the same treatment when iraported Into the mother country or any other colony ',^ The Customs Union The Portuguese tariff has formed one of the chief stumbling blocks in the way of the suggestion that the Mozambique Province should become a party to the South African Custoras Union, D'Andrade, during the time that he was Governor of the province, sug gested that the portion of Portuguese East Africa south of the Sabi should enter the Customs Union, but that an exception should be raade in favour of Portuguese wines. He held that the coraraunity of interest which existed between the province and the union justified such a step, and that Lourenzo Marques as a whole would benefit by the arrangement, although local merchants would suffer some temporary loss. With regard to the sugar Industry, he suggested a system of bounties instead of the usual rebate granted by the mother country. The matter will certainly have to be considered in the future when the Transvaal-Mozambique Convention comes up for recon sideration, but It is doubtful whether the powerful Interests involved, both In the mother country and In the province, will agree to the suggested reforra, which, though possibly of advantage to the whole community, would certainly be opposed to vested Interests of long standing and great influence. Export DMies In addition to the import duties, export duties are levied on certain products of the province. Thus sugar, oil-seeds, rubber, calumba root, raangrove bark, wax and ' Bevista Colonial, February 25, 1915. 314 COMMERCE gums, horns, cloves, ivory, ebony, timber, whale products, pepper, tobacco, and a few others, are subject to certain specific charges ; whUe a few products, such as cotton and alcohol and spirits produced In the province, may be exported free, but all others must pay a 2 per cent, od valorem duty. The revenue produced from the Import and export duties was as follows In 1910-14 : Imports Exports 1910 1,129,5081 71,203 2 1911 1,213,517 53,250 1912 1,205,700 65,242 1913 1,236,047 60,242 1914 1,112,848 57,975 It is doubtful whether the amount received from the export duties justifies the Imposition of this tax, which constitutes a direct impost upon local Industry and adds to the cost of production. In the case of sugar, certainly, there seems to be no adequate reason for adding to the burdens of the producers, because not only are their initial expenses large, but freightage is also a serious itera. There seeras, therefore, every opportunity for a policy of vigorous reforra In connexion with the whole fiscal systera as applied to import and export duties. £223,901, - £14,240. CHAPTER IX COMMUNICATION S,— I Shipping : Factors influencing transit trade — Shipping fi'eights — Shipping ring — German competition — Portuguese interests— Ship ping companies — Classes of shipping — Shipping statistics. Ports : Lourenzo Marques — Chai-Chai — Inhambane —Bazaruto — Bartholomeu Diaz, Chiluane, Sofala — Beira — Chinde — Quelimane — Makivale, Porto Bello, Bijon, &c, — Angoche — Mozambique — Mokambo Bay — Conducia Bay — Fernao Velloso Bay — Memba Bay — Lurio and Mkufi — Port Amelia — Arimba and Montepuesi — Ibo — Mazimbwa and Port Mluli — Tungue, Inland navigation : Maputo — Matolla — Tembe — Umbeluzi — Komati — Limpopo — Inyarrime — Inhambane — Buzi — Pungwe — Zambezi — Quelimane Eiver — Mutu Canal — Waterways in Quelimane District, Maganja da Costa, &c. — Mozambique and Nyassa Company's territory. Shipping Factors infiuencing Transit Trade Shipping freights, harbour dues, and railway rates are so intimately connected that It is impossible to con sider the first without also considering the other aspects of the question, and a brief reference to the inter relationship of these three determining factors is neces sary in order to appreciate the peculiar position of the Portuguese ports, especially Lourenzo Marques, at the present time. Tn the foUowing chapter the question of raUways, so far as they affect the transit traffic, will be dealt with fully, but the main features of the position up to the period of the union must be summarized here. Previously 316 SHIPPING to the araalgaraation of the railways in the Orange Free State with those In the Transvaal It was, without ques tion, to the interest ofthe Netherlands RaUway Company, controlling the Transvaal railways, that the traffic to and from Johannesburg should be sent through Delagoa Bay, because the raUway haulage over the Netherlands lines was at least thrice as rauch as if the traffic had proceeded through Durban, and six times more than if it had been diverted to Port Elizabeth, With the amalgamation of these railways during Lord MUner's administration similar considerations affected the manage ment of the State raUways, though not to the same extent, with respect to the routes through the Cape ports ; but with the union of aU the South African railways, excepting the Portuguese lines, under one manageraent, it became the Interest of the railway authorities to favour Durban at the expense of the Portuguese port. This, briefly, is the position at the present tirae, and but for other political and economic factors Influencing the course of the transit trade. It Is doubtful whether the raUeage advantage in favour of Delagoa Bay would be sufficient In itself to secure for that port even the reduced proportion of the transit traffic that it now receives. Shipping, harbours, and raUways are in reality three opposing forces, each managed in its own particular interests, and each, to a certain extent, mutually antago nistic although necessarily dependent upon the operations of the others. Shipping is a purely private concern : the harbours, on the other hand, are municipal and semi-state concerns which, through the traffic they attract, raust pay for the capital expended on their construction. On the one hand the charges must be sufficient to raeet this primary outlay, and on the other they must not be high enough to deprive the port in question of the traffic upon which it depends. In order SHIPPING 317 to meet the Interest charges, harbour and other dues are subject to revision, and each such revision affects both the shipping and raUway position, as revisions in the shipping and railway charges necessarily Inffuence the harbours. Thus, after the last revision of shipping charges to the various South African ports, the main effect of which was to increase the difference of 2s, 6d. per ton between Durban and Lourenzo Marques to 5s, per ton — a step taken by the shipping companies owing to the shortage of shipping and to eliminate Lourenzo Marques so far as possible as a port of call, in order to get In one extra voyage during the year — the harbours ofthe Union in September 1916 increased their charges all round, in some cases by nearly 300 per cent,, so as to render the Union ports self-supporting and relieve the general funds of the State of a levy that was running Into large suras of raoney every year. This move to some extent nullified the action of the shipping com panies, because Lourenzo Marques refused to fall Into line and retained its former harbour dues, and thus main tained a favoured position with regard to its port dues. The third factor — the Union railways — is now purely a State concern governed by two primary considerations. Firstly, the raUways must be so conducted that they cover all Interest charges and contribute largely, by raeans of their profits, to the reduction of State taxa tion ; and secondly, the charges must be sufficiently low to give the average consumer In the Transvaal and else where no reasonable cause of coraplaint that the cost of living Is being unduly Increased by heavy railway rates. The nice adjustraent of these opposing factors and interests affects not only the prosperity of the whole of the Union of South Africa, but also that of Lourenzo Marques, which is primarily dependent as a port upon its transit traffic. 318 SHIPPING Shipping Freights With regard to shipping It may be stated that in the past, certainly previously to the present war, it was an Interest of the shipping companies to carry merchandise as far as possible. Their rates, therefore, were adjusted so as to leave a sufficient margin of profit to make it worth whUe for the raerchant to import through Delagoa Bay, rather than through Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, OJ" Durban, those goods conveyed from Europe via Cape Town for the transport of which time was not a deter mining factor. So long as it just paid the importer to use Lourenzo Marques in preference to Durban or Port Elizabeth, the shipping charges were raaintained at a level sufficient to enable the companies to derive a sub stantial benefit on the traffic to Lourenzo Marques, Thus In 1905 the freights to Delagoa Bay were from 10s, to 12s, in excess of those to Cape Town, 10s, to 13s, over Port Elizabeth, 3s, Qd. to Qs. 3c?. over East London, and 2s, Qd. raore than Durban, and 12s. raore than the rates to Beira. Shipping Ring The stability of shipping rates was obtained by the various companies entering into a conference or ring for the purpose of preventing rate- wars and of securing them selves against the intrusion of outside firms into the shipping trade of South Africa. The rates naturally were fixed primarily In the interests of the companies, and the loyalty of the mercantile community was secured by a system of rebates to those who shipped by the corapanies in the combine. Such rebates were payable after the expiration of a certain period, or could be with held altogether should a merchant be bold enough to ship his goods by any company outside the combine. In this manner the shipping combine not only secured SHIPPING 319 a direct hold over the merchants, but was practically in a position to control in its own Interest all freights to South Africa, and at one time nearly the whole sea-borne trade of the sub-continent was controlled by one private corporation having no responsibUity to the people of South Africa. The ring that thus obtained a virtual monopoly of the carrying trade, both of Lourenzo Marques and the British ports, consisted of the Union-Castle Mail Steamship Company, the Clan Line Steamers, Limited, the Bucknall Steamship Lines, Limited, and the EUerman- Harrlson Line, These corapanies were joined subse quently by the Houston Line, which as an outside firra carried on a rate- war for a period, but finally capitulated and entered the corablne ; and by the Gerraan East African Line, which practically secured a raonopoly of the trade of Portuguese East Africa north of Beira, and also a considerable proportion of the trade of that port and Lourenzo Marques, In order to obtain a portion of the shipping trade from the continent, British companies in the combine quoted rates from continental ports lower than those from British harbours, without regard to the Injury to British manufacturing Interests. German Competition The intimate co-operation between the German State railways and the German shipping companies enabled German manufacturers to ship goods on a through bill of lading ostensibly, so far as shipping charges were con cerned, at the same rates as on the British boats, but in reality at a much cheaper rate, owing to the secret arrangements between the German companies and the raUway administration ; and, further, this advantage was increased owing to the fact that German freightage charges were by ton measureraent and not by ton weight. The result of these measures was that, In spite of the 320 SHIPPING substantial preference granted by the South African Government to British goods, German Iraports, especially through Lourenzo Marques, rapidly increased In value, and the Gerraan line, as has been stated, secured a strong position In the East Coast shipping service. In addition, the vessels within the conference, and other outside firras, by granting cheaper rates for goods from America adversely aff'ected British trade and increased the Araerican hold on the South African raarket. At one tirae, indeed, it was cheaper, so far as shipping freights alone were concerned, to send goods to South Africa via New York. The combine which brought about these results was instituted in the early eighties. Up to 1892 the rebate offered to merchants was 5 per cent,, but in that year It was increased to 10 per cent., and in certain cases was even higher, Portuguese Interests So far as Portuguese. East Africa was concerned the Portuguese Government was directly interested in securing the freedom of the mercantile community from the control of the shipping corapanies. The various atterapts to break down the raonopoly of the combine do not fall within the scope of this book, but It may be mentioned that a South African Shipping Freights Conference was held at Johannesburg In August 1904 and at Cape Town in January 1905, and that a Royal Commission on Shipping Rings assembled in 1908, The Portuguese Government entered Into a contract with the Empreza Nacional de Navegagao for a monthly service of steamships between Lisbon and Portuguese East Africa, calling at the ports of Leixoes, S, Thora^, Loanda, Lourenzo Marques, and Beira, In return for the carrying of the raails and for a reduction of 10 per cent, on the freight of Governraent cargo, the Portuguese SHIPPING 321 Government agreed to subsidize the company to the extent of 12,000,000 reis (£2,666) for each of the first twelve round voyages, the subsidy gradually being re duced to 5,000,000 reis (£1,111) for the last voyages under the contract. In addition to the mail steamships the Portuguese company had other small vessels running up and down the coast, and at the present time raaln- tains a regular service via the Cape, and is reaping a considerable harvest owing to the withdrawal of the vessels of the Gerraan East African Line since the out break of the war. That corapany, as has been indicated, at one time virtually controlled the shipping north of Beira, With the withdrawal of the Austrian Lloyd steamers and untU the steamships of the Union-Castle Company began to call at the ports north of Delagoa Bay, In 1910, practically the whole overseas traffic of the coast was In the hands of the German company. Shipping Companies Immediately before the outbreak of the war Delagoa Bay was visited by vessels of the following shipping companies : the Aberdeen Line, from London to Lourenzo Marques and Beira ; the British India Line, from Bombay to Durban, via Zanzibar ; the Bucknall Steamship Line, from Hamburg to New York and South Africa ; the Clan and EUerman-Harrlson Line, from Glasgow and Liverpool to Lourenzo Marques, Beira, and Mauritius ; Crosby & Co., and Currie & Co,, from Australian ports to South Africa ; the Empreza Nacional de NavegacSo ; the German East Africa Line ; the Hansa Line and the Houston Line, from New 'York to Lourenzo Marques; Howard Smith & Co,, frora Australia to Lourenzo Marques; the Indian African Line, from Rangoon and Calcutta ; the Natal Direct Line, from London to Lourenzo Marques and Indian ports; the Prince Line, ,322 SHIPPING from New York ; the Scandinavian South African Line ; the Swedish South Africa Line; and the Union-Castle Line, from Southampton via the Suez Canal to Durban and back by the same route, and from Southampton to Lourenzo Marques and other eastern ports and back via Cape Town and Portuguese East African ports re spectively, Beira also was visited by most of these companies. Mozambique was visited by the Union- Castle, the British India, German East Africa, and Portuguese steamers, and so was Port Amelia In the territory of the Nyassa Company, Classes of Shipping The shipping frequenting the Portuguese ports is of six classes. First are the maU boats of the Union-Castle Com pany, the Portuguese Empreza Nacional, and, formerly, the German East Africa Line, bound by contract to perform a regular service at certain rates of speed, and carrying, in addition to tbe raails and passengers, cargo at higher rates than on the ordinary steamers. Next . are the intermediate boats of the various corapanies calling at the sraaller ports as well as at the larger, and occasionally running to Mauritius and Madagascar. These carry both passengers and cargo. Thirdly, there are cargo stearashlps which only carry passengers under special conditions, but perforra a regular service between the different ports. In addition to these there is a nuraber of vessels carrying on a coasting trade be tween Lourenzo Marques, Chai-Chai, Bartholomeu Diaz, Beira, Chinde, Quelimane, Angoche, Mozambique, Port Amelia, and other small ports, sailing at raore or less regular intervals ; and the tenders and barges carrying produce frora the Zarabezi delta to Beira ; as well as various native craft and Arab dhows engaged in a carrying trade along the coast and putting in at ports SHIPPING 323 that are not used by steamships, and occasional tramp- steamers calling on the chance of picking up a cargo. Although it is not possible to Indicate the diff'erent classes of shipping by statistics, the following tables show the number, tonnage, and nationality of the vessels visiting the Portuguese ports, and demonstrate the growth of the carrying trade, particularly since the year 1905, Shipping Statistics . Lourenzo Marques. — It wUl be seen that at Lourenzo Marques British shipping Increased in tonnage by 83 per cent,, German by 60 per cent., Portuguese by 65 per cent., and the whole by 63 per cent. At Beira the increases were 404 per cent,, 169 per cent,, 94 per cent,, and 210 per cent, respectively. The percentages of the total shipping at Lourenzo Marques in the year 1905 in British and Gerraan hands were 56 and 19 respectively, and in 1913, 66 and 18 respectively. At Beira In the sarae years the percentages were 37 and 30, and 60 and 26 respectively. Relatively the tonnage of Gerraan shipping at these ports had declined whilst J^ that of British shipping had Increased, but on the other hand the volume of trade frora Great Britain to the Union of South Africa had decreased frora 56-6 per cent, of the whole In 1907 to 54 per cent, in 1913, whilst German trade had Increased from 7-6 per cent, to 9 per cent. The position, therefore, with regard to Delagoa Bay was that while British shipping had relatively increased, British trade had relatively decreased. In 1892, 228 vessels visited Lourenzo Marques ; in 1898, 534 ; In 1905, 616 ; and in 1913, 790. The shipping visiting the port during twenty years has increased more than threefold. The following table shows the Increase slnce^ 1905 :— X 2 324 SHIPPING Crt o OCTioa CO -* CSn CO ,* CXJOJ IO <5 rt 000 05 o 1 ^ O CO Oi 00 Olio >0 CO CD iMcOrt_rt 1-^ T-l 1— ( ^ OiC-OiCO 00 c^ o *o CM rt CO to ^ 05 1 00 O OOO CO (M lOC^ 05 CO-^ OS(M ^-TcD r-TcD tt> COC CO Ci o CO CM 00 ¦«* CO o c- CkJ 1-1 CO OS 1-H IO 05 ,-H t> CO D- i> -^ ^ iO 1 O '"^ |> OS 00 lO CO lO CO Oa^0^a3^(M^ (M 00 CO co'os !>¦ CO CO r> COo b^ I-H CO 00 1-H lO 03 ,-1 ^o OOOi-H -^ CO ^ CO O IO CD o CO ¦» (M 1— 1 CM lO o I— 1 CO 1— ( to 03 OOOO ¦<*< OS IO s Oi CCCC CO iO ¦«:^ OS iO 00 OS IO fi 1— 1 C3 OS 1-H lO o i-H 05 rH 1-tOCSCO CD ^ C^ O CO l> 1-t 1— 1 rH CQ CO s> • « s o CO • • >. !=> ^=5 ^ bn c3 "^ ED o ^ gl3 O) H M tt-lH^ CMCbwo (M rt IO (N o s^ ..ch 03 Oi 05 IO COOO C-iO IO a ,* CO (N OS CO Sf CO IO (N i-( CO I— 1 s (N eo D- rt (m" OS 1—^ Oi CO O CO 00 ^ OS CO 00 -:JH rtl CO CO 05 O Oi CO ^ !> oo (M CO IO eo « t- COrti CO ca s Cd OOCOOi ^ IO t- IO CO CO fi; (M -* l^- rt CO I-H ca I-H >= OiCO ¦* rt o ..# 00 O IO Oi OJ -* IO rH CO rH eo Oi rH CO C^ -* r-! rH rH IO CO IO 5= c-'io'ca-o" IO IO o o ca 00 ca ^ ca ¦* -*rt ^^ 1-^ oa OS 1-H i OOOO c- lO lo c* eo -d^ o ca CO i> ocoto c- CO ^ rH ^ oa ca o fl- O IO IO c^ 00 Ol o.* c- T~^ oa oa ooo s T-HOS f^ oa -*,.:(<_rt r-T of 1-H ^ ca O rH 00 00 ooo IO ^ ca cc s rt oca c- o Os CO CO CO CO CD t IO C- rH O ¦* S rt'rJ'oO'" CO -*Ort ca I^- o S ca -^ T^irt rH rH ca I-H . ooo Oiio oa !^ rt 00 CO lO Oi oa CO CD 1? . . . e o o 1S CO ¦ . . la ^ §]§,!:) E» o 5 a-s s H SS--S5 P^cSfqO SHIPPING 325 Inhambane. — At Inhambane shipping shows a steady increase. Recent iraprovements at the port and the Increase In the plantation and native Industries of the neighbourhood indicate that this increase is likely to be maintained. In addition to native craft some 70 vessels entered the port in 1897, 92 in 1900, and 125 in 1902, During 1905, 1906, and 1914, the tonnage and nationality of the shipping was as follows : — Nationality PortugueseGerman BritishOthers 1905 No. Tonnage 65 48,707 19 32,531 25 44,926 1 120 No. 82 13 22 1906 Tonnage 65,336 32,91246,175 No. 1914 Tonnage Total 110 126,284 117 144,423 1821 119,7.59 Beira. — Ships entering Beira increased' in numbers from 214 in 1897 to 529 in 1913, and the tonnage frora 644,171 In 1907 to 1,468,319 In 1913. The following table shows the number of ships, tonnage, tonnage of cargoes, and tonnage of cargoes for transhipment, mainly for Chinde, during certain years from 1897 to 1915 : — Ships . Tonnage Cargoes in tons . Cargoes for trans shipment Out-cargoes Ships , Tonnage Cargoes in tons Cargoes for transhipment 1897 214 47,229 1901 58,460 Out-cargoes 1910 459 1,318,846[861,906] 100,465 [38,907] 52,023 5,643 1911 503 1,344,780 123,675 [39,637] 1903 76,457 1905 [305]' [479,181] 60,798 67,361 3,939 1912 479 906,110 124,533 [58,341] 1907 405 [408] [869,043] 35,939 [19,594] 2,458 1913 534 [1,488,296] 136,942 1909 446 [660,389] 79,755 [39,523] 74,449 82,923 17,625 1914 499 [501] [1,460,882] 92,281 92,358 31,888 1915 344 52,411 136,131 1 Portuguese figures, probably including native craft, ' Figures in square brackets are from British consular reports, others from the reports ofthe Mozambique Company, 326 SHIPPING The nationality of the ships visiting Beira was as follows : — 1905 1907 1909 1910 Nationality No. Tonnage No. Tonnage No. Tonnage No. Tonnage PortugueseGermanBritish Others 48 127101 29 305 87,604 145,580 178,850 67,148 479,182 103 193,100 175 297,278 126 360,425 4 18,240 115166 158 7 U2,m 178,858 325,730 13,024 97 163 189 10 459 186,906 215,745 490,824 18,431 Total 408 869,043 446 660,389 861,906 1911 1912 1913 1914 NationaUty No. Tonnage No. Tonnaye No. Tonnage No, Tonnage Portuguese German British Others 101 168 222 11 127,918 243,691 543,381 16,793 100 125,970 180 274,081 190 485,224 9 20,835 479 a06,110 93 169,743 197 390,285 236 898,816 8 29,452 122 202,372 143 254.226 225 970,221 11 34,063 Total 502 .J31.78b 534 1,488,296 501 1,460,882 Chinde. — The number of vessels visiting Chinde, in cluding Portuguese lighters towed by tugs, but exclusive of steamships anchoring or stopping for a short period outside the bar for the purpose of taking passengers and maUs, was 147 In 1902 and 270 in 1913. The Portu guese lighters towed by tugs belong to the German East Africa Line, but are registered as Portuguese vessels. British lighters do not appear in the figures. The nationality of the shipping visiting Chinde was as foUows : — Nationality Portuguese GermanBritish Others 1905 : No. Tonnage 49 23,520 114 35,592 66 20,868 2 678 Total 1907 No. Tonnage 231 80,658 87 144 40 54,419 32,525 8,458 271 95,402 1910 1912 1914 No. Tonnage No. Tonnage No. Tonnage 98 67,869 150 36,402 18 ^,098 5 437 103 72,598 138 33,116 12 4,596 15 1,439 115 78,340 96 23,048 5 312 271 110,806 268 111,749 216 101,700 Quelimane. — Although both the import trade and export trade of Quellraane has increased largely within the last few years, the amount of shipping visiting the SHIPPING 327 port does not show a corresponding advance. In 1900, 193 vessels with a tonnage of 102,959 visited the port and this tonnage was gradually decreased until 1910, when prior to the outbreak of the war there was a distinct revival. The following table shows the nationality and tonnage of vessels visiting Quelimane :— - 1905 1 1907 1910 1911 1914 Nationality No. Tonnage '. No. Tonnage No. Tonnage No. Tonnage No. Tonnage Portuguese GermanBritish Others 51 — 69 66,964 34 — 32 19,929 18—4 2,520 — — 20 1,795 1 69 77,653 38 48,004 1 142 32 2,942 81 97,175 46 79,611 5 10,534 24 1,512 88 77,175 16 8,847 40 10,164 Total 103 — I 125 73,208 140 128,741 156 188,832 144 96,186 Angoche. — UntU recently only sailing vessels and smaU native craft called at the small port of Angoche, but steamers of 3,000 tons now occasionally call there. Most of the overseas trade was carried in German vessels previous to the war. The following are the numbers and nationality of ships visiting the port during the years 1907-10 : 1907 1908 1909 1910 NationalityPortuguese GermanBritish Others Total No. Tonnage 233 19 8 19 37,300 13,823 11,992 3,056 279 66,171 No. Tonnage 90 22 6 12 35,878 27,387 7,688 2,708 130 73,661 No. Tonnage 9030 4 28 35,54334,501 292 1,687 152 72,023 No. Tonnage 75 36 2 26 46,759 29,290 218 1,814 139 78,081 Mozambique. — In addition to the mail steamers calling regularly at Mozambique the harbour is visited by a large nuraber of dhows and other native craft. Many of these come from Zanzibar, and others direct from India, These vessels engage in a considerable trade along the coast, visiting the smaller harbours, landing their goods, and shipping local produce for Mozambique and other ports. Until the Union-Castle steamships called at Mozambique, in 1910, practically the whole of 328 SHIPPING the overseas trade for Europe was in the hands of the Germans, and even after that date the greater bulk of the shipments was carried by German vessels. The following table gives the tonnage and nationality of vessels calling at Mozambique : — Nationality PoitugueseGerman BritishOthers Total 1907 1908 1909 No. Tonnage No. Tonnage No. Tonnage 160 60 3482 112,184 214,919 32,881 6,899 98 58 18 77 118,780268,616 7,4239,327 7361 44 86 118,771 282,473 53,479 5,248 336 366,883 ' 251 404,146 264 459,971 1910 1911 Nationality No. Tonnage No. Tonnage PortugueseGerman British others 123 6242 97 123,813 305,287 173,102 7,343 59 51 46 116,197 259,640209,239 Total 324 609,545 156 585,076 No. 1914 Tonnage 408 1 610,489 The figures for the three principal ports in the territory of the Nyassa Company are as follows : — Port Port Amelia Ibo Tungue Total Port Port Amelia Ibo Tungue Steam 79 295,447 44 98,548 13 17,401 136 411,396 Sailing 1914 = 455 775 119 7,115 8,4551,299 Total 534 302,562 819 107,003 132 18,700 Total Steam 644529 124,654 63,320 64,162 1,349 16,869 1915 Sailing 4,2558,901 1,870 1,485 428,265 Ger-man 84,915 51.069 1812 30 135,984 23 3 British 169,056 3,938 26 172,994 138 252,136 353 685171 1,209 15,026 Total 417730 200 128,909 72,221 66,032 1,347 267,162 British 11 25 49,461 2,343 30,600 18 82,404 Summary. — The following table shows the shipping visiting the jDrlncIpal ports of Portuguese East Africa in ' Portuguese figures, including dhows. ' Figures for 1914 are imperfect, as the returns for March are wanting. The sailing ships include small native dhows. SHIPPING 329 the years 1905, 1908, 1911, 1913, with the increase In tonnage since 1905 : — PoH Lourenzo Marques Inhambane Beira Chinde ' Quelimane Angoche Mozambique Port Amelia Ibo Tungue 1905 1908 1911 No. Tonnage No. Tonnage No. Tonnage 616 1,595,520 569 1,616,046 688 2,241,806 110 305 231 103 126,284479,181 80,658 [68,000?] 379246 123 130 251 594,831 101,130 82,197 78,661 404,146 502276 156139 156 931,783 116,088188,832 78,081 ^ 585,076 — — — — — — PoH Lourenzo Marques Inhambane BeiraChinde ' ^ Quelimane Angoche Mozambique Port Amelia Ibo Tungue 1913 No. Tonnage 790 2,624,234 534 1,488,296 270 111,947 168 150,440 - 610,489 79 » 295,447 44' 98,548 13= 17,401 Increase No. Tonnage 184 1,028,714 229 49 65 1,009,115 31,28982,440 216,.S43 Percentage Tonnage Increase 65 210 38 120 53 « ^ Including Portuguese lighters. ' 1910. ' Steamships only. Figures for 1914. 330 POETS Ports Lourenzo Marques The enclosed portions of Delagoa Bay, sheltered sea ward by Inyack Peninsula aiid Island, is entered by wide and deep channels between sandbanks, Polana channel, nearly four mUes long, passes over the bar and gives access to the port of Lourenzo Marques, which is situated WNW, of Inyack Island, at the upper end of the enclosed portion of the bay. This channel has a ralniraura depth of 21 ft, at low-water springs, but It is intended to dredge it to 25-30 ft, rainiraum. The buoys and lights are stated to be now satisfactory : in former years, under less efficient management, they were not. The port of Lourenzo Marques, formed by the estuary of the Espu-Ito Santo or English River, fronts the town. There are anchorages in 6 to 13 fathoms, and there Is a ferro-concrete wharf 5,200 ft. in length, and capable of accommodating 12 large steamers at one tirae along its deep-water front. There are ten sheds for inward and outward cargoes, each with a superficial area of 1,800 sqifare metres, in addition to a transit shed and the national warehouse. Post, telegraph, telephone, and railway booking offices and a luggage depository are provided. The enclosed area connected with the wharf Is fully equipped with railway lines, and is lighted by electricity. There are 15 electric cranes — eight 5-ton, three 2-ton, two 10-ton, one 20-ton, and, on a concrete wall at the western end of the wharf, one 60-ton, and additions to this number are intended. At the western end of the wharf, also, a McMyler coal-hoist (see p. 287) has been established, with a loading capacity of 600 tons per hour, A clock and signalling arrangement for ofiicial time are provided within the wharf area. The customs - house and port captain's offices are to the east of the quay. Extensive storage yards lie beyond the railway POETS 331 yard, chiefly on the river-side, and are leased to local dealers and forwarding agents. The port and railway are under the consolidated administration of a Port and Railway Council, over which the Governor-General presides, and which includes the engineer Inspector of public works as vice-president, the director of ports and railways, the port captain, the •director of customs, the presidents of the municipality and of the Chamber of Comraerce, the general manager of the Banco Ultramarino, and four representatives of commerce. This single administration has superseded, since 1906, a system of control divided between various bodies, has abolished the old system of lokdlng by out side contractors, and has greatly simplified and improved the general working of the port, A Transvaal custoras office is established In Lourenzo Marques, and ' here the duties levied by another country can be paid, verification is allowed, and goods for the most part go forward with out off'-loading. The border customs-house confines Its operations to passenger traffic' The transit trade to and from the Transvaal and the questions Involved in the competition between Lourenzo Marques and Union ports for this trade wUl be more suitably discussed in the following chapter, as they involve consideration of raUway connexions, rates, &c. Chai-Chai Chai-Chai is a small port, 30 miles up the LIrapopo River, served by local steamers from Lourenzo Marques, It is a natural outlet for the products of Gaza, but the bar of the Limpopo Is shallow and difficult, and the port Indifferent, The connexion of the Limpopo country with Lourenzo Marques by raU would render the coastwise shipping traffic less important, but the Limpopo, so far as it Is navigable, should be of value as a feeder to the line. 332 PORTS Inha/mbane Inhambane, the capital of the district of the same name. Is situated on the inner shore of a peninsula protecting Inhambane Bay and the estuary of the Inhambane Elver, Up to the town the bay forms a fairly good harbour for vessels of raoderate draught, and the port has a ferro-concrete wharf 380 feet long with a depth of 23 feet alongside at low- water springs. It has become a trade-centre of some local importance. In view of the raUway which opens up the country to the south (p, 396), and coasting vessels call regularly, A large proportion of the natives recruited In this territory for labour in the Transvaal are shipped from Inhambane to Lourenzo Marques. Bazaruto Bazaruto Bay, lying between Bazaruto Island and the western shore, is visited by coasting craft, Santa Caro lina (Martha) , on a small Island In the bay, is the principal Portuguese establishment between Inhambane and So fala, and Is visited by coasting craft running to Govuro Bay, the Sabi, ChUuane, Sofala, and Beira, Bartholomeu Diaz, Chiluane, Sqfala Bartholomeu Diaz appears to be the best natural port in the vicinity of the Sabi River, frora the raouth of which it lies 12 miles south. Its navigable channel Is rather narrow, and its bar subject to change. It collects some trade frora the neighbourhood, and Mambone, on the Sabi itself, near the mouth. Is a considerable trading centre, but no special prospect of enhanced Importance for this port appears at present. Coasting steamers call regularly ; others occasionally. PORTS 333 The port of Chiluane (Chingune) has little trade, and Sofala, farther north, with Its silting harbour, has lost its historic Importance to Beira, Beira The port of Beira Is situated on a spit of sand separating Chiveve Creek from the River Pungwe, in an exposed position at the mouth of that river and opposite the mouth of the Buzi, Heavy walls have been built to protect the town from the encroachments of the sea, which, running between a sandbank, exposed at low water, and the shore, threatened to destroy the settle ment, Beira lying at a level of only about 18 Inches above high water at spring tides. The Chiveve embank- raent scheme reclaimed sorae 95,000 sq, yds, of land, while the sea-wall surrounding Ponta Chiveve, extending to the southward of the extremity of Ponta Gea, also encloses a considerable amount of reclaimed land. The anchorage for steamships lies off' the shore, and vessels drawing 32 feet can berth alongside an Iron raUway pier, 400 feet In length, even at low water. At the Custoras House is a concrete wharf for lighters and small vessels, equipped with steam cranes. There are also cranes on the pier, which Is connected with the railway crossing the Chiveve Creek on a steel three-span bridge, which opens to allow the passage of vessels. The entrance to the anchorage is buoyed, and vessels drawing 24 feet can enter at high tide. The lowest water over the bar Is about 11 feet and the highest 29 feet. The majority of vessels anchor about 100 yards from the shore and landing-place, and goods are conveyed to the shore In lighters. The railway terminus is situated beyond the Chiveve Creek, and communication within the town is effected ,by means of light tramways on which trolleys are run. 334 POETS Local affairs are managed by a Commission d' Ameliora tions, to which body have been entrusted the properties constructed by means of the special funds of the urban services. By Order of August 1, 1915, the Government of the territory approved the Regulations of the Com mission d'Araelloratlons, which were sanctioned by a Decree of the Goverment of the Republic on May 13, 1916, The Mozambique Company has handed to the Commission the plots of land on which are constructed the slaughter-house, wash-house, raarket, and ceraetery, and will grant the Commissioi? an annual subsidy of £1,000, The formation of this Commission has given the town adequate representation in the management of its own affairs. The great increase in the trade of the port, alluded to elsewhere (p, 295), has led the Mozambique Company to consider various plans for Improving its accommodation. In 1911 Mr, Cathcart W, Methven, engineer-In-chlef of the Durban Harbour Works, reported on the Beira Harbour accommodation and suggested a scheme of docks. Involving the use of the area alienated to the raUway company, with an alternative scheme to the utilization of Chiveve Creek, The recommendations included the erection of a tidal basin, with a depth of 27 feet at low water spring tides, and containing about 5,000 feet of ferro-concrete wharfage. From this tidal basin there would be a lock, about 800 feet in length, leading Into a dock, 1,680 feet In length by 600- 800 feet In width, with three branch docks and a graving dock. The tidal basin would accommodate about nine vessels of from 400-600 feet in length. The estimated cost of the tidal basin was £702,691, and of the docks £1,763,216, a total of £2,465,907, A less arabitious scheme included the construction of wharfage to accommo date vessels of moderate draught, and the construction of a tidal basin on the railway land. The estiraated cost POETS 335 of the alternative scheme was £1,029,429, including the cost ofthe tidal basin, £591,179, In 1914 a further report on the harbour was made by Mr. Coode and Mr. F, P. Lane, acting on behalf of Messrs, Coode, Matthews, FItzmaurice, and WUson, This recoraraended the construction of deep-water wharfage by means of quays along the river front, instead of a, large dock system. As a first instalntent the construction of wharfage 2,010 feet In length, with four large transit sheds, was recommended. The estimated cost of these works was £296,000, or, with the necessary approaches, dredgers, and sheds, £450,000. The work of constructing a deep-water quay was started in 1911, but the scheme was found to be un satisfactory and was abandoned ; but the prolongation of the erabankment forming the Custoras House wall was completed for another 30 metres, and the work of supporting and protecting the sea-wall was carried through. The latter had been rendered necessary by the encroachments of the sea. Chinde Chinde, the port of entry for British Nyasaland, is situated on a spit of low-lying land, exposed to the action of the waters of the Zambezi and the flow of the ocean tides, at the end of the Chinde mouth of the river. The Chinde distributary, which gives the best entrance to the Zarabezi, is about 17 miles north-eastward of the Muselo mouth, and Is about 20 railes in length between Its entrance and Its junction with the main river. The entrance has been buoyed and a lighthouse has been erected about half a mile southward of Foot Point, The depths and direction over the bar are constantly changing. Steamships anchor In a depth of four fathoms about three miles south-eastward of MItahone Point, but anchorage may also be obtained in the river itself between Foot 336 POETS Point and Luabo Point, Trade is carried on by means of steam-tugs and lighters. The Portuguese settlement of Chinde Is situated on the north side of the eastern extreraity of Tirabwe Island, Westward, and adjoining this settlement, is the British Concession, with a river frontage of about 1,200 yards and extending backwards for about 800 yards. Groynes have been built to protect the foreshore, but there is great diflficulty in constructing any effective works, in con sequence of the continuous erosion of the river shore. The Concession, which remains under the sovereignty of Portugal but Is exempt from all Portuguese rates, taxes, and customs duties, has been extended at various times, in compensation for the land lost by erosion. The Concession was first granted, on a ninety-nine years' lease, In September 1891, following upon Mr, D, Rankin's recommendation of the spot as being suitable for a new port. This had been rendered necessary owing to the fact that Inyaraisengo, the port at the Kongoni raouth, has been almost corapletely washed away ; whUst Con- celgao, the only other known port, was extremely unhealthy. In 1904 a new channel was discovered, but steamers can only pass the bar at high water. At the present time the trade of Chinde Is consider able. As the starting-point for the river-navigation of the Zambezi, it is the centre of a large trade with the interior, shown on p. 299, But the proposed railway from Chlndio to Beira would probably divert a con siderable part of the traffic with Nyasaland, while the building of the proposed railway from Quelimane to Tete (p, 422) will also affect the course of traffic. Certainly as regards passengers Chinde will cease to be of much iraportance, and It is probable that It will only be used for the export of the produce grown on the local sugar plantations. PORTS 337 Quelimane The town of Quelimane stands on the east bank of the River Quelimane, or Rio dos Bons Signaes, about 10 miles above Tangalane Point at the entrance of the river. The raouth of the river is nearly two miles wide between Ponta Ollnda and Tangalane Point, and the river has a winding course as far as Quelimane, where vessels raay anchor In from 19 to 25 feet of water. The bar at the mouth of the river is subject to changes and has a depth of from 12 to 13 feet over It at low water and about 24 feet at high water ; but these depths can not always be depended upon. The trade of Quelimane has suffered during recent years through the competition of Chinde, and it has been decided that, in order to supply better anchorage for ships, wharves are to be built at Tangalane, where the depth of water is considered sufficient to enable large vessels to go alongside. Here, within the bar, the depths vary from 22 to 56 feet at low water. It Is suggested that the proposed Quelimane-Tete railway shall be con tinued to this point, Quelimane Is the chief port for the fertile plantation areas of which the town is the centre, and by means of water and railway communications Is connected with the prazos of the Borer and Madal Companies and with the prazos of Andone and Anguaze worked by the Zambezia Company, It is also the principal outlet for the pro duce of the Marral and other prazos between the Masin jire prazo and the coastal plantations. A proposal to construct a waterway, the Mutu Canal (see p. 357), con necting Quelimane with the Zarabezi, near Vicente, is in abeyance. 338 POETS Makivale, Porto Bello, Bijon, &c. The Makuzi form's the chief outlet for the Boror Com pany, and Is described on p, 358, At Porto Bello, on the left bank of the river, a smaU trade is carried on with the territory to the north of the river, and at Makivale (Maqulval), about 16 miles from the entrance of the river, is the terminus of a light railway from Quellraane (see p, 420), Farther north, the raouth of theTijungo orMonija River offers a natural port for the Maganja da Costa district. There is a small settlement at Bijon (Bajone) which Is occasionally visited by sraall vessels. It is stated that there is 27 feet of water on the bar,^ and the opinion has been expressed that Bijon should become the chief port of the district. At the mouth of the Melela River is the small port of Yuse, with a soraewhat exposed harbour ; and seven railes north is the sraall port of MoebasI (Mebase) with better anchorage for ships. Another small settlement occasionally visited by ships is at Naburl, one of the two outlets of the River Ligonya, It is stated that at Yuse, MoebasI, and Naburi many Indian traders have established their businesses,^ The country between the Tijungo and Ligonya Rivers, containing about 9,600 sq, miles, was added to the Quelimane District bj'- a decree of AprU 25, 1907. Angoche The port of Angoche, also known by its native name of Parapato and by Its oflficial designation of Antonio Ennes, Is situated about 100 miles south-west of Mozam bique and 250 miles north-east of Quelimane, There is a considerable trade In copra and ground-nuts, and an English company has obtained a concession in the neigh- ' Memorandum relative to the concession of Maganja da Costa, '^ British Consular Eeport, 1909, POETS 339 bourhood. There are two entrances to the harbour, which Is commodious, but only sraall steamships (3,000 tons) are able to cross the bars. The town is situated 6 miles from Parapato bar and Is a military and civil station. The trade with the interior Is considerable, several Portuguese merchants have establishments, and there are nuraerous Indian traders. On the Island of Angoche the principal settleraent Is KUwa, This Is the centre of a consider able Moharamedan population, who possess their own raosques and schools and were formerly under the control of their own Sultan, From Sangaje (Shangaji), with a dangerous harbour, at the mouth of the San Antonio River, there Is a sraall export of native produce, Mozambique The port of Mozarabique, situated on the Island of that narae, was once the ofiicial headquarters of the Govern raent of the province. The Island Is about 3 railes from the coast, and the entrance to the harbour is protected by the two sraaUer islands of St, George, or Goa, and Santiago, The large bay, stretching between Sancoul Point and Cape Cabaceira, in which ' Mozarabique is situated, is the estuary of three -unlraportant rivers : the MosurU, Kalombo, and Lorabe, As Mozarabique Island divides the bay, there are really two harbours, one to the east and the other to the west of Mozarabique. The outer harbour is between Cape Cabaceira and the island, and the inner harbour, where most of the vessels anchor, extends for about five miles behind the island. At the end of the inner harbour Is another sheltered anchorage opposite MosurU, an old settlement where there are maiiy Arab and native houses. Facing Mosuril is Lumbo, the terminus of the railway now In construction to the Interior, In connexion with this line It Is contera- plated to dredge a channel and build a repairing dock and quay. Y 2 340 POETS The trade of Mozambique (see p, 302) is considerable, and the harbour is visited annually by large numbers of Arab and Indian dhows and periodically by various steamships. On the island are situated Fort Sao Sebastian, a massive buUding erected in 1508-11, and numerous other large buildings of well-constructed masonry. At the south-west extremity of the island is another, but small, fort, built on the islet of San Lourenzo, There is a lighthouse on St, George Island and lights on Fort Sao Sebastian, as well as on a small island off Ponta Cabecinha, about half a mUe south-westward of Cape Cabaceira, There is a fine stone jetty, although at low tide small boats cannot reach the steps. The Customs House and Arsenal have each a pier, A great part of the trade of Mozambique is carried on by raeans of caravans from the interior, and much passes through the hands of Indian and Arab merchants, Ernesto de Vasconcellos states that ' the Moors or natives from the coast who devote themselves to the inland trade usually deal with the reguli of the interior with whom they intend trading ; so that people can obtain the goods they need through the latter, who, of course, draw a great profit ', In' this way a large amount of pro duce is brought to the coast in exchange for Iraported articles of European or Indian raanufacture, Mokambo Bay A few railes to the south of Mozarabique Is the fine harbour of Mocambo Bay, the outer basin of which Is 9 railes broad by 10 long and forms one of the best harbours on the coast. The bay Is contained between Sancoul and Bajona Points, Port Mokambo, an almost circular basin about 4 miles in diameter, is situated at the head of the bay and affords excellent anchorage for large vessels. So important is this harbour that in 1888 POETS 341 the Governor of Mozambique, Augusto de Castilho, con sidered the advisability of transferring thither the capital of the province, and a close survey of the various channels was made on behalf of the Portuguese Government, At present little use Is made of the harbour, Conducia Bay Another fine harbour, to the north of Mozambique, is formed by Conducia Bay, between Cape Cabeceira and Velhaco Point, The entrance to the bay Is 6 miles wide between Tree (or Sete Pans) and KItangonia (Qultan- gonha) Islands, with deep water between, Rio Conducia, at the head of the bay, has at its mouth a land-locked harbour (SinyudI), which is known as Natana Harbour, Fernao Velloso Bay Farther north is Fernao Velloso Bay, a splendid inlet over 10 miles long, with two inner harbours in the south-west and north-east corners. The first of these, Port Nakala (or Maiaia), was considered by Admu-al CastUho ' one of the best harbours, not only of the pro vince, but of the whole world ', The second is termed Belmore Harbour, At present practically no use is raade of these protected anchorages, Memba Bay About 15 mUes north, Meraba Bay forms another great natural harbour, with two deep anchorages at Bocage Harbour (or Maresane) and Porto Duarte Pedroso, though only the latter offers secure accommodation, A trade with Mozarabique is carried on In sraall coasting vessels, Frora Simuko, or Sangone Bay, a little farther north, trading is carried on by coasting vessels proceeding either to Mozarabique or Ibo, 342 PORTS Lurio and Mkufi In the territory of the Nyassa Company there are only three ports of any importance, though a certain amount of coasting trade is carried on with intervening settlements. These ports are Port Amelia, Ibo, and Tungue, The first of the minor ports, proceeding north ward, is at Lurio, a .settlement and military station of the Nyassa Company on the left side of the Lurio River, close to the bar. There is a considerable local trade, but the anchorage Is unsheltered and the bar can be crossed only by sraall vessels. Farther north is the river and port of Mkufi (Macufi) with a small local trade, and a few mUes beyond occurs the fine natural harbour of Pemba (Pomba or Mwarabi) Bay, with Its port at Port Amelia, the capital of the Company's territory. Port Amelia Pemba Bay is one of the most spacious harbours on the East African coast, measuring 8 miles by 5, and is the natural outlet for Portuguese Nyasaland, and, therefore, for the whole of the great territory lying east of Lake Nyasa. The entrance to the harbour, between two rocky points, is If mile across, and gives access to 40 square miles of protected anchorage, varying from 6 to 30 fathoms In depth. The town of Port Amelia stands on the south side of the entrance-strait. Large vessels anchor off the town, within a few hundred yards of the shore. There Is a small stone pier with a T-head, Pemba Bay, unlike the excellent harbours farther south, which have a somewhat sterile hinterland and are therefore of local Importance only, would become the centre of a con siderable transit trade if the proposed raUway to Lake Nyasa were constructed. It is rapidly superseding Ibo as a port of call for ocean steamships, and the transfer POETS 343 thither of the Custoras Administration, which is still situated at Ibo, Is likely to be made in due course. Arimba and Montepuesi Between Pemba Bay and Ibo is the small port of Arimba, situated on the southern side of a large bay, sheltered by the Islands of Furabo and Quisive and carrying on a coasting trade with Ibo, At the head of Montepuesi (Montepes, Mtepwezi) Bay Is a sraall settle ment of the same name, frora which coasting craft also trade to Ibo. Ibo Ibo has an indifferent harbour with a diflficult landing, but has long been a place of considerable importance. It is situated on an Island of the same name, and is guarded by two forts built in the eighteenth century. In addition to ocean steamers the port is visited by large numbers of native craft, the owners of which still find it a more convenient distributing centre than Port Amelia ; but much of the trade carried on appears to be due to established custom, and the prosperity of Ibo has been decreasing steadUy since the abolition of the slave-trade. Nevertheless, about one-half of the exports and two- thirds of the Imports of Portuguese Nyasaland pass through the town, but there is' no reason to doubt that the greater part of this trade will gradually be diverted to Port Amelia, The island of Ibo is about 4- mUes long and is nearly divided into two by an inlet cutting Into its north-west side. This forms an Inner harbour fbr small craft, but larger vessels anchor outside, about 2| miles from Fort San Joao, in 5-6 fathoras. This anchorage Is exposed to easterly winds and the tidal streams run strongly. 