EX LIBRIS

FREDERICK WELLS WILLIAMS.

V.F.l-iUPSDN.IBab

TRAVELS

RUSSIAN MISSION
THROUGH
MONGOLIA TO CHINA,
AND RESIDENCE IN PEKING,
IN THE "SEARS 1820-1821.

BY GEORGE ^JMKOWSKI.
WITH CORRECTIONS AND NOTES BY
JULIUS VON KLAPROTH.

ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS, PLATES, &-c. %c.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. II.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR

LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN,
PATERNOSTER-ROW. 1827.

London:
Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoodc,
New-Strcet-Square.

CONTENTS

OF

THE SECOND VOLUME.

CHAPTER I.
Journal of the stay of the author at Peking, from the end
of December till his departure from that capital. — Ac
count of the minister Ho quen, and the articles of im
peachment against him. — The Chinese army. — Visit to
the Portuguese missionaries. — Visit to the temple of
Houang szu. — Interview with some natives of Corea,
and particulars respecting that country - Page 1
CHAP. II.
A short description of Peking, by Father Gaubil, with some
remarks by Mr. Timkowski. — Some account of the
manners and customs of the inhabitants, prices of provi
sions, &c. - - - 127
CHAP. III.
Historical, geographical, and ethnographical essay on Mon
golia .... 207
CHAP. IV.
Departure from Peking. — Route to Tsagan balgassou,
through the country of the Tsakhar Mongols 359

IV CONTENTS.

CHAP. V.

Journey through the country ofthe Tsakhars. — Pasturages.
— Studs and flocks of tbe Emperor of China Page 370
CHAP. VI.
Journey through the country of the Sounite Mongols 385
CHAP. VII.
Journey through the southern part of the country of the
Kalkas to Ourga - 402
CHAP. VIII.
Stay at Ourga. — Departure from that town for Kiakhta. —
Return to Russia. — Conclusion 430
Appendix .... 439

JOURNEY TO PEKING,
THROUGH
MONGOLIA.

CHAPTER I.
CONCLUSION OP OUR STAY AT PEKING. — VISIT TO THE
FRENCH MISSIONARIES.  VISIT TO THE TIBETAN LAMAS.
 VISIT TO THE PORTUGUESE MISSIONARIES.  INTER
VIEW WITH THE COREANS, AND PARTICULARS RELATIVE
TO COREA.
January 1, 1825. — On occasion of the new
year, divine service was solemnly celebrated by
the archimandrite Peter. In the evening, we
all supped with father Hyacinth; soon after,
we were joined by Tchang lieou *, a Mantchoo,
serving in the troops at Peking, who had been
for a long time on friendly terms with our Mis
sion. The emperor had just promoted him to
the fifth class, (the rank of a captain in Russia,)
and had at the same time appointed him commis-
* Tchang is his family name, and lieou in Chinese signifies
six : he was the sixth brother of his family.
VOL. II. B

% CONCLUSION of
sioner on the frontier which separates the pro
vince of Szu tchouan from Tibet. He wore in
his cap a peacock's feather, with an iris ; this
decoration, bestowed on those who have distin
guished themselves in service, was given to him
by the deceased emperor, for having saved the
baggage of the army during the pursuit of the
Miao tsu. These untameable people, living in
the high mountains which separate the southern
part of Szu tchouan from Yun nan, make fre
quent incursions into these provinces, which they
plunder and ravage. During the war carried
on against these mountaineers Tchang lieou
killed with an arrow one of the chief of the re
bels. This Mantchoo was extremely polite and
agreeable in conversation. The sight of the
splendid uniforms of the Russian officers, and the
sabres of the Cossacks, produced an extraordinary
impression upon him, as he afterwards confessed
to the archimandrite. Tchang lieou was formerly
attached to a beile, a prince of the third class.
The son of the beile, according to the political
principles of the country, where titles are not
hereditary, had only the dignity of beisse ;
having discovered that his father had left his
affairs in great confusion, determined to live in
a very retired manner. Tchang lieou, after
having been the first officer under the beile,
could not remain with his son, who was of in-

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 3
ferior rank, and had no right to retain in his suite
persons of a certain degree.
This beile had his residence, which was very
extensive, at a short distance from the Russian
house. Being rich, he lived in great style, and
several times invited the members of our Mission
to his entertainments. He was a descendant of
the emperor Kanghi, and had married the daugh
ter of Ho quen, first minister of Kien long.
Ho quen is known in China under the name
of Ho choung tong; he was for twenty years
the favourite of Kien long, who reigned from
1735 to 1795. He rose rapidly, continuing but
a short time in inferior posts ; but this, in the
opinion of the public, was not much to his
honour. At the age of eighteen he gained the
favour of Kien long by his agreeable manners,
and his quickness and sagacity in answering
difficult questions proposed to him. Even in
his youth he enjoyed the honour of having a
seat in the assembly of old men. Kien long
could not do without him, particularly in his
old age. His power and his fortune were bound
less; the nearest relations ofthe emperor courted
his protection. With the exception of a few
weaknesses, he was a very enlightened and
sagacious minister. This opinion ofthe Chinese
agrees perfectly with what Sir George Staunton
says of Ho quen, in his account of the embassy
of Lord Macartney : — " The prime minister of
b 2

4 CONCLUSION OF
China, who enjoyed almost exclusively the con
fidence of the emperor, was said to be a Tartar of
obscure birth, and raised about twenty years be
fore from an inferior station. He was on duty
at one of the gates of the palace, when the em
peror passed through it, and was struck with the
comeliness of his countenance ; but afterwards
finding that he had received a good education,
and possessed considerable talents, promoted
him rapidly, and he may be said to possess, under
the emperor, the whole power of the empire."
Sir George Staunton adds, further on : " The
manners of Ho choung tong were as pleasing
as his understanding was penetrating and acute.
He seemed, indeed, to possess all the qualities
of a consummate statesman. He had been raised
to office and authority, no doubt by the mere
favour of the emperor, as is usual in most mo
narchies ; but he was confirmed and maintained
in it, by the approbation of such persons, as by
their rank and eminence have influence in the
determinations of the most absolute govern
ments. A daughter of the emperor was
married to the son of Ho choung tong, and
this circumstance was thought sufficient to alarm
some members of the imperial family, and other
loyal subjects, as if they feared that the ambi
tion of the favourite might aspire to still greater
elevation." The death of Kien long put an end to the

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 5
glory, and even to the existence of Ho quen,
notwithstanding his extraordinary qualities, and
the great authority which he enjoyed. Kia king,
the successor of Kien long, gave loose to his re
sentment against his father's favourite. Ho quen.
was found guilty ; rigorous inquiry was made
into his past conduct, and this powerful man
perished with his whole family ; the imperial
exchequer seized his immense treasures. After
sentence had been passed upon Ho quen, Kia
king published a proclamation containing an
enumeration of his crimes.
The imperial edict, containing the articles of
impeachment against Ho chung tong is to the
following effect. After mentioning the extraor
dinary marks of royal favour conferred upon the
minister by the late emperor, and expressing his
majesty's extreme unwillingness to displace any
of the chosen servants of the state, whom his
imperial father had employed or honoured with
his confidence, the emperor proceeds as fol
lows : —
" But the crimes for which Ho-quen now
stands impeached in several distinct charges by
the united voice of the principal magistrates and
nobles of the state, are of such magnitude and
importance as appear to exclude even the possit
bility of extenuation.
" As soon, accordingly, as we had performed
the immediate duties which were imposed on us.
b 3

6 CONCLUSION OF
by the demise of our imperial father, we issued
orders that Ho-quen should be divested of all
his dignities and employments, and committed
to trial on the following charges, or articles of
impeachment : —
" 1st, When our royal father, on the 3d day
of the 9th moon of the 60th year of his reign,
elected ourself to be his heir and successor, Ho-
quen waited on us, on the 2d of the moon pre
vious to the disclosure of the imperial edict, and
presented us with the insignia of the rank newly
conferred on us, thereby betraying an important
secret of the state that had been confided to
him, in the expectation that such conduct would
be meritorious in our estimation.
" 2d, On receiving the summons of our imperial
father, on the 1st moon of the preceding year,
to attend at the palace of Yuen-ming-yuen, he
ventured to ride in on horseback through the
left gate, and by the great hall of Ching-ta-
quang-ming as far as the bottom of the mount
called Sheu-shan, regardless to a degree beyond
example, of a father and a sovereign.
" 3d, When formerly suffering from a lame
ness in his feet, he went into the interior of the
palace in a palanquin, and passed and repassed
through the gate of Shin-vu-men in a wheel
chair before the gazing eyes of the multitude,
and without the smallest fear or hesitation.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 7
" 4tb, The young females that were educated
for the service of the palace, he took from
thence, and appropriated to himself as concu
bines, without any sensation of shame or regard
to decorum.
"5th, During the latter . campaigns against
the rebels in the provinces of Se-chuen and Hou-
quang, when our imperial father waited with
anxious expectation for intelligence from the
army, so as to be bereft of sleep and appetite,
Ho-quen received himself, the various reports
that arrived from the troops stationed in differ
ent quarters of the empire, and detained them
according to his pleasure, with a view to deceive
his sovereign by misrepresentation and conceal
ment ; in consequence whereof the military
operations of the campaign were for a consider
able time incomplete and ineffectual."*
*6th, During the illness of the most high em
peror, Ho-chung-tong, without seeming in the
least affected, went in and out of the palace,
laughed and joked as usual with all the officers he
met, and thus gave a proof of his disrespectful
arrogance. "7th, Having been appointed, by a decree of
our imperial father, to the presidency of the
* A different motive was assigned for this at Peking:
every body said the minister had concealed the bad news,
with the good intention of not still more disturbing the peace
of mind of his aged and infirm master.
B 4

CONCLUSION OF

supreme board for civil affairs, and also to that
of the supreme court of judicature ; and after
wards, on account of some experience acquired
in superintending the disbursements ofthe army,
having been directed by another imperial decree
to officiate as secretary to the supreme board of
revenue ; he immediately united in his own per
son the power and authority which were respec
tively annexed to these several high offices.
" 8th, Last winter, when the venerable per
son of our imperial father laboured under in
firmity, his signature and hand-writing were in
some places confused and not easily distinguish
able ; whereupon Ho-quen had the audacity to
declare, that they had ' better be thrown aside;*
and then issued orders of his own suggestion.
" 9th, In the last moon of the preceding
year, Kieu-ko reported, that in the districts of
Sin-Wha and Quei-Te, a party of above a thou
sand of the rebels had collected, and forcibly
carried away a herd of cattle belonging to the
Da-lai-la-ma's merchants, as well as mortally
wounded two persons, and that they still con
tinued to ravage the district of Ching-hay. Ho-
quen however rejected and dismissed the report,
and, concealing the whole transaction, took no
measures in consequence.
" 10th,Onthe late event of our imperial father's
decease, we issued our orders, declaring that
the attendance of such of the princes and chief-

OUR STAY AT PEKING.

9

tians of the Mongol tribes as had not had the
small-pox would be dispensed with ; but Ho-
quen, in opposition to our commands, signified to
them that none should attend, whether having
or not having had that disease ; regardless ofthe
intention of our government to shew to foreign
tribes our kindness and consideration. The
motives of his conduct herein it would indeed
be difficult to investigate.
" 11th, The minister of state, Su-lin-go, was
entirely deaf) and worn out by age and infirmity;
yet, because he was connected by marriage with
Ho-lin, the younger brother of Ho-quen, his in
capacity to discharge the duties of his situation
was artfully concealed from the emperor's know
ledge. " 12th, The officers Ou-sung-lan, and Ly-
han, and Ly-quang-yun, having received their
education at the house of Ho-quen, have been
since promoted to the most respectable offices
in the state.
" 13th, Many of the principal officers whose
names have been registered in the different civil
and military departments have been, in instances
too numerous to be particularized in this place,
removed and dismissed according to his pleasure,
and by his sole authority.
" 14th, In the late confiscation of the pro
perty of Ho-quen, many apartments were found
to be built in a most costly manner of the im
perial wood Nan-moo, and several ornamented

10 CONCLUSION OF
terraces and separate inclosures were observed
to have been constructed in the style and resem
blance ofthe imperial palace of Ning-sheu-kung:
the gardens were likewise laid out in a style little
differing from that of Yuen-ming-yuen and Fung-
tao-yao-tay; but with what view or design we
cannot imagine."
*15th, The cemetery made by him, surround
ed by a large canal, and resembling in the in
terior the eastern imperial cemetery, is an ob
ject of the admiration and respect of the peo
ple, who, on account of its splendour, do not
venture to call it by the usual name of faeng (a
common burying-ground), but unanimously call
it Un (an imperial cemetery.)
" 16th, Among his treasures of pearls and
precious stones, upwards of two hundred strings
or bracelets of the former were discovered, many
times exceeding in value those in our imperial
possession. One among the pearls belonging to
Ho-quen was of an enormous size, and exceeded
even that which adorns the imperial crown.
There were likewise found various buttons dis
tinguishing princely rank, carved out of pre
cious stones, such as his situation by no means
entitled him to wear. Many score of these
gems were discovered, besides pieces of the same
kind in the rough state, to an incalculable
amount, and in an endless variety, unknown
even among the imperial treasures."
*17th, Among his countless treasures was found

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 11
a complete dress of ceremony, the colour of
which was yellow, which by the laws is limited
exclusively to our imperial use. Ho-chung-tong
is no more than our slave. What then did he
intend? This important discovery excites in
the highest degree our distrust and displeasure.
* 18th, In his treasury, sums to an immense
amount have been discovered. To be prime-
minister, and vie with merchants in mean love of
gain, is one of the greatest crimes.
* 1 9th, The gold taken from the walls of his
house where it was deposited, amounted to
4800 lbs. ; the silver to twenty-three million Ian.
* The articles marked with an * are not in the translation
of this decree by Sir George Staunton, who says : — " Some
of the charges may appear frivolous, and others the mere
suggestion of personal enmity ; but the presumptive and
corroborating evidence arising from the immense and almost
incalculable treasures which he was found, upon an examin
ation of his property, to have amassed, afford a sufficiently
convincing proof of his guilt and corruption. According to
a statement that was received as authentic at Canton at the
time of the confiscation of his effects, it appears, that besides
lands, houses, and other immoveable property to an amazing
amount, not less than 80 millions of Chinese ounces of silver,
or about 23,330,000/. sterling value in bullion or gems, was
found in his treasury. This sum, though immense, is not
incredible, when the vast extent of the empire is considered,
over the various departments of which he had certainly for
many years a very unusual, and indeed almost an unbounded
influence.

12 CONCLUSION OF
January 3d.— We visited to-day the shops of
the merchants, situated, for the most part, in the
Chinese suburb of Vai-lo-tching.
At the commencement of the street of Lieou
li tchang, which is very narrow and dirty, there
are several booksellers' shops. They sell Chinese
and Mantchoo books, which they keep ready
bound, and in good order ; but when we come
to examine them, we soon discover that many
of them are imperfect. The Chinese booksellers,
like many of ours, will ask five times as much
as a book is worth : they try to put off copies
which want some leaves, or are composed of the
sheets of three or four different works. You
must be very much on your guard to avoid being
imposed upon: the same mistrust, indeed, is
necessary in the purchase of other articles. The
best books and chiefly historical ones, are printed
at the imperial press, where the booksellers of
Peking and other towns buy them at prices
fixed by the government. This press, likewise,
publishes every two days, a gazette containing
the extraordinary events which occur in the
empire, ordinances, and especially a list of the
promotions and favours granted by the emperor,
such as yellow robes and peacocks' feathers,
which are equivalent to orders of knighthood in
Europe ; the punishment of Mandarins who have
been guilty of misconduct, &c.
Printers and even booksellers have copper

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 13
and wooden plates engraved for works of minor
interest ; as many copies are printed off' as are
required, and which are sold at arbitrary prices.
Very neat and legible characters, printed on fine
paper, enhance the price of a work. Moveable
types cannot be used for the Chinese language :
their best paper is made of cotton.
Further on, in the same street, are the jewel
lers' shops, where they sell pictures, articles
sculptured in jasper, ivory, and fine wood for
ornamenting apartments, the workmanship of
which is very good. We also see glass wares,
varnished porcelain, &c. ; every thing of the
best quality. There are even things which come
from the imperial palace, and which the eunuchs
contrive to carry off, and sell at a low price to
the shopkeepers ; likewise English goods im
ported into Canton.
At a little distance is the manufactory of
earthen ware and coloured glass, which is called
Lieou li tchang, and is under the direction of a
Mantchoo and a Chinese. They make here
varnished tiles of various colours. The building
in which the manufactory is carried on is narrow,
but occupies a space of two li in length. The
entrance is from the great square, which serves
as a public promenade, from the first to the
seventeenth of the first month of the new year.
Toys are sold, and mountebanks and jugglers
exhibit here.

H« CONCLUSION OF
Near each gate of the town, between the
southern wall and the canal, we meet with
saddled asses for the use of the public. The
Chinese mount these animals to go from one gate
to another, for which they pay ten tchokhi, or
about four copecks in copper : they are likewise
used to carry light burdens. In winter, the
canals being frozen over, they are crossed in a
kind of sledge which contains several persons,
and is drawn by one man. We were told
that people often travel from Peking to the
southern provinces in little carts drawn by men
— a melancholy consequence of the too numer
ous population, which is destitute of means to
obtain a better livelihood. The extent of China
is disproportionate to the number of the inha
bitants, and the ground is exhausted by inces
sant cultivation.
Near the wall of the town are caverns which
serve as habitations for the poor. It is impos
sible to form an idea of the deplorable spectacle
presented by these unhappy people. Almost
destitute of clothing, and covered with frag
ments of mat, they haunt the shops of the mer
cantile quarters, and when they have received a
few tchokhi, return and hide themselves in their
caves. Mr. De Guignes, who for a long time resided
in China, states that these beggars collect in the
evening in the suburbs of Canton, and crowd

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 15
together to preserve themselves from the cold.
But as they cannot all obtain a sufficient degree
of warmth in this manner, several of them die,
and their bodies remain exposed among the trees
and pieces of wood which cover the banks ofthe
Ta-ho. Nobody was able to inform me whether there
existed at Peking any hospital or other charit
able institutions for the poor. There is only a
house of education in the suburb of Vai-lo-tching,
near the gate of Kouang-kiu, which was built
under the present dynasty, in 1662. Young-
tching in 1724 erected here a stone monument,
and assigned an annual revenue of one thousand
silver Ian to this establishment, which is under
the direction of persons of acknowledged integ
rity. It is said that in winter a dish of boiled
rice is given to the beggars in the name of the
emperor ; but only a small number are able to
profit by this bounty. Every year, from the
fifteenth day of the tenth month to the fifteenth
day ofthe second month of the year following, or
from November to March, that is, during the
four months of the inclement season, the bonzes
distribute among the poor boiled rice, fur
nished by the magazines which are established
to receive part of the imposts in kind. The
distribution is made in the temple of Loung-
vang-thang, or Tchao-yang, near the wall of the

16 CONCLUSION OF
city at Vai-lo-tching, or beyond the gate of the
eastern tower.
On returning to our quarters we saw a corps
of Mantchoo infantry, who were exercising
themselves in shooting with arrows, on a spot
between the southern wall and the canal. These
soldiers were not remarkable for bodily strength :
they took pains, in drawing their bows, rather
to place themselves in a fine attitude, than to
take a good aim.
The English, who look at the Chinese em
pire through a magnifying glass, estimate the
number of its troops at a million infantry and
eight hundred thousand cavalry. They add,
with equal confidence, that the maintenance
of this formidable army amounts annually to
87,400,000 silver Ian, which would make at least
600 millions of rubles. Every nation makes,
more or less, a secret of its financial resources,
and of the real force of its army ; and it is well
known that strangers cannot obtain from the
Asiatics any positive or official information on
the subject. They are therefore obhged to be
content with the unconnected notices which
they may collect. Having obtained, during my
stay at Peking, some particulars relative to the
Chinese army which seem to be authentic, I
will communicate them to my readers. The
land force consists of four divisions, according
to the number of nations which compose the
19

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 17
empire. The division consisting of Mantchoos
holds the first rank, and comprises six hundred
and seventy-eight companies of a hundred men;
67,800 men.
The second division is composed of Mongols,
who entered China with the Mantchoos at the
time of the conquest. They are formed into
two hundred and eleven companies ; 21,100
men. The third division, called Oudjen-tchookha, is
composed of Chinese who joined the Mantchoos
towards the end ofthe reign ofthe last Chinese
dynasty. It consists of two hundred and seventy
companies ; 27,000 men. This division includes
the field artillery, consisting of four hundred
cannon. Thus these three corps, or the Mantchoo
army, properly so called, form a total of about
1 16,000 men : the greater part is cavalry. Each
of these corps is divided into eight standards or
divisions. The fourth and last division is composed of
native Chinese, annually recruited. It occupies
the garrisons ofthe interior ; it is designated by the
name of the green flag, and contains about five
hundred thousand men. There are, besides these,
nearly a hundred and twenty-five thousand men,
of irregular troops or militia, which make a total
of six hundred and twenty-five thousand men, of
which nearly a hundred and seventy-five thou
sand are cavalry. Consequently the number of
VOL. II. c

18 CONCLUSION OF
men under the command of the Mantchoos
amounts to 740,000 men. They have, besides,
the irregular light Mongol cavalry, which, in
their organization and the nature of their service,
resemble our Cossacks of the Don,' Oural, &c.
Some persons estimate the number of the
Mongol cavalry at five hundred thousand men,
but it is impossible to ascertain this with any
degree of exactness.
The Chinese troops are chiefly cantoned :
1. In the capital and its environs.
2. Eastwards, in the country of the Mant
choos, and near the banks of the Amour.
3. Westwards, on the banks of the Hi, near
the Altai mountains.
The commander of this last corps ofthe army
is at the same time governor of Chinese Turkes
tan. There are about twelve thousand men in
the citadel of Kalgan, and about forty thousand
in Canton. There are likewise from ten to forty
thousand men in garrison in the other provinces,
according to the exigency of the service.
The Chinese soldiers are all married ; their
sons at the moment of birth are entered on the
muster-roll of the army. When they attain a
certain age, they enter the places which have
become vacant in the companies.
The soldiers of the first, second, and third
divisions receive, besides their equipment, a
horse, quarters, rice for their support, and a sum
• 20

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 19
of three or four Ian per month. With this sum
they are obliged to provide themselves with
uniforms, and to keep their accoutrements in
good condition. This regulation causes them
to have a very motley appearance, and to be
very incomplete in their equipments. Lands
belonging to the crown are assigned to the sol
diers of the fourth division, which they cultivate
for their subsistence. These troops are filled up
by voluntary enrolments : many persons adopt
this course in order to avoid misery and famine.
The Chinese soldiers are dressed like the other
inhabitants ofthe empire, with the exception of
the jacket, which they wear over the other
clothes, and which must be of the same colour
as the standard to which they belong ; namely,
yellow, white, red, blue, with or without a bor
der. The soldiers, when ranged in order of
battle, have a pretty good appearance. In time
of war they wear iron helmets, quilted coats of
mail, and wicker shields made of bamboo. This
kind of defensive armour is insufficient to resist
the sabre of a hussar or a cuirassier, and still
more useless against fire-arms.
The Chinese and Mantchoo soldiers are
chiefly exercised in the use of the bow, as well
on horseback as on foot ; then in that of the
matchlock ; and, lastly, of artillery.
The Chinese soldiers do not acquire much
dexterity in any of these exercises. Naturally
c 2

20 CONCLUSION OF
of weak constitutions, and accustomed to a tran
quil and idle life, they want the strength neces
sary to draw the bow. Their great poverty fre
quently prevents them from procuring a musket,
so that they are obliged to borrow one from a
neighbour when they are on duty. The musket,
besides, has no ramrod; the powder is weak, and,
consequently, the shot wants force and accuracy.
Lastly, the soldier always holds the piece ele
vated, for fear the ball should fall out. The
artillery, which in Europe decides a battle, is in
a miserable condition among the Chinese. It
was introduced by the Portuguese: the greater
part of the cannons and mortars were cast at
Peking under the direction of the Jesuits.
These fathers have, for a long time, managed
the artillery of the Chinese empire.
Though the soldiers of the first and second
division, that is to say, the Mantchoos and the
Mongols their allies, compose the flower of the
Chinese army, and enjoy great privileges, they
are really so very feeble that they deserve pity
rather than praise. In the theatre they are
turned into ridicule, and represented as spoiled
children, weak in mind and body, having lost
the ancient valour which distinguished them in
their own country, and taking no pains to im
prove in civilization. In fact, there are none
but the troops from the countries of the Mant
choos, and that of the Dakour Solon, near the

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 21
banks of the Amour, who by their strict disci
pline and bravery merit the name of soldiers.
Next to them, the best troops are said to be
those which are cantoned in the province of Iii.
The fourth division, composed of Chinese
recruits, is the most neglected. They have
much harder duty to perform, and derive fewer
advantages from it. The Chinese soldiers, de
scendants of those who joined the Mantchoos,
and who are known by the name of Oudjen-
tchooka, are also but little esteemed in compari
son of the first and second divisions. The reign
ing dynasty having forgotten that it is indebted
to them for the throne, makes them feel that it
can now do without them : it deprives them of
the rewards which are due to them, and almost
reduces them to a level with the lowest class of
the people. This bad treatment has excited a
spirit of discontent in these troops.
The naval force of China is said to be still
more insignificant than the army. There are
but few ships of war, which are ill built and
badly equipped.
To conclude this article, I will give an im
perial ordinance of the seventeenth day of the
sixth month of the fifth year Kia King, (July,
1800,) which M. Lipootsof has translated from
the Mantchoo. It shows the miserable condi
tion of the Mantchoo soldiers, which has grown
worse since that time. c 3

22 CONCLUSION OF
"A report has lately been received from
Lebao, the commander-in-chief, in which he
says, among other things, that the soldiers and
officers who had been sent to him, of what is
called the chosen corps of the Mantchoos, • are
not only entirely ignorant of every thing relative
to the service, but are even incapable of bearing
the fatigues and dangers inseparable from the
military profession. For these reasons, the em
peror has decided that it was better to send them
back to Peking, than to leave them with the
army, where they would be of no use : their
maintenance would cost too much, and they
would only set a bad example. The emperor
therefore orders, that as soon as they have ar
rived in the capital, they shall be placed under
the. orders of the principal officers of the corps,
who are enjoined to take care that these soldiers
be instructed in the military exercises, of which
it is a disgrace to them to be ignorant. As for
the Chinese soldiers who are under the command
of General Eldembao, he has found them per
fectly well-trained, and well equipped, and
praises them accordingly. These soldiers, not
withstanding the fatigues to which they are
almost daily exposed, have behaved in many
battles with distinguished valour.
" It results from these accounts that the
Mantchoos are, in no respect, fit for military
service. The reason is, that they are not exer-

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 23
cised during peace, and are entirely left to
themselves, which renders them negligent, effe
minate, and idle. At the time when our Mant
choo soldiers, despising the dangers which their
small number caused them to meet with at every
step, behaved with such courage that they
always beat an enemy ten times more numerous,
and when victory always attended our arms, we
had a right to say, that, from the remotest ages
to our own times, there never had been seen, in
the whole world, braver soldiers than the Mant
choos : and yet there were, at that time, no
corps regularly formed, as at present, into which,
according to the regulations, none are to be ad
mitted but the best soldiers and officers, pro
vided with every thing, that they may be able
to attend exclusively to their military duties.
Then the common interest, ardent zeal, the love
of independence, and true patriotism, animated
every Mantchoo, and rendered him invincible.
The present Mantchoo soldiers, notwithstanding
all the efforts of the government, cannot be
compared, in any respect, with their ancestors,
and to our extreme regret they are even become
weaker than the Chinese soldiers : in short, they
are good for nothing. We formerly had a pretty
good opinion of the select corps, and the artil
lery, but at present we see with regret that it is
quite the contrary. And if the soldiers of these
corps are so undisciplined and so effeminate,
c 4

24 CONCLUSION OF
what idea must be conceived of our guards and
the other soldiers ? Ah, Mantchoos ! are you
really so degenerate, that a sense of honour no
longer affects you, and that your conscience
makes you no reproaches? We ourselves, who
draw up this ordinance, experience at every
word a feeling of shame in thinking of your
incapacities. " In spite of this conduct of our soldiers,
which deserves to be punished, General Fou-
semboo has the boldness to lay before us the
absurd demand to grant particular rewards to all
the Mantchoo soldiers, in order to excite in them
more zeal for the service. But this inconsider
ate officer has forgotten, that during our whole
imperial reign, our greatest benefits have been
continually conferred upon them ; for, indepen
dently of the fixed pay, granted only to the
Mantchoos, amounting to above 320,000 Ian
per month, we cause the amount of a month's
pay to be given them at the end of a year, and
considerable sums annually for their clothing.
A Mantchoo of either sex marrying receives two
months' pay, six or eight Ian in silver, and
double the sum for the burial of a man or
woman. Considering all these extraordinary
advantages, proceeding from our extreme kind
ness to the soldiers, every body must confess
that our sovereign munificence to the Mantchoos
is without bounds. To grant, in addition, par-

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 25
ticular rewards, without any just ground, would
be contrary to good sense, and to the principles
of a wise government.
" It is reported that the soldiers whose inca
pacity has been reported by General Lebao were
not taken from the chosen corps, but that all
those had been sent, without distinction, who
had expressed a desire to join the army. We
cannot help laughing at this idea, which must
contribute to accuse rather than to defend them.
We ask, what do they mean by being sent to
the army at their own desire ? Is it not to prove
to the emperor and the country, that they are
really his faithful subjects and children, ready
to expose their lives, and to march bravely
against the enemy who dares to trouble the
general tranquillity, and to display by this con
duct the noble sentiments of their gratitude for
the very great favours which they have enjoyed
during the time of peace ? But destitute, like
vile slaves, of every generous sentiment, and far
from being animated with a desire to distinguish
themselves by great deeds, they have disgraced
themselves by all kinds of vices, deserving of
severe punishment. They expressed a desire to
join the army only to gratify the more easily their
wicked propensities.
" It has come to our knowledge that during
the whole march they have illegally exacted
from the mandarins of the provinces through

26 CONCLUSION OF
which they passed, considerable sums of money,
and violently seized every thing which tempted
their cupidity. But this is not the whole that
tends to their dishonour. After having joined
the army, they alleged various pretexts to avoid
the field of battle, and nevertheless continued to
receive their pay every month, while they spent
the whole time at ease in their quarters. What
real service can be expected from soldiers who
have gone from the capital to the army with
such unworthy notions ?
" It is our will that this ordinance be made
known to all our generals and officers, that they
may proceed with zeal, and without regard to
the time or trouble which it may occasion, to
exercise the soldiers under their command every
day, in order to render them, in two or three
years at the most, perfectly skilful in the use of
the bow. This is to be understood of the in
fantry as well as of the cavalry. The soldiers
must also be complete masters of all other parts
ofthe military exercise, to render themselves at
length worthy of the celebrated name of the
Mantchoos. In twenty-seven months we shall
in person review the two corps, without making
known beforehand either the time or place.
This review will be made with scrupulous atten
tion, and the greatest rigour. If, contrary to all
expectation, the soldiers should be found imper
fect in their .exercises, or inattentive to their

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 27
duties, all the officers, from the highest to the
lowest, shall be most severely punished. Let
every one, then, take advantage ofthe indulgence
which we grant for the last time ; — let every one
zealously employ the time that is granted him to
repair his faults, and to render himself worthy
of his condition and his rank."
January 6th. — This being the Epiphany,
divine service was celebrated by the ecclesiasti
cal members ofthe new mission.
January 7th. — A storm took place during
the night, which shivered the branches of a
huge cypress which stood near our church.
At Peking, storms are frequent both in winter
and spring.
January 9th. — Towards evening a Chinese
soldier ofthe corps of theOudjen-tchookha of Pe
king, whose name was Peter Bourjoie, paid a visit
to the chief of the new mission at a time when I
was with him. He was about forty years of age,
the son of a poor soldier, and educated in the
convent ofthe French Jesuits in this city, who
intended him for a Roman catholic preacher in
the interior provinces of China, and first of all
to send him to Europe in order to complete
his studies, as had been done with his uncle,
who had become a celebrated priest among his
countrymen. But during the last persecution
against the Jesuits, Peter Bourjoie renouncing
the ecclesiastical profession, thought it his duty

28 CONCLUSION OF
to return to his regiment. Besides the Chinese,
his native language, he speaks and writes Latin
and French very well, and is in general pos
sessed of considerable knowledge. It is singular
enough to hear a Chinese, dressed and armed in
the fashion of his country, speak French with
fluency. The students of the mission employ
him, on very reasonable terms, as a private
teacher ofthe Chinese, only because he speaks
Latin well. But this circumstance may perhaps
delay, rather than favour their progress; be
cause, tired of the difficulties of the Chinese
language, they have recourse to the Latin,
which is more familiar to them. Bourjoie, how
ever, like a great number of the Jesuits, has not
a perfect knowledge of the Chinese.
In order to show how well- versed this soldier
is in the sciences, and in the Latin language, I
annex the copy of a letter which he wrote to the
archimandrite Peter, giving him advice how to
enjoy a long life. I have made no change in
the orthography.
" Received, January 8, 1821.
" Domine Pater reverendissime !
" Alpha et Omeka inquiebat : ' Venite et
faciemus hominem ad imaginem et similitudinem
nostram, etc'
"Hoc textu scriptura? sacra? commonefacimur,
ipsummet hominem ex ingenito prseditum esse

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 29
divinis dotibus, ut intelligentia, memoria de prae-
terito, pra?videntia de futuro, iis que innumera-
bilibus, esseque eum comparticipem divina?
naturae. Natura autem Dei summe verax est ;
ex summa auteni veracitate consequitur infinita
consolitudo seu consolitum, seu spissum infini
tum ; indeque eummet Deum esse aeternum,
docent sacra et pfofana, apprObant que argu-
mentionibus infallibilibus experientiisque Logica
et Metaphysica.
" Homo vero, quia comparticeps est divina?
natura?, non potest quin naturaliter protendet aut
desideret a?ternitatem vitae. Quapropter tradi-
tione audimus, inter Romanos et Graecos quam
plures et in diversis saeculis, multis modis et ad-
inventionibus conati sunt, quibus diutius (aut uti
volebant ipsimet) perpetuo vivere. Hinc Pytha
goras, advertens ingenuinum hoc desiderium
longiturnitatis vita? esse in hominibus, incepit et
promulgavit secundum ductum mentis sua? me-
tempsicosis tractata, quamque falsa esse, philo-
sophus posternus non ignorat.
" Hinc in hoc nostro Imperio ab antiquissimo
tempore fuere Dao-s, qui praeter metempsicosin
docent perpetuitatem vitae, et quasdam pilullas a
se compositas aut (ut jactant) divinitus donatas ;
qui ad hunc finem immortalitatis subducunt se
ab omni sollicitudine, et se coarctant in suis ha-
bitationibus, aut in speluncis montium, maxime-
que attemperant suum animum ita, ut numquam

30 CONCLUSION OF
sinant se agitari affectionibus affectibus queisque ;
quorum insanie aliqui nostri Imperatores (ut
pra?termitto innumerabiles homines inter Van-ye,
Da-gin et populum, tam pauperes quam divites,
ad hanc usque diem) tentati, infructuose finie-
runt vitam suam, ut videre licet in Dhun-kien-
kan-mu. " Itaque ego Petrus, fex hominum, a viginti
annis legi libros nostras medicos et redegi illos
in praxin usque nunc quindecim annis amplius.
Verum est, quod libris illis multa admixta ridi-
cula et imaginata dicta; lectores autem prudentes
oportet colligere sibi fruges et relinquere her
bas, herbas que inutiles, sylvestras et venenosas
zizaniaque ipsamet. Haec satis esse puto dicta,
ut Honor suus assentiat, servum suum Petrum
de Dao-s licet instructum, longe tamen esse ab
eorum mente, et pure profited Medicinam, tam
theorice quam practice, ab Huan-ti usque nunc
de sa?culo in sa?culum traditam ; ejusque et doc-
torum medicorum nostrorum disciplinis addictus,
media aliquot offeroprosuamet quotidiana vivendi
ratione ; ut sint utilia sua? caniciei et proficua ;
indeque sequi debet (quibuscunque aliis occa-
sionibus improvisis exceptis, aut ut logice caeteris
paribus) diuturnitas seu plenus cursus vitae,
id est, peractio aut impletio septuaginta aut octo-
ginta annorum secundum communem mentem.
Longe est, quod crederem aeternitatem esse
posse in hoc mundo.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 31
" Ecce, Domine serenissime mihique Benefac
tor, accipe, quaeso, in Latina lingva.
" Honoris sui adductissimus et obsequentissi-
mus humillimusque Petrus de Bourjoie.
" Principles of Chinese Hygieine.
" 1. Esuriens cibare ; dum ob wtatem minuitur
appetitus, non conturbare.
" Plerique seniores conati sunt plus cibum ca-
pere, putantes sibi esse proficuum ; inde ob in-
digestionem exurgunt acrimoniae, seu pilae, aut
flegmata, et ipsa accidentia ; prolongetur neuti-
quam eorum numerus aatatis.
" 2. Sapitum gustum caveto, ne citra justum
accipies. " Juniores et fortes apti ad digestionem sunt ;
seniores vero et debiles debent cavere.
" 3. Inter quatuor tempora, hiemem censeas
pretiosum et prwcipuum pro sanitate seniorum ac
debilium. " Quia frigus est evitabilis in calefactis domi-
bus, et illo tempore vires vitales recolliguntur sine
dispersione ; bonum pro senibus debilibusque
tempus est.
" 4. Lautio potest disperdere vires vitales.
" Convalescentes, seniores, debiles evitabunt
earn; fortes autem accipiunt suo lubitu, sed ver-
no tempore et in aestate raro.
" 5. Pavimentum cubiculi non debet esse integre
calefactum. " Quando sub pedibus est calor nimius, tunc

32 CONCLUSION OF
totius corporis humores descendunt, hinc homo
cito debilitatur ; sed oportet partem pavimenti
calefactam et alteram frigidam, ut pedes alterna-
tim et caleficiantur et refrigescantur. Ad hoc
nititius explicandum, caret mihi terminis suis
propriis. " 6. Valde nocet ira.
" Ira vehemens in forlibus causat suffoca-
tionem repentinam, in mediocriter fortibus spu
tum sanguinis, in adhuc minus fortibus dolores
pectoris et subcostarum, in senibus et debilibus
mortem subitaneam ; experientiam plurimam
habui. " 7> Profunda meditatio et ardua non debet
esse prolongata.
" Si ob unicam ideam vivacem seu funditus
permoventem, palpitatio cordialis acceleretur,
aut arctetur ; tunc vita non durabit multo.
" 8. In verno tempore, in loco paululum cale-
Jacto tranquillo animo vivito.
" Pro debilibus et senioribus incongruum est
hoc tempus. Multi homines patiuntur aliquam
altercationem sanitatis in illo ; vulgaris homo dat
consilium, ut illi perpessi accipiant multam mo-
tionem sive exercitationem corporis ; hoc autem
consilium non procedit a fundo scientia? medici-
nalis. "9. In (estate, in refrigerio pacifice, id est,
absque exercitatione corporis, vivito.
" In aestate, ob calorem et aerem humitosum

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 33
vegetata crescunt, pleraque autem caro incom-
modatur ; fortibus nihil est dicere ; seniores et
debiles debent caute transigere tempus istud.
" 10. In autumno tempore cibos oleos, seujlui-
tos, seu humorosos cibos cape, et exercitare.
" Autumnus apud nos ordinario est siccatissi-
mus ; unde debet unusquisque illo tempore sua
cibaria dilucita et quodam modo sorbilia, praeter
eos, qui cursu ventris laborabunt ; insuper senes
et debiles abstinebunt a fructibus, et minus for
tes quandoque. Et eo tempore expetit seniori-
bus et debilibus exercitatio aliqua corporis.
" Ha? aliqua? recommendationes sunt, quas
ego secundum inveterata docta, respectu injuri-
arum aeris hodierni, et pro climate, gradu punc-
toque in quo nos vivimus, excogitavi. Easque
a quindecim annis dum occurro senioribus aut
debilibus, illis trado; verum retrorsis annis video
illos adhuc superstites esse, et dicunt se non aliis
modis praeter has recommendationes, usos esse,
quasque affirmant suo proprio experimento uti-
lissimas esse. Eas ergo toto corde cum reve-
rentia offero Honoris sui serenitati et discretion i,
si digna videbuntur ad suam incolumitatem et
exequitionem, nee ne ? — Haec est conversio
meae linguae Sinensis; ergo non redarguor de
Latinitatis imperfection e.
" De caetero adverti inter Europaeos Patres,
de quibus fbrsan Honor suus recordatur, Amiot,
VOL. II. D

34 CONCLUSION OF
Bernard, Poirot, Na Germanus, Ilman Pansi,
non aliis, quam istis familiaribus et simplicibus
vivendi rationibus, pervenerunt, licet debiles, ad
octogintaplus minusve annos : e contra, Domini
Raux, Bourjoie, Guislain, Hanna Anglus, An-
tonius, Alexander Episcopus, qui, his vulgari-
bus et minutissimis punctis neglectis, licet fortes
omnes, intra terminum sexaginta et quinquaginta
annorum finiverunt."
January 10. — As Mr. Razghildejef was known
to the Mongols that live upon the frontiers, near
the post of Tsouroukhaitou, the young son of the
oukherida (commander of a regiment) of the
Bargou Bouriats, who had come to Peking to
solicit an officer's commission, paid us a visit ;
he had been presented the day before to the em
peror, with several of his countrymen. Some
days before, I had made him a present of a cou
ple of good razors ; to-day, taking advantage of
his office, I gave him for Mr. Speranski, gover
nor-general of Siberia, despatches for our minis
ter of foreign affairs, whom I informed of our
arrival at Peking. The packet was addressed
to a Cossack officer, commanding a hundred
men at Tsouroukhaitou, with the request to de
liver it to the tribunal of the frontier, estabhshed
at Troitskosauskaia.
At two o'clock in the afternoon the archi
mandrite Peter, Father Hyacinth, and myself,
paid a visit to- Father Gau, of the Franciscan

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 35
order, and bishop of Peking, who resides in the
northern convent, called in Chinese Pe tang.
This convent, situated in an angle, at the north.
west part of the city, was formerly occupied by
the French missionaries, the last of whom, named
Grammont, had recently been sent back by order
of the government. As soon as we entered the
court-yard some Chinese converts came to meet
us, and conducted us into the parlour ; the bishop
and the chief of the convent soon came in.
Father Gau, aged about thirty-eight years, is
a Portuguese. He speaks Latin well, but with
a very singular accent, and holds the office of
translator in the Nei ko, or council of state. He
is said to be very well versed in theology, philo--
sophy, and mathematics. He received us with
great affability. Our conversation turned on
the journey we had just completed, the victories
of the Russians in 1812, 1813, and 1814, and
the ill success of the last English embassy at
Peking. There were in this room two large
book-cases full of books, several portraits of the
kings of France, among others one of Louis
XVI, the portrait of Father Parennin, well
known for the share he had in fixing the frontier
between Russia and China, as well as the por
traits of several other French Jesuits. We saw
also engravings representing battles between the
Chinese and the Soungarians, under the reign of
d 2

36 CONCLUSION OF
Khang hi.* These battles were engraved and
printed at Paris, from the designs of the Jesuits
who were in the service of the emperor at that
time. The engravings were sent to China with
the coppers : the designs are very spirited, and
the engravings well executed.
After about half an hour's conversation,
Father Gau conducted us to the church of the
convent, which is built of stone, very plain, in
the form of an oblong parallelogram. The in
terior is adorned with pretty good pictures, re
presenting subjects of sacred history. It is said
that the convent of St. Joseph, which formerly
existed in the eastern part of Peking, and which
was inhabited by the Italian and German mis
sionaries, was a very admirable specimen of the
taste of the Europeans in the fine arts, which are
almost unknown to the Chinese. This convent
was destroyed by fire, and not a trace of it now
remains. The church of the convent of the
north is the principal one in Peking. Our clergy
chose it for the model of that which they had
built at the expense of the emperor Young
tching. In the Roman Catholic church carpets
are spread opposite the altar, on which Chinese
Christians sit during divine service. The church
is surrounded with cypress and juniper trees, the
* This is a mistake of the author. The battles engraved
at Paris were those fought by the troops of Kien long, about
the middle of the eighteenth century.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 37
branches of which are cut in different shapes,
according to the ancient Dutch and French
taste. When we returned to the parlour, Father Gau
gave us a collation in the Chinese fashion, with
Madeira and coffee. The latter had been sent
him from Macao, which led him to make the ill-
founded observation that the English colonies
produced no coffee. He complained that it was
very long since he had received any newspapers
either from Europe or Brazil, so that he was
ignorant of what was passing in the world.
The convent of the north is composed of four
very large courts, and a number of houses built
in the Chinese style. They must have been
very handsome, but they are at present deserted
and falling to ruins. Every thing indicates that
the Catholics no longer possess in China the
wealth and happiness which they enjoyed under
the emperors Khang hi and Kien long. In this
convent is also the residence of the bishop ofthe
Christians ofthe southern provinces, and princi
pally of Kien nan. He is a Portuguese, named
Pius, who being indisposedJ was not able to see
us on this occasion.
January 11. — Availing ourselves of the per
mission which the Dou Lama had given us on
the 24th of December, we went to-day to see
the temple of Houang szu. We passed by the
d 3

38 CONCLUSION OF
gate of Ngan ting men. Near this gate are
numerous wells of excellent water, which flow
from the western mountains. These wells
are kept up by the inhabitants of the province
of Chantong, who are considered as the best
workmen in Peking; and are in fact distin
guished " from the rest of the Chinese by their
lofty stature, bodily strength, and open counte
nance. They bring water into the houses of the
rich, and the tea houses in Peking, for a certain
price, on barrows with two wheels, on each of
which are ten pails ; otherwise carts and mules
are sent by the opulent to fetch water. For the
imperial court, water is brought fronf the springs
of the western mountains, about fifteen wersts
from Peking. The water in the wells of the
city is brackish, or rather salt, though byuno
means unwholesome. According to a regula
tion of the Chinese government, the Russian
house is supplied with water from the well in the
court of the tribunal of foreign affairs, which is
considered as the best in the whole neighbour
hood. To the east ofthe road, we saw the walls of
the temple of the earth, where the emperor on
the day of the summer solstice makes an offerino-
to the deity, and presents prayers for a plentiful
harvest. The temple is surrounded by a large
tract of land, enclosed within a stone wall, but
there is nothing remarkable about it. After we

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 39
had passed over a large plain, where the cavalry
and infantry of the Mantchoo guard exercise,
we came to the middle temple, or convent of
Houang szu, which is about ten wersts from
Peking. One of the lamas of the convent came
to meet us : he was the porter of the convent,
and served as our guide.
The first of these convents, which is the
western, was built at the expense of the emperor
of China, and placed at the disposal of the lamas
of Tangout. The two others, the middle and the
eastern one, were built by Mongol princes, who
united with the Mantchoos in the conquest of
China, in the middle of the seventeenth.
century, and penetrated to Peking. These
two latter convents were formerly inhabited by
the Mongol priests ; but as they, by negligence
and extravagance, had wasted the property.
and alienated the lands, houses, &c. belonging to
these temples, their place is occupied by Chinese
lamas ofthe religion of Fo ; and that ofthe east
is the only one left to the Mongols.
We went first into the temple, which is large,,
in. the form of a long parallelogram, two
stories high, built of brick, and according to the
Tibetan religious ordinances, stands in the
direction of south to north, and is covered with
yellow tiles.. In front, and within the temple,
are pillars of odoriferous wood, each of which,
on account of their size and the distance from
d 4

40 CONCLUSION OF
which they were brought, is estimated at the
value of ten thousand rubles. Under the em
peror Kien long, the Tibetan Bantchan Erdeni
(or high priest) lived and died in this temple.
In an apartment in the upper story, they still
shoAv the bed where he died of the smallpox ;
and the Mongols pray with devotion at this bed
of their high priest.
The Bantchan, in the religion of Boudha,
holds the first rank after the Dalai Lama. He
resides at Djachi-loumbou, a town and convent
of southern Tibet, where there is a magnificent
temple. The Mongols call him Bogdo Lama or
Bogdo Bantchan. He was formerly sovereign
of Tibet, but the admission of women * into the
order of the monks caused a division. The
lamas of northern Tibet chose a Dalai Lama,
whom they named Lama Eremboutchi, inspired
by Boudha, who was put in opposition to the
Bogdo Lama, and received the same honours.
When the Dalai Lama, after his decease, again
appears in the flesh, the Bantchan sends him his
* To the south-west of the city of Lassa and the rivers of
Yoiirou Dzunbu Tchou, is the lake of Yamdjo-youmtso, in
the middle of which, elevated on a mountain, is the temple
of Dordze Balmougoun, remarkable for its structure and fine
situation. There is a convent for women, the chief of whom
bears the title of Pagma, or female koutouktou. Accord
ing to tradition, she owes her birth to the polar star; and at
the time ofthe confusion excited in Tibet by Tebu Sandza,
at the end of the seventeenth century, she metamorphosed
herself into a swine, and by that means escaped.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 41
benediction. The Dalai Lama observes the same
rule at the death of the Bantchan : these two
high priests in this manner uphold the dogmas
of the yellow sect. In 1714, the Bantchan
received the title of Erdeni (precious). Kien
long, either from devotion, or to attach to
his interests the priests of Boudha, who exer
cise great influence over the Mongols, invited
the Bantchan Erdeni to fix his residence
in China. This priest, who was still young,
accepted the invitation in I78O, and took up his
residence in the middle temple of those which
are called Houang szu, and which belonged to
his sect. The emperor, who was above seventy
years of age, went to him, accompanied with a
magnificent suite, to pay his reverence to him,
and also to obtain his benediction : he praised
him for his love of justice, and made him several
presents. But soon after the Bantchan changed
his abode, and reappeared in a human shape in
his own country ; that is to say, he died and was
placed a second time on the throne of Djachi-
loumbou.* The inhabitants of western Tibet
consider the Bantchan as a divinity : he is to
them what the Dalai Lama t is to Great Tibet.
* The report spread by the English, that Kien long had
caused the Bantchan Erdeni to be poisoned, appears to be
destitute of foundation. — Klaproth.
t The precise details of these two divine incarnations are
inserted in the second volume of my Memoirs on Asia,
page 90. — Klapkoth.