344 POETS Mazimbwa and Port Mluli Between Ibo and Tungue (Tunghi) Bay there are two small ports at Mazimbwa (Mocimboa) and Port Mluli. The forraer is situated on Mazirabwa Bay, a capacious arid well-sheltered anchorage protected by two lines of shoals and islands. The settleraent carries on a small trade, particularly of coloured straw mats and baskets of local manufacture, and Indian traders barter with numerous caravans arriving from the Interior, The trade is confined chiefly to small coasting vessels plying between Tungue and Ibo, The second harbour at Port Mluli lies on the south-western shore of Mayapa (or Majapa) Bay, an extensive opening in the coast bordered by large sand-flats, which run towards the middle of the bay. The channel leading to Port Mluli is a narrow one, but the anchorage ground has a depth of from 7 to 10 fathoms, A sraall coasting trade is cairied on with Ibo and Tungue, Tungue At the south-western extreraity of Tungue Bay is the port of Palma, approached by a buoyed channel, with good anchorage in about 10 fathoms about 3| mUes from the town. The settlement of Palma is situated on the left bank of the river Menengane, Its trade is with Zanzibar and tbe ports on the Mozambique coast, but Tungue Bay Is now visited by steamships. Tungue Itself Is situated on the north coast of the bay. Inland Navigation For purposes of navigation by vessels larger than small launches the rivers of Portuguese East Africa are practically worthless. With the exception of the Zam bezi none can be ascended for any considerable distance even by launches, but several are utilized by the small INLAND NAVIGATION 345 craft ofthe natives, and after the suramer rains form useful means of comraunication. The rivers falling into Delagoa Bay, and the Limpopo, the Buzi, the Pungwe, tbe Queli mane, and the Makuzi can be navigated by small vessels, and beyond the tidal limits by launches when the rivers are In flood. Thus they are, or can be made, of con siderable use in the commercial developraent of the country. Moreover, certain rivers not accessible from the sea are navigated by small barges and boats, while even the smaller streams, so long as they are not too rajbid, are used during certain seasons by native dug-out boats. Maputo 111 the Lourenzo Marques District the Maputo is stated to be navigable -for launches for more than 100 railes, and for vessels drawing 8 ft, for 40 miles. Steamers of 1,500 tons have ascended the river for a short distance, as the bar can be crossed by vessels drawing 12 ft. The river is navigated by gunboat launches drawing less than 2 ft, as far as Macassane, some 13 raUes above Bela Vista, where there are a military station and a religious mission, although launches with cargo are lightened at Salamanga before proceeding farther up the river. Port Melville, a small fishing village at the mouth of the river, affords good anchorage for vessels, but It is at present of no commercial importance, Matolla A few railes to the north is the Matolla, which can be navigated by sraall vessels as far as Port Matolla, about 15 miles up the river. Here a timber company erected a small pier, with cranes, warehouses, and sheds, and connected the place with the Swaziland and Transvaal lines by a railway 4 miles in length. Other companies, such as the Lourenzo Marques Milling Company and the 346 INLAND NAVIGATION North Araerican and African Cold Storage Company, also erected buildings ; but in April 1914 the whole property was purchased by the Government for £57,000, and at present Is used as a dep6t for explosives and infiamraable goods, Tembe The River Tembe, which joins the Matolla near Lourenzo Marques, Is stated to be navigable by sraall boats for some 90 miles. Port Henrique, sorae 25 railes up the river, used to be visited by launches, which at that point collected the produce forwarded frora Swaziland, With the construction ofthe Swaziland railway, however, this traffic has ceased, and the Terabe is of no present coraraerclal importance, Umbely,zi The Umbeluzi is navigable for about 18 raUes as far as Boane, near which place are the waterworks which supply Lourenzo Marques, Komati The Komati, which has been navigated by gunboat launches as far as Chinavane, about 80 miles from its mouth. Is difficult for navigation beyond Cherinda on account of the windings of the river. To that point boats drawing not more than 3 ft, 6 In, can ascend without difficulty after the first 6 miles above the bar have been passed. In times of flood, however, flat-bottomed boats can descend without being impeded by obstructions in the bed of the river. The Komati, owing to the great curve it makes In flowing for a distance of 200 miles before debouching into Delagoa Bay, is economically one of the raost interesting rivers In the province. In its upper reaches the establishraent of a water-power plant has INLAND NAVIGATION 347 been suggested, and a concession for the purpose has been granted to the Movene Sugar Estates, The development of sugar-estates along the Komati will probably lead to a more extensive use of this waterway, which possibly, owing to its winding course, might be successfully locked for purposes of navigation, Limpopo Although the Limpopo is never dry, the water in winter becomes exceedingly shallow, and the river Is then In most places easily fordable. Beyond the Portuguese border one stretch ofthe river, about 100 miles In length. Is stated to be navigable from Rhodes' Drift to the junc tion with the Buhl, during the rainy season. Below that point there are the Tolo Azirae Falls, near the borders of the Transvaal, which render navigation Irapossible, but farther down, frora its junction with the Nuanetsi River as far as the confluence of the Olifants and Lirapopo, the river is stated to be navigable for sraall launches during the summer season. Thence to Mahamba it Is claimed that the Limpopo can be navigated by stern-wheel steamers of light draught, which can also, but only in times of flood, run some distance up the Changane River. Thence to the sea, 93 railes, there is said to be a minimum depth of from 3 to 8 ft. A steamer drawing 6 ft. has ascended as far as Manjobo's kraal, 60 railes above the mouth of the river, but at present the Limpopo is only regularly navigated as far as Chai-Chai (see p. 331), 30 raUes above the mouth, although flat-bottomed launches occasionally ascend to Languene, another 18 mUes, Inyarrime Farther north the River Inyarrime is stated to be navigable from Chikomo as far as the sand-banks which obstruct the bar, although depths of less than 4 ft, are 348 INLAND NAVIGATION met with. The Inyarrime, which might be improved by certain engineering works In its lower reaches. Is rather a series of lakes than a river. For this reason It might be made a raeans of coraraunication between Chikomo and Inharabane in the one direction, and along the lagoons towards Zavala in the other. Plans have been suggested for linking up these waterways, but hitherto nothing has been accomplished, though a motor-boat service Is main tained between Inyarrirae and Zavala, and also between Inyarrirae and Chikorao and SInbai, Nevertheless, though navigation is difficult, even for sraall boats, there is a certain araount of native traffic over these waterways. The Inyarrirae first runs into Lake Poelela, and then proceeds as far as Inyatumbo, where it connects with the sea. In conjunction with the light railway from Chai- Chai to Inharabane, the Inyarrirae raight prove of con siderable use In developing the coastal districts. Moreover, certain authorities are of the opinion that an extensive system of canalization in connexion with these and similar lagoons would not only solve problems both of transport and drainage, but be even more advantageous than light raUways, on account of the saving in transport charges. It was announced towards the end of 1917 that the Governor-General had authorized the Iraprove raent Coraraission to acquire dredgers for providing a waterway through the chain of lakes in the Chai-Chai and Inharabane Districts, Inhambane Beyond the Inyarrime the River Inhambane is navigable for 9 miles as far as the port of that name, and for sraaller vessels as far as Kabane, where the river becomes known as the Mutamba, The plans already mentioned would permit the connecting of the Mutamba with the Inyar rime, From Inhambane a service of motor-boats is INLAND NAVIGATION 349 maintained by the Witwatersrand Native Labour Asso ciation, running northwards through Inhambane Bay to Morrumbene, Between that point and the port of Bartholomeu Diaz there is no river that can be used for navigation. Here, however, the Govuro, running north wards, parallel with the coast, into Bartholomeu Diaz harbour, is open to coasting craft, to Chikomo, as far as the tides extend, Sabi The River Sabi, imraediately north, has been ascended by ships' boats for 50 mUes, and is stated to be open to larger boats as far as the tidal limit at Marabone, Although this river has a course of over 280 railes. It can only be considered a river during the rainy season, when the waters flow with sorae violence. At other times It becomes a mere rivulet, with very little water passing to the sea. Long native boats called almandies can ascend at certain seasons as far as its junction with the Lunde, near the Rhodesian border ; but otherwise the river appears to be useless for navigation, and even in the wet season no goods can be transported up stream. A long series of rapids intervenes between the upper section in Rhodesian territory and the lower portion In Portuguese territory. Although the Sabi appears to have been one of the great routes during Arab times, there is apparently no evidence that the gold was transported by river, though on the other hand the facUity with which natives can navigate their dug-outs through rapids suggests that, even if the amount of water descending the river was the sarae as it is to-day, such may have been the case, Buzi With regard to the Buzi, which, according to Joao dos Santos, formed a means of communication with the Manica gold-mines, and from which there then In all 350 INLAND NAVIGATION probability existed coraraunication with Sofala by means of the flooded fiats stretching along the shore, there is no evidence that It can be ascended by ships for any con siderable distance. The shifting bars, however, can be crossed by vessels drawing 10 ft,, and the river Is navigable by sraall boats and canoes for a considerable distance beyond J oho (Jeho), to which point, 20 miles from the mouth, ships drawing 9 or 10 ft, can ascend during the flood season. At present the river Is extensively used by the vessels and launches of the Companhia Colonial do Buzi and of the Beira-Illovo Sugar Estates, which transport the produce of the district of Beira, The estuary of the river thus forms an iraportant raeans of communication with the chief port of the Mozambique Company's territory, Pungtve Immediately to the north the River Pungwe, although navigable for small stearaers during high water for about 100 miles, and for about 50 raUes when the river is low, is so full of shifting banks and shaUows, running as it does through a deep alluvial soil, that no present use can be made of this fine waterway. It was the first intention of the Beira Railway Company to use the lower part of the Pungwe from Fontesvila for navigation, but the winding course of the river rendered it extremely diflfi cult to bring ships to Fontesvila, and the plan had to be abandoned in favour of a direct railway to Beira, For native purposes, however, the Pungwe forms an excellent raeans of communication. In 1884 It was descended in a boat from Manica by Colonel Paiva d'Andrada, INLAND NAVIGATION 351 Zambezi The Zarabezi can be ascended at all seasons by vessels drawing 10 ft, as far as Mashenga, 5 railes above the junction of the Chinde branch and the raain river. During February and March vessels drawing 5 ft, can reach Tete, and those drawing '8 ft, could probably reach Chindio ; but after March the river falls rapidly, and navigation, especially between Mutarara and Lupata, becomes diflficult. Steamers drawing not raore than 2| ft. then ground frequently on the numerous sand banks. During recent years the navigation of the river appears to have changed for the worse, but It Is possible that continuous dredging and the deepening of canals by this means, wherever the sand-banks are forraed, would do rauch to iraprove the river. Moreover, much doubtless could be accomplished by planting rushes and graduaUy raising erabankraents where the river spreads Itself over Its banks. Communication with Rhodesia. — An exhaustive report in 1903, concerning the possibilities ofthe river as a raeans of coramunication with Rhodesia, indicated that from Chinde to a point about 30 miles above Tete the river could be navigated by gunboats, steamers, and cargo- boats. At this point, where the Mezanangwa (Musa- nangwe) River enters the Zarabezi, the Quebra Ba90 (Kebrabassa or Kabroabassa) rapids render navigation im possible for a distance of about 75 miles, although even this obstacle, containing sixty rapids in a distance of 62 miles, was successfully overcome by carrying the boat in five places where navigation was absolutely Impossible, With respect to these rapids Major A, St, H, Gibbons was of opinion in 1901 that by means of a canal some 20 mUes long, directing the course of the river into the Meza nangwa, the difficulties of navigation might be sur mounted. From Chikoa, about 75 miles above the lower 352 INLAND NAVIGATION end of the rapids, the Portuguese for many years past have had boats, carrying about 3 tons of cargo, running as far as Zumbo, the Portuguese frontier post near to Feira, the Rhodesian customs station. From Zumbo upward (beyond Portuguese territory), as far as the Kariba Gorge, the river is free from Impediments with the excep tion of two insignifica,nt rapids which, although they have been successfully passed on the downward journey during fiood time, would nevertheless render it Irapossible to bring a heavily-laden boat up streara. This section of the river as far as the Karwua rapids, a distance of 156 miles, Is navigated by a small screw-steamer. It is claimed that the impediments to navigation raight be blasted away and that the difficulties in the Karwua rapids could be reraoved in the same manner. From this point to the Kariba or Livingstone Gorge, a distance of 139 railes, navigation is coraparatively easy, but for 20 railes through the Kariba Gorge there is a series of rapids, said to be of no great consequence, which at present raake navigation extremely diflficult and dangerous. Beyond these rapids, however, the middle Zambezi for about 170 miles is sufficiently deep even in the driest season for navigation, and offers a splendid means of water comraunication for this portion of Ehodesia, In connexion with the railways discussed on pp, 412 seq., this portion of the river, and probably the rest as far as Chikoa, should form a valuable econoraic artery. Between the Kariba Gorge and the Molele rapids there Is again only one serious irapediment to navigation. This is the Kansalo rapids, formed by an Impassable barrier of rock, extending from an island In mid-streara to the south bank, leaving a narrow channel between the island and the north bank through which the river flows in an extreraely swift streara. It will be seen that frora the Quebra Ba§o rapids to a point about 7 miles from Walker's Drift there exists, except for the rapids at Kariba and Kansalo, a navigable INLAND NAVIGATION 353 waterway of about 600 miles, and one of the chief pro bleras of the future will be to render this river freely navigable and to link It with the raain arteries of railway traffic. The Zarabezi, with Its great tributaries, the Kafue, the Luangwa, the Luena, the Kabompo, and the Lungwebungu Rivers, comprise between them raany hundreds of miles of navigable waterways and may becorae an Important factor in the development both of Rhodesia and of Portuguese East Africa, in spite of the deterioration of the lower Zambezi, Shipping on the Zambezi, Shire, and Lakes. — A large number of stern- wheel steamers, barges, and other boats Is engaged In the navigation of the Zambezi, The transport corapanies established at Chinde are the African Lakes Corporation, the British Central Africa Corapany, and the Zambezia Company, The two former run a service between Chinde and Chlndio, where the Central Africa and Shire Highlands Railway begins, whUe the last runs steamers to Tete when the river Is navigable. In addition, the stearaers of the Zambezi Navigation Company, In which the Sena Sugar Company possess a half interest, tow sugar- barges'from the factories on the Zarabezi to Chinde, whence it is sent to Beira for shipraent. The journey frora Chinde to Chindio occupies three to seven days. In accordance with the season and the state of the river, but the passage down stream Is made In two or three days. In 1910 there were 134 vessels entered on the shipping register at Chiromo, which was then the terminus on the Shire of the Nyasa land Railway, Of these 19 were British stearaers and the remainder barges of varying capacity. There were also two Portuguese and one Gerraan stearaer. In addition, Portuguese gunboats are perraanently stationed on the Zambezi and make frequent journeys on the river. At the end of 1914 there were 202 steamers and barges on the Rivers Zambezi and Shire. Of these 354 INLAND NAVIGATION 21 stearaers and 131 barges were British, although of these 10 steamers and 53 barges flew the Portuguese flag ; the rest were Portuguese, The tonnage capacity of these boats was 8,036, giving an average of 39 tons. The amount of cargo carried by the British vessels was 52,038 tons, of which 7,048 was to and frora Nyasaland, The nuraber of launches, lighters, and other boats belong ing to the Zambezia Corapany in 1914 was as follows : — Stations Steam Launches Lighters Native Boats Total Wooden Steel "Wooden Steel Quelimane _ — 3 2 1 6 Andone and 1 6 4 8 3 14 36 Anguaze Chinde 3 — 11 1 2 1 18 Timbwe 1 2 3 Bompona 4 — 3 7 Chilomo 1 — 5 6 Mutarara 2 — 3 5 Vila Bocage 1 4 2 2 — 14 23 Tete — 2 — 7 — 19 28 5 12 20 28 6 61 132 The steamboats were the Zambeze, Ghire, Lupata, Luia, and Gen. Couvreur, and the following were the receipts and expenses of the service, receipts from passengers carried, and value of cargo during 1915 :• — Boat Zambeze Chire Lupata Luia ' Gen. Couvreur Receipts £ 3,050 4,547 155592 1,299 Expenses Cargo Passengers £ £ £ 2,636 2,172 823 2,844 2,751 1,705 598 146 8 1,985 382 206 1,346 1,255 43 9,409 6,706 2,785 9,643 The Shire River, which until the continuation of the 1 This vessel alone is referred to in a report of 1917, She is a twin-screw vessel, carrying 50 tons of cargo, 147 ft, long and about 30 ft, beam ; speed, 12 knots ; draught when loaded, 3 ft, : she is only used in the flood season. INLAND NAVIGATION 355 railway to Chindio forraed the chief means of communica tion with British Nyasaland, was formerly navigable as far as Katunga, where rapids impede further progress. Above the rapids the river was again navigable for shallow-draught steamers up to Lake Nyasa, On this section a service of stern-wheelers and barges was main tained, which provided transport as far as Fort Johnston at the south end of the lake. During the last few years, however, the conditions of navigation have changed for the worse (see p, 30), By the end of 1915 there was every indication that the two Government barges which were still maintained on the upper Shire would have to be withdrawn, and In fact the river became entirely unnavigable between Llwonde and Fort Johnston, The marked faU in the level of the River Shire had already rendered the continuation of the Shire Highlands Rail way to the Zarabezi a necessity, and, now that the upper Shire is also useless for navigation, diflficulties of trans port between railhead and the lake will raake the construction of the northern section of the railway inevitable. If easy coraraunication Is to be raaintained with the rest of Nyasaland. The elaborate plans of the African Flotilla Company, in which the Oceana Consoli dated Company was largely Interested in 1899, for extending their service along the upper Shire, have thus come to naught. That corapany then arranged for a continuous service up the Shire across Lake Nyasa from north to south, as well as for navigation on Lakes Tanganyika and Mweru, and entered Into a contract with the German Government for the conveyance of goods and passengers from Chinde to German territory east of Lake Nyasa. At present Lake Nyasa Is navi gated by steamers which leave Fort Johnston and call at nine or more British stations on the west coast and sometiraes at the Portuguese stations on the east coast. Both Lakes Tanganyika and Mweru are also traversed z 2 366 INLAND NAVIGATION by steamers belonging to the African Lakes Corporation and the Katanga Company, but they cannot be con sidered at present as contributing to the traffic towards the Zambezi, although such was the original ititention of the African Flotilla Corapany, ' The African Lakes Corporation, generally spoken of as the Lakes Company, dates from 1878, but was only registered in its present form in 1894, It has an authorized capital of £250,000, and, in addition to inland navigation, is engaged in the cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and rubber in Nyasaland and northern Rhodesia, It is In reality an outcome of the Church of Scotland Mission established in Nyasaland In 1876, and has been of great assistance In developing British Nyasaland by establishing trading dep6ts and providing for the necessary transport to the interior. The distance frora Mamoya at the northern end of Lake Nyasa to Fort Johnston is about 320 miles, and to Langenburg in German territory about 10 mUes less. From Fort Johnston to Liwonde by road Is 45 miles, from thence to Zomba is 32 miles, and from Zomba to Blantyre 42 miles, while the distance by rail from Blantyre to Chindio is 173 miles, and from Chindio to Chinde 110 miles. The total distance covered in a journey frora the northern end of Lake Nyasa to the Zambezian port is therefore 722 miles, which may be accomplished in favourable circumstances in six or seven days, the steaming over Lake Nyasa occupying fifty hours. In 1910 there were seven steamers on the lake, two of which were Government vessels, the largest one being of 350 tons displacement, Quelimane River The Quelimane or Rio dos Bons Signaes, which Is used by vessels proceeding to the port of Quelimane, 12 miles up tlie river, was at one tirae In communication with INLAND NAVIGATION 357 the Zambezi by raeans of the River Mutu. Through the last river, at least during six months in the year, there used to be constant traffic with the Zambezi, certainly in the 16th century and probably later, and for this reason the Quellraane was considered as one of the mouths of the Zambezi. The Mutu,. however, has continuously become narrower untU it Is now little better than a series of swamps joined together by a small stream. Only when! the Zambezi is in flood is It possible for small boats to proceed over this route to the Zambezi. Mutu Canal A proposal to construct a waterway from Quelimane to the Zambezi near Vicente by utUIzing the Mutu River is In abeyance. This proposed canal was begun in 1910, when the Portuguese Government obtained a dredger and began the deepening of the channel. This work was subsequently abandoned, but in view of the benefit to Quelimane and the surrounding district of through comraunication with the Zambezi It is probable that the project will be carried through eventually. In connexion with other proposed canals in the Quelimane region the Mutu waterway would be of considerable service In developing the sugar lands on the northern side of the Zambezi, Parallel with the Mutu runs the Kwakwa (Quaqua), which formerly was extensively used by traveUers proceeding to the Zarabezi, This river Is navigable for sraall boats as far as Mopeia, and thus affords direct water coramunication with Quelimane, So far as Quelimane is concerned, the navigation of the river presents sorae difficulties which militate against the use fulness of the port, which has consequently suffered from the competition of Chinde, but it is proposed to establish a wharf at the mouth of the river at Point Tangalane, where the- boathouse now stands (compare p, 337), 358 INLAND NAVIGATION Waterways in Quelimane District, Maganja da Costa, &g. Beyond Quelimane Is a district containing numerous small rivers and waterways which by a system of canal ization raight be put to use in the developraent of the dis trict. More particularly, comparatively smaU engineering works would here perform a useful service In draining the rich alluvial soil and adding to the resources of a country that is eminently suited for plantation purposes, particularly for sugar, sisal, and coco-nuts. Many of these areas now consist of what are practically islands sur rounded by swamp and small streams forming a net work of waterways suitable for interior navigation. At present navigation Is possible for smaU boats over the Muanange, which enables traffic to be maintained be tween Quelimane and the Makuzi or Inyaraakurra River. The latter is navigable by vessels drawing 8 feet for 25 railes as far as Vila Candida, while ships drawing 15 feet are able to cross the bar. Several of the tribu taries of this river are navigable by boats for small distances. Moreover the Makuzi Is navigable over 60 or 70 miles for sraall boats as far as the boundary of the prazos of Boror and Nameduro, and communication is stated to be possible during the rainy season with the Likungo River, From time to time, however, even the Makuzi Is closed to navigation. This happened during 1915, when the receipts of the Quelimane-Makivale rail way were Increased largely owing to this cause. Thirteen miles south of the Quellraane the LInde Is navigable for 24 railes as far as MIcaune, and thus forras a valuable entry to the Mahindo prazo, which sorae day raay be of considerable service. The river has been ascended by several gunboats and the bar can be crossed by vessels drawing 10 feet. The communication between the Makuzi and Likungo, if it really exists at any period when the country Is not INLAND NAVIGATION 359 flooded. Is by means of the Maali River and a short canal to Maroda, which by being continued some 7 miles to join the Puada River, which flows into the Likungo, completes the connexion. By raeans of a sraall river on th'e left bank of the Likungo, Indifferent coramunica tion is possible with the Mabela (Mwabala) and, by way of its affluent the Errlu, with Arenga, which Is within a few miles of the River Raraga, This opens up a raeans of transport by a slow and circuitous route between Makivale, the terminus of the line from Queli mane, and the centre of the district known as Maganja da Costa, It is doubtful, however, whether under present conditions this route Is of any practical utility. The district in question, however, in some respects closely corresponds with the region to the north of Quelimane, Inasrauch as there are near to the coast numerous swamps connected by waterways, and various small, rivers finding an outlet into the ocean. Three of them, the Likungo, the Mabela, and the Raraga are bUnd rivers which cannot be entered frora the sea, but the Likungo is said to be navigable for boats for eight or ten days' journey, but this can only be during the rainy season. Both the Raraga and the Mabela by means of affluents conamunlcate with the Maganja lake, that from the Raraga beiag navigable by sraall boats at any tirae, and that from the Mabela only during the season of fioods. It is possible, however, that eventually a series of canals raay open a way into the heart of the Maganja country. Farther north is the Moniga or Tijungo River, which has a good estuary containing an excellent anchorage with 27 feet of water on the bar. This river has several navigable tributaries and is navigable for a considerable distance by sraaU boats, but at present the whole district is undeveloped and the waterways are only used by the natives for their own purposes. Never theless, in view of the known timber resources of the 360 INLAND NAVIGATION region, they form economic assets of considerable im portance, Mozambique District and Nyassa Company's Territory From this point northwards there are no waterways that can be considered navigable unless for small native craft at the most favourable season of the year. Certain rivers, however, such as the Lardi, Mluli or Angoche, Mwite, Lurio, and Mfufi, contain anchorages that can be entered by small vessels and dhows, while there are several fine bays open to large steamships, which are mentioned in the section relating to ports. On the whole, however, the coastal regions north of the River Moniga do not offer facilities for Interior navigation even by the smallest boats, and from that economic point of view cannot be considered of special importance. In tbe Nyassa Company's territory, European boats have suc ceeded in penetrating the Rovuma for a few mUes inland in high water. Livingstone, in September 1862, ascended the river about 120 miles. But native craft, though utilizing this river and the Lujenda to some extent all the year round, do not as a rule make long journeys, and both rivers have frequent rapids. CHAPTER X COMMUNICATIONS,— II Railways: Ai-ea and history of railway interests — Lourenzo Marques-Transvaal railway (MacMurdo's railway— Kruger's attitude- Completion of railway — Physical comparison of Lourenzo Marques and Durban routes — Stations in Portuguese territory — The Waterval deviation) — Distances from Lourenzo Marques — Competitive traffic question (Delagoa Bay favoured by Netherlands railway — Conflicting railway administration — Modus Vivendi, 1901 — Amalgamation of South African railways— The Conventipn of 1909— Eff'ect of rate- adjustments — Transvaal labour considerations) — New railways in Transvaal (Komati Poort-Messina railway — Bandolier Kop-Messina railway — Messina copper-mines — Communication with Ehodesia — Nelspruit-Graskop extension — Machadodorp-Breyten line — ^Witbank loop-line — Witbank coal district — Eailways in western Transvaal — Barberton railway) — Swaziland railway — Eesources of Swaziland — Moamba-Chinavane and Gaza railways — General statistics of railways in Lourenzo Marques District — Beira-Mashonaland railway (Con struction — Change of gauge — Eoute and elevation — Stations — Work ing proportions — : Kafue extension — Competitive areas — General statistics — Beira Eailway Co, — Beira Junction Railway Co, — Mashonaland Eailway Co. — Ehodesia Railways, Ltd,, and Rhodesia Eailways Trust) — Railways along the Zambezi — Beira-Zambezi railway — Nyasaland railways (Central Africa railway— Shire High lands railway) — Railways in Quelimane District (Quelimane-Makivale railway — Inyamakurra-Mokuba railway — Quelimane-Ruo railway — Quelimane-Tete railway) — Mozambique-Nyasaland railway — Port Amelia-Lake Nyasa railway, Eoads and transport — Post-office and telegraphs. Railways Area and History of Railway Interests In no respect is Portuguese East Africa of more importance than as the antechamber to the immense 362 RAILWAYS territory lying between the valley of the Vaal and the basin of the Congo, and even extending northwards Into the latter area. The configuration of the land, sloping eastward towards the Indian Ocean, and the coraparative proximity of that highway have rendered inevitable the economic drainage of the interior towards the south eastern coasts of Africa rather than to the western littoral. This economic movement has taken place only in recent years. It has been at once quickened by the rapid development of the Transvaal, Rhodesia, and British Nyasaland, and retarded by the vested interests of the southern ports of the continent and the system of rail ways already established there. Until the end of 1890 the railways of South Africa were confined to the then British colonies, with the exception of the short line from Delagoa Bay to the frontiers of the Transvaal, and such traffic as existed found its way almost exclusively over the South African system. At four points the raUways terminated almost on the boundary lines of the Boer RepubUcs, which for several years proved barriers to further progress. The policy of obstruction, due in part to distrust of British policy, but perhaps more to the conservatism of the older generation, was eventuaUy overcome, and with the breaking down of the political barriers, favoured by the reactionary element in the Transvaal, the value of Portu guese territory as a highway to the coast became more and more evident. It appears necessary, therefore, in the present chapter, to deal in some detail with raUways not only within but also beyond the Portuguese frontier.^ The development of South Africa has proceeded In the main from south-west to north-east, following the natural avenues of advance imposed by the configuration of the land. At the same time development to a lesser degree ' See Map V, RAILWAYS 363 has proceeded inland from Natal towards the southern districts of the Transvaal, In both cases, however, this opening of the interior districts has ended in the occupa tion of territory lying between coastal districts already administered by European powers other than Great Britain, and has resulted in the driving of a wedge towards the centre of Africa, dependent, owing to the previous lack of coastal routes, for its external com munication upon the southern harbours of the continent. With the progress of industry and the settlement of new districts far removed frora the forraer centres of popula tion, the political boundaries due to historical development and diplomatic action have proved insufficient to counter act economic needs, even if that were desired, Lourenzo Marques-Transvaal Railivay The movement for the construction of a railway from the Transvaal to Lourenzo Marques was strengthened by the desire of the Transvaal authorities to secure a direct outlet to the sea independent of the routes through British territory. The continuous construction of rail ways towards the Transvaal presaged the ultimate dependence of the Boer Republics upon the British system for their external communications, and it became a matter of Boer policy to forestall the ultimate advance of the southern raUway system into Transvaal territory by establishing coramunication with Delagoa Bay. At the period in question the railway to • Colesberg was being constructed to Bloerafontein, which was reached on December 17, 1890, whence it was subsequently ex tended to Pretoria, via Kroonstad and Germiston, on January 1, 1893. At the same time a raUway was being constructed eastwards from Braamfoutein (Johannesburg) to Boksburg, which was reached on March 17, 1890, and westwards to Roodepoort (November, 17, 1890), and 364 RAILWAYS thence to Krugersdorp, which was reached on February 10, 1891. That place, however, remained a terminus until 1896, when the railway was carried forward to Frederickstad (November 2, 1896) and thence to Klerks- dorp (August 3, 1897), but was not joined with the Hne northwards to Kimberley and Vryburg, which had been reached on December 1, 1890, until 1907, The railway which had reached Aliwal North, a few miles south of Orange River, in 1855 was not continued over the border in that direction, but was constructed from a junction further south on that railway through Bethulie to Sprin gfontein, a town on the line already running to Bloerafontein, in 1892. The railway from Durban was not carried over the Transvaal border until August 27, 1895. It Is necessary to understand these advances In order to realize the attitude of President Kruger towards the railway from Lourenzo Marques, As early as 1860 one of the principal merchants at Delagoa Bay, realizing the ultimate importance of that port, suggested the construction of a line to the Zout pansberg District in the north of the Transvaal, a region in which the natives maintained semi-independence for another quarter of a century, and in 1870 Messrs, Fors- mann and Munich petitioned that a road to the Transvaal, capable of supporting steam traction, should be con structed. The first practical step, however, was taken in 1872, when Mr. Moodie obtained the first concession for a railway, which was subsequently ceded to Mr. Guzmann. In 1875 President Burgers proposed to the Volksraad that a loan of £500,000 should be raised in Europe for the construction of a narrow-gauge line to Lourenzo Marques, and a Convention was signed at Lisbon in 1875 in which the Portuguese Government granted the con cession to Mr, Moodie, On its part the Transvaal Govern ment treated with the Lebombo Railway Company, constituted at Pretoria, but no capital was forthcoming. LOURENZO MARQUES-TRANSVAAL 365 Affairs remained thus until 1882, when, on October 17, a treaty of comraerce and friendship was concluded between the Transvaal and Portugal, to which was an nexed a protocol regarding the construction of a railway from Lourenzo Marques to the Transvaal. By this treaty reciprocal freedom of trade was established between Portuguese East Africa and the Transvaal, guarantees and considerable subventions were granted, and the Transvaal Government engaged itself to continue the line in the direction of Pretoria, Following upon this arrangement the Portuguese Government granted a new concession to a Portuguese group upon the condition that it should forra a company to be called Caminho de Ferro de Lourengo Marquez ao Transvaal. In view of the impossibUity of securing the necessary financial sup port in Lisbon, the company was authorized to cede its rights to Colonel MacMurdo, an American financier established in England, MacMurdo's Railway. — MacMurdo, after some diffi culties, succeeded in constituting, in March 1885, a company, with a capital of £500,000, which took the name of the Delagoa Bay and East African Railway Company, and the Portuguese Governraent reserved to itself the right of acquiring the line after the expiration of 35 years. In December 1887 the railway was opened for traffic over a course of 50 miles. Owing to the fact that delay occurred on the part of the Transvaal authorities, due largely to their chagrin at not having secured control over the Lourenzo Marques section of the railway, the necessary connexions were not proceeded with, and the line, therefore, had little practical utility as a means of intercomraunication. Moreover, the rail way, which had been constructed by the English engineer, Thomas Tancred, is stated to have been built of Indifferent material, and It terminated in a district infested with tsetse-fly, which rendered wagon transport 366 RAILWAYS impossible. In order to assure its existence It was necessary for the rails to penetrate the Transvaal and to reach the mining centres, Kruger's Attitude. — This, however, President Kruger did his best to prevent, hoping eventuaUy to secure control of the whole railway. By representing that the Lourenzo Marques RaUway stopped short at a point 5| miles from the Transavaal border, he raanaged to stop further operations. In the meantime, within the Trans vaal the Netherlands South African Railway Company (which had come into existence on June 21, 1887, in consequence of the power delegated by the Volksraad on May 27, 1885, to the Executive Council to grant a con cession for building a railway from the Portuguese border to Nelsprult and Pretoria) was granted the right to construct a line to the Portuguese border, and President Kruger succeeded in placing a loan with the firm of Rothschild, £2,000,000 of which were to be put into the work of railway building. Here it may be stated that the financial administration of the company had the greatest influence upon the weU-being of the Transvaal, for, when granting the concession, the Governraent had stipulated that of the surplus profits the Transvaal authorities were entitled to 85 per cent. As a conse quence of the success of the railways the Transvaal Government was not called upon to pay anything as guarantors, but received instead a sum of £2,962,590 during the years 1895-9. Completion of Railway. — It is not necessary to enter into the dispute that arose with the executors of Colonel MacMurdo, who had died in 1889, Protracted negotia tions had taken place previous to that event, but on June 23, 1889, the Portuguese Government, acting, it has been suggested. In collaboration with the Transvaal authorities, withdrew the concession and seized the rail way on the ground of the non-construction of the last LOURENZO MARQUES-TRANSVAAL 367 section of the line, and Itself corapleted the 5| miles to the Transvaal frontier,^ At the same time the Portu guese granted President Kruger the preferential tariffs for which he had been contending, and the line from the Transvaal was proceeded with on Septeraber 24, 1889, although practical work did not begin until May of the following year. An amended concession was granted to the Netherlands South African Railway Company to build and work lines to, and connecting with lines at, the borders of the South African RepubUc. Through connexion was made on November 18, 1894, when the line frora Pretoria was joined with the railway from the Portuguese border at Bronkhorstspruit. In the meantime the Netherlands Railway Company had been granted permission to build its own wharf at Lourenzo Marques and to transport the material required for the construction of its railways over the Portuguese line by Its own trains. Before this date the so-called Randtram had been constructed by the Netherlands Company. The con cession for this railway frora Johannesburg to Boksburg had been granted on July 20, 1888, and extended in 1889 for the section Johannesburg-Krugersdorp and Johannesburg - Springs, The section Johannesburg - Boksburg was opened for public traffic on March 17, 1890. All the materials for this line had been trans ported by ox-wagons frora Kiraberley and Ladysmith to Johannesburg, The section Boksburg - Springs was opened on October 13, 1890, and the section Johannes burg-Krugersdorp on February 10, 1891, on which date the whole of the Randtram, 50 railes, was opened for public traffic. The construction of this line had a great effect upon the mining industry. ' The question was submitted to the arbitration of the Swiss Government, who granted the British and American shareholders 15,000,000 /rancs as compensation for their outlay. 368 RAILWAYS Before the completion of the. Pretoria-Portuguese frontier section, work was begun on the railway from Johannesburg to Pretoria, which was completed on January 1, 1893, and the whole line, Pretoria-Delagoa Bay, was officially opened for public traffic on January 1, 1895, when the running-powers contract of the Cape Government Railways over the section Vaal River- Pretoria-Johannesburg automaticaUy ceased, and the dispute arose which led to the closing of the Vaal River at Viljoen's Drift to the import of goods by the Cape Government, The immediate effect of the corapletion of the Lourenzo Marques-Transvaal RaUway was not only to stimulate the transit trade passing through Portuguese territory, but to increase the prosperity of Lourenzo Marques, which became the most important port between Durban and Suez, Physical Comparison of Lourenzo Marques and Durban Routes. — Natural conditions indicate Lourenzo Marques as the most important outlet for the Transvaal, Not only is the distance from Lourenzo Marques much less than from the other South African ports, but the cost of railway haulage is less owing to the comparative absence of steep gradients. In the latter respect the line has a great advantage over the railway frora Durban, In Natal there is a succession of heavy gradients and sharp curves. The following tables, though not specifi cally indicating the heaviest gradients on the two raUways, give the elevations of the principal places on each, and a comparative view of the two routes of ascent to the central plateau : > LOURENZO MARQUES-TRANSVAAL 369 Township Natal Railway Distance in ^ . Rise or Height miles from declinei—) <^^?^*''^^( ~ ) in feet last-mentioned ¦ j. \ ' in feet station *™ ¦^ per mile Durham . 0 — — — Malvern . 558 10 558 55 Pinetown 1,125 7 567 81 Inchanga , 2,065 22 1,060 48 Camperdown 2,497 9 432 48 Thorn ville , 3,006 12 509 42 Pietermaritz- burg . 2,218 11 -788 -71 Hilton Road 3,702 11 1,484 135 Dargle Road 3,477 13 -225 -17 Balgowan 4,183 10 706 70 Nottingham Road . 4,807 7 624 89 Mooi River 4,556 13 -251 -19 Estcourt . 3,833 19 -723 -38 Ladysmith , 3,284 44 -549 -12 Elandslaagte 3,614 16 330 20 Waschbank 3,525 12 -89 -7 Haltingspruit 4,298 21 773 37 Newcastle 3,890 29 -408 -14 Ingogo , 4,064 15 174 11 Oharlestown 5,386 21 1,322 63 Volksrusfc 5,429 4 43 11 Standerton . 5,022 60 -407 -8 A a 370 RAILWAYS Tovmship Height in feet Lourenzo Marques 33 Matolla . 148 Incomati 380 Ressano Garci, 1 443 Komati Poort 617 Oorsprong 1,112 Hectorspruit 1,040 Malelane . 1,194 Kaafmuiden , 1,342 Krokodilpoort . 1,820 Nelspruit 2,342 Alkmaar 2,473 Elandshoek 2,916 Godwanrivier 3,214 Waterval Ond en 4,249 Waterval Bove n 4,835 Maehadodorp , 5,317 Dalmanutha 5,976 Belfast , , '6,452 Wonderfonteir 1 6,052 Pan , 5,537 Middelburg , 4,979 Witbank , 5,322 Lourenzo Marques Railway Distance in j^.