42 CONCLUSION OF
The lamas say that the present Bantchan has
been regenerated more than ten times. He pre
serves an unchangeable tranquillity of soul, is
versed in religion and in all the sacred books,
and renounces all terrestrial pleasures Every
lama, after having fully studied all the holy books,
must be consecrated by the Bantchan. The
temple of the latter at Djachi-loumbou is very
magnificent, and filled with idols made of pre
cious metals. The believers are persuaded that
the prayers recited here ascend directly to the
inhabitants of heaven. The fragrance of the
perfumes, and] the incense burnt in the temple,
are diffused all around.
In the eastern wing'of Houng szu, are kept the
models of several temples, of elegant workman
ship, and of a red wood called houa hi. From
the balcony there is a view of the walls of
Peking and of the environs of the capital.
Rows of cypresses are planted round the
temple, the roof of which is inhabited by vast
numbers of pigeons. To the west of the temple,
behind two walls, there is an obelisk of white
marble, said to have been erected by the emperor
Kien long, in memory of the Bantchan Erdeni,
who died in this place ; but from the sculptures
on the sides, which are taken from the history of
Boudha, or Fo, it may be conjectured that this
monument was erected irt honour of that pro
phet, whose doctrine is followed in Tibet, China,

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 43
and Mongolia, by the Bouriats, and the Kalmucks.
This obelisk resembles two others in Peking;
being built in the form of an octagonal tower,
fifteen fathoms high. The tower is rather slender
towards the top, and covered above with a large
cap of pure gold, of the shape of, the cap worn
by the Dalai Lama. On the four sides are marble
pillars with sculpture. Ori the whole, the obelisk
is handsome, and cost large sums ; so that Kien
long, when he came to view it soon after it was
finished, said, " This is a golden monument !"
meaning that it had cost much money. To the
north, near the obelisk, is a small palace, where
the emperor generally takes some repose after
he has sacrificed in the temple of the earth.
After we left the obelisk, the porter who had
accompanied us, requested us to visit a Da Lama,
who had come from western Tibet, and lived in
one of the houses of the convent. He was more
than sixty years of age, and was surrounded by
Tibetans who had coriie with him, and by some
lamas from Peking. He received us very po
litely, and asked us by his interpreter, who we
were ; if it was long since we had left home ;
why we had taken the journey to Peking-; how
long we intended to remain there, &c. He then
regaled us with saturan, that is, tea boiled with
flour and butter. The Tibetans are very plain
in their manners, and are unacquainted with
luxury : their countenance resembles that of the

44 CONCLUSION OF
gipsies* ; they wear long coats like the Russians,
and do not cut their hair, but braid it on the
head, and have ear-rings of turquoises.
We then went to the foundery, which is in the
court of this convent. Idols of various sizes
are cast and gilt here, and sent throughout all
Mongolia. The idols which come from Tibet,
which is regarded as the sanctuary of the religion
of Fo, are very highly esteemed by the Mongols
and Chinese. The small idols which are made
at Peking are sold in proportion to their size, at
the rate of one lana for an inch. We expressed
a wish to purchase one of these idols, which the
founder refused, because he looked upon us as
infidels. From these temples we returned to the city by
another road. After having crossed ravines and
narrow alleys, we came to the north-east angle of
Peking, where our church of the Assumption
(formerly Saint Nicholas) stands. There are
also several small houses belonging to the go
vernment, which are scattered in that part of
the city called Lo tcha (demon) and Houa phi
tchang (birch bark square).

* This observation perfectly corresponds with the remark
of my friend, Mr. Thomas Manning, who . has visited Lassa.
He has assured me, that there is a very great resemblance
between the physiognomy of the Tibetans, and that of the
Jews, and that those people have nothing of what we call the
Mongol countenance.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 45
We did not see the inside of the church, be
cause we had no key. It is. in very bad condi
tion. It was built about the time of the arrival
of the Albazins, with the materials of a Pagan
temple which formerly stood in this square. One
of the small houses close to the church is in
habited by a married Mantchoo, who is one ofthe
emperor's guards. He pays the rent of a thousand
tchoki, or thsian, about eight francs a month ;
and is obliged to guard the church. Before the
house there is a deep ditch, which during the
rainy season is filled with water, and as there is
no outlet, it becomes a large stagnant pool. In
general this quarter of Peking is very poor,
though it contains the palace of a prince, which
is situated to the south-west of our church. The
descendants of the Albazins live at present in
the western part of the city, which is assigned to
the division of Mantchoo troops to which they
belong. They have lost all attachment to their
former countrymen, the Russians. There are
twenty-two among them who have been baptized;
but they are so connected with the Mantchoos
by marriages and by their dependence as sub
jects, that it is very difficult to distinguish them.
They speak Chinese ; they dress like the Mant
choos, and live entirely in the same manner as
the soldiers of that nation — poor, idle, and at
tached to the superstitions of Schamanism.
On my return, I learned that during our absence

46 CONCLUSION OF
Khartsagai, who had arrived from Ourga with
the third son of Young Vang, had called to see
us. This young prince was come to Peking for
a month, to do duty in the imperial guard as
khia or aide-de-camp. Khartsagai had seen at
Balgassou, our Cossacks who had remained there,
and brought us a report from Zakharof, the com
manding officer.
It appeared from this report, that twelve
camels and thirteen horses, of those which we
had left at Balgassou to winter, had died, and
that several others were very sick ; that the snow
was very deep, and fuel extremely dear ; and
that our cattle were too weak to be driven to an
other place. This news was very disagreeable
to us. I desired the student Sipakof to represent
as soon as possible to the inspector of our convent^
the urgent necessity of sending one of our
servants, in the month of March, to Balgassou, to
examine the condition of these animals, and to
relieve the Cossacks.
January 14. — The monk Benjamin, a member
of the new mission, received from the former
one the houses belonging to the Russian govern
ment, and which are situated in different quarters
of Peking. It was- judged that it would be more
advantageous to sell the four small houses which
remained ; and adding a certain sum to the pro
duce of the sale, to buy one large house as a
magazine, in the best quarter of the city : be-
19

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 47
cause this would produce a revenue like that of
the Jesuits, and like a piece of ground which the
Russians possess in the environs of Peking.
The monk Seraphim observed, that for above
these three years a large house with fine gardens
and a pond, to the west of Peking, had been for
sale. There was also a house attached to the
estate where parties drink tea, and which brings
a considerable profit during the summer. About
8000 silver rubles were asked for this estate. The
circumstances of our mission did not allow us to
buy it, and it was afterwards sold to a Chinese
for 6000 rubles.
January 16. — To-day, Alexis came to the
church ; he is a descendant of the Alba
zins, and is their moukounida, or senior. He
brought with him his grandson, of twelve years
of age, to have him christened, and also his
daughter, the mother of the boy, who was mar
ried to a member of the imperial family, but
poor, and of the class designated by the name of
ouksoun, or wearing yellow girdles. The archi
mandrite expressed, with respect to the young
prince, the fear that the Chinese government,
which is always jealous, might check the zeal of
our clergy to propagate the Christian religioni as
it had done with the Jesuits.
January 20. — The Boschko Ourghentai came
to me on account of the approach of the new
year, and offered me, according to the custom of
the country, a dish of various prepared meats.

48 CONCLUSION OF
I recompensed his politeness by giving him in
return half a pound of silver.
In the evening, several Coreans came to see
us from curiosity. Every year, during this season,
the ambassadors of the king of Corea bring pre
sents to the emperor of China, as a token of
vassalage. January 22. — In the night, the hollow noise
of the kettle drums announced in the temples
the new year of the Chinese. In that which
is in the Russian court, incense was burnt before
the images ; a lama recited prayers, beating on a
small copper vase. About midnight, all the
princes of the blood and the most distinguished
persons assemble in the palace. At break of
day, they bring the emperor to the temple of his
ancestors, situated in the vicinity of the tribunal
of foreign affairs. The sovereign performs his
devotions according to the forms prescribed by
the ritual, after which he returns to the palace to
receive the congratulations of the principal per
sons of the empire and the members of the tri
bunals of Peking. On the occasion ofthe new
year, the public tribunals are closed for a month
throughout the whole of China, except in cases
of particular urgency. The seal of the empire,
which must be affixed to all documents, is locked
up during the whole time.
The emperor issued an ordinance, prohibiting
the games and fire-works usual at new year ; the
reciprocal visits between the mandarins were also

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 49
prohibited. The Chinese were permitted to divert
themselves, but the Mantchoos were not allowed
to do so, in order to render the mourning for
the late emperor, Kiu king, more solemn. This
distinction is humiliating to the Chinese, and
unfavourable to the Mantchoo dynasty, because
it proves in the latter a particular affection for
the people to whom it belongs, as the emperor
thus publicly shows his desire to see them mourn
with him for three years the death of his father.
With the new moon begins the new year,
called also the first of the era of Tao Kouan,
(illustrious reign :) the era had continued to this
moment under the name of Kia King.
The Mongols, who had taken up their tem
porary abode in the square adjoining the convent
of, the .. Purification, for the purposes of trade,
had returned two days before to their encamp
ment beyond the great wall, to celebrate the
white month, or month of the new year. Our
Bouriats observe the same custom. If we had
had any of them in our service, they would
have celebrated this holiday in our court.
A violent storm raged from the morning till
noon ; a great number of crows sought shelter
under the- roof of the convent. The crow is
highly esteemed among the Chinese and the
Mantchoos. *
* It is rather the pie, which is held in great veneration by
the Mantchoos. Fan Tcha Kin, one of the remote ancestors
VOL. II. E

/

50 CONCLUSION OF
The most religious ofthe inhabitants of Peking
set up in their court-yards high poles, to which
they fasten little boards, with food for these birds.
- January 23.— According to the calculation of
the Chinese astronomers, the spring begins this
day. At two o'clock I was visited by Tchoung
Lao Ye, a schoolmaster. As a mark of respect,
I presented him with four cut goblets with a
gilt edge, which gave him great pleasure.
January 25. — About noon Kartsagai came to
see me. He confirmed the bad news which we
had received respecting our beasts of burthen at
Balgasson. On taking leave, he offered to
carry our letters for Kiachta; but I declined,
-under the pretext of being unwilling to trouble
him with our commissions.
January 27. — This day, being the sixth ofthe
first moon, the shops of Peking, which had been
shut since the first day, were opened on occasion
of the offering of fish. All the Chinese who pro
fess the religion of Fo boil fresh fish on this day.

of the imperial family, being pursued by some rebels who
had exterminated his family, was on the point of falling into
their hands, when a pie came and alighted on his head.
Those who pursued him, taking him for a withered tree,
passed on. Since that event the Mantchoos have the greatest
respect for the magpie, and it is forbidden to kill that bird.
Mr. Timkowski has disfigured this history, which I have
extracted from the manuscript annals of the Mantchoo
dynasty. I have therefore thought it best to suppress his
version, and give another more correct instead. — Klaproth.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 51
and eat it in memory of their ancestors. The holi
days continue till the seventeenth of this month.
January 29. — This morning the emperor went
to the southern suburb to present his offerings
in the Temple of Heaven. The sacred vessels
were carried there by elephants the day before.
February 4. — Having received an invitation
from the lamas of the temples of Houang Szu
to be present at their divine service, performed
by a koutouktou, we set out from home at eight
o'clock in the morning.
There are at Peking three koutouktous, whom
the Chinese call Fo. The first, who was to per
form service this day, resides in a vast temple
situated near the palace, in the Houang Tching j
the second lives in the temple Young ho Koung,
in the north part of Peking, where the emperor
Young Tching resided before his accession to
the throne ; the third koutouktou lives in the
third temple of those called Houang Szu. This
latter has now been sent by the new emperor to
Tibet, to celebrate the obsequies of his father,
Kia King, and to distribute the favours granted
by the emperor on this occasion.
On our arrival the treasurer caused us to be
conducted to the eastern temple, where the reli
gious ceremonies before the idols had already
commenced. All the doors were shut, in order
to exclude the crowd ; so that we were obliged
to pass through the apartments of the lamas to
e 2

52 CONCLUSION OF
get to the principal temple. The inspectors
hesitated to let us approach the koutouktou,
especially when they saw the sabres of the Cos
sacks. However, on the assurance of our Chinese
guides, they consented. We were placed on a
terrace of white marble, before the southern door
of the temple. The koutouktou was seated in a
very large arm-chair, with his face turned to
wards this door. Before him stood a long table,
covered with a piece of flowered silk, on which
were placed sacred vessels containing corn, water,
&c. On both sides of this altar stood five lamas
from eastern Mongolia, who read and sung
prayers in the Tibetan language. The uncom
monly deep and powerful bass voices resounded
in the air like the lower notes of the horn.
Above two hundred lamas from the temples at
Peking were seated cross-legged, to the right
and left. The koutouktou struck at intervals
silver cymbals, which are a distinguished mark
of priests of the highest rank, and indicate their
sanctity, inviolability, and precedence. It was
a signal to the lamas, alternately to sing and to
play. The orchestra was placed apart : they
played on wind instruments, resembling our
oboes and clarionets. Some are made of large
sea-shells, which give a very harsh sound.
They had copper cymbals * of various sizes, and
* A detailed description of the musical instruments ofthe
lamas is to be found in Pallus. Nachrichten Uber die Mon-
golischen Volkerschaften, vol. ii. p. 164, &c.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 53
also drums. This kind of music is more calcu
lated to inspire terror than calm and religious
feelings. The yellow dresses of the lamas, and their
shorn heads, gave them in our eyes a singular
appearance. There were no worshippers of Fo
present except priests. The koutouktou, who was
about thirty-five years of age, looked at us from
time to time, and the others followed his example.
When we returned to Dou lama's, the trea
surer, we saw there a great number of lamas,
who came after the conclusion of the service.
The lama Koubilgan Tching held a long conver
sation with us. He was in the personal service
of the koutouktou, whom we had seen to-day.
Tching is about forty years old, descended from
a distinguished family among the Mongols of the
tribe of Oniout, and was educated at Peking.
He had travelled through the whole of Tibet
and Mongolia, and the northern provinces of
India, bordering on Tibet, converses fluently
in the Chinese, Mongol, and Tibetan languages,.
and has some knowledge of the Indian and
Mantchoo. He asked us many questions re
specting our journey, Russia, and its capital, our
birth-places, &c. He assured us that the em
peror of China exercised equal authority in the
spiritual and the temporal affairs of his vast
empire. The koubilgans and koutouktous are
chosen by his instructions, and even the appoint-
e 3

54 CONCLUSION OF
ment of the Dalai lama depends entirely upon
his will. Only the common people, especially
the Tibetans and the Mongols, deify their high
priests, under the name of koutouktou or ghe-
ghen. Tching told us also that the Dalai lama
had not appeared, that is, had not been installed,
in Tibet for five years. The priests of Tibet
wanted to choose nim from among their own
body, but the late emperor Kia King required
that three candidates should be proposed to him,
all of them from the province of Szu tchouan.
Does the Chinese government, then, dread the
conquest of Tibet by the English? Should
these conquerors of Bengal take possession of a
country so highly venerated by all the professors
of Lamaism, which would not be so difficult for
them at present, the Dalai lama would remain
in their power ; his worshippers, the Mongols,
Kalmucks, and other nations, might become
true and zealous allies of the English, and facili
tate their farther conquest in middle Asia. We
know that the English missionaries who reside
at Selenginsk in the government of Tskutsk,
diligently study the Mongol language, which is
spoken by many of the Tibetan lamas. Of this
we had a proof to-day. A lama, a native of
Lassa, the capital of Great Tibet, who had lately
arrived at Peking, spoke the Mongol language
quite fluently, with Mr. Rasgildjejef. He men
tioned that persons sometimes came from Persia

OUR STAY AT PEKING. ,55
to Tibet who wore cloth dresses and long
swords. Some Tibetans who reside in their convent
came to the Dou lama to see the Russians.
When they saw me they exclaimed, " This
gentleman greatly resembles in the face the
Indshili (English) who live at Lassa and other
Tibetan towns ; the same complexion and hair,
the same dress and sword." This statement
was farther confirmed by a merchant at Peking,
a native of Tibet, who is pretty well acquainted
with Bengal and Calcutta. We learned from
them that the English now carry on a pretty
considerable trade with Tibet, and exchange
their cloths, knives, swords, &c. for gold, musk,
turquoises, &c. *
We likewise met there with a Mongol from
Koukounor, who had come with one ofthe princes
to Peking to compliment the new emperor on
his accession. This Mongol called himself an
Olut, that is, a Kalmuck, in which sense the
Mongols themselves adopt this name. The
tribe Olut (or Eluths) wander along the Blue
lake, to the west of Peking. The tract imme
diately inhabited by them abounds in wood and
fine cattle; they cultivate chiefly millet, and
also some barley and wheat. He told me that
their ancestors, about fifty years ago, under the
* This is by an indirect commerce ; for the Hindoos sell'
the English merchandise at Tibet — Klaproth.
E 4

56 CONCLUSION OF
conduct of one of their princes, descended from
Ajuka Khan, had emigrated to Koukounor from
the banks of the Irtysch, which he called Erzi.
On our return we visited the Russian burial
ground. We cannot but regret that, under the
archimandrite Schisch Rofski (who left Peking
in 1795, and died on the way to Kalgan), a large
piece of ground was ceded by a member of the
mission to a Chinese, by which it is much di
minished. The length of time that has elapsed,
and the want of a plan of our land confirmed by
the Chinese government, would now make it
very difficult to recover it.
February 5. — During the fetes for the cele
bration of the new year, which are continued
half the first month, they show a very large
ancient bell, which is in a convent of the Ho
chang, or the priests of Fo, three wersts to the
south of Peking, and about eight from the Rus
sian court.
Being desirous of seeing, as far as the restraint
under which a stranger labours in China, every
thing worthy of attention in a country so distant
from our own, I went to this convent with seve
ral of my countrymen. As we went along past
the walls of the city and of the palace, tathe
south and the west, we saw, near the south-west
angle, a mosque built by Kien-long for the
Mahometans, whom he brought hither after the
conquest of eastern Turkestan. When we pass

OUR. STAY AT PEKING. 57
into a street near the mosque and the houses of
the Turkestans, we come to the wall of the
great garden of the palace. Here we see the
roofs of the dwellings or the summer-houses, and
the top of an artificial hill planted with juniper
trees. In the garden, and directly opposite the
mosque, is a very large summer-house, built by
Kien long for the use of his third wife, a princess
of Turkestan, who went to it for the purpose of
prayer. This marriage was a measure of policy
on the part of the Mantchoo court, with a view
of more closely attaching the conquered nations
to its dominion. Turning to the right, to the
west of Houang ching, there is the palace of a
prince, the elder brother of Kia king and uncle
of the reigning emperor. The attempt upon
the life of Kia king, made by a domestic of
this elder brother, had caused the prince to fall
into disgrace with the emperor.
Farther on in the same street we met the
vang of Corea (Kao li vang). He was going to
court in a plain carriage, accompanied by a
numerous suite. This man is descended from a
prince of Corea who came to Peking with the
Mantchoos, on the conquest of China in 1664.
His uncle had been deprived by Kia king of
the dignity of prince, on account of his pride.
He had required the officers of his suite to make
their reports to him as is usually done to the

58 - -CONCLUSION OF
emperor, and with the same ceremonies. He
was besides extremely cruel, and made his people
undergo the most dreadful tortures. The palace
of the vang, with its extensive gardens, is near
the western gate of Houang tching.
This morning the emperor returned from the
palace of Yuan ming yuan, situated tot he north
west of Peking. Conformably to the Chinese
custom, drapery of ordinary blue nankeen is hung
across the ends of the small streets which issue
into the great street through which the sovereign
passes, in order to conceal him from the inhabit
ants. We saw some of these pieces of nankeen
still hanging on lines. This custom proves that
it is not lawful for all the Chinese, even those of
Peking, to attempt to see their emperor, who
is always surrounded by a crowd of courtiers.
It is only when he is travelling in the country
that his subjects, prostrated with their faces to
the earth, are able to look at him by stealth.
As we approached the gate of Si tchy men,
we observed that nobody was permitted to pass.
Having halted, we learned that the son of the
emperor, who was also returning from the palace
of Ming yuan, was expected immediately.
Several horsemen in court dresses galloped
before. Soon came the young prince, mounted
on a white horse, which is the colour most
esteemed in China. He was likewise surrounded
19

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 59
by a great number of eunuchs, ajso in court
dresses, with phou tsa * and peacocks' feathers
on their caps, which made a very gay appear
ance. The soldiers of the police ordered the
people to alight from their carriages. We fol
lowed the example of the Chinese, and were
able to see the prince very near. He was thin
and pale, and appeared to be about fourteen
years of age. Our European great coats and
our uniforms attracted his attention, and one of
his suite enquired who we were, and was told
that we were foreigners. The prince, after
having looked at us with much attention, rode
on. A youth of about fifteen, surrounded by
persons of inferior rank, came after him ; he was
* It is well known that the military and civil officers of
the Chinese government wear upon their caps, as distinctive
marks, buttons of different colours, according to the rank
which they hold. A red or coral button is appropriated to
a general ; a transparent blue one, to a colonel, &c. The
cap of the emperor is adorned with a pearl of great value.
But independently of these buttons, the phou tsa are also
marks of distinction. They are little square pieces of satin,
sewed on the breast and back of the upper garment. The
phou tsa of the civil mandarins has a bird embroidered upon
it ; that of the military mandarins, a wild beast. A military
officer of the second rank, or a general, has a lion ; a civil
mandarin of the third rank, (analogous to that of a counsellor
of state in Russia,) a peacock, &c. The robes with these
phou tsas are worn only at court or on solemn occasions,
when they wear besides rosaries which come down to the
girdle.

60 CONCLUSION OF
probably some officer immediately about his
person. After having passed the gate, we saw on our
left, near the bridge, a small temple, where the
young prince had stopped to take tea. The
emperor himself and his consort, on their return
from Yuan ming yuan to Peking, usually rest in
this temple. At present, on account of the
mourning, the emperor cannot inhabit his
country seat till the expiration of twenty-seven
months. Having gone a werst and a half on the road
to Ming yuan, which is paved, we turned to
the right, and after another werst and a half
came to one of the temples of the Ho chang,
near to which is one of the burying-grounds
with which Peking is surrounded. The tombs
of wealthy Chinese are surrounded by walls, in
which are temples and plantations of cypresses
and lignum vita?. The poor are buried in the
fields, but their graves are generally adorned
with trees, according "to the precepts of Confu
cius, who advises people to spend even half
their property in the burial of their parents.
The present emperor, wiser than Confucius, has,
among other measures for the general good, put
limits to this useless extravagance. It often
happened that a son ruined his family to do
honour to his father.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 61
There is nothing remarkable in the external
appearance of the temple of the Ho tchang.
Some thousand persons of both sexes had come
from Peking on account of the fetes. A crowd
of curious people pressed round us on all sides.
Happily the soldiers of the police opened a
passage for us with their long whips. After
passing the first court we saw a low cedar, the
branches of which spread very far. Behind it
was a building of two stories, containing the re
fectory and the dormitory: the apartments are
not lofty. The priests or Chinese monks are
extremely abstemious. They eat neither milk
nor fish, and are obliged to sleep sitting : they
are thin and pale, and looked at us with much
surprise. ;
Beyond this building is a tower in which hangs
the bell so celebrated in China. It is of copper,
which is turned black by age. Its height is
about two toises ; its diameter below is four
arsheens, and two arsheens at the ears. It is
covered with Chinese characters: its. weight does
not probably exceed three thousand poods, or
above a hundred thousand pounds.* There is
* It is said that there is a bell at Nanking which weighs
1250 poods, . and which consequently, according to the testi
mony of the Abbe Grosier, is larger than the famous bell at
Rouen, known by the name of George Amboise. Several
towns in Russia have much larger bells ; that at Moscow is
said to weigh 12,000 poods.

62 CONCLUSION OF
a narrow inconvenient dark stair-case to ascend
to the ear, where there is a small opening,
through which the pious visitors throw small
copper coins. He who succeeds in making
them pass through the hole considers it as a
favourable omen. All these pieces of money
fall upon the floor under the bell, and during
the holidays produce a considerable sum to the
priests. * Near this town is the abode of the
superior of the convent.
The crowd hindered us from remaining long
in the temple. On our return to the gate of the
city, we passed by an ancient rampart, which
formed the wall of Peking under the dynasty of
Yuan, or the Mongols. The capital was then,
for the third time, extended towards the east, in
* The real name of this temple is Van cheou szu, that is
to say, Temple of ten thousand ages. It is situated twenty
pans to the west of the sluice Kouang yuan tcha ; its found
ation was laid in 1557. At that time the tower was built to
receive the great bell, which was cast in the years Young lo
(1403 to 1,424). It is two Chinese toises in height, covered
inside and out with inscriptions, very well engraved, which
contain the texts of one of the sacred books of the Boud-
hists, called Fo choue Mi tho fa houa tchu phin king. It is
suspended by a brass ring, also covered with characters,
which form the Leng kia king. The name of this bell is
Houa yan tchoung. Its sound is heard at a very great
distance. The emperor Kien long caused the steeple to be
removed in 1751, and placed further to the north. An in
scription in Mantchoo, Chinese, Mongol, and Tibetan was
then set up in its vicinity. — . Klafroth.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 63
order that the inhabitants might be rriore easily
supplied with water. We then went to the
south, along the wall of the city ; having on our
right the canal which surrounds it, on the other
side of which are the barracks for the poorest
soldiers of the corps of Peking : the others are
lodged in the city.
Having entered by the gate Feou tching, or
Phing tse men, our way led by the side of a
small ditch which goes from north to south, (this
is the Tcheou keou, or the stinking canal), to
the inclosure where the imperial elephants are
kept. The guards, on receiving 500 tschoki,
immediately let us pass through the gate. The
inclosure is very spacious ; it contains a temple!,
a fountain, four large stables, in bad condition,
for the elephants, and several other buildings,
inhabited by persons employed in the establish
ment. There were at this time only eighteen
elephants. . They, were formerly much more
numerous. The stables are heated by stoves.
The elephants have their heads turned towards
the door, and are fed upon rice mixed with wheat
straw ; but the poor animals scarcely get a third
part of their allowance; the rest goes into the
hands of the officers, and is converted into pretty
houses, equipages, &c.
The elephants are employed in conveying the
vessels used by the emperor in the sacrifices.
These vessels are placed upon very la*ge litters,

64 CONCLUSION OF
made for the purpose. Four elephants are daily
taken to court. One of these elephants, obeying
the voice of his guide, struck the floor with his
trunk as often as he1 was ordered; another ut
tered very piercing cries, and sounds resembling
a drum. Most of these animals are old and feeble,
and some of them so gentle that they are per
mitted to go loose in the yard. The elephants
at Peking are generally brought, at great ex-
pence, from the kingdom of the Birmans. It is
stated in the voyage of Lord Macartney, that
the male and female elephants of Peking come
from the vicinity of the equator, and some of
them from the countries to the north of the
tropic; but it seems to me that if these animals
lived on the frontiers of China, means would
easily be found to keep a greater number of
them in the capital, and to exchange them more
frequently for younger ones.
We then passed by the Portuguese convent,
called the Temple of the South, because it is
near the south wall of the imperial part of the
city. This is the most striking building of all
those we had seen at Peking. Near the convent
is a Chinese guardHfouse. The entrance into
the city on this side has been closed since the
riots in 1813. * .
February 10.— The intendant, Tho lao ye,
came to see me at two o'clock in the afternoon,
at my request, to discuss the question about

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 65
changing our Cossacks who were at Balgassou.
As he had already heard of our intention, he im
mediately expressed his opinion that such a
measure might be very well executed ; and when
I told him that similar changes had been made
before, he answered that the Chinese govern
ment, without being guided by preceding ex
amples, would be always ready to assent to all
the just requests of the Russians. He advised
me to present a request on this subject to the
Tribunal of Foreign Affairs ; he spoke in high
terms of Mr. Golaikovski, director ofthe Custom
house at Kiakhta, and told me that he hoped he
should one day return to do duty at that place.*
We were interrupted by the entrance of the
bitkechi Tching, who very unseasonably made
me many very high-flown compliments in the
presence of Tho lao ye, especially on my polite
ness in lending him my carriage in Mongolia,
during a journey which the cora md the storms
had rendered so disagreeable.
February 12. — I sent to-day my request to
the Tribunal of Foreign Affairs, written in the
Russian and Mantchoo languages. I asked per
mission to send the inspector of the baggage with
ten Cossacks to Balgassou, to relieve the men
whom we had left there, and to examine the
* Mr. Golaikovski has gained the affections of the Chinese
officers by making them acquainted with Champagne wine. —
Klaproth. VOL. II. F

06 CONCLUSION OF
animals. Mr. Rasghildejef I, and the inter
preter Frolow, accompanied by the student Sipa-
kof) and two Cossacks, carried my request to the
tribunal. The mandarins, among whom was
Tho lao ye, received it with much politeness,
and promised that my request should be favour
ably attended to.
The archimandrites, Hyacinth and Peter,
went in carriages to visit the Portuguese mis
sionaries in the convent of the. south. I accom
panied them with six Cossacks, preceded by two
of their officers, all on horseback. Some Chinese
converts received us at the gates of the monas
tery, and led us through the library into the
church, which is truly magnificent ; it is in the
form of a long parallelogram.
Father Ribeira, superior of the convent, mem
ber of the Academy of Astronomy at Peking,
soon arrived. He had on his cap a white opaque
button, the hadg* of the sixth class of the man
darins. Father Pius, a bishop of the order of
Franciscans, followed him. The latter, about
fifty-five years of age, much resembled a Russian
by his countenance and fair hair. These two
monks received us with extreme affability, and
conversed in Latin. They led us by the east
door of the church into a chapel, erected for
divine service, when the earthquake, which hap
pened in the reign of Young tching, made it
necessary for them to repair the church. This

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 67
chapel is lighted by several lustres. Opposite
the entrance is an image of the Virgin Mary,
with the following inscription in Chinese : " She
prays for the whole universe." Near it is another
picture, the subject of which is taken from the
Gospel. It represents Jesus Christ receiving the
gifts of a child dressed in the Chinese summer
costume. Among the crowd of Israelites are a
great number of Chinese, who behold with de
light this act of condescension. To the right of
the Holy Virgin is Saint Ignatius de Loyola,
founder of the order of the Jesuits, blessing
Saint Francis Xavier, on the point of setting out
to preach the Gospel in China. The latter is
painted also on the wall opposite to Saint Ig
natius, in his pontifical habits, preaching the
Gospel to the Chinese, by whom he is sur
rounded. We returned to the church, where Father
Ribeira invited us to the parlour. We passed
through a passage on the side of which are the
cells, which are square ; they appeared to be in
a very ruinous condition. The parlour is pretty
large, well furnished, and adorned with pictures,
one of which represents the appearance of the
cross to the Emperor Constantine ; the walls,
on the right and left of the entrance, are painted
with perspective views of the interior of rooms,
very well executed. f 2

68 CONCLUSION OF
We had scarcely entered, when a Mantchoo
police officer rushed in, uttering terrible cries ;
without waiting to be asked by the superior he
sat down, and addressing the bishop, bitterly
reproached him for having received visitors,
though he very well knew that it was forbidden
to admit strangers into the convent. The bishop
answering that this did not concern him, the
officer, who was not quite sober, began to up
braid the superior for exposing him to lose his
place, because the people, curious to see the
Russians, had assembled before the convent,
and the crowd was become so numerous as to
block up the street, so that unpleasant conse
quences might ensue, if one of the procurators
general of the empire should be informed of it.
Ribeira, ashamed at being treated in this man
ner in our presence, as he had partly invited us
to show the inhabitants of Peking how much
the Portuguese are esteemed by the other Euro
peans, endeavoured to appease the officer, but
in vain. The Mantchoo laid hold of a Fran
ciscan monk, and carried him to the police
office to answer for the disorder which our visit
to the convent had occasioned. Seeing the in
solence of the Mantchoo, and the little credit
which the Catholics enjoy in China, we rose,
asking permission to take leave, and to return at
a more convenient opportunity ; but the bishop
requested us to remain, saying, that the Mant-

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 69
choo was drunk, and that they were used to
such treatment from the Chinese.
He then conducted us to the apartments for
merly inhabited by the Portuguese bishops re
sident at Peking. We were received by Father
Fereira, who is also a missionary, and resides in
this convent. We were soon joined by Father
Ribeira, who had found means to appease the
police officer. Tea and dried fruits were pre
sented to us. The bishop enquired minutely
respecting my office and rank, and asked me if
I had been in France with the Russian army.
The Portuguese told us that the deceased em
peror had begun to harass, and even to persecute
them, because he apprehended that the mission
aries might form dangerous plots against his per
son ; he added, that he hoped they should be
protected under the present emperor, who is of
a firm and generous character : he is said not to
fear his neighbours, and to be sincerely inclined
to peace, but at the same time prepared for war.
It is added, that he has revoked the measures
of precaution ordered upon the frontiers of
Russia, by the emperor his father, who gave
many proofs of a pusillanimous and suspicious
character. The bishop having asked the archimandrite
Peter why English missionaries had settled at
Selenghinsk, the latter answered that it was to
learn the Mongol language; but the bishop
F 3

70 CONCLUSION OF
replied, that he thought that the English mis
sionaries had other intentions. The Portuguese
observed that the literati of Europe, and par
ticularly those of France, eagerly published
works upon China, and on the Chinese and
Mantchoo languages, without being sufficiently
versed in the subjects on which they treated.
They mentioned particularly, Messieurs De-
guignes, jun. and Klaproth.* The Europeans
* I am infinitely obliged to the reverend archbishop of
Peking for placing me by the side of Mr. Deguignes, jun.
As for his observation respecting my ignorance ofthe Chinese
and Mantchoo, I could wish that he had accompanied his
assertion by some proofs. Mr. Timkowski has already told
us that the Portuguese missionaries at Peking speak the
Chinese very badly, and almost in an unintelligible dialect.
It appears also, that the remarks of the archbishop made
little impression on the mind of this enlightened traveller,
who has honoured me with the two following letters, on
sending me the volumes of his work.
" Sir, " I was thirty years old when my destiny
was pleased to conduct me in your footsteps to Kiakhta.
There,, to my great regret, I was deprived of my enlightened
guide, and left to myself for the rest of my journey to the
capital of China. Without any body to direct me, I could
not see every thing in its true light — but I have seen
China !
" Though distrusting the merit of my narrative, I take the
liberty of requesting you, sir, to accept the first two volumes,
which I have the honour of sending you with this letter : the
third and last volume is in the press ; it will not be published
before next year, and I shall not fail to send it to you.
" I am far from expecting that my narrative will furnish
you with any new information. To my great regret, I have

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 71
pronounce the Chinese words differently: the
English not very correctly ; the French, the

been obliged to publish it in 1823, and thus to renounce the
advantage of having a previous idea of your opinion upon
China, which, as I have learnt, is printing in English, and
is expected with just impatience.
" If, nevertheless, my Journal should be honoured with
your attention, I should think that I had not laboured in
vain. Your approbation, sir, would be my best reward ; and
your observations, if you would be pleased to communicate
them to me, would be received by me with gratitude ; for I
am convinced they would be useful to me. Thus I have
profited by your highly interesting work, the Asia Polyglotta,
to give more authority to my narrative in the eyes of such of
my countrymen as cannot have the advantage of reading
foreign works. " Please to accept, &c.
" Geokge Timkowski.
" December 13. 182*."

" Sir,
" At the end of last year I had the pleasure
of sending you the first two volumes of my Journey to China
through Mongolia ; permit me now to offer you the third and
last part of the work.
" Accept, sir, this very defective production, as a mark of
my particular esteem for the services which you have ren
dered to science. I shall consider it as a particular honour,
and as a service, if you will communicate to me your opinion,
if it were only upon some passages of my book, and especially
the second part of the third volume, where I have placed a
short view of Mongolia. Your corrections, additions, and
remarks upon this subject will be very useful to me. For
F 4

72 , CONCLUSION OF
Germans, and even the Portuguese, each in a
different manner. This is indeed the case with
the other languages in Asia.
Half an hour afterwards one of the baptized
Chinese, named Matthew, a soldier of the green
standard, came and told the Portuguese that it
was time to part with their visitors, if they
would not expose themselves to fresh affronts
from the Mantchoos. Bishop Pius, Father
Fereira, and Father Ribeira, accompanied us to
the door of the convent, where we in fact found
a crowd of above a thousand persons collected
round our Cossacks, who had remained outside
with the horses. The guards, with their long
whips, had great difficulty in hindering the
people from forcing their way into the convent.
They made way for us when they perceived our
sabres. In order to see a little of the capital we re
turned by the west street, Si szu thai lo, to the
north part of the city, where we passed over a
bridge built of marble. Upon an island on our
left hand, we saw an obelisk also of white marble,
placed upon a cippus made of fine stones, sent

the same reason, I expect with impatience the publication of
your description of the Chinese empire, which is printing in
English, &c.
" George Timkowskj.
" Saint Petersburg .
March 5. 1825.'" '

OUR STAY AT PEKING. ^3
during the reign of the dynasty of Yuan, (from
1280 to 1367,) from the southern provinces of
China by the Mongols who then occupied them.
The great lake of the Nymphaea nelumbo, Lian
houa*, surrounded with a marble balustrade,
was frozen over ; but in summer, when the
plants are in blossom, their splendour and fra
grance give a particular charm to this spot. Here
is the mountain of King chan, the majestic sum
mit of which is crowned with five summer
houses ; this mountain contains coal mines. On
the other side of the lake is a house where the
empress employs herself in the culture of silk.
We afterwards passed by the school of the
eunuchs, the abode of the actors, a temple in
which the remains of the deceased emperor are
provisionally deposited, lastly, the dirty bar
racks of the imperial guard. We passed through
the north gate of the town, and came to two
towers where gongs and bells are hanging
up ; on the latter of which the sentinels strike
the hours when the guard is relieved. There
are no gates to pass through the towers, but
you ascend them by large stair-cases. We then
went to the right as far as the gate called Ngan
* The seed and "root of this plant compose numerous
dishes, which are presented in China before meals. Sir
G. Staunton says that lian houa was several times offered to
the ambassador and his suite during the breakfast given them
by the Chinese mandarins.

74 CONCLUSION OF
ting men, and thence we returned home by the
same road which we took on the day of our
arrival in the capital.
As we passed through the streets we saw a
great number of idle people. Here a juggler
attracted their attention ; there a man was re
lating wonderful stories. On one side credulous
persons were having their fortunes told by di
viners, who tracing on the ground with chalk
the Koua or characters of Fou hi, revealed to
them the past, the present, and the future.
Each of these diversions costs only the moderate
sum of ten pieces of copper per head.
February 13. — The Portuguese missionaries
having learned that the library of the Russian
mission possessed the journal of Lord Amherst's
embassy to China in 1816, asked the archiman
drite Peter to lend it them. This book con
tains some inaccurate statements respecting our
mission to Peking. Two Russians and a
Frenchman* in the service of Russia, says the
* This was the archimandrite Hyacinth, who speaks
French ; he was accompanied by the monk Seraphim and
the student Sipakof. In other respects the narrative is cor
rect, but the author makes a very singular remark : — " The
Russians," says he, " have at Peking an establishment for
the instruction of a certain number of persons, who are in
tended to act as interpreters on the frontiers. The senate of
Tobolsk corresponds immediately with the tribunal at Pe
king." Was it not known in Europe in 1816 and 1818, that
the Russian senate resides at Petersburg, and not at Tobolsk ?
Our communication with China was by way of Tobolsk,

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 75
author, had been seen within these three last
days near our residence in Thoung tcheou :
the Frenchman spoke on the first day to the
drummer of our band, and told him that they
Wished to present their respects to the ambassa
dor. The Chinese guard, who admit none but
mandarins into the place occupied by the em
bassy, would not permit it: the Frenchman
added that he had been eight years in China.
Lord Amherst gave orders not to have any com
munication with them, so that we heard no more
of them. They were dressed entirely in the
Chinese fashion.
February 14. — Much snow fell towards noon ;
the fog was very thick.
February 17. — I sian seng, a very aged Mant
choo, the private teacher of our students, spoke
very freely of his countrymen. He told us that
the present emperor had sent away from court,
on account of his intrigues, his uncle Kochitai,
the younger brother of the empress dowager,
and had appointed him governor-general of
one of the provinces in the interior. The
same Kochitai, being governor-general of Can-

till the treaty concluded in 1728. Since that time, the cor
respondence with the Chinese empire is carried on by the
department of foreign affairs, in the name of the senate. Can
an enlightened European be ignorant that the ministry and
the senate, as well as the principal boards, are, and always
have been, in the capitals of the respective empires.

76

CONCLUSION OF

ton, counteracted the projects of the English
embassy. February 20. — This day, the first of the
second month, according to the Chinese calen
dar, at three o'clock in the afternoon, when the
sun entered the sign of Aries*, was remarkable
at Peking by an eclipse of the sun's eastern limb,
the duration of which was an hour and thirty-
five minutes. Four days before this event the
astronomical academy had published tables in the
Chinese and Mantchoo languages, calculated by
the Portuguese, indicating the hour of the
eclipse for the principal cities of China and
Corea. During the eclipse all the mandarins in
their habits of ceremony were obliged to be at
their posts. Meantime the sounds of drums and
bells were heard in all the temples, and the people
put up prayers to heaven to obtain the pardon
of the emperor, in case that by any fault he had
been the cause of this celestial phenomenon.
* In calculating years, months, and hours, the Chinese
make use of the twelve following signs of the Zodiac : —

Mouse. 12. 1.

Hours after Midnight.

Ox.
2. 3.

Tiger.
4. 5.

Hare. I Dragon. I Serpent^
6. 7. j 8. 9.| 10. 11.

Horse. 12. 1.

Hours after Mid-day.

Sheep. 2. 3.

Ape.
4. 5.

Chicken.
6. 7.

Dog. j Hog.
8. 9. | 10. 11.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 77
On the 30th of April, 1819, a hurricane from
the south-east brought prodigious quantities of
sand from the sea coast to the capital. The
whole air looked like a thick and yellow mass ;
at the same time a cloud covered the sun, so
that Peking was suddenly involved in darkness :
it was impossible to distinguish objects at the
distance of a few paces.
The philosophy of the Chinese, founded upon
their classical books, teaches them that every
phenomenon is a presage by which heaven an
nounces that morals are corrupted, and that the
emperor and his agents must do their utmost to
restore their purity. Kia King desiring to prove
his repentance, and to calm the superstitious
fear ofthe Chinese people, which might disturb
the public tranquillity, published on the ninth
day of the fourth month of the twenty-fifth year
of his reign, on the 1st of May, 1819, the follow
ing ordinance, which is translated from the ori
ginal Mantchoo : —
" Yesterday at three quarters past five o'clock
in the afternoon, a south-east wind suddenly
arose. In a few minutes the air and the inside
of the houses were so filled with sand, that it
was impossible to distinguish objects without the
help of a candle. This event is very extraor
dinary. Seized with terror at the bottom of my
heart, I passed the night without sleep, endea
vouring to divine the cause ofthe anger of heaven.

78 CONCLUSION OF
According to the signs laid down in the Great
Model, to discover perversity, a long continued
wind indicates infatuation. The cause comes
from myself, who have probably not been suffi
ciently vigilant in the acts of my reign, and en
trusted the affairs of the empire to unskilful
hands. Perhaps the ignorance of negligent
mandarins has hindered the complaints of the
nation from reaching the throne, and the results
of a vicious administration have not allowed me
to remedy the evils which afflict the people.
Perhaps there are among the mandarins of Peking
and other cities of China, wicked and unjust
men, whose bad conduct has not been known to
me. It is the duty of the procurators-general,
who represent me, to share in my fears, caused
by the anger of heaven. Each of them is
obliged to acquaint me of every thing that
passes, not out of self-interest, but through zeal
alone. If there are faults in the administra
tion, if it is necessary to introduce ameliorations,
or to make changes, it is for them to point
them out with minuteness and impartiality. If
any of my subjects suffers innocently, his com
plaint should be laid before me, in order that I
may do him open justice. As for the mandarins
whose administration is injurious to the welfare
of the empire, and who oppress the people —
who, having recourse to cunning and artifice,
execute one thing and neglect another — who,
19

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 79
deviating from the regular mode of business, act
only according to circumstances, — it is my will
that a detailed report be laid before me respect
ing the misdeeds of these wicked men. Such
representations will be the proof of real zeal for
the throne, and I shall derive from them all the
advantages to the empire which are conformable
to the commands of heaven. But if advantage
should be taken of this to serve private hatred
or interest, and to make false accusations
through a spirit of revenge and personal ani
mosity, then, on the contrary, white becomes
black, and truth is mixed with falsehood, and
the orders which I give not only become useless,
but increase the blindness of the wicked. In
our days the human heart is perverse and cor
rupted ; secret and anonymous accusations are
made against honest men, and often cause their
ruin, which is sufficient to draw down the anger
of heaven. The wind came from the south-east;
it must therefore be supposed that rebels un
known to the government are towards the south
east, and that their impunity is the cause of the
derangement of the celestial harmony.
" Full of terror and alarm I think only of
examining myself, and endeavouring to amend.
I sincerely enquire into every thing. The su
perior and inferior mandarins of Peking, as well
as those out of the capital, are bound to turn
their attention to their own faults, to endeavour

80 CONCLUSION OF
with their whole hearts, and with all their
strength, to fulfil the duties of the offices en
trusted to them. By seconding my intentions
they will succeed in strengthening their own
virtue, and in preserving the nation in future
from the evils which are predicted,"
February 25. — Tching lama Koubilgan, in
the service of the koutouktou, residing in the
temple, in the Mantchoo city, to whom we had
paid a visit, called on me to-day. This priest
is well acquainted with the theology of the
lamas, aswell as the philosophy and geography of
China. An education much superior to that of
the Chinese in general, rendered his convers
ation very agreeable ; he is perfectly skilled in the
Indian mode of fencing, and is very fond of the
arts of Europe. Seeing among other things the
engravings to the travels of Macartney, Holmes,
Lord Amherst, and others ; he seemed perfectly
sensible of the superiority of the Europeans in the
art of engraving. He instructs the priests of his
temple in the Tibetan language, of which he is
a perfect master. One of the members of our
Mission might learn it of this lama, for it is very
difficult to find at Peking a good master of the
Tibetan language. Tching lama having some
knowledge of the languages spoken in the north
of India, is of course completely initiated in
the spirit of the religion of Fo. Father Hya
cinth has often profited by the knowledge of

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 81
this lama, in translating the Chinese works upon
Tibet. Tching lama might also render great services
to our student who studies medicine. The priests
of Fo in general understand the preparation of
several very salutary remedies, taken froifi the
simple productions of nature. The lamas who
live in Russia have often effected very happy
cures ; but the lamas of Tibet are more skilful
in the healing art.
Tching lama told me that in the fourth month*
the Koutouktou would go to Dolon nor, a town
not far from Kalgan, to pass amidst the steppes of
Mongolia the hot summer season, which is in
supportable in Peking. At the same time, he
would receive the numerous gifts in silver which
are brought him by the eastern Mongols, who
resort to the temples at Dolon nor, to pay
their devotions. He also told us, that he wished
very much to accompany the high priest, but
that he had not the means to perform the jour
ney in a manner suitable to his rank, and that he
had in vain endeavoured to borrow two hundred
rubles in silver. He informed us that the remains
of Kia king, hitherto deposited at Peking, were
going to be moved to the western cemetery, on the
eleventh day of the third month (31 st of March).
The emperor, conformably to custom, prostrated
himself every day before the coffin of his father.
He was not permitted to enter the apartments
VOL. II. G

82 CONCLUSION OF
of the palace till after his father had been
buried, and transacted public business in a
separate house.
March 1. — Having received to-day the an
swer from the tribunal of foreign affairs, to my
request of the 12th of February, to be allowed
to send Cossacks to Balgassou, I took measures
to carry this design into effect. A Turkestan ofthe
name of Abdulla, who often came to us to sell
various articles, introduced to us Lieou szu hai,
a merchant of Peking, who engaged to convey
our Cossacks from the capital, to the great wall,
and to the country of the Tsakhar Mongols
where our cattle were, and to return in two days.
At first he asked an hundred Hang in silver, for
the hire of two saddle horses, and two large
carts for the conveyance of nine Cossacks ;
but after bargaining for a long time, he con
sented to take sixty liang, making about 'five
pounds weight. We gave him half a pound ot
silver in advance, and promised him four pounds
more, when he should bring the contract drawn
up in the Chinese language ; the rest was to be
paid him on the return of the inspector of the
baggage to Peking.
At four o'clock in the afternoon, the Boshko
Ourghentai came to inform me that he had been
appointed by the tribunal of foreign affairs, to
accompany our people in this excursion. He be
gan, according to custom, by saying, that the

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 83
tribunal had not furnished him with means to
perform the journey, and that he ruined himself
by being obliged to travel for our interest. I
answered him, through our interpreter, that it
was not my business to judge of the affairs ofthe
Chinese government, and that ours was not
obliged to maintain at its expence, the foreign
agents appointed by their government to attend
to our affairs. The Boshko, with his usual ad
dress, pretended not to understand these words ;
he imagined that we should give him ten liang
at least. Meantime, the student Sipakof coming
in, I requested him to represent to the Boshko,
in the Chinese language, and without reserve,
all the meanness of his conduct, and the dis
agreeable consequences which might result to
himself if we thought fit to complain to the
tribunal of his importunities, and of the trouble
he had put us to during our journey. He then
desisted from his pretensions, and promised to
do his utmost in future to deserve our gratitude
and liberality, by his zeal and complaisance.
The Boshko, however, told an absolute falsehood,
when he said that the tribunal refused to indem
nify him for the expences of the journey, for
every Chinese courier travelling on government
business, daily receives his subsistence, which is
estimated at a liang in silver. But couriers
who understand their own interest, prefer taking
the money, and paying their own expences.
g 2

84 CONCLUSION OF
March 3. — The month of March began with
very mild weather. To-day at noon the ther
mometer in the shade was at 10° above zero,
and in the afternoon at 13°. The trees began
to bud, others were in blossom, and the fields
were clothed in bright verdure.
March 4. — At nine o'clock in the morning
our people, accompanied by the Boshko, set out
for Balgassou, after receiving my instructions,
and money for the journey, &c. At five o'clock
in the afternoon a heavy rain fell, for the first
time this spring. Three hours afterwards a
violent storm arose, which continued through
the night.
March 8. — The weather, ever since the
fourth, had been gloomy and cold, and to-day
we had a fall of snow mixed with rain.
March 10. — At two o'clock in the afternoon
Bishop Pius came to visit our archimandrites, and
afterwards did me the same honour. On enter
ing the house of the embassy, he exclaimed
ironically, " Domus spatiosa, domus maximi
imperatoris sinensis ;" meaning that the house
was large, but that it was not suited to the
greatness of the emperor of China. He con
versed with us a long time, respecting the par
ticulars of our journey to Peking. He after
wards enquired if the cattle which we had re
quired on the route had been given us by the
emperor of China. When he learned that our

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 85
government had paid for them, he observed that
one of the mandarins had told him to the con
trary : he added, that by the emperor's orders
the Catholic missionaries ought to be supplied
with cattle whenever they travelled from Canton
to Peking, but that the Europeans were not
withstanding always obliged to hire them at
their own expense. The Chinese embezzle the
sums which the government allows for this pur
pose. But these are the most inconsiderable of
the abuses of which they are guilty in managing
the public money.
March 16. — There was a fall of snow through
the day : it lay about five inches deep.
March 17. — The morning was very cold.
At noon the snow was nearly thawed, and the
air was serene and warm.
March 18. — The weather was dry, but fre
quent gusts of wind raised clouds of dust. Our
interpreter, who went out to make some pur
chases in the shops, met with a Mongol of the
tribe of Ordos, which dwells to the south of the
northern bend of the Houang-ho,. above the
province of Shen si. This man, much surprised
at hearing a Russian speak Mongol so well,
said, " Is it possible that Mongol should also be
the language of the Russians ?" The interpre
ter learned from this Mongol that the tribe of
Ordos is divided into seven kochoun. It has a
kiung vang (a. prince of the second class), three
g 3

86 CONCLUSION OF
beile (of the third), and four beisse (of the
fourth class). The administration of the affairs of
the tribe is confided to the senior beile, who had
stood very high in the favour of the late emperor.
Once every year an assembly, composed of the
principal proprietors or military chiefs, meets to
deliberate on the most important concerns of
the tribe.
March 20. — The Chinese christian, Pierre
Bourjoie, told me that the procurator-general of
one ofthe southern provinces had sent a report
to the emperor respecting several Chinese who
had been condemned for having embraced the
Christian religion. The emperor asked in what
their crime consisted. The mandarin replied
that they had abandoned the. faith of their an
cestors to follow foreign doctrine. The emperor
finding nothing in this action which could dis
turb the tranquillity of the empire, ordered them
to be sent home at the expense of government.
All religions are tolerated in China. The
policy of the Mantchoo court has adopted the
maxim of leaving every man to believe what he
pleases. This tolerance consolidates the power
of the emperor over the different nations which
live under his sceptre. The Mantchoo who
blindly believes in the priests of Fo ; the Chinese
who follows the law of Confucius and Lao tsu ;
the Mongol, a zealous follower of Boudha ; the
Turkestan, the disciple of Mahomet, enjoy

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 87
equally the protection ofthe laws, and live upon
friendly terms with each other. The priority of
origin and of power, and the different degrees
of civilization, are the only characteristics which
distinguish these nations.
The government of China recognises three
religions. The first is that of Confucius, founded
on the natural law. It worships heaven : it
teaches moral precepts, and prescribes some
practices to which every man without exception
is bound to conform, from the emperor to the
meanest of his subjects. The books of this
religion abound in obscure reasonings, and in
great contradictions. The king or classical
books of the empire contains the maxims of
Confucius. The religion of Tao szu, founded by Lao tsu,
a very learned man, and contemporary of Con
fucius, is considered as the second. Lao tsu
published only a small book on the creation of
the universe ; the style is obscure and concise.
He wrote it in compliance with the request of a
governor who was his particular friend. He
died in solitude ; after his death commentaries
were written on his book, and it became the fun
damental base of a new religion, the object of
which is to subdue the passions.
The third religion is that of Boudha ; it ori
ginated in India, called Hian tou, or Thian tchu.
The founder was a prince Fo, who was edu-
g 4

88 CONCLUSION OF
cated by hermits in the mountains of his country ;
he published a great many books, and gave him
self out as a divinity.
When the Mantchoos had become masters of
China, a fourth religion was introduced into
the empire. Shamanism, which is confined to
the invocation of the spirits or shades of their
ancestors, is the religion of the Mantchoos.*
21st March. — This day, which is the first of
the third month, according to the Chinese ca
lendar, the weather was very bad. The spring
at Peking is accompanied with very high wind ;
and we are assured, that the winter, which is
just over, and the spring, which is beginning,
were really extraordinary. The winter was ex
tremely cold for this climate : in the spring there
was a great deal of snow and rain, which was
very beneficial to the land. The air was very
damp ; and during our stay there were none of
those storms which frequently do great damage.
The negligence of the police, with respect to
the cleanliness of the city, occasions great in
conveniences, and is injurious to the health of
the inhabitants. They throw into the streets all
kinds of dirty water to keep down the dust.
* This description of the religions of China is not very
correct. It is useless to correct it, because they are well
known in Europe; thanks to the labours of the French
missionaries, Deguignes the father, and Deshauterayes. 
Klaproth.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 89
From the middle of the second to the middle of
the third month, they open and clean the drains.
All the filth which has been collected there
during the year, is piled up in the streets, and
fills the air with noxious exhalations. The in
habitants wear over their garments, during this
time, perfumed rosaries which hang down to the
breast, and are chiefly made of musk, of which
the Chinese are very fond.
Towards midnight a tempest arose in the
north-west. The snow during the winter, and
the violent storms in summer, come from that
quarter. The east wind, which comes from the
yellow sea, brings rain ; and the south wind is
very mild.
23d March. — The chief of the Mission had
ordered the monk Benjamin, and the interpreter,
to deliver to the tribunal of foreign affairs a
note, enquiring if the present Mission would
receive the allowance and the provisions granted
by the emperor to the preceding Missions, from
the time of its arrival in Peking, 1818. The
Boschko who commanded the guard of the en
trance, told the deputies that there was nobody
in the tribunal.
24th March. — This is the first day of the
festival of spring, according to the Chinese. A
great concourse of persons met in the temple
Liee li tchang, near the glass manufactory ; the
Ho chang carry their idols to the places reserved

90 CONCLUSION OF
for them, and burn incense before them while
they recite prayers suitable to the occasion.
The laity put on rich clothes of a particular
fashion, ornament their heads with flowers, lay
on rouge, &c.
On this day the Chinese perform the vows,
which they have made to preserve themselves
from the evils with which they were threatened.
They load themselves with chains, and go a werst
or more, prostrating themselves on the earth
every fifth or tenth step.
The devotees of both sexes have a great num
ber of similar practices. They often travel a
hundred wersts on foot to visit some temple ce
lebrated for its sanctity.* They observe very
rigorous fasts, abstaining from fish and certain
plants, such as garlic, onions, &c.
At seven o'clock in the afternoon our in
spector of baggages returned from Balgassou,
bringing back the Cossacks, who had passed the
winter there with our cattle.
March 26th. — At day-break a fire broke out
in the apartment of one of the ecclesiastics,
which I had myself previously occupied ; hap
pily it was soon extinguished. The fire began
in the kitchen, where it appeared that the stove
was only four inches from a wooden pillar,
* It may be imagined how fatiguing such a pilgrimage
must be to Chinese women of all ranks, whose feet are
crippled by fashion and custom.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 91
which, according to the rules of Chinese archi
tecture, is generally used in certain parts of
stone buildings. Some papers and books were
burnt. The Boschko Ourghentai came to acquaint me
of the happy result of his mission. On the tes
timony of the inspector of the baggage, to the
zeal shown by the Boshko, I gave him some
arsheens of cloth, and two sable skins. His ser
vant received a red morocco skin and a knife.
The carrier, who had behaved very well on
the journey, received, besides the remainder of
the sum due to him, a sabre, and a promise that
we would not forget him when we should set
out on our return home.
We had lost at Balgasson, from the 16th of
November to the 14th of March, that is, in
four months, thirty-five camels, and twenty-nine
horses ; we had remaining twenty-eight camels,
and one hundred and seven horses. This great
but inevitable loss had been caused by the
quantity of snow which had fallen during this
remarkably severe winter, by which the in
habitants of Mongolia sustained immense losses.
If the Chinese government had consented to
let us set out earlier from Kiakhta, we certainly
should not have suffered so great a loss ; for
arriving at Kalgan in the autumn, the animals
would have been prepared to bear the wet
season which awaited them the more easily, as

92 CONCLUSION OF
the cattle of the Bouriats are accustomed to sub
sist on hay during the whole year. What hap
pened to us should induce our government to
urge the tribunal of foreign affairs at Peking,
that our missions may be permitted to pass the
frontiers of the Chinese empire before the first
of August.
March 31st. — This being the eleventh day
of the third month, according to the Chinese
calendar, the remains of the deceased emperor
were removed. Several members ofthe preceding
Mission, and of the present, dressed in the Chi
nese costume, went out to witness the ceremony.
I, and the officers under me, could not accom
pany them, because our Russian dress would
have exposed us to the importunate curiosity of
the crowd ; besides, we should have been obliged
to ask permission of the superior authorities,
which it would Tiave been very difficult to ob
tain. The coffin was borne by ordinary porters,
upon a bier covered with red cloth : it was
escorted by several soldiers, with the standards
used on particular occasions, by subaltern offi
cers and their servants. This is the whole pomp
attending the funeral of an emperor of China ;
besides there was not much regularity in the
procession. The ministers, and the superior
officers, were gone with the new emperor to the
first station, in order to receive the coffin, before

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 93
which they made repeated prostrations ; and this
continues till they arrive at the western burying
ground, at the distance of an hundred and fifty
wersts from Peking. Kien long was buried in
the imperial eastern cemetery, about the same
distance from the capital, on the road to the
summer palace of Je ho. The custom of
changing alternately the place of sepulture is
strictly observed, with respect to the emperors
of China of the dynasty of Ta thsing. Kia
king was interred in the western cemetery, be
cause his predecessor was buried in the eastern.
It is said that the funeral of Kia king was so
plain, because his son and successor desires that
the Chinese, following his example, may not
lavish excessive sums on the burial of then-
parents. April 2d. — At day-break we heard repeated
discharges of cannon and artillery. The regi
ments stationed at Peking are exercised in the
spring in the hai tsu, or parks, seven wersts
from the capital. The cavalry and archers are
exercised but rarely, in a plain beyond the gate
of Ngan ting men, near the Russian burying
ground. Foreigners are not permitted, on any
pretext whatever, to be present at the military
exercises of the Mantchoos.
Being invited to spend the afternoon with
Father Hyacinth, I met Tchoung lao ye, master
of the Mantchoo language, appointed by the

94 CONCLUSION OF
government: he spoke in praise of the new
student, Mr. Leontief, for his rapid progress in
the Mantchoo, which was equal to that of Mr.
Voitsekofski in the Chinese.
April 3d. — In the afternoon I received a visit
from the interpreter of Corea, named Vang ;
he was in the suite of the generals sent by their
sovereign to be present at the funeral of the late
emperor ; we presented him with a small mirror.
April 4. — Vang returned this morning with
Tche, the chief interpreter of the Corean ge
neral. They asked me many questions through
the student, Zimailof, in the Chinese language,
respecting the situation and extent of Russia :
the architecture of our houses, towns, &c. Tche
had some notion of Russia, which he thought
was situated to the north of Corea. He knew
that the Russians had been to Japan* ; he was
* In Chinese Jypen. The History of China says, that at
the time when China was divided into several principalities,
more than 450 years before our era, the prince of Hang
tcheou declared war against prince Chao hing, who was less
powerful than himself. He defeated and took him, and kept
him in prison for three years. However, the minister of
Chao hing, together with one of the generals of that princi
pality, having secretly assembled and trained an army, suc
ceeded in furnishing their prince with means of escaping
from Hang tcheou.
The prince of Chao hing finding, on his return to his own
country, an army ready equipped, went with a fleet to Hang
tcheou, and kept that city for a long time in a state of siege ;
so that the prince of Hang tcheou was obliged to escape

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 95
acquainted with Kiakhta, and was not ignorant
that there are beautiful furs, such as sable, fox,
squirrel, beaver, &c.

by sea with all his family. The winds carried him to the Isle
of Nifon, where the fugitive prince introduced the language
and arts of China. The Chinese give to that island the name
of Jypen (from Jy, sun and pen, origin) ; that is to say, the
eastern island. The Japanese themselves pronounce this
name Nipon ; hence comes that of Niphon, used by the Eu
ropeans, as Japan does from Jypen  Timkowski.
I have thought there were reasons for supposing (Asia
Polyglotta, p. 326,) that the ancient barbarous inhabitants
of Japan had been civilized by colonies, which had left China
during the troubles which distracted that country under the
dynasty of Tcheou. I cannot, however, admit the pre
ceding account, which Mr. Timkowski supposes to be taken
from the Chinese annals, and which I have sought there in
vain. Hang tcheou (anciently called Hoei ki), and Chou
Hing, are two towns, in the province of Tche kiang, which in
450 before our era, belonged to the king of Yue, who re
sided in the former, and was named at that time Ouang pou
cheou. He was succeeded by his son Ouang oung, or Ouang
tchu keou, who, according to the Szu ki of Szu ma thsian,
reigned thirty-seven years. It seems that Mr. Timkowski,
alludes to the wars between the kings of Yue, whom he calls
princes of Hang tcheou, and those of Thsou. But the latter
did not possess Chou hing, and it was they who were defeated
in the contest. The kingdom of Ou comprised the territory
of the present city of Sou tcheou fou in Kiang nan. In
496 B.C. Ho liu, king of Ou, attacked the Yue ; he was
wounded in the combat, and died. His son, Fou tso, suc
ceeded him. To revenge the death of his father, he marched
against the Yues and defeated them. In the sequel, Keou
thsian, king of the latter, gained several battles over Fou tso,

96 CONCLUSION OF
April 6th. — At three o'clock in the afternoon
I was visited, in consequence of my own in
vitation, by three mandarins of the tribunal of
foreign affairs, who had the management of the
affairs of our Mission. I spoke to Tho and his
companions^ of the great loss which the rigour
of the winter had caused us : and requested
him to ask the tribunal to have the goodness to
give orders to the officer who would accompany
us on our return, to procure us some strong ani
mals, capable of carrying our effects, as had
been done in 1808, and that we might be able
to exchange those which were fatigued. The
Dzanghins promised that our request would be
granted, and assured us of their zeal for the in
terest of our government. We agreed that I
should go in person to the tribunal to present my
request. " This step," added Tho lao ye, " will

who killed himself in despair in 473, and whose family was
destroyed. I must also observe, that neither the Annals of China, nor
the great Encyclopaedias, Thoung tchi,Wen hian thoung khao
and Yuan kian loui han, nor the Imperial Geography of the
dynasties of Ming and Thai thsing, make any mention of the
colonization of Japan, which Mr. Timkowski supposes to
have taken place in 450 B.C. This account appears to me
to have been taken from one of those historical romances,
which relate events that took place in the civil wars at the
time of the Tcheou, and which disfigure the facts to increase
the attraction of the narrative. — Klaproth.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 97
give us means to comply with your desire, and
will afford you the certainty of meeting with no
obstacles on your journey."
They advised us, however, not to be in a
hurry to present our petition, because the em
peror and the ministers would not return from
the burying-ground before the 28th day of the
third month, or the 19th of April. They ap
proved of my resolution to quit Peking, at the
latest on the 25th or 26th day of the fourth
month (14th or 15th of May); the Mission
under the archimandrite Gribovski, had left
Peking on the 11th of May, 1808. Travellers
cannot hope to find provisions before that season
in the Steppes of Mongolia.
In the evening three Corean officers who had
come to Peking with their generals paid me a
visit. The oldest of them, who was about sixty
years of age, examined with much attention our
clothes, and all our effects. Our sabres, and
pistols particularly, excited the curiosity of these
natives of a country so remote from Russia. I
presented one of them with a good clasp knife;
the two others with a small canteen and tea-
things, and each of them with a cup of the best
china, of the imperial manufactory of St. Peters
burg, and several sheets of paper, made at Peter-
hoff. They received these presents, and especially
the paper, with expressions of the greatest plea-
VOL. n. H

98 CONCLUSION OF
sure. After an hour's conversation they took
leave with repeated protestations of friendship.
The Coreans, as well as the Japanese, resemble
the Chinese in their physiognomy, but their lan
guage is totally different from that of China.
As the two nations make use ofthe same charac
ters they perfectly understand each other in
writing. The Coreans even excel the Chinese
in the beauty of their writings. In China itself
the language spoken in the north differs con
siderably from that of the southern provinces ;
so that the Chinese are often obliged to converse
through the medium of an interpreter.
The Coreans are of a middle size, and rather
robust. They have brown complexions, black
hair, and a martial look. Their dress resembles
that of the Chinese before their conquest by the
Mantchoos. The sleeves of their garments are
long and very wide : their clothes are of calico.
Their pointed hats are woven of bamboo, with
very broad brims. These Coreans had rather a
vulgar appearance, and their manners were not
very conformable to the rules of decorum. The
Chinese call them Kao li or Tchao sion.
The officers, whom I had just received, con
fessed to me that their countrymen were con
tinually disposed to revolt against the reigning
dynasty. The king does not venture to go out
unless accompanied by his guards, which is
chiefly composed of cavalry.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 99
The sovereign of Corea is confirmed in his
dignity by the emperor of China. On the acces
sion of a new king to the throne the court of
Peking sends him the brevet conferring on him
the title of king. It is carried by a mandarin
of high rank, who is to be present at the coron
ation. At the commencement of every year the
king of Corea sends presents to the emperor of
China, as a pledge of his fidelity, and receives
others in return, Jaut much inferior in value.
The thin population of Corea, and the peaceable
character of the inhabitants, are the causes that
the Chinese government treats them with great
harshness. This rigour is particularly exercised
by the Chinese mandarins towards the Coreans
who go to Peking. This people also pays a
tribute in gold to the Japanese. I have not been
able to learn the source of this last obligation,
which is very burdensome to Corea, because the
Japanese government exercises great vigilance to
prevent their having the slightest communic
ation with foreigners, except the Chinese. The
Coreans who had come to Peking were already
acquainted with the Russians, and are much
pleased with their affability. They know the
geographical situation, and the great extent of
Russia. Several of them have obtained, probably
through the Chinese merchants, some particulars
ofthe extent- ofthe commerce of Kiakhta, and
of the nature of the goods disposed of there.
h 2

100 CONCLUSION OF
Our American company might take advantage
of favourable circumstances to form a com
mercial connection with Corea, by establishing a
new depot on some part of the east coast of Asia.
Cotton and calicoes are the principal produc
tions of Corea. The traders from that country
come every year to Peking with the ambassadors
of their king, and bring cotton and silk, both
raw and manufactured, writing-paper as coarse
as linen, tobacco, and horses. What the Chinese
most esteem are the cotton manufacture, called
Corean daba, the writing-paper, and the horses,
on account of their very small size, and their
strength. They take in exchange silks of su
perior quality, metal goods, porcelain, &c.
April 8. — Towards noon father Hyacinth
received a visit from an old general in the suite
ofthe ambassadors of Corea, who were not to go
away till the middle of May. I was asked to be
present at this interview. The general, named
Li yu hou, who was sixty-four years of age, had
a nOble air, and was very modest in comparison
of the Mantchoos. Father Hyacinth was al
ready very intimate with his son, who had lived
at Peking about five years. The general con
versed with us in writing. The questions on
our side were explained to him by a young
Chinese, who was appointed to give lessons to
the ecclesiastical members of the new Mission.
Li yu hou asked my age, (the usual mark of

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 101
politeness in China in people who meet for the
first time,) how long it was since I had arrived,
&c. We showed him, on the map, the distance
between Corea and Saint Petersburg. He was
exceedingly surprised at the immense distance
of Peking from our capital, which is about ten
thousand wersts, and was very sensible of the
fatigues of such a journey. The general visited
our church, the garden of the convent, the
library of the Mission, and called on the archi
mandrite Peter, who received him with the
greatest cordiality. He afterwards requested
permission to see my apartment, where he looked
with pleasure at the dress of the Cossacks, and
several of our effects, such as muskets, pistols,
sabres, &c.
The following is a fragment of my convers
ation in writing with Li yu hou : —
Question. — Permit me to ask how far is the
capital of Corea from Peking, and what is its
name? Answer. — It is called Han yang*, and is
three thousand li from Peking.
* Or Han tching. This name is found in the original of
the maps of the Jesuits, sent from Peking to Father Du
Halde ; but by a mistake of the translator, or the editor of
the maps, the name of King ki tao, or the province of the
court, was applied to the capital of Corea. The celebrated
d'Anville, in his general map of Tartary, inserted in the
work of Father Du Halde, attempted to trace the divisions of
the Tao, or provinces of Corea ; but his divisions are not quite
correct — Klaproth.
H O

102 CONCLUSION OF
Q. — Into how many provinces is Corea
divided, and what are their names ?
A. — Our kingdom is not large ; from east to
west it is a thousand li, and from north to south
it is four thousand- li. Our provinces bear the
name of Tao, which in Chinese signifies roads.
There are eight ; namely, King ki, or the pro
vince of the court ; the adjacent southern pro
vince is called Tchoung thsing, and that most
southerly, Thsiuan lo. That on the east is Kiang
yuan, that of the south-east, Khing chang ; the
western, Houang hai, and next to it, Phing yang;
and the northern, Hian khing. The names of
some of these provinces are composed of three
principal towns; thus, — Tchoung thsing derives
its name from the town of Tchoung tcheou,
and Thsing tcheou ; Thsinan lo, from Thsinan
tcheou and Lo tcheou. There are above three
hundred and sixty sub-divisions, the provinces
being divided into departments, and these into
districts. Q. — Are there any great rivers and lakes in
Corea ?
A. — There is a great number of high and in
accessible mountains, and but few plains ; there
is abundance of water, which forms large lakes
and considerable rivers, which, after a very wind
ing course, fall into the sea. Permit me to take
leave. When the general took leave, I presented
18

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 103
him with an officer's sabre, with which he was
highly pleased. I assured him that it would be
extremely agreeable to us, if this trifling article
of Russian manufacture should remind him of
us, after his return to his own country. As he
was going away, he told his interpreter, care
fully to hide the sabre, that the sentinels of our
house, and those ofthe legation of Corea, might
not perceive it, for perhaps they would take it
away. The Mantchoo boshkos had already hinted
to the Coreans that they visited us too often.
The general had a covered Chinese chaise ;
he was accompanied by his secretary, an old
man of eighty, who wore spectacles, and had a
peacock's feather in his cap ; he was also at
tended by interpreters, and two servants.
April 9- — To-day being Easter-eve, the Portu
guese missionaries, Gau and Ribiera, came to pay
their compliments to our archimandrites, and at
the same time to invite them to come to their
convent during the holidays. We bad observed
Lent very strictly.
April 10. — Easter Sunday. None of the
baptized Albazins came to the church of the
convent, except Alexis, with his two relations,
who were very well received.
According to the Asiatic custom, the Corean
general sent me a present of two fans, a pipe,
a pound of tobacco, and some lozenges. The
interpreter who brought them received for his
h 4

104* CONCLUSION OF
pains a pocket-knife, and the servant a thousand
pieces of copper.
April 12. — In the morning all the Mis
sion went in procession to the church of the
Assumption ; this ceremony was a little de
ranged by a heavy rain, which continued till
noon. Mass was read by the archimandrite
Peter, in a full assembly of the clergy, after
which prayers were put up to implore the bles
sing of Heaven on the emperor, and the impe
rial family. The Chinese who were in the
church appeared much edified by our divine
service, and by the fervour with which the faith
ful subjects of the white Czar prayed for him
beyond the great wall.
None of the Albazins, even those who were
baptized, were present at the ceremony, except
Alexis, who was their chief, and belonged to the
Russian company, which is incorporated in the
imperial guard. Alexis pointed out to us in
this church, a picture of our Saviour in prison,
seated, and wearing the crown of thorns, which
was brought from Albazin by his ancestors. The
picture is pretty well painted, but in the style of
that time, and become dark by the effects of
age. The church was in such a ruinous state
that it seemed ready to fall.
On our return we went along the outside of
the eastern wall by the side of the canal, by
which corn is brought from the southern pro-

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 105
vinces as part of the contributions paid by the
country people to the government. On the
banks of the canal are magazines of rice be
longing to the state. An observatory built by
the Jesuits, in the form of a little summer-house,
stands upon one of the towers of this eastern
wall. Upon the platform, at the top, there are
several astronomical instruments, without any
covering, which are doubtless placed there to
attract the notice of the people. Among them
are those sent by the King of England, with the
embassy of Lord Macartney, as a present to
Kien Long. The others were brought from
Europe, under the reign Khang hi, a very en
lightened prince, who was distinguished above
all the emperors of the reigning family, by his
useful undertakings.
April 15. — At nine o'clock I went out of
the eastern gate of Peking to see a sluice. I
could not entirely satisfy my curiosity, for the
boshko accompanied us, under the pretext of
protecting us. We went through the gate of
Tchoung ven men, better known by the name
Ha ta men, to the southern suburb, and then
through the side gate, Toung pian men, and
rode about three wersts along the canal, to the
first sluice. This canal is very old ; its sides,
which are lined with clay, rise about two fathoms
above the surface of the water. The sluice is

106 CONCLUSION OF
nothing more than a dyke rudely constructed of
unhewn stone, without any opening. It rises
about four fathoms above low water-mark ; on
the top of it is an inn, where tea is sold to pas
sengers. The vessels laden with tea, corn, and
other goods, which come from the southern pro
vinces, by the great canal, stop at Tchoung
tcheou, a city twenty-five wersts to the east of
Peking. This city is a chief depot for goods ;
there are immense magazines of rice belonging
to the emperor. From Tchoung tcheou, the
corn is conveyed along the great canal, which sur
rounds Peking, by small boats which are towed
by men from one sluice to another. At every dyke
the cargo is shifted into other boats placed on the
opposite side. The greater part of this corn con
sists of rice in sacks, which are stowed upon deck.
On this side, and in general to the distance of
five wersts around Peking, you continually meet
with burying-grounds, between which there are
green fields, where the corn was already three
feet high.
We went to see the trunk of a beech-tree,
which is highjy venerated by the inhabitants of
Peking. It Is above twelve toises in length, and
near the root about nine feet in diameter. It is
covered with a shed. The people believe that
it was cast up by the sea about two hundred
years ago, under the dynasty of Ming. An

OUR STAY AT PEKING. - 107
eunuch, excited by his devotion, conveyed it to
this place, covered it with a roof, and erected a
little chapel near it. Other persons assured us
that it had grown on this spot, and that it had
long adorned the environs of Peking. The in
habitants of that capital respected it on account
of its colossal dimensions. At length, having
been blown down in a storm, the emperor Kien
Long, who admired every thing that was remark
able, and especially objects revered by the people,
gave orders, about fifty years ago, to build on the
spot where the beech had formerly stood, a temple
and a summer-house, where the history of this
tree is inscribed in Chinese characters on two
marble tables.
This inscription was copied from the original
written by Kien Long himself, who excelled in
the art of penmanship, and was perfectly versed
in the Mantchoo and Chinese languages. It is,
however, difficult precisely to determine to what
species this tree belongs. Its age and the in
fluence of the air have very much changed its
external appearance. During the night the
. hollow of the tree serves as a retreat for the poor
people of the valley.
We proceeded towards the west as far as the
burying-ground of- Sou thsing vang, a prince of
the first rank, one of the eight Mantchoo princes
who settled at Peking at the time of the con
quest of China. Chun tchi, the father of Khang

108 CONCLUSION OF
hi, first emperor of the dynasty of Ta thsing,
caused this burying-ground to be made, which
contains houses, temples, &c>, in honor of the
military talents of Sou thsing vang. The monu
ment, properly so called, is in a summer-house.
Two large white marble tablets are fixed upon
the back of tortoises, which are also of white
marble. The inscriptions on these tablets,
carved in Mantchoo, Chinese, and Mongol
characters, record the exploits of this general,
who distinguished himself in several battles with
different Mongol tribes. On the outside is a
cedar, under whose wide-spreading branches,
passages or narrow alleys, divided by wooden,
pillars, have been made to the distance of six
fathoms from the root. A great number of
cypress and juniper trees grow about the bury
ing-ground. Going along the south wall of the suburb of
Peking we passed by several small country
houses. When we came to the gate of Young
ting men we turned to the south, by the road
leading to the park. About three wersts from
the city, on the right hand, we saw among
many other monuments, one which was very
extraordinary. Two tortoises support two tab
lets, the inscriptions of which are effaced by
time ; on each side is a statue ; to the left, which
is the place of honour among the Chinese, is
that of a civil mandarin, and on the right,

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 109
that of a warrior in armour ; there are also
two horses, and, nearer to the road, two sheep,
all of white marble. But this monument is
going to decay, with the decline of the descend
ants of those who are here interred. Such
ancient, now neglected, monuments are very
common in the environs of Peking.
In obedience to the maxims of Confucius,
which are conformable to the ancient Chinese
custom, to spare no expense, as a proof of filial
piety, which is the firmest support of social order,
the burying-grounds around Peking have been
adorned with monuments, and large groves of
cedar, cypress, and juniper trees. These trees
greatly contribute, by the resin which exudes
from them, to purify the air of the burying-
grounds. The present emperor, as I have
already said, having put limits to the extrava
gance of filial piety, we saw to-day several plain
funerals, followed, however, by a great train of
relations. The road to the park passes through burying-
grounds. On approaching it we passed by a
marble bridge over a little river, which, during
the summer-rains, overflows its banks, and often
does much damage. The park is about eighty
wersts (fifty-three miles) in circumference, sur
rounded by a stone wall twenty-one feet high.
Hurricanes from the north-west have raised large
hills of sand in it. Though the high road

110 CONCLUSION OF
crosses it the sentinels at the gate forbade us to
enter, because we were strangers, and told us to
ask permission of their officers ; but seeing there
would be some difficulty we thought it best to
turn back. The park, indeed, contains nothing
worthy of particular attention. There are little
groves inhabited by stags, wild goats, and other
animals. The emperor sometimes reviews the
garrison of Peking, and sometimes hunts the
wild animals. From the top of an artificial hill,
on this side of the bridge, there is a view ofthe
inside of the park, and the adjoining valley; in
the distance are the blue summits of the moun
tains which bound on the west the vast plain of
Tchy li, and which extend to the south to the
banks of the Houang ho, or the yellow river. *
We returned to the city by the same road,
crossing the southern suburb, or Vai lo tching.
We passed by the temples built in honour of
Heaven, and of the inventor of agriculture;
but we could not see the buildings within the
enclosure. Near the temples, built of unhewn
stone, on both sides of the road, we saw the
* Tchy li signifies the province of the court. Under the
dynasty of Ming there were in China two capitals or courts;
Peking and Nanking. The province of Peking had then the
name of Pe tchy li, or province of the northern court ; and
Nanking that of Nan tchy li, or province of the southern
court. At present the Mantchoos have only one capital,
which is Peking. The province in which this city is situated
is merely called Tchy li  Klaproth.

OUR STAY AT PEKING. Ill
traces of large ponds, which were there for
merly. The deceased emperor, after the con
spiracy which broke out in 1813 *, ordered them
to be filled up, that when he went to the temple,
assassins might not be able to hide themselves in
the reeds ; a useless precaution for an emperor
who does not find his safety in the love of his
people. April 17. — Father Fereira came in the morning
to invite the archimandrites and me to dine on
the following day at the southern convent ; he
gave me the title of Centurion.
April 18. — At nine o'clock this morning, the
bitketchi Fousangghe, of the seventh class, ap
pointed by the tribunal to be the conductor of*
the Mission, called upon me ; he was accompanied
by the boshko Ourghentai, and the old servant
formerly in the service of Tching lao ye, who
had accompanied the new Mission. The latter
is at present placed in the service of Fousangghe,
as having been already in Mongolia, and being
acquainted with the affairs of the country. It was
a great pity that this new conductor, as well as
our former one,- spoke only Chinese, and was not
acquainted with the Mongol or Mantchoo ; and
besides, he had never been further than Kalgan.
* The revolt began with the Chinese, among whom there
were some descendants of the dynasty of Ming. Their pro
ject was to exterminate the Mantchoos. Hatred to the con
querors still broods in the hearts of the Chinese.