^^ ^ rri^esfrom .^^.^^^_^ tast-mentwned -^^ -• \ station •' 13 37 5 3 12 6 27 1212 14 12 14 9 19 5 8 10 9 13 16 13 22 115232 63 174 495 -72 154148 478 522 131 443 298 1,035 606482 659476 -400 -515-558 351 Rise or decline { —) in feet per mile 9 6 13 58 41 -12 6 13 39 37 11 32 33 54 121 6066 53 -31-32-43 16 Stations in Portuguese Territory. — The following are le stations In Portuguese Ei Marques-Transvaal Railway : the stations In Portuguese East Africa on the Lourenzo Station Lourenzo Marques Maehava , Matolla Pessene Distance from Lourenzo Marques 0 miles 6 „ 13 „ 24 „ LOURENZO MARQUES-TRANSVAAL 371 Station Distance from Lourenzo Marques Moamba , 33 miles Movene • 43 „ Chanculo . • . 47 „ Incomati , , . 50 „ Ressano Garcia . , . . 55 „ Gauge. — The gauge is the South African standard gauge of 3 ft. 6 in. The Waterval Deviation. — The Lourenzo Marques rail way, as at first constructed, encountered between Waterval Onden and Waterval Boven a very steep gradient, which necessitated the use of rack engines. With the utmost expedition their capacity was only 2,500 tons per day, and as a consequence serious congestion occurred on the line both above and below the rack. In 1906, therefore, a deviation was decided upon, which increased the length of the line by 4^ miles, but only at three points exceeds the ruling gradient of 1 in 50 ; the rack and the con sequent necessity of a double change of engines are dispensed with, and the carrying capacity of the whole line Is substantially increased. Distances from Lourenzo Marques The foUowing are the distances from the South African ports to Johannesburg : Cape Town, via Mafeking . . 957 miles „ „ via Bloerafontein . . . 1,011 „ Port Elizabeth 712 „ East London 665 „ Durban 482 „ Lourenzo Marques, via Pretoria . . 394 „ J, „ via Witbank-Brakpan 365 „ The distances from Lourenzo Marques to the principal centres in South Africa are illustrated in the following a a 2 372 RAILWAYS table, which also illustrates the mileage between the different points : Lourenzo Marques Komatipoort 58 Barberton 77 135 Maehadodorp 128 135 193 Middelburg 61 188 196 254 Pretoria 95 159 283 291 349 Johannesburg 46 111 172 399 307 365 Pietersburg 223 177 272 334 460 468 526 Klerksdorp 340 117 163 228 289 416 424 482 Kroonstadt 68 341 134 180 229 292 424 424 483 Bloerafontein 128 196 477 262 290 856 418 544 552 610 Durban 505 405 472 689 482 509 576 527 640 649 707 Heidelberg 440 287 159 158 202 41 71 136 197 324 332 390 Standerton 72 368 859 231 230 310 113 143 208 269 396 404 462 Kimberley 422 350 610 105 233 192 486 309 355 420 481 608 616 674 East London 507 761 689 907 402 580 606 880 665 692 761 824 949 957 1,015 Port Elizabeth 547 485 809 737 955 450 578 646 919 712 742 807 868 995 1,003 1,061 Me.ssina 1,087 1,037 700 488 416 854 635 525 508 168 391 345 440 513 455 378 436 Cape 1,348 Town 664 887 647 1,070 998 1,255 750 878 839 1,180 9571,003 1.068 1,129 1,S56 1,264 1,322 In' the case of Pretoria and stations in the northern portions of the Transvaal the distances of the Portuguese port are, of course, even less in comparison than those to Johannesburg, that to Pretoria being only 349 miles against 509 miles from Durban. Competitive Traffic Question Delagoa Bay favoured by Netherlands Railivay. — Down to 1901 it was in the interest of the Transvaal administration that traffic should be sent to Lourenzo Marques. In addition, therefore, to its natural advantages Delagoa Bay was in a peculiarly favoured position, and at one time it seeraed possible that the port would receive almost the whole of the traffic from and to the Transvaal, The main consideration then influencing the railway authorities was not which was the cheapest or the shortest route for the traffic, but which was the route over which it was most profitable for the railway company to carry the goods traffic. Until the occupation of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal by the British forces, the COMPETITIVE TRAFFIC QUESTION 373 factor determining the course of railway traffic was the desire of the Netherlands Railway Company, the then owner of the lines in the Transvaal, to secure the largest possible financial benefit by utilizing the largest mileage of their own system, and therefore by using Lourenzo Marques as the importing and exporting harbour, Confiicting Railway Administration. — The administra tion of the South African railways was then in the hands of four different authorities. The railways in Cape Colony and Natal were State property, and each was con trolled by its own Government, which was answerable to all the interests concerned, and responsible, therefore, for holding the balance between them. By arrangements with the Orange Free State the railways of Cape Colony were thrown across the border of the former State, and by May 1892 goods were being unloaded at Viljoen's Drift, within 30 miles of Johannesburg, For a short period, therefore, the arrangement between Cape Colony and the Orange Free State placed the former in a position of virtual monopoly of the Witwatersrand trade. By May 1894, however, through trains were running from Delagoa Bay to Johannesburg, and in 1895 a conference was held at Cape Town of aU the railway authorities of South Africa ; but it was obvious that the management of the Netherlands Railway Company was in a position to dictate the course of the traffic, as the mastery naturally reraained in the hands of those who held, not the greater part of the railway raUeage, but the ends of the three railway systems running to the Transvaal, The Con ference broke down and the virtual control of the position remained with the Netherlands Railway, Shortly afterwards, in 1897, the Government of the Orange Free State took over and proceeded to work the lines within their own territory, and three State raUway administrations were then at the same time competing for the Tran.svaal traffic : though obviously the interests 374 RAILWAYS of the Orange Free State remained bound up with those of the Cape ports in matters of trade. On the other hand, as already indicated, the pecuniary interests of the Transvaal railways lay with Delagoa Bay and Durban, as these two routes offered the greatest advantage In the matter of railway haulage to the Netherlands Railway Company, The position becomes apparent by a compari son of the mileage utilized by the Netherlands Company. In forwarding goods from Delagoa Bay rates were paid to the Netherlands Railway Company, in which the Transvaal Government were deeply interested, over a distance of 341 miles of railway on traffic from Delagoa Bay, as opposed to 178 mUes on goods from Durban, and only 49 mUes on traffic from the Cape ports. With tbe establishment of a settled British government in the Boer States, therefore, it became a primary object of the administration to neutralize, so far as possible, this considerable advantage in favour of the foreign port. On the occupation of the republics the railways were taken over and operated by the new administration, and one of the earliest steps taken by Lord MUner was to secure the amalgamation of the two systems in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal under one raUway administration. The question of railway rates became a matter of public policy in which the Transvaal and Orange River Colony as a whole, and not as separate entities, were Intimately concerned, and the pooling of railway resources when the Central South African Railways carae into being imme diately got rid of the preferential position hitherto occu pied by the Netherlands Railway, Out of the distances over the final section of the railways the Central South African Railways controUed 383 miles of the 667 from Johannesburg to East London and 715 mUes from Johannesburg to Port Elizabeth ; as against 178 railes ofthe 485 miles to Durban and 341 miles ofthe 394 miles to Lourenzo Marques. It therefore became to the Interest COMPETITIVE TRAFFIC QUESTION 375 of the administration of the Central South African Rail ways that traffic should be sent over the longer route through the Orange River Colony, and but for other factors the position of Lourenzo Marques would have been more detrimentaUy affected than it was. Modus Vivendi, 1901, — In order to prevent a tariff war, and to secure to the British ports the trade which was considered essential to the prosperity of the British colonies, the Modus Vivendi of December 18, 1901, between the High Commissioner of South Africa and the Governor-General of Mozambique, provided for the con tinuation of the tariffs then In force and for their modifi cation, if necessary, so as to preserve the proportionate relationship whicli existed between the various ports before the South African War. From the point of view of the British colonies as a whole, however, the position was still unsatisfactory. Complication arose from the fact that no one administra tion owned the whole of any of the routes by which traffic for the inland colonies must travel. The Central South African Railways, owning the last sections, could practically control the direction of the traflSc, and left to itself the administration could have manipulated tariffs so as to send the whole of this traffic over the 383 miles of rail in the Transvaal and Orange River Colony leading to Port Elizabeth and East London, or over the 341 miles on the way to Lourenzo Marques, But other interests intervened and compromise was arrived at. Moreover, the position was not entirely determined by the length of railway haulage or the nature of the gradients within any one territory, for other factors had their infiuence in causing the merchant to prefer one port of entry over another. Apart frora harbour dues and other subsidiary factors, the question of ocean-transit played a large part in influencing the course of traffic. The unit of charge on a ship is in many cases different from that of a railway. Where traffic 376 RAILWAYS is bulky in proportion to its weight, sea freight is usually calculated according to the amount of room the goods occupy, and not according to their weight. On the rail way, though bulk is taken into account In fixing the rates, the unit of charge is the ton. In the case of very bulky traffic, therefore, which is comparatively light in weight, it paj^s the merchant better to reduce the sea journey and increase the journey by rail. Thus traffic of this descrip tion tends to be brought through the Cape ports, while heavy traffic of relatively smaU bulk more naturally goes via Durban or Lourenzo Marques, On the other hand the interest of the shipping companies to carry traffic as far as possible, coupled with the total shorter mileage in favour of Delagoa Bay, largely neutralized the factor of the longer distance over the Central South African RaU ways when traffic was sent via the Cape ports, and com pelled the administration to fix their rates more or less in favour of Lourenzo Marques and Durban, The fact that by uniting the raUways of the two inland colonies Lord Milner had wiped out one of those fines of division, so far as transport was concerned, and created a new system which provided a route to Johannesburg from the Cape ports, in which the Central South African Railways were interested to the extent of 55 per cent, of the mileage as contrasted with the 7 per cent, of the mileage over the Cape route, which was all that the Netherlands Railway previously had controlled, was not, in itself, suflScient to secure for the Cape ports the advantages that they desired. As a matter of fact, If the Central South African Railways had worked entirely in their own interests at this period, and had not considered those of the rest of British South Africa, it would have paid them better to have used Delagoa Bay than any other port. This may be Ulustrated as follows : if during 1905 the whole of the traffic which reached Johannesburg and Germiston through British ports — which by no means represents the whole of the COMPETITIVE TRAFFIC QUESTION 377 tonnage to the Transvaal via British ports— had been imported through Delagoa Bay, the gross receipts of the Central South African Railways would have been swelled by some £200,000, Amalgamation of South African Railways. — Ifc became, therefore, one of the main objects of British policy to secure the amalgamation of all the railways within the territory of the present Union, and this reform was achieved under Lord Selborne, It became apparent that intercolonial relations in South Africa could never be really harmonious until the separate colonies surrendered their right to do what they hked with their own sections of the through lines inland, and until some central authority was con stituted that could determine the many questions that continuously arose, and were a constant source of friction. With the union of all the railways it became the duty of the central authority to adjust the conflicting interests of the different ports, the consumers, and the tax-payers, so far as such could be reconcUed by the manipulation of railway rates. And, as has been pointed out, had Portuguese East Africa not held a controlling interest, owing to the surplus of labour in that country which the Transvaal so urgently needed, doubtless not even the superiority of a shorter railway route to Delagoa Bay would have been sufficient to secure for that port its natural share of the through traffic. The port would have been penalized because it happened to be a foreign and not a British possession. This fact is well iUustrated in Lord Selborne's Memorandum on the Mutual Relations of the South African Colonies : ' Had the whole railway system of South Africa for the last twenty years grown up under the control of a national government, sooner or later a line would have been built to Delagoa Bay; but a government which was responsible for all the ports and railways of British South Africa could not possibly have 378 RAILWAYS afforded to have developed Delagoa Bay to the sacrifice of Its own invested capital. It would never have diverted so much of the inland traffic from its own ports to buUd up a foreign community beyond Its frontiers. Unfortu nately the railways of South Africa did not grow up under a national government, but were constructed not merely in competition with, but almost in the spirit of hostility against, one another. South African trade has In consequence gone to foster Delagoa Bay and has built up valuable interests there, so that it is now impossible to leave these factors out of account,' The position caUed for compromise, and this was secured finally by the extension of the Modus Vivendi into the Convention of 1909, 7%e Convention o/1909, — The Transvaal-Mozambique Convention of 1909, in pursuance of the agreement that ' the two Governments will mutuaUy and in consultation with each other devise and put into operation means and methods for facilitating and developing both the import and export traflSc to and from the Transvaal via Lourenzo Marques ', provided for the formation of a Joint Board of four delegates, two being representative of each Govern ment, One of the representatives of Mozambique is chair man. The principal duties of the Board are summarized as follows : (1) To regulate any changes in existing port, municipal, or other charges affecting import traffic ; (2) to prepare estimates of capital expenditure considered necessary for Increasing port facilities ; (3) to suggest methods for raising the requisite capital and executing improvements. In respect of the regulation of charges, the Board is directed to make from time to time such alterations as will secure to the competing ports certain defined proportions of the traffic to and from the com petitive area. The Convention is in force for ten years from the date of signature, and thereafter until denounced by either party. COMPETITIVE TRAFFIC QUESTION 379 The competitive area is defined in the Convention, and shown on Map VI accompanying this volume, as meaning ' the urea between the stations Pretoria, Springs, Ger miston, Vereeniging, Klerksdorp, Inclusive ', and it there fore includes Johannesburg, The chief competing ports are Lourenzo Marques, Durban in Natal, and the Cape ports of East London and Port Elizabeth, The Convention pro vides that if Lourenzo Marques fails to obtain 50 per cent, of the total transit traffic the Government of Portu guese East Africa shaU have the right to claim the read justment of railway rates, and if the percentage for the port rises above 55 per cent, the Transvaal Government (or, now, the Union Government) shall have the same right. The percentage apportioned to Durban Is 30 and that to the Cape ports a maximum of 20 and a minimum of 15. The annexed diagram (p. 380) shows how far from realiza tion the premised conditions have been. The Issue lies, in the main, between Lourenzo Marques and Durban, ' During the first three years of the operation of the Convention, the divisions of traffic favoured Lourenzo Marques, Accordingly, rate adjustments were resorted to, and traffic was more or less largely diverted to the other ports. Seven adjustments of rates have been made In all, the last one in August 1912, which, however, was so drastic as to raise apprehensions in the minds of the Portuguese authorities. That these apprehensions were not entirely unfounded is proved by the fact that before the war the tonnage of competitive area traffic handled at Lourenzo Marques frequently fell below the miniraum stipulated in the Convention ; while on the outbreak of war, in August 1914, it instan-tly fell below the minimum ', and the position has caused much dissatisfaction there. Negotia tions have taken place between the Portuguese and Union authorities, but the view has been taken that the condi tions are abnormal and due to the war, which Is evidently 380 RAILWAYS s s P 4_4,J^s 5^ 1 ^ ^ : 5 ""i ^- ' "II" --=: T > 1 -- ' '7 "T < T TT *-±"~ 6 - = --^ ^' - i ^ ""SjL <'' !"£ ?• I t m t^ 1 i-^ ' !>' "^--1 >^ } 1 <^ t-;>X _ "^i"" " " .-¦r-"^< Cj 1 — ' ^ » = -E-E^ : "F S — 2i^^ 1^--" ^^.'^rT M- 1 1^^ rf^^ i[ - "ll i{ 1- 3 Ts^ i'L^' 'ii ^ ii "" i- -^ ^ ' c 1 Il "- ""!¦ S-si _s._ = l; - -^:-|,^ -N-^ zu -!¦" 1 g ! g 3 J __It 1 2? /^ -1- 2-i- llT_ s s s S S 2 5 o .r) ¦ -M .^ si o is o !•¦) a 56 r'^ CS -§ « fl fl ei CQ tfH s O Q fi 0) , a< C^J a o CS o h COMPETITIVE TRAFFIC QUESTION 381 the case in some measure, inasmuch as (for exaraple) ' a fairly large portion of the competitive area trade came to Lourenzo Marques in German ships, which are not now running'. On the other hand, there had been a revision of shipping charges to the Union ports, ' the main effect of which was to increase the difference of 2s, Gd. per ton between Durban and Delagoa Bay to 5s. per ton ;' In some cases this difference may rise to 12s. 6d. per ton, ' This meant that Durban would naturally be preferred to Delagoa Bay for the deloading of treaty traffic, and that vessels, consequently, would not be required to proceed beyond Durban, It is calculated that the elimination of Lourenzo Marques as a port of call enables a boat on the run from Great Britain to South Africa [West African route] to get In one extra complete journey per year, thus increasing its earning capacity enorraously,' ^ But in Septeraber 1916 a new factor appeared. Hitherto the problera was concerned with (1) railway rates, con trolled by the Joint Board ; (2) shipping rates, controUed by the shipping companies. Now came a heavy increase in harbour tariffs In the Union, in order to make the Union ports self-supporting and independent of the general funds of the Union, A similar increase was not applied in the case of Lourenzo Marques, and signs were at once apparent that the advantage thus obtained by that port would direct trade towards It and away from Durban, In 1918, however, the rates on the Lourenzo Marques raUway were increased by a terminal charge of Id. per 100 lb, (Is, 8d. per metric ton), and wharf dues were raised to 2s, per ton. Effect of Bate Adjustments. — At the time of the agreement of 1909 it was understood that the percent age of the commercial seaborne trade through the Cape 1 The quoted passages in this paragraph are from The Belagoa Directory, Lourenzo Marques, 1917, 382 RAILWAYS ports and Durban should be increased prior to the Union, With this object in view, slight reductions were made in the rates from the Cape ports and Durban on July 1, 1909, These alterations did not produce a decrease in the trade through Lourenzo Marques, as is shown hereunder. Percentages for the Ditto six months ended June 30, 1909 Dec. 31, 1909 Lourenzo Marques , 64-4 67-4 Durban , , . 21-9 21-8 Cape ports . . 13-7 10-8 Owing to the result of the adjustment of rates made on July 1, 1909, the authorities ofthe three administrations decided to make reductions in the rates from the Natal and Cape ports on Jan, 1, 1910, more generous than those granted on the previous occasion, but the percentage of trade passing through Delagoa Bay nevertheless con tinued to increase, as shown by the following figures : Percentages for six ^ . , , months ended r or, i nnn Dec. 31, 1909 '^^^^ ^^' ^^^^ Lourenzo Marques . 67.4 69-8 Durban , . . 21-8 21-0 Cape ports . . 10-8 9-2 On July 1, 1910, owing to the formation of the Union and the consequent necessity for achieving the diversion of trade contemplated in the agreement of February 1909, a further reduction was made in the rates from the Union ports. This did not bring about the entire diversion required by the Union authorities, but nevertheless tended to reduce the proportion of trade through Lourenzo Marques : COMPETITIVE TRAFFIC QUESTION 383 Percentages for six ^ ... months ended r. m ^r^^/^ June 30, 1910 ^«^- ^^' ^^lO Lourenzo Marques . 69-8 62-5 Durban . , . 21-0 26-5 Cape ports , , 9-2 11-0 A further adjustment was made on Jan, 1, 1911, with the following effect : Percentages for six j-, ... months ended t on ^n^^ Dec. 31, 1910 '^^^^^ ^^' 1^11 Lourenzo Marques . 62-5 61-1 Durban , , . 26-5 27-1 Cape ports , , 11-0 11-8 In August 1912 another rate-adjustment was raade, although at that date the transit trade through Lourenzo Marques had fallen below the stipulated raaximum and stood at 54-46. The result of this arrangement was as follows : Percentages for six j-. ¦., ,7 7 7 J-/(A/ZO mont lis ended -t on i m o June 30, 1911 ^^^' ^^' ^^^^ Lourenzo Marques , 611 51-5 Durban , . , 27-1 33-3 Cape ports . , 11-8 15-2 The following table indicates the rates-preferences of Lourenzo Marques over Durban and East London as they were before July 1, 1909, and the reductions made therein since that date : I II III IV,V,VI VII VIII Normal Inter mediate Inter mediate B Rough, Rough B, Rough C Imported produce Fencing and fertilizers s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d. Before July 1, 1909 13 4 15 0 13 4 13 4 10 0 10 0 From July 1, 1909 13 4 12 1 10 5 11 3 9 2 9 2 „ Jan, 1, 1910 13 4 9 2 9 2 9 2 8 4 8 4 „ July 1, 1910 13 4 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 „ Jan. 1, 1-911 13 4 5 5 5 5 5 0 5 10 7 1 „ Aug. 1, 1912 13 4 "5 5 5 5 (V. 2 6 VI. 4 2) 5 0 6 3 384 RAILWAYS The goods included in the above classes are as follows : Class I, Includes apothecary ware, billiard tables, boots, bedsteads, cigars and cigarettes, clocks, crockery, cutlery, china, drapery, explosives, furni ture, glass (except window), lampware, matches, millinery, pianos, sewing machines, imported wines and spirits, and all articles not enumerated in the classification published by the Eailway Adminis tration, Class II, Includes aerated waters, axles, axe-heads, asbestos, beer, biscuits, bolts and nuts, bacon, con fectionery, cheese, cranes, disinfectants, doors, fire- engines, groceries, gates, greases, jute, leather, machinery of all kinds, nails, saddlery, safes, spades and shovels, tea, tobacco, wheel-barrows, wire, &c. Class III. Includes cement, candles, bottled and canned fruits, jams, paraffin, potatoes, zinc, iron and steel angle, bar, channel, rod, and T, &c. Class IV. Includes asphalt, bricks, charcoal, fireclay, lead, meat, timber (planed, grooved, or tongued), &c. Class V. Includes boxwood, S hooks, tin sheets, gal vanized iron, arsenate of soda, &c. Class VI, Includes wagon wood of S,A. timber, timber in the rough, &c. Class VII, Includes barley and similar cereals, bran, flour, grain, Kaffir corn, meal, mealies, oats, wheat, &c. Class VIII, Includes fencing material, &c. The process of readjustments of raUway rates in order to secure for certain ports an agreed percentage of transit traffic is an artificial mode of directing the fiow of mer chandise, and acts detrimentally to the interests of Lourenzo Marques as a port, because the rates agreed upon are no indication of the actual cost of railway transit over the different routes. The choice of route is affected by many considerations, such as ocean freight and the relationship COMPETITIVE TRAFFIC QUESTION 386 of measurement and dead weight, rellabUIty and expe- ditlousness of transit, state of stocks, varying dues, vested interests at different ports, and last, but not least, the question of sentiment. The personal factor is not amenable to mathematical arrangements, and raere alterations in rate, so long as they do not make one route actually cheaper than another, are not likely to cause the merchant suddenly to change his agent at the port he prefers for the class of goods he is in the habit of handling. That the percentage of traffic through Lourenzo Marques has been so seriously aflfected by the last rate-adjustment demon strates that the revision, when all factors are taken into consideration, has actually raade it cheaper to import bv other routes. To this extent, therefore, the readjustment of rates has failed in preserving the balance agreed upon, which, as has been shown, was most nearly reached in the raonth when the last adjustment took place. The system adopted would appear to entail a heavy tax upon the Transvaal consumer for the benefit of the maritime towns in the Union, and although by so doing the araount of traffic over the Union raUways is increased, it is open to argument whether the forcing of trade in unnatural directions can be considered to be beneficial to the com munity as a whole. Transvaal Labour Considerations. — In view of the proportionate loss of traffic to Lourenzo Marques under the Convention readjustments, there is a disposition on the part of the Portuguese authorities, when the Con vention comes up for reconsideration, to press for additional advantages in return for the labour supplied to the Transvaal raines.^ Under the terms of the Con vention notice of the termination of the agreement may be given by either party, but the provisions of the Convention would continue to operate for one year after such notice ' Bevista Colonial, June 25, 1915. P.E.A. B b 386 RAILWAYS had been handed in. Both negotiators, therefore, would be In a position to exert great pressure in order to secure whatever advantages might be desired ; and although it would not be possible for Portugal to stop immediately the recruiting for the Transvaal mines, as was possible under the unamended Modus Vivendi, which by its terras enacted that the denunciation of that agreement ipso facto involved the suspension of recruiting, the fact that such would automatically cease after one year would have so decisive an effect upon the mining industry, by causing the closing, or at least the reduction of the output, of many raines, that the Union Government would be placed in a disadvantageous position as a negotiator. It would be impossible to supply the lost labour from other sources, and the country would be subjected to a grave economic crisis. New Railways in Transvaal The present position is unnatural, and, owing to the construction of new railways in the Transvaal, it wUl become more so unless an early reconsideration of the various, factors determining the course of trade is under taken. These new railways have an important bearing upon the future of Portuguese East Africa, and It is, there fore, necessary to consider them in some detail, Komati Poort-Messina Railway . — The most important of these is the Selati extension springing from the Lourenzo Marques-Johannesburg line at Komati Poort and extending to the Messina Copper Mine in the extreme north of the Transvaal, This railway has been built In sections. The first section of 74 miles as far as Newington was com pleted on May 15, 1910, but was begun so long ago as 1893, when a bridge was buUt over the Sterkspruit, though owing to financial and other disputes work was discontinued until 1909, The second section of 127 miles from Newington to Tzaneen was finished on Nov, 9, 1912, NEW RAILWAYS IN TRANSVAAL 387 The third from Tzaneen to Zoekmakaar, a distance of 55 miles, was completed on Aug, 4, 1915, and here joined the railway from Pretoria to Messina, which was opened on May 5, 1914, Bandolier Kop-Messina Section. — The last section of that railway, the Bandolier Kop-Messina section, carries the railway through the western extension of the ridge of the Zoutpansberg, where even a footpath did not previously exist. The railway follows the bend of the Zand river and passes through Lilhput, where Is situated the Messina Company's coal mine. From this point northwards there Is another fine piece of engineering, involving the bridging of the Zand Eiver, and 25 miles farther the line runs into the Messina property, close to the smelting plant. The Messina railway not only opens up Leydsdorp, the Murchison Range, and the Messina District, but also passes through a wealthy agricultural and mining district. The so-called ' Mist-belt ' region and the land lying along the foot of the Drakensberg Mountains are extremely fertile and the high country is healthy, owing to its elevation above sea-level. Malaria is prevalent, however, in certain low-lying districts, notably around Leydsdorp (2,200 feet), and Messina is an unhealthy region. In this neighbourhood several gold mines are at work, copper exists and has been worked at Palabora, raica is obtained at Malalane and near the Macoutsie River, and corundum of good quality is also worked in the last-named locality. At Thabina, which forms part of the Selati or Murchison Eange gold area, several smaU batteries are at work. It is stated that this gold region may possibly extend Into Portuguese territory, and it is to be noted that gold exists in the Manetzi district in Portuguese East Africa, At Tzaneen, the centre of a most fertUe district, where the cultivation of tobacco and cotton is said to give good results, there are large agricultural estates awaiting development, B b 2 388 RAILWAYS Messina Copper Mines. — Messina is the centre of a great copper district which is being developed by the Messina (Transvaal) Development Company, This com pany, with an authorized capital of £250,000 and deben ture stock for another £250,000, was formed in 1905 Shipments of ore began in January 1906, and in 1914-15 the sales of copper-ore realized £329,282, The properties of the Messina Company lie about eight miles south of the Limpopo River, The work of opening up the lentlcixlar copper bodies was commenced after the conclusion of the South African War, At that time Louis Trichardt was the outpost of civilization in the Transvaal, and the country northwards was practically unknown. The mine has been opened to a depth of about 1,000 feet and the machinery has a capacity of 10,000 tons per month. Smelters — the first in the Transvaal — were started in 1913 and have given satisfactory results. The ancient workings extend for about 5 miles, and many excavations may be seen along the Limpopo where Kafirs and workers of an earlier period have carried on extensive mining operations. Communications with Rhodesia. — From Messina com munication will eventually be established with the line from Heaney Junction on the Buluwayo-Sallsbury railway to West Nicholson, its present southern terminus, thus giving direct communication between the Congo regions and Rhodesia and Lourenzo Marques. The construction of this railway would bring Johannesburg within thirty- six hours of the comraerclal capital of Rhodesia, and the railway itself would form one of the most important links in the railway systems of southern Africa south of the Congo. Moreover, it could not fail to give an impetus to the transit traffic to and from Lourenzo Marques, and it is, therefore, a line in which Portuguese interests are concerned to a peculiar degree. The construction of this link would involve the buUding of a bridge across the Lirapopo and other bridges in this NEW RAILWAYS IN TRANSVAAL 389 comparatively undeveloped portion of southern Rhodesia. The railway would run to the Liebig Company's ranch in southern Matabeleland, which would thus be brought into direct comraunication with the nearest port at Delagoa Bay. The recently opened section of the Komati Poort- Messina railway effects a saving of 262 miles over the route through Pretoria, and apart frora the heavy traffic in copper-ore and coal that raay be expected, there is little doubt that as the fertile districts traversed by the railway become more developed there also will be a considerable export of agricultural products from this region through the Portuguese port, Nelspruit-Graskop Extension. — Other eastern Trans vaal extensions now opened Include the Nelspruit-Graskop line. This railway, 76 miles in length, was completed on May 18, 1914, passes through Sabie, and traverses a difficult country. On the one side of the line are the high and rugged mountains of the Burger Range with Spitzkop (7,100 ft,), and on the other the Maughsberg (8,700 ft,) and Mount Anderson (7,000 ft.). The hne follows the valley of the Nelspruit and thence the cleft between the mountains mentioned above. It runs from a station on the main Lourenzo Marques-Johannesburg railway, Nelspruit (2,349 ft,), to Graskop, from which point it was not continued farther owing to the engineer ing difficulties between that township and Pilgrim's Rest, though eventually it is to be constructed to that place. The railway opens up the Pilgrim's Rest or Lydenburg gold-mining district, which is best known as having furnished the only rich alluvial goldfields in South Africa, Hitherto the nearest railway centre has been Lydenburg, or communication by means of the coach-route from PU- grira's Eest to Maehadodorp on the raain line. The railway from Belfast to Lydenburg, a distance of 64 miles, which provides another outlet for the same district, was completed on April 29, 1910, 390 RAILWAYS The Nelspruit-Graskop line Is of great interest because it was built mainly by white labour, as many as 500 white workmen being employed at one time. The estimated cost of £415,000 was not reached, the expenditure on construction being only £385,000, this saving being due partly to the more efScient labour employed. The raU way is specially liable to 'washaways', Early in 1915 sections of the track in the Spitzkop Nek cutting were entirely covered by fallen boulders and considerable daraage done in other sections by the washing away of the embankments, Machadodorp-Breyten Railway. — Another railway which serves as a feeder for Lourenzo Marques is the line running southward from Maehadodorp, through Carolina, to Breyten, which has been completed through Ermelo and thence through Piet Eetlef as far as the Natal system. The line links up the Springs eastward railway at Breyten with Maehadodorp, and thus brings the whole of the district served by that line into direct communication with Delagoa Bay and also provides a direct route from the Ermelo and Carolina Districts of the Transvaal, The Machadodorp-Breyten section, of 55 miles, was opened on February 6, 1908, but was started some years before the South African War by the Ermelo Railway Company, who completed practically all the earthworks and masonry between Maehadodorp and Carolina, It is laid with 45 lb, section rails, with 2,112 wooden sleepers per mile, and has a ruling grade of 1 in 50 compensated with the maximura curvature of 200 metre radius. The uncompleted portion of the earthworks and masonry was coraraenced in August 1906, and the renovation of aU existing earthworks from Carolina to Maehadodorp in May 1907, The Komati River is crossed by a low bridge with four 98-ft, spans. This raUway passes through an agricultural district In which large quantities of maize are grown, as well as NEW RAILWAYS IN TRANSVAAL 391 through country that is highly mineralized. In the Ermelo District and in the neighbourhood of Carolina are Important coalfields, and 20 miles east of the latter town extensive asbestos deposits are worked and con tribute to the Lourenzo Marques transit traffic. Witbank Loop-line. — A more important extension has been the diversion of the line from Witbank on the main Lourenzo Marques-Pretoria line to Brakpan and thence through Benoni to Johannesburg, This Witbank-Brakpan loop-fine of 68 miles has reduced the distance to Johannes burg by 26 miles over the previous route through Pretoria. Moreover, the Delagoa line climbed over difficult gradients and then fell 851 ft, between Witbank and Pretoria, itself 1,184 ft. below the ridge of the Witwatersrand range. In order to reach the mining districts it was necessary that there should be another difficult climb before Johannesburg could be reached. The railway via Witbank and Boksburg avoided so heavy a gradient, although there was a rise of nearly 400 ft, between Witbank and Brakpan. Witbank Coal District. — From the Witbank and Middelburg District coraes the greater part of the coal now exported through Lourenzo Marques, The following among other collieries are now operating in the area : Cassel Coal Company ; Clydesdale (Transvaal) Collieries ; Douglas Colliery ; Middelburg Steam Coal and Coke Company ; Transvaal Coal Trust ; Tweefontein Colliery ; Witkyk Collieries; and Witbank Colliery, In 1914 the Middelburg coal area contributed 78 per cent,, and the Springs— Brakpan area 8 per cent,, of the output of the Transvaal. The former sold 4,008,944 tons, valued at £898,860, and the latter 421,161 tons, valued at £102,576, while 727,162 tons were produced in other Transvaal areas. In addition, the main Pretoria-Lourenzo Marques line carries a considerable proportion of the tin produced in the Rustenberg and Waterberg Districts of 392 RAILWAYS the Transvaal, west of the Pretoria-Pietersburg railway. Five mines were working in this district In 1914, and the output of tin in 1913 was 3,671 tons, valued at £436,000, Railways in Western IVansvaal. — Since the con struction of the Lourenzo Marques-Transvaal railway two important lines in the western Transvaal have aflfected the fiow of traffic towards Lourenzo Marques, and a third, lately completed, will have a similar effect. By far the most important of these railways is that from Fourteen Streams on the main northern railway, through Klerksdorp to Johannesburg, This railway was completed in April 1906, shortened the distance between Cape Town and Johannesburg, via Bloerafontein, by 56 miles, and, moreover, diverted some of the trade of the Potchefstroom District to Cape Town, The second of these railways has been of direct advantage to Lourenzo Marques by lessening the distance between Johannesburg and Rhodesia by nearly 250 miles. This railway, running from Mafeking to Zeerust and thence through Krugers dorp to Johannesburg, was completed in 1912. Until the construction of the last section from Zeerust to the main northern railway, passengers and goods from the Rand to Ehodesia had to travel to Fourteen Streams and then turn northward to Mafeking, over a total mUeage of 437 railes. By the route opened in 1912 traffic goes through Zeerust to Mafeking, a distance of only 190 miles. The construction of this line, moreover, has brought Mafeking and the rest of Bechuanaland within a shorter distance of Delagoa Bay than any other port, the supe riority over Port Elizabeth being 154 railes and over East London 172 miles. The third line may tend to divert traffic from Lourenzo Marques. This railway runs from Welverdiend on the Krugersdorp-Fourteen Streams railway, through Ventersdorp and Treuerfontein, to De- larey (125 miles), with a branch to LIchtenburg, and has NEW RAILWAYS IN TRANSVAAL 393 been continued via Schweizer Eeneke to the Cape western line at or near Pudimoe. The line was opened on October 18, 1916, Barberton Railway. — In connexion with the Lourenzo Marques traffic one other line should be mentioned. The railway from Kaapmulden on the raain Lourenzo Marques- Transvaal line to Barberton (35 miles) was opened for traffic in April 1896, and connects the De Kaap gold- fields with the Portuguese port. The connexion between Delagoa Bay and Barberton has always been close, and although the district suffered an eclipse owing to over- speculation in 1886-7, there are signs that as a mining centre it may recover importance. The surrounding country is particularly healthy, and Barberton itself is advocated as a health resort for those who suflfer from the winter cold of the high veld. It will be seen from the foregoing particulars that the Lourenzo Marques railway serves the needs of an immense stretch of territory extending at present to the far north and west of the Transvaal, and including all the central districts of the colony, with the addition of considerable areas in the south-east. There can also be Httle doubt that this area eventuaUy will be considerably extended by the joining of Messina and West Nicholson, and the opening to railway traffic of the district first traversed by the pioneers proceeding from Tuli to Victoria. The construction of the Mafeklng-Zeerust line has called attention to the possibilities of traffic from Ehodesia, and in the future some of the traffic of southern Ehodesia may find Its way to Delagoa Bay in preference to the more northerly port at Beira. 394 RAILWAYS Swaziland Railway The present position of the SwazUand raUway Is somewhat similar to that of the Lourenzo Marques railway before the construction of the Komati Poort- Bronkhorstspruit section in the Transvaal. The first portion of the railway in Portuguese territory has been built, but the connecting link across Swaziland to the Union line at Breyten, owing to political and other reasons, is not built, and there appears to be some reasonable ground for the dissatisfaction of the Portuguese authorities at the delay in its corapletion. The line not only would open up a rich agricultural and mining area, but would provide the shortest route between Lourenzo Marques and Johannesburg, reducing the distance between them by about 60 miles. It is asserted that verbal assurances were given by the then High Commissioner of South Africa, at a conference on Western Transvaal Railways in 1904, that direct railway traffic between Lourenzo Marques and Johannes burg would shortly be possible via Swaziland and Breyten, and that more definite assurances were conveyed to the then Governor-General of Mozambique, Major Eosado, that the proposed railway would be undertaken. Acting on this understanding the Portuguese authorities began con struction In 1905, and carried the line forward to Goba, close to the SwazUand border, under the Irapression that it would be continued through the valley of the Urabeluzi and across Swaziland to Breyten, The completion of the line would react unfavourably upon the port of Durban as a port of entry for the Rand, As to its competition with the present railwav from Lourenzo Marques to the Transvaal, it Is observed In Lord Selborne's memorandum that the Swaziland line ' would be practically as short In distance and the SWAZILAND RAILWAY 395 gradients would be easier than those of the existing line. It is a moot point, however, whether the improvement would justify the sacrifice of the capital invested In the existing line from Delagoa Bay to Witbank, which would be rendered obsolete and useless so far as the great bulk of the traffic is concerned ', The Swaziland railway passes through Maehava, Este- val, Boane, Umbeluzi, Muguene, and Mallana, to Goba, There are two tunnels on the line, each exceeding 200 yds. In length, and a bridge, 1,180 ft, long, with a span of 60 ft, above the bed of the river, over the Umbeluzi ; a bridge over the Matolla, 1,200 ft, long ; and a viaduct at Muguene, 590 ft, in length. Owing to the failure to complete the proposed arrange ments with the Union Government, due In no small measure to the apparently justified desire of the South African authorities that the line should be a State rail way and not a private enterprise, the Portuguese section of the raUway has shown continuously a deficit in its working, the deficits for 1914 and 1915 having been £7,766 and £7,995 respectively. The number of pas sengers carried in 1914 and 1915 was only 10,115 and 14,630 and the tonnage of goods was 3,571 and 14,351, The raUway, nevertheless, even in its uncompleted state, is of considerable advantage to the surrounding country, as it passes through a good agricultural district which is being opened up by settlers, and also attracts the traffic from the settleraents at Namahacha and Estatuene (Esta- twane) which formerly went via the Terabe Elver to Port Henrique, a post 25 railes up that river. The present terminus of the SwazUand railway at Goba (or Gobo) Is 45 mUes frora Lourenzo Marques, and the extension of the line a few railes across the border would reach one of the richly mineraUzed regions of Swaziland, and if continued across the open country west of the Lebombo -Range would enable the good quality coal of Swaziland 396 RAILWAYS to be brought to Lourenzo Marques at a price much lower than any other South African port. Resources of Swaziland. — Swaziland, which now is mainly dependent for its comraunlcatlons upon the coach- route from Breyten, is as yet only in the preliminary stages of development. The European settlers in May 1911 numbered 1,083 and the natives are estimated at some 120,000, With this coraparatively large population the country raust naturally offer considerable advantages for pastoral and agricultural pursuits, and the number of horned cattle is estimated at 100,000, and of native sheep and goats at 250,000, In addition to the above, over 200,000 sheep are brought into Swaziland annually from the Transvaal for winter grazing, as weU as large numbers of horses. Moreover, the country, both in the western and in the south-eastern districts, is highly mineralized. In 1915-16 cassiterite tin to the value of £56,067 and gold to the value of £29,595 (£62,783 in 1911-12) were produced, and in addition large coal areas are known. The Portuguese Government has endeavoured to facilitate this traffic. Frora railhead at Goba a good wagon road has been constructed to the frontier and a goods shed has been built on the Lebombo border, 8 miles distant from Goba, for the purpose of handling the Swaziland traffic. At present, however, no regular service of transport has been established in Swaziland to connect with the frontier post, Moamba-Chinavane and Gaza Railivay s In addition to the main line frora Lourenzo Marques to the frontier station at Ressano Garcia, and the Swaziland railway, a series of light railways has been built, or pro jected, in order to open up the agricultural districts of the Komati, Limpopo, Inyarrime, and Inhambane Rivers, and to link these districts with the ports of Lourenzo Marques, MOAMBA-CHINAVANE AND GAZA 397 Chai-Chai, Inyarrime, and Inhambane, Unfortunately these lines have been built on various gauges, so that in the existing state of the railways, through comraunication between Inharabane and Lourenzo Marques wUl not be possible, and in order to overcome this difficulty the suggestion of a direct coastal railway passing through Manhiga may eventually be adopted. At present, however, the tendency is to link up the existing lines rather than to embark on any ambitious scheme for a direct lailway through the coastal districts, in view of the fact that both the Queliraane-Tete and Mozambique railways have a prior claim to the consideration ofthe authorities. Existing railway coraraunication in the south of the province, when the necessary connexions have been made, would seem to be adequate for present purposes, although In the future, if the full resources of the district are to be made available, the suggested coastal railway raust be built. The series of railways as at present arranged starts from Moamba, a station on the trunk line, 33 miles from the capital, and, passing through Chinavane, proceeds in a north-easterly direction to Chai-Chai and thence through the coastal districts to Inharabane, a total distance of about 282 mUes, The first section frora Moamba to Chinavane, the head quarters of the Incomati Sugar Estates, was built under contract with that company and was opened for traffic in November 1914, This line is 55 miles in length and forms an Important feeder to the main line. The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in. The second section of the railway which, as at present arranged, is to be constructed from Chinavane to Chai- Chai via Chinane and Chissano, a distance of 70 miles, or as an alternative through Chibuto to Manjacaze (Manjakase), has not yet been begun, though tenders were called for in 1912, Various alternative routes have been 398 RAILWAYS proposed for this line after Chissano has been reached. The first, as already mentioned, would proceed direct to Chai-Chai, but in order to construct this line it would be necessary to bridge the Limpopo, a costly undertak ing, not only because at this point the river is subject to floods and the land Is unsubstantial, necessitating strong foundations for a bridge of considerable length, but also because the railway would have to be carried at a height sufficient to enable the passage of vessels which go up the Limpopo as far as Languene, 48 miles above the mouth of the river. For this reason it is probable that the alternative route through or near to Chibuto will be adopted. So far as navigation is concerned the con struction of a bridge across the Limpopo above Languene would be comparatively easy, but the same difficulties as to terrain seem to exist at all points along the river below Chaimlte, where it would be possible to construct a bridge resting on rock. The second scheme, that through Chibuto to Manja caze, would provide a raore direct route to the Transvaal so far as Inhambane is concerned and should assist in the development of Chibuto, which now has only 50 European inhabitants. The railway to Chibuto, begun in 1898 from Moyene, to which point on the Limpopo launches from Chai-Chai ascended in five to seven hours, was sub sequently abandoned. For the construction of the pro posed line from Chissano to Manjacaze two routes have been suggested. The first would pass a little to the north of Chibuto, over bridges across the Lirapopo and Changane Elvers, and the second would proceed a few miles farther south and thus avoid a bridge across the latter river. In connexion with the whole scheme a third route has been suggested which would deviate from the proposed line from Chai-Chai or Manjacaze to Chinavane at Chinane and proceed via Manhiga and Marracuene to Lourenzo Marques, MOAMBA-CHINAVANE AND GAZA 399 The third and final sections of the line from Moamba to Inhambane, termed the Gaza railway, are frora Chai- Chai to Inhambane, The section of the line frora Chai- Chai through Chonguene and Manjacaze to Chikomo (Shikomo) on the Inyarrime River, a distance of 51 miles, is corapleted and working, and in 1913 paid a dividend of 6 per cent, and covered expenses in 1914, During 1915 the line carried 19,612 passengers (first-class, 1,896 ; second- class, 2,402 ; third-class, 15,314) and 4,704 tons of merchan dise. The receipts from the railway were $33,254, of which $22,027 was frora the passenger traffic. The expenditure was $27,327, The raUway was opened as far as Manjacaze in July 1912, This line passes through a fertile district which is stated to be well populated, and the Inyarrirae Is said to be navigable for small boats, drawing less than 4 ft,, as far as Chikomo, while the neighbouring lakes provide a waterway that can also be utiUzed, though with diflficulty, by small craft (see p, 348), The raUway has been buUt on the 0-75-metre gauge and it is intended to widen the line to the 1-02-metre gauge, which was adopted by the Governor, Almeida Ribeiro, as the standard for the Quelimane-Tete line and for other railways In the Quefimane District, Frora Chikomo the railway has been built as far as Coguno, passing through Jinagai (Jenabai or Sinabi), and thence is projected to Inyarrime, From Inharrime a 1-067 metre (3 ft, 6 in,) gauge railway has been constructed, and completed In 1916, to Inhambane, passing through the sugar estates at Mutamba. The first portion of this section was opened as far as Mutamba In March 1914, communication thence to Inhambane being maintained by steamboat. This last section is 55 miles in length. The following are the stations from Mutamba to Inyarrime : 400 EAILWAYS Miles Inhambane 0 Mutamba 15 Jangamo MadongaRavene 1925 30 Nhacoongo 40 Inyarrime . . 55 It is proposed to open a new station at kilometre 55 (34 miles) and another at Chongola (46 miles). During 1913, when only 33 miles were in operation, the receipts of the Gaza railway were $43,247 and the expenditure $30,495. During 1915 the receipts were $30,709, of which $20,402 was from passenger traffic, and the expenditure $40,273, resulting in a deficit of $9,564. The number of passengers was 12,079 (first-class, 455 ; second-class, 2,304 ; third-class, 9,320) and the tonnage of merchandise was 2,908, The cost of construction from Mutamba to Inyarrime was about $5,500 per kilometre. It will be seen that this railway, when linked up with the Moamba-Chinavane section, will serve an important agricultural district. At present it is mainly useful in connecting the various small ports of this part of Portu guese East Africa with the producing centres and enabling cultivators to send their produce to Lourenzo Marques for shipment to Europe or to ship direct from Inhambane, General Statistics of Railways in Lourenzo Marques District The traffic earnings for the railways In the Lourenzo Marques District have been as follows : 1899 Receipts , . £ — Goods carried, in tons of 2,000 lb. 192,317 Passengers . . — 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 188,674 70,335 148,119 275,367 499,532 516,094 — — 36,725 73,045 77,911 GENERAL STATISTICS 401 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 Receipts . .£308,894 281,196 242,596 272,300 327,356 406,504 (lOods carried, in tons of 2,000 lb. 549,965 532,589 434,242 471,122 641,502 786,'320 Passengers, , 85,112 111,124 123,681 125,938 130,588 158,596 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 Receipts , ,£339,539 314,665 337,317 268,376 215,527 Goods carried, in tons of 2,000 lb, 601,729 804,394 1,0.'^5,278 922,973 77.'S,852 Passengers . , 169,153 183,468 168,503 156,707 172,936 It wUl be noticed that from 1899 to 1913 there was a general increase not only In the araount of goods carried but also in the nuraber of passengers. The former increased sixfold during the period, and the latter increased fivefold during the years 1902-13, In 1915 the following were the results of the working of the railways in the Lourenzo Marques District, The earnings amounted to 1214-6 contos (the conto is normally equivalent to £200, but at present represents only about £130), The length of line worked was 155 miles against 100 in the preceding year, the increase being due to the opening of the new branch-line to the Chinavane sugar area. The average earnings per kilometre were 4-9 contos against 7-2 during the preceding year. The revenue included £194,694 received from the Union railways in connexion with the combined traffic, on the exchange of which a profit of 223-4 contos was made. The expenditure was 994 contos or 3-8 contos per kilometre, against 881 contos or 5-5 per kilometre. The passengers carried numbered 192,654 against 179,552, and the merchandise 803,179 tons, of which 525,729 tons were coal. The combined traffic represented 92 per cent, of the whole, as against 95-9. The treaty traffic totalled 119,767 tons, or 36-1 per cent,, whereas by the terms of the Convention it should have been at least 165,542 tons. The number of trains run averaged 25-9 daily, against 28-8, The staff numbered 894 Europeans and 1,020 natives, against 965 Europeans and 812 natives, P.E.A. c c 402 EAILWAYS Beira-Mashonaland Railway The next railway northward in Portuguese East Africa is the important line from Beira to Salisbury In Rhodesia, which opens up a system of land communication in no way inferior to that served by the Lourenzo Marques railway, and superior so far as the potential means of water-communication are concerned. The Beira-Mashona land railway forras at present the most important outlet for southern and northern Rhodesia, though when certain through connexions are completed it is probable that some of the traffic now passing through Beira will be diverted to Lourenzo Marques (see p. 3S'3).. On the other hand, with the construction of a connectins; line to the Kafue Eiver the distance from northern Rhodesia to Beira will be greatly lessened, and new areas will be opened which must use Beira as their main commercial outlet. Construction. — The construction of a railway from Beira to the interior frontier of' Manica,. passing through Masikesi, formed one of the provisions of the Royal Charter granted to the Mozambique Company ou February 11, 189*1, The stipulation was then made that this line should be completed within the term of four years fifom the period when the Portuguese Government ordered the work to be undertaken. It was further arranged that the Company should pledge itself to construct a railway to connect the Bay of Pungwe with the right bank ofthe Zambezi, The former railway was begun in October 189>2, the Company having coii- ceded to the Beira Railway Company the right to construct a line from Fbntesvila, 35 miles inland from Beira, to the frontier, Foatesvila was chosen as the> eastern terminal in order that so far as possible the Pungwe might be utilized for navigation,, but owing to the growth of traffic, and above all to the difliculty of navigating the Pungwe, the necessity for joining Fontesvila to Beira soon became BEIRA-MASHONALAND RAILWAY 403 apparent. The first section of the railway, 75 miles In length, was completed and opened for traffic on October 10, 1893, The cost of this section was £169,200, The second section, 43| miles to Chimoio, cost £188,178 and was completed at the end of 1894, The third section from Chimoio to the old frontier, 51 miles, was completed on September 30, 1897, and cost £261,657, But the delimitation award moved the frontier westward and necessitated the construction of another 17 miles, opened in February 1898 at a cost of £150,000, In the mean time the Company granted a concession to the London and Paris Exploitation Company to construct the section from Beira to Fontesvila, and this, company formed the Beira Junction Eailway, Ltd,, to execute the work stipulated in the concession. This section was completed on October 29, 1896, at a cost of £196,100, so that the total cost of the railway to the Ehodesian frontier was £965,135, Change of Gauge. — In constructing the original rail way, however, no stipulation had been made as to gauge, and the enterprise therefore was carried out in the cheapest manner possible, without reference to future requirements and without consideration for the fact that the railways in Ehodesia were being built upon the ordinary South African gauge of 3 ft, 6 in. The Beira raUway was built with a gauge of 2 ft,, and it would have been necessary to transfer all through merchandise at Umtali, as the railway from Gwelo to that point was being built on the 3 ft, 6 in, gauge. Moreover, owing to hasty surveys, and possibly to faulty construction, the lower portion of the railway was liable to inundation. The rolling-stock was not only Inadequate for the needs of the traffic, but was also unsuitable, as the heavy engines could not with safety go round the sharp curves onthe upper part ofthe line and the smaUer engines were unable to take heavy loads up the Inclines, c c 2 404 EAILWAYS This want of foresight in the original construction of the railway cost the companies a further sura of £850,000, as It became necessary that the line should be recon structed upon the 3 ft, 6 in, gauge. Arrangements were concluded between the Beira and Beira Junction Eailways and with the Mashonaland Railway Company, which had constructed the section In British territory, and the work was undertaken by Messrs, Pauling & Co, It was com pleted on August 1, 1900, when the railway was opened foi' through traffic ; but before laying down the broad gauge the line was partly resur vey ed, with the result that some ofthe worst gradients were avoided and a saving x)f 18 miles In the whole distance was effected. Route and Elevation. — The following table shows the heights on the Beira-Mashonaland railway : Distance in j>- ^i^^ or Station ^y^* ,'^^'fj'P'"\deciZr{-f'''^^'f[-^ m feet last mentioned . /. \ ' m feet •' . ,. m feet •' ¦-, station •' per mite Beira ___ ^ Vila Machado 182 61 Amatongas 1,267 36 Mandigos (Vila Pery) , 2,302 29 Chimoio . 2,328 10 Vanduzi , 2,097 10 Bandula , 2,296 13 Revue 2,145 7 Masikesi , 2,323 16 Edmundian 2,650 8 [Frontier] 2,920 10 Umtali , 3,551 3 Odzi 3,148 20 Rusapi . 4,616 43 Macheke . 5,042 41 Marandella's . 5,446 22 Salisbury 4,825 45 182 3 1,085 29 1,045 -36 26 3 -231 -23 199 15 -151 -23 178 11 327 41 270 27 631 210 -403 -20 1,468 34 426 10 404 18 -621 -14 BEIRA-MASHONALAND RAILWAY 405 Stations. — The stations within Portuguese territory are the following : Station Distance from Beira Beira 0 Dondo 18 Inyati 27 Fontesvila . , , , , . 35 Muda 46 Bamboo Creek (Vila Machado) . , 61 Siluvu Hills . , . .74 Inchope 82 Amatongas ....,, 97 Gondola Ill Mandigos 126 Chimoio 136 Vanduzi 146 Bandula 159 Revue 166 Masikesi 182 Edmundian 190 Working Proportions. — During this period the Mashona land Railway Company had finished in 1899 its Une from Umtali to Salisbury, and by an arrangement with the Beira railways the working of the railways In the territory of the Mozambique Company was confided to the Mashona land Railway Company, which had undertaken the responsi bUity for widening the Beira railways. The Beira Railway received 55 per cent, ofthe receipts and remitted 20 per cent, of this amount to the Beira Junction Railway — an arrangeraent that was modified as from October 1, 1904, when the percentage was raised to 57, the Beira Junction Railway receiving nearly one-fifth (^) of this 57 per cent,, and again from October 1, 1911, after the Beira Junction Railway had undertaken the construction of a wharf at Beira, to the following percentages : Mashonaland Railway 42-37, Beira RaUway 45-16, and Beira .1 unction Eailway 12-47, 406 RAILWAYS Kafue Extension. — It has been stated already that the Beira-Mashonaland railway, connecting with the Rhodesia railways at Salisbury and thus linking the railways of northern and southern Rhodesia and the South African railways with the Portuguese port, may be extended north-eastwards to a point on the Kafue River, The survey for this northward extension had been completed just before the war broke out. The connexion would open a fertile territory with extensive possibilities of water- communication. It would cross the middle Zambezi below the Kariba Gorge, which contains a few small rapids of no great importance, and would thus serve a section ofthe river which, from Walker's Drift to the Kariba Gorge, a distance of 276 miles, offers no impediment to navigation that cannot be overcome by small engineering works. It would also serve the Kafue region. The Kafue is navi gable for 200 railes by fair-sized steamboats. At present there is only one on the river. The Kafue extension would also obviate the present long detour on the journey from the Katanga regions to Beira, for instead of traversing three sides of a square from Kafue, through Livingstone and Buluwayo, to Salis bury, one side only would have to be crossed. At present the Beira-Mashonaland railway, after reaching Salisbury, runs northward to Banket Junction, whence it bifurcates in one direction to the Ayrshire mine and in the other, through El Dorado, to Sinoia, the present terminus of the line, 82 miles north-west of Salisbury, The connexion with the Buluwayo-Katanga line will probably be made from this place to a point just south of the Kafue River bridge, a distance of about 180 railes. The distance from Salisbury to Beira is 374 miles, and from Salisbury to ElizabethviUe, via Buluwayo, 1,245 miles, so that there would be a clear saving of some 587 miles, the distance between ElizabethviUe and Beira then being about 1,032 railes instead ofthe present 1619 mUes, BEIRA-MASHONALAND RAILWAY 407 Competitive Areas. — Certain factors, however, must be taken into consideration in connexion with the opening of these new through routes of traffic. The completion of the railway from Loblto Bay to Eli^abethvUle wUl bring that centre within 1,200 miles of the western coast, and the superiority of the Beira route in mileage will not then be large enough iu itself to determine the course of traffic. Moreover, the Suez Canal dues for vessels using the East Coast route, and, on the other hand, the much longer voyage Involved In the passage from Beira round the Cape and by the West Coast, must influence the course of traffic from the Katanga mines to the nearest seaport, apart from other economic or political considerations which may intervene. It is Impossible to say where the economic divide wUl be established, but it Is not certain that the heavy copper traffic at present proceeding to Beira will continue upon that route when the new rail ways are completed. Within a short tinne the output of the Katanga copper mines may reach 40,000 tons per aimum, and the diversion of any large proportion of this output to Lobito Bay would materially affect Beira and other southern ports. Again, there is the possibility of other routes through Belgian Congo, German East Africa, and South-West Africa, In the territory last named, the continuation of the railway at present serving the Otavi copper mines, from either Tsumeb or Grootfontein to some point near the Victoria Falls, would open an alternative route to the ocean for the produce of southern Rhodesia, and possibly of northern Rhodesia as well. General Statistics. — The present importance of the Beira-Mashonaland railways Is revealed by the fact that the percentage of expenditure to receipts, which in 1901 was 90, in 1914 was only 39-9. The average percentage during the years 1901-15 has been 52. The following table illustrates the growth of traffic over the Beira- Salisbury section of the railway : 408 RAILWAYS 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 Gross revenue £309,492 343,682 227,688 212,787 268,454 Expenditure £224,022 190,220 173,256 140,173 146,133 Net revenue . £ 85,470 153,461 54,432 72,618 122,321 Number of passengers , 22,591 20,826 21,344 18,393 17,503 Tonnage of general goods 27,132 31,518 24,083 20,318 28,446 Tonnage of minerals ', 2,745 13,585 9,931 6,560 16,687 Tonnage of construction material , 27,973 27,577 21,577 23,387 35,860 Train miles run . 340,755 409,880 326,085 268,844 381,915 Revenue from passengers £ 21,995 18,049 14,836 12,527 11,638 Revenue from general good 3 £173,575 209,049 125,916 119,018 139,659 Revenue from minerals trafSc £ 3,223 10,561 7,054 2,502 9,021 Expenditure per train mile 13/11 9/3i 10/7i 10/5| 7/9 1907 1908 1909 1910 Gross revenue £207,825 230,419 323.438 436,295 Expenditure £ 123,573 110,122 133;274 142,807 Net revenue £ 84,251 120.297 190,164 293,488 Number of passengers . , 17,296 2i;803 25,753 81,595 Tonnage of general goods 30; 373 86,093 47,826 68.750 Tonnage of minerals . 40,833 24,577 48,181 60,649 Tonnage of construction material . 1,938 3,084 28,617 37,500 Train miles run , 327,915 346,159 472,539 577,065 Revenue from passengers .£ 12,027 1.3,431 14,105 18,372 Revenue from general good ?£ 159,932 186,983 220,416 312,240 Revenue from minerals traiB a£ 24,618 14,721 24,309 29,511 Expenditure per train mile 7/e 6/9 5/7 4/10 1911 1912 1913 1914 Gross revenue ,£555,524 513,139 635,3-52 498,577 Expenditure £173,106 206,815 225,096 199,238 Net revenue . , £ 382,417 306,324 410,255 299,338 Number of passengers . . 34,807 43,277 51,316 54,495 Tonnage of general goods , 100,089 102,104 127,464 133,565 Tonnage of minerals . 79,913 103,980 88,842 110,170 Tonnage of constructior material . , 27,155 27,140 46,558 24,260 Train miles run , , 687,732 690,682 661.160 576,880 Revenue from passengers .£ 23,092 25,752 27,217 24,867 Revenue from general goods £ 426,200 376,536 449,757 349,481 Revenue from minerals traific £ 47,719 50,476 50,362 65,446 Expenditure per train mile 5/1 6/- 6/10 * 7/0 The chief point of interest revealed by the above figures is the small number of passengers carried compared with the total traffic over the railway. Compared with the Lourenzo Marques line it will be seen that with a gross 1 Up to and including 1905 the tonnage of minerals carried relates solely to coal hauled for locomotive purposes. BEIRA-MASHONALAND RAILWAY 409 revenue of £337,317 and 168,503 passengers on that railway in 1918 the Beira railway had a gross revenue of £635,352 but only carried 51,316 passengers — a fact which reveals the smallness of the population ofthe district through which the railway passes, Beira Railway Company. — The parent company of the Beira-Mashonaland system is the Beira Railway Company, Limited, which was registered on July 12, 1892, ' for the purpose of procuring the construction and equip ment of a railway,' with landing-places, quays, wharves, and docks, starting from Beira, on Pungwe Bay , , , aud terminating at the eastern frontier of the British sphere of influence (204 miles), whereby the Manica and Mashona land goldfields, and generally the field of operations of the British South Africa Company, will be brought Into direct communication with the coast'. The concession which the company took over gives freedom from com petition for a distance of 100 kilometres on either side of the raUway, while the company has also the lands required for the railways and woi'ks free of cost and a land subsidy of alternate blocks on both sides of the line, each block being about 5,760 acres in extent. The share capital Is divided Into 600,000 shares (no value expressed), of which 295,000 were given In part payment for the concession, and the reraaining 305,000 shares were offered as a bonus to the subscribers for some of the A debentures. These latter, however, are vested in the British South Africa Company in trust. In 1892 and subsequently the com pany issued debentures for a total of £1,100,000, and other financial arrangementsfoUowed, Up to September 30, 1915, £2,165,703 had been expended by the company In Africa, Beira Junction Railway Company. — As already men tioned, the construction of the section from Beira to Fontesvila was undertaken by the Beira Junction Rail way (Port Beira to Fontesvila), Limited. This company 410 RAILWAYS was registered on July 17, 1895, and received Its share of the land grant under the original concession. The capital of the company now consists of ordinary shares, cumula tive preference shares, and debentures to the extent of £575,000, of which £416,682 has been expended in Africa (including £148,010, proportion of cost of widening the Une) and £106,955 has been spent on the Beira wharf In order to provide funds for the construction of the wharf and for other purposes, some rearrangement of -capital was carried through in 1911, when £125,000 of preference capital was created, of which the British South Africa Company agreed to subscribe at par sufficient to erect the wharf up to the full araount of £125,000. Mashonaland Railway Company. — The third company interested in the Beira-Mashonaland railway is the Mashonaland Railway Company, which was registered on April 13, 1897, to construct a railway frora Uratali to' Salisbury, a distance of 171 miles. The fines now owned by this company have a length of 547 miles, and include the railway from Salisbury to Sinoia (the Lomagunda branch line) and to Abercorn (Shamva line), as well as the line from Banket Junction to Ayrshire, and the railway from Kalomo to Broken Hill, The last railway was acquired, in conjunction with the Rhodesia railways. Limited, under a lease of 25 vears from the Rhodesia— Katanga Junction Railway and Mineral Company, In addition the company works the Beira and Beira Junction railways, under an arrangement made In 1899, The outstanding capital of the company is £2,500,000, which includes £800,000 advanced to the Beira and Beira Junction Railways for the purpose of widening those lines, upon a rent-charge of £42,500 per annum,, A further supplemental agreement was concluded as from June 13, 1914, under which the Beira Companies are to pay a sum of £8,500 per annum to be used as a sinking fund for the redemption of certain debentures. The first authorized BEIRA-MASHONALAND RAILWAY 411 capital of £450,000 was issued to the British South Africa Company, but has since been taken over by the Rhodesia Railways Trust. The Mashonaland Railway Company is also under obligations to the Rhodesia Railways Trust and the Rhodesia Railways, Limited, for various large sums ; and the due payment of capital, interest, and premium upon the debentures Is guaranteed by the British South Africa Company, Rhodesia Railways, Limited, and Rhodesia Railways Trust. — The two other companies directly interested In these railways are the Rhodesia Railways, Limited, and the Rhodesia Railways Trust, Limited, The former was registered on May 24, 1893, as the Bechuanaland Railway Corapany; and the latter on June 14, 1899, in order to hold share interests of the Rhodesia Railways, Limited (authorized capital £6,258,000), and the Mashonaland Railway Corapany, The authorized capital of the Rhodesia RaUways Trust was £1,000,000, In Noveraber 1910 the capital of the company was increased to- £3,000,000 in accordance with an agreement entered Into between the Rhodesia Railways Trust, the British South Africa Company, the Rhodesia Railways, Limited, and the Mashonaland Railway Company, under which 1,131,888 shares were allotted to the British South Africa Company, The company's assets consist of 7,989 shares in the _ Rhodesia Railway, Limited, 449,512 shares in the Mashona land Railway Company, and loans to the Mashonaland Railway Company for £1,228,117. British financial interests are predominant in all these interdependent companies. The Portuguese section of the line is worked and controlled by Biitish capital and is dependent for its prosperity upon the support of the various companies interested in the development of British territory in Rhodesia. This Interdependence of the various raUways, both frora the financial and economic points of view, creates a community of Interests of great 412 RAILWAYS Importance to the future development of the whole of this portion of south-central Africa, and it Is Impossible to divorce the economic development of large portions of Portuguese East Africa from the financial interests men tioned above. The position, therefore, is of interest in view of railway developments In the territories of the Mozambique and Zambezia Corapanies and in connexion with the construction of other railways farther north. Railway along the Zambezi Probably the most important developraent in connexion with these new lines of communication will be the con struction of a railway from a point on the proposed Kafue— Salisbury section, down the valley ofthe Zambezi to the point where the railway from British Nyasaland will cross that river. This railway, however, although a possibility, is not at present a probability. Moreover, it is certain that such a railway would onW be constructed in sections, and that the first of such sections would be a line of about 70 miles around the Quebra Bago Rapids, by which raeans the waterways of the middle and lower Zambezi would be raade available for the transport of goods over a distance of many hundreds of railes (com pare p, 351). Beira— Zambezi Railway The directors of the Mozarabique Company, after their visit to the territory In 1911, expressed the opinion that the construction of the Beira-Sena railway would do more than any other single measure to promote and secure the prosperity of the port of Beira and to develop the resources of the territory. This opinion is based upon two principal considerations. Firstly, the railway would form part of a trunk line destined BEIRA-ZAMBEZI RAILWAY 413 to bring to Beira much of the traffic of the region extending northwards frora the Zambezi as far as Lake Nyasa, including the British Nyasaland Protectorate, together with the eastern portion of northern Rhodesia, and the south-eastern part of the Belgian Congo, Secondly, it would serve the needs of the middle and lower Zambezi districts and would permit the develop ment of the resources of a portion of the company's territory that is at present raainly dependent upon the Zambezi for external communications. In the original concession accorded to the Mozarabique Company the building of such a raUway was made one of the primary conditions. By a contract raade at Paris on April 29, 1898, between the Mozambique Company and M. Leopold Auguste Henri Porcheron, the right was conceded to the latter to construct a line from Beira to a point upon the Zarabezi between Sena and Lacerdonia, This right was subsequently acquired by the Compagnie du Chemin de Fer de Beira au Zambeze, registered at Brussels, and in 1906 this company sent a technical comraission to Africa to make the final surveys. At a later date there was formed a Syndicat d'Etudes, called the Syndicat du Beira- Zambeze, which on October 11, 1912, concluded a con vention (with modifications of November 7, 1918) with the Mozambique Company.' This body appears to have been the intermediary between the original company and a new company called the Societe Anonyme du Chemin de Fer Belra-Zambfeze, This company was prevented by the outbreak of war from undertaking construction, and on the death of the concessionary, Col, Huys, of Belgium, the concession came under the control of Mr, Libert Oury, The total distance from the Zambezi to Beira wUl be 173 mUes, There are few natural obstacles, and the heaviest gradient will be 1 in 72. As with the ' See Le Chemin de Fer de Beira au Zanibene. Brussels, 1914. 414 RAILWAYS Beira Railway the railway company will be entitled to alternate blocks of land, each block forming a square of 2,500 hectares, upon each side of the line, and to the first preference for the construction of a line joining Sena with the principal raUway and for the building of a line to Tete, A bridge over the Zambezi to connect with the Shire Highlands line is contemplated, as stated below, Nyasaland Railways The Beira-Zambezi railway Is the logical complement to the raUway connecting British Nyasaland with Chindio, Until May 17, 1915, when the section of the Nyasaland railway from Port Herald on the Shire River to Chindio on the Zambezi was completed, British Nyasaland was dependent for its communications with the coast upon the Shire Highlands railway and upon the nayigation of the Shire River, which each year became more precarious and unsatisfactory (compare p, 355), It became essential that the Shire Highlands railway should be continued to the Zambezi ; and for this purpose the Central Africa Railway Company was formed in 1913 to construct a railway between Port Herald and Chindio, and for the building of a bridge across the Zambezi to connect with the proposed railway to Beira. Central Africa Railway. — For the construction of the northern portion of this railway the company received a grant in perpetuity subject to a right of purchase by the Nyasaland Government in or after 1937. For the southern portion, in Portuguese territory, a concession was granted by the Portuguese Government to the British Central Africa Company, the benefit of which was subsequently assigned to the railway company. The Portuguese con cession was for a term of 99 years from July 10, 1912, at the expiration of which the railway will revert to the Portuguese Government ; though, with the consent of NYASAT,AND RAILWAYS 415 that Government, the Nyasaland Government, which already has tlie power to purchase the Shire Highlands railway, may buy the whole railway (Port Herald- Zambezi) on terms to be agreed upon. As a condition of the consent of the British Government to the contract and of the guaranteeing to the existing raUway of the interest on £500,Q.00, the Secretary of State for the Colonies stipulated that assurances should be given for the construction of a railway opposite the terminus of the Port Herald— Zambezi section to the port of Beira, and that pending the completion of a bridge across the Zambezi at this point, temporary arrangements should be made for the transport of goods and passengers across the river. The railway from Port Herald to Chindio was constructed by Messrs, Pauling & Co. at a cost of £489,074, The concession granted for the construction of the railway from Port Herald to Blantyre contemplated the extension of the railway to Lake Nyasa, In order to carry out the original intention of the British Government, the Shire Highlands Railway Company will carry their system northward, so that eventually the Zambezi and Beira may be served by a trunk line destined, when communication has been established over what is known as the Stevenson Road, to join Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa, and north eastern Rhodesia generaUy, with the terminus of the Beira-Mashonaland railway. During 1916 a survey was made from Blantyre northward to Lake Nyasa, and it is understood that the Nyasaland Government considers that this extension should run from Luchenya, via Zomba, along the eastem route close to the Portuguese border, and thence northwards to the south-eastern arm of Lake Nyasa. Such a railway, it is stated, would prove the cheaper to construct ; but it is alleged that it would pass through comparatively poor country and, therefore, that its chief function would be to provide an outlet for the 416 RAILWAYS lake traffic. Instead of serving the more pressing needs of the settlers in the Upper Shire, South Nyasa, and central Angoni Districts, The alternative route, favoured by the majority of the planters, starts from Blantyre, runs north wards through the Lunzu District, crosses the Shire River at some point between Matope and Llwonde, and proceeds thence to the south-western arm of Lake Nyasa, This line, it is alleged, would pass through the most fertile and cultivated districts of the Protectorate, and also provide the greatly needed outlet for traffic on Lake Nyasa, Whichever of the two routes were chosen, both Beira and Quelimane would benefit from the proposed extension. As for the lake traffic, however, competing proposals are that of the railway between Mozambique and Lake Shirwa (see below, p, 423), and that of the railway between Port Amelia and the Portuguese shore at LipuchI, passing through the Nyassa Company's territory (p, 424), Shire Highlands Railway. — The construction of the Shire Highlands Railway, of which the Central Africa Railway now forms the greatly needed southern extension, was rendered necessary owing to the difficulty of main taining comraunication with the British Protectorate of Nyasaland, As already explained, there was only one avenue by which the country could be entered — that from Chinde on the coast, via the Zarabezi to the mouth of tlie Shire River, and thence up that river to Port Herald or Chiromo. The distance from Chinde to Port Herald is about 210 miles and to Chiromo another 40 miles. In the early days of the British occupation it had been hoped that it would be possible to travel by water from the coast to Lake Nyasa, but that was found to be impossible because the Murchison Falls, which connect the upper and lower Shire Rivers, were found to be an Insurmountable barrier. Moreover, the obstacles to navigation on the lower Shire were constantly increasing, and It was found that Chiromo itself was frequently shut oflf from water NYASALAND RAILWAYS 417 communication, and lately even the section of the river between Port Herald and Chindio has become difficult for navigation. In order to remedy so grave a disability and to remove a menace that was hindering the expansion of the Pro tectorate, the British Central Africa Company decided to provide a line of railway between Blantyre and Port Herald. This step was decided upon partly for economic reasons connected with the development of the territory ; but also that by means of this new link between Nyasa land and the coast the slave trade around Lake Nyasa, which in the past has been carried on by the powerful Arab community at the northern end of the lake, could be broken up effectively and the whole country brought under an efficient British administration. The scheme for a raUway to Nyasaland, in view of later developments In railway construction in Africa, cannot be considered ambitious ; but there were many peculiar difficulties that had to be overcome; these render the Shire Highlands RaUway one of the notable achievements in raUway engineering. In the first place the authorities in London insisted that the railway should be built according to the standard South African gauge, 3 ft, 6 in,, instead of a narrow-gauge railway which the amount of traffic likely to pass over the route, at least for some years after the construction of the line, would then have justified. Bearing In raind the initial failure of the Beira railway and the necessity that arose for reconstructing that line, the decision of the British Governraent was wise, especi ally in view of the possible extension of the Rhodesian railway system to Nyasaland, which may run either from Abercorn to Tete and thence to Fort Johnston or else from Ayshire through Zumbo qr Chikoa to some point on Lake Nyasa, Nevertheless the decision added consider ably not only to the difficulties of construction, but also to the cost of the raUway, and at the period in question P.E.A. D d 418 RAILWAYS seemed to be an unnecessary burden upon the British Central Africa Company, For the construction of the line promoted by the British Central Africa Company, the Shire Highlands Railway Company was formed in 1895 with an authorized capital of £100,000 and debentures for £536,750, issued to the contractors. In December 1902 a contract was signed by the Crown Agents for the Colonies and the Shire Highlands Railway Company for the construction of the railway from Chiromo to Blantyre to be completed within five years from December 31 in that year. This contract was afterwards extended in 1903, so that the line could be continued to Port Herald. The railway was completed and opened for traffic on April 1, 1908, The difficulties confronting the promoters of the railway were extraordinary. As a general rule railways have been carried from a base on the coast ; but In this case the work was carried on not only at a considerable distance from the nearest port but also at a great distance from the chief base of supplies. Not only had the railway material to be carried to a remote district over a difficult route, but practically the whole of the supplies had to be obtained from England, No coal could then be obtained locally. There was no lime, and bricks could not be made to assist In the erection of the piers. No suitable stone could be obtained locally, and the only alternative was the utiliza tion of concrete, which by the time it reached Port Herald had cost five or six times its value in England, In addition the engineering difficulties were considerable. The line frora Port Herald follows a northerly course of 113 miles, in which distance a difference of level of 3,700 ft, had to be overcome, valleys to be crossed, and bridges to be constructed. From Port Herald the railway approximately follows the bank of the river as far as Chiromo, where it is carried across the waterway by means of a bridge about 420 ft, in length, in order to reach the NYASALAND RAILWAYS . 419 valley of the Ruo River, This is a drawbridge providing an opening 100 ft, wide to permit navigation. Twelve miles from this point the railway begins a heavy climb through rough country in which the ruling grade is 1 in 44, and the minimum curve is of 363 ft, radius. The valley through which the railway passes Is tortuous, and the line has many sharp curves. Here and there clefts on the mountain sides are spanned by bridges supported on steel towers carried on pedestals built of concrete. One of the largest of these bridges, which is 290 ft, long, is the girder bridge across the Mswadzi River, At mile 64 the valley of the Ruo is left and the railway makes a difficult ascent along the Tuchili River for nearly 10 railes, and then crosses the Luchenya River, which Is followed until the summit is gained 5 miles south of Blantyre. Here there is a descent of 500 ft, before the present northern terminus of the railway at Blantyre Is reached, Limbe (4,000 ft.), 4 miles south of Blantyre, is the railway head-quarters. In connexion with the construction of the railway the provision of labour proved a disturbing factor. Although the loss of life was not so great as that which occurred during the building ofthe Beira railway across the Pungwe flats, the mortality among the Europeans was heavy. More over, the natives of Nyasaland, unaccustomed to prolonged exertion, frequently deserted to their homes, and left In a body when the rainy season set in. These difficulties illustrate the obstacles that have to be overcome in many parts of Portuguese East Africa before that country is adequately supplied with railway communication. The capital expended in the construction of the Shire Highlands Railway, the supply of rolling stock, and other expenses, up to December 31, 1915, was £659,098. At the same date the rolling stock consisted of eight loco motives and two motor trollies, two first-class carriages, two third-class carriages, two compo-saloons, and five D d 2 420 RAILWAYS brake vans with third-class accommodation, Tn addition therewere fifty-two wagons of which eighteen were covered, including twelve made of steel. The cost of the Central Africa railway was as follows : — expenditure in connexion with the purchase of concessions and construction of railway, £416,723 ; expenditure on roUing stock, £22,350 ; preliminary expenses, £25,000, and underwriting com mission,' £25,00© ; a total of £489,074, The rolling stock consisted of two locomotives, two carriages, and ten covered wagons, of which eight were steel bogie wagons- At present the tr.affic over the Nyasaland railway is inconsiderable. Nevertheless during 1913 the gross re ceipts of the Shire Highlands Railway amounted to £29,448 and the working expenses to £16,926, leaving a net profit of £12,521, These receipts included £23,461 for the conveyance of goods and produce. In 1915 the figures were £30,669, £22,191, and £8,477 respectively. Out of the gross revenue £24,324 was received for the conveyance of goods. The prospects of traffic over the Shire Highlands, Central Africa, and Beira-Zambezi fines cannot be measured, however, by any present returns. Railways in Quelimane District Quelimane-Makivale Railway. — Two smaU railways are in existence in the Quefimane District, The first of these, a line constructed by the Zambezia Company and opened on July 1, 1901, runs frora the Custoras House at Quelimane to Makivale on the right bank of the river Makuzi about 16 miles from its mouth, a distance of 18 miles. This railway, which is of 2-ft, gauge, runs through the prazos of Andone and Anguaze, and connects the navigable waters of the Makuzi with the port on the Quelimane River, Proposals have been made to widen the gauge of this railway and to continue the QUELIMANE DISTRICT 421 line to Inyaraakurra, The following table gives the traffic over the line since 1903 : — 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 Passengei-sTons of goods , Receipts , Expenditure . , 6,600 , 11,862 , £ 8,267 , £ 2,253 9,459 10,814 5,269 6,591 2,886 3,382 2,566 2,568 17,890 5,432 3,2832,482 19,767 5,251 2,580 1,774 1908 1909 1910 1911 PassengersTons ot goods Receipts , Expenditure , 19,646 6,378 .£ 1,967 ,£ 1,521 18,027 5,181 1,823 1,314 19,853 5,911 2,0411,181 22,472 17,334 2,220 1,552 1912 1913 1914 1915 Passengers , Tons of goods Receipts Expenditure , 16,787 9,346 ,£ 2,571 ,£ 1,846 17,522 7,803 2,388 1,904 7,364 11,016 3,369 2,143 12,400 12,658 4,1382,172 Inyamakurra-Mokuba Railway. — The second line, which is under construction, is being buUt by the govern ment of the province to connect Inyaraakurra, a port on the Inyaraakurra branch of the river Makuzi, to Mokuba, a place situated at the confluence of the Likungo and Lujella Rivers, opposite ViUa Durao. The Inyamakurra- Mokuba railway, when completed, will be fifty-five miles in length, but at the end of 1914 only twenty-nine miles had been constructed. It was expected to be open for traffic during 1918.^ This line also is a narrow-gauge raUway (2 ft, 5| in,), but wUl be of great use to transport produce from the interior whence, hitherto, the greatest difficulty has been experienced- In conveying it to the coast. In connexion with the waterways mentioned on p, 358, it will form a valuable factor in the development of Maganja da Costa and its neighbourhood. Quelimane-Ruo Railway. — With respect to the pro posed railway from Quefimane to the river Shire, and thence to Tete, two routes have been suggested ; but the ^ Board of Trade Journal, December 6, 1917, 422 RAILWAYS whole scheme is at present in abeyance. The first sugges tion was for a line from Quelimane to Mutira on the Ruo, which was to bring the traffic from British Nyasaland to the Portuguese port and to open up the rich plantation districts north-west of Quelimane, A company entitled the Companhia dos Caminhos de Ferro da Zambezia was forraed, and on June 5, 1895, a contract between that company and the Zambezia Company was signed. The railway was to be constructed within eighteen months, and the work of the preliminary survey was corapleted in February 1896, In addition a branch was to be con structed towards the mountainous country of Namuli, Subsequently the course of the Quelimane-Ruo railway was modified by diverting the route towards Port Herald ; but nothing in the way of railway construction has been accomplished, and it is doubtful whether the line will be constructed over the proposed route, Quelimane-Tete Railway. — With respect to the more southerly route from Quelimane through Port Herald to Sinyal and thence along the Zambezi to Tete, flying surveys were made of the region between Quelimane and Sinyal (Sinjal) and about thirty-seven railes of track were cleared. But after this preliminary work had been done, another deviation was decided upon, partly with the object of tapping the rich sugar areas farther south, and partly, doubtless, owing to the fact that the Nyasaland railway had been extended from Port Herald to Chindio. The intention as reported in March 1917 was to make first for Mopeia, thence proceeding near or on the left bank of the Zambezi, The scheme was delayed by the war, chiefly because most of the contracts for material were in Gerraan hands, but on April 7, 1916, it was announced that the construction of the railway was assured and that con tracts had been signed by Messrs, Robinson & Co,, of Johannesburg, for the construction of the first forty-nine miles. It was then stated that materials for construction QUELIMANE DISTRICT 423 had been bought in New York and would be shipped to Quefimane at an early date,^ Construction has since been carried on, and it was anticipated that by the end of 1917 sixty mUes of the raain line would be laid. There are two 25-ton engines and two sraaller, tenders, and trucks. The line is laid on sleepers of native wood weighing 154 lb. The gauge is 3 ft, 6 In, The main object of this railway, which is an under taking of- the provincial goyernment, is to connect Quellraane with the Nyasaland railway and to prepare for the traffic that will ultimately descend the Zambezi by establishing through communication between Tete and Quelimane, In this connexion it must be borne in mind that the route frora Nyasaland to Quelimane is shorter than that to Beira, but on the other hand, Quellraane as a port is much inferior to Beira, for although ocean-going ships are able to cross the Kwakwa bar the navigation up the river is difficult. In order to overcome this defect it is proposed to build wharves at Point Tangalane, fifteen miles down the river, and to join that place with Queli mane by a continuation of the raUway. Mozambique=^Nyasaland Railway Farther north a railway has been projected from Mozambique to Lake Shirwa, which, if constructed, would probably be joined with the proposed extension of the Shire Highlands Railway through Zomba to Lake Nyasa, As at present planned the Mozambique-Nyasaland railway, which is estimated to be about 342 miles in length, starts from Lumbo, opposite the island of Mozam bique on the southern side of Mosuril Bay and proceeds generally due westward to the Portuguese frontier. The survey for the railway has been completed, and the estimated cost per kilometre is £2,200, or a total of > Beira Post, April 28, 1916. 