112 CONCLUSION OF
We might, therefore, suppose that the boshko
and the nerba would be the most important per
sons during the journey. Fousangghe advised
me to apply by writing to the tribunal, for the
departure ofthe Mission, without fixing the day ;
and at the same time to represent that we wanted
cattle for our journey ; that it might be able to
give orders beforehand, to supply the number
required at each station. I told Fousangghe, that
notwithstanding the great loss which we had
sustained, we should want at first only ten
camels, and that we were ready to hire them as
we had done before.
I made Fousangghe a present of seven ar
sheens of black kerseymere for an upper gar
ment, three arsheens and a half of black cloth
for a long robe, and a couple of the finest sable
skins; his servant received a skin of red mo
rocco. At eleven o'clock, four Chinese equipages
arrived, which were sent by the Portuguese mis
sionaries for the two archimandrites, Mr. Rasghil-
dejefl, and me. These good fathers wished to
receive all the members of the Mission, but
Mr. Voitsekofski was the only student who
took advantage of their invitation. We were
not aware that they had long since expressed a
desire to entertain all the Russians, even the
Cossacks. We learnt too late, that the Portu
guese, wishing to efface the humiliation which

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 113
they had received in our presence from a Chinese
officer, had sent a special request to the director
of the police at Peking for permission to receive
the Russians as their countrymen, which had
been granted them in a very polite manner.
Bishop Pius, fathers Ribeira and Fereira, re
ceived us with the most frank cordiality, and
expressed their regret that all the Russians did
not honour them by accepting their invitation.
The bishop conversed much with me respecting
the number of our troops, their arms, and uni
form, but inquired particularly about the Cos
sacks of the Don, who appeared to interest
him most. He much regretted the loss of our
cattle, and asked me why the Russians did not
come from Saint Petersburg to China by sea,
as other Europeans did. I replied, that the
journey to Peking was the shortest and most
secure by land.
The Portuguese drank the health of our em
peror ; which we returned by wishing health
and peace to the king of Portugal. At three
o'clock in the afternoon we returned home.
The archimandrite Pierre sent by the student
Sipakof a petition to the Tribunal of Foreign
Affairs, requesting permission to send the deacon
Israel to Russia, and to put in his place the in
terpreter Frolof, under the title of student to the
Russian Mission at Peking. Mr. Sipakof told
us, on his return, that the petition had been re-
VOL. II. I

114 CONCLUSION OF
ceived by the members of the council, but that
they had made some difficulties on the substi
tution of a layman for the deacon, observing that
a priest ought to be replaced by another eccle
siastic. April 21. — At break of day a violent tempest
arose, accompanied by a great noise in the air,
and clouds of dust, which continued till noon.
April 23. — According to the Chinese calendar
this is thefourth day of the fourth month. Atnoon,
Lieou szu hai, and his partner, called on me to
negociate respecting our journey to Balgassou.
I told him that we should not quit Peking with
all our baggage before the 25th or 26th of this
month, that is to say, about the middle of our
month of May. As for our own conveyance,
we wanted a palanquin for the chief of the pre
ceding Mission ; two palanquins, each drawn by
two mules, for the two monks Seraphim and
Arcadius, who complained of ill health ; two
large carts, each to hold five Cossacks ; sixteen
saddle horses and mules for me, the inspector of
the baggage, the Cossack officers, the interpreters,
Messrs. Sipakof and Zimailof, students of the
preceding Mission, the verger Yafitsky, and nine
Cossacks, who were to guard the palanquins and
the effects. The weight of the baggage was
estimated at 10,000 kin or Chinese pounds.
The carriers asked the following prices : 30
Ian (or liang) in silver for each palanquin ; 20 Ian
12

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 115
for each cart ; six Ian for a mule or horse, and the
same for every hundred kin weight of baggage.
This was enormous. I offered on my side a sum
rather higher than that which we had paid from
Kalgan to Peking, but the carriers gave me no
positive answer, and promised to come again in
two days.
The monks Seraphim and Daniel, and the
student Voitsekofski returned to-day, after an
absence of three days; they had been to the
warm baths * at the foot ofthe mountains, thirty-
five wersts north-east of Peking, in the vicinity
of Tchhang phing tcheou. Near these baths is
a country seat, surrounded by a park and a fine
garden. This is a place where the emperor stops
to take refreshment.
Dr. Voitsekofski, who possessed a knowledge
of chemistry, took this opportunity*, to make
some observations on the nature of these waters.
Their effects are very prompt and salutary ; but
the inhabitants of Peking" hardly derive any ad
vantage from them ; the lamas are almost the
only persons who make use of them. The
* Lord Macartney, in his Travels, mentions the warm
baths ; vol. iii. p. 7. — " Near these mountains are mineral
waters, which are called the Baths of the Emperor, either
because he had the buildings erected at his expence, or be
cause some of the imperial family have made use of them,
or because every thing that is not private property is con
sidered as belonging to him."
I 2

116 CONCLUSION OF
seventy-five days which I had passed in the open
air, in the midst of snow and sand in the Mon
gol Steppes, had had an unfavourable effect upon
my health, and it was highly necessary for me
also to make use of the warm baths of Peking.
The djanghin of the tribunal having heard of
my design opposed it, alleging, that the tri
bunal, desirous of watching over the life and
the tranquillity of the Russian envoys who came
to China, could not resolve to let me be absent
three days from Peking, unless it placed me
under the care of a bitketchi, and took upon
itself the charge of my support, and all other
expences ; that besides, I must present a pe
tition to the emperor to obtain what I wanted.
All this induced me to disregard my own health,
not to give the worthy djanghin so much
trouble. 24th April. — To-day, being the fifth day of
the fourth month, the emperor went to present
his offerings in the temple of Heaven, after which
he opened the first furrows in the field near the
altar, erected in honour of the inventor of agri
culture. This custom, established to encourage
the most useful of all arts, is observed on the
same day throughout the empire, by the first
mandarin of each place. Returning from the
western cemetery, the emperor had visited,
during the six following days, the most cele
brated temples of Peking. This prince, who

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 117
had observed a rigid fast, addressed his prayers
to the Supreme Being for the repose of the soul
of his late father. This example is followed by
all the mandarins of all the cities in the empire.
In the tribunals, on the day before that on which
the offerings are made, and before the eclipses
of the sun and moon, a red board is exhibited,
with the following inscription, in golden letters,
and in both languages : —
" Fast and purify yourselves !" In Chinese,
Tsing tchai ; and in Mantchoo, Bolgomi torga.
25th April. — At two o'clock in the afternoon
I sent to the tribunal of foreign affairs the pe
tition relative to our departure from Peking,
which we had fixed for the twenty-sixth day of
the fourth month, (15th May,) at the latest.
I also mentioned our want of cattle. After the
example of Mr. Pervouchin, who had accom
panied the Mission in 1807 and 1808, I offered
to pay the prices fixed for the hire of the camels
and horses. This was for the purpose of drawing
the attention of .the tribunal to this point, and
to make it impossible for the Chinese conductors
arbitrarily to raise the price, as they had done
on the preceding journey. I wished at the
same time to convince the tribunal, that our
government by no means required that its sub
jects, during their journies through the terri
tories of other states, should be an expense to
them for the things which they required on the
i 3

118 CONCLUSION OF
road ; and I wished to prove to them, that the
smallest service rendered to us would always be
generously paid for.
The petition was taken by the inspector of
the baggage, and the interpreter, accompanied
by Mr. Sipakof, and two Cossacks ; it was fa
vourably received by the members of the tri
bunal, who promised a prompt and satisfactory
decision ; but a kind of misunderstanding arose
on this occasion. Tho lao ye, the chief inspector
of the Russian court, requested the Mandarin
of the baggage to inform me, that the tribunal
was obliged to lay our affair before the emperor :
but that he did not dare to own to him that the
Russians, subjects of the most powerful empire
bordering on China, had been obliged to defray
the expences of their journey in the Chinese
dominions. Tho lao ye said, that the govern
ment, as a proof of its friendship for Russia,
would be ready to convey the Mission to Kiakhta
at its own expence, if we unfortunately had
not a horse or a camel left. He added, that
the bitketchi who accompanied the Mission in
1807 and 1808 had been ordered, as was always
done, to afford all possible assistance and pro
tection, both to the Russians coming to China
and those returning to Russia. If the bitketchi
had occasioned the Russians any extraordinary
expence, as had been confirmed by Mr. Ras-
ghildejef, who had accompanied the Mission

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 119
with a detachment of Cossacks, he had acted
contrary to his instructions ; but this fact had
not come to the knowledge of the tribunal, and
it was taken for granted, that it was not our in
tention to require at this time an investigation
of his conduct. For all these reasons, Tho lao
ye urged us to change that passage in our peti
tion, in which we said, that in the preceding
Mission our inspector had been obliged to pro
cure for money the cattle that we wanted to
convey our baggage. Not to disturb our good
understanding with the Chinese authorities by
an ill-timed perseverance, we consented to cor
rect our petition as Tho lao ye desired.
In the evening there was heavy rain.
April 26. — During the night, and in the
morning, there was a violent storm. At three
o'clock in the afternoon I presented the new
petition to the tribunal of foreign affairs. It was
received by the djanghin ; but the members of
the' tribunal raised a new difficulty. In this
document I solicited the assistance of the
Chinese government, according to the treaty
of friendship which existed between the two
empires. The djanghin, probably fearing that
we might avail ourselves of this treaty to make
greater claims, insisted that the word treaty
should be replaced by the word convention,
which was done upon the spot by Mr. Sipakof
in the Mongol translation ; the Russian original
i 4

120 CONCLUSION OF
remained as it was. The absence of Tho lao ye\
who was perfectly acquainted with the business,
produced this new pretension, which however
had no foundation. We asked that the Chinese
government should furnish us with means to
defend ourselves, or, more properly speaking,
protect us against the difficulties which our con
ductors might throw in the way when we wanted
to hire or to exchange on the road, among the
Mongols, the cattle which we might stand in
need of This demand was founded on the
fourth article of the treaty, which is to the fol
lowing effect : " If the merchants (nothing is
said of Missions,) wish to purchase on the road
camels, horses, and forage, or to hire workmen
at their own expence, they are permitted both to
buy and to hire." Now, if merchants travelling
on commercial affairs are allowed to procure at
their own expence everything that they want, it
is but just, according to the sense of the treaty,
to grant the same permission to ecclesiastics and
students sent by the Russian government to
Peking, and who may be considered as the
pledges of peace and friendship between the
two nations, in the capital of China ; and who
besides, during their stay, are maintained at the
expence of the sovereign of that empire.
May 4. — After having received permission
we all went to take leave of Tching lama.
Tching lama resides in the great temples to

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 121
the north-west, near the palace. On our way
thither we saw, at the east gate of the imperial
palace, a great number of palanquins, chaises, and
saddle-horses, belonging to officers of the court
and mandarins. The school of the Russian
language is in this neighbourhood,
The temples are painted red. They are spa
cious, magnificent, and kept in excellent order.
Here is the residence of the koutouktou, whom
we had seen performing the religious ceremonies
in the temple on the 4th of February. He had
since retired to his temple at Dolon nor, to pass
the summer. We were shown the apartments
occupied by this pontiff. They were very richly
adorned, and furnished with much taste and
splendour. The partitions in the inside were of
valuable and odoriferous wood ; curtains sup
plied the place of doors ; the floors were covered
with thick felt, over which rich carpets are
spread ; so that they are very soft to the tread.
The walls were hung with Tibetan and Chinese
pictures. In two apartments we saw English
table-clocks. The temples are chiefly inhabited
by the lamas of the eastern principalities of
Mongolia : the koutouktou of these countries
presides over everything relative to divine wor
ship. These lamas were much pleased at having
an opportunity of conversing with us in Mongol,
through the inspector of the baggage, and the
interpreter.

122 CONCLUSION OF
Tching lama received and treated us with
every mark of friendship, and attended us in
person in our examination of the temples. After
stopping about five hours with him we took
leave, expressing our sincere wish that he might
continue his friendship to our countrymen who
remained at Peking.
We also paid our last visit to the lama who
resides in the red convents of Houang szu.
The approach of spring had given an additional
beauty to the spot, by the fresh verdure in the
courts and the environs.
It rained from the morning till five in the
afternoon, and the evening was dark.
May 5. — Chou ming, master of the Russian
school at Peking, came to the Mr. Sipakof to
request him to translate into Russian the message
in the Mongol language, addressed by the tri
bunal of foreign affairs to the Russian senate,
on the change of the Mission at Peking. This
document had been translated into Latin by
father Gau. I took a copy of Mr. Sipakof 's
translation, to present it to the superior author
ities. It may be useful to the members of the
Missions, who maintain an intercourse with the
school of the Russian language.
May 6. — A high west wind blew the whole
day, and raised clouds of dust.
May 10. — The carrier Li lian ting weighed,
in our presence, with Chinese weights, the effects

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 123
belonging to the members of the Mission return
ing to Russia, and to the officers accompanying
them, as well as the books purchased for the
library of the Asiatic department, for the school
for the Asiatic languages at Irkutsk, and for the
imperial library at St. Petersburg. In fact, the
greater part of our baggage was composed of
these books, including those belonging to father
Hyacinth, and other members of the Mission.
They made fifteen camel loads. It may be
said, without exaggeration, that all the eight
Russian Missions that had returned from St.
Petersburg in the period of an hundred years,
did not carry home so great a number of useful
books as we did.
All our effects weighed eleven thousand kin,
or about four hundred poods (14,400 lbs.).
For the conveyance of the Mission to the
place where the baggage belonging to the go
vernment was left, we were to pay to the carrier
in money, L. T.
A. For three palanquins, 10 lana each - 30 0
B. For seventeen saddle-horses and mules, at
two lana and eight tschina each - 47 6
C. For two carts for ten Cossacks, at 1 0 lana
each ------ 20 O
D. For' the conveyance of 11,000 weight of
goods by camels, at two lana, three
tschina, for a hundred kin ... 253 0

Total 350 6

124 CONCLUSION OF
Or, according to the Russian weight, 750
rubles in silver.
At the request of the carrier, 116 lana in sil
ver were paid him in advance.
May 11. — A violent storm raged the whole
day. At four o'clock in the afternoon Chou ming,
master of the Russian school, came to see us.
Towards morning father Gau paid a visit to the
archimandrite Peter, to make some enquiry re
specting the departure of the monk Israel, who
was to return to Russia before the regular time.
May 12th. — At two o'clock I sent the in
spector of the baggage, and the interpreter,
accompanied by Mr. Sipakof) to the tribunal of
foreign affairs. The members of the court de-
ivered to them a letter for the directing senate
tt St. Petersburg. It was dated the eighteenth
day of the fourth month of the first year of
Tao Kouang; and at the same time I was re
quested to deliver this letter to the senate, on
my return to St. Petersburg.
May 13. — The Turkestan Li lian ting
brought me the contract for the conveyance '
of the Mission to Balgassou, written in the Chi
nese language. Our departure was fixed for
the twenty-sixth day ofthe fourth month (May
15th, 1821) ; a very fortunate day for setting out
on a journey, according to the Chinese astro-
logy-

OUR STAY AT PEKING. 125
The carrier received, on account, another
sum, equal to the first, and eight lana for eight
saddle-horses, intended for eight of the Cossacks,
who were to go in the carts. I had chosen these
Cossacks to join the others, to give a better ap
pearance to our escort from Peking to Thsing hi,
our first station.
At noon, Tho lao ye came with his comrades
to take leave of father Hyacinth and me. They
informed us that the emperor had sent orders to
the gousai amban of Khalgan, to the vang and
the amban of Ourga, to assist us to the utmost
of their power, to procure cattle for us, to give
us all the assistance of which we might stand in
need during our journey. I expressed my sin
cere gratitude for this measure, and for the
friendly treatment we had experienced during
our stay at Peking, begging them to continue
their kindness to our countrymen who remained
in the capital. We soon took leave from our
kind friends, who, especially Tho lao ye, had
given us such proofs of sincere regard.
Towards evening, Ourghentai, who was to
accompany us, called upon me to ask if we were
ready to set out. He did not, on this occasion,
neglect to give us an unfavourable character of
the bitketchi Fousangke, our conductor, who,
he said, knew neither the Mongol nor the Mant
choo language, and had taken into his service
the nerba of whom we had already had occasion

126 CONCLUSION OF OUR STAY AT PEKING.
to complain. The boshko gave us this inform
ation to prove, at least in words, his attach
ment to the Russians : but we were already able
to estimate the value of his information, and
were only surprised at the spirit of jealousy in
the Mantchoo officers, who are not ashamed to
expose the weaknesses of their comrades, even
before strangers.
May 14. — We were entirely engaged with
the last preparations for our departure from the
capital of the Chinese empire, where we had
passed five months and a half

127

CHAP. II.

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.*

General Observations on Peking.
Peking signifies court of the north ; the name
of this city is properly Chun thian fou, or city
of the first order obedient to Heaven. It was
not always the capital of the empire; the
founders of the several dynasties that have
* This description of Peking is taken almost entirely from
that of father Gaubil, published at Paris, 1765, by Messrs.
dTsle and Pingre". A Russian translation of this work of
father Gaubil, was inserted by Stritter in the Historical and
Geographical Almanack of Saint Petersburg, for 1781.
Pallas made a German translation from the Russian manu
script of Stritter : it is printed in the second volume of his
Neue Nordische Beitrage (Saint Petersburg, 1781). Mr.
Malte Brun is mistaken in ascribing this description of
Peking to the Russians or to Lange (Precis de la Geog. iii.
p. 519). If this chapter did not make a necessary part of
Mr. Timkowski's travels, I should have been inclined to omit
it. However, it seemed natural that the reader should find,
in a Journey to Peking, a , description of that capital, the
author himself having thought fit to translate it, rather than
write one himself. Mr. Timkowski, who so regularly quotes
the authors from whom he borrows any thing, has forgotten
on this occasion to name father Gaubil  Klaproth.

128 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
reigned in China, chose for their residence the
cities which pleased them most, and whose in
habitants were the most devoted to them. In
this manner, in the third century before our
era, the cities of Tchang ngan, now Si ngan
fou, the capital of Shen si, and Lo yang, in
Ho nan, were alternately, for eleven hundred
years, the capitals of China. The emperors of
the succeeding dynasties thought fit to have their
court in the north of China, at Peking.*
According to the History of China, one ofthe
first emperors of the dynasty of Ttcheou (winch
reigned from 1 122 to 256 B.C.), built a consider
able town at a small distance from the place where
Peking now stands. Khoubilai, grandson of
Tchinghiz khan, founded the present town of
Peking, and gave it the name of Ta tou (large
capital) ; it was likewise called King tching, or
residence of the prince. It is about sixty li, or
rather more than thirty Russian wersts in cir
cumference. The descendants of Tchinghiz, who reigned
in China under the name of Yuan (1280 — 1367,
A.D.) appear to have always resided there.
Marco Polo, the first European who visited
China, travelled there in the thirteenth century,
and was more than three years in the service of
Khoubilai. He has left us the following de
scription of the capital of his master : —
* This name is pronounced at Peking itself Be dsing.'

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 129
" The city of Cambalou is situated in China,
on the banks of a river ; it is very ancient, and
has been the capital from remote ages. The
name of Cambalou, signifies, in the language of
the country, imperial city; in Mongol, Cam,
emperor, and balig, city. The great Khan
removed it to another place on the same river,
having been informed by the astrologers that the
empire was threatened with a conspiracy. This
city, built in the form of a square, is about
twenty miles in circumference ; each side being
six miles. The walls, which are built with a
gentle slope, and painted white, are twenty feet
high and ten thick. There are three principal
gates on each side of the walls, making twelve
in all. Near each of these gates is a splendid
edifice, and in the four corners of the walls are
handsome buildings, in which the fire-arms of
the city are kept. The streets are adorned on
both sides with fine houses; in the centre ofthe
city is a building in which a very large bell is
suspended. This is rung three times every
evening, as a signal that nobody is to go out of
his house till the morning, unless to fetch a phy
sician or a midwife ; and then not without
having a lantern. A thousand soldiers are sta
tioned at each gate, less from the fear of an
attack by the enemy than to pursue thieves and
robbers, as the emperor uses the greatest vigilance
to extirpate these dangerous characters."
VOL. II. K

130 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
Mount King chan, large lakes and canals, still
remaining in Peking, are the memorials of that'
period. The third emperor of the Ming, known
in Europe by thename of Young lo, (which is
the honorary title of the years of his reign,)
left Nan king, the capital of the south, in 1421,
and removed his court to Peking. Since that
period, Peking has always been the residence of
the emperors, and the capital of the whole of
China. Its first name, Pe phing fou, was after
wards changed into Chun thian. Young lo embel
lished the city with new edifices, and ordered a
new wall to be built. Since that time, the extent
and internal arrangement of Peking have not
been much altered. After the conquest of China
by the Mantchoos, in 1644, their emperors, who
gave to the dynasty their name of Ta thsing, also
took up their abode at Peking. Chun thian, the
first of these princes, did not meddle with the
laws and customs ofthe Chinese, and transferred
the sovereign jurisdiction ofthe empire to Peking.
The Mantchoos, who had conquered China, and
the Mongols and Chinese who had taken their
part, formed the population of Peking.
According to the astronomical observations
made at Peking by the Jesuits, the latitude of
this city is fixed at 39° 42' 15" north, and its
latitude at 7h. 36m. 22s. or 114° (more accu
rately, 114° 5' 30") east ofthe meridian at Paris.
Peking is situated in the northern part of the

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 131
province of Tchy li, the second capital of which is
Pao ting fou. Peking is about 200 wersts to the
south of the great wall which forms the northern
boundary of China on the side of Mongolia. It
is situated in a sandy arid plain, destitute of all
vegetation. About fifteen wersts towards the
west rises a chain of high mountains, which ex
tend from north to south-west. From these
mountains issue several small rivers, which water
part of the plain. One of them enters the King
tching on the north, divides into several arms,
surrounds the imperial palace, forms some lakes
with the aid of art, flows round the whole Chi
nese town *, and, collected into one arm, under
the name of Yun ho (canal of conveyance), it
falls into the Pe ho, near Thoung tcheou, more
than twenty-five wersts to the east of Peking.
The air of Peking is salubrious, and agrees
even with strangers. Epidemic disorders are
very rare, and the ravages of the plague entirely
unknown. The water is frozen every year from
the middle of December to March ; but sometimes
for a shorter period. There are, however, no
severe frosts. When the thermometer is at 10
* See the plan of Peking, which accompanies these Tra
vels. The most scrupulous exactness is observed in this
plan ; every object worthy the attention of the stranger is
faithfully marked ; the smaller streets, lanes, &c. are omitted.
There is at present in the Geographical Dep6t of the Staff
at §t. Petersburg a new plan of Peking, executed on a larger
scale, which gives a more minute detail.
K 2

132 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
or 12°, the heat is less oppressive than at
the same temperature at St. Petersburg. In
the spring there are violent storms and whirl
winds. The heat is very great in summer, espe
cially in June and July ; accompanied, however,
with abundant rains which moisten the soil,
composed of clay and sand. Sometimes the tor
rents, pouring down from the mountains, destroy
villages and do great damage. The autumn is
the most pleasant part of the year ; particularly
September, October, and November. The air
is then mild, the sky serene, and the weather
calm. Peking is divided into two parts, separated
from each other by a high wall. The northern
part forms nearly a perfect square *, and is called
King tching, or the City of the Court. The
southern, or Chinese town, is in the form of an
oblong parallelogram ; it is called Vai tching, or
Vai lo tching (outer town, or merely southern
suburb) ; it is not so broad from north to south
as the Mantchoo town, but from east to west it
is much longer.
The circuit of the walls of the two towns
taken together, is very differently estimated by
European geographers. According to the de-
* Some travellers think that the south wall of King
tching occupies a space of eleven li from east to west, and
the east wall nine li and some paces from north to south. —
Lange's Journal of Two Journeys to Peking.

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 133
scription of Peking, translated from the Chinese
by father Hyacinth, the circumference of King
tching alone is forty li : and the walls of Vai lo
tching, on three sides, twenty-eight li ; thus, de
ducting the south wall, King tching, which is ten
li, the whole circumference of Peking is fifty-
eight li, equal to about thirty wersts.* These
crenated walls are built of bricks, are about
forty feet high, reckoning the battlements, which
are five feet and five inches high. The thick
ness of the walls is twenty feet, so that they are
broad enough to ride on horseback on the top ;
for which purpose a gentle slope is made at in
tervals by which the cavalry can ascend with
ease. What we have said here applies only to
the walls of King tching, those of Vai lo tching
are not so massive, and resemble those of other
towns in China.
The gates of Peking are sixteen in number,
nine belong to the Imperial town, and the seven
others to the Chinese town. The following are
the names of these gates : —

* Mr. Orlof says that each side of the wall of King tching
is about six wersts, and the entire circumference twenty-
four ; the three sides of the rampart of Vai lo tching, that
on the north being excluded, are about sixteen wersts and
four hundred toises; thus the circumference of Peking,
without the suburbs, would be forty wersts and four hundred
toises. — Description of the Chinese Empire.
K 3

134 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.

In King tching.
I. The gate called by the people, Thsian men,
though its true name, inscribed in Chinese cha
racters, is Tching yang men ; that is to say, the
gate directly facing the south.
II. To the east, Tchoung ven men, (the gate
of venerable wisdom,) commonly called Khata.
III. The south-east gate, Tchao yang men,
or the rising sun, commonly called Thsi khou.
IV. Toung tchy men, facing the east.
V. To the north, Ngan ting men, gate of
stable peace.
VI. To the north-west, Te ching men, gate
of the exaltation of virtue ; it is appointed for
the entrance of victorious troops.
VII. To the west, Si tchy men, facing the
west. VIII. Feou tching men, gate of the rampart,
commonly Phindzi.
IX. On the south there is also Sinan wou
men, the gate of military glory, generally called
Chun tching. In Vai lo tching.
X. At the north-east angle, Toung pian men,
gate of the north-east angle.
XI. Kouang kin men, gate ofthe great canal,
commonly Cha ho.

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 135
. XII. To the south, Tso ngan men, left gate
of peace.
XIII. Young ting men, gate of eternal con
stancy. XIV. Yeou ngan men, right gate of peace.
XV. On the west, Kouang ning men, gate of
perfect repose.
XVI. Si pian men, gate of the western angle.
The gates of King tching are lofty and
strongly vaulted ; above them are towers nine
stories high, with embrasures. In the lowest
story there is a large apartment, or guard-room,
in which the soldiers and officers who come to
relieve guard assemble. Before each gate is a
space about three hundred and sixty feet square,
forming a parade, and enclosed with a wall
similar to those of the city. This 'outward wall
is defended by a tower like the first ; and while
the cannon ofthe inner tower commands the in
closed space, those of the outer can sweep the
whole surrounding country and suburb. The
walls are besides flanked with small square
towers, at intervals of twenty toises ; and there
are, at certain distances, more considerable
towers, especially at the angles of the walls.
The streets of Peking are broad and straight ;
they are not paved, but the ground is pretty
firm. The principal ones are about twenty toises
in width. The street called Tchang ngan kiai,
or the broad street of tranquillity, is thirty toises
k 4

136 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
in width. It is the handsomest street in Peking,
runs from east to west, and is bounded on the
north by the imperial palace, and on the south
by several palaces and public offices.
The houses in the city are very low ; they are
often only of one story, built of brick, and
covered with grey tiles. The courts of justice,
and the palaces of the princes, have a lofty
basement story and handsome entrances; the
palaces are covered with varnished green tiles.
The finest buildings in Peking, however, are
the temples, which are spacious and magnificent,
adorned with columns and stair-cases of fine
white marble. The shops are handsomely orna
mented, the brilliancy and variety of the goods
exposed for sale, afford a very agreeable sight.
The streets and houses in the Chinese town
are very inferior to those in King tching.
Besides these two towns, Peking has twelve
large suburbs, two or even three wersts in
length. There are no suburbs opposite the three
southern gates of King tching, because the Chi
nese town is on that side ; nor is there any out
of the gate Young ting men, which is in the
middle of the south wall of the Chinese town ;
all the other gates of the two towns have their
corresponding suburbs.
The Mantchoo town, the Chinese town, and
the twelve suburbs, certainly form a very great

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 137
city ; shall we infer from this, as several authors
have done, that Peking contains twenty, fifteen,
ten, eight, or at least four million of inha
bitants?* This, says father Gaubil, would be
a great exaggeration. First, the half of the Chi
nese town is uninhabited ; besides the vast en?
closure of the Sian noung than, or the temple
erected in honour of the inventor of agriculture,
and of Thian than, or the temple of Heaven,
there are fields, gardens, and burying grounds.
In King tching, or the Mantchoo town, besides
the Imperial palace, which is very extensive,
there are several other palaces, warehouses,
powder magazines, public places, tribunals,
temples and lakes ; all these occupy above the
half of King tching. Besides this, the streets
of King tching are very broad, and the houses
of both towns very low. Father Gaubil infers,
from all this, that there is not so much inhabited
space in the King tching, the Chinese town, and
the suburbs, as in Paris and its suburbs. It is
true, that the part of Peking which is inhabited,
is more populous in proportion than an equal
part in Paris or St. Petersburg. The Chinese
are not fond of large apartments, one room is
* Staunton says, that according to the best information
which the English ambassador could obtain, the population
of Peking amounted to about 3,000,000 of souls. — Travels
of Lord Macartney.

138 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
enough for many of them : and twenty Chinese
feel themselves very comfortable, where ten
Europeans would complain of being crammed
together. Father Gaubil is, therefore, persuaded
that there are not more than two millions in
Peking and the suburbs. " This," says he, " is
but a supposition, but I think it is pretty near
the truth."
It is very difficult, and almost impossible, to
obtain any authentic information of the popu
lation of the capital of China, or of that of the
empire; because the government does not,
as in Europe, keep correct lists of the births and
deaths, and therefore has no accurate data.
However, judging only by what I have stated
above, and by my own observations, the popu
lation of Peking may be estimated at two millions
of souls.
The Europeans are surprised at the great
numbers of inhabitants that they perpetually
meet in the streets of King tching, in all those
of the Chinese towns and in the suburbs.
The crowd is so great that persons of distinc
tion are obliged to send horsemen before them,
to keep back the throng, and open a passage.
Women, however, are very seldom seen in the
streets. Like the Mahometan women they are
veiled. The men, who are drawn into the
streets by their business, but still more by curi-

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 139
osity, assemble in great numbers to listen to
fortune-tellers, and mountebanks, ballad singers,
and the like.
' The Chinese, in general, are of a middle stature.
Their limbs, especially their hands and feet, are
very small ; their complexion yellow, or brownish,
according to the places which they inhabit, and
their mode of living. Those of the northern
provinces are much taller, and fairer, than
those of Kiang si and Kouang toung. The
coolies (or porters), being continually exposed
to the air, are more tanned than the Kouans (or
mandarins), and much browner than the women,
who live shut up in the harems. Their face is
rather flat, the cheek bones high, the nose small,
the eyes prominent and oblique ; the complexion,
the black and stiff hair, the scanty whiskers and
beard, indicate the connection of the Chinese
and the Mongol, which must be dated from the
time of the conquest of China by the Mongols.
The difference between the Chinese and the
Mantchoo is almost imperceptible : the latter
are, however, fatter and more robust.
Though the physiognomy of the women is
more agreeable than that of the men, they are
very far from possessing the beauty which is
admired in the Georgian and other women of
Asia. There are women in China, especially
among the Mantchoos, who have as fine com
plexions as the handsomest women in Europe,

140 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
without the aid of white paint, or of rouge, of
which many of them make an immoderate use.
But, on the other hand, their little eyes, though
black and brilliant, have not the pleasing expres
sion of the large blue or black eyes of the
European ladies. In general the countenances
of the Mantchoo women almost entirely resemble
those ofthe men.
Extremely small feet are considered in China,
more than any where else, as a great beauty.
The size of the foot determines the value of the
bride. Almost as soon as they are born the
nurse sews up their feet tight in stiff leather, and
theire afterwards compressed with bandages to
prevent their growing, so that the toes cannot
acquire their natural size, and the pointed foot
seems to have but one toe. Including the heel
it is seldom more than five inches in length.
Their handsome embroidered shoes only make
the deformity more striking. The feet are ex
tremely thick at the instep, a defect which is
partly concealed by silk pantaloons, adorned
with fringe. This stupid custom deprives the
women of the power of walking with ease. The
country women also compress their feet, but
much less than the rich ladies, who are scarcely
able to cross the apartments of their magnificent
prisons. Excessive jealousy alone can have in
duced the Chinese to introduce such a cruel
custom. Like the Turks and the Persians, they

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING, 141
keep their women captive under strong bolts ;
but, at least, those nations do not lame them.
Many authors think that this barbarous custom
is not very ancient; for Marco Polo, who visited
China in the thirteenth century, and who very
often speaks ofthe beauty ofthe Chinese ladies,
and of their dress, makes no mention of this
custom. The Mantchoo women let their feet grow to
their natural size. They wear handsome shoes
embroidered with silk, with wooden channel
soles, five inches thick. These singular shoes
hinder them from moving freely, and make much
noise when they walk over stones or boards. The
Mantchoo women appear to have adopted this
custom, which, however, does not deform their
feet, to imitate the tottering gait of the Chinese
ladies. So large and populous a city necessarily
requires a very strict police. That of Peking is
such that it is extremely rare to hear of any
disorders. There are constantly in the streets
soldiers with swords at their sides and whips in
their hands, ready to strike those who are dis
posed to create any confusion. They take care
that the streets of King tching are kept perfectly
clean, and in case of need, put their hands to the
work themselves. They keep watch during the
night, and allow nobody to go in the streets
unless with a lantern, and for some necessarv

142 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
business, as to fetch a physician. They even
question those who may be charged with com
missions from the emperor, and a satisfactory
answer must always be given them. They have
a right provisionally to arrest any person who
resists them, or is thought suspicious. The go
vernor of the city often makes visits when they
are least expected. The officers of the guard
are bound to be extremely vigilant with respect
to the soldiers under their command. The
slightest negligence would be punished, and the
officer cashiered the following day. These police
soldiers are Chinese infantry belonging to the
regular troops.
There is besides at Peking a body of cavalry
said to amount to 80,000 men. Their principal
business is to do duty at the gates and on the
walls, and to be ready to march on the shortest
notice. This corps is composed of eight Mant
choo divisions, eight Mongol, and an equal
number of Oudjen tchookha. Each division is
distinguished by its uniform, and by the colour
of its banner (in Chinese, khi ; and in Mantchoo,
gousa). The yellow banner is the first. Its
quarter in King tching occupies all the northern
part, from east to west : its subdivisions are into
the yellow banner without a border, and the
yellow banner with a red border. The second
banner is red without a border, or red with a
white border. It has its quarters in the western

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 143
part of King tching, of which, however, it does
not occupy the whole : and the northern part is
assigned to the yellow banner. The third ban
ner is blue, occupying the part adjacent to the
imperial palace. This blue banner turns then
to the south of that palace, and its quarters ex
tend parallel to the south wall. The subdivi
sions are, one all blue, and the other with a red
border ; the first to the east, and the second to
the west. Lastly, the fourth or white banner
is quartered in the middle ofthe eastern part of
King tching, between the blue and the yellow
bordered. Its white division is to the north,
and the white with the red border to the south.
The general of each banner has six lieutenant-
generals under him, who have the command
over the divisions composed of their own
countrymen. Each banner has its own adminis
tration, arsenal, magazine, and treasury, and
also a school for the children. It is to be ob
served that in China, as formerly in Russia, the
officers of the army fill also the principal places
in the administration. The ministers, presi
dents of the tribunals, and mandarins, though
men of letters, must not be ignorant of the art
of riding on horseback, using the bow and arrow,
&c. The garrison of Peking, with the exception
of the Chinese, or green banner, which is sta
tioned in the Vai lo tching, is seldom complete,
because whole regiments are sa^ to do duty on
\

144 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
the frontiers, for example, to the banks of the
Hi or Ouliasoutai, at Tchitchigar, and in Tibet.
One of the principal duties of the police at
Peking is to prevent famine. In the city, as
well as in the suburbs, there are numerous gra
naries, where a great quantity of rice is ware
housed against seasons of scarcity. The re
gulations respecting these granaries are faith
fully executed in the vicinity of the court ; if
they were equally well observed in the provinces,
there would be no famine ; but this calamity
frequently occurs through the negligence of the
mandarins. Besides these granaries, the em
peror has others, which are filled with wheat,
pulse, and fodder for the beasts of burden.
King tching.
King tching, or the imperial city, which is
called the Mantchoo town, consists of three
towns, one within the other ; and each of these
three towns has its particular enclosure. That
which immediately encloses the imperial palace,
is called Tsu kin tching, the sacred red town.
In our plan of Peking, the numbers 17, 18, 19,
and 20, designate the four great gates of this
enclosure, and show its extent. To this must be
added the ground between the gates 21 and 17,
where the principal entrance is.
The second enclosure of the imperial city is
called Houangftching, the august town: it is
20

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 145
terminated by the gates 22, 23, 24, and 25.
The Russians have given it the name of the
Red Town, from the colour of the walls.
Lastly, the third surrounds the second, and
comprises the whole of the Mantchoo town ; it
is occupied by the eight banners mentioned
above. We have said above that it is called
King tching, and has nine gates.
The Tsu kin tching, or Imperial Palace.
We have before said, that the enclosure of
this palace is marked in our plan by the gates
17, 18, 19 and 20. Its shape is that of a qua
drangle, rather longer than it is broad ; it is sur
rounded by strong crenated walls, built of brick,
and covered with yellow tiles. Above each gate
there is a spacious and lofty tower, as well as at
the four angles ofthe wall. The Tsu kin tching
is about six li, or more than three wersts in cir
cumference. The walls are surrounded by a
broad ditch lined with hewn stone ; opposite the
northern, eastern, and western gates, there are
draw bridges over this ditch.
The interior of the palace is a suite of court
yards and apartments, which seem to vie with
each other in beauty and splendour. On en
tering the Mantchoo town by the southern gate
number 1, and going northwards, we cross first
a greai. street, parallel to the south wall of the
city; we afterwards enter a spacious square,
vol. 11. l

146 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
surrounded by a marble balustrade. This square
is terminated on the north side by another street,
and its communication on both sides with this
street is ornamented with a triumphal arch. One
end of this street terminates at the apartment
called Tai thsing men, in honour of the Mant
choo dynasty ; at the bottom are three large
gates, which are never opened except when the
emperor leaves the palace ; private people must
go in and out of the gates 26 and 27. The
second gate 22, Thian ngan men, is arched
over, very wide and deep ; a very handsome
apartment is built over it.
The space enclosed between the gates 21 and
22 forms a very spacious court, paved with
large bricks, adorned on the right and left with
porticos and galleries, supported by more than
two hundred pillars ; it is said to have a very
fine effect. This court is terminated on the
north by the street Tchang ngan kiai, with
which it communicates by the two gates 26 and
27. At an equal distance from these gates, in
the street Tchang ngan kiai, are two triumphal
arches, marked in the plan. Nearly opposite to
these two gates, 26 and 27, we cross a stream or
canal, half dry, by five marble bridges, adorned
with pillars, balustrades, and figures of lions.
These bridges lead to the second gate, 22, which
has five entrances ; nobody but the emperor is
allowed to pass through the three in the centre ;
13

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 147
the other two are very low, and open to all those
who have a right to enter the palace. Only the
elder Mantchoo princes are permitted to ride on
horseback to the inner gate. This portal is
about twenty geometrical paces in thickness ; it
is surmounted, like the others, by a very hand
some apartment, and followed by a smaller
court, which leads to the third portal, 28, called
Touan men. Before reaching this gate we
see at the right the Thai miao, 29. The
Chinese word miao, signifies temple; in this
latter, religious worship is paid before the monu
mental tablets of the Mantchoo emperors. This
temple is very handsome ; the emperor visits it
at certain times to perform the ceremonies usual
among the Chinese in honour of their ancestors.
To the left ofthe gate Touan men, is the Che tsu
than, 30, a temple dedicated to the spirit which
gives fertihty to the fields. The emperor like
wise visits it at stated periods, to present the
offerings prescribed by custom.
Numbers 28, 31, and 32, are the gates of a
spacious court, where the princes of the blood
meet every month to receive the orders of the
emperor. The mandarins of the court present
them with tea, and inscribe their names in re
gisters provided for the purpose. When these
princes cannot attend to pay their court on the
days appointed, they are required to assign
reasons for their absence. It is in this same
l 2

148 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
court that the tributary princes do homage to
the emperor, either in person or by their envoys.
The emperor makes presents both to these
princes, and to those who are sent to represent
them ; these presents are considered as rewards.
The presents designed for the European am
bassadors are distributed in the same court.
Numbers 33 and 34 are two buildings, one of
which is probably the miao of Fan king tchang,
or the place where the foreign religious books
are deposited near No. 31. It is not certain that
the books of the Holy Scriptures are among
them. All that we have hitherto seen, is properly
the exterior of the palace. The entrance to the
interior is by the beautiful gate Ou men, or of
the south, No. 17- This gate is composed of
three arcades, and surmounted by a larger apart
ment than the preceding. To the right and
left are two passages, which run southwards to
the distance of about a musket shot, terminating
both to the north and south by pavilions, like
that which stands on the southern gate, but
much smaller. These passages extend to Nos.
31 and 32. Over the south gate is a large bell,
which is sounded ; and a large gong which is
struck whenever the emperor goes out of the
palace, or returns to it.
After passing the fourth gate we enter a court,
and cross a deep ditch full of water, by five

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 149
bridges, adorned with parapets, pilasters, steps,
and figures of lions, and other sculptures, all of
fine marble. We then come to three gates,
which are marked upon the plan, but not num
bered, which lead into the handsome court, Tai ho
tian, which has also side gates, Nos. 35 and 36.
This court is terminated on the right and left by
gates, porticos, and galleries, adorned with bal
conies, supported on pillars ; it is said, that the
whole produces an extremely striking effect.
To the north of this court, 37, is the superb
apartment of* Tai ho tian, which is the imperial
presence chamber ; the ascent to it is by five
flights of forty-two steps each ; the whole is of
very fine marble. The centre flight is very
broad, and is reserved for the emperor ; the
princes and the mandarins of the first rank enter
by the two next staircases ; the two outer ones are
the narrowest, and it is only by these two last
that the eunuchs and officers of the court are
permitted to enter the Tai ho tian. On new
year's day, and other holidays, the mandarins
assemble, according to their dignity, in the court
of the Tai ho tian ; the emperor is seated in the
hall upon his throne ; the princes, ministers, and
grandees of the first rank are seated near him ;
the civil and military officers pay their respects
to their sovereign, by prostrating themselves
several times, touching the ground with their
forehead. In the same hall the emperor gives
l 3

150 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
audience to foreign princes and their ambassa
dors. It is said that this hall was one of the
wonders of the world, under the Chinese em
perors ; but the rebel Li tsu tching having taken
possession of Peking and the palace, during the
reign of the last emperor of the dynasty of Ming,
and being obliged to abandon his prey for fear of
the Mantchoos, who were approaching by forced
marches, resolved to gratify his revenge before
his departure ; he set fire to the palace, and the
Tai ho tian was entirely destroyed. The Mant
choos afterwards rebuilt it, if not with the same
magnificence, at least in the same style as before*
Beyond the Tai ho tian there is on each side
a passage, 38 and 39, after which is a long
suite of apartments, separated from each other by
courts more or less spacious. The seventh is
called the " very lofty hall," and the eighth, the
" great hall of middling height." In the ninth,
called the " hall of supreme concord," the em
peror goes twice a year to confer on state affairs
with his ministers and the presidents of the great
tribunals. The tenth apartment is called the
" portal of the serene heaven," and the eleventh,
the " abode of the serene heaven," which is the
loftiest, the richest, and most magnificent of all.
In the court before it there is a kind of tower
of copper gilt, ending in a point, twelve or fif
teen feet high, and adorned with a great number
of small figures, beautifully executed. On each

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 151
side of the tower there is, a large brazier of gilt
copper, in which incense is burnt night and day
The two following apartments, called the " beau
tiful and agreeable house of the centre," and the
" house which receives heaven,"form,with the pre
ceding, what may be properly called the imperial
apartments. It is in fact in these three that the
emperor, and the reigning empress, and the
queens, and concubines, reside. This division
is contained in a kind of parallelogram, which
must be placed about No. 40, for we have
not been able to mark all those apartments
upon the plan. The apartment of the emperor
and empress has higher walls and gates than
those of the queens and concubines. With
in all these enclosures there are little canals,
fountains, lakes, flower-beds, orchards, &c. The
empress dowager resides in a large and hand
some palace to the west of the court of Tai ho
tian, No. 41 ; it is called Tsu ning koung, palace
of compassion and tranquillity ; to the east of
the same court, is another palace 42, inhabited
by the crown prince, when one has been de
clared. The portal marked at No. 40 is not
a gate, but a triumphal arch.
Behind the apartments of the emperor there
is the imperial hall, which is very large, and
makes the fourteenth division, leading to the
fifteenth, and the last in Tsu kin tching, towards
the north, which is called the hall of " divine
l 4

152 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
military virtue," No. 19. It is one of the
gates of Tsu kin tching : beyond it there are
other apartments belonging to the emperor,
which are a part of Houang tching, which we
shall describe below.
Besides the courts and apartments of which we
have spoken, there are in Tsu kin tching several
tribunals, particularly the Kiun ki tchou, or privy
council *, the Nei ko, or senate, the Nei ou fou,
or the imperial treasury, a great number of ma
nufactories and magazines several handsome
temples, schools where che Mantchoo and
Chinese languages are taught, the imperial
printing-office, a dispensary with laboratories, &c.
Houang tching.
This division begins at No. 21, and extends
to the north, along the street Tchang ngan kiai,
to the triumphal arch nearest to the most
southern lake ; then, turning to the east, it again
runs to the north, passes the gate 25, thence
extends to the west, and passing before the
northern lake, and then the gate No. 24, crosses
a little stream which comes from the north. It
then runs southwards, along the east side of this
stream, where it is intersected by the gate
* This explanation is incorrect : Kiun ki tchou in Chinese,
and Tchookhai naskoun ni ba, is the name of the place in
which every thing is discussed relative to the employment of
the troops and other affairs connected with the adminis
tration of the army. — Klaproth.

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 153
No. 23. It crosses the stream a second time,
and runs to the gate No. 22 ; then turns back
to the south, to the gate No. 21, where it begun.
This circuit is said to be about eighteen li, or
ten wersts. The whole space was destined for
the palace ofthe emperor Tching tsoung, (1402
to 1424,) who caused it to be erected in the state
in which it now is ; but the emperors, his suc
cessors, have made grants of various parts to
private persons. They have allowed a great
number of merchants to settle in it, who have
now a great many shops in it. In general the
whole space is inhabited by persons in the ser
vice of the court.
Going out of Tsu kin tching to the north, by
the gate of supernatural valour, No. 19, we cross
the rivulet or ditch by a handsome and very
broad marble bridge, leading to the sixteenth
apartment of the palace, which is called " the
very lofty portal of the north," No. 43. The
seventeenth, is called " the portal of Van soui,"
or " of ten thousand years." Van soui is one of
the surnames usually given to the emperor.
These two last portals are separated by a court,
thirty toises from north to south, and about 200
from east to west.
The gates 44, 45, and 46 are those of a vast
enclosure of the King chan, or the resplendent
mountain. This mountain has been raised by
art, with the earth dug out of the ditches and

154 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
lakes. It is said that its base consists of an
enormous quantity of coals kept in reserve in
case the city should be besieged by an enemy.
The King chan is composed of five hills of mo
derate height. That in the middle is the highest :
the others, situated to the east and west, are
rather lower. They are covered with trees,
planted symmetrically to their summits. Num
bers of hares, rabbits, stags, deer, and other
animals of that kind are kept here ; and thou
sands of birds among the trees, fill the air with
their songs. It was on this mountain that the
unfortunate Hoai tsoung, the last emperor of
the 'dynasty of Ming, took refuge, to avoid fall
ing alive into the hands of the rebel Li tsu
tching, who had made himself master of the
palace. This unfortunate prince having killed
his daughter with a blow of his sabre, hung him
self on one of the trees of the King chan, on the
morning ofthe 15th of April, 1644. The em
press, his wife, had escaped the pursuit of Li tsu
tching, by destroying herself in the same manner
the evening before. The emperor Kien long
greatly embellished the King chan. He had
fine gardens laid out with agreeable walks, mag
nificent apartments, and a noble building for
theatrical representations and concerts. The
whole is now a truly delightful spot.
To the north of the mountain is the portal,
No. 47 ; farther on are several palaces, No. 48,

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 155
called the "imperial palaces of long life." These
palaces are now uninhabited. On the death of
the emperor his body lies there in state till the
funeral. We then come to a long broad street,
bordered on the left by a row of shops, one
story high, by workshops of artificers and var-
nishers, by timber yards, and a second row of
shops like the first : on the right there are two
similar rows of shops. The space between is
occupied by houses, and even palaces. There
is also a small wooden building inhabited by the
soldiers of the imperial guard. This street is
terminated by the portal Ti ngan, No. 24,
earthly tranquillity. This portal, which is one
of the gates of the Houang tching, forms the
twentieth and last division of the imperial palace.
It might even be reckoned the twenty-first, since
the emperor Kien long erected on the King chan
the new palace of which we have spoken above.
As the most remarkable places in the Houang
tching ' and the King tching are for the most
part temples, tribunals, and palaces, in order
not to multiply particular references, we have
thought it best to make use of some general in
dications. The temples are designated by a star.
We have, however, omitted a great number of
little temples; the stars would have been too
numerous. Besides there is no palace without
its temple annexed.
The letter d marks the palace of a prince of

156 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
the families of the Mantchoo dynasty, especially
of those who took part in the first conquest of
China. All of them receive a very considerable
allowance from the government. The princes
of the blood are divided into several classes:
those of the first have the title of tsin vang,
those of the second that of kiun vang, those of
the third beile, of the fourth beitsu, of the fifth
koung. When one of these princes dies, his
•dignity goes only to that son who has been
chosen to succeed him ; the other children,
under the name of beitsu and houang taidzi, or
princes with yellow girdles, are only of the
fourth or fifth rank. There are also princes of
a lower order, who have no palace belonging to
them. The Mantchoos may besides be princes,
not only by descent but by alliances with the
imperial family.
The letter p designates tribunals, whether
superior or dependant: we shall have occasion
to speak of several of these tribunals.
To the west of Tsu kin tching and King chan
are some large artificial lakes. Towards the north
are five summer-houses, built in the lake itself)
which the emperor frequently visits in his gon
dola. This place, according to the account of
the inhabitants of Peking, is the summer resi
dence of the most beautiful women of the harem
of the emperor.
No. 49 is a very agreeable spot, with fine

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING". 157
apartments, on the bank of the lake. To the
north of it there is a temple, containing the co
lossal statue of Fo, the founder of the Lamaic
religion, made of gilt copper. This statue is
about sixty feet high, and has an hundred
arms. This temple is not very ancient ; it is a
very handsome edifice, covered with three roofs.
A little further to the north, there is in the
plan a kind of gate, which is that of a large and
magnificent garden. Towards the north-east of
this gate is another temple.
Turning again to the south, there is an island
in the lake, No. 50. This island forms a hill, on
which stands the pe tha, or white pyramid. The
hill is composed of rare stones, brought in remote
ages from the southern provinces of China. The
present dynasty has converted this island into a
place of devotion for the Mongols. Eunuchs
do duty there as lamas. Besides the temples,
there are several imperial apartments, with open
and covered galleries, very well executed, and
in a good style. The whole affords a very
agreeable prospect, the beauty of which is
greatly heightened by a white marble balustrade
on the shore of the island.
On tbe eastern bank of the lake there is a
plantation of mulberry-trees for breeding silk
worms. The temple, . No. 51, on the north,
angle, is consecrated to the genius that protects,

158 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
silk worms. The empress dowager amuses her
self in attending to the silk-worms ; and the
ladies of the court assist in this occupation, to
encourage a branch of industry which is indis
pensable to the clothing of the inhabitants of
China. In the same direction, between the two moun
tains of King chan and the white pyramid, there is
a handsome palace, No. 52, where the tablets of
the emperor Khang hi are placed. The emperor
goes there on certain days to do homage to the
memory of that great prince, one of the most
illustrious and fortunate monarchs that ever
reigned in China. He filled the throne from the
year 1 662 to 1722. He always favoured the Euro
pean missionaries: the Jesuits in particular enjoy
ed his protection and bounty. The lake in which
the obelisk stands is separated by a fine marble
bridge from another large lake which extends
two li to the south. The banks of this lake are
also adorned with temples, palaces, and summer-
houses. On the south side, No. 53, is the palace or
beautiful country seat, called Yng thai ; it has
many magnificent apartments, gardens, and
walks. The buildings are for the most part of
the time of the Mongol emperors of the dynasty
of Yuan. It is said that in this palace the late
emperor Kia king personally examined the ring-

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING, 159
leaders of the last rebellion iri China, which broke
out in the autumn of 1813. The gate No. 54,
leads from the palace to the south lake.
To the west of this lake there is a convent,
No. 55, which formerly belonged. to the French
Jesuits, through which they drew the meridian
line of Peking. This edifice is known at Peking
by the name of Pe thang, or the northern temple.
Proceeding along the wall of the Houang
tching to the north of the gate No. 25, we find
above, No. 56, several buildings all alike, ranged
in a row towards the north. These are the
magazines of gunpowder and saltpetre. There
are in the city several other magazines belonging
to the government, which contain silk, mats,
leather, linen, tea, oil, wine, vinegar, eggs, por
celain, lackered ware, wood, charcoal, &c.
Opposite the powder magazines, towards the
east, there is an enclosure, No. 57, for tigers,
and lower down a large temple ofthe lamas.
Directly to the north-west of Houang tching,
within an enclosure, there is a summer-house,
No. 58, from which the emperor sees the troops
practising archery and equestrian exercises.
At the north-east angle of Houang tching
there is, No. 59, a place where gunpowder is
made. On the other side of the stream is the
building, No. 60, "where furniture is made for
the imperial palace. Lower down, No. 61, is
the large Mongol temple of Soung tchou szu,

160 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
now inhabited by the koutouktou, the chief of
the three high priests of the Lamaic religion
residing at Peking. Near this temple is the
printing office for prayer-books in the Tibetan
language. No. 62, are the imperial stables, of
which there are many in this quarter of the city.
No. 63, Mantchoo schools of, the Russian lan
guage. Farther to the south is a building, marked No.
64, which is the place where the archives are
kept. To the south of this there is, at No. 65, a
tribunal which has the jurisdiction in every thing
relative to the imperial kitchens. Another tri
bunal, No. 66, near the wall of the Tsu kin
tching, is appointed to regulate every thing rela
tive to the images of the tutelary spirits of
houses. On the south side of the wall of the Houang
tching is a summer-house, between the stream
and the yellow wall, No. 67, where the great
men go to see the exercises in archery.
Description of King tching.
This third division is the Mantchoo town.
To the south of Houang tching, and to the
west of the entrance of the palace, is the Tchou
kou ting, No. 68, a hall where there was for
merly a drum. Mandarins and soldiers kept guard
there day and night. Formerly, when any person

short description of pektng, 161
could not obtain justice, and thought himself
aggrieved, he went and struck the drum. At
this noise the mandarins were obliged to come
and examine the case ofthe person complaining,
and either to do him justice themselves or to
obtain it for him. This custom is now abolished.
Going westward, through the street of perpe
tual repose, there is on the left hand another
building, where the standards, streamers, &c.
are kept, which are carried behind the emperor
when he comes out of the palace. Farther to
the west, at m, is the principal Mahometan
mosque for the natives of Turkestan. On the
other side, or to the east of the entrance to the
palace, there is another magazine for the stand
ards, &c. carried before the emperor, No. 69.
Almost all the rest of this quarter of the city is
occupied by tribunals. There are six supreme
tribunals, on which all the others depend. We
have spoken above of the tribunals in the interior
of the palace, which form the privy council ofthe
prince, and are superior to all the others, even
to the six supreme tribunals.
No. 70. To the east of the avenue of the
imperial palaee is Tsoung jin fou, or the tribunal
of the princes, which regulates every thing rela
tive to the imperial family.
No. 71. Li pou, or the tribunal of the man
darins. This is the first of the six sovereign
courts ; its business is to appoint mandarins to
VOL. II. M

162 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
all parts of the empire, to superintend their con
duct and report upon it to the emperor.
No. 72. Hou pou, or the tribunal of the
treasurers, has the superintendence over the
finances of the empire, and decides all law suits
relative to the domains ; it is the second sove
reign tribunal.
No. 73. Li pou, or tribunal of ceremonies, is
the third sovereign tribunal. It regulates every
thing relating to the Chinese ceremonies, reli
gion, studies, the introduction of ambassadors,
&c. No. 74. Thai i yuan, the tribunal of phy
sicians. No. 75. King thian kian, tribunal of astro
nomy : it is subordinate to the tribunal of cere
monies. No. 76. Houang lou szu, tribunal ofthe cere
monies of the court.
No. 77. Koung pou, tribunal of public works.
No. 78. Ping pou, the fourth sovereign court
or tribunal of war. It has the superintendence
over the army, as well as over the post in the
interior of the empire.
No. 79- Hing pou, the criminal court, the
fifth sovereign tribunal. It is to the west of the
entrance to the imperial palace.
No. 80. Tou tcha youan, or tribunal of the
censors ofthe empire, called by others tribunal
of the police. The procurators of the govern-

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 163
inent depend on this tribunal ; it also receives
petitions addressed to the emperor in urgent
cases. The tribunal below No. 79, is a second
criminal court, dependant upon the first.
Three smaller tribunals on the left hand are
the private hotels of three judges in criminal
causes between the inhabitants of Peking.
Turning to the east part of the city, we find
on the south side of the street of eternal repose,
near to the canal, the Han lin youan, or tri
bunal of Chinese history and literature, No. 81.
The presidents and mandarins composing this
tribunal are distinguished men of learning, ap
pointed by the government, and called Han lin.
All the literati in China, all the schools and
colleges, depend on this tribunal. It chooses
and nominates the judges and examiners of the
compositions, required from candidates to civil
offices. This same tribunal also names those
who are thought the most capable of composing
the poems and orations which are to be recited
before the emperor.
Going southwards along the same canal, near
the bridge Tchoung yu ho khiao, No. 82,
is the Russian court, and the convent of the
Purification dependant on the holy synod. The
Russian Mission has resided in it above a hun
dred years. This establishment, called in Chi
nese Hoei thoung kouan, contains every thing
M 2

164 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
Calculated to render it an agreeable abode.
More than fifty persons may be accommodated
very conveniently ; there are fine gardens and
orchards. A person fond of study will find his
time pass very pleasantly at Peking. He may
always find Objects worthy of attentive investi
gation, and sufficient opportunities for relax
ation and amusements.
The church pf the assumption, belonging to
the Russian convent, is situated at the north
east extremity of King tching, No. 83. Under
the emperor 'Khang hi, in 1685, our Cos
sacks were settled there, who were taken pri
soners on the left bank of the river Amour.
Near this church, there are several small houses
belonging to the convent, No. 84. To the south
of the Russian court, and against the wall of
the city, is Kao li kouan, or house of the
Coreans. Going a little to the north-west of the Rus
sian court, after having passed the canal in the
street of perpetual repose, we come to No. 85.
This is the Li fan youan, or the tribunal of
foreign affairs, which relate to the Russians, the
Mongols, Hi, Eastern Turkestan, Tibet, and
Corea. Nearly opposite the gate of this tribunal, on
the south side of the same street, js the Thang
tsu, or temple of the ancestors of the Mantchoo
dynasty, No. 86.

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 165
On the first day of the year, on the first day
of the month, and on particular occasions, the
emperor comes to this temple and performs dif
ferent ceremonies. When an army returns vic
torious, thanks are returned to Heaven in this
temple. A good deal more to the right, and a little
higher, near the eastern wall of the city, No.
87, is the Koung youan, or Kin tchang, which
is dependent on the Han lin youan. It is a vast
establishment, where the compositions of the
candidates for public office are written. It con
tains an immense number of chambers or cells,
and very fine apartments for the mandarins who
preside at the examinations.
They also exercise a superintendence over the
writers, not so much to preserve good order, as
to hinder the ignorant from profiting by the
assistance of his more learned companions. The
same strictness is exercised to prevent the can
didates from bringing books, or works composed
by others. In the capitals of the provinces
there are similar establishments for examinations.
The emperor often sends some of the Han lin
to preside in them ; these Han lin have great
authority, being equal to the highest mandarins.
The imperial observatory, No. 88, adjoins
the east wall of the city towards the south. This
observatory was built in 1279, under the dynasty
of Youan. As the old astronomical instruments
m 3

166 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
had become unserviceable, the emperor Kang
hi gave orders, in 1673, that new ones should be
made, under the direction of the Jesuits. In
this observatory, the astronomical instruments
are also kept, which the king of England sent
as a present to the emperor of China, in 1793.
No. 89, to the north-west of the observatory,
nearer to Houang tching, marks the site of the
convent of Saint Joseph, known in Peking by
the name of the Christian Temple of the East,
It was inhabited by Jesuits of various European
nations, excepting French, who had a convent
of their own. The convent of Saint Joseph
was destroyed by fire in 1812.
Higher, towards the north-east, is a broad
street crossed by the portal, No. 90, of the
Toung szu leou, the eastern gate of the four
triumphal gates ; it is painted red, adorned with
inscriptions and figures of various animals.
The temple Loung fou szu, No. 91, stands to
the west, near this gate, and to the north of
the Ma chi or horse-market. It was built 1452,
and rebuilt in the reign of Young tching. On
the 9th and 10th, the 19th and 20th, the 29th
and 30th of each month, a market is held in
the court yard round it, which is frequented by
tradesmen from all parts ofthe city ; the number
of persons of all classes who resort to it is very
great. Long rows of buildings, No. 92 and 93,

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 167
nearer to the eastern wall, contain great maga
zines of rice, where provisions are distributed
every month to the officers and soldiers of the
imperial guard.
To the north, and not far from the eastern
gate, is the Young ho koung, No. 94 ; it is a
large place, where the palace of the fourth son
of Kang hi formerly stood. This prince suc
ceeded his father by the name of Young tching.
Kien long, the third son of the latter, ordered
the palace to be pulled down, and built upon its
site, first, a handsome apartment, in which the
monumental tablet of Young tching is placed ;
secondly, fine apartments for the emperor when
he comes to perform the ceremonies in honour
of his father ; thirdly, a magnificent temple
in honour of Fo ;• fourthly, a. monastery inha
bited by four hundred lamas, from Tibet.
These lamas have more than two hundred
Chinese or Mantchoo disciples, who learn under
them the Tibetan language, the meaning of the
holy books written in it, the doctrine of Fo,
mathematics, medicine, rhetoric, and many other
sciences. These lamas recite prayers day and
night. Young ho koung is the largest and most
splendid temple in Peking ; it is not inferior in
beauty to the imperial palace, or to tbe country
seats built under Kien long.
In this street, to the west, is the Koue tsu
kia, No. 95, or the imperial college, in which
m 4

168 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
there are many professors who teach the rules
of composition in Chinese and Mantchoo. In
this building there is a very magnificent temple,
dedicated to Confucius and his disciples. At
certain times of the year, and always on the
first day of the second month, the emperor
comes hither to pay homage to the memory of
Confucius, as a philosopher and teacher of the
nation. The avenues, gates, courts, and apart
ments are very well worthy of observation.
To the south of the college, and the west of
the great street which runs from the gate of
Ngan ting men, is No. 96 ; this is the tribunal
of the Chun thian fou, or governor of the city.
Fou, in the Chinese language, signifies a city of
the first rank : and these cities have generally
dependent upon them cities of the second and
third rank, or tcheou and hian. Chun thian fou
(this is the name of Peking), besides several
of these towns ofthe second and third class de
pendent upon it, has two within its wa'ls, each
of which has its own governor. The governor
of Ta hing hian, the eastern quarter of Peking,
which comprises also the neighbouring villages
to the distance of fifteen wersts from the capital,
has his tribunal, No. 97, to the south-east of the
preceding. Near to this, and towards the east, is the
mint ; there are two others in the King tching.
The tribunal, No. 98, opposite the north-west

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 169
angle of Houang tching, is that of the governor
of Ouan phing hian, who has under his jurisdic
tion the western quarter of Peking.
Proceeding from the palace through Houang
tching to the north, we see a little to the right
of a bridge which crosses a rivulet, No. 99, the
tribunal of the high police, Thi tou yamoun.
Further on, No. 100, is the Kou leou, or the
tower of the drum, on which the five watches of
the night are beaten, so as to be heard all over
the city. It is said that there was formerly a
clepsydra here, which is now no longer in use.
This tower and ¦ the following were built under
the third emperor of the dynasty of Ming.
A little more to the north is the town, No. 101,
in which there is a large bell : it is used for the
same purpose as the drum. The emperor Thai
tsoung ofthe Ming (1403 to 1424,) had five bells
cast, each weighing about 120,000 pounds.
The most sonorous, and the handsomest, is in
the temple of the Ho chang *, three wersts to the
west of Peking ; the second is in a tower at the
entrance of the palace, near the gate of Ou min,
No. 17, of which we have spoken ; the third
is in the Tchoung leou, of which we are now
speaking. The other two are neglected, in a
temple near the Tchoung leou.

"* * See what I have said of this bell in my note, p. 62. of
this volume. — Klaproth.

170 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
The whole north-west angle of King tching
contains large artificial lakes, intersected by
dykes, shaded with willows. Numbers of these
trees grow also on the banks of the lakes. This
part ofthe city is but thinly peopled.
The canal of Tcheon keou, which receives all
the dirt and filth, runs from north to south in
the western part of King tching.
In the street which leads from the west gate
of the city there is at the beginning of the
Tcheon keou, a square, No. 102, where there
was a convent of the missionaries of the Propa
ganda, which no longer exists.
After going a little to the east, and turning
southwards down a large street, there is on the
left hand the temple Hou koue szu, No. 103,
where a market is held on the 7th, 8th, 17th,
18th, 27th, and 28th days of the month.
A little farther to the south, in the great street,
is the wooden triumphal gate, No. 104, called
Si szu pai leou de, the western gate of the four
triumphal arches. Beyond the gate, going to
wards that of Si tchi min, is the temple Ti vang
miao, 105, which contains the monumental tablets
ofthe most illustrious Chinese emperors, and all
the most distinguished men, from the time of
Fou hi, founder of the monarchy, down to the
present reigning family. At stated periods of
ferings are brought as tributes of respect to the
memory of those illustrious persons. Trium-

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 17^
phal arches are placed on both sides of the
temple, opposite to which is a colossal shield or
screen. Out of respect for this place no person
is allowed to pass either on horseback or in a
carriage : every person must alight, or pass be
hind the screen. Inscriptions carved on separate
pillars give notice to the passengers of this regul
ation. To the west of this temple is a large white
washed obelisk, No. 106, which was erected in
the eleventh century. Khoubilai having caused
this obelisk to be opened in 1271, found in
it a piece of coin with his own name on it, which
was pronounced to be a prophecy of his govern
ment of China. The Mongol lamas had placed
it there to persuade the Chinese that Providence
itself had destined Khoubilai to be their em
peror. Proceeding from the western triumphal arch
in the great street, to the southern extremity of
the rampart, we approached the gate of Chun
tching men. To the east, No. 107, is a very
large convent, at present inhabited by three
Catholic monks ofthe Franciscan order. They
are the only European missionaries at Peking
who depend upon the Pope.
Near the southern wall, a little to the west of
the gate Chim tching men, is No. 108, an en
closure where the emperor's elephants are kept.
Most ofthe streets of King tching are adorned

172 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
with small triumphal arches, which, from their
colour, might be called the red gates. They
serve as ornaments to the town, but are very
plain. Vai lo tching.
This part of Peking is inferior to King tching
in extent, population, and the beauty of the
buildings. I have already spoken of its circum
ference. The principal gate which leads from King
tching to Vai lo tching, is that of the south, or
Thsian men. The centre arch is for the em
peror ; the people generally pass through the
east and west entrances. A very broad straight
paved street crosses Vai lo tching, from
north to south. On each side there are long
rows of shops to the stream, which crosses it
nearly in the middle.
To the west ofthe gate Thsian men there are
a great many shops. No. 1. is a stone bridge.
over the canal which traverses Vai lo tching in
its whole length, from north to south. Near the
bridge there are several fine shops of silk goods.
Farther on, in the great street, is a triumphal
arch of wood, No. 2.
In the first street from the triumphal arch,
towards the east, is No. 3, a row of hotels or
taverns, the best in all Peking. There the
Chinese resort to enjoy good cheer. A dinner

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 173
consisting of twenty different dishes or more,
costs at least 1500 thsian, or 9 or 10 francs for
each person.
To the south, in the same street, are the shops
for linen and ready made clothes : it is crossed
by Sian you keou, (the street of the smelts') ;
so called because that fish is sold there. In the
same street there are several public theatres and
shops. A street which runs from the triumphal arch
to the north-east, No. 5, contains rich magazines
of silks, female ornaments, and jewellery. To
the north, on the bank of the canal, is an ice
house, and some others farther on. Beyond this
is a theatre, No. 7, where any person who wishes
to celebrate any happy event may have pieces
performed. The persons invited bring to the
friend who gives the entertainment presents in
money, which must not be less than one liang :
such presents between friends are mutual.
There are several theatres ofthe same kind in
the Vai lo tching, but those of King tching were
abolished by order of Kia king.
After passing several streets to the south of
the ice-house, we come to a pretty large square,
No. 8, which is surrounded by public baths. *
The building, No. 9, which is at a short distance,
* This fact sufficiently refutes the ridiculous assertion of
some travellers, who have pretended that the use of bath's
was unknown to the Chinese. — Klaproth.

174 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
was formerly a theatre, but demolished by order
of Kin king, on occasion of the revolt which took
place in the autumn of 1813. This theatre was
the rendezvous of the conspirators, where they
spent, in diverting themselves, the whole night
preceding the day on which the rebellion was
to break out.
To the east a cross street leads from the baths
to a great street which extends to the south of
the second gate of King tching, Tchoung wen
men, or Khata. Almost opposite this street
another, No. 10, runs also towards the east. A
market, which is very much frequented, is held
in it on the 4th, 14th, and 24th of every month.
There are several others in this part of the city.
At the extreme angle of the north-east a gate
leads to the canal by which corn is brought.
In the whole part of Vai lo tching, from this
gate to the south-east wall, there are corn-fields,
kitchen gardens, and ponds of muddy water.
Vai lo tching is traversed from east to west
by a broad street, chiefly consisting of hardware
shops. Near the principal street there is a small
bridge over a brook. More to the south is a
square, No. 11, where there is a daily market for
old clothes, from day-break to ten o'clock. To
the south of this square, No. 12, are several
ponds belonging to the government, where gold
fish are kept ; for which reason they are called
Kin yu tchi, or gold fish ponds. The passengers

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 175
amuse themselves with throwing bread to these
fish. To the north of the ponds there are tim
ber yards, No. 13. From the bridge, near the
gate of Thsian men, runs a street, No. 14, with
shops of various descriptions.
Turning to the right from the triumphal arch
down the great street, we come to the magazines,
No. 15, Tchou pao chi, of fine pearls and jewels,
which are thought to be the richest in Peking.
They are filled with jewels, rich silks, costly
furs from Russia, and various productions ofthe
Chinese manufactures and arts.
The shops on the left, No. 16, are occupied
by dealers in pictures in water colours. A short
time after my arrival in Peking I saw the por
trait of a Cossack belonging to our suite in one
of these shops. The painter, in order to attract
attention, had represented him of colossal size,
with extremely long whiskers, and a very broad
chest. To the south of the jewellers' shops in the
street No. 17, there are six theatres very near
to each other. Almost every day, from noon
till night, they perform tragedies and comedies,
intermingled with singing and music. The
female parts are performed by youths, who act
so well, that it is not easy to distinguish them
from young women. They are very much en
couraged by the wealthy Chinese.
The price of admission to the theatres, is only

176 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
150 copecs in copper. The house is divided
into pit and boxes, where the spectators sit on
wooden benches, and have tables before them,
on which the proprietors of the theatre serve
them gratis with tea, not indeed of the best
quality, and wax papers to light their pipes. *
The rules of the drama observed in Europe
are not followed in China. They know nothing
of our three unities, nor of all the forms that we
observe, to give regularity and probability to
the piece. They do not represent a single
action in their dramas, but the whole life of the
hero, embracing a period of forty or fifty years.
The unity of place is no better observed. The
scene, which in the first act is in China, is in
the second in the country of the Mantchoos,
or in Mongolia. The Chinese author has no
guide but nature ; all our rules are unknown
to him,, and perhaps he has no reason to regret
it, since he attains the chief object, which is to
please, to excite emotion, to inspire a love of
virtue, and to render vice odious.
The Chinese make no distinction betwen tra
gedy and comedy, and consequently they have
no particular rules appropriate to each, though
they are so very different. Every piece is
divided into several parts, preceded by a kind of
prologue or introduction. These parts, or acts
may be subdivided into scenes, according to the
* See Abbe1 Grosier, De la Chine, vi. 50.

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 177
entrance and exit of the performers. Every
actor on entering always begins by making
himself known to the spectators, telling them his
name, and the character he is to perform. The
same performer often represents several charac
ters in the same play. A comedy, for instance,
is represented by five performers, though there
are fifteen or twenty characters in it.
The face of the performer being recognised
as the same in two different characters, must
tend to destroy the illusion, A mask would
remedy this inconvenience ; but masks are used
only in the ballets, or at least are never given on
the stage, except to chiefs of banditti, assassins,
and other infamous characters.
The Chinese tragedies have no choruses pro
perly so called, but they are intermingled with
singing. In those passages in which the actor is
presumed to be agitated by some violent passion,
he suspends his declamation, and begins to sing,
frequently with the. accompaniment of instru
ments. These pieces of poetry are intended to
express the stronger emotions of the soul, such
as those which are inspired by anger, joy, love,
or grief. A performer sings when he is incensed
against villains, when he rouses himself to ven
geance, or is preparing to die.
The Chinese comedians have no established
theatres, except in the capital, and some great
cities. They travel through the different, pro-
VOL. II. N

178 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
vinces and towns ofthe empire, or perform in pri
vate houses, where they are called in to add by
their performances to the pleasures of an enter
tainment, which is seldom considered as com
plete without them. At the moment that the
company are sitting down to table, four or five
actors richly dressed enter the room ; they all
bow together, and so low, that their forehead
touches the ground four times ; then one of them
presents to the principal guest a book, in which
are written in letters of gold the titles of fifty
or sixty comedies, which they know by heart,
and are able to perform upon the spot. The
guest does not point out the one he chooses till
he has sent the list round, which is returned to
him. The performance begins to the sound of
drums, flutes, fifes, and trumpets. A large va
cant space left by the tables, which are placed in
two rows, serves for the stage. The floor of the
room is covered with a carpet, and instead of side
scenes, the actors make use of the adjoining
rooms, from which they come to perform their
parts. There are generally more spectators than
guests, it being the custom to admit a certain
number of persons into the court-yard, from
which they can also enjoy the performance,
which was not prepared for them. The women
can also be present without being seen, being
placed behind a lattice, which entirely conceals
them. In public festivals and rejoicings, theatres

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 179
are erected in the streets, where plays are per
formed from morning till evening, to which the
people are admitted on very moderate terms.
The Chinese literati do not often write for the
stage, and gain but little honour by their pro
ductions of this kind, because the drama is
rather tolerated than permitted in China. The
ancient sages of the nation constantly disap
proved it, considering it as an art dangerous to
morals. The first mention of theatrical pieces
in history is to praise an emperor of the dynasty
of Han, for having proscribed this frivolous and
dangerous species of amusement. Siuan li, of
the dynasty of the Tcheou, received remon
strances from the ministers, urging him to banish
theatrical representations from court, which had
a fatal influence upon morals. Another empe
ror was deprived of funeral honours, for having
been too fond of the theatre, and keeping com
pany with actors.
The emperor Young tching had very se
verely forbidden the Mantchoos to frequent the
theatres. The deceased emperor Kia king re
vived the ordinance. The Mantchoo officers
could not go to the theatre, without taking from
their caps the distinguishing badges of their
rank. In consequence of this mode of thinking,
the theatres are placed on a level with common
public houses, and banished to the suburbs of
the towns. n 2

180 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
Going to the west, from the street of the
theatres, we come to the booksellers' shops, No.
18. In the midst of these shops, there is a tem
ple. A fair is held here, from the first to the
eighteenth of the first month of the new year,
which is much resorted to as a promenade.
In the great square of Lieou li tchang, which
is in the same street, a little farther to the north,
No. 19, there is a manufactory of pottery and
glazed tiles ; glass-ware is also manufactured
there. After passing a small bridge towards the west,
there is a shop No. 20, where they sell silk, things
embroidered with silk, and other goods of the
best quality brought from the southern provinces
of China. In this shop the price of every arti
cle is fixed, which is very uncommon in China.
The Chinese shopkeepers, like the Russians,
usually put the experience of their customers to
the proof, and begin by asking about three times
the value of their goods.
Proceeding onwards to the west, we come to
a broad street, which, beginning at the King
tching, passes through the gate of Chun tching
men. Going southwards to another great street,
which runs from east to west, we come to a cross
way, No. 21, where criminals are executed. A
little higher up, near a pond, there is a ditch
into which their dead bodies are thrown.
To the south-west, before coming to the cross

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING. 181
street, there is a mosque, No. 22, built for the
Turkestans who inhabit this part of Peking.
The rest of the western part of the Vai lo
tching, like the east part, is but thinly peopled,
and taken up with kitchen-gardens and corn
fields. Besides the places which we have just
described, there are several little temples and
barracks occupied by regiments of the guards.
Two remarkable buildings in the Vai lo
tching still remain to be mentioned, namely, the
temple of Heaven, and that of the inventor of
agriculture, which are both situated near the
south gate.
The temple of Heaven, or Thian than, No.
23, is on the right side of the great street. The
enclosure in which it stands is nine li, or about
four miles, in circumference : every thing in it is.
magnificent. The emperor goes there every
year, on the day of the winter solstice, to offer
a sacrifice to Heaven ; he prepares himself for
this ceremony by three days' fast, which he ob
serves in the Thian than itself, on an elevated
spot called the palace of fasting. The eminence
on which the emperor sacrifices is magnificently
adorned. The ascent to it is by handsome
flights of steps ; on the four sides are four
triumphal arches of very fine marble. The em
peror sometimes goes to this temple at other
seasons of the year to sacrifice to Heaven, and
pay religious homage to his ancestors;
n 3

182 SHORT DESCRIPTION OF PEKING.
The Siaun nong than, or temple of the inventor
of agriculture, No. 24, is separated from the Thian
than by a very broad street. It is likewise sur
rounded by a very high wall, and is six li, or
more than three miles, in circumference. The
emperors of China repair every year to the Siaun
nong than, in the spring season, to till the ground
and offer sacrifice to Heaven. The apartments
of the emperor are not very magnificent, but
the ceremony is very curious and solemn. The
field which the emperor tills is covered with a
kind of tent made of mats. When he has
ploughed for about half an hour, he ascends a
neighbouring eminence, whence he examines the
work of the princes, the ministers, and the man
darins, who, guided by the most experienced
cultivators, plough in the open air, having no
mats to protect them from the inclemency of the
weather. While they are at work, the musicians
of the court sing hymns composed in ancient
times in honour of agriculture. The emperor,
the princes, and all the great people are dressed
like farmers. Their agricultural instruments
are very neat, and are preserved in particular
magazines. The ploughs are drawn by oxen,
which are never used on any other occasion.
There are also granaries destined for the pro
duce ; and it is pretended, that the corn pro
duced by the labour of the emperor is much
superior to that which grows on the ground tilled

CONCLUSION. 183
by the princes and mandarins. This corn pro
duced by the emperor's labour is used to make
cakes for the sacrifices to Heaven. The empe
ror prepares himself for this ceremony by fast
ing, by prayers, and by a kind of seclusion. -
The object of this august ceremony is to perpe
tuate the memory of those happy times, when
princes themselves were cultivators : according
to other authors, the object is to hinder despotic
emperors from forgetting, that a great state can
not subsist without agriculture, and consequently
that the riches of the sovereign are the fruit
of the labour ofthe peasant. The origin of this
ceremony in China is lost in the obscurity ofthe
remotest ages.

CONCLUSION.

Peking is distinguished from other capitals
and great cities of Asia by its buildings, and the
order which reigns in its interior. We must not
look for houses of four or five stories in height :
there are no fine quays, no foot pavements, nor
are the streets lighted during the night. The
nations of Europe and Asia differ in many re
spects from each other, and the Chinese, in par
ticular, do not resemble any other known people.
However, every thing in their capital indicates a
country that has been long civilized.
N 4

184 CONCLUSION.
The tranquillity of the inhabitants is secured
by moral institutions, by stable regulations, and
by an active police. A free trade provides for
the supply of the city; and every inhabitant
finds in his leisure moments frequent opportu
nities of amusing himself.
At Peking we rarely hear of dissensions in
families. The maxims of the religion of Con
fucius, and the principles of the education of
youth, which are impressed on the memory of
the Chinese, serve them as guides on all occa
sions throughout their lives. The unlimited
submission of children to their parents regulates
the conduct of each towards his fellow-citizens.
It is this principle which leads the Chinese to
obey the orders of the government, and to re
spect and venerate its civil and military agents.
On the other hand, the Chinese, like all other
nations, have their failings and their vices.
They are indifferent not only to strangers, but
also to their own countrymen : this is one of
their greatest defects. They are proud, vindic
tive, interested, jealous, very distrustful, and
very cunning. The poverty which is very com
mon in all classes obliges them to employ
address which often degenerates into roguery.
The population is so considerable that the
national wealth, though very great, cannot be
properly distributed. A Chinese officer having
the rank of colonel has less to live upon than
18

CONCLUSION. 185
one of our inferior officers, that is, if both have
no other income than their pay.
In general, the Chinese are inclined to a dis
solute way of life. The rich, besides their law
ful" wife, have a harem ; yet, yielding to bad
example, they visit women of ill fame, and even
indulge in still greater depravities.
The principal class of inhabitants in Peking
is composed of the Mantchoo troops ; the
officers, who are at the same time members
of the civil tribunals, but too indolent to em
ploy themselves in investigating the causes
brought before them, leave the management
of business to their Chinese secretaries. When
the Mantchoos took possession of Peking,
the officers and privates had for their share
the houses of the inhabitants in the southern
cities. But these Mantchoos have long ceased
to be any thing more than the tenants of
the houses, and the lands which have been
granted to them ; they have consumed their
property, and the estates have fallen into the
hands of Chinese merchants. The military, who
are in good circumstances, possess houses and
shops which bring them in a considerable in
come. The merchants and artisans compose the
second class of inhabitants ; the former prin
cipally live in the Vai lo tching : the great pa
pulation of the empire deprives many of tlie
inhabitants of the means of supporting them-

186 CONCLUSION.
selves by agriculture. A great number of people
resort from all the provinces into the capital, to
gain their livelihood ; but they do not always
succeed, the class who have need of workmen,
being very moderate in their desires. It is said,
that there are in Peking fifty thousand persons,
who, being without employment, have recourse
to robbery and cheating. The vigilance and the
severity of the police, however, keep them in
good order ; for during a residence of about
six months at Peking, I did not hear of a single
robbery of importance. As the Chinese are ex-
Uremely distrustful of the poor, and beggars
always meet with a decided refusal, it is but
seldom that a poor individual has recourse to
this easy means of gaining a livelihood. The
poor are employed in cleaning and watering
the streets and gardens, and cultivating the
ground ; they also do the business of porters,
and increase or compose the groups which follow
the processions at marriages, funerals, &c. I have
often met some of these poor creatures, who had
scarcely clothes to cover them, wearing cloaks
of ceremony, and caps with red feathers, accom
panying the funeral of some rich man. When
a tradesman employs a man of this class to carry
the goods which he has sold to any body, the
porter faithfully delivers them, and contents
himself with a remuneration of about three
pence, even if he has worked for two hours.
The inhabitants of Peking take their domes-

CONCLUSION. 187
tics from the country people. Sometimes they
employ soldiers, who purchase this permission
by giving up a third part of their pay. The
services of a robust and active man, who has
some knowledge of reading and writing, may be
had for 1500 thian per month, besides his board.
Servants are not received into the house with
out the guarantee of some rich merchant.
All the people are subject to the same law.
There are no military tribunals except the courts
martial appointed to decide upon crimes com
mitted in the field, in time of war. Clear
and precise ordinances maintain order in the
city. Every violation of the law is immediately
punished with a severity which is often extreme.
If a father or mother make a complaint against
their children^ the affair is decided on the spot,
and almost without investigation ; for the Chinese
are persuaded that the tenderness of" parents will
not permit them to make an unjust accusation.
Insignificant quarrels are decided verbally,
and without delay.
The Russians who live at Peking may con
gratulate themselves on enjoying the particular
respect of the inhabitants and the continual pro
tection of the laws, which perhaps is not the
case with other foreigners.
The police of Peking has fire engines, and
all their apparatus. They are, indeed, much
inferior to those of Europe, but they are seldom

188 CONCLUSION.
wanted, because fires are very rare. The edifices
are all of stone or brick. In the kitchen, and
to heat the apartments, they use coals, which
are burnt in close stoves : besides, the vigilance
and precaution which distinguish the Chinese
secure them against accidents of this kind, which
in our country often reduce whole towns to
ashes. In every quarter of Peking there are several
physicians. A skilful physician, of which there
are but few in China, receives from a patient in
good circumstances no more than five rubles in
bank-notes at each visit. The poor who con
sult the physicians in their own houses are
treated gratis, or at least for a very trifling re
muneration. The practice of physic among the
Chinese is entirely empyrical, and founded on ex
perience. Medicines are sold in particular shops,
or at apothecaries, and in many cases they are
sold wilfiout a prescription from the physician,
as they chiefly consist of decoctions and strong
ptisans. Sometimes pills are made of roots,
.especially of gin seng, to which the Chinese
ascribe miraculous virtues : the most skilful phy
sicians introduce it into the medicines which they
give to great people, for it is too dear for the in
ferior classes. They pretend that it is a sovereign
remedy for debility caused by excessive labour
of body or mind ; that it fortifies the animal
spirits ; and, lastly, that it prolongs the life of old

CONCLUSION. 189
people. A solotnik* of gin seng, ofthe pro
vince of Liao toung, or of the country of the
Mantchoos, costs two hundred and eighty rou
bles ; that of Corea is very inferior, and conse
quently much cheaper.
Wherever two streets meet, and at every bridge,
there are two-wheeled carriages, answering the
same purposes as hackney-coaches in Europe.
They are lined with satin and velvet, and drawn
by mules or horses ; the first of which in par
ticular are very active. The great people, and
especially the ladies, use sedan chairs, but they
must first obtain permission from the emperor.
Persons in office prefer riding on horseback,
which, on account of the unevenness of the
streets and the great crowd, is the most con
venient and expeditious mode of conveyance, as
I know by experience. There are many officers
in Peking who have their own carriages and
horses ; but, notwithstanding this, the owners
of the above-mentioned coaches or chaises carry
on a very lucrative business.
The internal commerce for the supply of the
capital is extremely active. The southern pro
vinces, especially those situated beyond the river
Kiang, may be considered as the centre of the
inland trade. They produce tea, rice, cotton,
and silk. There are manufactories of silk, espe-
* That is, ^yth of a Russian pound.