424 RAILWAYS £1,192,000. In 1912 the Portuguese Government voted £37,000 as a start and decided that the raUway should be built departmentally, contracts being put up to public tender. The contract for the first section was secured by the firm of Ornsteln-Arthur Koppel of BerUn, and at the outbreak of the war 15^ miles of the line had been constructed and another 12| miles had been cleared, whilst 93 miles had been thoroughly surveyed as far as Nampula, the route closely following the mUitary road to that point. Several bridges will be necessary, including one of 100- yds, over the river Monapo, one of 100 yds. over the Lurio, and one of 80 yds, across the Malema, Of the railway, as at present proposed, 280 miles will be in the Mozambique District and 62.mUes in Portuguese Nyasaland, This railway vould traverse country presenting, on the whole, less difficulties than the route laid down for the line from Port Amelia (see following paragraph), and its potential importance to the Nyasaland Protectorate is greater than that of the same line if the latter terminated, as designed, in Portuguese territory, On'the other hand, the railway through Mozambique District would pass through territory which, so far as can be judged, offers less important economic possibilities, and its terminal jDort at Lumbo has, by no means equal natural advantages with that at Port Amelia. Port Amelia-Lake Nyasa Railway Schemes have long been in existence for the construction of a railway from Port Amelia, on Pemba Bay, to the shore of Lake Nyasa through the Nyassa Corapany's territory. A close survey has been raade. The Une is designed to run from Port Amelia by or near Medo, Mtarika on the Lujenda, up the right bank of that river to a crossing at Luambala (Mluluka), and by the Lriambala valley and PORT AMELIA-LAKE NYASA RAILWAY 425 Mtonya to Lipuchi, on the lake at the Anglo-Portuguese frontier. The distance from Port Amelia to Mtarika is 322-2" iiiUes, and to Lipuchi 520| miles. The route, except near Lake Nyasa, presents no great difficulties, but accord ing to the surveyors' report ' the line between Medo and Mtarika is of a switchback nature , , . traversing the various watersheds and valleys . , , On the return journey it was found this could possibly be avoided by keeping to the main watershed dividing the Lurio valley frora the Lujenda, the faU from this watershed to the Lujenda, where it would have to be crossed, not being a very heavy- one . . . Should it be decided ... to follow the main watershed route, another line to the lake might advan tageously be studied, that is, through the Luchimwa valley '. The route surveyed from Mtonya to the lake, keeping the line In Portuguese territory, proved very difficult, and the surveyors raade the iraportant observa tion that a much easier route could be found to the British shore of the lake. The construction of such a railway is essential to the development of this territory. British interests are con cerned in the territory (see p. 171),, and the railway survey was made by Messrs. Pauling. There is some reason to anticipate that under settled conditions the construction of the line may be undertaken. As for external traffic, the line would compete with that already discussed, running southward from Lake Nyasa to Beira, for any Central African trade passing by way of the lake to the east coast. The distances between the southern end of the lake and Beira, and between Lipuchi and Port Amelia, are closely similar. By the east coast and Suez Canal route, Port Amelia is some 650 railes nearer to European ports than Beira. 426 ROADS AND TRANSPORT Roads and Transport Apart from the railways already mentioned, atid the navigable waterways, Portuguese East Africa Is not supplied with good means of inter-communication. In the Lourenzo Marques District, in the neighbourhood of Tete, and in Portuguese Nyasaland, there are a few good roads, but elsewhere most of the so-called roads {estrada) are unfit for heavy transport, and in many cases are little better than native tracks {caminho). Very few can be conveniently used by carts, and the majority are made through the bush simply by cutting down the trees, pulling up the roots, and removing the grass. They need to be periodically cleared of vegetation ; otherwise they quickly become overgrown. A few have rough bridges, made of timber found on the spot : these are commonly carried away by floods ; and in most cases the rivers and streams haye to be forded, a difficult and occasionally irapossible task when they are in flood. In the south of the Province, around Lourenzo Marques and Inharabane, where the soil is mostly sandy, transportation is very diflficult, and this difficulty- is increased during the rainy season, as many of the roads follow the marshy banks of rivers and con sequently become impassable directly the rains begin. Even during the dry season, when transport is carried on by light wagons drawn by oxen, large teams are required in order to drag the wagons through the sandy soU, Native paths are very numerous throughout the country, and guides with local knowledge are essential in order to follow them. They wind around trees and other obstacles, and often consist of a narrow passage, passable only in single file, cut through the bush where it is dense, sometimes forming a tunnel. The cost of transport of produce In most parts of the province is still the chief Impediment to the rapid develop ment of raany districts, and mainly for this reason the ROADS AND TRANSPORT 427 present agricultural areas are either within easy reach of water transport or, as in the territory of the Mozarabique Company, situated along the line of raUway, In that territory some attempt has been made to bring the out lying agricultural districts into touch with the distributing centres. At Mandigos, for exaraple, a road running north and south for twelve mUes in each direction, has recently been constructed. The scarcity, and in some districts the absence, of cattle and horses add to the difficulty and expense of transport. In all remote districts native carriers are the only power available, and apart from the neighbourhood of Lourenzo Marques there are few wagons, carts, or carriages In the country. Mules and donkeys provide the means of getting about where these exist, and oxen are used where possible. In the more tropical districts the number of oxen used for a wagon is much less than In the north, where the usual South African span of a dozen or more oxen is general. Where no animal transport is possible the usual means by which Europeans travel is the machila. This is a hammock slung on two bamboos, carried on the shoulders of four natives, and north of the Zambezi it forms practically the only means of transport between outlying stations. The bearers as a rule can keep up a kind of trot of from thirty to thirty-five miles a day, two or three relays of natives taking turns in carrying, but all keeping in company to be ready when required. The native luggage-carriers {carregadores or croque- dores) also do a similar distance, carrying from 50 up to as much as 100 lb. each, and can keep up a pace exceed ing that of any white raan, day after day for a week or two, living mainly on manioc obtained as they go along. In Portuguese Nyasaland they are reckoned to carry 50-60 lb, for fifteen to twenty miles a day for long journeys, or as much as twenty-five miles for short journeys. Their pay here is reckoned at 10 centavos a day and their food. 428 ROADS AND TRANSPORT a ration of 2 lb,, reckoned at 4 centavos. For a large number of carriers the rate is higher, and machila carriers receive a higher rate — 15 centavos. It raay be reraarked that In German East Africa the pay seems to have been rather lower and the weight expected to be carried rather more : on the other hand, pay is somewhat higher in British Nyasaland than in Portuguese territory generally, and this Is said to have affected the rates in the adjoining Portuguese districts. Motor Traffic. — Tn a Portuguese report, dated 1910, on the suitabUity of the roads of Portuguese East Africa for motor traffic, it is stated that in the then condition of the roads motor traffic would be possible- to- the foUowing extent. In the district of Lourenzo Marques the roads In the main are very sandy, but motors eould proceed to Guija, Chibuto, BUene, or PaluUe,. In the Inhambane district motor traffic is impossible along the numerous roads because the soil Is too sandy, except In the northern circumscription of VUanculos, In Quelimane motor traffic is impossible during the rainy season, but certain roads, such as that from Inyaraakurra to VUa Durao, might be utilized, Tn the Tete district motor traffic is comparatively easy frora Tete to Angonia, also from Tete to Muchena, Machinga, Chifumbadzi, and Boroma, When other roads are put into good order motor traffic should be possible throughout many parts of the district, but the chief difficulty would be the supply of water. The Tete- Masikesi road (258 miles) was under repair, but for 50 miles no water is procurable, and water is difficult to obtain between Cabremonte and Campapa, The mails are carried over this route by natives, who take eight days on the journey. In the Mozambique District motor traffic should prove useful in opening the country, especially as good roads connect most of the military posts. In the Nyasa Company's territory it is stated that Fiat cars were introduced in 1914, succeeded well, and were ROADS AND TRANSPORT 429 subsequently employed over a large extent of the most important tracks (see p, 436), On the whole, however, it would seem that, with the exception of the Tete district and perhaps the Mozambique and Nyasaland districts, there is little likelihood of the industries of Portuguese East Africa being developed by raeans of heavy motor traffic. The construction of good macadaralzed roads is too expensive an undertaking In most parts of the country, and it seems more probable that an extension of the light railways already existing would In the end be both cheaper and more useful than the construction of roads, needing constant repair, for heavy traffic. Main Roads of the Southern Districts Some of the more important roads will be indicated in the following sections, in which the Portuguese names of stations have for the most part been retained. Roads from Lourenzo Marques. — A macadamized high road is under construction from Lourenzo Marques to Goba, which will link up with the main road through Swaziland ; when this is completed it will be possible to travel by motor frora the Rand to Lourenzo Marques. A branch road is being built frora the Goba road at Impamputu to Naraahacha in the Leborabo Hills which, it Is hoped, will become a health resort for the people of Lourenzo Marques, Several other roads are being con structed in this district, most of which are feeders to the roads above mentioned. One, under construction, will connect Marracuene with Lourenzo Marques, The prin cipal roads are the following: Lourenzo Marques to Marracuene (18 mUes) and thence to Manhica (10 miles) ; Marracuene to Moamba on the Lourenzo Marques RaUway (12| mUes) and Moamba to Infulene (15| miles) ; Infulene to Anguane (12| miles) ; Infulene -to Rio MatoUa 430 ROADS AND TRANSPORT (15 1 miles) and Matolla to the Lebombos (22 miles) and to Boane (7| miles); Pessene to Naraahacha on the borders of Swaziland (40 railes) ; Lourenzo Marques to Zichacha (18| raUes) ; Lourenzo Marques to Anguane and Rikatla (12| miles); and Incomati to Manhi9a, vi^ Magaia, Only one of the above roads is 10 metres (33 ft,) in width, namely that from Lourenzo Marques to Marracuene, The rest, with the exception of the road frora Marracuene to Manhija, which is 6 metres (20 ft,) wide, are only 5 metres (16-| ft.) in width, Manhiga. — In the circurascription of Manhiga the following are the principal roads, Manhica to Marracuene via Cherinda and Patcheque along the right bank of the Koraati (19 railes) ; Manhiga to Magude north of the great bend of the Komati, mi Machohomo (17 miles) ; Manhiga to Sao Paulo de Messano (26 miles) ; Manhiga to Chai-Chai along the coast, through Tanca, Mudoza, and Inhampura (25| miles), and Manhiga to Chibuto, through Chlssangane, Chirane, and Mahanga (31 railes) ; Manhiga to Chemicho, vii Ohiau (31 miles) ; and Chiau to Lagoa Pati (11 miles), and Lagoa Pati to Macanda (7| miles), Sabid. — In the circumscription of Sabi^ the principal roads run frora Sabl^-Mabila to Incomati (18 miles), and from Incoraati to Uanetzi, vi4 Machatuene and Matugan- yana (59 miles) : Sabie-Mabila to kUometre 53 of the Lourenzo Marques railway through Macanhe, Mamejanga, Magude, Domba, Maluti, and Chiguiche (20| railes) ; Malengane to Vundessa (25 railes) ; Mahambacheca to Magude (34 railes), Magude to Inyaraanlne (7| miles) and Magude to Sabi^-Mablla (15 miles) ; Sabi^-Mablla to Machatuene (7 miles), Magude. — In the circurascription of Magude roads run from that centre to Bilene, vi4 Sao Paulo de Messano, with a ferry over the river Inkoluane (31 miles), to Manzarachopes, vi4 Bilene (20 railes), to Matuganhana, \'A Uanetzi and Chlconguene (24 miles),, to Sabl^ with ROADS AND TRANSPORT 431 the crossings by ferry-boat over the rivers Massintonto and Uanetzi, to Manhiga (11 railes), and to Moaraba (22 miles), Maputo. — Tn the circurasciiption of Maputo a large nuraber of roads radiate frora Bela Vista : to Catembe (25 railes), Pharol (23 miles), Rainha (20 miles), Porto Henrique (23 mUes), Estatuene (43i miles), Manhangane (40 miles), Catuane (48 miles), Salamanga (9=| mUes), Macassane (20 miles), Mpobobo (22 miles), Manhoca (35 miles), Tomo (42 mUes), and Fronteira Zulo (49 miles). Other roads radiate fi'om Estatuene to Eshiza (182- miles), Porto Henrique (22 railes), Nolifiduane (24 railes), Mahau (29 railes), Manyangana(41 railes), and Catuane (53 miles), whence there are roads to Rio Pongola (9 miles), Manhoca (25| miles) and Manyangana (10| miles). The other roads. in this division are from Porto Henrique to Mangessa (15 miles) ; Salamanga to Macassane (10| miles) and Macassane to Mpobobo (2 mUes), Rio Maputo (5 railes), and Manhoca (13 raUes) ; and Manhoca td Monte de Ouro (20 railes), Manjacaze. — In the circurascription of Manjacaze there are four^roads, with a total length of 310 miles, from Manjacaze to Zavala, Chai-Chai, Chibuto, and Coguno, Chibuto. — Tn the Chibuto circumscription a road of 238 miles runs to Pafuri on the Portuguese side of the Transvaal boundary where the Limpopo leaves that country. This runs along the left bank of the Limpopo to Guija and thence to the frontier. Other roads from Chibuto run to Chikomo (54 miles) ; to Barramo, through Mchope (58 raUes) ; to Mapulanquene, through Bilene and Manetzl (84 miles) ; to Barra do Limpopo, through Moyene and Chai-Chai (42 miles) ; and to Alto Macuacua, through Chenguas (54 miles), Bilene. — Tn the circumscription of Bilene there are roads from Tnchobane to S, Paulo de Messano, vI4 Jambal and vI4 Mazlblla, 22 and 80 miles respectively; to 432 ROADS AND TRANSPORT Chalucuana (9 miles) ; to Chissano, viel Olombe (18| railes) and thence to Mabanana, vi4 Tuane and Macia (37 miles) and vi4 Olombe and Incaia (31 miles), in the one direction, and to Chalucuana (22 miles) in the other ; and to ChUem- bene (9 miles). From Maziblla there is a road to Macia (15| miles) ; from Xicotana roads go to Damande (25 miles) Yik Olombe and Incaia, and (37 mUes) Yik LicUlo, Chissano, and Tuane; from Mazibila a road runs through the Mchope district to Manza (18| mUes) and from Messano there is a road to Cumba (43 miles). Another road runs from Chissano through Messano to Zimbene. Guija. — In the Guija division roads run from Bilene, through Banga, to MsuasI (Mazuazi) In the Lebombo Mountains along the Limpopo and Olifants rivers (112 miles) ; from Chibuto, through Guija to Palulle (47 miles) ; and from Canigado to Machoboli, passing near Guija, These roads vary in width in the different circura- scriptions. Apart frora those in the circumscription of Marracuene, it should be noted that all the roads in the Manhiga district are 6 metres in width ; those in Sabid vary from 4 to 7 raetres ; in Magude, with the,^ exception of the road to Manetzi, which is 8 metres, all the roads are 5 metres wide, as are all the roads in Maputo ; in Manjacaze the roads vary from 5 to 7 metres ; in Bilene they are all 6 raetres wide ; and in Guija their width is 8 metres. Roads in the Mozambique Company's Territory In the territory of the Mozambique Corapany several roads have been constructed by the natives under orders from the chief of each district. The principal of these roads are the following, (1) A road running north from Chikwalakwala, near the Limpopo to Massangena, the administrative centre of Alto Save, on the south bank of the river Sabi, whence ROADS AND TRANSPORT 433 a branch runs eastwards towards the mouth of that river where It joins the coastal road from Bartholomeu Diaz to Sofala, (2) A road from Massangena northward to a point on the river Morungwezi where it branches into two, one branch running north-eastwards, through Chibabava to Nova Luzitania on the river Buzi, and the other runnins; to Spungabera and thence across the frontier to join the road between Chala and Melsetter, which is joined with Umtali by a motor-road, 98 miles long, along the water shed separating the Sabi and Revu3 river valleys, (8) A road from Bartholomeu Diaz through the district of Chiluane to Sofala and Chlrora at the raouth of the Buzi, (4) A road from Chibabava eastwards to Sofala, (5) A road from Melsetter, crossing the frontier at Chimanimani and proceeding through Chala north-east ward to Mandigos on the Beira railway, (6) A road from Chaia to Masikesi, (7) A road from Beira to Mazamba, through Cherin goma, (8) A road from Beira, through Inyati and along the river Mkombezi to Mazamba, (9) A road from Chimoio through the Revue valley which crosses a pass, some 5,000 ft, high, to Penhalonga, (10) A road from Vila Machado on the Beira railway, northward through Tambarara, Vila Paiva d'Andrada, Forte Gorjao (Maringue) to Sena. (11) A road from Tambara, on the Zambezi, along the south bank of the Zambezi, through Chemba, Sena, Inyaruka, Vila Pontes, and Lacerdonia, to Maromeu, This road is stated to be one of the best In East Africa, and provides the most rapid raeans of coraraunication when travelling up the Zarabezi valley. For the Tete-Masikesi road, see p, 434, P.E.A. E e 434 ROADS AND (TRANSPORT Roads in, Tete District, and Connexions In the Tete territory of the Zarabezia Company a road about 240 miles long, constructed by the British South Africa Company in agreement with the Portuguese government, connects Fort Jameson with Tete, This road, which runs through Chifumbadzi and Misale, is being made suitable for motor transport and is the main route from Tete to the north. As the ground is generally hard, and the basis of crystalline rock, the surface of the road presents no special difficulties for motor traffic, although the provisions for crossing streams and rivers are imperfect. Another road runs from Tete to Salisbury (235 iniles), Vik Mount Darwin (145 miles), and Mazoe (211 iniles), crossing the frontier near Chi-Mvumbo : the first 145 miles up a gradual slope cannot be used by oxen on account of the tsetse fly. This road follows the old telegraph route along the valley of the Mazoe, A third road, practicable for oxen and donkey wagons, coiftiects Tete and Chikoa, and joins the two navigable sections of the Zambezi, here separated by the Quebra Bago rapids. This road has also been used for camel transport, which is stated to have been tried successfully in the district^. From Chikoa the road has been continued to Zumbo. A fourth road runs from Tete to Inyanga, 199 miles, in Rhodesia, and thence to Rusafi and -Umtali, A fiftli road runs through the Barue country to Masikesi, and is practically the only road through this district, but It is badly constructed and is impassable during part of the year, as It follows the bed of the Ruenya for some distance. The road Is in a bad condition up to Quebra- monde, but from this point a good road, 8 metres wide, passes through Kampapa, Mungari, Katoka, Mupa, Kwa- macha, Tiqulte, and Inyaralsenga. Frora this place the 1 Campanhia da Zambezia Mines report, 1906. ROADS AND TRANSPORT 435 road Is in a bad condition as far as the Pungwe and Musa rivers, whence there ig an iraproved road, with ditches, leading to Masikesi. The total length of this road frora Tete to Masikesi is 260 railes. This road could be made available for motor traffic If ferries were established on the Ruenya, Inyakangarra, and Pungwe, From Chikoa a road is to be made to Chimwara and the northern boundary of Portuguese territory to join the northern road to Fort Jameson, Roads in Quelimane and Mozambique In the Quelimane District a road has been made from Quelimanethrough Coalane, Makivale, and longe to Inyaraa kurra, and thence to Vila Durao ; while raost ofthe interior stations have been connected by roughly constructed roadways. Tn Mozambique District there is a military road along the coast, with branches from It to Inland posts, of which the most iraportant is that from Mosuril to the boundary of the territory of the Zambezia Com pany, along which stores and mails are conveyed to isolated posts in the interior. This road runs through Otitane, Nampula, and Chinga, to Namuli, and thence through Fort Mlanje, Chilomo, Chironzi, and Netumbe, along the rivers Ruo and Shire in the Quelimane District, to Pinda, where it crosses the island of Inyangoma and proceeds to Mutarara, opposite Sena, A branch road runs frora Netumbe to Mutaio and also to Nhaconduia, near the river Lualua, Tt is stated that, apart frora the low-lying swampy belt of the littoral, the nature of the land in the Mozambique District would facilitate the con struction of good raotor roads, and that even now sorae parts of the roads connecting the posts could be used by motor traffic, E e 2 436 ROADS AND TRANSPORT Roads in the Nyassa Company's Territory ^ Tn the Nyassa Company's territory, as has been stated, motors are used over a considerable extent of roads. Some of these roads have been very recently constructed or improved, and exact information as to how far motor traffic extends is subject to modification. The principal road to the interior is that from Port Amelia y'lk Ankwabe (60 miles), Meza (90 mUes), Montepuesi (126 miles), MwaUa (154 miles), Mavala(172 miles), Msalu (201 miles), Kisanga Head (230 miles), to Mtarika (323 miles), an iraportant point on the Lujenda River, of which the valley forms an important north-and-south line. Southward from Mtarika this route, following the line of the proposed rail way, gives access to Luambala (Mluluka), and thence to Mtonya in the Nyasa Mountains and Lipuchi and other points on Lake Nyasa, Another route continues directly westward from Mtarika by Mwembe and Unangu to Mten- gida on the lake. Other routes stated to be passable for raotors are : from Kisanga, on the coast opposite Ibo island, to Mwiriti (115 miles), Chomba (158 miles), and Mocimboa de Rovuma (183 miles), and from Chomba to Mocimboa or Mazimbwa on the coast (73 miles) ; from Kisanga along the coast by Mucojo or Mukoyo (29 miles) and Quitarajo (52 miles) and thence to Nangadi (167 miles) and Mkula on the Rovuma (176 miles); and from Palma on the coast by Pundanhar (33 railes) and Machemba (55 miles) to Mocimboa de Rovuma (110 miles). The whole of the Company's territory has a fairly extensive systera of Portuguese posts, of which the most important at least are linked by the cleared tracks {estrada) made by the natives In coraposition for the payraent of hut tax, ' The estimates of distance are uncertain. POST OFFICE AND TELEGRAPHS 437 Post Office and Telegraphs ^ Postal Services. — Portuguese East Africa is included in the ' universal ' postal union, and in the South African postal union, which also erabraces Transvaal, Cape Prpvince, Natal, Orange Free State, and Rhodesia, The number of post offices open in 1916 was 44 in Lourenzo Marques District (including three branch offices in Lourenzo Marques town), 14 in Inharabane District, 32 in the Mozarabique Company's territory, 24 in Queli mane District, 13 in Tete District, 40 In Mozambique District, and 24 in the Nyassa Company's territory. Travelling post offices are provided on the principal railway trains. There is daily postal correspondence between the territory of the Union of South Africa and Lourenzo Marques, whence postal matter is forwarded to Inhambane, Quelimane, &c,, at the first opportunity. There is an overland service from the Union to Beira, Chinde, and other points twice weekly. These alternative routes are used as may be advantageous for coramunication between the Union territory and East Africa, Nyasaland Pro tectorate, &c. Among special rules relating to the province it may be mentioned that the transraission of coin, gold, silver, precious stones, &c., by letter post is prohibited, except t at coin is accepted for transraission by registered letter between the Union territory and the province. Inter national reply coupons for the prepayment of replies to letters are in use in the province. Parcels from the Union territory to the province require the foreign parcel label of the Union post office, but are conveyed at the inland postal rates of the Union, The regulations of the ' The names of offices are spelt in the Portuguese form. 438 POST OFFICE AND TELEGRAPHS Union post office applying to the issue of ordinary inland money orders apply also to money orders drawn on Portuguese East Africa, and a systera of telegraph money orders is also in force between the two territories. The offices transacting money-order business in the province are : In Lourenzo Marques District : Lourengo Marques, Bela Vista, Chai-Chai, Chibuto, Magude, Sable, Vila Luiza, In Inhambane District : Inharabane and Inyarrirae, In Mozambique Co.'s territory : Beira and Masikesi, In Quelimane District : Quelimane and Chinde, In Tete District : Tete, In Mozambique District : Angoche, Memba, Mozam bique, In Nyassa Co.'s territory : Porto Amelia. Savings Banks. — A post office savings bank {Caixa Economica Postal) was established in 1911, and accepts deposits for interest from $20 up to 1,000$ 00 or £200 in the first year of deposit, 2,000$ 00 or £400 in the second, and 3,000$ 00 or £600 in the third: larger sums deposited by individuals do not rank for interest, but benefit societies or Individuals may deposit up to 3,000$ 00 in any one year provided the total does not exceed 5,000$ 00 in three years. Savings bank balances can be reciprocally transferred between the province and Portugal, the Union of South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia, as well as within the province. Savings bank offices are at Lourenzo Marques, Vila Luiza, Magude, Sabid, Bela Vista, Chai-Chai, Chibuto, Inhambane, Tete, Chinde, Quelimane, Angoche, and Mozambique, Down to September 30, 1916, the deposits had amounted to £52,328 19s, Id. and 1,830,691$ 46, The rate of interest is fixed by the Government between 2 and 5 per cent, (3 per cent, in 1916), Cables. — The Eastern and South African Telegraph POST QPPICE AND TELEQR^PIIS 439 Company (controlled by the Eastern Telegraph Company) has cables : (a) From Durban to Mozambique direct, {b) Frora Durban to Lourefizo Marques, Beira, Queli mane, and Mozambique, (c) From Mozarabique to Zanzibar, &,c, (two cables). There is also a French cable from Mozambique to Majunga In Madagascar, The receipt and dispatch of cable messages are under the control of the Post and Telegraph Department, Wireless Telegraphy. — There is a wireless telegraph station at Reuben Point, Lourenzo Marques (call signal CRZ ; normal range, 100 nautical miles ; normal wave length, 600 metres), Tn 1916 the Union Government offered four sets of wireless telegraph installation to the Provincial Government, one of which was being erected at Inhambane, It is reported that installations have been established at Port Amelia and other points in the north. Telegraphs. — A list of telegraph stations, stated in 1916 to be normally open to public service, is given on the next page. Telegraph rates from Union territory are Is, Od. for 12 words and Id. per word thereafter to the districts of Lourenzo Marques and Inhambane, and there is also a night letter telegram service at reduced rates to Lourenzo Marques, Chibuto, and Inharabane ; but to other parts of the province the overland telegraph rates are 6s, 6^, for 12 words and Q^d. per word thereafter. Telephones, like telegraphs, are a State raonopoly, but private companies may be authorized to construct either on payment of dues to the State, There is an efficient State telephone service in Lourenzo Marques town. In some parts of the country telephones connect posts and settleraents. Inhambane Mozambique Co. Quelimane. Tete Mozambique Dht. Nyassa Co. Coguno *Amatongas Bajone (Bijom) Anbuaze Angoche Ibo O Homoine tBandula Carungo Cachomba Boila Lurio Inhambane *Beira Chilomo Chifumbazi Chinga Mocimboa hjO 02 Inharrime * Masikesi Chimwara Mungari Corrane Mucojo Jangamo tMandigos Chinde Mutarara Fernao Velloso Mucufi Massinga *Ponte do Pungue lie Tete lamurrimo Palma H Maxixe *Vila Machado Inago Vila Coutinho Imala Porto Amelia Mocodoene Inhaugombe Vila Garaitto Itoculo Quissanga O Morrumbene Inhassunge Vila Mousinho Liupo Quitarajo *^ Mutamba T Ligonha de Albuquerque Lurio 2 Ponta Zavora Micaune TZinto IT Matibane Q Quis^sico (Zavala) Milange ll Zumbo Mconta Vilanculos Mocubela Memba Murriua Mozambique , Nhamacurra Moginquale ' Olinda Mossuril -¦ Quelimane Murrupula Vila Bocage Namezeze ^ Nampula Ntia tn H San gage W ,* Simuco g W Ul Lourenzo Marques Barra do Limpopo Bela Vista BoaneCatembeChai-ChaiChanculoChibuto GobaIncomati Inhaca ' LourenzoMarques,MaehavaMacia Magude Manhica ManjacazeMatolaMoamba Movene Namahacha Pessene Ressano Garcia Sabie S. Paulo de Mes sano Umbeluzi Vila Luiza Stations in the Mozambique Company's territory raarked * are also, and those marked -t are only, stations on tbe Beira railway telegraph line. Stations marked IT were temporarily closed in 1916. The list does not include stations on inland telegraph lines in the northern districts which were not open to public service in 1916. CHAPTER XI HISTORY Early history — The coast : establishment of Portuguese power in East Africa — The interior : the kingdom of the Monomotapa and the gold trade — First Portuguese attempts to penetrate the interior — Portuguese establishments in the interior — Conquest of the Mono motapa — Height of Portuguese influence in the interior, 1630-90 — Missions — Portuguese loss of sea-power — Loss of Mombasa — Portu guese trade — The period of decline — The Bonga war — The Gaza invasion — The slave trade in the nineteenth century — The beginnings of colonial reform — The Delagoa Bay question — Early Portuguese relations with Delagoa Bay — Capt. Owen's visits — MacMahon's arbitration — Portugal and the partition of Africa — Portuguese explorers and Livingstone — Progress of the colony, 1860-90 — Gouveia and Paiva d'Andrada — Portuguese claim to transcontinental dominion— The Tungue Bay question — The question of Nyasaland — The question of Mashonaland — Progress of Portuguese expeditions — The British ultimatum, January, 1890— The Treaty of 1890— The Modus Vivendi — The Manica incident — The mission to Gungu nyana — The final negotiations — ^The Treaty of "1891 — The occupation of the modern province — -Situation in 1891— Gazaland — Mozambique Company's territory — Zambezia — Mozambique District — Portuguese Nyasaland, < Early Histoey The Coast : Establishment of Portuguese Power in Africa When Vasco de Garaa rounded the Cape in 1498, and touched at Mozambique, Mombasa, and Mal indi, he found the Arabs firmly established along the whole coast north of Cape Correntes, Their settlements probably dated from the foundation of Mogdishu and Brava on the Benadir coast towards the end of the tenth century. 442 HISTORY Kilwa is said to have been founded a little later by Persians from Shiraz, Mogdishu and Kilwa both became powerful states, and the former founded Sofala, the port for the gold trade with the interior which became the chief source of prosperity to the Arab settlements during the Middle Ages. In course of time Kilwa captured Sofala and becarae the chief power on the coast. Its dominions Included Malindi, Mombasa, Patta and Lamu, Pemba and Zanzibar, Mozambique and Angoche, as well as trading stations in Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, but no attempt was raade to occupy the interior. By the end of the fifteenth century the power of Kilwa was on the decline, and among the many independent rulers, the sultan of Mombasa rivalled his forraer suzerain in impor tance. It was the aim of the Portuguese to substitute their economic and religious influence for that of the Arabs throughout the East from Cape Correntes to the Moluccas, and it was above all necessary for thera to ensure their control over the East African coast which had become the gateway of the East, The conquest of Mozambique and Mombasa was consequently not an independent enterprise, like the occupation of Brazil, but was an integral part of the great scheme of Dom Emmanuel and Albuquerque for the conquest of the trade and erapire of the East, The realization of this scheme dates from the great expedition of D'Almeida, the first viceroy of India, in 1505, The king's design was to control the whole trade of the East by means of two fleets based on a chain of fortresses along the shores of the Indian Ocean, Accord ingly the viceroy captured Kilwa and built a fort there which was the first European forti.ess In the East, He then proceeded to Mombasa, the strongest place on th^ African coast, which he also captured and destroyed. Meanwhile Pedro da Naya reached Sofala and constructed a fort there In the autumn of the same year., , In 1507 HISTORY 443 the coast north of Morabasa was subdued by TrlstSo da Cunha, Larau submitted without resistance and Oja and Brava were stormed and sacked. The occupation of Sofala was entirely due to the king's desire to make himself raaster of the gold trade, and the harbour of Mozarabique was preferred from the first as a port of call by ships sailing to the Indies, Tn 1507 the construction of a fort, a church, and a hospital was begun there, and though the place was subject to the captain of Sofala It quickly became the most iraportant station on the coast. It was not until 1558 that the regency decided that -Mozarabique should replace Sofala as the chief captaincy of the African coast. At the same time the erection of the present fortress of Sao Sebastian was begun, a work which took forty years to complete, Underthe Portuguese regime both Sofala and Kilwa rapidly sank into Insigni ficance, The whole East African trade was made into a royal monopoly. All iraports had to go through the hands of the king's factor at Mozarabique and through hira to the various distributing stations, and trading for gold by private persons was forbidden. As the Arabs subsisted almost entirely by trade, their prosperity in those places where Portuguese authority was effective soon vanished, Portuguese East Africa from the first formed part of the State of India, The government attempted to trade directly frora Europe, but it was sOonl found that no European goods could rival -the cotton and beads of India for purposes of native trade, and East Africa became as dependent economically as it was administratively on Portuguese India, This connexion had far-reaching social effects on the province, which in course of time came more and more to have the character: of a Goanese colony, ;> ' The establishment of the Portuguese erapire of the East was (^ompleted by the work of the great Albuquerque 444 HISTORY in 1509-15. He had realized that the safetv of the Portuguese possessions depended on the control of the outlets of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, and his capture of Muscat and Orrauz in 1507 was of even more importance for East Africa than it was for India. The Portuguese failure to hold Aden was a source of weakness from the first, and was responsible for the Turkish raids on the East African coast In 1586 and 1588. Portuguese control of the coast north of Cape Delgado remained for a long time very incomplete. Their establish ment at Kilwa was a source of continual diflBculties, owing to the intrigues of rival sultans and the hostility of the natives to the Portuguese regulation of trade, and in 1512 the fort was perraanently abandoned. Farther north, the rulers of Malindi were always firm friends to the Portuguese who possessed a factory there as early as 1509, but Mombasa remained a centre of disaffection, and when the raids of the Turkish emir, Ali Bey, took place it headed the other Swahili towns in a general rising against the Portuguese, The second of these risings was fatal to the independence of the town, which was destroyed by the cannibal Mazimba at the same time as the Portu guese defeated the Turkish fleet. Soon afterwards the last sultan of Mombasa was killed in battle by the sultan of Malindi, who united Mombasa to his own dominions. At the same time (1591) the Portuguese began the con struction of the fortress of Jesus of Mombasa, and established the Mombasa captaincy which extended frora Cape Delgado to Malindi, The following half-century marks the height of Portu guese influence on this part of the coast. Traders and missionaries were established at Zanzibar and other points. Most of the native rulers paid tribute, and all trading dhows were forced to call at Mombasa and Patta to pay the customs. However, even at this period, Mohammedan civilization was far too strongly established on the Swahili HISTORY 445 coast to admit of Portuguese colonization such as we find south of Cape Delgado, * The Interior : The Kingdom of the Monomotapa and the Gold Trade The history of the Portuguese occupation of the interior of East Africa is almost entirely concerned with their relations with the different branches of the great Makalanga or Makaranga tribe which at that tirae dorainated almost the entire hinterland frora the Zambezi to the Lirapopo, Apart from this, their dealings with the natives were confined to the coastal trading dep6ts at Querimba and Ibo, at Inhambane and at Delagoa Bay ; while on the coast of Mozambique even this activity was absent. All the Makalanga clans were originally united in one confederation under the supremacy of the Monomotapa, the * emperor ' of the Portuguese historians, whose power was founded on the possession of the gold workings of Manica and Rhodesia and on the gold trade with the Arabs of Sofala. Although their attainments as miners, metalworkers and builders were remarkably high for a negro people, their social organization and religion were typically Bantu, During the Arab period by far the greater part of the gold came down from the interior by the valleys of the Sabi and Buzi, although the Arabs also had a settlement on the Zambezi near Sena, but about the tirae of the coming of the Portuguese, changes in the interior entirely altered the conditions of the trade, and ¦their establishment at Sofala proved a disappointraent frora the beginning. The district of Butua In southern Rhodesia, which the Portuguese called ' the mother of gold ', was lost to the Monomotapa about this time, and this explains the abandonment of Great Zimbabwe and the removal of 446 HISTORY the royal kraal northwards to the Zlrabao^ of the Portu guese writers, Coramunication with the interior was still further interrupted about 1560 by the setting up of an independent kingdora under the Kiteve between Manica and Sofala, These, however, were not the only difliculties in the way of the Sofala trade : the Portuguese restrictions on coraraerce and their repressive policy towards the Arabs had thoroughly alienated these natural Intermediaries between Europeans and natives. Many of them had fled into the interior where they used their influence with the natives to stir up hostility against the Portuguese, First Portuguese Attempts to penetrate the Interior. — The Portuguese turned their attention to the alternative route — the Zambezi — at a comparatively early date. The first attempt to found a station on the river was in 1513, and In 1531 Vicente Pegado succeeded in establishing the ' fair ' of Sena; the ' fair ' of Tete was founded soon after wards, and the factory at Quelimane dates from 1544. These fairs were probably not permanent settlements, and the occupation of the Zambezi region really dates only from the expedition to 1571-2, which was the first serious attempt of the Portugese in East Africa to penetrate the interior. This departure frora the original Portuguese policy of maritime supremacy and coastal occupation was due to Dom Sebastian's ambition to found an African erapire, an arabition which also caused the occupation of Angola and the disastrous crusade in Morocco, The expedition of conquest which he planned, however, was unfortunate, and no decisive action was attempted against the Mono motapa, but an agreeraent was made with hira by which he proraised to open the gold trade to the Portuguese, to banish the Mohammedans from his territory, and to receive Christian raissionarles, A similar treaty was con cluded with the chief of Manica, Portuguese Establishments in the Interior. — In spite HISTORY 447 of its misfortunes the expedition seems to have succeeded in establishing Portuguese influence in the Zambezi region, Tn 1586 Sena and Tete were good-sized settle ments, each possessing a church and a stone fort, Sena was then a place of more importance than Sofala, and was the distributing centre for the trade goods sent by Queli mane from the royal warehouses at Mozambique, Tete was the headquarters for the trade with the Monomotapa, which passed up the Ruenya and Mazoe to three stations in the interior, Luanze, Bocuto and Masapa. At the last of these resided the ' Captain of the Gates ' who possessed authority over all the Portuguese in the Monomotapa's country. During this period the Dominican missionaries were established in East Africa. The convent at Mozambique was founded in 1577, and soon afterwards Sena, Tete and Sofala were occupied. The missions at Querimba and Ibo were founded by Dos Santos and his corapanions in 1593, No perraanent mission existed at this time In the Mono motapa's territory, but a friar from Tete sometiraes visited the three Portuguese trading stations. Conquest of the Monomotapa. — Frora 1570 onward the settleraents along the Zarabezi and northward along the coast to Kilwa and Morabasa were almost over whelmed by invading cannibal hordes known as Mazimbas and Murabos, and peace was only concluded In 1592 on the basis of an understanding that the Mazimbas should be left unmolested. Meanwhile the influence of the Portuguese in the territory of the Monomotapa was growing. Early in the seventeenth century the Portu guese of Tete went to the assistance of the Monomotapa Gazilusere, who was hard pressed by invasion and the revolt of his chiefs, Tn 1607, influenced by Madeira, he made a solemn casion of all the mines in his territory to the King of Portugal on condition that he received help to regain his power. On hearing of this agreement the 448 HISTORY king determined to make a serious effort to occupy the Monomotapa's country, and to work the silver mines which were reported to exist at Chicova (Chikoa), and he ordered an expedition to be- dispatched from India. The Monomotapa was easily reinstated, but his attitude to the Portuguese subsequently became hostile, and little was accomplished by the ' Captains General of the Conquest ' who succeeded one another rapidly between 1608 and 1622. The most interesting episode during this period is the journey accomplished by Gaspar Bocarro from Chicova to Kilwa, in the course of which he crossed the south-east end of Lake Nyasa and the livers Luambala and Rovuma. In 1622 the governor was ordered to find out if there was a route to Abyssinia, where the Portuguese were then at the height of theii' power, by way of the great lake that Bocarro had discovered. The actual conquest of the Monomotapa was accom plished by the Portuguese settlers without rauch help from Europe, In 1628 the Portuguese of Sena and Tete went to the help of their compatriots at Luanze and Masapa who had been attacked by the Monomotapa Kapranzine, The latter was defeated and replaced by his relative Manuza, who was friendly to the Portuguese. On May 24, 1629, the new ruler acknowledged himself a vassal of the King of Portugal, and agreed to all the conditions of the Portu guese — the opening of the country to commerce, the expulsion of the Mohammedans, and facilities for working gold mines and estabhshing missions, A few months afterwards he himself became a Christian, The chief of Manica, who had joined Kapranzine, was conquered, and a new chief was set up who was a Christian and a vassal of Portugal, Manuza's successor in 1652 also becarae a Christian, as did the Kiteve and the chief of Barue, and baptism HISTORY 449 became a necessary condition of succession and a pledge of Portuguese supremacy. Height of Portuguese Infiuence in the Interior, 1630-90, — The next twenty years were undoubtedly the most flourishing period of Portuguese dominion in East Africa, Even up to the end of the seventeenth century, it remained the richest and most prosperous of the Portuguese possessions in the East, In 1694, at the time of the war with Changamira, which marks the end of this period, the Viceroy wrote tbat in all the East the king had no dominion so useful as that of the rivers of Sena, and that the State of India was totally dependent on it. Unfortunately there is an almost complete lack of records of this period. Tt was during this period that the system of prazos received its greatest extension. Throughout the Zambezi region Portuguese ' conquerors ' took the place of the native chiefs, and a class grew up possessing vast estates and absolute power over their native subjects. In 1667 the whole of the territory frora the Zarabezi to an imaginary line from Chikoa to Sofala was said to be occupied in this way. In theory they held their prazos on a feudal tenure under the Captains of the Rivers and ultimately the Governor of Mozambique, but their power partook far more of the nature of a tribal chieftain ship than anything to be found elsewhere. It is obvious that the administration of Mozambique with its slender resources was quite unable to cope with subjects who possessed their own armies and raade wars of conquest on their own account, but It was by these adventurers, as we have seen, that the Monoraotapa had been conquered, and it was due to them that Portuguese influence was afterwards carried far into the interior. The greatest curse of the prazo system, however, was that the whole circumstances of their position tended to barbarize the prazo-holders and to debase their blood, so that the able p,i:.A, S I 450 HISTORY European adventurers of whom Barreto writes eventually degenerated Into the Bongas and Kanyembas of Zambezi in the nineteenth century. The greatest of the Portuguese ' conquerors' of this epoch seems to have been Sisnando DIas BaySo, who won the great prazo of Gobira from the Kiteve and subdued the natives of Mount Morumbala, the most warlike people of Zarabezia. When he was Captain of the Rivers he undertook the conquest of Butua (Matabeleland), the raost distant expedition ever raade by the Portuguese in East Africa, but on his way back to Sena he is said to have been poisoned by jealous rivals, and on his death the garrisons were withdrawn from his forts in Butua and the conquest was abandoned. The greatest diflficulty of the Portuguese authorities was caused by the prazo-holders of Manica and the Mono motapa's country, who were- independent of any control. According to Barreto they were more powerful than the Monomotapa, and in Manica possessed more lands than the chief himself. Barreto in his report presses on the government the necessity of conquering the whole of the Monomotapa's country and afterwards of Butua, and so establishing effective control, but the Portuguese govern ment in the later seventeenth century did not possess the enterprise or the resources of Dom Sebastian and the Spanish kings, and the question of the independent prazo- holders was ingloriously solved by ibrclng them to with draw from the Monomotapa's country, a measure which greatly weakened the influence of the Portuguese in the Interior, as well as injuring the gold trade. Finally, towards the end of the Seventeenth century, a new power — that of Changamlia — grew up in Butua, In 1693 an attack was made on the Portuguese settle ments of the Interior, and the raost important of thera, Dambarare, was destroyed and the Inhabitants massacred, Manica was destroyed two years later and Sena itself was HISTORY 451 threatened. This marks the end of Portuguese political influence beyond the present boundaries of their territory, for though Dambarare and Manica were re-established for a time, and though the Monomotapa remained de pendent on the Portuguese, the independent and generally hostile power of Changaraira was doralnant throughout Mashonaland, In the course of the eighteenth century the Monomotapa lost all influence In the interior, and retained only the district of Chldima south of the Zambezi from Tete to Zumbo, where he had his Zimbao^ not far from Chikoa, His descendants still ruled there in de pendence on the Portuguese as late as the nineteenth century, the last of them being a relative of Bonga, These changes brought a corresponding alteration in the Portuguese trade with the interior. Instead of following a route south from Tete to the old Portuguese stations of the Mazoe— Ruenya region, Chikoa and Zumbo becarae the starting-points of a trade into Changamira's country. This trade seems to have been carried on by the slaves and agents of the merchants rather than by the Portuguese themselves. During this period slaves had begun to take the place of gold as the chief article of coraraerce in East Africa, and henceforward the attention of the Portuguese trader was turned to the country north of the Zambezi rather than to Mashonaland. The post of Manica, Masikesi, which was re-established ih 1719, alone remained of the old stations in the gold country. Thus the Portuguese penetration of Mashonaland was practically confined to the seventeenth century, and was just beginning to decline when Barreto wrote in 1667, During that century the gold trade and missionary enter prise were alike at their height, Barreto estimates the annual export of gold at 3,500 pastas (about 60,000 oz^) of which 500 pastas only carae frora Manica, Sofala^ and the rest from the Monomotapa's country by way of the Zambezi. Alcagova, writing to the king from Sofala in F f 2 452 HISTORY 1506, reported the export under the Arabs to be almost a million miticals (170,372 oz,) and sometimes as much as 1,300,000 miticals ; and however much this figure is exaggerated, it is probable that the production of ^ gold in the Portuguese period was considerably less than it had been during the most flourishing period of Arab trade, Barreto attributes the falling-off In the yield to the conduct of the Portuguese, Wherever a mine was discovered some Portuguese or Goanese would appear with his people and his slaves, dispossessing the chief of the land and forcing the natives to labour for his profit. The gold of the Monomotapa's country was considered better than that of Manica, and a good morondo or shaft would yield in all as mueh as 1,00.0-3,000 pastas (17,000-51,000 oz,). The natives had no raethod of dealing with the flooding of mines, and many lives were lost yearly through the collapse of shafts. In Manica the best gold came from the river washings. The export of gold from Changa mira's country in the eighteenth century is said to have amounted to 600 pastas a year, but communication with this distant region became increasingly difficult, and in 1806 the total expoit of gold from Mozambique only amounted to 67 pastas (1,024 oz,). The raost important Portuguese settlement in the gold region was Dambarare, which is said to have been seven days' distance from Masikesi, and fourteen from Tete, and is generally placed on the Panyame or one of its tributaries. Three days beyond Dambarare to the west was Quitamburvizi, the most distant of the Portuguese settlements. The old posts of Masapa, Luanze and Bocuto were all situated in the Mazoe-Inyadiri— Ruenya region, Luanze being said to be thirty-five leagues south of Tete, Masapa ^ and Bocuto respectively fifty and forty ^ Masapa is sometimes placed on modern Portuguese maps near Inyanga, which on that assumption would have been the Mono motapa's Zimbao6, HISTORY 453 leagues frora Tete either to the south or south-west. It is fairly clear that the country of the Monomotapa as the Portuguese knew it extended from the Zambezi between Tete and Zumbo to the Sabi-Zambezi water-parting. The Maungo or Makoni district seems to have been outside the Portuguese sphere of influence, and Barreto states that the Mohammedans, whom the Portuguese had expelled from the Monomotapa country, had taken refuge there. Apart frora the enterprise of Sisnando Dias, there is no evidence of Portuguese relations with Butua before the power of Changamira was established there, and the trade for gold with the latter in the eighteenth century seems to have been carried on by the slaves or agents of the traders rather than by the Portuguese themselves. The centre of Changamira's power seems to have been at Dhlo Dhlo and Khami in Matabeleland, and if there are evi dences of Portuguese occupation at Khami and Selukwe, these are raore likely to be relics of the eighteenth-century traders than of Portuguese missionaries, who probably never penetrated beyond the settlements in the Mono motapa's country. The missionary relics found at Dhlo Dhlo together, with two small Portuguese cannon may well have formed part of the spoils of Dambarare, which Changamira sacked in 1693, In the early part of the eighteenth century many Portuguese were captured by Changamira In the wars with the Monomotapa, and in 1737 the Ecclesiastical Administrator negotiated through the Monoraotapa for their ransom. Missions. — Churches in charge of Dominican missionaries were to be found at Dambarare, at the Monomotapa's Zimbaoe and at most of the Portuguese stations in the interior. The Jesuits had been established at Mozam bique and at Sena, Tete and other places on the Zambezi since early in the seventeenth century, and had consider able influence on the adrainistration of Mozarabique, but the Dominicans possessed a monopoly Of the missions of 454 HISTORY the interior and greatly resented any interference/from without. The Administrator of Mozambique, who had charge of the ecclesiastical government of the whole of East Africa, was generally a Dominican. There was a large hospital at Mozambique.. The conditions of life in East Africa seera to have exercised the sarae deteriorating influence on the rais- sionaries. as on the rest of the Portuguese settleraents, and during the eighteenth century the Ecclesiastical Ad ministrator and the Government were constantly engaged in a struggle to enforce discipline on the Dominicans. The Jesuits, however, maintained a higher standard, and the expulsion of their Society by Pombal in 1757 was a severe blow to the Portuguese settlements on the Zambezi. The dissolution of the religious orders was undoubtedly an iraportant factor in the decline of Portuguese influence in East Africa at the beginning of the nineteenth century. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Portuguese, like the Arabs, had united religious propaganda with conquest, and the disappearance of the missions destroyed one of the strongest foundations of Portuguese prestige and influence among the natives, Portuguese Loss of Sea-power. — Although the seven teenth century saw the greatest expansion of Portuguese power on the Zambezi, it saw also the loss of their power on the Indian Ocean, The English and Dutch proved more formidable enemies than Arabs or Turks, and quickly destroyed the Portuguese command of the sea on which their Eastern empire had rested. The Dutch attempts to capture Mozambique in 1604, 1607 and 1608, however, were completely unsuccessful, owing to the gallant resistance of the small Portuguese garrison. In 1622 an irreparable loss was inflicted on Portugal by the capture of Ormuz by Shah Abbas with the help of English ships. In spite of this, Portugal made a desperate efibrt to retain control of the Persian Gulf through her HISTORY . 455 remaining fortresses, but the rising power of Oman drove her from one place after another, and In 1650 Muscat, the last Portuguese fortress on the coast, fell into the hands ofthe Imam. Henceforward the Portuguese possessions on either shore of the Indian Ocean were never safe from attack. The situation in East Africa was particularly dangerous, owing to the traditional connexion of the Swahili coast with Arabia arid to the hostility of the Moslem population towards the sraall Portuguese garrisons. In 1631 the Sultan of Mombasa had treacherously massacred the garrison of the fortress, and aided by the sheikh of Patta had headed a general rising against the Portuguese, The re-establishment of Portuguese authority did not take place until 1636-7, when Francisco de Seixas de Cabreira, after restoring the fortress of Mombasa, punished Patta, Sio and Pemba for their share in the rising and imposed tribute on Manda, Otondo, Luziwa and Jacca. Faza, the neighbour and rival of -Patta, together with Zanzibar,^ reraained on specially good terras with the Portuguese, and their rulers alone favoured the establishment of Christian missions. After the loss of Muscat, Cabreira was sent to Morabasa for the second time in order to oppose the attacks of the Oman Arabs, who In 1652 destroyed the Portuguese settlement at Zanzibar ', and he succeeded in reducing Zanzibar and Pemba to obedience. During the following years the attacks of the Arabs grew more frequent, and in 1660 they took Faza and besieged the fortress of Morabasa for a considerable time. In 1669 Mozambique itself was attacked during the absence of the greater part of the garrison on the Zambezi, aud the Arabs were only beaten off with great diflficulty. Although the fortress of Mombasa remained Portuguese, and the Swahili tovv'ns were still nominally subject to Portugal, her control of the coast was gone, and it is 456 . HISTORY improbable that any of the sraall Portuguese settlements, save perhaps that at Faza, survived. Throughout this period Patta was the chief centre of disaffection and was continually in relations with Oman. The town was besieged and captured by the Portuguese both in 1678 and in 1687, but in each case the arrival of a fleet from Muscat soon brought the Portuguese occupa tion to an end. Loss of Mombasa. — In the spring of 1696 the Arabs undertook the great siege of Mombasa which gave the final blow to Portuguese sovereignty north of Cape Del gado, The besieging forces wei'e not formidable and the garrison was thrice relieved, but no atterapt was made to drive off the Arabs, and after eighteen months the place was finally storraed (Deceraber 1698). Owing to the weakness of the government and the disorganization of the navy no effective steps were taken to retrieve this disaster until 1727. In that year the sheikh of Patta had taken advantage of the civil war among the Oman Arabs to revolt against his new masters, and he appealed for help to the Portuguese. Tn 1728 a large expedition from Goa arrived at Mora basa, and in a shoi't time the whole coast from Brava to Zanzibar had once more made submission to the Portu guese, A garrison was installed at Mombasa and the construc tion of a fort was begun at Patta, but after a few months trouble once more broke out, and in the autumn of 1729 the Portuguese withdrew to Mozambique, This episode marks the end of Portuguese dominion on the Swahili coast, and in spite of a half-hearted attempt against Mombasa In 1769-70, the clairas of the Imam of Muscat and his representative at Zanzibar came to be tacitly admitted. By the beginning of the seventeenth century Cape Delgado was declared by the Portuguese HISTORY 457 Government to be the northern limit of its sove- reighty.i Portuguese Trade. — The commercial decline of Por tugal during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was even more serious than her territorial losses. The value of the Portuguese trade with the East depended on its being a rigid monopoly, and when this had been broken down by the rivalry of the Dutch and English the economic basis of the Portuguese Erapire disappeared. By the end of the seventeenth century East Africa and to a less extent Tiraor and Solor were the only profitable possessions left to Portugal. In the early days of the Portuguese occupation, trade in East Africa had been carried on as a royal monopoly by means of the King's factors. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, the practice grew up of farming this monopoly to the captain of Mozambique, and at one time his agents conducted the whole East African trade including that of the Mombasa district. The usual practice, however, seems to have been that the captain of Mozambique monopolized the commerce of the Zarabezi and aU the country to the south : the captain of Mombasa possessed a similar monopoly in his government, and an indeterminate area of the intervening coast was open to private merchants. No trade was open to foreigners, or even to Portuguese from outside the state of India. Enormovis profits were realized by governors in this way, and the captaincy of Mozambique was one of the posts raost sought after in the whole state of India. At the end of the sixteenth century the yearly payment made by the captain of Mozambique amounted to 50,000 cruzados (about £19,500), or 150,000 cruzados for the three years' term of ofifice, while the profits were said to ^ This is first definitely stated in the agreement between Portugal and Great Britain in 1817. Hertslet, Map of Africa hy Treaty, iii, no. 298. 458 HISTORY araount to £77,000-92,000 for the whole term. The government seeras to have found this arrangeraent a bad bargain, and an unsuccessful attempt was made in 1595 to throw open the East African trade and to raise revenue for the Government by customs. Tn 1672 this experi ment was repeated on a larger scale, and the trade was even declared open to Portuguese of Portugal, Angola and Brazil. The administration of the Zambezi trade, however, was entrusted to a council of commerce at Goa, which also possessed a general control of the government of Mozambique, and comraerce was probably as rigidly raonopolized as before. In a few years the council of coramerce was hopelessly in debt, and in 1681 its affairs had to be wound up. In 1682 the trade of the rivers was opened to private merchants in earnest, and custom houses were established at Mozambique where a duty of 20 per cent, was charged on all merchandise. In consequence of this, a great number of Banyan traders established themselves in East Africa, and the Portuguese merchants found themselves unable to raaintain them selves. To reraedy this state of affairs comraerce was closed again, and trade was carried on by the royal government through a council of adrainistration at Mozam bique, . In 1697 the Viceroy of India made an effort to restore Portuguese comraerce by the foundation of the Corapany of India, an imitation of the great chartered companies of Holland, England, and France, It was to possess a raonopoly of the trade of East Africa as well as of Macao, Tiraor, Solor, and the Portuguese possessions in North west India, but it conflicted with so many vested interests that after three years it was dissolved and the trade of East Africa was once more carried on by the royal treasury. After 1755 trade was finally thrown open to Portuguese merchants of India, though it was still carried on mainly by the royal officials. At this time the^ HISTORY 459 Portuguese had entirely lost tlie trade vi^ith their former possessions north of Cape Delgado which was in the hands of the French, who had an important factory at Kilwa, and the authorities were almost powerless to prevent illicit trading south of that point by French, English, and Dutch vessels. As Portuguese influence in the interior declined, ivory took the place of gold as the most important article of trade throughout East Africa, Amber, wax, and pearls were the other chief exports. The traffic in slaves had gone on from tirae imraeraorial in East Africa ; but It does not seem to have been a great source of wealth to the Portuguese during early times, since East Africa was not able to compete with Guinea and Angola for the American markets, and the prohibitions of the Inquisition interfered with the sale of slaves to the Arabs and Persians, In 1644 during the Dutch occupation of Angola, an attempt was made to start a trade to Brazil, and during the eighteenth century considerable numbers of slaves were exported to the French plantations of Bourbon and Isle de France ; but the golden age of the East African slave trade did not corae before the nineteenth century. Tn the early period the Queriraba Islands seem to have been the chief market for slaves. The Period oe Decline The decay of Portuguese prosperity in East Africa foUowed naturally upon the decline of Portuguese power in India and the East. When Goa was the centre of a powerful and wealthy erapire, Mozambique shared its political and economic life. With the decay of Portuguese India, East Africa became isolated and the small Portu guese population was swamped by the surrounding barbarism. 460 HISTORY The social and commercial connexion with Goa con tinued, but henceforward it was an added cause of weak ness. Formerly the European Portuguese, though always few in number, were emphatically the ruling class. In the eighteenth century the Goanese or Kanarins not only outnumbered the Europeans, but by commerce and intrigue, and by marriages with the heiresses of prazos, became the dominant element In the country. The colour bar, never very strong, disappeared entirely, and the Portuguese-speaking population, especially in Zambezia, became a raixture of Eurasian and mulatto in which the European strain was by no means dominant,^ The political connexion of East Africa with Goa came to an end in 1752, when Mozambique became a separate Government under a Captain General who had the same status as the governors of Angola and Rio de Janeiro. Portuguese control over the natives steadily declined during the eighteenth century. In 1753 the garrison of Mozambique was almost annihilated In a war with the Makwa on the adjacent mainland. The prazo-holders also continued to be a source of difficulty to the govern ment, and they caused serious risings on the Zambezi in the early part of the century. The isolation and commercial decline of East Africa carae to a cliraax in the early years of the nineteenth century when the French invasion and subsequently the ^ A threefold division of the population was current in East Africa : — (1) Gente de Chapeu (men of the Hat) : whites, half-castes and Kanarins (i, e. Christian natives of Portuguese India), (2) Gente de Touca (men of the Turban) : Banyans (i, e, Hindus), Indian Muslim and Monhes (i. e. Arabs or Swahili), (3) Negro slaves. The half-castes were known in Zambezia as musungos : and at Ibo and Mozambique as filhos da terra. HISTORY 461 civil war absorbed the whole energies of the raother country. Portuguese trade had suffered heavily throughout the eighteenth century frora the attacks of French and English pirates from Madagascar, and at the beginning of the nineteenth century the coasting trade was almost com pletely destroyed by French privateers. At the same time the Cabo Delgado district suffered so severely from Sakalave raiders from Madagascar and from the attacks of the Makwa that the Portuguese were forced to abandon their settlements in the Querimba Islands, with the exception of the fortified town of Ibo, All observers of East Africa during this period agree In describing the state of the Portuguese settlements as appalling. The European troops at Mozambique were habitually unfit for service owing to sickness. The only effective force both at Mozambique and on the Zambezi consisted of a black militia officered by half-castes, which was often mutinous. The prazo-holders had each his armed guard of cipaes — slaves used only for war — but these Irregular forces were useless to the government and fatal to any attempt to preserve order in Zambezia. A deleterious element had been added to the population since the middle of the eighteenth century by the deportation of convicts to East Africa. The political disturbances in the mother country and in Brazil also produced their effects in Africa, On several occasions between 1820 and 1840 the inhabitants of Mozarabique rose against the governor, and there were periods of rule by juntas and provisional governments. Apart frora the slave traffic trade was non-existent, and East Africa had becorae a heavy burden on the impoverished Portuguese exchequer. Under these circumstances It is not surprising that the decree of 1836 for the abolition of the slave trade met with nothing but resistance in East Africa and was habitually disregarded by both tlie 462 HISTORY administration and the people. The interests of the inhabitants were bound up with two barbarous Institutions, slavery and the prazos ; and the efforts of the Portuguese government to abolish them both inevitably produced disaffection among the powerful half-castes of Zambezia. The Bonga War One of the disturbances arising from this cause, the war of Bonga, assuraed very serious proportions, and had a disastrous effect on the whole life of the province for more than a quarter of a century, A half-caste named Joaquim Jose da Cruz or Nyaude built a strong aringa at Masangano between the Ruenya and the Zambezi, and thence levied toll on all traffic that went up the river to Tete. All attempts to dislodge him failed, and in 1853, when the forces of Tete were attacking his stronghold, by sending his son Antonio Vicente or Bonga up the-opposite bank of the Zambezi he succeeded in destroying the town of Tete with the excep tion of the church and the port. This son, Bonga, proved an even worse rebel than his father. At first the govern ment attempted to conciliate him, and he was appointed sargento-mor of Masangano, When this proved useless, strong measures were taken to subdue him, with disastrous results. In 1867 the Governor of Tete was killed in an attack on Masangano, and In the same year a large expedition from Mozambique was routed. Finally in 1869 a strong force was dispatched, consisting of two batteries of artillery and battalions of Portuguese infantry, but the expedition was misraanaged and the attack on Masangano ended in a rout — perhaps the worst blow that the prestige of Portugal has ever suffered in Africa. Henceforward Bonga ruled the country between Tete and Lupata Gorge without serious opposition till his death in 1885 when he was succeeded by hl^ 'brother. . Three HISTORY 463 years later the stronghold of Masangano was, • captured by the cipaes of Gouveia, and the chief members of the Bonga clan were deported from East Africa. The Gaza Invasion The final blow to the prosperity of Mozambique was given by the great Gaza invasions which took place between 1830 and 1860, In the early part ofthe nineteenth century several tribes of Zulu stock broke away frora the tyranny of Chaka and Dingaan and spread in all direc^- tions over South-east Africa, One of these bodies under Moselekatse (UrasilikazI) founded the Matabele nation and raided throughout the interior of Mashonaland, thus finally putting an end to the wall-building and raining of the tribes formerly subject to Changamira, Another body under Manikusa (Sotshangana) had entered Tongaland early in the century, but pursued by the impis of Chaka they afterwards crossed the Komati and established thera selves in Bilene. It was not iintll 1833 that they came into serious collision with the Portuguese, In that year they attacked the fort at Lourenzo Marques, and raassacred its garrison. In 1834 Inhambane met with the same fate, and in 1836 Sofala was attacked. Here the fort succeeded in holding out, but soon afterwards, when the commandant went to the aid of a friendly tribe, the whole force was destroyed by the Vatua, The prazos to the south of the Zambezi were overrun and Sena itself was occupied, although here the inhabitants ultimately bought off' the Invaders by the payment of an annual ransom which con tinued up to 1868, From Bilene Manikusa's hordes penetrated the interior as far as the Mossurise district at the sources of the Buzi. Here they came Into collision with their kindred the Angoni, whom they drove northward across the Zambezi to their present horae west and south-west of Lake Nyasa. 464 HISTORY On the west and north-west their raids extended into Mashonaland as far as the Sabi and the Mazoe, beyond whkh lay the raiding grounds of their kindred the Mata bele, Thus between 1830 and 1858 the whole country south of the Zambezi was laid waste. The native popula tion was slaughtered mercilessly. The Portuguese barely succeeded in repelling further attacks on the forts at Lourenzo Marques and Sofala, and at Inhambane two commandants were successively killed in battle. The prazos south of the Zambezi were either abandoned or ransomed like Sena by an annual tribute. At the death of Manikusa in 1859 a party among the Gaza favoured his son Umzila (Muzila) In preference to the actual successor Mauheva, who hke his father Mani kusa was a fierce enemy of the Portuguese. In 1861 Umzila appealed to the governor of Lourenzo Marques for aid, offering to cede all the lands south of the Komati and to recognize Portuguese sovereignty. The governor accordingly called out the tribes under Portuguese influence and provided Umzila's followers with powder and arms, and with this help Mauheva was defeated In August 1862, and Umzila was recognized as chief of the Gaza, The new chief was loyal to his promises, and did horaage to the governor for his kingdora, but although he reraained friendly to the Portuguese, he continued to raid and raise tribute throughout the country between the Zambezi and the Komati, and north-west as far as the Sabi and Mazoe, which he considered that he had inherited from his father. He removed the royal kraal from Chai- mite on the lower Limpopo to the district of Mossurise on the upper Buzi, where it remained until 1889, Umzila died in 1883 or 1884 and was succeeded by his sou Gungunyana or Medungazl. HISTORY 465 TJie Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century Throughout this period the slave trade continued to flourish : indeed native wars and the decay of the Portu guese settlements favoured its growth. In the eighteenth century East Africa does not seem to have been able to compete successfully with the west coast in the American raarkets. Even in 1809 Lord Caledon reported that only four ships were engaged in the trade between East Africa and Brazil and that their cargoes had often to be sold at a loss at Rio de Janeiro or Montevideo, But after the Congress of Vienna, when the trade on the west coast became increasingly difficult and the profits on a single voyage were enormous, Portuguese East Africa became one of the most important sources of supply. As the prazos became deserted under the stress of the Gaza invasion, It becarae more profitable for the holders to sell off the inhabitants of their prazos than to attempt to keep up cultivation, and thus agriculture and popula tion still further declined. The half-castes of Zambezia carried their raids far into the interior by way of the Zambezi and its tributaries, until on the north the field of their operations touched that of the Arabs and Yao. The latter controlled the great slave routes which ran from Lake Nyasa to Ibo and farther north to Kilwa, and there was also a considerable traffic in Arab hands from the interior of the Mozambique district to Angoche, Moma, and other points northward to Cape Delgado, By the British-Portuguese treaty of 1815 and its addi tional article of 1817 Portuguese subjects were prohibited from trading in slaves north of the equator. The slave trade in the Portuguese possessions of Angola and Mozambique, however, was recognized as legitimate until P.E.A. G g 466 HISTORY 1823 1 when it was to cease entirely, Great Britain paying £300,000 in compensation. In spite of this treaty the export of slaves from the Portuguese possessions in Africa was only forbidden by Portuguese law in 1836, and the operation of even this decree was suspended by the Governor of Mozambique on the plea of absolute necessity. A correspondence with the British Governinent followed, and in 1842 a further treaty was signed which declared the slave trade in Portuguese possessions as well as on the high seas to be illegal and piratical. A squadron of cruisers was stationed on the East coast by the British Governraent in order to repress the traffic, but it continued to flourish for raany years and the Portuguese authorities took no very active steps to suppress it. The denunciations of Livingstone between 1857 and 1865 probably did more than anything else to arouse public opinion and stimulate governmental activity both in England and Portugal, The Beginnings of Colonial Refokm After the firm establishment of the constitutional regime in Portugal, attempts began to be raade by the Government to check the progress of decay in the East African colonies. In 1851 a new government department, the Conselho Ultraraarlno, was founded at Lisbon, and under the inspiration of the Marquis Sa da Bandeira numerous measures of colonial reform were introduced. In 1853 East Africa was at last thrown open to inter national trade under a preferential tariff by which Portu guese goods paid a duty of 4 per cent, and foreign goods 12 per cent. By the former tariff established in 1811 foreign goods were only adraitted if carried on Portuguese vessels. ' This term was subsequently prolonged to 1830. HISTORY 467 In 1854 the prazos da coroa were abolished, and reforms were introduced to promote the settlement of these lands by free negro cultivators. Such a revolutionary change could not be carried through by the weak " provincial administration, and the old Institutions continued under the forms of the new law, or even in open defiance of it. Important judicial reforms were enacted In the same year, and in 1856 a provincial council was set up to which Tete and the other Portuguese settlements sent repre sentatives, but this measure, like Sa da Bandelra's attempts to found an agricultural colony at Pemba Bay and a military colony on the Zambezi, was quite unsuited to the undeveloped state of the province at that period. The Delagoa Bay Question Early Portuguese Relations with Delagoa Bay. — Portuguese relations with the coast territory south of Sofala were very slow in developing. Under the condi tions of Portuguese colonization there was not sufficient population or wealth to attract settlement. The ivory trade, however, was important, and after Lourenzo Marques had first visited Delagoa Bay in 1544, a yearly pangaio (ship) was generally sent from Mozambique to trade with the natives at that place and at Inhambane. Factories existed on Inyack Island and at Inhambane, but these were only occupied during the visits of the merchants, and there were no permanent settlements. Owing to its distance from Mozambique, Delagoa Bay became frequented by pirates from Madagascar and illicit traders of many nationalities. Thus when the pangaio arrived in 1685, her master found trade to be Impossible, owing to the presence of five English ships whose captains had bought up all the ivory and amber on the coast. On his return to Mozambique, it was debated by the governor G g 2 468 HISTORY and his council whether the trade to Delagoa Bay should be given up, but It was decided that the pangaio should continue to be sent regardless of financial profit lest the English should make Portuguese neglect an excuse for annexing the bay. When the Dutch ship Noord surveyed Delagoa Bay in 1688, she found there both the Portuguese pangaio and an English ship. The English had established themselves on onfe of the islands, while the Portuguese had a trading place at the mouth of the Manisa River. Eventually, however, the attacks of pirates forced the Portuguese to abandon the trade, and it remained unoccupied by them until the latter part of the eighteenth century. In 1721 it carae to the know ledge of the Portuguese Governraent that the English Bast India Company was preparing to establish a factory there. A formal protest was sent to the British Govern ment affirming that Delagoa Bay had always been regarded as part of the Portuguese dominions, and a frigate was put under orders to sail for Delagoa Bay and expel the intruders. It appears that the East India Company yielded, if indeed It had ever entertained the project, and the frigate was never dispatched. Yet In the same year a factory and fort were established by the Dutch on the site of the present town of Lourenzo Marques and were occupied by thera until 1730 apparently without any opposition being made by the Portuguese. In 1727 a Dutch ship was even sent from Delagoa Bay to trade at Inhambane, but on a second visit in 1728 it raet -with opposition on the part of Portuguese officials, and when two ships from Table Bay visited the place in 1731 they found that a small fort had been established and the arrival of a Portuguese war vessel forced them to with draw without doing any trade, Delagoa Bay was next occupied in 1776 by an Austrian expedition sent out by the Asiatic Company of Trieste under the command of an Englishman named Bolts, HISTORY 469 Posts were established on Inyack Island and on the Maputo River, but the Inyack post was destroyed by the natives and the expedition suffered heavily from fever. In 1781 the Portuguese Government dispatched a frigate which seized the Austrian ships, destroyed the fort, and made the remaining survivors of the expedition prisoners. The Austrian Government protested against this drastic behaviour, but did not contest the fact of Portuguese sovereignty. In consequence of this expedition the Portu guese Government in 1782 decided to establish a fort, but it was five years before this was carried into effect. This seems to be the beginning of permanent Portuguese occupation : earlier mentions of a fort at Inyack probably refer to the factory occasionaUy occupied by Portuguese traders. The new fort was placed in the north bank of the Espirito Santo River where the town of Lourenzo Marques now stands. It was destroyed by the French in 1796, but was restored in 1799. During these years the bay was much resorted to by whalers mostly of British nationality, and in 1817 the Portuguese attempted to establish a company to exploit the whale fishery. The experiment, however, did not prove successful, and a Commercial Company which existed from 1824-35 and possessed a monopoly of the trade of the bay was also a failure, Capt Owen's Visits.— hi September 1822 Capt, W, F, Owen, R.N., arrived at Delagoa Bay charged with a mission of survey and exploration on the East African coast. He was provided with credentials fiom the Portuguese Government which he presented to the com mandant of the fort. The latter, however, Informed him that he had no control over the neighbouring tribes and that Capt, Owen must depend on his own resources. The fort did in fact exist entirely for purposes of trade and there had probably been no attempt to subdue the native tribes ; at the tirae of Owen's visit, however, the country 470 HISTORY was especially disturbed by the first incursions of the Vatuas, a large body of whom were encamped near Delagoa Bay, Finding this to be the state of affairs Owen henceforward disregarded the claims of the Portu guese and treated the native chiefs as independent sovereigns. It was in these circumstances that on his return from Mozambique in the spring of 1823 he entered into relations with the chiefs of Tembe and Maputo on the south side of the bay and made the treaties which were the principal bases of the subsequent clairas of the British Government. By these documents Tembe alone was actually ceded to Great Britain (March 1823). The agreements with the chief of Maputo consisted of a Com mercial Treaty and a Treaty of Friendship aud Amity (August 1823). The value of these documents In them selves was very slight, since the conditions laid down are such as the chiefs were quite incapable of understanding, apart from the difficulties of language and expression. The real motive of the chiefs was no doubt the hope of being protected by the English against the Vatuas whom the Portuguese made no attempt to check. On the other hand Capt. Owen fully realized the importance of Delagoa Bay as the best harbour on the south- east coast of Africa. He states in his report that from it British supremacy could be extended southward over the coast of Natal, whilst if it should fall into the hands of a naval power it might prove ruinous to Cape Colony and the British trade with India. He was of opinion that the Portuguese should be forced to withdraw to the north of Cape Correntes ; but in any case the treaties with Tembe and Maputo would bring under British control the southern part of the bay as fai' as the River Espirito Santo together with Elephant Island and the peninsular island of Inyack (Inyaka). At the same time he forced the Portu guese commandant to release an English ship, the Singa pore, and to restore the cargo which had been seized. On HISTORY 471 the departure of Owen, the comraandant, Cardenas, began to take measures to counteract his agreements with the natives, and he seems to have succeeded in obtaining frora both chiefs In October 1823 declarations of their allegiance to Portugal and from the chief of Terabe a denial of any agreeraent with Owen, Meanwhile Comraodore Nourse, who was in coraraand of the Cape Station, had endorsed Owen's action, and in Noveraber 1823 he himself visited Delagoa Bay and hoisted the British flag on the shore of Tembe, Cardenas seems to have promised to abstain from interference pending further instructions from his Government, but after the departure of the English ships he resumed his measures against the natives. In December he planted the Portuguese flag in Tembe and soon afterwards he sent an' expedition against Maputo and its suzerain tribe Matolla, and inflicted considerable loss on them. On February 23, 1824, however, he was massacred with raost of the garrison of the fort whilst on his way to hoist the Portuguese flag iu the territory of Matolla. In April 1824 Capt. Owen returned to Delagoa Bay and sent a landing party to destroy the Portuguese flag and hoist the British one at Tembe, At that time the fort was in charge of a lieutenant ; soon afterwards, howevei', he was suceeded by Capt, Schmid von Belliken, who once more hoisted the Portuguese colours at Tembe, Finally, when Owen returned again to Delagoa Bay on August 28, 1825, he found that an English ship, the Eleanor, of London, had been seized by the new com mandant on the charge of illicit trading with natives on the Maputo River. Capt, Owen at once released the ship and demanded the restoration of the cargo. When this was refused he blockaded the fort and threatened to destroy It unless the commandant gave way. Von Belliken thereupon yielded and signed an agreement undertaking to abstain from all interference with British trade or with 472 HISTORY the natives of Tembe until he had received particular instructions from the Governor of Mozambique, Neither the Portuguese nor the British flag was to be hoisted at Tembe until the question had been decided by the respec tive Governments, When the Portuguese Governinent had first heard of Owen's action at Delagoa Bay, orders had been sent in May 1824 to the Portuguese rainister in London to protest against the violation of Portuguese claims, but possibly the protest was never delivered owing to changes of government in Portugal, However in June 1826 the Portuguese Minister protested to the British Government against Owen's seizure of the Eleanor, and a correspondence ensued which lasted for some years. Lord Dudley defended Owen's action on the ground that Tembe and Maputo had placed themselves under British protection, and that therefore trade between the natives and British ships was legitimate. The Marquis de Pal- mella denied the British claims absolutely and declared that the trade in which the Eleanor was engaged was contraband : but his main argument was that Owen's action was illegal in any case, as the lelease of the Eleanor was a question for the courts to decide. Thus the ques tion of the Terabe cession was not a matter discussed directly by the two governments, but was only dealt with secondarily in the discussion on the seizure of the Eleanor. The correspondence ended inconclusively with the Eevolution of 1828, During the next twenty-five years, the Portuguese south of the Zambezi were fighting for life against the great Gaza or Angoni Invasion, In 1833 the fort of Lourenzo Marques was captured and the whole of the garrison raassacred ; it was soon re-established and succeeded in holding out against further Gaza attacks. It was not till 1862, however, when Umzila, with Por tuguese help, won the chieftainship of the Gaza, that the Portuguese hold even on the coast was assured. HISTORY 473 Fortunately for thera no further action was taken during these years by the Biitish Governraent, There were rumours at Cape Town in 1855 of impending action by Sir George Gray, but nothing was actually done until 1861 when as a counter-measure to the French activities in Madagascar Captain BIckford was sent from the Cape to take possession of Inyack and Elephant Islands which he declared annexed to the colony of Natal, Nothing was done, however, regarding the Terabe and Maputo territories on the raainland. Protests were at once made by the Governor of Mozambique and the Portuguese Governraent, and further correspondence ensued. Meanwhile the Transvaal Republic had also begun to turn its eyes towards Delagoa Bay, In 1868 it had laid claira to a part of Amatongaland and to the whole course of the Maputo down to its mouth, but in the following year this claim was replaced by a commercial treaty with Portugal which established as the southern boundary of the Portuguese possessions the line of 26° 30 S, lat. from the Lebombo Mountains to the coast. Earlier in the same year the Governor of Lourenzo Marques had occupied Inyack island with a small garrison, but this was soon afterwards withdrawn in consequence of British protests. The agreement with the Transvaal forced the British Govern ment to seek a definite settlement of the Delagoa Bay question, Tn 1871 it was agreed that the dispute should be submitted to the arbitration of the President of the French Republic, and a protocol to that effect was signed on September 25, 1872, MacMahon's Arbitration ^. — The English case (pre sented in September 1873) was mainly based on Captain Owen's treaties with the chiefs of 'Tembe and Maputo. It was argued that Portuguese occupation and control had always been limited by the Dundas and English ' See Map IX, inset B. 474 HISTORY Rivers (the Umbeluzi and the Espirito Santo) and that Delagoa Bay as a whole had never been generally admitted to foi-ra part of the Portuguese dominions. It had indeed been contended by Viscount Palmella in 1827 and by Count Lavradio in 1862 that such an admission was con tained in the treaty of 1817 between Great Britain and Portugal which permitted the slave trade within the hmits of the Portuguese possessions in Africa, these being said to extend on the east coast between Cape Delgado and the Bay of Lourenzo Marques, The Biitish Government, however, argued that this did not refer to Delagoa Bay but to the small bay at the mouth of the Espirito Santo on the shore of which stands the town of Lourenzo Marques, The Portuguese case (September 1873), which was pre pared by Dr. Levy M, JordSo, was almost five times the length of the English case and in every way a more elaborate document. It gives in detail the history of the Portuguese occupation and of the various attempts that had been made by other nations to found establishments on the Bay, It bases the Portuguese claims on the titles of discovery and exploration, of occupation and possession during three centuries, and on the recognition of Portu guese sovereignty both by the native chiefs and European nations. There are many weak points in the chain of evidence. The extent of the Portuguese occupation is exaggerated, and reliance is sometimes placed on false arguments, such as that drawn from the treaty with the Monomotapa in 1631, a document which cannot possibly be made to include the Lourenzo Marques district. Never theless the English clairas, based on Owen's treaties and on the noraenclature of the bay, are refuted without difficulty. In 1874 both parties issued their replies to their opponent's case, and in September 1875 Marshal MacMahon delivered his award. He recognized, practically without HISTORY 476 exception, the justice of the. Portuguese clairas, and decided that Portuguese sovereignty should extend over the whole bay and over the Maputo country as far south as 26°30'S, lat. By the treaties of 1890 and 1891 this was further extended down to the Maputo-Pongola con fluence (26° 70' S. lat..) It Is impossible to question the justice of MacMahon's decision', Delagoa Bay had In fact always been considered as a Portuguese possession from the time of its discovery up to the nineteenth century. It Is true that there was no effective control over the natives at the tirae of Owen's visit, but the same state of things obtained throughout their nominal possessions in East Africa, and the main land within a few miles of Mozambique itself was even more unsubdued than were the shores of Delaeroa Bav, Portugal and the Partition of Africa Portuguese Explorers and Livingstone Portugal's contribution to the exploration of Central Africa was not so small as the decadent condition of her colonies would suggest. In 1798 Dr, Lacerda travelled from Tete to the Kazembe's country near Lake Mweru, and in 1830 the same journey was made by Monteiro and Garaitto, Later in the century important discoveries were made by Silva Porto and by Oapello and Ivens, all of whom crossed the continent frora Angola to Mozarabique and travelled extensively throughout south central Africa, Many distant expeditions, which yielded no scientific results, were also raade by Portuguese and half-caste traders. Thus in 1846 an inhabitant of Tete, Costa Cardoso, is said to have visited the south-west corner of Lake Nyasa, None of these had an importance at all comparable to that of the journeys of Livingstone between 1854 and 476 HISTORY 1866, which were the starting of a new epoch in the history of Portuguese East Africa. For the first time the attention of Europe was directed towards that province, Livingstone's drastic denunciation of the in efficiency of Portuguese administration and the iniquities of the Portugese slave trade, and his glowing accounts of the possibilities of the country and its inhabitants, aroused the interest of politicians and philanthropists and attracted British missionaries and traders to the Shire- Nyasa region. His attacks naturally caused much indignation in Portugal and were largely responsible for that hostihty and suspicion towards Great Britain which culminated in 1890, At the same time Portuguese opinion awoke to the need for colonial reform and from this time forward serious efforts were made to revive Portuguese influence in East Africa. The financial weakness of Portugal and the disasters of the Bonga war at first prevented these efforts from bearing much fruit. Nevertheless large sums were spent on public works, and the revenue increased considerably, although the deficits were still large. Progress of the Colony, 1860-1890 In 1866 a colonial bank was founded at Lisbon, and two years later an important colonial coraraission met. In the colony Itself the first signs of the revival of activity were the improved relations established in 1861 with the new chief of the Gaza, and in the following year the reoccupation of the station of Zumbo on the Zambezi which had been deserted since the beginninp' of the century. In 1875 the Delagoa Bay question was brought to a successful Issue and the project of building a railway from HISTORY 477 Lourenzo Marques to the Transvaal was taken in hand. It was not until 1883, however, that a company (almost entirely financed by British and Araerican capital) was forraed for its construction. The revival of Portuguese influence in the interior, the results of which becarae apparent between 1880 and 1890, was alraost entirelv due to two men, Manuel Antonio de Gouveia and Paiva d'Andrada, Gouveia and Paiva d' Andrada. — The former, a Goanese from Bardez, who was generally known by his native name of Gouveia, was a man of very great ability with a genius for native warfare and intrigue. He had first rented the prazo of Tambara, and afterwards extended his Influence throughoiit the country south of Sena until he became the holder of almost all the prazos of that district. From his stronghold In the Gorongoza hills he waged war on the hostile tribes in all directions, and delivered Sena and the Zarabezi prazos from the humiliating tribute levied by the Gaza, In 1873 he received the homaofe of Umtasa, chief of Manica, whom he had assisted against Umzila, and in 1883, after years of fighting and Intrigue, he was recognized as chief by the formidable Barue people and occupied their country. On several occasions he was of the greatest assistance to the govern ment in repressing revolts among natives and prazo holders in the Shire and the Zambezi, especially In 1884 and 1887. In recorapense for these services he received many honours and a pension from the Portuguese Government. His ambition and the purely personal nature of his power would undoubtedly have been serious obstacles to the effective occupation and administration of his territories by the Government, but under the conditions which obtained before 1890 there was not much room for a collision of interests, and Gouveia continued up to his death to be one of the raost valuable assets that the Portuguese Government possessed In East Africa. 