109: CONCLUSION.
cially at Hang tcheou and Sou tcheou, which
are considered as a terrestrial paradise ; also
manufactories of porcelain, ink, furniture, and
lackered goods.
The inhabitants of Peking receive every thing
from the southern provinces. In Peking itself
there are no good manufactories, except of
coloured glass. Precious stones are also cut
and polished in the capital.
The magazines of Peking are generally almost
empty towards the close of the commercial sea
son, and remain so till the arrival of fresh goods,
which generally takes place at the opening of
the communication by water, at the beginning
of the fifth moon, or the month of June.
All articles necessary for clothing, such as
silks and cottons, are sold in Vai lo tching, the
southern part of PekingA There too we find
the most elegant and expensive articles, fine fur
niture, pictures, jewellery, &c.
Provisions are sold in all quarters of the city ;
almost at every step there are shops where they
sell rice, flour, small loaves baked, or rather
boiled in steam, meat, &c. The inhabitants of
Peking, and the Chinese in general, prefer pork,
which is here better flavoured, and more easy
of digestion than in Russia. The Mantchoos,
Mongols, and Turkestans eat mutton, and the
latter beef. Mutton and beef are not very good
in China, because the cattle coming from Mon-

CONCLUSION. 191
golia are too much exhausted, and are not pro
perly attended to after they reach the capital.
Butter, especially made of sheep's milk, comes
from Mongolia. The Chinese prefer hog's lard,
and cannot bear even the smell of butter made
of cow's milk. The most common domestic
fowl are geese, ducks, and chickens. The first
are indispensable at grand entertainments. The
physicians forbid patients to eat poultry, as in
digestible and unwholesome. A species of duck
called ya tsu is a very favourite dish on grand
occasions, and is dressed in more than thirty dif
ferent ways. The ducks of Peking are very
large, very fat, and juicy. In the winter, there
are partridges, pheasants, and game of all kinds.
But it is necessary to be very careful in pur
chasing provisions, for the Chinese dealers mix
plaster or sand in the flour to increase the
weight. Often they sell the flesh of animals
that have died of some disorder, or of such as
are not generally used for food; for instance,
asses, mules, camels, &c. They improve the
appearance of ducks and chickens by blowing
the air between the skin and flesh, which
makes them look very white and plump.
Peking is supplied with fresh fish, especially
carp, from the neighbouring rivers, and the sea
coast. Smoked fish and lobsters are very common.
In the winter the court receives large frozen fish,
such as sturgeons, sea eagles, (Rata aquila) carp,

192 CONCLUSION.
of a particular species, called in Russian sazans,
&c. They are brought on camels from the river
Amour. The emperor distributes them among
the princes of the first order, and by this means
a certain quantity finds its way into the markets.
As for fruits and vegetables, they have them of
all kinds as in Europe, such as very excellent
cabbages, cucumbers, carrots, turnips, radishes,
&c. All these vegetables, except the cab
bages, are salted, and that to such a degree,
that they are used at table instead of salt.
Grapes, peaches, apples, and delicious pears,
are extremely abundant ; there are also oranges
and lemons, but they are not well flavoured.
The general and constant beverage is tea ;
but it is prepared very differently from that
which comes to Europe. The Chinese gather
for their own use the young leaves of the tea
shrub, which are dried in the sun. This kind of
tea has a most delicious fragrance and taste, and
is very good for the stomach.
The Chinese distil a very strong brandy from
rice, which they drink warm in small cups. At
table, they have a kind of sour brandy, called
chao tsieou (burnt wine), which is extracted by
distillation from fermented rice.
Great inconvenience is experienced by
strangers from the difference of weights . and
measures employed by the merchants. Every class
of dealers, and every commodity, has a particular

CONCLUSION. 193
measure arid weight. As the only coin is the
thsian, which is a small copper money, the pur
chaser is obliged to pay for every thing with
silver, according to the weight used by the
dealer, which opens a wide field for fraud. The
dealer adroitly contrives to diminish the weight
of the silver, by imperceptibly altering the
balance, which, besides, is often false ; then he
gives back to the buyer silver mixed with cop
per. The most prudent Chinese, when they go
to make purchases, take their own scales with
them. They have in China a particular method of con
cluding bargains, without speaking. The price of
the goods being shown by the , fingers ; for in
stance, if it is five pieces of money, they show the
five fingers of one hand stretched out ; if six, or
sixty pieces, they bend the three middle fingers,
and stretch out the thumb and little finger ; for
seven, seventy, or seven hundred, they bend
the fore and middle fingers, stretching out the
three others ; for eight, eighty, eight hundred,
&c. they stretch out the thumb and fore finger
bending the others ; for nine, ninety, to nine
hundred, &c. they bend the little, ring, and
middle fingers, stretching out the thumb, and
fore finger bent towards it, &c. This mode of
reckoning is used both in public and private.
A purchaser who is too far off to speak, so
as to be heard, first holds out his hand and an-
vol. 11. o

194

CONCLUSION.

nounces his price; for instance, the number
seven ; if the seller is not content with this he
makes the sign of nine, then the other increases
his offer, and shows eight, &c.
The Chinese, who wish to conceal the business
which they treat of, take each other by their
hands, which are hidden in their long sleeves,
and make their bargains in this manner without
speaking a word. The Mongols are very fond
of this manner of dealing ; masters also make
use of it when they are accompanied by their
servants, because the latter make the tradesmen
pay to them the eighth or ninth part of the value
of their master's purchase, for which reason
they endeavour to conceal from their servants
the price which they offer, to make the merchant
hope that the servant, being ignorant of the
terms, will be contented with whatever he may
choose to give him ; but the servant, who is
behind his master, makes signs to the tradesman
that he requires the seventh, eighth, or ninth
part of the sum which his master is going to
pay, and the tradesman augments or lowers his
price according to the demands of the servant,
or does not sell at all. This practice ofthe ser
vants is not liable to any complaint before the
tribunals, nor is it considered as deserving any
severe censure.
What I have just said of the servants may be
applied to all the Chinese. You cannot trust

CONCLUSION. 195
your best friend, nor well-known persons, but
may expect that they will contrive to gain some
advantage, if you ask them to accompany you to
make a purchase. Chou lao ye, teacher of the
Russian language in the Mantchoo school, never
failed to get ten or twelve rubles when he ac
companied me to purchase some trifles.
However, even prices expressed in words are
equally incomprehensible to strangers, because
each province of China, and even each district,
has a different manner of expressing the same
value. At Peking, for instance, if they say two,
it means one, twenty means ten, &c. In other
plapes, five means two ; in others, a hundred
signifies thirty, &c. It is therefore evident how
many difficulties occur in commercial transac
tions with the Chinese.
The Chinese have but little inclination for
gymnastic exercises. It seems that they are not
well calculated for amusements of this descrip
tion, on account of their weak constitutions,
arising partly from the heat of the climate, and
partly from the bad quality of their food. The
soldiers, especially the Mantchoos, are obliged
to ride a great deal, to exercise with the bow
and arrow, &c. The Chinese have no dances
except a very imperfect kind of pantomime, which
is executed by the actors on the stage.
The society of the Chinese and Mantchoos of
high rank, and of a certain age, is very serious.
o 2

196 - CONCLUSION.
Women are never admitted into it. In the com
pany of well-bred persons every body conforms
to the taste of the eldest, who takes the lead in
the conversation, which turns upon subjects of
morality, and serves as a kind of lesson to the
younger members of the company. These
meetings, though often very insipid, have always
something solemn in them, even among country
people ; and the bounds of decorum are never
violated. Every Chinese who holds an office is
supposed to be a man of learning. His slow and
deliberate mode of speaking, accompanied by
suitable gestures, distinguishes him from the rest
of the company. The most eminent persons
appear to be absorbed in profound meditations.
The Chinese are fond of history: they choose
the most striking traits which it affords for the
subject of their conversation, the object of which
is to impart instruction, and encourage the prac
tice of virtue. They relate with emotion the
deeds of their ancestors, and lament their own
inability to resemble them.
The Chinese assign superstitious and erroneous
causes for the elevation and fall of twenty-two
of their principal dynasties. They express them
selves with great bitterness respecting the con
duct of the Mantchoos, whom they consider as
the scourge of their country. They obstinately
maintain the superiority of their ancient institu-

CONCLUSION. 197
tions, and reprehend luxury as the secret cause
of many disorders and misfortunes.
An assembly of literati, especially if it consists
of gay and ingenious young men, frequently
amuse themselves with composing little poems ;
one, for instance, proposes a riddle, and another
replies by a stanza, which contains the solution.
The Chinese, however, are not so fond of
these meetings, which are often dull and unin
teresting, as of more cheerful pleasures, good
cheer, social mirth, and the game on the fingers
called houa thsionan, something resembling the
Italian mora. The loser is obliged to drink a
glass of brandy. They also play at cards and
chess, and amuse themselves with cock and quail
fighting. Asiatic jealousy does not permit them to in
vite and entertain their friends at their own
houses : the Chinese receive only visits of
civility from their relations. For this reason,
when any one wishes to show his regard, or to
perform the obligations which he has towards
persons whose protection he seeks, he invites his
friends, or those of whom he is in need, to a
tavern, where he treats them as magnificently as
his means allow him. These entertainments are
generally accompanied with noisy diversions.
The Chinese love numerous assemblages.
The public walks are not frequented every day;
but at certain seasons they are crowded by im-
o 3'

198 CONCLUSION.
mense multitudes. Besides the festivals at the
new year, and a few others, the Chinese have no
weekly holidays : the people labour continually.
In spring the people frequent the promenades
in the environs of Peking, to the south and west,
which are for the most part very pleasant. The
common people go on foot. The company drink
tea, and amuse themselves with the feats of jug
glers, rope-dancers, &c. Persons of rank and
fortune show themselves on the promenades in
splendid carriages, drawn by fine mules, or rid- •
ing on spirited horses. The spirit of vanity and
luxury, common in all great cities, manifests
itself in the same forms at Peking.

PRICES OF PROVISIONS, ETC. 199

PRICES OF PROVISIONS AND VARIOUS OTHER
ARTICLES AT PEKING, IN THE YEAR 1821.
(Reckoning a Russian pound of silver at 92 rubles 80 copecs
in Bank assignats, and the Chinese Ian or liang at 8 rubles,
or 1100 thsian, or pieces of Chinese copper coin.*)
I. Provisions. PRICES.
Tea, bloom, of inferior quality, per kin,
(about a pound and a quarter, Rus
sian weight,) - - 2£ to 3 liang
 , ordinary black - - - 1 ditto
 , Loung tsing, the youngest leaves,
which the Chinese esteem the most
delicate - - - 1600 a 2000 thsian
 , Tchou Ian, green - - - 1 a 2 liang
— — , Hiang pian, the most in use in
China .... 320 a 1600 thsian
 , Bartogon, a kind of brick tea, per
chest .... 550
Sugar candy, white, per kin - - 130
 , brown - - - 120
Wax, white, from the wax-tree - 700
 , yellow - - - 400 a 500

* If we reckon a ruble in paper at one franc, the latter
will contain 137-J thsian, at about f of a centime. By this
calculation we find that the prices of the principal neces
saries of life at Peking are in a great measure the same as
they are at present at Paris. — Klaproth.
o 4

200

PRICES OF PROVISIONS, ETC.

Grapes, white and red, per kin
Pears, the best, for 10 - -
 , middling, for ditto
Apples, first quality, for 10
, middling, for ditto
Pomegranates, for ditto
Lemons, for ditto
Wheat flour, first quality, per kin
Rice flour, the measure of 20 lbs.
Millet ditto, ditto, 275 thsian, or the pood
Butter, per kin -
Oil -
Tallow candles
Beef, without bones, per kin
Mutton, ditto ditto .
Pork, ditto ditto
Sucking pigs ....
Geese, each ...
Ducks, ditto -
Ditto, wild, ditto ...
Chickens, ditto
Pheasants, ditto ...
Hazel grouse, per pair
Hens' eggs, each
Frozen fish (sturgeon), per kin
Sazans (a kind of carp), and other white
fish, per kin ...
Ditto, alive, ditto -
Salt, ditto
Vinegar, a bottle
Ordinary brandy, distilled from grain,
per kin ....

PRICES.
40 a 70 thsian
300
100 a 150
200 a 300
100 a 150
300 a 500
700 a 1000
35 a 40
400550 230
120
130 45 a 60
60 a 70
70 a 80
1000 a 1300
600 a 800
500 a 600
300 160 a 250
200 a 550
55 a 65
4 a 6
60 a 400
50 a 60
100 a 130
2011
100

AT PEKING.

201

PRICES.

Liqueurs, extracted from fruits

120 a 150 thsian

Chao thsieou, weak brandy, distilled from .

grain, per kin

56 a 70

Mustard ' ...

65

Cabbages

3 a 5i

Chanie (a long kind of potatoe)

30 a 40

Tobacco leaf, per kin

160 a 250

Ditto, of Kouang toung or Mantchoo, do.

300 a 660

Ditto, in small squares (Ting tzu yan),

per square ...

18

Ditto, of the south, in packets (Nanyan),

per packet ...
160
Snuff, Brazil, imported by the Portu
guese, per pound, in silver
25 liang
Ditto, perfumed, manufactured at Peking,
per liang ...
500 a 1000 thsian
Ditto, of inferior quality, per kin
250
Coals, ordinary, per kin
U
 , of the best quality, ditto
6
Charcoal ....
13 a 16
Wood (also sold by weight), per kin
6
II. Servants, &c.
Servants, in the first houses, wages per
month - - - 3300 thsian
in houses of the second class,
besides their board - 1000 a 1500
A carriage drawn by one mule, for a day 1000 a 1200
A chaise - - - - 600 a 750
A saddle horse - - - 600 a 1 100
Food for a horse (corn and bran), per day 250 a 300
Ditto for a mule - - - 160 a 200
A joiner, per day - . 300
202 PRICES OF PROVISIONS, ETC.

PRICES.

A carpenter ...

- 200 thsian

A paper-hanger, per day

200

A common workman

130

Water, for watering, two pails -

3

III. Writing-paper, &c.
Writing-paper, per sheet, equal to six of
our sheets - --18 to 22
Paper for wrappers (Mao theou tchi),
equal to IJ of our sheets - 3
China ink, the best quality, sold for its
weight in silver.
Ditto, of inferior quality, per kin - 2 a 5£ liang
Cinnabar, nearly at its weight in silver.
IV. Medicines.
Gin seng, the first quality, per liang, costs
in value .... 350
Ditto of Corea, per kin - - 250
Kou ko, or St. Ignatius's beans, per kin 1250 thsian
Denzoui or ting tzu yao (a preparation of
arsenic), white or red - - 250
V. Metals.
Gold, the finest, eighteen times dearer
than silver ; that which has one-
tenth part alloy, 16 times dearer.
Copper, white, the best, per kin - 1^ liang
 , red, ditto 350 a 400 thsian
Brass, ditto 350
Pewter, wrought, ditto - 300 a 450

AT PEKING. 203

VI. Silks.

prices.
Touan tsu (in Siberia Kanfa) satin, of the
first quality, per piece of 20 ar
sheens .... 25 iiang
 , middling quality - 18 a 19
 , small pieces - - 4|a 6
Ning tcheou (in Siberia Kantscha), 22 ar
sheens - - - 22 a 25
Koung tcheou (or Gros de Tours), per
piece of 22 arsheens - - 18 a 20
Sian tcheou, serge of a dark colour, in
pieces of 8 J arsheens
Ditto, striped, of 12 arsheens -
Fang szu (in Siberia Fanza' broad plain
taffety, per piece of 27 \ ^sheens
Ditto, narrow and plain, 13 arsheens
Ling szu, a piece of 13 arsheens
Tcheou tcheou, the best (Ko ou tcheou), or
plain crape, of the first quality, per
piece of about 27 arsheens -
Yang tcheou, figured ...
Mian tcheou, broad, 20 arsheens
Ditto, narrow, ditto
Cha, or figured crape, broad, and of the
first quality, per piece of 26 arsheens
 , middling quality, ditto
 , plain and narrow, per piece of 1 3
arsheens - 3£
San tcheou (in Siberia Tchentcha), half
silk, per piece of about 25 arsheens 3
Szu szu tcheou (in Siberia Tchisutchou),
per piece of 24 arsheens - - 5

n

a 9

12

a 13

11

al2£

3*

4

a 4*

16

11

a 12

H

a 5

si

20

a 22

11

204 PRICES OF PROVISIONS, ETC. PRICES.
Silk : the kin, according to the Chinese
weight, contains 12 liang of pure
silk.
Silk, shaded - - - 5 a 7| liang
 , corded - - - 3TT¥ a 5J
VII. Cottons.
Pou (in Russian Kitaika), per piece of 9
arsheens, undressed - IJ
 , dressed, the piece of 7 arsheens f a T7^
, undressed - - 1
Thsou pou, or Daba (ordinary Nankin),
the best, per piece of 20 a 24 ar
sheens - - - 1-jJjj. a If
Ta lian pou, or Dalenba, \ arsheen broad,
per piece of 15 arsheens - 1^
Baika, white cotton, 13 arsheens - IJ
Raw cotton, the best quality, per kin - 250 thsian
VIII. Furs.
A long pelisse of grey squirrel-skin, from
the back of the animal
Ditto, from the belly
A •kourma, or short pelisse, trimmed with
cat-skins, of a blackish grey
 , black, without grey -
A pelisse of white lamb-skin
Ditto older
Trimmings of beaver, for the cuffs
Collar of beaver's tail ...
A cap of sable, with a silk tassel
,  of ferret-skin dyed black, with
tassel - - - 2500 a 3j000 thsian

23

a 25 liang

12

a 13

30

a 40

25

a 30

12

a 15

15

a 17

4

a 10

5

a 8

6

a 8

AT PEKING. 205
PRICES.
A kourma, of the skin of the feet of red
foxes - - - - 50 a 80 liang
A pelisse, ofthe skin of the feet of white
foxes - - - - 40 a 60
 , of the skin ofthe back of white
foxes - - - 60 a 100
IX. Wood in Boards, for Cabinet Work.
Camphor, per kin - - - 40 a 50 thsian
Cypress, white - - 35 a 40
 , black - - 300
 , red - - - 250
Sandal, red - - 350
Deal - 20
Lime, in boards one fathom in length,
half an arsheen in breadth, and
about one and a half inches thick 6
For house-building, pillars, and partitions,
cedar and deal are used.
A beam, three fathoms long and 9 or 10
inches broad, is sold for - - 10 a 15 liang.

Chinese Weight.
A kin contains 16 liang.
A liang 10 tschina.
A tschina - 10 fun.
A fun - 10 li.

There are three different weights in China : —
1. The Khou phing, or government weight, of which 11
liang make a Russian pound. According to this weight
the contributions are received and salaries paid.

206 PRICES OF PROVISIONS, ETC.
2. The Chi phing, falsely called thian phing, which only
means just weight, of which 11 liang 1 tschina are equal to a
Russian pound. This weight is very rarely used.
3. The Eul liang phing is chiefly used for eatables: 11
liang 6 tschina make a Russian pound.
The only current coin consists of pieces of brass called
thsian ; the Mongols call them djos, of which the Russians
have made tchok or tchek. They are round, and have a square
hole in the middle. 500 are put on a string, and this the
Chinese call Tiao. The soldiers of the police and the
domestics of the court receive their wages in tiao of 1000
tchek. In making their bargains they ask whether the price
is a great or a little string. A tiao ta thsian is a great string
of 1000 pieces ; a liang in silver is reckoned as 1100 tchek.
This rate is, however, subject to variation : the value of
money fluctuates, as in other countries.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 207

CHAP. III.
historical, geographical, and ethnographical essay
on mongolia. *
Since the year 1367, at which time the Mon
gols were obliged to quit China and return to
their steppes, these people were governed by two-
and-twenty chans, independent of each other.
Before the introduction of the Lamaic religion
among them, there are but very few authentic
particulars of their history. The Khan Abida
Galsan, in obedience to a mysterious revelation,
having gone to Tibet, abstained from the Dalai
Lama, a superior priest, and built in Mongolia,
on the banks of the Orchon, a convent which he
called Erdeni dzao, or the precious monastery.
On the death of Chun ti, the last emperor of
the dynasty ofthe Youan, who, on leaving China,
* In the Russian original this essay is preceded by a
chapter on the Origin and ancient History of Mongolia. As
it contains nothing that is not known in Europe from the
works of Gaubil, Visdelou, Mailla, Deguignes, sen. and
other celebrated writers; and as the author (who is not
Mr. Timkowski) has adopted the absurd idea that all the
nomade people, who from the remotest ages down to our
times have occupied the country between China, Lake
Baikal, and the Altai mountains, were Mongols, I have
judged it advisable to omit this part. — Klaproth.

208 historical essay.
had retired to In tchang fou, a town now de
stroyed, in the district of Kichikten, on the
north-east of the Dolon nor, his son Ai'ourchiri
Dala* succeeded him, in 1371, and transferred
his residence to Ho lin (Kara koroum); the
latter was succeeded in 1378 by his son Togous
Temour. In 1388 Lan yu, a Chinese general,
marched from Ta ning, and was defeated near
the lake Bou'ir. Togous Temour took flight,
followed by only ten horsemen, and was killed
on the banks ofthe Tola by one of his subjects
called Yesouder. All his wives, his second
son, more than 3000 of officers, and 70,000
Mongols of both sexes, fell into the hands of
the Chinese. The army of Lan yu made an
immense booty in gold, silver, and valuable
effects, besides 150,000 head of cattle. The sub
jects of Togous Temour were entirely dispersed;
and under the reign ofthe first emperor of the dy
nasty of Ming, the Mongols did not dare again to
attempt the invasion of China. This prince left
* Mr. Timkowski writes A'iourchiri Daladoun. This
mistake has arisen from the archimandrite Hyacinth (who
translated from the Chinese the materials employed in this
description of Mongolia) having thought that the character
tun, or doun according to his pronunciation, which in the
text immediately follows the name of the prince in
question, made part of the name. This character tun (No.
11,142. of the Dictionary by Father Basile of Glemona, pub
lished at Paris in 1813.) signifies to escape. In fact, A'iour
chiri Dala escaped to the north of the desert of Gobi, and
went to reside at Kara koroum. — Klaproth.

HISTORICAL essay. 209
Mongolia to his relation Ounorchiri, who fixed
his camp near a place called Khe Emil, to the
west ofthe town of Khara koroum. After the
death of Togous Temour, who bore the title of
emperor, five princes of the family of Genghiz
succeeded him in this dignity ; but they had no
authority, and all died a violent death.
Thus terminated the formidable power of
the Mongol dynasty of Genghiz khan, which
reigned in China. Mongolia was divided into
several provinces. Gultsi, one of the most dis
tant relations of Goun Temour, the last emperor,
got possession of the throne by stratagem, and
took the title of Kakhan. The name of Youan,
which that dynasty bore, was then abolished,
and the Mongols took their ancient name 0"f
Tartar. The new subjects of Gultsi, however,
refused to obey him because he did not belong
to the family of Genghiz khan.
Prince Oloutai *, at the head of a party
of rebels, assassinated him, and was declared
khan by the name of Bouniachiri. This new
Mongol prince, though descended from the
imperial family, was abandoned during the times
of trouble, and deprived of the means of sup
porting his dignity: besides, he had none of
* It is from this prince that the Mongol tribe, which
inhabited Tangout and the country between the Celestial
Mountains and the frontiers of Siberia, took the name of
Eluths. VOL. II. P

210 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
those qualities necessary for a sovereign, espe
cially at a time when the elder chiefs in each
tribe assumed the right of exercising sovereign
power over entire provinces. The Mongol nation,
however, showed a singular attachment to this
new khan. In 1409 the court of China caused
the proposal to be made to him to recognise its
supremacy ; but it did not receive any answer.
The ambassador who carried the dispatches was
assassinated, and the letter thrown into the fire.
Khieou fou, the Chinese general, then marched
against Bouniachiri with an army of 100,000
Chinese horsemen. He was beaten by the
Mongols. The emperor Young lo, irritated at
this defeat, sent emissaries into Mongolia, to
examine the conduct of his generals : the guilty
were punished with extreme severity. Young lo
marched himself, in 1410, at the head of 500,000
men. Bouniachiri, seized with terror, wished to
fly towards the west. Oloutai, the Mongol prince,
refused, and separated from the khan with his
tribe. This division was as fatal to them as advan
tageous to the Chinese. The emperor pursuing
Bouniachiri arrived on the banks of the Ouon,
at the place where Genghiz khan, "the founder
of the house of Youan, was born. Bouniachiri
ventured on a battle, and being totally defeated
fled still farther to the west. The emperor then
turned back to encounter Oloutai, destroyed his
army, and returned victorious to Peking.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 211
In 1412, Bouniachiri was assassinated by
Makhamou, a Mongol prince. During the
reign of Young lo, Makhamou was raised to
the dignity of prince of the Chinese empire ;
but in the sequel, having dared to pass the fron
tiers, the emperor went in person to meet him,
totally defeated his army near Oulan kochoun,
and after having pursued him as far as the Tola,
obliged him again to pay tribute.
In the last two years of his reign, Young lo
undertook two expeditions into Mongolia to de
stroy the power of Oloutai. During four
months, the emperor led his army across the im
mense steppes of Mongolia ; but he could not
even find any trace of his enemy, and lost a
great number of soldiers in the vast desert
whither he pursued him. Overcome by vex
ation, at not being able to take vengeance, he
fell into a deep melancholy, and was obliged to
give orders to his army to return immediately to
China. When he arrived at the source of the
Thsing, which is beyond the empire, he caused
a magnificent monument to be erected on a
neighbouring mountain, with an inscription, an
nouncing to posterity his campaigns and exploits
into Mongolia. He died in 1424.
Togon, the son of prince Makhamou, suc
ceeded his father, and wished to be proclaimed
Khan ; but his subjects would not consent,
which made him resolve to raise to that dignity
p 2

212 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
Toktoboukha, a descendant of the house of
Youan, and to content himself with acting as.
president of the council of the empire. These
Mongols inhabited the northern part of the
desert of Gobi. The tribe Karatchin, and
others, were dependent on them : they would,
perhaps, have turned their views upon China,
but the death of Togon put an end to their
designs. Esen, (in Chinese, Yesian Tougan,) the son
of Togon, was first minister after him. The
Mongols who obeyed him becoming every day
more powerful, Toktoboukha was not strong
enough to keep them in check. In 1449, Esen
carried away.several tribes, who attempted an in
vasion of China. The eunuch, Vang tching,
persuaded the emperor to march in person
against the Mongols : the ministers opposed it;
but the emperor would not listen to them. When
he reached Ta tsung, near the great wall, he
wished to return to Siuan houa ; but Esen over
took him. Though the emperor had 500,000
men, he was entirely defeated : his ministers,
and his generals, all perished in this battle.
The emperor Yng tsoung (the fifth of the
dynasty of Ming) was made prisoner by the
Mongols, with one of his officers. Esen having
advanced to Peking, was beaten by Yu khian,
president of the tribunal of war. The Chinese
made great preparations for defence ; but the

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 213
gols proposed peace, and sent back Yng
tsoung to China. In 1451, Esen assassinated
Toktoboukha, and took his place : his dominion
began to the east of the country of Djourdje,
and the Ouriankai*, and extended to the west,
over the habitations of the Tchighin Mongols t,
and as far as Khamil, or Hami. AIL these
countries obeyed him. Esen, in paying tribute
to China, assumed the title of Tian ching
kakhan, that is, celestial and holy khant : in
toxicated with power, he became very arrogant.
Under the reign of the emperor King ti, in
1455, Ala attacked Esen and killed him.
Meantime, the tribe of Kalka (that is, that
of Youan ofthe Genghiz,) grew weaker. Boulai,
chief of the Tartars, having beaten Ala, raised
Markor, son of Toktobou-kha, to the supreme
power, with the title of Siao-vang tsu, or Little
King. Markor died in 1460, and the Mongols
* The Djourdje in Chinese, Tu tchin, or Tu tchy, are
the ancestors of the Mantchoos of our times ; Ouriankai
was the name of the mountainous and woody country to
wards the north of Liao toung, and of the eastern part of Pe
tchy li. — Klaproth.
f The Mongols encamped to the west of the western
extremity ofthe Kan sou, between the towns of Sou tcheou
and Cha tcheou. They have received their name from the
canton of Tchighin, where they fixed their principal encamp
ment in 1404. It seems that they were of Kochota origin. —
Klaproth. X The Chinese emperor sent him the diploma of Kakhan
of the Eluths. — Klaproth. P 3

214 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
unanimously elected Magou Kordjis in his place.
The princes of the tribe of the Tartars after
wards began to behave in a tyrannical man
ner. The order of the succession of the little
kings. is, for the most part, unknown, which is
not surprising, their genealogy being very con
fused. The Mongol sovereign, who towards the end
of the reign of Chun ti (after 1485), invaded
China, bore the title of Little King. He resided
first in the country of the Ordos, and, assisted
by the Kalkas, he grew daily more powerful.
In 1500 he again settled there : the inhabitants
of the frontiers of China never enjoyed from
that time a year's tranquillity. In 1552, he took
possession of the eastern part of Mongolia, and
gave his tribe the name of Touman. Dzenoung,
and Anda chiefs of the tribes that lived near
the northwest frontiers of China were his re
lations. They seized upon the country of the
Ordos, and made continual incursions into
China. In 1550, Anda removed his residence
to the lake Khoir nor *, invited the Chinese
deserters to settle in the town of Fung tcheou,
built another town, and, in conjunction with the
tribe of Touman, made continual invasions into
the northern and western frontiers of China.
In 1570, Anda received the title of Chinese
* In Chinese, Goei ning hai tsu.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 215
prince of Chun y vang (an obedient and just
king) ; he then forbad the other chiefs to under
take any new incursions into China. Every
year he went to Peking fo present his tribute,
and to carry on trade.
The Mongol nation was at last divided into
two parts. Botsi, one of the descendants of
the little kings, and who also assumed that title,
inhabited the country of Tchakha, now called
Tchakhar*, Tsakhar or Tchamor. Fearing the
great power of Anda, he fixed his residence at
Liaot, made an alliance with the tribe of Fou
yu tsa, and laid waste the greater part of the
country, situated to the west of Ki tcheou (in
Pe tchy li). Ryndan, the fourth khan of the
Tsakhar, declared himself Khoutouktou khan,
and gradua11^ strengthened himself. In 1615,
he made several incursions into Liao toung. In
1628, he beat the tribe of Karatchin and Taid-
zi Bain Bostou : he afterwards attacked Ta
toung, and Siuan houa fou, and, at the same
time, required an annual tribute from the Chinese
court. A great many of the eastern and
western provinces, which he oppressed, aban
doned him. The Mongols successively submit-
* This name signifies adjacent, because the Tchakhar
lived near the great wall between China and Mongolia. —
Klaproth. f Or rather the country where the Liao ho, or Sira mouren,
flows before it enters the Liao toung  Klaproth.
P 4

216 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
ted to Ven ti, emperor of the Mantchoos, who
undertook, in 1634, a campaign against the
Tsakhars. Ryndan being terrified, fled to Tibet;
but he died on the road. His son Kangor Odja,
became a Mantchoo subject : his people were
divided into banners, like the Mantchoo army.
The Mongol territories situated in the north
ern part of Gobi, took the name of Kalka,
and composed a separate province, containing
seven districts, governed by three khans. That
of the west was called Dzasaktou khan, that
of the centre Touchetou khan, and that of the
east Tsetsen khan. They received these names
from the Dalai lama. In 1634, Maha samadi
Tsetsen khan sent an embassy with rich presents
to the Mantchoo emperor Ven ti, or Thai' tsoung,
whom he asked to give him his daughter in mar
riage. Meantime the Eluths, that is to say, the
Soungarians or Kalmuks, made frequent invasions
into the eastern part of the territory of the
Kalkas. Khang hi, emperor of China, under
pretence of reconciling the Mongol tribes, took
part in their disputes, intending, as the sequel
proved, to join them to his dominion. In 1677>
Galdan, prince of the Eluths, pillaged and laid
waste the north-west countries. The two parties
which divided the Kalkas, namely, that of the
Dzasakhtou khan, and that of the khans of the
east, and of the centre, were continually at

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 217
variance. In 1689, Galdan beat the Kalkas ;
the inhabitants of the seven districts dispersed,
approached the great wall, and placed themselves
under the protection of the Mantchoos. In
the month of May, 1691, the emperor Khang
hi went to the frontiers to receive the Kalkas.
He convoked a great assembly near the Dolon
nor, that is to say, at the seven lakes, situated
to the north of Tchang kia kheou, or the Kalgan.
Each of the khans of the Kalkas made him a pre
sent of eight white horses, and a white camel,
which caused this tribute to be called, in Mongol,
yousoun tsgan, the nine whites. It was agreed
that a similar tribute should be paid every year.
From this time a new epoch begins for the
people of the Mongol race ; namely, that of
their entire subjection to the Mantchoos, who
were masters of China. The first who placed
themselves under the dynasty of the Tai thsing
were the Karatchin. After the defeat of the
Tsakhar khans, the other Mongol khans sub
mitted one after the other. The court of Peking
ordered the boundaries of the districts which
they inhabited to be fixed, and regulated the
administration of Mongolia.
As for the Kalkas, the emperor Khang hi, after
the defeat of Galdan, distributed them along the
frontiers of Russia. Having divided them into
fifty-five banners, he left the title ©f khan to only
three of their chiefs, and granted to the others

218 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
the hereditary rank of princes of different classes.
In the sequel five more divisions were formed :
Shamba reigned over a separate district under
the title of Sain Noin, which signifies in Mongol
Good Master, or Prince. In 1731 Tsyreng, who
reigned at Kouren, or Ourga, and who was son-
in-law to the emperor, was named Grand Dzassak,
in recompence for the services which he had
rendered in the war against Galdan, and received
the command of four-and-twenty banners : so
that all the Kalkas were divided into eighty-four
banners, which are on the same line as the forty-
nine ofthe southern Mongols.
The travels of several Europeans in the Mon
gol steppes, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and
fifteenth centuries, gave us the first knowledge
of these countries, of their inhabitants, and their
productions. The conquest of Siberia opened
to the Russians the road to the Altai mountains.
The repeated journies of our couriers to China
procured us, from time to time, farther inform
ation respecting Mongolia. It is a pity that
Plan Carpin, Ruysbrcek, Marco Polo, and the
Armenian Haithon, have inserted in their ac
counts of Mongolia only vague remarks. They
have written the names of mountains, rivers, &c.
in such a manner that we are obliged to guess
them. The reception which the Jesuit mission
aries met with in China, under the present
dynasty, the journies which they made into

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 219
Mongolia, by order of the emperors, the maps
and descriptions which they published, furnished
more precise information respecting the geo
graphy and statistics of the Mongol steppes,
though there are still many parts which are very
imperfectly known. Besides, the policy of the
Mantchoos extended its laws to this country, and
all foreigners were forbidden to enter them.
Russia alone, by its commercial intercourse with
Mongolia and China, has secured to its subjects
the liberty of visiting those two countries. The
journals of the Russian embassies and missions
to Peking, those ofthe merchants of Ourga and
elsewhere, have furnished several important par
ticulars respecting the topography of the Mon
gol country. Some of them are printed in Rus
sian and other languages ; but they are not so
comprehensive and accurate as might be wished,
especially because the Russians are not per
mitted to go to Peking, except by the road from
Kiakhta, which runs south-east, passing by Ourga
and Kalgan.
According to the division adopted by European
geographers, Central Asia comprehends all the
countries situated between the Caspian sea to
the west, the Eastern ocean to the east, Siberia
to the north, Afghanistan, and Tibet, and China,
to the south. This immense region is so very
different both in its nature and productions from
the other parts of Asia, that it must be con-

220 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
sidered separately. But as it has a very remark
able diversity in its soil and inhabitants, it is
proper to divide it in the following manner : —
1. The western part of Central Asia compre
hends Turkestan, with the people who inhabit
the country to the west of the Altai mountains,
as far as the Caspian sea ; such as the Kirghis,
the Kivians, the Turcomans, the Kara Kalpak,
the country of Kokand, Great Bucharia, and
the country improperly called Little Bucharia.
2. The northern part of Central Asia, that is
to say, Mongolia, which is inhabited by a great
number of tribes, and which must retain its name,
because the country of the Soungarians, its
most important part, which was formerly inha
bited by the Kalmuks or Eluths, of the same
race as the Mongols, has been long since effaced
by the Mantchoos from the maps of Mongolia.
After the conquest of eastern Turkestan in 1757>
by the emperor Kien long, and after the ex
termination of the Soungarians, these countries
were known in the Chinese geography by the
name of the new boundary, and the province of
Iii. The latter is partly inhabited by agricul
turists removed from China and eastern Turkes
tan, and serves as cantonments for the Mantchoo
soldiers, who, united to the Solons and Mongols,
under the command of a general-in-chief, form
the Chinese Army of Observation against Russia
and the Kirghis hordes.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 221
3. The eastern part of Central Asia, or the
country of the Mantchoos, which extends to the
east of Mongolia as far as the eastern ocean,
is inhabited by the Tunguse tribes.* The
Mantchoos, like the Tunguses, follow the re
ligion of Fo, and have settled residences in
towns and villages.
This division of Central Asia will, perhaps,
put an end to the custom which has been long
followed by the European historians and geo
graphers, of using the names of Tartars, and of in
dependent, great, Chinese Tartary ; names which
are always repeated by the most celebrated
authors, in describing this part ofthe old world.
Mongolia is situated between the 70th and
120th degree of east longitude from Paris, and
between the 35th and 50th degree of north la
titude. This determination, however, cannot
be very precise, because the frontiers of Mon
golia, particularly the south, have been extended
or contracted according to the success of the
armies of the people who inhabit it. This part
of the frontiers is considerably inclined to the
south, near the western frontier of China, at
* Mr. Timkowski justly observes, that we find many
words in the Tungusian dialect which resemble the Mongol.
Though the basis of these two languages is considerably
different, the Mongol and Mantchoo are very often mixed ;
and many expressions are found in both, the origin of which
it would be difficult to determine with precision. — Klap
roth.

222 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
the 'part where the Koukou nor (blue lake) is
situated, in the country formerly called Tan-
gout* * Mr. Timkowski says that the Mongols entered China
by the way of Tangout, because they could not pass the
great wall: this is a mistake. In 1211, Genghiz khan
entered China for the first time by Siuan houa fou, passing
by the great wall. Two years after, not being able to force
the passage of Kou pe kheou, he entered by way of Chan si,
in Pe tchy li. He took several towns in that province, and
quitted China by Kou pe kheou, which he had taken in
coming from the south. In 1214, the Mongols advanced
even into Shantung. Such invasions were frequently re
peated. When Genghiz khan returned, in 1225, from his
expedition against the western countries, he went first to the
banks of the Tola. It was there that he prepared the
invasion ofthe kingdom of Hia, which comprehended only the
most eastern part of Tangout. The following year he took
the town of Yetsina, situated on the river ofthe same name,
to the north of Sou tcheou, and beyond the great wall. He
afterwards made himself master of the towns of Ning hia,
Kia yu kouan, Kan tcheou, Sou tcheou, Ngan tcheou, and
Si liang fou, all situated within the wall, and in the present
province of Kan sou. Towards the end of the same year
he also occupied Ling tcheou, to the south of Ning hia, and
on the right bank Ot' the Houang ho. Lastly, in 1227, he
entirely destroyed the kingdom of Hia. It appears, there
fore, that the Mongols did not enter China by the countries
of the Koukou nor.
Genghiz khan on his death-bed advised his people to make
themselves masters of the defile and the fort of Thoung
kouan, on the frontiers of Chensi and Houan, a little below
the point where the Houang ho changes its direction to the
south and turns towards the east. It is by this defile that
the great road passes which leads from Chensi to Southern
China. — Klaproth.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 223
The Mongols are at present divided into
aimaks, or tribes. A. Towards the north.
1. The Kalkas. B. Towards the west.
2. Bargou Bouriats ; 3. Arou Kortchin ; 4.
Korlos ; 5. Durbot ; 6. Djalit ; 7. Barin ; 8.
Djarot; 9. Oniot ; 10. Naiman ; 11, Aokhan.
C, In the Centre Steppes,
12. Oudzemertchi ; 13, Abaganar ; 14. Ko-
tchit ; 15. Abga; 16. Kechikten ; 17. Sounites ;
18. Durban Keouket.
D. To the south, near China.
19- Toumet, between Liao toung at Tchy li ;
20. Karatchin ; 21. Taskhar ; 22. Mo-mingan ;
23. Orat (the half of the lands of this horde
serve as pasturages for the emperor's flocks) ;
24. the tribe of Toumet, ofthe town. of Koukou
khoto, called in Chinese, Koui houa tching;
25. Ordos (at the northern bend of the Houang
ho) ; and 26. the Mongols of the lake of Koukou
nor, in Chinese, Thsing hai.
1. Kalka.
The tribe of the Kalkas is the most important
for the extent of the steppes which it occupies,

224 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
its numbers, and its vicinity to Siberia. Half
of the road from Kiakhta to Peking, passing
through the country of the Kalkas, I was able,
by the information furnished me by the inha
bitants, to describe it with tolerable accuracy.
The following details are taken from the Chinese
geography, and translated into the Russian by
Father Hyacinth Pitchouiev, chief of our Mis
sion : —this translation is still in manuscript : —
The principality of the Kalkas is bounded on
the north by the governments Irkutsk, Ieniseisk,
Tomsk, and Tobolsk, in Siberia. Towards the
west, it extends to Eastern. Turkestan, and the
country of Hi, where it is bounded by Mount
Bogda, and the river Balkhach, into which the
river Hi falls. To the south, the Kalkas join
the districts inhabited by the Sounites, and other
nomade tribes of Central Mongolia. Towards
the east, it extends to the countries ofthe Bargou
Bouriat, and of the Mantchoos. This country
is five thousand li in extent from east to west, and
three thousand from north to south.* It is di
vided into four lou, or provinces.
1. The middle province has twenty banners,
or divisions. The inhabited parts are the two
banks of the Tola ; towards the east, as far as
the Kente mountains, which form the boundary
possessions of the Tsetsen khan ; to the west, .
* Two hundred to a degree.

• HISTORICAL ESSAY. 225
as far as the Onghin, a river near the territory
of Sain noin ; to the south, as far asGobi, which
joins the country of the Sounites ; and to the
north, as far as the Russian frontier. The
princes of this province are the Touchetou
khan, who occupies the heights near the Selenga,
a tsin vang, two kiun vang, two beisse, six
koungs, and eight dzasaks, who have the rank
of taidzi of the first class.
2. The eastern province has one-and-twenty
banners. The principal chief is the Tsetsen khan,
who encamps with his banner at the foot of
mount Oundour-daba on the Keroulun. In
1688, when this khan submitted to China, he had
about one hundred thousand subjects, and com
mands the twenty other banners. The other chiefs
of this province are, a tsin vang, a kiun vang,' a
beile, two beisse, a koung of the first, two
koungs of the second, three koungs of the third
class, besides twelve dzasaks.
3. The western province has nineteen ban
ners. Its khan bears the title of Dzassaktou khan,
who inhabits with his banner the southern side
of the Kangai mountains, and commands the
eighteen other banners. There are, besides, a
beile, two koungs of the first, and six Ofthe
' second class, and nine taidzi of the first class.
4. The government of Sain noin has four-and-
twenty banners ? having two tsin vangs, (the
first commands twenty-three banners, the second
vol. 11. Q

226

HISTORICAL ESSAY.

bears the title of Sain noin,) two kiun vangs,
two beile, a koung of the first, five of the second
class, and ten dzasak-taidzi. This government
forms the western part of Kalka, next the
heights of the Selenga, which extends towards
Hi.
Mountains.
In 744 B.C. Fi lo, chief of Hoei khe*,
placed his camp between Mount Ou te kian
and the Kuen ho, 1700 li to the north of the
frontier of China, which then passed to the
north of tbe country of the Ordos. The Kuen
ho is the Orchon. The mountains of Ou te
kian must be near the western part of the Kangai
mountains ; they are also called Tou yu kian.
Bourkhan oola, (or the Divine mountain,) in
which the Onon has its source. Mount Ti li ven
Phou tha (Dourben Pouta) is situated on the
Onon : it is near this mountain that Genghiz
khan was born. Tono ola, (ola signifies, in
Mongol, a high mountain,) on the right bank of
the Keroulun. The emperor Kang hi stopped
there in June, 1696, during his campaign
against Galdan, prince of the Soungarians,
* From this place to the end of the geographical de
scription of Mongolia, I have been obliged to make a new
translation from the Chinese manuscript, because that of
Father Hyacinth, as Mr. Timkowski gives it, is very incor
rect ; the orthography of the proper names being very
erroneous. — Klaproth,

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 227
and caused the following inscription in Chinese
verse to be carved in the rock : —
" How immense is the desert of Gobi ; how
broad and deep is the Keroulun! It is here
that six corps of my army, under my command,
displayed their courage. Like the thunderbolt,
they destroyed every thing ! The sun, and the
moon, beheld them with terror. The enemy
fled before them, and the surrounding deserts
have recovered the tranquillity of peace."
The Khingan : this great chain of mountains
stretches along the right bank ofthe Onon, and
to the east of the little mountains of Kente, it
extends to the source of the Amour ; to the
south, it joins the frontiers of Kalka; and to
the north, those of Russia. The Kente ola is
to the south of the heights of the Onon : two
small rivers, which afterwards form the Ke
roulun, have their sources in the south-east of
these mountains. To the west, rise the moun
tains of Dziloung daba, and Terelkdzi (daba in
Mongol indicates a mountain, the summit of
which may be crossed). The Baga Kente, or
Little Kente, is near Ourga, and joins mount
Terelkdzi, where the Tola has its source. The
Tsoukou (Tchikoi), which enters the Russian
frontier, issues from the north side of the Baga
Kente. Mount Kirsa is to the east of the
sources of the Tola: this chain commences at
the northern extremity of the Khingan, follows
o 2

228 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
the Tola towards the north, and turning, forms
the mountains of Terelkdzi.
Khan-ola, to the north of the Khingan, on
the left bank of the Tola. The Koul, a small
river which issues from it, flows to the north,
and falls into the Tola. About thirty li to the
south-east is . the woody district called Djao
modo. In the month of June, 1696, the em
peror Khanghi defeated in this place the army
of the Soungarians, and to hand down the me
mory of this victory to posterity, he caused the
following inscription to be cut in the rock : —
" Heaven has lent us its powerful aid to subdue
our enemies, and to destroy the wicked. These
wild beasts (the Soungarians), weakened by re
sistance, fled to the west : Heaven seconded
our efforts : they soon fell under the sword of
my troops : at the first beat of the drum their
tents, planted in the wilderness, were aban
doned. I have caused to be engraved on these
rocks the account of the great deeds of the
victorious army."
The Doulan khara, to the south-west of the
Khan ola, opposite to the Tola, approaches, on
the south, to the great desert of Gobi, and on the
north, to the Tola. The Khadamal is on the
north side of the little river Khara oussou : its
north side approaches the Russian frontier, and
forms the northern limit of the Kalkas. The
Kaliar is between the Khara oussou and the

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 229
Orchon. These mountains join the Djamour
ola, which lies on the north bank of the Tola,
at the place where it falls into the Orchon. The
chain following the course of the Tola inclines
to the north : towards the east, it extends to the
Selbi daba, and forms a semicircle some hun
dred li in extent. The Bouroung is between
the Orchon and the Selenga : this mountain ex
tends some hundred li from east to west. The
Bongoun Shara extends above two hundred li
to the west of the Bouroung. Farther to the
north are the mountains Sirkegoung and Erk-
hetou, between the Selenga and the Orchon.
The Khantai chain, to the north of the Se
lenga, extends northwards beyond the Russian
frontiers. The Koukou tsilotou is on the south
bank of the Orchon : following the course of
that river, it inclines towards the east. One
hundred li from it, to the east, there are warm
springs. The Sirkha adzirgan (in Mongol, ad-
zirgan signifies a stallion,) is to the east of the
source of the Orchon. At the western foot of
this mountain stands the temple of Erdeni dzao.
The Kanghi kamar is to the south of the Sirkha
adzirgan : the Orchon flows on the north side
of this chain, and the Onghin mouren rises on
the south. The Django, to the north of the
source ofthe Orchon, is separated by that river
from the Sirka adzirgan, and forms the eastern
part of the Khangai mountains. o. 3

230

HISTORICAL ESSAY.

The chain of the latter is to the north of the
sources of the Orchon, and five hundred li to
the north-west of the Onghin moureu. This
chain is higher than any of those in the vicinity :
it begins to the north-west of the Altai, crosses
the Orchon and the Tola, and forms the great
mountains of Khingan and Kente. To the
west of the Koukou ola the chain turns to the
north, surrounds all the sources of the Selenga,
and approaches the Russian frontiers. The
Orchon and the Tamir rise in these moun
tains : they seem to be the same which, in an
cient Chinese writers, are called the Yan jan
shan. The Bain dzoroukhe is to the east of the
source of the Orchon : farther to the north-east
is mount Saikhan ola ; and still farther to the
east, the Eroukhetai koubsoul, at the termination
of the course of the river Kassoui, and on its
north bank. Mount Oundour is to the west of
the Koubsoul ; the Naiman ola on the north
bank of the Selenga ; the Kaldzan bourgouttai
to the west of the Naiman ola ; the Ertsit to the
west of the Kaldzan bourgouttai, and to the
south of the banks of the Kharatal ; the Koi-
boldok on an island in lake Kosogol ; the Oul-
betchi to the east of lake Sanghin dalai.
Farther to the south extend the Ouiiou ouga
mountains. The Altai ola, formerly called, in Chinese,
Kin schan, or Gold mountain, is to the north.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 231
west of the course of the river Tess, and ex
tends at least two thousand li (six hundred and
seventy miles). Its summits rise above the
clouds, and the snow which covers them does
not melt even in the summer : they are con
sidered as the principal chain from which all the
mountains of north-western Mongolia spring.
Their main point is to the north-west of lake
Oubsa : they rise in stages one above another,
and divide into four branches : one begins at
the sources of the Ertsis or Irtysch, and runs
northwards to the Russian frontier by the name
of the Altai mountain : that which runs north
east follows the course ofthe Tess on the'north
side for about a thousand li, and forms to the
east the chain of the Tangnou mountains. This
chain meets farther to the north-east, the
north side of the Kangai, and extends to the
north as far as the Selenga. About a hundred
li to the south of that river begins the third
branch, which runs to the east, by the name of
the Oulan goum mountains, and borders on the
north side lake Kirghiz nor. Further to the
south-east it forms the Kokei mountains, and
then those of Anghi. The Kounghei rises from
the south, and the Oukhai from the north side
of these latter mountains. The same branch of
the Altai forms, farther to the north, the Malga
mountains, from the south side of which issues
the river Bourgassoutai : lastly, towards the
ft 4

2S2 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
north-east, it approaches the south side of the
Kangai, and borders the rivers Kassoui andTamir.
The southern branch extends, almost without
interruption, describing various sinuosities. From
its western side flow the Narym, the Kouitsil,
the Kaliotou, the Akar, the Bordzi, tbe Khaba,
the Khira, the Khara-Ertsis, and the Ertsis.
This branch turns to the east ; the Bouiantou
flows from its northern side ; the Tsinghil and
the Boulagan from the south side. Farther to
the east it terminates the Altai chain, but ex
tends in several small branches as far as the
great desert of Gobi, where it forms, on the
south-east, the mountains of Gourban Saikham ;
to the south, those of Nomokhon ola, and to
the east, those of Oubourgoun ola, &c. The
Tarbaktai ola extends about 600 li to the west of
the Narym, the Kouitsil, and the Kaliotou.
The Birga daba, to the south-east of the source
of the Keroulun, is a branch of the Kente
mountains : from its left side issues the Birga
gol, which empties itself into the Onon, The
Tsiloung daba is to the west of the Kante : from
its left issues the Tsiloung, a small river which
falls into the Keroulun. Mount Tereldzi is to
the west of the Tsiloung : the Tereldzi rises in
it, and falls into the Keroulun. Mount Galatai
to the south of the Tereldzi ; the Adakhai to the
north ofthe Tola; the Selbi daba to the south-west
of the Adakhai ; the Oukher daba (Oukher, in

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 233
Mongol, an ox,) to the north-west of the Khan-
gai ; the little river Oukher forms the Toui ;
the Koukou ola is to the west of the Oukher :
from its left side issues the Tamir, and from its
right the Baitarik : the Tsagan tsilo, 800 li to
the north of Kalgan, is near to the line of posts
on the frontier. These mountains extend about
200 li from east to west. When the emperor
Kanghi passed through this country, in his
campaign against Galdan, he caused a stone
monument to be erected, with the following in
scription : —
" All that is covered by the azure vault of
heaven is peopled by my children. I re-establish
peace through the whole extent of my dominions :
I crush the serpents and reptiles. The genii who
preside over the lakes, the mountains, the rich
pasture, and the sweet fountains, second my en-
terprizes. This stone will transmit the memory
of them to posterity."
To the north of mount Tono and the desert
extends a vast steppe, abounding in pasture, and
well watered. It is the chief abode of the Kal
kas, and extends five thousand li from east to
west. Rivers.
The Keroulun, formerly called by the Chinese
Lou khiu ho, rises on the south side ofthe chain
of Kente, two hundred li to the north of the

234 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
country of the Ordos : it receives five small
rivers, runs 200 li farther north, and turns to
wards the south-east ; passes for a hundred li,
through a cleft of the Bain ola, and receives the
Sungher; and, at the distance of another 100
li, having run to the south of mount Tono, it
turns towards the north-east, and 200 li farther
on receives the Tereldzi, which comes from
the south-east. Having flowed 800 li farther,
inclining a little towards the east, it runs
with many windings for 100 li between two
mountains, and then 200 li to the north-east,
till it falls into lake Koulun or Dalai nor.
When it issues from the lake, it forms the
boundary between the Solones and the Rus
sians, where it receives from the inhabitants the
name of the Ergoune (Argoun) ; and after a
course of 800 li farther to the north-east, empties
itself into the Amour. To the south of the
Keroulun lies the great desert of Gobi, desti
tute of pasturage and water. In the 10th and
11th centuries this river formed the boundary
between the kingdom of Liao and the Mongols.
At the beginning of the 15th century, when
the Oirads attacked Bouniashiri khan, a de
scendant ofthe Youan, the latter, not to submit
to the Ming, removed his encampment to the
banks of the Keroulun.
In 1409, Khieou fou, a Chinese general who
was sent against him, was defeated near this

HISTORICAL ESSAY. Q35
river, and perished with his whole army ; and the
following year the emperor marched against
Bouniashiri, and pitched his camp on the Kerou
lun, to which he gave the name of the Yu ma
ho (river for watering the horses).
When the emperor Kang hi, in 1696, march
ed against Galdan, he stopped on the banks of
this river, thinking that the enemy would dis
pute the passage ; but the Soungarians, being
surprised by the arrival of the Chinese, fled to
wards the west. Kang hi exclaimed : " I was
told that Galdan was an able warrior, and that
nothing could resist him ; but he proves his ig
norance by not attempting to maintain his
ground on the Keroulun." The emperor then
ascended the river as far as mount Tono, where
he pitched his camp. The great army of the
west defeated the enemy about this time, and
then the emperor returned to China.
The Onon, which afterwards takes the name
of the Amour, was formerly called in Chinese
the Oua nan ho : it rises 200 li to the north
west of the Keroulun in mount Tereldzi, which
is a branch of the Kente chain. It flows to the
eastward, to the north of the same chain, and to
the south of the great Khingan. It flows 500
li farther, receives eight small rivers, and having
joined the Korsou gol, which comes from the
south, it turns to the north-east : above 1000
li further it passes to the south of the town of

236

HISTORICAL ESSAY.

Nertchinsk. In the interval it receives above ten
small rivers running from the north-west ; such
as the Agatchou, the Tarbakhatai, the Toulou-
dai, the Tarbaldzi, &c. and several others which
come from the south : 300 li farther, it reaches
the stone which marks the frontier. To the
south ofthe source of this river flows the Kerou
lun, and to the west the Tola. Genghiz khan,
the founder of the dynasty of the Yuan, was
born in these parts. It was near this river that
the emperor of China defeated, in 1410, as we
have mentioned above, Bouniashiri khan, a de
scendant of that conqueror.
A hundred li to the north-west of the source
ofthe Onon, the Tola is formed by two springs
which issue from the Tereldzi mountains and
the little Kente. This river runs 200 li to the
south-west, and receives several smaller streams.
After leaving the north of the wood district of
Djao modo, it flows westwards for 100 li, then
passes by the Khan ola, opposite to which it
bathes the town of Ourga or Kouren (the camp),
asrain runs for 100 li to the south, then for
above 300 li to the north-west, receives the Ka-
rotka gol (gol, in Mongol, a river), and falls at
length, a hundred and fifty li farther, into the
Orchon. It was near the Tola, that, in 1407,
Li ouen tchoung, a Chinese general, arriving
suddenly from the Keroulun, with his light
cavalry, defeated Mangdzu khara djang, general

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 237
of the Yuan. In 1414, the Oirads were com
pletely beaten there by the emperor in person.
The district of Djao modo or Dzao modo is
to the south of the Tola : it is surrounded on
three sides by mountains, and on the north side
by a river : to the west is the Khingan, and to
the east the Khan ola. In 1696, Galdan was
here completely defeated by the Chinese army.
The Orchon, called by ancient Chinese authors,
the A lou hoen, has two sources, one to the
south of the Khangai, the other, the Ouliastai,
issues from the mountain Oldzietou doulan khara
ola. These two rivulets, after flowing 100 li to the
south-east, unite and form a river, which runs
100 li eastwards in the mountains ; then 200 li
to the north-east, and passes to the west of the
temple of Erdeni djao. After leaving the moun
tains, and running 150 li farther, it turns to
the north-west, joins the Djirmatai, and the
Tamir, which come from the west, and then
goes straight to the north.
A hundred li farther on, the Orchon turns and
flows 100 li to the north-east, and receives
a warm spring which comes from the south;
and 300 li farther, is joined by the Tola,
from the south-west. Having passed the west
side of mount Kaliar, it is joined by the
Khara, from the south-east: 100 li from this
place it turns to the north-west, and falls into
the Selenga. The Orchon is larger than the

238 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
Tola, but less considerable than the Selenga, like
which it has a very sinuous course between the
mountains. Its current is rapid, and its water very
clear, and abounding in fish ; and the banks are
thickly covered with willows and elms. To the
north of its junction with the Selenga is the
frontier of Russia, and to the south, the territory
of the Touchetou khan of the Kalkas. The
Chinese general Li ouen tchoung, after defeating
Mangdzu Khara djang near the Tola, pursued
him to these parts.
The Khara gol rises to the north of the Tola,
in mount Selbi, and has the name of the Koui-
gol. It runs to the north, receives on the west
the Narin and the Bourgoudtai, and on the east
the Adakhai, the Soungnar, and the Toungla.
A hundred and fifty li farther it turns to the
north-west, receives afterwards, on the left, the
Boro and theDjakdour, runs direct to the north,
and falls into the Orchon.
The Onghin rises near the source of the
Orchon, runs south-east, through a level country,
and after a course of 7,00 li falls into the lake
of Kouragan oulen nor. This little lake is 800
li north-west of the country of Ordos.
The Tamir has two arms : the western rises
to the west of the source of the Orchon, and to
the north of the Khangai ; the other to the east
of this mountain, and to the north of mount
Koukou daba ; and these two arms are above two

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 239
hundred li from each other. They run north
west, receive several little rivers, and, after a
course of 200 li, join in a river, which, 100 li
farther, falls into the Orchon.
The Selenga issues from the mountains to the
north-west of the Khangai : it has properly six
sources. The northern, the Kharatal, and the
Bouktsoui, run to the south-east ; the southern,
viz. the Eder, Tislotou, Ouliatai, and Adzirak, to
the north-east. After a course of about 300 li,
they all join in one river, which, after running
200 li to the east, receives the Khassoui from the
south-east; 200 li to the north-east, the Ekhe from
the north-west ; and 400 li farther to the north
east, the Orchon from the south-west. Its course
is then to the north-east, to the Russian frontier.
From the west it receives the Djede, from the
east the Tchoukou, the Oude, &c. ; and after
a course of 1000 li to the north it falls into lake
Baikal, from which it issues, under the name of
Angara, and empties itself into the Northern
Ocean. The Ekhe issues from lake Kosogol or Khous-
sougol, to the north-west of the mountains, runs
above 700 li to the south-east, and falls into the
Selenga. It receives on both sides a great number
of small rivers. The Khassoui issues from the
mountains to the north of the Tamir, runs 500
li to the south-east, and falls into the Selenga.

240 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
The Toui gol (Touin gol) rises fo the south of
the Khangai, runs above 300 li to the south, and
falls into lake Orok.
The Baitarik rises to the south of mount
Koukou daba. After a course of above 200 li
to the south, it traverses the district of Kouren
Beltshir, and joins the Tchak Baitarik. One
hundred li further it receives, on the right, the
Tsagan temour, and after running 200 li farther,
falls into lake Tchagan nor.
The Djabgan issues from the mountains to the
north-west of Kouren Beltshir, runs more than
200 li to the south-west, and receives, on the
right, the Bourgassoutai, and 200 li farther the
Kounghei. After turning to the north-west, it
receives the Khobdou, after the latter has been
joined by the Bouyantou, and 100 li farther falls
into the Kirghiz nor (lake of the . Kirghiz).
Here is the western frontier ofthe country ofthe
Kalkas. The Tess comes from the south side of the
Tangnou mountains, runs to the south-west,
receives several small streams, approaches on the
south-west the Altai mountains, and falls into
lake Oubra. The Sakli khara gol falls into the
same lake on the south-west side.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 241

1, Lakes.

The Koukou nor (different from the great
lake of the same name in Tangout). Near its
banks Ginghiz was elected khan by the assem
bled Mongols. The position of this lake is now
unknown. The Bouir nor is 1200 li to the west
of Tsitsigar. The Koloun nor, or Dalai, is 1170
li to the west of the same town. This great
lake is 600 li in circumference : it is formed by
the waters of the Keroulun, which comes from
the south-west. Under the Thang, this lake
was called, by the Chinese, Kiu lun, and under
the dynasty of the Ming, Ko liuan. The Kos-
sogol, above 600 li to the north of the Selenga,
is 100 li in circumference. In the middle of it
is the island of Koui boldok. The Ekhe issues
from it on the south-west. The Sanghin dalai
is to the west of the sources of the Selenga, and
of mount Orbeghi : it is above 100 li in circum
ference, and has no outlet. The Ouldjeitou
tsagan nor is to the south-east of the Sanghin
dalai. To the north-east it gives rise to the
Tcholotor, which falls into the Selenga. The
Orok is to the south-east of the Kouen beltshir :
the Toui gol falls into it on the north. The
Kirghiz nor, to the south-east of mount Oulan
goum, is 340 li in circumference : it receives the
Djabgan. There is also a lake Ikhe aral nor to
VOL. II. R

242 HISTORICAL "ESSAY.
the south-west of the preceding. The river
Kobdou falls into it from the west, and the
Bouyantou from the south. The Oubsa nor, to
the south-east of the Altai mountains, is formed
by the Tess, which enters it on the north-east,
and by the Sakli Khara from the south-west.
On the south bank of the Orchon there are
warm springs.
2. Bargout Bouriat.
The Mongols of this tribe inhabit the country
of the Solones, on the right bank of the Amour
(Argoun), between the eastern frontier of the
Kalkas and the western frontier of the country
ofthe Mantchoos.
3. Aro (the Northern) Khortchin.*
This tribe composes only a single banner or
division. It encamps 1100 li to the north of
Kou pe kheou, one of the gates of the great wall.
The country which it occupies is 130 li from
east to west, and 420 from north to south. It
is bounded on the east by the Djarot, on the
west by the Barin, on the south by the left
banner of the Kalkas, and on the north by
Oudjoumoutchin. It is 1340 li from the chief
encampment of this tribe to Peking.
The Kiun vang of Aro khortchin dwells to
* Khoro, in Mongol, signifies poison.

historical essay. 243
the east of mount Kountou, which is 1100 li
from Kou pe kheou.
The Shara mouren, or Sira mouren (yellow
river), which runs 200 li to the south of the
principal encampment, comes from the province
of Barin, and enters the territory ofthe Djarot.
4. Khorlos. *
They occupy the country formerly inhabited
by the tribe of Khitan. This tribe is divided
into two banners, which belong to the left wing
of the Khortchin. It is encamped 1487 h" to the
north-east of Hi fung kheou, a gate of the great
wall : its territory is 450 li from east to west,
and 660 li from north to south : it joins on the
east the territory of Young ky tcheou, on the west
and north that of Khortchin ; and on the south
that, of Liao toung. It is 1799 li from Pe
king. The front banner occupies the environs of
the Gourban tsagan, 1487 li north-east of Hi
fung kheou, and the rear division the environs
of mount Tchin tsu ling, 1570 li from Hi fung
kheou. The principal river is the Ghirin, which,
coming from the north-west, from Young ky
tcheou, enters the territory of the Khorlos, runs
north-east, through the dwelling-place of the
* Khorloho, in Mongol, signifies frontier of evil.
R 2

244 historical essay.
rear division, and falls into the Amour. Lake
Dabousoutai produces salt.
5. DURBET.
The name of this tribe signifies four in
Mongol : it consists of only one banner, which
belongs to the right wing of the Khortchin:
its chiefs inhabit the heights of Dokdor, 1646 li
north-east of Hi fung kheou. The country ofthe
Durbet is 170 li from east to west, and 240 li from
north to south. From the camp of their chiefs
to the frontier of the military government of the
Amour is 140 li to the east, and westward to that
of the Tchalit 30 li ; southwards, to the con
fines of the Khorlos, 140 li ; and northwards, to
the frontier of the Solones, 100 li. It is 2050 li
to Peking from the abode of the prince who go
verns this district.
The river Non, which comes from the north,
out of the government of the Amour, forms on
the west the boundary between this tribe and
the following. 6. Tchalit.
This tribe forms one banner, belonging to the
right wing of the Khortchin: it encamps on
mount Toubesin tsagan, above 1600 li to the
north-west of Hi fung kheou : its territory is
60 li from east to west, and 400 li from north to

historical essay. 245
south : it is 35 li eastwards to the frontier of
Durbet, 25 westwards to that of Khorlos, 150
southwards also to that of Khorlos, and 350
northwards to that of the Solones, and 2010 li
to Peking.
The country of the Tchalit is watered by the
Non mouren, which comes from the government
of the Amour, and enters the frontier of the
Khorlos. The Tchol, coming from the north
west from the chain of Khingan, also passes
through it. After a course of 500 li to the
south, it divides into several arms, makes a bend
to the south-east, and falls into the Non mouren.
7. Barin, or Bagarin.
Two banners, the limits of which are not
determined. The encampment of the right
wing is near mount Tobun ola, 7^0 li north
east of Kou pe kheou. The left wing is en
camped about the hill of Atchatou tologai, 60 li,
and farther to the north-east. The territory of
this tribe is 251 li from east to west, and 253 li
from north to south. It is bounded on the east
by Aro khortchin, on the west by Keshikten, on
the south by the Oniout, and on the north by
the Oudjoumoutchin. The distance to Peking
960 li.
Mount Bardan is remarkable for having been
the birth-place of Pouthou, one of the ancestors
of the dynasty of Liao. He is buried in these
r 3

246 historical essay.
parts. Two hundred li to the south-east of
Khing tcheou, the Khara mouren issues from
the chain of the Koirkhan mountains, runs to
the south-west, then to the south-east, joins
the Bourgoultai oussou, and falls into the Shara
mouren. The ancient city of Ling houan tching, or
Chang king, formerly the residence of the em
perors of the dynasty of Liao, was probably on
the right bank of the Tchono oussou, opposite
the little town of Boro khoto, now in ruins.
The dynasty of Liao originated there about
the end of the tenth century. The capital and
a magnificent palace were built at the same time.
Twenty-five cities, of which even the ruins are
not now to be seen, were dependent on the
capital. Tsou tcheou was to the north of the
banner. The first emperor of the house of
Liao was born here, and often took the diversion
of the chase in the autumn, which gave occasion
to the foundation of the city of Tsou tcheou, a
name which signifies " City ofthe Ancestors."
The sepulchre of Thai tsoung, hewn in an
enormous rock, was at the distance of five li
from" the city. Near it a stone was erected, with
an inscription alluding to his hunting excursions.
Twenty li to the west was the tomb of the em
peror Ching tsou, of the dynasty of Liao.

historical essay. 247
8. Djarot, or Dzaragout.*
This tribe consists of two banners, and its
chief encampment is 1100 li to the north-east of
Hi fung kheou : it extends 125 li from east to
west, and 460 from north to south. To the
north, east, and west it joins the frontier of the
Aro khortchin, and to the south that of the
Kharatchin and the Kalkas. It is 1570 li to
the capital.
The left wing is to the north of mount Tchi-
tchiring khoua Tologoi, 1100 li tothe north-east
of Hi fung kheou: the right wing is to the
south of mount Tour, 1000 li from the same
passage through the great wall.
The Shara- (or Sira-) mouren flows through the
territory of this tribe ; and the little rivers, called
the north and the south Khoundoulun, rise in it.
There are two lakes, the great and the little
Djagasoutai ; the valley of Khailasoutai, and
the beautiful forest of Atani khara modo (forest
of pines in the plain), which is very thick, and
extends above 20 li : a temple of Boudha, built
in 1673, is 90 li to the north of the left wing.
9. Oniout.
They form two banners, 500 li north-east of
Kou pe kheou. This tribe extends 100 li from
* This word signifies, in Mongol, sixty.
R 4

248 historical essay.
east to west, and 160 li from north to south. To
the east and south it joins the frontiers of Khara-
tchin and Aokhan ; on the west those of Jeho ;
on the north those of Barin and Kechikten.
The distance from Peking is 76O li.
The right wing encamps at Indzyr khogo-
tchit, 520 li north-east of Khou pe kheou, and
the left wing 680 li.
Among a great number of rivers, the principal
are the Lokha, which runs 100 li towards the
south-east of the left wing : it comes from
Aokhan, and, running to the north-east, joins the
Khourdoulon ; and the Inghin, 150 li to the
north-west of the right wing, rises in the moun
tain of Hia ma ling : after having run to the
south-east, it receives the Tchang ho, and falls
farther to the east into the Lokha.
10. Naiman. *
It consists of only one banner, encamped 700
li north-east of Hi fung kheou : its territory is
95 li from east to west, and 220 from north to
south. It is bounded on the east by the left
wing ofthe Kalkas ; on the west by the Aokhan ;
on the south by the Toumel ; and on the north by
the Oniout: the distance to Peking is 1110 li.
Among the rivers in this province, we notice
the Tourghen, (in Chinese, Thou ho,) which
comes from mount Taboun tologai, and the
Lokha.
* Naiman signifies seven in Mongol.

historical essay. 249
11. Aokhan.*
One banner, the encampment of which is at
mount Gourban tourga ola, 600 li north-west of
Hi fung kheou. This country is 160 li from east
to west, and 280 from north to south. It is
bounded on the east by the Naiman; on the
west by the Karatchin ; on the south by the
Toumet, and on the north by the Oniout : it is
1100 li to Peking from the principal encamp
ment. 12. OUDZEMERTCHI, OR OuDJOUMOUTCHIN.
This tribe forms two banners. Their territory
extends 360 li from east to west, and 425 from
north to south. It is bounded on the east by the
Solones ; on the west by the Khaotchit ; on the
south by the Barin, and on the north by Gobi.
It is 1163 li from the principal encampment to
Peking. The right wing is at mount Bakesour khatai,
923 li north-east of Kou pe kheou ; and the left
wing near Kouisoun tologai, 1160 li north-east
ofthe same barrier of the great wall.
The river Khoulougour, (in Chinese, Thu ho,)
comes from the country of the Kechikten, and
bears, for 300 li, the name of Alatou ; it after
wards takes that of Khouloungour, runs to the
north, and is lost in the sands. The Sharakho-
* Aokhan signifies, in Mongol, the first-born.

250 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
loi, 70 li north ofthe left wing, after a course of
above 40 li, is also lost in the sands. Lake
Gourban nor, 33 li south-west of the left wing,
produces salt.
13. Abkhanar, or Abaganar.
This tribe is of two banners ; the principal of
which is 640 li north-east of the barrier of
Tchang kia kheou, or Kalgan. This country is
180 li from east to west, and 360 from north to
south. It is bounded on the east by the Khao-
tchit ; on the west by the Abga ; on the south by
the Tsakhars of the blue banner ; and on the
north by the great desert. The distance to
Peking is 1500 li.
Under the dynasty of the Yuan, this and the
adjacent countries made part of a Chinese pro
vince ; but under the dynasty of the Ming it
was conquered by the Mongols : it then received
the name of Abkhanar*, and was under the
dominion of the Tstctzen, khan ofthe Kalkas.
About 1640 this tribe submitted to the Mant
choos : it is divided into two banners, under
two beile, or princes, one commanding the right,
the other the left wing. The tribute ofthe right
wing is taken to Peking, by way of Kalgan ; and
that of the left wing by way of Tou chy kheou.
The right wing is about mount Tchangtou, (in
Chinese, Young ngan chan,) 640 li north-east of
* Abkhanar, in Mongol, signifies grandfather.

historical essay. 251
Kalgan : it is 60 li from east to west, and 310
from north to south. The left wing is, at mount
Ourkhou tologai, 582 li north-east of Tou chy
kheou : it extends 110 li from east to west, and
318 from north to south.
14. Khaotchit, or Khagotchit.
This tribe, the name of which signifies in
Mongol old, is divided into two banners, and is
685 li to the north-east of Tou chy kheou. From
east to west its territory extends 170 li ; and from
north to south 375. It is bounded on the east
and north by Oudjoumoutchin ; on the west by
Abga; and on the south by Kechikten. The
distance to Peking is 1185 li.
The right wing is encamped near the well of
Tougourik, about 690 li north-east of Tou chy
kheou. From east to west it is 75 li, and 375
from north to south. The left wing is 685 north
east of Tou chy kheou : It is 95 li from east to
west, and 320 in length from north to south.
There are numerous lakes in this country.
15. Abaga.
Two banners, 590 li north-east of Kalgan.
This territory is 200 li from east to west, and
300 from north to south : it joins on the east the
frontier of the Abkhanar ; on the west that of
the Sounites ; on the south that of the Tsakhars
of the blue banner ; and on the north the great

252 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
desert. The right wing is encamped at the
spring Kobour, and the left wing about Bain
olou. The distance to Peking is 1000 li.
16. Kechikten.
One banner, which is encamped about mount
Ghirabas khada, 570 li north-east of Kou pe
kheou. It is 334 li from east to west, and 357
from north to south. It is bounded on the east
by the Oniout ; on the west by the Tsakhars of
the blue banner ; on the south by the Oniout,
and on the north by the Oudjoumoutchin.
The distance to Peking is 810 li.
The most considerable river is the Shara
mouren, one of those which form the Liao
choui : it rises in mount Borgo korkoun. After
running to the north-east, it joins several other
small rivers, and flows by the north frontiers of
the country of the Barin. Further to the east
it enters that country, passes through the south
part of Aro khortchin, and then to the north of
the Oniout. Turning to the north-east, it re
ceives the Lokha; from the south-west, flows
through the south of Djarot, and the north of
the Kalkas ; turns to the south-east, flows
through the south part of the right wing of the
Kharatchin, joins, further to the south, the
Liao choui; enters China, and empties itself
into the gulf of Liao toung.
This country contains a great many lakes;

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 253
and 190 li to the north, there are warm springs,
which give rise to the Khailasoutai. There
is also a large forest, called Darkan modo, 30 li
to the south-west of the encampment of the
princes of this tribe.
17- The Sounites.
There are two banners situated 550 li to the
north of Kalgan. This territory extends east
wards to the right wing of the Abaga ; west
wards, to that of Dourban keouket ; southwards,
to the country of the Tsakhars ; and north
wards, to the great desert Gobi. It is 960 li
distant from Peking,
Under the dynasty of Han, this country
formed the northern frontier of the principalities
of Shang kou, and of Tai. Under the younger
dynasty of Han it was inhabited by the tribes
of Ou houan, and Sian pi. Under the dynasty
of Tsin, it was occupied by the Tho pa. Under
the house of Soui, and the beginning of that of
Thang, the Thou khiu, or Turks, became mas
ters of it. The Khitan, or Liao, formed in it
the district of Fou tcheou, which was confirmed
by the dynasty of Kin, who placed it under the
jurisdiction of the province of Si kinglou.
Under the Mongols, or Yuan, it depended on
that of Hing ho lou. Under the Ming, the
Sounite Mongols, of the house of the khans of
the Tsakhars, settled in it.

254 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
In 1634, when the Tsakhars were subdued,
the prince of the Sounites submitted to the
Mantchoos. In the sequel, this tribe was di
vided into two wings, under the orders of two
Kuin vang, who send their tribute to Peking
by way of Kalgan.
The right wing is at Soumyn khada, 550 li
north of Kalgan. Its territory is 246 li from
east to west, and 280 from north to south. The
left wing encamps at mount Orintou tchabtai,
more than 170 li north of Kalgan : it is 160 li
from east to west, and from north to south SOO.
The mountains in the country of the Sounites
are, the Soumyn khada, the Kolbodzin, the
Nokhoun, the Tsagan botok, the Ouker djirouge
ola, the Dzara, the Bayan teke, the Bain
tologoi, and the Bairi ola.
The river Ourtou, in Chinese, Tchang choui,
issues from mount Khorko, runs south-east, and
crosses the frontier of the Sounites. The Nou-
keht, in Chinese, Thou yuan choui, rises in the
country of the Tsakhars of the blue banner,
crosses mount Bairi ola, and falls into lake
Khour. The lakes are the Khour, Kouloussoutai, Sha
bartai, and Khara-ossou.
18. DOTJRBAN KEOUKET.
In Chinese, Szu tsu pou lo, and in Mant
choo, Douin Djouse (the four sons). This

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 255
tribe forms one banner, and encamps at mount
Oulan erghi tologai, 550 li north-west of Kal
gan. It is 235 li from east to west, and 240
from north to south. On the east it is bounded
by the Sounites ; on the west by the Toumet of
Koukoukto khoto ; on the south by the Tsak
hars of the red banner ; on the north by the
Sounites. 19- Toumet.
This tribe, whose name signifies in Mongol
ten thousand, is composed of two banners : it
is 590 li north-east of Hi fung kheou. The
country is 490 li from east to west, and 310
from north to south. To the east it adjoins the
frontier of Yang ching mou ; towards the west
the right wing of the Kharatchin ; towards the
south, the province of Ching king or Moukden ;
and towards the north the right wings of the
Kharatchin and the Aokhan. The distance to
Peking is 1000 li.
The left wing is at mount Khaitakha, above
820 li north-east of Hi fung kheou ; the right
wing at mount Bayan khoua, above 590 li from
the same barrier.
Thirty li to the west of the left wing is mount
Gourban Soubourgan ola. On its summit, are
three pyramids erected in the times of the Liao
and the Kin ; and in the vicinity are the ruins
of the ancient city of Hing tchoung. On the

256% HISTORICAL ESSAY.
same side is the lofty Mokhoui boro ola, in
Chinese, Thsing che chan, 48 li north-east of
the left wing. The river Oussin rises above 290
li to the south-west in mount Obotou tsagan ola :
it runs to the south, and entering the district of
Kin pian, turns to the south-east, and falls into
the Siao ling ho.
20. Kharatchin, or Kartsin.
Three banners. Their country is 450 li from
north to south, and 500 from east to west. On
the east it adjoins the Aokhan and the Dourbet ;
on the west the Tsakhars, of the red banner ; on
the south the great wall ; on the north the fron
tiers of the Oniout, It is 76O li to Peking.
The right wing is on the left branch of the
Sibe, 390 li north of Hi fung kheou, and ex
tends to the south as far as the pasturage of the
imperial flocks. The left wing is at mount
Bayan Djirouke, 350 li to the north of Hi fung
kheou. The third banner is between the
two others.
The country of the Kharatchin is traversed
by a river called, in Chinese, Lao he ; in Mon
gol, Lokha. It issues from mount Mingan ola :
runs north-east, receives several small rivers,
waters the northern part of the territory of the
Aokhan, and the south of that of the Oniout.
It passes through the country of the Naiman, '

HISTORICAL essay. 257
and the eastern Kalkas, and after a course of
above 500 li, falls into the Shara mouren.
Among the antiquities of the country of the
Kharatchin, the Chinese writers reckon the re
mains of the ancient cities of Ta ning or Ta
ting, formerly inhabited by Chinese ; of Thsing
tcheou, in Mongol, Khara Khoto (or black city)
of Hoei tcheou, in Mongol, Tsagan khoto
(white city) of Li tcheou, the ruins of which
cover a piece of ground three li in circuit. To
the west are three soubourgans, or obelisks, for
which reason this place is called by the inhabit
ants Gourban soubourgan khoto.
21.- Tchakhar or Tsakhar.
To the north of Kalgan is the country inha
bited by the Tsakhar Mongols, divided into eight
banners. On the east it adjoins the Kechikten,
on the west the Toumet of Koukou khoto, on
the south the imperial studs, and the province
of Shan si, and on the north the Sounites and
the Dourban Keouket : its extent is 1000 li.
Tsakhar signifies in Mongol, frontier country.
Under the dynasty of the Ming, it was called
Tsagan or Tchagan. The founder of the
family of the Khans of these Mongols was
Siao vang tsu, that is to say, the Little King,
a descendant of the dynasty of Yuan. In 1530,
Boutchi came to inhabit this country, and his
VOL. II. s

258 historical essay.
tribe then received the name of Tsakhar be
cause it was adjacent to China.
At a subsequent time, he removed with his
people to the frontier of Liao toung. Ryndan
khan, the fourth in descent from him, began to
harass the neighbouring Mongol tribes. In
1632, Ven ti, emperor of the Mantchoos,
marched against him. Ryndan khan fled and
died. Khongar odja* his son submitted. His
subjects were divided into banners like the Mant
choo troops.
In 1675, Bourni having revolted with his
brothers, they were all put to death, and new
abodes were assigned to their subjects beyond
the great wall, and near to the districts of Ta
toung and Siuan-houa. The Tsakhars having
afterwards rendered services to the emperor who
was at war with Galdun, prince of the Eluths,
several Kalka and Elutb tribes were joined to
them. Four of the eight banners of the Tsakhar
occupy the country beyond Kalgan.
1. The encampment of the plain yellow
* The first edition of the " Thai thsing y thoung tchy"
calls this person Gorghedje. I cannot decide which is the
more correct reading. I must remark, however, that the
editors of the new edition of this work have abused the pri
vilege of etymology. To explain the foreign words which
are found in the old Chinese works, many have made use of
the Mongol language, and have twisted and disfigured those
words at their pleasure, without giving any reason but a
mere " at present ive read better." — Klaproth.

historical essay. 259
banner is at Mount Mousoun teke ola, above
320 li north-east of Kalgan. Its territory is 110
li from east to west, and 280 from north to south.
It is bounded on the east by the Tsakhars of the
bordered yellow banner, on the west by those of
the red banner, on the south by the right wing of
the studs of Thai phao, and on the north by the
mountains of Khara ounaghan. The distance
to Peking by way of Kalgan is 730 li.
The most considerable mountains are the
Mousoun teke, Erghinak, Ourkhou tologoi,
Kholbodzin, Khingan^ and Ouliassoutai, which
is very high, Khara kitat, and Shara kitat.
The river Dziouk, or Taokha, rises in a plain,
sixty li to the south-east of the encampment of
this banner, flows to the south, receives the
Ougou gol, farther on the Mongoutsi, a small
river coming from the west, and the Sourtcha,
which comes from the north-east. It enters the
Chinese frontier near the fort of Sin phing pou,
passes near fort Tchai kheou pou, and there takes
the name of Yang ho. It was formerly called
Yu yan choui.
2. The bordered yellow banner encamps at
the rocks of Soumyn khada, and above 340 li
from Kalgan. Its territory is 160 li from east
to west, and 190 from north to south. To tlie
east it joins the Tsakhars of the blue banner, to
the west the yellow banner, to the north the
s 2

260 historical, essay.
Sounites, and to the south the studs of the bor-"
dered yellow banner. It is 750 li to Peking by
way of Kalgan.
The principal mountains are Khanertou,
Dodo, Boro Khoun, Oulan Khoun, Agalak,
Kheibot temyn, (it was near this last that Li
ouen tchoung, general of the Ming, defeated
the army ofthe Yuan,) Goudjou gounatai, Bou-
koutou, or Boulour. There are no rivers, but
several springs, one of which is salt. It is called
in Mongol Dabastou boulak, 120 li to the north
east, towards the frontiers of the Sounites of the
left wing.
3.' The camp of the Tsakhars ofthe red ban
ner is to the west of the yellow, near Mount
Gourban tologoi, 370 li north-west of Khalgan.
The territory of this banner is fifty-five li from
east to west, and 280 from north to south. On
the east it has the Tsakhars of the yellow banner,
on the west the bordered red banner, on the
north the Dourban keouket, and on the south
the right wing of the studs of Thai pou.
4. The bordered red banner encamps at the
spring Bourin boulak, 420 li north-west of Kal
gan. Its territory is bounded on the east by
the Tsakhars of the red banner, on fhe west by
those of the bordered blue banner, on the south
by the district of Ta thoung in the province of
Shan si, and on the north by the Dourban
Keouket.

historical essay. 261
r'
The following banners of the Tsakhars are
encamped in the country to the north of the
gate Tou chy kheou.
5. The camp of the white banner is at Bour-
gatai, 290 li north-west of Tou chy kheou. The
territory of this banner is from east to west 78
li, and from south to north 295. On the east
and north it joins the Tsakhars of the bordered
white banner, and to the west and south those
of the bordered yellow banner. It is 820 li to
Peking, passing by Tou chy kheou.
6. The bordered white banner is near to
Bouya akhai soume, 245 leagues north of Tou
chy kheou. Its territory is 56 li from east to
west, and 97 from north to south. On the east
and south it joins the pasturages of the studs
of Thai phao, on the" west the white banner,
on the north the blue banner. It is 770 li to
the capital by Tou chy kheou.
7. The Tsakhars of the blue banner dwell
near lake Djakhassoutai, 360 li north-east
of Tou chy kheou. Their territory is 265 li
from east to west, and 95 from north to south.
On the east it adjoins the Kechikten, on the west
the bordered white banner, on the south the
imperial studs, on the north the left wing of the
Abaga. Passing by Tou chy kheou, it is 890 li
to Peking.
8. The bordered blue banner is at mount
Abakhan khara, 90 li to the north-east of the
s 3

262 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
banner of Sha hou kheou. Its territory is 150
li from east to west, and 160 from north to
south ; to the east, it is bounded by the Tsak
hars of the blue banner ; on the west, by the
Toumet of Koukou khoto ; on the south, by
the great wall which bounds the district of Ta
thoung; and on the north, by the Dourban
keouket. It is 1000 li to Peking by way of
Sha hou kheou.
The country occupied by these Tsakhars is
in general mountainous ; it is watered by several
small rivers and springs, has good pasturage,
and is even susceptible of tillage.
There was formerly in the territory of this
banner a salt lake, into which the river Vou
shoui emptied itself. This lake was 30 li in
length from east to west, and 20 in breadth
from north to south. At present neither lake
nor river are to be seen.
In various places in the territory of the eight
banners of the Tsakhars, there are still vestiges
of ancient Chinese towns, such as Ven yang,
Liang tcheou, and Thsan ho.
22. The Mao Mingan.
One banner, encamped at the source of the
Tchetou boulak, above 800 li north-west of
Kalgan ; it is 100 li from east to west, and 190
from north to south ; bounded by the Kalkas on

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 263
the east, by the Orat on the west, by the
Toumet of Koukou khoto on the south, by the
great desert on the north, and is 1 240 li from
Peking. The most remarkable mountains are Khara
tologoi, Khargaitou, Khara teke, Khorko, and
Gourban khara.
The chief rivers are the Khoundoulen, the
Boulour lokhoi, and the Aiboukha.
23. The Orat.*
Three banners, occupying the extensive
valley of Khadamal, which commences 360 li
to the west of Koukou khoto. Their territory
is 215 li from east to west, and 300 from north
to south ; towards the east, it is bounded by the
Mao mingan ; towards the west, by the Ordos ;
towards the south, by the Yellow River ; and to
wards the north, by the Kalkas. Their prin
cipal encampment is 1500 li from Peking.
Their mountains are Khoundoulin, Ghiran
tologoi, Bartou, Egoude, Egoui-oundour ; this
last is lofty and steep, and resembles a kiln for
drying corn, from which circumstance it derives
its name. Khadjar khosho is the name of a
chain of mountains which extends from the
north-west of the encampment of the Orat, to
Koukou khoto, following the left bank of the
"' Orat in Mongol means artisan.
s 4

264 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
Yellow River, which waters the southern
districts of this tribe. The rivers Bourgatou,
Khaliatou, and Shara, issue from this chain,
and carry the tribute of their waters to that
river.* In many places the ruins of .ancient cities are
still to be seen. On the chain of mountains
called In chan, (in Mongol, Khadjar khosho,)
extends the great wall of China, f Among the
celebrated temples in the territory of the Orat,
is the Fo yun szu, on the mountain of the same
name, called in Mongol, Oudjour Tsayan
khada, 190 li north-west of the principal en
campment. It was here that, in the seventh
and eighth centuries, the Thou khin, or Turks,
assembled to make incursions into China. The
Sou vou miao, or temple of the minister Sou
vou, to the north of the ancient Yun nei, was
erected in his honour, because he had once tra
velled through their country.
* The archimandrite has omitted the two highest moun
tains of this country, viz. those called in Mongol Tchastai
ola, and in Chinese Siaa shan ; that is to say, mountains of
snow. The one is 90 li north of the principal encampment
of the Orat, the other 205 li north-west ; both on the north
side of the Kharamouren, which comes from and falls into
the Yellow River. — Klaproth.
t This is a great mistake. The chain called In chan, to
the north of the northern bend, and the nearest part ofthe
great wall, is at least 30 French leagues to the south pf this
mountain. — Klaproth.

•HISTORICAL ESSAY. 265

24. The Toumet of Koukou khoto.
Two banners. The chief place in their ter
ritory is Koukou khoto, in Chinese, Kouei houa
tehing, 220 li north-east ofthe gate of Sha hou
kheou. Their territory is 403 li from east to
west, and 370 from north to south. It is
bounded on the east by the Dourban keouket ;
on the west, by the Ordos ; on the south, by
the wall which forms the boundary of Shan si ;
and on the north, by the Kalkas. It is 1160 li
to Peking. Thirty-five li to the north of Kouei houa
tching, lies that part of the In chan mountains,
called in Mongol, Onghin ola. This chain
begins on the north of the country of the Ordos,
to the west of the Orat, and extends above 500
li to the north of Kouei houa tching. It has
several very lofty peaks, which have particular
names. The Yellow River coming from the country of
the Orat, flows south-east, and then south ; it
receives on the left the Tourghen^ washes the
ruins of Khoutan khosho, receives also on the
left the Oulan mouren, and then enters China :
its course in the country of the Toumet is a
hundred and sixty li.

266 historical essay.
25. Ordos.
Seven banners. Their chief encampment is
285 li west of Koukou khoto. Their country
joins on the east that of the Toumet of Koukou
khoto, on the west the Kalkas, and on the south
the province of Shan si. On the east, north
and west, it is bounded by the Yellow River. The
distance from the chief encampment to Peking,
is 1100 li.
Under the dynasty of the Thsin, this coun
try bore the name of Sin thsin tchoung. Under
that of the Han, it belonged to the Turks,
Hioung nou. In the year 127 before our era,
the emperor Vou ti established there the prin
cipality of Sou fang, which he put under the
jurisdiction of the city of Ping tcheou. In the
sequel, it fell into the hands of various con
querors. Towards the end of the 9th century,
Szu kioung settled in this country, which was
assigned him as a recomp en sefor the services
he had rendered the emperor in the war
against the rebel Houang tchao. During the
10th, 11th and 12th centuries, this country re
mained subject to the kings of Hia. When the
Mongols or Yuan conquered the kingdom of
Hia or Tangout, in 1209, it became a province
of their empire.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 267
At the commencement of the dynasty of the
Ming, garrisons were placed in it, and agricul
ture introduced. Towards the year 1460, the
Mongol princes, Ortchou and Maolikhai, ap
peared for the first time in these parts. In 1550,
the horde of Ghinang, or Dsinang, took posses
sion of all this country. Ghinang, the elder
brother of Anda, assumed the title of Tsetzen
khan. After him, this territory, and others, were
divided among his seven sons, who had under
them several corps, forming an army of 100,000
men. At a subsequent period, it fell under the
power of the Tsakhars, and received the name
pf Ordos.
In 1635, after the defeat of Ryndan, khan of
the Tsakhars, Orin, prince of the Ordos, sub
mitted to the Mantchoos, who employed him to
persuade the other princes to follow his exam
ple. In 1649, the Ordos were divided into six
banners, and the dignity of their princes de
clared to be hereditary. A seventh banner was
added in 1731. Their tribute is sent to Peking
by way of Cha hou kheou.
The Ordos are divided into two wings, the
left country of three banners, the first of which
is to the south-east of the principal encampment,
145 li west of Koutan khocho ; the second, or
the centre, to the south of the valley of Tchara ;
the third to the north-east, near lake Balkhassoun
nor.