478 HISTORY • The other factor in the Portuguese colonial revival, Paiva d'Andrada, was a man of great energy and ability who devoted his ¦whole life to the restoration of Portu guese power in East Africa, especially in the territory between the Sabi and the Zambezi, It was his aim to revive the old gold Industry of Manica and Northern Mashonaland, and with this object he acquired in 1878 from the government the concession of raining rights in Manica and other districts, and endeavoured to form a company — the Societe Gendrale du Zambeze of Paris — to develop it. In 1881 a large coraraission visited East Africa under his guidance, and expeditions were raade to Manica, the lower Mazoe and the Machinga country north of Tete, but its report was unfavourable and the Paris company decided to drop the concession. Politically d'Andrada was more successful, for the Portuguese Government decided to act on his reports and restore the ancient district of Manica as an administrative unit. This was carried out in 1884 by an expedition of d'Andrada and Gouveia, and a centre for the district, named Gouveia, was established in the Gorongoza hills. No atterapt was made to administer or occupy effectually the new territory, which extended from the Buzi to the Mazoe and westward as far as the Sabi, but the activities of d'Andrada and Gouveia were continued, and the tribes of Massawa and Rupire were forced to acknowledge Portuguese sovereignty. Several expeditions were afterwards made by Gouveia assisted by Kanyemba, one of the principal mozungo chiefs of Zumbo district, against Motoko, an important chief of the upper Mazoe region, an ally of Bonga, but he was never conquered although Kanyemba pushed his stockades far up the Mazoe, Encouraged by these successes, the colonial party in Portugal roused the Government to the need for a bold colonial policy, and to the importance of securing the HISTORY 479 assent of the great powers to Portuguese claims In Africa while there was yet time. Portuguese Claim to Transcontinental Dominion In 1886 both Germany and France concluded important treaties with Portugal defining boundaries of their African dorainions, and each of these treaties included a clause which recognized — without prejudice to the claims of other Powers — the rights of Portugal to the intervening territories between her possessions of Angola and Mozam bique, According to the map^ which was laid before the Cortes in the course of these negotiations, Portuguese claims extended to Matabeleland and Mashonaland, Barotse- land, the southern half of Lake Nyasa, and the whole basin of the Zarabezi. This bold claira to a transcontinental dominion at once called forth a protest from Lord Salisbury, who declared that the British Governraent was onl}' prepared to recog nize clairas based on effective occupation and that it pro tested in particular against Portuguese claims in Mata beleland or in the districts near Lake Nyasa, which were occupied by British raisslonaries and traders. In Its reply the Portuguese Governraent adopted a very moderate tone and for the moment the discussion ceased, although a serious dispute arose In connexion with another clause of the German-Portuguese Treaty, The Tungue Bay Question ^ The causes of the dispute were as follows. Since the rise of the power of Zanzibar, Portugal had abandoned all claims to her old possessions north of Cape Delgado, and had admitted that point as the limit of her sovereignty, ^ See Map IX, inset A, 2 See Map VII. 480 HISTORY The territory actually occupied by the Sultan of Zanzibar carae as far south of Cape Delgado as the River Menengane, which was recognized as the southern lirait ofthe Sultan's dominions in the Anglo-German agreement of October 1886. Nevertheless the treaty concluded three raonths " later between Germany and Portugal fixed the line of the Rovuma from the Msinje confluence to its mouth as the boundary between their respective possessions, and early in 1887 the Portuguese Government, which had been offended by Its exclusion from the Zanzibar joint com mission of the preceding year, proceeded to carry this provision into effect by sending an ultlmatura to the Sultan and by dispatching a force to Tungue Bay, Tungue and Menengane, both unimportant places, were bombarded, and the shores ofthe bay were occupied. This high-handed action against the Sultan of Zanzibar aroused great indignation in England, which was increased by the news that British Indian traders established at Menengane had suffered in the bombardment. However, Portugal refused to yield or to submit the question to arbitration. The most that she was willing to concede was the territory between Cape Delgado and the mouth of the Rovuma, including Kionga, and this offer was refused by the Sultan, Here the matter rested, and Portugal occupied the coast as far as the mouth of the Rovuma, until 1894, when Kionga was seized by a German gunboat, and Portugal was forced to withdraw her frontier to Cape Delgado, The Question of Nyasaland The question of Tungue Bay was of little actual impor tance to Great Britain, It was the situation in Nyasaland that was the chief occasion of the conflict that was about to break out with Portugal. In that region British interests had been growing since HISTORY 481 the tirae of Livingstone, The first mission which had accorapanied hira to the Shire In 1859 had been forced to leave the country three years later after having carried on hostilities with the Yao slave raiders, but soon after Livingstone's death, in 1875-6, two important Scotch raisslons were successfully established, one at Blantyre in the Shire Highlands, the other, the Livingstonia Mission, at the south-western end of the Lake, The Blantyre mission acquired great influence over the natives of the Shire Highlands, but the behaviour of certain of its lay merabers led to grave scandals, which necessitated the appointraent of a commission of inquiry and some changes In the personnel of the mission. In 1878 the African Lakes Corporation was established under the manageraent of the brothers Moir, Although its operations were on a sraall scale, and it was merely intended to be an economic auxiliary to the Livingstonia mission, it founded a number of stations and possessed two stearaers, one on the lake and the other on the Shire and Zarabezi, In 1883 the British settlements in Nyasa land were considered sufficiently important to justify the appointraent of a British consul. The dominant power on the upper Shire at this time was in the hands .of a small number of Makololo, whom Livingstone had brought with him as porters. After his departure they had imposed their rule on the timid Anyanja population of the Shire region, and had carried on war with the holders of the great prazo of Masinjire on the lower Shire and with other Portuguese half-castes, who had been In the habit of carrying their raids far up the Shire valley. Owing to their connexion with Living stone the Makololo were originally favourable to the English, but they proved truculent and dangerous neigh bours to the missionaries. In 1884 one of their chiefs was shot in a quarrel with an ex-member of the Blantyre Mission and in reprisal his successor, Mlauri, sank the P,E.A. H h 482 HISTORY African Lakes Corporation's steamer and threatened to attack the raisslons. In the sarae year the British settle raents were endangered by a great Angoni raid from the north-west, which devastated the country as far south as Blantyre. Most serious of all was the conflict which broke out at this time with the Arab slave-traders on Lake Nyasa, Desultory fighting went on for several years, volunteers came from England to the help of the African Lakes Corporation, and in 1888 Capt, Lugard conducted a vigorous but unsuccessful campaign against the Arabs at the north end of the lake. The trouble vrith the Arabs led to similar difficulties with the Yao at the south eastern end of the lake, and the acting consul, Buchanan, was captured and ill-treated by one of their chiefs, Makanjila, These events were a source of great anxiety to the British Government, which could neither assist Its sub jects in Nyasaland nor disclaim responsibility for them. The abortive Anglo-Portuguese Congo Treaty of 1884 had fixed the limit of Portuguese sovereignty in that region at the Ruo-Shire confluence, and had provided for freedom of navigation on the Zarabezi, but the failure of their claims on the west coast had made the Portuguese determined to recoup themselves in Central Africa, and public opinion in Portugal forced the Government to take a soraewhat aggressive hne, Frora 1887 onwards Portu guese policy was directed to securing a favourable boundary agreement with Great Britain, The Portuguese control of the coast was used in such a way as to make the situation of the British settlements in Nyasaland impossible. Restrictions were Imposed on the navigation of the Zambezi by foreign vessels and the importation of arms was absolutely forbidden at the tirae when the trouble with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa was at its height. The protests of the British Government were unavailing HISTORY 483 and the British minister at Lisbon, Mr, G, Petre, reported to Lord Salisbury, early in 1888, that concessions with regard to the arms question and the free navigation of the Zambezi could only be purchased by the recognition of Portuguese claims to the sovereignty of the Shire-Nyasa region. The British Government, however, reahzed the complexity of the situation, and was in no hurry to con clude an agreement which must either have resulted in the sacrifice of British interests, or in the acceptance of responsibilities for which It was not then prepared. The Question of Ma.shonaland At this point public opinion in Portugal was further aroused by the publication of the treaty by which Loben- gula in February 1888 had placed the Matabele and their subjects the Mashona under British protection. The Por tuguese denied Lobengula's right to decide the fate of Mashonaland. It was a fact that that considerable part of the country which had been nominally embodied in the district of Manica ' lay outside the sphere of Matabele supremacy, and enjoyed the privilege of being raided by Umzila and his successor Gungunyana instead of by Lobengula, Moreover in the past, as we have seen, Portuguese relations with Mashonaland had been exten sive, and the restoration of Portuguese influence in that region was one of the chief ambitions of the young colonial party. Under the influence of this group the Government adopted a bold scheme for the vindication of Portuguese claims in Africa, It was decided that a large expedition should be dispatched to East Africa to make treaties and to distribute flags in the disputed territory after the raanner of Dr, Peters' Usagara enterprise in 1884, Augusto 1 See Map IX, H h 2 484 HISTORY Cardoso, the explorer, with his namesake Antonio, were to conduct one party to the south and east of Lake Nyasa, ^hile Paiva d'Andrada was to traverse the interior of northern Mashonaland as far as the River SanyatI, where he would join hands with Victor Cordon's party, which was to ascend the Zambezi from Zumbo, At the same time railway surveys were to be made between Quelimane and the Zambezi, through the Shjre country and along the Quebra Bago rapids above Tete, All the officers mentioned, together with Gouveia, who also had his part to play, left Lisbon for Mozambique in July 1888, Meanwhile the discussion between the British and Portuguese Governments was tending more and more to- centre round the question of the sovereignty of the Nyasa- Shire region. The attitude of the British Government was becoming more favourable to a settlement, and at the end of October Petre assured the Portuguese Minister for Foreign Affairs that his Government had no intention of establishing jurisdiction in the Nyasa region unless it was forced to do so, and suggested that both parties should agree to maintain the status quo. With regard to the question of Mashonaland, he remarked that if Portugal would recognize British clairas south of the Zambezi, Great Britain would probably do the same with respect to Portuguese claims north of the river, Senhor Barros Gomes showed no disposition to accept a comproraise, and threw out several suggestions that the boundary question as a whole ought to be subraitted to international discussion, and that Germany, in consequence of the Treaty of 1886, had a right to a voice in the settle ment. He had been warned not to prejudice the results of the Andrada- Cardoso expeditions by concluding a pre mature agreement, and it was clear that public opinion in Portugal would be satisfied by nothing less than full sovereignty in the Shire region. In East Africa the pre- HISTORY 485 parations for the expedition to Lake Nyasa had been made with great energy, and by December Antonio Cardoso had arrived at the south-east end of the lake at the village of Kwirasya, a chief who had shown great friendship to the Portuguese, when Augusto Cardoso had visited him several years before. Here he began to distribute flags among the neighbouring chiefs, but the hostility of the powerful Makanjila made his position precarious, and he appealed to the Governor of Mozarabique for reinforce ments, A large force under Major Serpa Pinto was pre pared, but by the time it was ready Cardoso's position had improved, and Serpa Pinto's force was ordered to proceed instead to the Shire, in order to assist the party which was to survey the line of the projected railway. The unexpected news of these expeditions caused alarra and indignation in England, and it was at first believed that they were directed against the British settlements. Lord Salisbury deeply resented the attempt to steal a march on Great Britain and addressed a very strong protest to the Portuguese minister, but he did not break off negotiations, as he realized that it was out of the question to annex a region with which there were no open ways of comraunication. The only solution of the problem seemed to be some compromise by which generous treatment could be secured for the British settlements, Portugal was ready enough to make concessions, if once her claim to sovereignty was conceded, and for the moment Lord Salisbury inclined to a settlement on these lines. Sir H. H, Johnston, who had just been appointed British consul at Mozambique, was sent to Lisbon in the spring of 1887 to discuss the questions at issue with the Portu guese Government, A provisional agreement was eventu aUy reached according to which the British Portuguese frontier was to run frora the Zambezi above Zumbo along the Luangwa to the Lukuzl (Lokushwa) confluence and 486 HISTORY thence by the Lukuzl and the Bua to Lake Nyasa near Kota-Kota \ Thus the southern part of the lake and the whole Shire region would have fallen to Portugal, but complete freedom was to have been guaranteed to the Scottish missionaries and traders, and concessions were to be made regarding the importation of arms and the freedom of navigation on the Zambezi, When Johnston returned to London at the end of April there was every prospect that this agreement would be ratified, although it was bitterly opposed by the mis sionary societies and their supporters in Scotland, At this point, however, several new factors appeared which caused a change in the attitude of the British Government, The first of these was the discovery of a navigable entrance to the Zambezi at Chinde, which was raade public in April 1889. Hitherto passengers and goods had had to be landed at Quelimane, where the rights of the Portuguese to regvilate traffic could not be gainsaid, and it had been difficult to raaintain that the Zambezi was an international highway ; but the discovery of the Chinde raouth rendered possible the raaintenance of direct cora munications with the Nyasa settleraents, and the Govern ment promised that the new route should be opened to British commerce. Even more important were the negotiations for the foundation of the Chartered Company, which Rhodes was at that time carrying on in Loudon, Johnston's agree ment did nothing to solve the question of Mashonaland, to which the Portuguese continued to assert their clairas. They had protested strongly against the Kimberley Syndi cate's mining concession, and continued to press for an international discussion of the whole question. Rhodes proposed that the questions of Mashonaland and the * See Map IX, HISTORY 487 Nyasa region should be treated as one, and that the sphere of the Chartered Company should be extended to include the territory between the Zambezi and the south of Lake Tanganyika, The problem of communications could then be solved by his favourite project of a railway from the Cape to Central Africa, This scheme was announced on May 29 and was given great publicity by the London Press, It was said that the Foreign Office approved of it, and the Government was urged to hesitate no longer in dealing with the Portu guese clairas. Several other incidents at this tirae helped to embitter Anglo-Portuguese relations. The British consul at Quelimane was arrested in connexion with the question of the importation of arms ; and two cruisers had been dlsjiatched from Zanzibar to ensure the landing of the missionary. Bishop Smythies, permission for which had been refused by the Portuguese authorities. Finally the British Government suspended the negotia tions on Nyasaland, and Sir H, H, Johnston left for Mozambique, He arrived in Africa at a time when Poituguese activities were at their height. Progress of Portuguese Expeditions. — Cardoso's mission had succeeded in gaining considerable influence over the natives south-east of Lake Nyasa, The raost important chiefs whom he claimed to have won over were Mponda and Makanjila, but in this, as in other cases, it is Irapossible to say how much significance can be attached to native ' treaties ' of this type. The Portuguese Govern ment decided to establish some French missionaries at Mponda's on the lake as a counter- influence to that of the Scottish missions. This mission was actually installed at the end of 1889, but when the Portuguese forces with drew after Lord Salisbury's ultlmatura, the station was raided and destroyed by the Yao. Tn order to further Portuguese influence in the interior 488 HISTORY east of Lake Nyasa an expedition under Lieut, Valadim was dispatched to Mataka, the most powerful of the Yao chiefs, but this enterprise ended disastrously, all the Europeans of the party being raassacred. More successful were the expeditions of Andrada and Cordon in Mashonaland, The latter had travelled up the Zambezi to the SanyatI confluence, where he built a stockade, and raade treaties with the natives of the sur rounding districts, Paiva d'Andrada traversed Mashona land westwards from Manica, giving flags to all the principal chiefs, including Mpondera, who had just made a treaty with the English traveller Selous, In the same year a party under the Dutch trader Karl Wiese and Lieut. Sella travelled up the Luangwa to the great Angoni chief, Mpseni, and concluded a treaty with him. In order to strengthen the Portuguese claim to these territories a new district was created with its centre at Zumbo, 1 Its limits included the whole of the Luangwa valley, while south of the Zambezi the boundary followed the Sanyati and its tributary the Umfali, till it joined the district of Manica on the east. Two military commands were to be established, one at the Kafukwe confluence Avith the Zambezi, the other at Mchesa's, west of the sources of the Mazoe. Serpa Pinto's expedition, which was to have the most important consequences of them all, was the last to move, Serpa Pinto realized that an advance up the Shire would involve a collisi(5u with the Makololo, and he was loath to take any step wliich raight be disavowed by his Govern ment. For a long time he reraained in carap near the mouth of the Shire, Here Johnston found hira when he came up fiom the coast in August, and warned him against undertaking any action north of the Ruo, Johnston then ' See Map IX, HISTORY 489 went on to Blantyre, where he raade treaties with the Makololo and Yao chiefs, and afterwards proceeded to the north-west of Lake Nyasa In order to arrange raatters with the Arabs. The attitude of the Makololo was at this time exceed ingly provocative, and Mlauri, their most Important chief, was hostile to the English as well as to the Portuguese, It was consequently easy for Serpa Pinto to find an excuse for interference, and he seeras to have decided at this point to solve the Makololo difficulty by force of arms. He returned to Quellraane to confer with the Go vernor and to raise raore troops, leaving the expedition in the charge of the head of the railway survey, Buchanan, who was acting as consul in Johnston's absence, had notified Serpa Pinto on August 19 that the Makololo beyond the Ruo were under British protection. On September 21, after coUision had taken place between the Makololo and the Portuguese force at Mupassa, south of Chiromo, he repeated this declaration, defining the liraits of the British Protectorate to include the whole of the Makololo country and the Shire Highlands, The Portuguese Government, on hearing of the British action, ordered Serpa Pinto not to advance, and Inculcated the desirability of proceeding by peaceful methods. Both Serpa Pinto and the Governor of Mozambique, however, urged the necessity of vigorous action, and the home Governraent, which did not clearly realize the true state of affairs, yielded to their pressure, and authorized them to take whatever measures were necessary. Early in October Serpa Pinto, who had collected more than 3,000 native troops, returned to the Shire and prepared to attack the Makololo, Mlauri, however, did not wait for hira to advance, but attacked the Portuguese at Mupassa in great force on Noveraber 8, They were repulsed with great loss, and Serpa Pinto advanced up the left bank of the Shire as far as the Ruo confluence. 490 HISTORY Here he encamped, apparently in doubt as to whether he should defy the British consul by crossing the Ruo, The decisive step was taken by Lieutenant Coutinho, a young naval officer, who seized Chiromo without orders, Serpa Pinto accepted the fait accompli by occupying the place with the main force, but immediately afterwards he resigned the command to Coutinho, and returned to Quelimane. Coutinho continued to advance up the Shire and occupied Mbewe and Katunga. The British Ultimatum, January 1890 It was a considerable time before the news of these events reached London, The publication of the Zumbo decree had rekindled the Mashona controversy, and this was at its height when an exaggerated account of the defeat of the Makololo arrived. Public opinion was at once profoundly stirred, and the Government was com pelled to take vigorous action. A demand was presented for a formal declaration that no aggression would be attempted against the Makololo, the British settlements, or country subject to Lobengula, and that any officer who had been concerned in such an attempt should be at once recalled. When the Portuguese Government showed a disposition to justify Serpa Pinto's action an ultimatum was presented (January 11) calling for the immediate withdrawal of all Portuguese forces in Mashonaland or north of the Ruo confluence, and a squadron of cruisers left Zanzibar for Mozambique, The Portuguese Govern ment, realizing the gravity of the situation, yielded at once, and sent the required orders to East Africa, Two days later the Ministry resigned. The situation was now extremely difficult. Public opinion in Portugal violently resented the humiliation of submitting to the British ultimatum, and blamed the Government for not supporting the bold action of their HISTORY 491 subordinates in East Africa, Anti-monarchist sentiment had already been strengthened by the fall of the Imperial house in Brazil (November 1889), and there was grave danger that If Portuguese clairas in Africa were entirely unsatisfied the national discontent would find an outlet in revolution. The Portuguese case, as set forth in the long memo randa laid before Lord Salisbury during the autumn of 1889, rested mainly on historical grounds, while the replies of the British Government were entirely concerned with modern conditions, British opinion was on the whole impatient and contemptuous towards Portugal, and there was a danger that exaggerated claims on the part of the latter raight provoke Great Britain to disregard her rights and push British territory down to the sea, through Gaza land, as was desired by a strong party in South Africa, The Portuguese were naturally irritated at the scepticism shown in England with regard to the history of Portu guese relations with the interior, but from the British point of view the fact that Portuguese influence had existed in Mashonaland in the seventeenth century did not justify the surrender of one of the most promising regions in South Africa to the barbarous regime of the mulatto prazo-holders of Zarabezia, The first course taken by the new Ministry was to press for the submission of the whole question to arbitra tion or to an international conference, and the Portuguese leeations were instructed to invite the mediation of the Powers In this sense. Public opinion in England was also aroused, and it was out of the question for the British Governinent to with draw from the position it had taken up with regard to the Shire Highlands and to Mashonaland, Lord Salisbury returned a decisive refusal to the proposals for arbitration, and repeated his demand for a settlement of the other out standing questions, which now included the compensation 492 HISTORY of the shareholders of the Lourenzo Marques Railway, which had been confiscated on the ground of the incom plete fulfilment of its contract. It was not until May that the Portuguese Government resigned itself to the necessity for a settleraent by direct negotiation. Their minister in London realized that the terms of Johnston's agreeraent were no longer obtainable, but he still hoped for the partial recognition of Portuguese sovereignty in the Shire Highlands, The first Portuguese proposals Included the occupation of the Shire, the delimi tation of Mashonaland by a mixed commission, and the creation of a common zone in Barotseland and upper Zarabezia, These terms were obviously unacceptable to the British Government, and it seemed for a time as though the latter would abandon all attempts to reach an agreement. The success of German claims in Africa had rendered the policy of concessions unpopular in England, The situation on the Shire had once more become threatening, and Lieutenant Coutinho, the hero of the Portuguese imperialists, had coramitted fresh acts of aggression on the Ruo against the orders of his Govern ment, Above all, Rhodes and the Chartered Company were exerting themselves to prevent the Government concluding any agreement which might fetter the expan sion of their territories. The Treaty of 1890 ' These factors, however, were not strong enough to cause a complete rupture, and In July the first outline of the British proposals was presented. The whole of the Shire Highlands and the south end of Lake Nyasa were to fall to Great Britain, West of the Shire the frontier was to run in a straight line from the Ruo confluence to the Zambezi above Tete, The settlement of Zumbo was ^ See Map IX, HISTORY 493 to be a Portuguese enclave. From Tete the boundary ran almost due south as far as lat, 18° 30'. Thenceforward It followed the course of the Sabi to lat, 21° S,, from where It ran in a straight line to the north-east corner of the Transvaal, The surrender of Portuguese claims in the east, which these terras implied, was to be com pensated by the extension of her western possessions as far as the upper Zambezi. In addition to these territorial arrangeraents, the proposals included freedom of trade and of Inland navigation, and the granting of a railway con cession from the British frontier to the mouth of the Pungwe, In return a coramon zone five miles wide in which either party was to have the right of railway and telegraph construction was to run across the continent from Tete to the old frontier of Angola, These proposals were very far from representing the minimura that the Portuguese Government had hoped or that the Portuguese people were demanding, but the new Ministry was resolved to avoid the breaking off of nego tiations at any cost. They feared that any delay in coraing to an agreeraent would be taken advantage of by the British South Africa Company, which was believed to have designs on Gazaland and to be waiting for the breakdown of negotiations. On the other hand, reports of the character of the proposals had already caused un rest in Portugal, the loss of the prazos of Zambezia being especiaUy resented. After repeated discussions, the Portu guese plenipotentiary succeeded in obtaining important raodifications of the boundaries south of the Zarabezi, by which Portugal obtained her present frontier line south of the Zarabezi between Zumbo and the River Mazoe, South of that river the frontier followed the meridian of 33° B, long, to Its Intersection with lat, 18°30'S., from which point it followed the Masheke-Sabi line as before, save that it left the Sabi at the Lunde confluence instead of at the intersection of lat. 21° S, 494 HISTORY In the extreme south Portuguese sovereignty was to extend as far as the Pongolar-Maputo confluence. In return for these concessions, Portugal agreed not to cede any territory south of the Zambezi to a third power without the consent of Great Britain. The navigation of the Zambezi was to be regulated by a mixed commission, and in addition to the Pungwe railway concession, a lease of 10 acres at Chinde was to be granted to Great Britain. The provisions of the Act of Berlin regarding the free trade zone were to be applied to the whole territory with the exception of the ports on either coast, but even in their case transit dues were not to exceed 3 per cent. This comproraise was accepted by the Portuguese Government, and the treaty was signed at London on August 20: When the terms of settlement were known in Portugal, however, there was an outburst of hostility far more serious than anything that the Government had expected, and the Ministry was forced to resign at once. Public feeling was only satisfied when the new Govern ment gave way, and decided to submit the question of ratification to the National Assembly, Accordingly on October 15 the treaty was rejected by the Cortes and the Government accepted their decision. This in itself was no solution, for no government could resign itself to a rupture with England, and there seemed no prospect of any acceptable compromise being found. The chief danger from the Portuguese point of view now was that the British South Africa Company would take advantage of the non-ratification of the treaty to push their frontiers eastward. South African opinion had censured Lord Salisbury for his surrender to Portuguese claims south of the Zambezi, Rhodes himself was bent on securing for the Company at least the whole of the Manica plateau, and there was a strong party which went farther and demanded the annexation of Beira and of Gazaland, HISTORY 495 The Modus Vivendi, 1890 Tn order to check any move in this direction, the new Portuguese rainister in London, Senhor de Several, exerted hiraself to obtain some kind of provisional agreement with Lord Salisbury, The prospects were unpromising, for the rejection of the treaty had once more roused public opinion against Portugal, and the Government was urged to leave Rhodes a free hand south of the Zambezi, Never theless he suggested the provisional acceptance of the boundary provisions of the unratified treaty, and offered the iramediate decree of free navigation on the Shire and Zambezi and the facilitation of coramunications between the coast and British territories. These terras were accepted by Lord Salisbury, and on November 14 the Modus Vivendi was signed for a term of six months, during which nothing was to be done by either party to prejudice their respective sovereignty in the disputed territories. The conclusion of this unhoped-for agreement created great satisfaction in Portugal, and proved invaluable to the Government In face of the difficult situation which was just arising in Manica, The Manica Incident As we have seen, the occupation of that region had been decreed and partially carried out in 1884-5, but the efforts of Paiva d'Andrada to induce capitalists to take up his raining concession had not proved successful. At last, in 1888, the Mozarabique Corapany was forraed. This Corapany showed raore activity than its predecessors, and mining operations were actually begun under the direction of Baron de Rezende, who was stationed at Masikesi. In 1890, after the British ultimatum had ended his 496 HISTORY activities in Mashonaland, Paiva d'Andrada returned from Lisbon to Africa in order to look after the interests of the new Company during the settlement with Great Britain. By the Treaty of 1890 a part of the Mozambique Company's concession (i.e. that portion of the Pungwe basin lying north of 18°30'S. and west of 33° E,: see Map IX) lay within the British sphere, and Paiva wished to secure the maintenance of the company's mining rights in that region, A second raore important object was the transference to the new Company of the rights of sovereignty claimed by Gouveia on the ground of Uratasa's homage to him in 1873, an arrangement which they determined to have ratified by Umtasa himself. On arriving at Neves Ferreira, Paiva was informed that a British subject, Colquhoun, had visited Umtasa and had made a treaty with him on behalf of the British South Africa Company, By the August Treaty Uratasa's was within the Portu guese sphere, and moreover Paiva claimed to have hoisted the Portuguese flag at his kraal in 1888, So Paiva and Gouveia at once pushed forward, intending to obtain from Umtasa a disavowal of his action, and his assent to Gouveia's agreement with the Corapany, At Masikesi they were visited on November 6 by a messenger from Captain Forbes, an officer of the Chartered Company, He stated that Uratasa's country had been occupied by the Company in consequence of Colquhoun s Treaty of Septeraber 14, and he demanded the immediate with drawal of the armed forces of Paiva and Gouveia. No answer was returned to this request, and three days later Gouveia, with seventy men, entered the chief's kraal. On November 13, Paiva and Rezende, with their following, joined him there. Forbes, who had only ten men with him, was unable to interfere, and Umtasa seems to have made no difficulty about disavowing his dealings vsdth the Company, and declaring his loyalty to the Portuguese, HISTORY 497 while at the same tirae he assured Forbes of his fidelity to the Company, Forbes, however, realized that Umtasa would raake a treaty with the Portuguese unless he acted at once. On November 15, having received a sraall body of reinforcements, he entered the kraal, arrested Gouveia, Paiva, and Rezende in the chief's hut, and disarraed their followers, who were taken by surprise and offered no resistance, Rezende and Llaraby, another official of the Mozarabique Corapany, were released after two days, but Paiva d'Andrada and Gouveia were sent as prisoners to Fort Salisbury, en route for the Cape, On November 17 Masikesi was occupied, and Forbes pushed on with a handful of men towards the coast. He was recalled, however, before reaching Beira, The news of these events, which reached Europe early in December, roused a storm of anger and resentment in Portugal. The republican party seized the occasion to strike at the monarchy, and an unsuccessful rising among the garrison at Oporto took place on January 5. The Government was forced to yield to popular clamour, and dispatch an expeditionary force to East Africa to resist any advance on the part of the Company. It was careful to explain, however, that the blame rested entirely on the latter, and that the relations of Portugal with Great Britain were absolutely friendly. This at the time was true, for Lord Salisbury had taken up a conciliatory atti tude with regard to the Manica incident, condemning the action ofthe Corapany and proraising to enforce the Modus Vivendi. On December 19 he wrote to the Company ordering the evacuation of Masikesi and the removal of the British flag. He did not, however, order the evacua tion of Uratasa's, as the Chartered Corapany contended that that place lay within the British sphere, and there was consequently a point of fact to be settled. The Company, however, had no intention of yielding. In South Africa the Modus Vivendi was regarded as a 1..T..X. I i 498 HISTORY gratuitous surrender on the part of the British Govern ment, The non-ratification of the August Treaty had been welcomed by Rhodes as setting the Corapany free to deal with the boundary question, and he had proraptly taken advantage of it to occupy Manica, and thus complete the occupation of the interior plateau. He was naturally opposed to the sacrifice in London of the advantage that had been gained by the Company, and he used every means to delay the fulfilment of the Portuguese deraand for evacuation. At the close of 1890 he left for England in order to urge upon the British Govern«nent the necessity of the retention of Manica, and to suggest that the boundary should follow the edge of the plateau instead of the Sabi line, so that the geographical unity of the Company's territory should be preserved. The Mission to Gungunyana At the sarae time Jameson and Doyle were sent on a mission to Gungunyana, the chief of Gazaland, who had his kraal near the mouth of the Limpopo, and a present for the chief of 1,000 rifles and a large quantity of ammunition was sent l)y sea to meet them there. The ostensible object of the mission was to obtain Gungun- yana's consent to his vassal Uratasa's agreement with the Company, but it was also hoped that it might be possible to bring him under British protection, or at least to have his independence recognized by the two Powers, Gungun- yaua's country ran from Manica in a long strip to the mouth of the Lirapopo, and Portuguese influence was represented only by an intendant at the kraal of Man jacaze, The chief himself, basing his claims on the conquests of his grandfather Manikusa, seems to have informed the Company's emissaries that his territory extended from the Zambezi to the Koraati, and that he HISTORY 499 was ready to accept British protection over the whole of this country. Moreover, he offered to cede to the Company Beira and the mouth of the LIrapopo, It is difficult to know how far this account of Gungunyana's attitude, which was totally denied by the Portuguese ralsslon then at Manjacaze, is to be relied on. It is probable that the chief was anxious to gain any advantage that he could from the conflict between the Company and the Portuguese, As his subsequent history shows, he always preferred Intrigue to decisive action, and at this time he seeras to have wished to keep on good terms with both parties. He certainly sent two envoys to Rhodes, who were brought to London by Doyle In the spring of 1891, and Gungunyana's request for British protection was given great prominence at that time by the English Press, The Countess of Carnarvon, the steamer which carried the present of arms for Gungunyana, was captured in the Limpopo by the Portuguese, and the whole episode' served only to exasperate public opinion further in both countries. The Final Negotiations On reaching London, Rhodes succeeded in convincing the Governraent of the importance of the retention of the Manica plateau, and henceforward their attitude towards the Portuguese claims was much less yielding. The Portuguese Government had already submitted detailed suggestions for the rectification of the August Treaty, The main proposals were that the prazos of the Zumbo and Tete Districts should remain Portuguese, and that south of the Zambezi the frontier should follow the line of the southern tributary of the Mazoe in place of long, 33° E, Lord SaUsbury was not averse from some concessions north of the Zambezi, but he was quite un yielding with regard to Ma.shonaland, He made It clear I I 2 500 HISTORY that the Sabi frontier was no longer obtainable, and that Uratasa's must be British, The most that could be con ceded was that Masikesi should reraain Portuguese. If Portugal delayed, even this, he said, might not be possible, for the Company was pressing for a delimitation of Gungunyana's kingdom, and threw doubt on Portugal's rights even to the Sofala coast. A memorandum suggesting these conditions as a basis for the settlement was presented by the British minister at Lisbon on February 25. The frontier was to follow long, 33° E, from the Mazoe to the Sabi with a deflexion to include Masikesi ; corapensation was to be given north of the Zarabezi, and the independence of Gungunyana was to be recognized by both parties. The Portuguese Government was determined not to give way on the last point," but it was prepared to yield to some extent as regards the Manica boundar}' in return for the Zambezian prazos. Meanwhile the situation grew steadily worse. The Manica controversy was still raging, and incidents such as the seizure of the Countess of Carnarvon, and the coUision that occurred between Sir John WiUoughby's expedition and the Portuguese authorities at Beira, afforded fresh occasions for a rupture. A conflict was i inevitable if the Portuguese expedition arrived in Manica before an agree ment had been concluded. However, although the Portu guese feared that the British Governraent raight be influenced by Rhodes to delay the settlement until the Modus Vivendi had expired, Lord Salisbury proceeded loyally with the negotiation, and on April 14 his formal counter-proposals were presented to the Portuguese Governraent, With regard to the Manica frontier these embodied Rhodes' idea — 'the plateau for England, the lowlands for Portugal'. The frontier was to run from Mazoe southward to lat. 18° 30' along the 33rd meridian. Thence HISTORY 501 it was to follow ' the upper part of the eastern slope of the Manica plateau ' till this intersected the Sabi, and thence as before to the north-east corner of the Transvaal, The tracing of the Manica frontier was to be limited on the east by long, 33° E, and on the west by long. 32° 30' E,, but it was to be deflected so as to leave Uratasa's in the British sphere, and Masikesi to the Portuguese, North of the Zambezi the boundaries were to remain as in the former treaty as far as long, 34° E,, but from that point the new frontier was to follow the parallel of 15° S, westward for two degrees, and then descend to the Zambezi by long, 32° E, Zumbo was to remain Portuguese as before, and the deraand for the Pungwe Railway and the Chinde land concessions were retained, but the condition in the former treaty respecting a British veto on the alienation of Portuguese territory was altered, in deference to Portu guese susceptibilities, to a mutual right of prescription with regard to the territories south of the Zambezi, On the west, the frontier was to run from the Katlma rapids along the western boundaries of the Barotse kingdora. The Portuguese Government was still unwilling to give way on the Manica question, and it proposed that the frontier should follow the line of the Puiigwe-SabI water- parting. But Lord Salisbury was determined not to yield, and eventuaUy Senhor de Several agreed to a comproraise by which Portugal should receive a considerable extension north of the Zambezi, and the British proposal for the Manica frontier should stand. Only matters of detail now remained to be settled, but the time was short, for the Modus Vivendi had almost expired and the tension in South Africa was very severe. The Portuguese expedition had arrived early in the spring, and a force consisting of Angola natives and Portuguese volunteers under the command of Major Caldas Xavier at once set out for Manica, Masikesi had already been evacuated by the Corapany, and it was now occupied on 502 HISTORY May 5 by the Portuguese. At a short distance a body of the Rhodesian Mounted PoUce, fifty-three in number, was encamped on the River Chua. It was expected that no colUsion would occur until after May 15, the date on which the Modus Vivendi was to expire. On the 11th, however, the Portuguese force, numbering about 250 natives and 100 Europeans, came into collision with the Rhodesi§,n pickets. The latter fell back on their camp, which the Portuguese iramediately attacked without waiting to bring up their machine guns. The attack was repulsed with heavy losses, and the Portuguese at once retreated towards the coast, leaving Masikesi, together with their stores and eleven machine guns, in the hands of the Rhodesians, The Treaty of 1891 ' When the news of this conflict reached Europe the negotiations were practicaUy completed, and the signature of the final agreement was at once hurried on. The terms of settlement were agreed upon in London on May 28 and the treaty was signed at Lisbon on June 11, 1891. The boundaries south of the Zambezi have already been described, but north of that river and west of the Shire Portugal received a large extension of territory. Instead of lunning west from the Ruo-Shire confluence, the new frontier ran down the river to Chiwanga below Port Herald, thus giving Great Britain a slight addition to her Shire territories. From this point the frontier ran west to the water-parting between the Shire-Nyasa drainage system and the River Zambezi, It followed this hue as far as lat, 14° S„ whence it ran in a straight line to the pomt at which lat, 15° S, is crossed by the River Luangwa, following the channel of that river as far as the Zambezi,' ' See Map IX. PISTORY 508 In the north-east the Rovuma frontier of the German- Portuguese treaty, which Included Cape Delgado and Kionga, is recognized. The provisions of the earlier treaty regarding freedom of navigation on the Zambezi and its tributaries, the hmitation of transit dues, and the mutual right of pre-emption with regard to the territories south of the Zambezi were retained, and Portugal agreed to construct a railway from the Rhodesian border to the mouth of the Pungwe, The land concession at Chinde was dealt with in a separate agreement, AU the boundaries determined by the treaty were subject to further de limitation on the ground. In 1893 a Modus Vivendi pro viding for the recognition of provisional boundaries north of the Zambezi, was agreed upon by the two Govern ments. The interpretation of the phrase of the treaty which determined the Manica boundary was submitted to arbi tration in 1894, The arbitrator, Signor Vigllani, gave his decision on January 30, 1897. The Occupation of the Modern Province Situation in 1891 The conclusion of the Treaty of 1891 left Portugal in a state of discouragement and financial exhaustion. The hopes which had Inspired the feverish energy of the colonial party had joroved vain, and there was every prob ability that Portuguese Africa would relapse into its former state of stagnation. The first policy of the Government was to encourage the formation of chartered companies which might assume responsibility for the development ofthe territory. Between 1891 and 1893 the Chartered Company of Nyassa and the Zambezia (non-chartered) Company, which represented an earlier enterprise, came into existence, and in addition the Mozambique Company 604 HISTORY received the administration of the whole of the Manica and Sofala districts. The resources of these companies, however, were quite unequal to the task of occupying the territories assigned to them, and for several years longer Portuguese sovereignty was limited to the old coast settlements. The new port of Beira and the mining settlement of Masikesi were developed mainly by foreign enterprise and foreign capital. In the interior the only district effectively occupied was a section of the Inhambane region. The prazos of Zambezia were in a state of chronic revolt, Barue had risen against Gouveia and the Portuguese In 1890, while Gazaland, Portuguese Nyasaland, and the whole of the Mozambique District were entirely independent. It was clearly necessary to put an end to this state of things, if Portugal was to retain the territories assigned to her in 1891, for the existence of powerful independent chiefs offered frequent opportunities for the intervention of the neighbouring Power, With regard to Gazaland especially, the Chartered Company had not relinquishod its negotiations with Gungunyana, and it continued to press the British Government to ratify its agreeTnent with that chief A similar danger also existed in Barue, where an English adventurer had obtained the confidence of the native chiefs, Gazaland The Portuguese Government had no confidence in its mihtary powers, and feared to try conclusions with the uuraerous impis of Gungunyana, Decisive action, how ever, was forced upon the Government in 1894 by a revolt of the natives in the District of Lourenzo Mrirques which threatened the town itself Gungunyana himself hesitated to join the insurgents, but hc did aU that was In his power HISTORY 505 to encourage them, and assembled 'the whole army of his tribe, to the number of nearly 40,000 men at the royal kraal, so that he seenied to be only waiting a favourable opportunity to strike. At the end of 1894 the Portuguese expedition frora Lisbon arrived at Lourenzo Marques, and on February 1, 1895, the insurgents were decisively beaten at Marracuene, Gungunyana continued to hesi tate, while maintaining his threatening attitude and giving shelter to the defeated chiefs. Finally the Portu guese governor decided to declare war on him if he did not at once deliver up the fugitives. This Gungunyana refused to do, being apparently determined on war, but he seems to have expected no immediate action on the part of the Portuguese, and even dismissed for a time the army which he had kept at the loyal kraal during the past years. The opportunity was at once seized by the Portu guese, and on November 7 Mouzinho de Albuquerque defeated the small Gaza force and captured Manjacaze, A month later Gungunyana himself was captured and sent to Portugal, Gazaland was at once formed into a new military district, and order was established without difficulty. Two years later, howevei', In consequence of the bad execution of a decree for the confiscation of Gungunyana's cattle, and of the behaviour of some of the native police, a serious rising occurred which cost more hard fighting than had the original conquests. The insurgents were eventually crushed at Macontene (July 20, 1897). The successful conquest 'of Gungunyana, which had so long been deeraed Impossible both In Europe and Africa, did more than anything else to restor-e confidence to the Portuguese, and from this time onwards the military occupation of the interior was undertaken in earnest. 506 HISTORY Mozambique Company's Territory The District of Manica was in a state of complete revolt at the time of the signature of the treaty. The arrest of Gouveia at Masikesi had been the signal fbr a general revolt in his territories, above aU in Barue, On regaining his liberty, Gouveia hastened to reconquer Barue, but he was defeated and lost his life at Missongwe, while the Government forces which were co-operating with him in the Mwira valley were defeated at the same tirae at Mafundi and forced to retire. Henceforward for ten years Barue was left in complete independence and was a centre of disaffection for the neighbouring districts. The power of their chiefs ex tended as far as the southern bank of the Zarabezi and embraced the so-called ' Tonga prazos ', MeanwhUe the eastern part of the Manica District was disturbed by the quarrels of Gouveia's captains and heirs. The most important of the former, Luiz Santiago, was frequently in revolt, but remained the chief power in Gorongoza for many years. No systematic effort was made to reduce the territories of the Mozambique Company to order untd 1902, In that year an expeditionary force, which Included about 300 European Portuguese, was dispatched by the Government against Barue, The two chiefs were corapletely defeated and a number of military posts were established. Hence forward Barue and Gorongoza remained quiet until 1915, when there was again a widespread revolt, Involving the districts of Barue, Chemba near Tete, Chimoio, Gorongoza, Sena, Cheringoma, Manica, and Zumbo, Sporadic out breaks were not suppressed until 1917, HISTORY 507 Zambezia The effect of the Treaty of 1891 was felt very adversely in Zambezia, Tt had been the policy of the Government in the preceding years to use the black or mulatto prazo-holders in order to extend the zone of Portuguese influence on the Zarabezi and the Luangwa. These mozungos, who possessed a thin veneer of Portuguese raanners, but were to all intents as barbarous as the savages whom they raided, did much to bring the Portu guese occupation Into disrepute. The raost important of them, such as Jose de Araujo Lobo of Zumbo (Matakenya), JoSo Rosarlo de Andrade (Kanyemba), and Ignacio de Jesus Xavier of Chikoa, held the office of capitao mor In their respective districts, and were even granted railltary rank and pensions by the Government, Practically the whole of the Zumbo District was in their hands, and before 1891 the Lobo clan alone possessed sixteen out of the thirty-four prazos which had been leased by the Government. When the treaty put an end to the movement of expansion, the Government found itself faced with the problem of how to deal with this clan, whose lawlessness and violence was now simply an obstacle to the developraent ofthe territory. Warfare was their norraal occupation and the source of their prosperity, and it was hopeless to expect them to conform to the provisions of the prazo law of 1890, Any attempt to make them pay their taxes, or make way for new tenants ofthe Zambezia Company, was r.esisted by force of arms, and the railltary resources of the province were too sraall to perrait of a thorough military occupation. Consequently there were numerous small expeditions, none of which had a "decisive effect, and the elimination of the lawless element and the transition to modern conditions were very gradual. By the decree of 1 892 the Zambezia Company was to 508 HISTORY have the administration of all the prazos west ofthe Shire on the north bank of the Zambezi, and west of the Mazoe on the south bank, as their leases expired, but its actual powers were of course limited to the pacified region. In 1894 the prazos west of the Shire, which were in Govern ment hands, were also entrusted to the Company, and in 1899 it also received the enorraous district west of the River Likungo and east of Lake Shirwa — a concession which was not formaUy ratified until 1903, In 1895 the Company made a first attempt to break new ground by dividing into prazos the great district of Makanga north of Tete. This region had been ruled by the descendants of the half-caste Pereiras, who had relapsed into complete barbarism and were constantly at war with the Government. Effective occupation, however, was not carried out until after the Government expedition of 1902. The important neighbouring district of Angonia on the borders of Nyasaland, which was at that time hardly accessible save through British territory, was also taken over by the Company between 1899 and 1902. The occupation of Lujella, Namuli, and the other districts between the River Likungo and Lake Shirwa was next taken in hand, but here also the help ofa Government expedition was required, and the region was finally pacified in 1904. In the same year the revolt of the Chioko natives, west of the River Mazoe, was also suppressed. Since that time the economic development of Zambezia has progressed considerably, and there has been no serious trouble with the natives. The revolt of 1915 spread to the tribes of the Zumbo district, as stated above, but the region east of the Shire has been unaffected. HISTORY 509 Mozambiq-iie District The history of Portuguese occupation in the District of Mozambique is entirely of recent date. In spite of the fact that the town of Mozambique has been for centuries the capital- of the province, Portuguese power was always limited to the Island of Mozambique and the headland of Cabaceira, Up to the beginning of the twentieth century the coast has been in the hands of powerful Mohammedan chiefs of mixed Arab and Makwa blood, who used to engage in the slave trade and had close relations with Zanzibar, The greatest of these was the Sultan of Angoche, who regarded hiraself as independent of the Portuguese and recognized only the authority of the Sultan of Zanzibar, AU the early attempts of the Portuguese against the mainland tribes had ended in disaster, and it was not until the governorship of Mouzinho de Albuquerque (1896-8) that the problera of the occupation of the district was seriously attempted, A successful campaign was undertaken against the Naraarraes on the raainland opposite Mozarabique, but Mouzinho was unable, owing to political causes, to carry out his whole scheme, which involved the occupation of the district by successive zones, and the results of his opera tions were limited to the establishment of a number of mihtary posts along the coast. During the following years progress was slow. Indeed little was done untd Massano de Amorira ^ became governor of the district in 1906, and undertook the systematic occupation of the whole territory. In 1906 the Marave, the most iraportant chief of the Naraarraes, was defeated and dispossessed, and In the follow ing years all the principal chiefs of the coast region were reduced to order. The operations culralnated in 1910 ^ Governor-General of the Province, 1918. 510 HISTORY with the defeat of Ibrahim, the Saltan of Angoche, and of Farelav, who dominated the mainland west of that island. When once the Mohammedan chiefs of the littoral had been defeated, little resistance was met with in the interior. Since 1911 the construction of roads and military posts has proceeded without serious niterruption, and little of the district now remains unoccupied. Portuguese Nyasaland When the Companhia do Nyassa, which had been formed in 1893 on the basis of an earUer concession, entered into possession of its territories, Portuguese occu pation was limited to the Island of Ibo and to a few military posts on the coast between Ibo and Cape Delgado, The interior was occupied by independent Makwa and Yao chiefs, of whom the most important was Mataka, the murderer of Lieutenant Valadira's party, at Mwerabe, between the Rivers Lujenda and Luchulingo, The Company was heavily handicapped by financial difficulties and by disputes with the Governor-General, and for some years it practically confined its occupation to Ibo, which, paradoxicaUy, did not forra part of the original concession. In 1899 British complaints regarding Yao raids on their Nyasa territories forced the Portuguese Government and the Company to take action, A Portuguese expeditionary force raided Mataka's country, and a joint Portuguese- British expedition marched against Kwamba in the region east of Lake Amararaba, Iramediately afterwards the Company dispatched a mission under Major A, J, Spilsbury to take raeasures for the development of the country. This mission laid out the town of Port Amelia, which in 1907 became the capital of the territory, and afterwards travelled through the whole district to Lake Nyasa. This HISTORY 511 mission was followed by a railltary expedition which established a chain of posts frora Port Amelia to Lake Nyasa, the Interior being divided into four administrative districts. For some years after this the rate of progress was slow, chiefly on account of the financial difficulties of the Cora pany, Mataka's country between the Lujenda and the Lake was stiU unsubdued, and the Medo route from Port Amelia to Mtarika, on the Lujenda, where the Company had a fort, was exposed to the attacks of the disaffected Makwa chiefs. The death of Mataka in 1903 afforded the Company a great opportunity of asserting its authority. Unfor tunately at this moraent Mtarika, the raost iraportant chief on the Lujenda and a firra friend of the Portuguese, died also, and his successor, in concert with the new Mataka, attacked the Portuguese fort. The effective occupation of the interior was finally undertaken in the years 1908-12, The Interior of the coast district was first dealt with, and in 1909 and 1910 two columns successfully subdued the Makwa and Makonde chiefs between the Mogabo and the Msalu Rivers. There remained the Mataka problem,' which was an affair of greater magnitude. Mataka was the strongest of all the Yao chiefs, and had the prestige of years of successful resistance to the Portuguese, His influence extended from the Luambula right up to the Rovuma, on the other side of which he possessed an iraportant pied-ctrterre near Sasavara, Large quantities of powder and arras were said to have been srauggled into his country from Gerraan territory, with the connivance of the German authorities (see further, p, 526). The first step to be taken by the Portuguese against Mataka was the establishment of a line of posts in the north which would cut off the rebel chiefs from the Rovuma, and this was carried out by two sraall expeditions 512 HISTORY in 1910 and 1911, In the auturan of 1912 the main expedition against Mataka was launched, A large column descended on Mwembe from the north, and entered the place after very little resistance, Mataka himself fled acrogs the Rovuma into German territory, and the other chiefs made their submission, A strong post named Fort Valadim was built at Mwembe, and the whole country between the Lujenda and the Lake was thoroughly pacified. The conquest of Mataka marks a new period in the history of the territory. The way was now clear for the development of the interior, and the financial prospects of the Company were considerably brighter. The revenue had considerably increased, the hut-tax producing £46,560 in 1913 against £1,275 in 1901. Portuguese Nyasaland, like Mozambique and Queli mane districts farther south, has suff'ered directly from the present war, but it is not the function of this notice to deal with the operations there. CHAPTER XII POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS Introductory — Political obstacles to progress of the colony — Territorial disunity (Territory south of the Sabi — Mozambique Com pany : chartered company administration — Zambezia — Mozambique and Nyasaland) — Development by companies and individual settle ment — Need for systematic investigation of the country — Means for investigation and development — External relations : British terri tories (Relations with Transvaal — Eelations with Rhodesia and Nyasaland) — External relations other than British — Portuguese' sentiment in regard to frontier readjustment. Introductory In offering certain conclusions based upon raaterial contained in preceding chapters, it raay be postulated that: — (ft) Portuguese East Africa must be regarded as a colony which is only now recovering from a long period of inefficient governraent, although that recovery is now definite and progressive ; (&) Portugal controls the natural channels of com munication between the East African coast and the British territories of the Interior — (1) Between Lourenzo Marques and Transvaal, &c. (2) Between Beira and Rhodesia, &c. (3) Between the mouth of the Zambezi and Nyasa land, as well as the potential lines — (4) Between Mozarabique and Nyasaland, &c. (5) Between Port AraeUa and Nyasaland, &c. (c) The colony is thus concerned with two distinct econoraic proUems — P.E.A. , K k 614 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS (1) The raaintenance of adequate provision for deahng with transit trade between the ports of the colony and the 'foreign' territories ofthe interior, and (2) The internal development of the colony, a process in which external collaboration, both European and to sorae extent Asiatic, is involved and raust continue to be so. {d) The colony cannot, in respect either of its external relations or of its internal administration, be regarded strictly as a territorial or political unit. Some consideration will be given to the raeans of internal development and the ' foreign ' interests in the colony (in summary of what has appeared in previous chapters), and inasmuch as the position and conditions of the colony have very naturally caused discussion of the readjustment of its frontiers, some observations will be added concerning Portuguese sentiment in this regard. Political Obstacles to Progress of the Colony In an earlier chapter (p. 136) an indication has been given of the administrative disabilities which formerly affected and still, though in a greatly reduced measure, affect the colony of. Portuguese East Africa. Such were the excess of political influence upon the appointment of officials and their tenure of office, subordination of the local administration to an unintelligent colonial administra tion in the mother country, overstaffing and inefficiency of the colonial services, and the Uke, For nearly a century the progi ess of all the Portuguese colonies, as of Portugal itself, was retarded by political strife at home, and this, culminating at the time of the establishraent of the republic, reacted for a while very unfavourably upon Portuguese East Africa, There were too frequent altera tions in the laws, raade by raen ignorant of local conditions, and the cost of administration, carried on through an POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS 516 excessive number of often unqualified officials, was un necessarily high. The frequent changes among the highest officials resulted in discontinuity of policy for the develop ment of the colony, and it would happen (as for exaraple in the case of railway extension in Quellraane) that a scheme elaborated by one governor-general would be araended or abandoned, even after the work had been partly executed, by his successor. In Lourenzo Marques an agitation attended by some disorder arose for the reform of abuses and the granting of a large measure of colonial self-government, and the governor-general, de MagelhSes (1912), himself took the lead among those who attacked the colonial ministry. The abuses and their remedy, the law of 1914, are dis cussed in Chap, V, p, 137, On the other hand, there is a strong realization in Portugal of the dangers which would have threatened her sovereignty if her dominions had become an obstacle to the general developraent of South Africa, The position of Portuguese Eas-b Africa has wholly changed in the last quarter of a century. Instead of the serai-civihzed fringe of an unknown hinderlaiid, the province has become a gateway to British territories in the interior, which have been developed more rapidly, Portugal has thus acquired the responsibility of keeping the condition of the gateway she controls abreast of the requirements of the territory to which it gives access. Territorial Disunity Portuguese critics ^ of the colonial administration have urged against it a lack of co-ordination. En a geographical sense the first contention has this justification — that Portu- ' Among these one of the most noteworthy is the former governor general, Freire d'Andiade, -whoEe views, txpiested in liis Eelatorios sobre Mozambique, 5 vols., 1908-10, are freely quoted in the present chapter, K k 2 516 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS guese East Africa, as already stated, cannot be regarded as a territorial or political unit in a practical sense, it may indeed be regarded as forming five such units : — (a) The southernmost block of territory, including Lourenzo Marques, Inharabane, and Gaza, which are under direct colonial administration, Portuguese writers commonly refer to this division as the territory south of the Sabi, although strictly a certain area south of that river is included in (&) The territory of the Mozambique Company, under chartered company administration, (c) The districts of Quelimane and Tete, under direct administration, but where the administration is intimately associated with a company (the Zambezia) without a charter, some of its concessionary companies, and the individual prazo-holders of some of its lands (see pp, 164-7), {d) The district of Mozambique, under direct adrainistra tion, (e) The Nyassa Company's territory, under chartered company administration. Territory South of the Sabi It is this territory which has the most intimate relations with the Transvaal, Critics have blamed the administra tion for paying too much attention to the transit trade which passes through this territory, by the railway between Lourenzo Marques and the Transvaal, to the exclusion of provisions for the internal development of the territory. The accusation is debatable, for the transit trade was knocking at the door long before Portugal was ready to open it, and if it had not been opened when it was, and kept open as it has been, Portuguese interests must have been overshadowed and might have been extinguished. As raatters stand. It is the territory south POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS 517 of the Sabi, or at least sorae portion of It adjacent to Delagoa Bay, which would probarbly attract first attention if any readjustment of International frontiers affecting Portuguese East Africa were considered (a subject to which it will be necessary to recur later in this chapter). Position of Lou7-e7izo Marques as Capital. — Whether the attitude of almost exclusive regard for the transit trade was right or wrong in principle, it was closely associated with one important administrative change which, accord ing to a local writer in 1916, experience shows to have been a raistake. This is the transference ofthe capital of the whole province to Lourenzo Marques, which took place in 1907. There was rauch to favour the change. Recent developments in the surrounding British territories had left Mozambique, the old capital, stranded as the relic of a past age. Moreover, judged by modern standards, Mozambique was (and still is) a Calcutta without a SIrala — one of the unhealthiest towns on the coast, whose white residents were debarred by an unsettled hindeiiand frora taking advantage of the more favourable climatic con ditions of the beautiful highlands of the Namuli region. But Lourenzo Marques, on every ground except those of economic iraportance and comparative healthiness, could hardly be worse situated as capital of the province : ' It is impossible for a governor-general stationed at Delagoa Bay to overlook, say, the development of [Portuguese] Nyasaland in the extreme north, sorae 1,200 raUes away from the centre of the sovereign administration,' ^ and accessible only by sea. It has even been urged that the province ought to be divided into two, the frontier lying presumably along the lower Zambezi and the southern boundary of Tete, and a new northern province having Its capital at Mozambique or some more suitable site. The transference of the capital, howeyer, has at any 1 African World, Dec. 30, 1916, p. 151, 518 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS rate helped to set on foot, in the extreme southern part of the province, a movement, hitherto wanting, to develop systematically the econoraic resources of the territory Itself, apart from those dependent upon its relations with its neighbours. From this standpoint it is unfortunate that, as appears from the economic study in preceding- chapters (pp. 189, 277), the territory south of the Sabi, though in parts not iU suited for agricultural development, does not appear to be as rich in mineral and other resources as some of the regions farther north. The territory south of the Sabi is separated from that to the north, in which the activities of the Mozambique Company have been carried on, by a belt of country at present as backward as any in the provincej and offering- no particular prospect of development. This belt, which corresponds roughly to the lower valley qf the Sabi itself, serves to intensify the isolation of the southern districts from the remainder of the province. Mozambique Company : Chartered Company Administration The Mozambique Company's territory, {b) In the above grouping, provides an exaraple of a chartered company's work which has been attended, on both the economic and the administrative side, with not Inconsiderable success. Through this territory lies the entrance to Rhodesia by way of the port of Beira. Having regard to the British connexion with the company and with the Beira railway, it may be said that British Interests are more prominent in the internal economy of this territory (as apart from external relations) than in other parts of the province. Inasmuch, then, as a chartered corapany Is charged not only with econoraic development but also with administra tive responsibilities, we have here something approaching conjoint international control. It is a situation which is POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS 519 essentiaUy dependent upon 'political alliance, but It con notes in some degree the subordination of political pos session to financial Interest ; and there is a raeasure of official opinion in Portugal which, on that account, clearly tends to regard it askance. One of the governors-general of the province in recent years roundly asserted that chartered companies are ' of no use ' to Portugal, and though that view, so far as concerns the Mozambique Company, -is obviously exaggerated, there does appear elsewhere a tendency to regard the creation of chartered companies as a means to the end, not only of ensuring economic development, but also, and primarily, of setting up an administration which, when established, the govern ment may take over. These obUgations together form a heavy burden : the Mozambique Company has borne it by no raeans without strain, while the Nyassa Corapany In the north has been near failing under it, . Zambezia The Zambezia Corapany, operating In the districts of Quelimane and Tete— territory (c) In the above grouping- is sumraed up by Freire d' Andrade as ' weU-intentioned but lacking in capital ', It has not the sarae administrative responsibilities as the chartered corapanies, but its econo raic rights are spread over a territory out of all proportion to Its financial strength. On the other hand, a portion of this territory— that between the tongue of British Nyasa land and the Zarabezi delta— possesses the same external stimulus to internal development as is possessed by Beira and by Lourenzo Marques, for through it lies an entrance to the British protectorate. The Zambezi river, however, serves at present as an unsatisfactory channel of communi cation (see p, 351) : a railway from Quelimane is only now in course of construction (p, 422). 520 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS Mozambique and Nyasaland Northward again, in northern Quelimane and Mozara bique District {d), the direct administration has not yet brought this region to the stage of active economic development, and the Nyassa Company (e), as already indicated, has not justified its creation by success. Development by Companies and Individual Settlement Towards the economic development of the province there are, broadly speaking, three raethods of advance : {a) the creation of a sraall number of large compa,nies, (6) the creation of a large nuraber of small companies, (c) the Inducement of suitable individual settlers to establish themselves in the country. The first "of these has been dealt with already so far as it concerns the three large landed companies at work In the province. The second method — the creation of a large number of small com panies — has, to a considerable extent, been applied also in Portuguese East Africa, Each of the three large com panies has let concessions to other companies for particular purposes, whether agricultural or mining, and concessions have also been made to companies for such purposes in the territories directly administered, A number of these companies have been mentioned in this volume (pp, 162, 166, 171, and Chapters VI and VII, passim). Their collective record is by no means one of unqualified success (any more than is that of the large companies), as some of the references quoted above will show. The problem of Individual settlement calls for further investigation and action, ' A great deal more would have been accomplished , , . if the local luws as to tenure of land were to assimUate In spirit and in practice to those of the British, who penalise no nationality, and perrait a settler to proceed as he likes so long as he conforms to POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS 621 the fundaraental fabric of the constitution under which he lives. In essence the colonial laws of Portugal are liberal, but . , , there are irritating local provisions and delays, , , , the effect of which is to make the foreigner realize that his nationality is very often a bar to his being given the same treatment as that raeted out to the national,' ^ There Is Portuguese opinion in support of this view, Coraplaint has often been made that Portuguese settlers of good type are lacking ; that ' only raen without brains or capital go to Portuguese East Africa, whose one idea Is to return home with money made, the place of which, however, is too often taken by disease, vice, and disillusionment',^ It is admitted that nationality ought to be no bar to privilege. This question, however, is uot disregarded by the administration. The governor-general in 1916 is quoted for the view that while state-aided immigration is not desirable, every endeavour ought to be raade to obtain agricultural settlers possessing financial raeans, and that to attract them the Governraent should select and prepare healthy and otherwise suitable areas, A corapany may be supposed to have at command means of ascertaining the potentialities of the concession which it seeks to acquire, and If It fail to do so the blame is presumably its own. And there has been plenty — overmuch — of such failure : the sections In preceding chapters on such cultures as coco-nuts, rubber, and cotton, and on mining, supply suffi cient exaraples. Need foe Systematic Investigation of the Countrv It is an old complaint that the local administrator whc set himself to study the natural conditions and the native population of his district (compare p, 128) was the excep tion rather than the rule, and even the work of compiling ' African World, loe. cit,, 1916, '^ D'Andrade, op. cit. 522 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS the present volume has served to Ulustrate the result of failure in this direction. An endeavour has been made to utilize all the accessible Portuguese sources of information on the colony, but, especially in the geographical and ethnographical departments, it can only be said that such inforraation is in very large raeasure partial, Ill-presented, and rudimentary, and that, on the whole, information of far greater value has been obtained from British sources, where avaUable. The lack of ordered Information concern ing the colony is revealed by statements concerning Its valuable physical attributes which are often generalized far beyond the limits of accuracy, such, for example, as the reiterated reference to its magnificent waterways, which are adduced as ready-made channels for the ex ploitation of the territory: it has been attempted to show (pp, 344 seq.) that they neither merit the epithet nor offer the opportunity suggested, save in respect of certain strictly Umited areas, confined almost exclusively to the southern half of the country. Information on which to base a judgement as to the selection of sites for settlement is essential In such a territory as Portuguese East Africa, because, for climatic and other physical reasons, which have been discussed in preceding chapters, by no means the whole country Is suitable for white settlement. The opinion has been quoted above that state-aided immigration is not desirable. That view may be accepted, inasmuch as state-aided immigration usually connotes Immigration in bulk of a population possessing neither the power nor the mone tary resources to make use of native labour, to overcome any serious natural obstacles, and to raaintain itself while awaiting returns upon its work and capital expenditure. In any event, Portuguese East Africa Is not a country naturally fitted for white immigration in bulk. Only certain parts of It are fitted for a raoderate number of white settlers who possess the qualifications Indicated, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS 623 Means for Investigation and Development Effective survey and the provision of 'productive' works, such as railways, roads, &c,, are necessary to development; they Involve larger capital expenditure than has yet been devoted to them, whether by companies or by the Governraent, and if undertaken by the Govern ment they appear to render imperative, in the case of Portuguese East Africa, the provision of loans. Hitherto the home government has been averse from raising a loan, which, if of any considerable raagnitude, must have been offered not only in Portuguese but also in other raarkets, for Portugal admittedly cannot command the necessary capital from her own resources. Recent commentators, reviewing this diffidence retrospectively, have found a con venient explanation of it In Portuguese fear of inducing an excess of German interest in the colony : however this may be, some steps have been taken lately in the direction of financing development work by way of loan. External Relations : British Territories Relations 'with Transvaal The external economic relations of the province have been discussed at length In earlier chapters, especially in Chap, X. As we have seen in that chapter, the transit trade with Transvaal has given rise to peculiar probleras, because it has brought Lourenzo Marques as a port into com]ietition with other ports farther south, which are in certain respects less well fitted as entrances and outlets for Transvaal trade, but are within the Union of South Africa, The obvious possibilities of International compli cation (see p, 377) for which the position of Lourenzo Marques in regard to this trade gives occasion have led -some Portuguese writers to suggest alterations of the 624 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS status quo. It raay be premised that so far as has been observed no question of a cession or exchange of territory involving Delagoa Bay has been entertained (see below, p. 528), But it Is recognized that ' foreign ' (that is to say, primarUy, British) interests must be admitted and fostered as beneficial to the colony ; and it has been sug gested that the territory south of the Sabi, occupying the peculiar relation to Union territories which it does, raight be Included in a South African custoras union, (In one authority the suggestion has been met with that the terri tory might, whUe reraaining Portuguese, 'perhaps even join the South African Union', but the administrative difficulties attending such a proposal are not discussed,) The arguments for and against inclusion in* a customs union have been considered at sorae length. It has been urged that such a step would put an end to intercolonial jealousies, would siraphfy and cheapen the customs service, would stimulate local trade, industry, and agriculture, would give Lourenzo Marques all the transit trade with northern, central, and eastern .Transvaal, and would increase the receipts of the port and of the province. Against the proposal has been set the view that the customs rates of the Union would Increase the cost of living in the Portuguese territory, that the Englisli lan guage, money, weights and measures, ' and even officials ' would have to be introduced at Lourenzo Marques, and that complications with other Powers raight easily be involved, FinaUy, the proposal would necessitate the abandonraent of protection of Portuguese goods, which again (in its application to the whole province, and not merely its southernmost division) has been argued as desirable or otherwise. One opinion holds that the pro vince ought not to be chained by high tariffs to the mother country, while at the same time foreign capital must be and is allowed to develop it, and that excessive protection of Portiiguese goods retards industry In the POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS 526 colony and is really of httle benefit to home manufactures, which, moreover, are not in condition to supply tbe needs of the colony In all departments. The other school of opinion meets this with a flat denial (which, so far as con cerns the final clause. Is certainly unjustified), and cites branches of Portuguese export trade, such as that in wines, which would suffer severely If their protection were abandoned. Relations with Rhodesia and Nyasaland Of the other lines of comraunication, existing and pro spective, between the Portuguese coast and the British inland territories, that between Beira and Rhodesia has been fuUy discussed on pp. 402 seq. It is only necessary to add here that while at present the position of the port of Beira, in respect to the inland territories which it serves, is unassailed, there is a prospect of its connexion by rail with the Zambezi and the line to British Nyasaland, which would bring it into competition with the port of Quelimane, from which, as has been seen, a railway is already in construction (p, 422), The railway which has been begun from Lumbo on the mainland near Mozam bique town has the region south-east of Lake Nyasa as its ultiraate objective, so that the British protectorate would acquire through it a third outlet by rail. This would leave the railway, for which a line has been surveyed, from Port AraeUa to Lipuchi on Lake Nyasa in a disadvan tageous position, inasmuch as it would reach the lake- shore bv a difficult descent and would end there, involvino; shipment on the lake for any further points. But it must not be overlooked that all these lines, apart from possible external connexions, are essential to the internal develop ment of the Portuguese territories. 626 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS External Interests other than British It will have been gathered from the econoraic chapters that 'foreign' interests in Portuguese East Africa are predominantly British. Other European interests emerge at a few points — French principaUy in connexion with development companies ; American in respect of a liraited trade, the supply of railway material, &c. ; German in connexion with shipping, with some of the companies, with railway supplies, and with local trading in the coast towns. It is possible that (as is not unusual) German interests were greater than appears on the surface, Germans and Nyasaland, c&c. — There can be no ques tion that the Germans in their forraer territory of East Africa endeavoured to menace Portuguese interests in the territory of Nyasaland. They openly ' jumped a claini ' when, after the northern frontier of the Portuguese terri tory had been determined by the treaty of 1886 as following the Rovuma up to the Msinje confluence, a German force occupied Kionga, south of the river, in 1894, and the Portuguese governraent was obliged to accept a new frontier which, for the most part, followed lat, 10° 40' S, from Cape Delgado to the Rovuma, The Germans thus obtained the lowest ford over the river, and territory on both banks below that point. Between 1895 and 1912 there was a series of incidents along the Rovuma frontier, usuaUy concerned with smuggling, the carrying off of women, and the aggression of frontier patrols, and, for the most part, they seem to have been due to the actions of ill-controlled native askaris. But a more serious collision was that which occurred at Maziwa In 1912, owing to German connivance in the traffic In powder and arms across the frontier carried on by Mataka, a rebeUious native chief in Portuguese territory, when the Germans arrested a patrol of four Portuguese soldiers on the ground POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS 527 that they had been caught raiding near Sasavara, beyond their own frontier. Again, reference has been raade on p, 171 to the acquirement of a controlling interest by a German finan cial group in Nyasa Consolidated, Ltd,, a British concern which itself possesses a controlling interest in the Nyassa Corapany, Farther south, in Mozambique District, where a British company took up a large raineral concession and prospected it without result of value (p, 278), Gerraan interest was also aroused, though not beyond the point of inquiry, Sorae reference has also been raade to Gerraan interests in Zambezia (p, 166), It is stated that strong action has recently been taken by the Portugviese colonial authorities to eliminate German intejests in the province. The Asiatic Connexion. — Of non-European external interests the principal are those of the Banyan (Indian) small traders along the coast (p, 89), As stated in that place, 'they have grasped the mentality of a native better than a European can, and they have other advantages, among them that they can easily acquire foreign tongues, that they are unaffected by the climate, and that the cost of li-ving to them is almost nothing, Tt is easy, therefore, for them to oust the white man from competition,' and for that and other reasons they have not been welcomed by the whites. Some of the concessionaries in Zambezia at one time expeUed them ; but in their own sphere they are so far efficient, and their connexion with the colony has been so long established, that it was found necessary to invite their return. But the trickle of traffic which they maintain with India does not show signs or possibili ties of expansion, nor does there appear opportunity for the creation of any iraportant coraraunity of interest between India and Portuguese East Africa in the direction either of exchange of products or of the development of the colony by means of settleraent from India, 528 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS Portuguese Sentiment in regard to Frontier Readjustment It is abundantly clear that any suggestion of a readjust ment of the frontiers of Portuguese East- Africa would encounter very strong Portuguese sentiment in opposition to it. We have seen (p, 494) what intense heat was generated in Portugal over the delirbi tation of the frontiers before 1891, Again, in 1898, the supposed provisions of an Anglo-German secret treaty, being held to foreshadow the partition of Portuguese East Africa, gave rise to stringent expressions of Portuguese opinion. Lately there has been open unofficial discussion of a cession of territory, including Delagoa Bay, to the Union of South Africa, in exchange for the acquisition by Portugal of a portion of the former German territory in the north. Such discus sion, it was reported In 1917, has been met by the pro hibition by the colonial government of any reference in the local press to questions affecting the integrity of the pro vince, and it was said that the Government contemplated negotiation with that of the Union to secure a similar condition in that territory. It is needless to attempt to analyse this sentiraent, for there is no reason for supposing it to be peculiar to the Portugu.ese ; it would probably eraerge in the course of any endeavour to readjust the territories of any colonial Power, even though the aira of such adjustraent were toward a theoretical coraraunity of interest in the admini stration of colonial territories. It is visible, however, even in the views of such Portuguese commentators as are pre pared to go to any length short of the cession of territory in order to foster foreign interests In the colony for its good, by encouraging the Investraent of foreign capital, by giving foreigners equal rights with Portuguese in matters pertaining to trade, concessions, and land tenure, and POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONCLUSIONS 629 even by admitting them to participation in municipal government. It has been said above that the territory adjacent to Delagoa Bay would be the first to attract attention if any readjustraent of frontiers were considered, but it should be borne in raind that the position of Portugal (sentiment apart) is stronger in this locality than elsewhere, because here, more than elsewhere, the Portuguese have of recent years paid attention to economic development and the strengthening of their control. L 1 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE A NUMBER of the well-known general works on Africa, East Africa, and South Africa have been consulted, but it is unnecessary to refer to them here unless they include very special reference to Portuguese East Africa. A number of works dealing prin cipally with economic subjects have also been omitted as being of too early date to retain much value. Among the principal books of general utility dealing with the province or its chief divisions are : — J. Paiva d'Andrada, Manica, 1891, Freire d'Andrade, Relatorios sobre Mocambique, 5 vols., 1908-10 (dealing mainly with administrative and economic questions). J, de Azevedo Coutinho, A Campanha do Barue, 1904. W. Y. Campbell, Travellers' Records of Portuguese Nyassaland, down to 1899. Gomes da Costa, Gaza, 1898, Delagoa Directory, Lourenzo Marques, annual (in English). M. M. Feio, Indigenes de Mocambique, 1900. Guide to South and East Africa (Union-Castle Mail S. S. Co.) J. J. Lapa and A. B. C. de Castro Ferreri, Elementos para um Diccionario Chorographico . . . Mocambique, 1889. Livingstone, Expedition to the Zambezi and its THbutaries, 1865 ; Last Journals, 1874. R. N, luyne, Mozambique : its Agricultural Development, 1913, R. C, F, Maugham, Portuguese East Africa, 1906 ; Zambezia, 1910, J, Mouzinho de Albuquerque, Mocambique, 1899, Mozambique Company, Handbook, 1893 ; Compagnie cb Charte de Mozambique, 1899; 0 Territorio de Manica e Sofala, 1902, Negreiros, Le Mozambique, 1904, L, do Rego, Guide Book and Sailing Directions, 1904 (Lisbon : in English, It may be remarked that this book, in dealing with the coast, the Zambezi, &c., presents somewhat fully the Portu- BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 531 guese case for opposition to statements of Livingstone and others in respect to priority in geographical discovery), Selous, Travel and Adventure in South-east Africa, 1893, T, R, Sim, Forest Flora of P