268 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
The right wing is also composed of three
banners ; the first is encamped at lake Baga
nor ; the second in the western part of i the
country, near lake Shara bouritou ; the third,
to the north-west, near lake Orghikou nor.
The principal mountains of the country of
the Ordos, are Khoior khara tologai, Khara kho-
sho, in Chinese, He chan, Touinok, Baitou,
Bain ola, &c.
The Houang ho issues by the great wall near
the village of Pao fung hian, from the district
of Ning hia fou, flows north-west, turns to the
east, and forms the boundaries of the Orat.
When it reaches the ancient eastern frontier of
Ching tcheou, it turns to the south, runs along
the east side of the territory of the Ordos, which
it divides from that of the Toumet, and then
enters China. The Khougarkhe, the Ilki-to-
soutou, the Baga tosoutou, the Ourlan bourlak,
and many other rivers also water the country of
the "Ordos.
The ancient city of Sou fang, built under the
dynasty of Han, 128 years before the Christian
era, was situated 'in the territory of the third
banner, of the right wing, near the banks of
the Houang ho, above 500 li from the point
where it turns to the east.
The ancient city of Lin ho tching was to the
north-west of Sou fang. The palace of Yu lin
koung was in the centre of the city of Ching

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 269
tcheou ; it was built in the year 607, by the
emperor Ngan ti of the dynasty of Soui.
26. Mongol Tribes of Lake Koukou Nor.
The country about lake Koukou nor is in
habited by Eluths, Torgauts, Kalkas and Khoits.
This country is to the west of the Chinese pro
vince of Kansou ; on the west it is bounded
by Tibet ; on the south, by the Chinese province
of Szu tchouan ; on the north, by Sou tcheou
and Ngan si, and is about 2000 li in extent. From
the principal epcampment, to Peking, 5700 li.
According to the chapter of the Chou king,
entitled Yu koung, or the tributes imposed by
the emperor Yu, this country was occupied in
his time by the Si joung, or western joung (bar
barians). Under the first three dynasties, Hia,
Chang, and Tcheou, it was inhabited by the
Si khiang.
Under the dynasty of the eastern Tsin, it was
occupied by the hordes of the Thou kou hoen.
In the year 610 the emperor of China, having
subdued this country, established in it the princi
palities of Si Hai, Ho yuan, and others. In
663 the king of Tibet, after having destroyed
the nation ofthe Thou kou koen, made himself
master of their whole territory. Under the
dynasty of Yuan, this country was divided into
several districts. In 1509 it was conquered by

270 historical essay:
the Mongols. At the commencement of the
Mantchoo dynasty now reigning, Gonchi, khan
of the Eluths, coming from the north-west,
effected the conquest of the country. He sent
an ambassador to the court of Peking, and was
confirmed in his dignity. This khan divided
his people into two wings, the right and the left.
The khan of these Mongols is one of the five
Taidzi of Koukou nor. In 1697, when Galdan
was defeated, the Taidzi Djajsi Batour, and
others, went to Peking, where they recognized
the sovereignty ofthe emperor. In consequence,
they were all invested with hereditary rights ;
one of them was raised to the dignity of Tsin
vang. Seven others were made belles, five
beisses, six koung, and a great number Taidzi.
In 1723, Losan Dandzin (grandson of Gouchi
khan) son of Djajsi Batour, persuaded the others
to invade China. The emperor sent an army
against them, which easily reduced them. Only
those who had taken no part in the revolt were
confirmed in their dignities. These chiefs were
subjected to a triennial tribute, and divided into
three classes; so that in nine years each had to
offer the tribute once.
The trade between the Chinese and the in
habitants of Koukou nor is carried on at Si
ning. In 1725, the five tribes of Koukou nor were
divided into twenty-nine banners. The Eluths
20

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 271
form twenty-one, the Khoi't three, the Torgouts
four, and the Kalkas one. There are besides
four Mongol regiments belonging to the Lama
Tchagan nomum khan. The tribute of all these
tribes is sent by way of Si ning. The Dzasak
(nobility) of Koukou nor consists of three Kiun
vangs, two Beiles, two Beisses, four Koungs, and
eighteen Taidzis. Each of these chiefs has a
banner under his command.
The Mongols of Koukou nor came from the
north-west ; they dwell in felt tents, and lead a
nomade life. They sow but little corn ; their
flocks supply them with meat, which is their
principal food ; their beverage is milk ; wool
and tanned skins afford them good clothing.
They pay their tribute in oxen, sheep, camels,
and horses. Inured to cold, they do not fear
the inclemency of the seasons. They are brave
and intrepid. Crimes are rare among them :
fines are paid in cattle ; their punishments are
otherwise severe. They profess the Lamaic
religion, and are inclined to vanity.
The chain of mountains Kuen lun, or Koul
koun, is on the western frontier ofthe country.
The Hoang ho has its source in them ; namely,
in the mountains Aklan tsikin, Barboukha, and
Bayan khara. In 1782 Kien long sent his
equerry Amida to present his offerings to the
Yellow River ; the source of which he ordered
him to investigate. Amida, on his return to

272 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
Peking, presented the account of his journey
to the emperor, who ordered him to draw up
an account of the origin of this river.
This work says that the second source of the '
Hoang ho issues from the rock ofthe Khadasoun-
tcholo, and forms the Altan gol, a small river, the
water of which is muddy and yellow. It tra
verses the Odon-tala, in Chinese Sing sou hai
(sea of stars), and runs to the east. Originally
the source of the Hoang ho was in the mountains
of Kashgar and Khotan : the streams which
issued from them entered lake Lob nor, from
which they afterwards issued. *
The true Kuen lun was therefore in Eastern
Turkestan, where are the first sources of the
Yellow River. Writers who were ignorant of it,
took the Koulkoun of Koukou nor for the Kuen
lun. The mountains of Tsy chy schan, in
Mongol, Amie maldzin mousoun ola, are 550
li south-east of the frontier of Si ning. This
chain, runs along the north bank ofthe Yellow
River, for the length of 300 li ; it has seven
summits, which rise above the clouds. It is con-
* This alludes to an ancient Chinese tradition, which
deserves to be examined, though we know very positively
the Lob nor has at present no communication with the
Hoang ho. See my Memoirs relative to Asia, vol. i. 413.
The archimandrite Hyacinth had translated this passage
in forms much too precise, so that it might seem from his
version that Amida pretended that one branch of the present
Hoang ho came in fact from the Lob nor.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 273
sidered as the highest of the Koukou nor ; near
mount Bayan khara, it extends towards the east ;
one of its peaks is so lofty, that it may be seen
at the distance of a hundred li ; it is covered
with snow and ice which never melt. All the
neighbouring mountains are likewise white with
snow, and intersected with precipices. Stinking
fogs render these parts very unhealthy, and they
are but little frequented.
The Hoang ho runs at the foot of these
mountains, and then turns to the north. At the
commencement of every season, the inhabitants
bring offerings to these mountains. The country
of Koukou nor contains in all thirteen great and
lofty mountains, which are called by the Tibe
tan name of Amie, or ancestors, to which offer
ings are brought. The amiemaldzig moussoun
ola is the highest.
The Je choui schan, the name of which is
Chinese, and signifies, mountain of the hot
spring, is to the south-west, beyond the frontier
of Si ning. Besides these, there are the moun
tains Fung li chan, Mang theou chan, Tche
ngo tchin chan, and Schou hoen chan, which
have ancient Chinese names : they have been
the scene of several remarkable battles. Mount
Khan tologoi, 200 li to the south of Koukou
nor, lies in the midst of the steppe. To
the west is mount Tsokto : thick fogs infect
these parts, which likewise produce poisonous
VOL. II. T

274 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
herbs. Mount Kouisoun Tologoi is situated in
the middle of the lake Koukou nor : its summit
is quite white, and a small temple stands upon it.
The Tibetan lamas who live in it come out only
once a year, when the lake is frozen, to procure
corn. The Manitou ola, near the source of the
Yellow River, is extremely high, and on its sides
are Chinese characters, engraved on them in
ancient times. The Altan gachoun tcholo is a
great stone, or rock, of considerable height ; the
-perpendicular sides consist of a yellowish red
clay, and are sterile ; at the summit, is a reservoir,
from which issue several little streams, the
water of which is of a yellow or gold colour ;
these uniting, form the Altan, which is the true
source of the Yellow River.
The Yellow River, or Hoang ho, called in Ti
betan, Rma tchou, and in Mongol, Khara mou
ren, or Khara gol, has its source at the western
extremity of the country ofthe Koukou nor ; it
issues by subterraneous channels from lake Lob,
situated in Little Bucharia *, receives the Altan,
passes through the Odon tala (sea of stars), and
the lakes Dzareng and Oreng t, runs south-east,
turns to the north-west, and then to the north
east. After having thus performed a course of
* See the preceding note. — Klaproth.
T Mr. Timkowski writes this last word Noryn. The Mon
gol orthography is Oring ; this word is Tibetan (ogoring); it
signifies, shining like the rising sun. Klaproth.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 275
above 2700 li, it enters China, near Ho tcheou,
at the fort Tsy chy kouan.
The Koukou nor, in Chinese, Thsin ghai
(blue sea), had formerly the name of Si hai
(western sea) ; it is 500 li to the west of Si ning ;
it is above 750 li in circumference, and contains
the islands of Kouissoun tologoi and Tsagan
khada ; its waters are of a bluish hue.
In 1724, the Chinese army being in pursuit of
the rebel Arabtan, prince of the Soungarians,"
arrived on the banks of the Ikhe khorghi, a
small river to the north of the Koukou nor ; the
men and the horses suffered extremely from
thirst, when a spring suddenly burst from the
ground before the camp. The men and the
horses recovered their strength, and this event
inspired the Chinese army with such courage,
that it succeeded in overtaking and defeating
the enemy. The commander-in-chief sent a
report of these circumstances to the emperor,
who gave orders to erect a monument, on which
the event should be inscribed, and to present
offerings to the spirit of the blue lake.
Beyond the frontiers of Si ning, and behind
the temple of Archan kit, there are mineral
waters. A lake of above a hundred li in circum
ference, and situated to the north-west of the
Koukou nor, produces a greenish salt; it re
ceives from the west, the Moukhor boulak and
the Khara oussou, two small rivers which issue
T 2'

276 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
from it again on the south-east, and a hundred
li farther on join the Barkhou. The Mongols.
of Koukou nor, the inhabitants of Si ning and
of Tangout, collect the salt of this lake,
The country of the Koukou nor produces
salt, barley and rye ; the principal animals are
camels, long-haired oxen, wild oxen, wolves,
panthers, lynxes, chamois goats, large eagles,
and a kind offish without scales, which is found
only io the lake Koukou nor. It is of a round
form, and has black spots on fhe back ; its
length is from two to four inches ; the larger
fish of this species are called boukha, and the
smaller noukhou.
Independently of the twenty-six Mongol
tribes, whom we have just described, the im
perial geography of China mentions the Eluths
of Tchoros, the right and left wings of the Kal
kas, and the department of Tching te fou, or
Je ho-* The Eluths of Tchoros.
They form three banners, and inhabit the
country situated to the north of the mountains
of Ho lan chan, and Loung cheou chan. It is
bounded on the east by Ning hia ; on the west by
* This department, though situated beyond the great
wall, makes part of the province of Tchy li. It is at pre
sent the fifth in the order of those in that province  Klap
roth.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 277
Kan tcheou ; on the south by Liang tcheOU ; on
the north by the desert of Gobi and the territory
ofthe Kalkas. The distance to Peking is 5000 li.
The Eluth princes, from whom this tribe
derives its name, descehd from prince Olutai, of
the dynasty of Yuan. They are divided into
four branches : the Durbet, the Eluths of
Koukou nor, those of the north, and those of
Tchoros. The princes of all these four branches
were dependent upon Gouchi Khan> and formed
a considerable power.
Prince Otchirtou Ablai rioin acknowledged
himself, at the same time with Gouchi Khan^
subject to the Chinese empire. Galdan, Khafi
of Soungaria, having conquered the country of
the Ordos, the grandsons Of OtchirtoU Khan,
Tsiroung batour, Erke, and Arabtan, fled to
wards the Chinese frontiers, and in 1686 re
quested the emperor to assign them an abode.
He granted them the lands situated beyOnd the
frontiers of Ning hia and Kan tcheou, in the
countries of Kaldjan Bourgout, Kongor olong,
and Bayan nouru, and in the sandy desert
Ablai Galbai Gobi, from the mountains of
Alashan westwards as far as the banks of the
Edsinei, on condition that they Should keep at
the distance of 60 li from the frontier of China.
A line of demarcation was drawn in consequence.
In 1697 the Eluths petitioned the emperor to
organise them in divisions like the forty-hine
t 3

278 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
Mongol banners, and to appoint heads of tribes
with hereditary dignities. They were accord
ingly divided into three banners.
The mountains of Alashan, on the frontier of
the department of Ning hia fou, extend south
east as far as the Yellow River. This chain,
which is in the form of a semicircle, is 500 li in
length from north to south, and shelters the
neighbouring towns from the winds. The other
mountains in this country are Ning lo chan,
Lai fou chan, Togon and Alak ola.
The rivers are the Koulang ho, which dis
charges itself into a lake formed by its waters ;
Satch ho, the Kou shoui, or San tcha ho, which
falls into lake Pe hai ; and the Yun tchouan.
The principal lakes are, Hieou thou thse, or
Khara nor, and Shara nor ; Thsing yan tchi, or
lake of green salt ; and Houng yan tchi, or
lake of red salt ; the latter of which is 300 li
north of Shan dan. It furnishes red salt.
The right and the left Wings of the
Kalkas.
The right wing forms only one banner, near
the banks of the Tarkoun, 710 li north-west of
Kalgan. It is 120 li from east to west, and
130 from north to south. On the east it is
bounded by the Dourban Keouket ; on the west
by Maomingan ; on the south by the Toumet

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 279
of Koukou khoto ; on the north by the desert of
Gobi. To Peking the distance is 1130 li.
Under the dynasty of the Ming, these parts
were occupied by the Kalkas. Their prince
was formerly subject to the Touchetou Khan ;
but after a quarrel with him, he submitted to
China in 1653. He sends his tribute by way of
Khalgan. The left wing likewise forms only one ban
ner, which is encamped at Tsagan kochotoun,
840 li north-east of Hi fang kheou. It is 125
li from east to west, and 230 from north to south.
It is bounded on the east by Karatchin ; on the
west by Naimau ; on the south by Toumet ;
and. on the north by Djarot. The distance to Pe
king is 1210 li.
Under the Ming this country was also occu
pied by the Kalkas. Their prince Gambo Irden,
formerly obeyed Djasaktou Khan, but being
dissatisfied with him submitted to the Chinese
emperor, who gave him the rank of Beile, with
the hereditary command of his banner.
Tching Te Fou.
This department is 420 li north-east of Pe
king; it is 1200 li from east to west, and 320
from north to south, and with the district of
Phing siouan tcheou, and Tchi fung hian,
860 li.
It is in this district that the emperor of China
T 4

280 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
enjoys the diversion of hunting wild beasts. It
is inhabited by Chinese ; and as in the neigh
bouring Mongol territories of Bairin, Oniout,
&c, there are many Chinese traders and farmers,
tribunals have been established in different
places on which the Chinese alone depend.
This country was formerly inhabited by the
barbarian tribes of Shan joung and Toung hou.
Under the dynasty of the Yuan it belonged to
the princes of Lou. In 1403, under the dynasty
of the Ming, the tribunals existing there were
transferred to the interior of China, and the
country was ceded to the Ouriangkai ; at a sub
sequent period it was conquered by the Tsak
hars. The Mongol tribes of Karatchin, Oniout,
Toumet, Aokhan, Naiman, and Bairin, and the
right wing of the Kalkas, which at present de
pend on the department of Tching te fou, sub
mitted at the beginning of the present reigning
dynasty, and were divided into banners. In
1703 an imperial palace was built near the
banks of the Je ho. In 1723 the department of
Tching te tcheou was established. In 1778 this
city received the appellation of Fou, or town of
the first order, and was placed under the de
pendence of the province of Tchy li. The de
partment has five districts which are under its
jurisdiction. There are in this country 109,805 Chinese
families, consisting of 558,396 souls. The ban-

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 281
ners occupy 17,791 khing * of land, and the
peasants 3444 khing. The tribute levied on
the lands ofthe banners is 13,332 liang in silver
(111,100 francs,) and on those of the peasants
6,669 liang (55,686 francs).
Of the imperial summer houses beyond the
great wall, the most remarkable is that of Je ho,
or Je ho eul t, or Shou pi shan tchouang (vil
lage in the mountains, or retreat during the sum
mer heat). This palace was built in 1703, to
serve as a residence for the emperor during the
hunting season. It is built on the plan of the
palace at Peking, and is about 17 li in cir
cumference ; there are three gates on the south
side, and one on each of the three others ;
beyond the eastern gate there is a long dike,
which begins to the north of the Moat of the
Lions, and terminates towards the south near
a causeway of sand. It is about 12 li in length,
and above 10 feet broad, and it is paved with
seven ranges of stones ; to the left of the palace
there is a lake, and on the right are mountains.
These latter, which are called Li chou Kou,
Soung ling kou, Tchin tzu kou, and Si kou,
run from the north to the west, and surround the
castle. The waters ofthe lake extend from the
north-west to the south of the garden Van shou
* A khing contains 100 Chinese acres. — Klaproth.
f The same that the English who were with Lord Ma
cartney called Zehol  Klaproth.

282 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
youan. They are bright and transparent. The
causeway of sand almost traverses it from the
island of Toung tcheou. A* cascade to the
north of the lake issues from mount Si kou,
falls on the top of mount Yun thsinan, and after
wards forms the lake, the banks of which are
shaded by fine and lofty trees. This lake ex
tends to the south-east to a sluice, near the south
eastern gate. The various parts of the palace
are extremely well arranged, simple and elegant.
It is impossible to give a description of it in a
few words, says the Chinese geographer, for the
object of geography is to give a general account
of the empire. A very fine work has been pub
lished at Peking, containing engravings of thirty-
six views of this palace, with descriptions in
verse. The most remarkable ofthe numerous temples
in Je ho, are,
I. The Phou tho tsoung ching miao, one
werst to the north of the palace. The emperor
Kien long had it built in I77O on the plan of
the temple of Boudala, which is the palace of
the Dalai Lama in Tibet, near the town of
Lassa. II. The Siu mi fou cheou miao, to the north
of the town. In 1?80, on occasion of the
seventieth anniversary of the birth-day of the
emperor Kien long, the Bantchan came from
Tibet to Peking to pray for the emperor, who

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 283
gave orders to erect, for the residence of the
Bantchan, an edifice resembling the convent of
Djachi loumbo, in which the divine personage
resides in Tibet. The inscriptions on the walls
and doors are written in the Mantchoo, Chinese,
Tibetan, and Mongol languages.
It is affirmed, that the temple at Je ho, built
on the model of that in Tibet, is by no means
inferior to it in magnificence.

Some Particulars respecting Mongolia, from
Mr. Timkowski's own Observations.
Mongolia is an elevated plain, supported on
the south by the mountains of Tibet, and on
the north by those of Altai : it is a country of
steppes-; there are no great forests in it, and
the inhabitants have no fixed habitations.
These steppes, however, do not in any re
spect resemble those vast and arid plains which
are met with in the Russian provinces of leka-
terinoslaw, Cherson, Astrachan, &c. The
country of the Kalkas, from the Russian fron
tier to Ourga on the Tola, is traversed by va
rious chains of high mountains, chiefly granite,
the foot of which is watered by rivers, and their
summits frequently covered with wood. There
is no great diversity of soil in Mongolia ; it is in
general sandy and stony. The banks of the

284 historical essay.
rivers, and the mountain valleys, abound in good
pasture, and in some places near the rivers,
there is land fit for tillage ; of which we saw
some instances on the Boro, the Shara, and the
Iro, notwithstanding the aversion of the Mon
gols for agriculture. The northern part of the
land of the Kalkas, in particular, would be very
suitable for agriculture, if any fortunate con
currence of circumstances should lead to the
formation of permanent settlements.
The southern mountains of the Altai chain
are rich in gold and silver mines. (Altai, in
Mongol, signifies gold.) The same may be said
of the chain of the Khingan, which separates
Mongolia from Daouria. I do not know the
foundation of the opinion of some geographers,
for instance M. Malte Brun *, that the country
of the Kalkas contains mines which supply the
Chinese with tin : he says also, that the Chinese
have erected, to their great advantage, iron
foundries, near a pretended lake Iroif, fifty
wersts from Kiakhta. From the inquiries which
I made on the spot, I learned that the Mongols
are almost entirely destitute of the knowledge
which is necessary for the working of mines,
leading a nomade life, and this is especially true
of those who inhabit the country of the Kalkas.
* Precis de la G^ographie Universelle, vol. iii. p. 434.
j- M. Malte Brun has probably taken the river Iro for a
lake.

historical essay. 285
Beyond, and to the south of Ourga, begin
the arid steppes, intersected by mountains which
run from east to west, and are not so lofty as
those to the north. These countries are known
among the Mongols by the name of Gobi. The
soil is gravelly ; pasturage and water are rare ;
the grass is short and poor, and in the hot
season is entirely withered. The inhabitants
procure water from wells dug in the plain, which
are seldom more than from seven to ten feet in
depth. Yet in these tracts, so little favoured by
nature, I saw numerous herds of large camels,
vigorous horses and oxen, flocks of sheep and
goats, all in good condition. The steppes abound
in salt ; the dryness of the atmosphere, and the
continual winds, keep away the insects which
generally torment the cattle in woody countries
and meadows. There are neither gnats nor gad
flies, nor did I see any serpents or frogs. For
these reasons the desert of Gobi is very well
adapted for cattle, especially camels, which are
fatter than on the north side of Ourga. What
contributes greatly to this is, that for want of a
sufficient number of watering places, the cattle
of Gobi drink in summer only once in four-and-
twenty hours from the well, and sometimes in
small quantities : 'they are extremely thirsty, and
the cold water refreshes them in an extra
ordinary manner in the sultry heat. There are

286 historical essay.
no woods in this part ; the inhabitants are there
fore obliged to purchase on the banks of the
Keroulun, the Tola, and the Orchon, all the
wood that they have need of, from the tent to
the meanest utensil. For want of wood they
burn dried camels' dung. The country being
all stony, is wholly unfit for agriculture.
Beyond the territory of the Kalkas begins
that of the Sounites. I think that the desert of
Gobi extends thus far ; it is that sandy uneven
tract, which extending to the south-west in a
straight line, crosses Eastern Turkestan to
Tibet, its breadth increasing as it approaches
the south. Caravans are liable to great hard
ships in passing through this desert, as they
seldom find water or pasturage. The valleys,
the hills, and the mountains offer nothing to the
view but a yellowish sand ; which, however, is
not moveable like that in the deserts of Africa.
Notwithstanding all these inconveniences, the
Mongols of these inhospitable steppes possess
a sufficient number of cattle, which are fat and
well conditioned.
This arid soil ceases at the southern limit of
Gobi. The habitations of the Tsakhars, of the
tribe of Ordos, and several Mongol hordes, are
adjoining to the great wall of China. The soil
of these districts is watered by rivers, and pretty
well adapted to agriculture. In the country of
Koukou nor, wheat is cultivated. It is from

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 287
among the Mongols of the district of the Tsak
hars that there is a part of the shepherds, whose
business it is to tend the numerous flocks of the
emperor of China ; another forms a corps of
the army, which is composed of eight banners.
The eastern Mongols inhabit a fertile country,
and many of them follow agriculture. These
districts, especially those near the great wall,
may be compared, with respect to climate and
the quality ofthe soil, with some parts of Lower
Germany. The air in Mongolia is cold, on account of
the great elevation of the country, and of the
abundance of koudjir, or sulphate of natron,
mixed with natron, with which the steppes are
in many places covered. The French Jesuits
were much surprised at finding it much colder in
the elevated regions of Mongolia, situated be
tween the 43d and 45th degrees of north lati
tude, than in France, which is in the same
latitude : and the excessive cold at that time
made them say, that the Mongols wore pelisses
all the year round. We did not observe this.
On my journey to China in 1820, Reaumur's
thermometer in the months of October and
November, was at 10°, 15°, and even 18° below
zero ; but the Mongols assured us that the cold
was rarely so severe in their country. Great
quantities of snow and rain fall in the part be
tween Kiakhta and Ourga. In summer, thick

288 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
fogs and cold mornings are not uncommon in
these mountains, as well as in the country inha
bited by the Tsakhars.
The wind- blows almost constantly in the
steppes between Ourga and the country of the
Tsakhars ; this region, which is the most ele
vated of Mongolia, especially to the north-west,
attracts and retains the clouds of snow which
produce showers of rain. For this reason, snow
is not common in the desert of Gobi : on the
contrary, there are often great droughts which
are very injurious to the cattle.
In the northern part of Mongolia there are
woods of various kinds of trees. On the moun
tains grow pines, firs, birches, ashes, and in some
places larches and white poplars ; the elm is very
common. I saw likewise red currants, wild
peaches, and various shrubs. Beyond Ourga,
in the deep ravines of the mountains, hemp
and flax grow wild.
The Selenga, the Orchon, the Iro, the
Khara, and other rivers, abound in fish : such
as sturgeon, white salmon trout, leno hi (salmo
lenoc), pike, perches, and various kinds of small
fish. The quadrupeds are the wild horse (or Rus
sian tarpani), the wild boar, the stag, wild
goats of various kinds, bears, wolves, hares,
foxes, sables, and squirrels. The birds are,
cranes, wild geese, ducks, black ducks (anas

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 289
nigra,) moor-fowl, quails, and in the territory
of the Tsakhars, swans.
The country of the Sounites contains a great
number of salt lakes, where the salt is deposited
of itself. In Gobi there are various sorts of
silex, especially a kind of red cornelians, chal
cedony of different colours, and agates of several
species. Domestic animals. The horse is small and
not well-looking, but strong and spirited. The
inhabitants of central Asia give the preference
to mares. To the north of Ourga the horses
are larger, and in Gobi better made. All
the camels of Mongolia have two humps ;
those of Gobi are the largest and strongest. In
the environs of Ourga oxen are common. . All
the sheep are white, and have long black ears ;
they constitute the principal riches of the Mon
gols, and supply them with milk and meat, their
only subsistence. The mutton of Gobi is ex
tremely white and delicate. The Mongols have
dogs, and very few cats. A cat is called in
Mantchoo, keschke, in Russian, koschka. In
Kharatchin, near the imperial palace of Je ho,
asses and mules are bred.
The Mongols are too indolent to be good cul
tivators of the soil : they sow millet (shara
bouda), barley, and wheat ; but in small quan
tities, and in a most careless manner. The
sterility of the steppes obliges the Mongols often
VOL. II. v

290 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
to change their habitations. Always on the
look-out for pasture, they are frequently obliged
to pass the summer in places very distant from
their winter and spring encampments, and
consequently to leave their cultivated fields for
a long time. Men who pass their whole lives
in the open air in the steppes, driving their nu
merous flocks from place to place, must have a
natural aversion to any kind of occupation
which requires constant attention : such are
savage and nomade people ; and hence the
Mongols, the Kalmucks, the Bouriats, and the
Kirghise, disdain the laborious occupation of
cultivating the ground ; though in case of dis
ease among their cattle, they envy the lot of
those who have corn to subsist upon. Their love
of idleness is such, that in those countries whieh
abound in wood and pasturage, for instance,
between Kiakhta and Ourga, they never pre
pare an asylum or provision for the winter, ex
cept perhaps a few stacks of hay. At the
season when* the snow falls in abundance, and
the cold is severe, and when their cattle are
attacked by disease, they abandon themselves
to the will of heaven. This indolence often
causes them to lose all they possess. In the
spring of 1821, for example, such numbers of
cattle perished in the north part of the ter
ritory of the Kalkas, that many proprietors
did not save above eighty sheep out of a thou
sand.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 291
The want of authentic information respecting
the population of Mongolia, and the difficulty>
or rather the impossibility for a stranger to pro
cure any, deprive me of the means of saying
any thing certain on the subject.
It is affirmed, that the Chinese government
itself is ignorant of the real number of the
Mongols. Each Mongol prince, when he sub
mitted to the emperor of China, declared, that
he hoped in time of war to be able to offer a
certain number of men, which has not hitherto
varied. The Dzassak, or chiefs of Khochouns,
or banners, engaged to furnish from three to
twenty-three squadrons, each consisting of a
hundred and fifty horsemen completely armed.
Taking thirteen squadrons on an average for
each banner, it appears that the forty-nine ban
ners of the southern Mongols, and the eighty-
four banners of the northern Mongols, or Kalkas,
formed a total amount of two hundred and sixty
thousand men ; to these must be added eight
banners ofthe Tsakhars, which are estimated at
least at twenty-four thousand men. This esti
mate is founded on the state of Mongolia to
wards the end of the 17th century, after the
sanguinary struggle between the Soungarians
and China ; but the Mongols having ever since
that time enjoyed uninterrupted peace, the po
pulation must have increased considerably ; how
ever, it cannot well exceed five hundred
u 2

292 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
thousand tents, each of which contains a sol
dier, that is, a man with his wife and children.
According to this calculation, reckoning four
persons to a family, the total population of Mon
golia will be two millions.
If we consider the immense extent of ground
required for the subsistence of a nomade people
and their flocks, and the arid steppes of Mon
golia, where you may travel for leagues together
without meeting with a single tent, I think that
my estimate is not very far from the truth.
The physiognomy of the Mongols has been
described by Pallas, and other travellers who
have visited Siberia; whoever has seen Kal
mucks and Bouriats, may form a pretty correct
idea of the Mongols, who belong to the same
family. The Mongols are of a middling sta
ture ; they have black hair, which they shave
over the forehead and temples, and form it into
a braid, which hangs down their backs; their
faces are round ; their complexion a little taw-
ney ; their eyes hollow, but very lively ; their
ears large and long; their cheek bones high; their
noses rather flat ; and their beards scanty. A
Mongol with a thick beard is an object of ad
miration among his countrymen. I have met
with Mongols, especially in the country of the
Kalkas and the Tsakhars, whose faces were
fair and pleasing. The women have clear com
plexions, cheerful countenances, and lively ani-

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 2QS
mated eyes ; some of them would be thought
handsome even in Europe.
History informs us that people in their pri
mitive state are generous and hospitable to
strangers, and kind in their families. Among
them the terms friendship and enmity are
words of great importance ; they shun their
enemies, and hold to their friends. Other tribes
are objects of their fear or their aversion. The
mere stranger passes through their abodes with
out being ill-treated ; and, on the contrary, he is
often loaded with presents. The same may be
said of the Mongols. Their manners are sof
tened by the influence of the Lamaic religion.
They are in general hospitable, affable, obliging,
kind, and frank.
Theft and robbery are scarcely known among
them, and severely punished. Such is the cha
racter given of them by their masters the Mant
choos, aud of the correctness of which I had
occasion to convince myself on my journey
through Mongolia. Undoubtedly there are ex
ceptions in the Mongols who have passed several
years in China. The Tsakhars too, who live in
the environs of the capital of China, have lost
their primitive simplicity ; they have acquired
several qualities peculiar to half civilized war
riors, like the Mantchoos, or to a proud nation
with refined manners like the Chinese.
The dress ofthe Mongols is very simple. The
u 3

294 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
men wear, in summer a long robe like that of
the Russians, made of nankeen, or coloured silk,
generally dark blue. The lappel on the right,
which they fasten to the breast, is trimmed with
black plush. They have cloth cloaks, which
are generally black or red. A leather girdle,
fastened with silver or copper buckles, serves to
hold a knife, and flint and steel.
Their caps are round, made of silk, trimmed
with black plush, and have three red ribbands,
which hang down behind.
Their shirts and under garments are also of
coloured nankeen. Their boots are of leather,
with extremely thick soles, like those of the Chi
nese. In winter they have long pelisses of
sheep's skin, and caps trimmed with sheep's
skin, or the fur of sables, foxes, or marmots, ac
cording to their circumstances.
The priests wear robes with capes of nankeen,
taffety, or fur, which is always yellow or crimson.
The dress of the women resembles in many
respects that of the men. They divide their
hair into two tresses, which fall on the breast,
and to the ends of which they fasten small pieces
of silver, coral, pearls, and precious stones of
different colours. Coral is a very expensive
article among the ornamental parts of the dress
of the Mongols. Many old persons of both
sexes have girdles and saddles adorned with
coral worth several thousand francs.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 295
Their bridles, saddles, and harness are fur
nished with copper, and sometimes, but rarely,
silver ornaments. A bow and arrows, and a
short sword, are the arms of a Mongol soldier.
Muskets, particularly rifles, are sought for only
by those who are fond of the chase. Powder,
shot, and balls are obtained from China, Mus
kets are given to those Mongols who serve in
th^ llantchoo army.
The wood-work of the tents consists of a
skeleton of osier, the cross pieces of which are
tied together by small thongs. It serves as the
frame of the tent, and supports long poles
serving as rafters, which meet towards the top,
leaving a small opening for the smoke. This
frame is covered with felt, of which they have
in winter three layers. . Q.n the south side there
is a low and narrow door : sand is strewed all
round the tent; in the centre of it is the hearth,
above which is placed a cast-iron kettle for
boiling their tea, milk, and meat. The right
side of the tent, near the entrance, belongs to
the women. For persons of a certain age car
pets of felt, with patterns worked on them, are
spread on the ground. Rich people have car
pets of Persia or Turkestan.
Opposite to the entrance are placed the cop
per idols, on a kind of small table, with various
utensils for the offerings. On the right hand is
a wooden bedstead, covered with felt ; on the
u 4

296 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
left, trunks and boxes, containing clothes, &c
They have no chairs, but sit cross-legged on the
ground, according to the general custom of
Asia. Near the entrance are placed pails, and all
kinds of household utensils. The tents of the
rich Mongols are spacious and lofty, so that you
may walk in them without being obliged to
stoop ; in many instances two or more tents
are connected together, forming so many distinct
apartments, each of which has its appropriate
use. Milk is the chief article of subsistence among
the Mongols, both as a beverage, and as sup
plying them with butter and cheese. Hence it
is that they are not very robust, but, on the other
hand, extremely active. A Mongol sixty years
of age will ride on horseback two hundred wersts
or more in a day without being fatigued. Meat,
principally mutton, is eaten but rarely. I never
saw any game except wild goats (djeren) and
wild boars, and still less fish, on the frugal
tables of the Mongols. In cases of necessity
they eat the flesh of camels and horses, and even
that of animals that have died of disease. They
never drink water except on pressing occasions ;
brick tea is the principal beverage of the rich
as well as the poor.
In every tent there is always a kettle on the
fire, full of tea, mixed with milk, butter, and

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 297
salt. The weary traveller may at all times boldly
enter a tent and quench his thirst with brick
tea; but he must have his own wooden cup*,
which every Mongol carries about with him, as
an article indispensably necessary.
Hunting, horse-racing, wrestling, and archery,
are the chief amusements of the Mongols. It
seems that they have no idea of dancing ; at
least, I never heard of this kind of exercise.
In summer they drink airak, a- fermented
liquor extracted from the milk of their sheep
and cows ; besides koumiss, and brandy pur
chased of the Chinese. The Mongols pass
their leisure hours, which are pretty frequent,
in smoking and drinking airak and koumiss, of
which they always have a stock, and in com
memorating the great deeds of their ancestors,
endeavouring thus to forget the troubles of life,
and the yoke ofthe Mantchoos. The influence
of these liquors often inspires them with lively
sallies, amusing tales, .or anecdotes respecting
the boldness and success of their hunters, the
rapidity of the most celebrated coursers, &c.
The following are some Mongol songs, which
may serve to give an idea of the language
of this nation, and at the same time of its
poetry : —

* The most esteemed of these cups come from Tibet;
the rich generally have them lined with silver.

298 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
I.
Nomoim khagan Dzoungkhaba
Tourod'in enz6n khagan bi,
Tegofts khoubitou. amitiin
Bourkhanoti oron dou touroube"i.
Oulagan mouroughein osoughi
Dzalbiradji toulaga,
Out&i changhem oron dou.
Dagan tourdultsekoil boltogai,
Kholan khatchilan kelektchi
Khoratora magou sanagata,
Khoiar Dzayaga ilaktchi
Erlyk Nomoun khagan bi.
Nomoun erd6m sourgaktchi
Blama Bakchii'n sourgal bi ;
Nomokhon tounighen sourgakhtchi
Idji aboui'n sourgal bi.
Ene khoiar ough^ghi
Adjiklacji aboultyi.
Saroul talar i'abodjou
Chibaryni medemou ;
Sain inak yabotchoft
Sanaghini medemoti,
Dalai Blamai'n adissar
Daisoun totkhar arila,
Dalda ile" mani ghi
Gourban Bogda ourochie.
Translation.
Dzoungkhaba *, the prince of the law, is the
powerful king of all that exists. O ! happy
* Dzoungkhaba Lobdzang djakba was the Dalai Lama of
the first spiritual generation, and the founder of the yellow
sect of the Tibetan Lamas ; he passes for an incarnation of
the divinity Mangdjouchiri. He built the temple Galdan
at Lassa.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 299
people, born in the country of the gods ! we
beg you to carry us beyond the great river, that
our souls may freely soar towards the abode of
Outai khan.* And you, perverse men, who
trouble the repose of your fellow creatures, know
that there is a judge for good and evil ; the equi
table Eerlik Nomoun khan.t The lamas teach
us the dogmas of the faith ; our parents good
manners : let us endeavour to profit by their
lessons ; for, wandering at random in an obscure
valley, we cannot walk securely, or penetrate
the thoughts of the man who lives with us ; but
if the intercession of the Dalai Lama is favour
able to us, we shall escape the snares of our
enemies, and our secret faults will be pardoned
by the three Bogda. t II.
Dze Tsetsdtsen khani khochdunas, dze aidou dze,
Tserik bide morddba ;
Dze tsertklesoun tserik mani, dze aidou dze,
Gourban mingan tserik bi ;
Dze tseriga manitourouni, dze aidou. dze,
Tsebden beile batour bi ;
Dze chilgaradja mordoson, dze aidou dze,
Chidar Khodnkhoun taidzi ty'i ;

* Ou thai khan, a celebrated mountain in China, with a
temple of Boudha.
f God of hell.
X Or the august three ; these are the Dalai Lama, the
Bantchan Erdeni, and the Koutoukou Ghegen at Ourga

300 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
Dze dzorikladji mordoson, dze aidou. dze,
Dordji Djonom beil6 ty'i ;
Dze chiktighedji mordoson, dze aidoti dze,
Banba bounisoun noin ty'i-;
Dze Khanggain ga dabandou, dze aidou dze,
Alaldousdn da'isoun dor ;
Dz£ Khariou onghy'i mordoson, dze aidou dze,
Manai noiad erdeni ;
Dze Enke tala'in dzoulgheghi, dze aidou dze,
Erghilten de ideltyi ;
Dze Edzen bogdai'n soulder, dze aidou dze,
Domdour nighen dariltyi.
Translation.
A troop of warriors is going to issue from the
territory of the Tsetsen khan ; it is composed of
three thousand warriors, with the brave Tsebden
beile at their head. Among the horsemen of
the court, Kounkoun taidzi has been chosen ;
the valiant Beile Dordji Djonom, and Banba
Bouissoun noin, guided by their own incli
nation, will soon join their companions. The
extraordinary valour of these heroes has already
been felt by -the enemy in the sanguinary battle
on mount Kangai ; and when the august master
(the emperor,) in his clemency, shall have put
an end to our labours, we will pass, on our
return to our own country, by Enke tala, the
thick and verdant grass of which will serve as
food to our excellent coursers.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 301
III.*
Bay courser, with the proud step ! thou, who
addest beauty of colour to a magnificent figure,
when thou sportest among the herd, how much
more beautiful dost thou appear among thy fel
lows ! But that young beauty, whom fate has
thrown into a foreign land, languishes far from
her country ; she incessantly turns her eyes to
wards these parts. Alas ! did not mount Kangai
rise between us, I could see thee every mo
ment ; but in vain we would live for love ; cruel
fate separates us.
IV.
As 'the shrubs on the white glaciers bend
when struck by the impetuous winds, so is the
strength of man bent in -the vigour of his age
by excess of liquor. A young horse which has
chanced to stray among a strange herd always
regrets the companions of his youth. A princess,
whom marriage has led into a distant coun
try, surrounded by an importunate throng who
cannot please her, laments and sighs. She sees
nothing but misfortune in all that surrounds her.
If a cloud obscure the horizon, it is to her the
approach of a storm ; if she sometimes sees the
dust rise on the road, she says, "It is my friend
* The author gives only a Russian translation, without
the Mongol original of the 3d and 4th songs.

302 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
who is coming;" soon undeceived, she sighs
more deeply.

Bogdoin talyksan darasou
Bodoty'i saikhan archii'an !
Bal metou amtatyi :
Balgoun sagoudja nai'ralya.
Olan toumen kourtemektse,
Tenyk-tinghiboldok bi ;
Onodjod gaktsa nourte"koui dou,
Og6 tynde bakhaytyi.
Sana kharin agouldzaksan ;
Saikhan ider dzalagoud,
Sagamal sou-gh^ toudkhadjou,
Saikhan djirgal &n6 bi.
Translation.
What a delicious beverage is the generous
Archan, the gift of the emperor ; it is as sweet
to us as honey ; let us drink it then in our social
meetings. The immoderate use of it causes stupidity ;
but he who drinks of it in moderation, enjoys
supreme pleasure.
Hail ! to health, strength, and youth ! As
chance seldom unites us, let us enjoy together
the delicious beverage : a banquet among bre
thren is the greatest of pleasures.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 303
The Mongols marry very young ; till which
time the children of both sexes live together
with their parents.
A young man when he marries receives from
his father some cattle, and a separate tent, or
jourte (gher,) and is then called gertd, equivalent
to housekeeper. The portion of the bride con
sists, besides clothes, household utensils, &c.
of sheep and horses. The authority of the
parents, and the obedience of the children, are
exemplary among this people. The sons, even
after their marriage, generally live in the same
district as their parents, as far as the extent of
the pasturage will permit.
First cousins are allowed to marry ; two sis
ters may successively marry the same man.
The Mongols keep their genealogical registers
with such care, that, notwithstanding the increase
of the members of a family, and its mixture
with other tribes, they never lose sight of their
yasou, or degree of affinity.
Before a marriage can be concluded, it is ne
cessary to calculate, by the aid of books, under
what signs the young couple were born, that the
star under which the bride was born may not
injure or command that of the bridegroom ;
which implies that the woman ought not to com
mand in the house. The Mongols reckon twelve
signs, corresponding with our months : they are,
1. khoulougana, the mouse ; 2. ou/cer, the ox ;

304 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
3. bar, the tiger ; 4. tolai, the hare ; 5. lou,
the dragon ; 6. mogo, the serpent ; 7- won, the
horse ; 8. khoni, the ram ; 9. mitchit, the ape ;
10. takia, the hen; 11. nokhai, the dog; 12.
gahhai, the swine. The fifth year, called also
ibeghel, is that in which it is always permitted to
marry ; as for the seventh Kharchi, it is the con
trary : for instance, if the young woman is born
under the sign of the mouse or the ox, and the
young man under that of the dragon or the ser
pent, the marriage is permitted ; but if one of
them is born under the sign of the mouse, and
the other under that of the horse, the marriage
cannot take place, even if they should be of
different tribes. The Mongols pretend also,
that the ox and the tiger, the hen and the horse,
the swine and the ape, are hostile signs (kharchi) :
and marriages between persons born under them
are strictly prohibited.
Marriage suits are generally preferred by
strangers to the parties ; the consent being given,
the father of the young man, accompanied by
the negotiator, and by several of his nearest
relations, goes to the relations of the intended
bride. He brings at least a sheep ready dressed
and cut up, which is called touelei, several ves
sels with brandy, and khaducks.* The deputies
of the young man having communicated to the
* Consecrated handkerchiefs.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 305
father of the girl the motive of their visit, with
the prolixity usual amongst Asiatics, place on
a dish before the Bourkhan, the head and other
parts of the sheep, and the khadaks ; they
light tapers, and prostrate themselves several
times before their images ; they then all sit
down, and the visitors regale with wine, and
the remainder of the mutton the relations ofthe
young woman : to each of whom they must at
the same time deliver a khadak, or some piece
of copper coin, which is thrown into a cup filled
with wine ; the father having drunk the wine,
keeps the piece of money.
This custom is called takil tabikhou, and an
swers to our giving hands. The conversation
turns chiefly on the cattle required for the girl :
in these cases, poor people defend their interests
with as much perseverance as if they were
making a bargain in the market. Rich persons
do not fix the number of cattle: and the wealthy
Mongols, especially the princes, consider it as a
point of honour not to dispute, relying on the
effects of mutual good faith ; among them, in
deed, the price paid for the bride is of course
high ; among common people it seldom amounts
to four hundred head of cattle of various kinds ;
but as the animals are usually delivered in
autumn, every female is reckoned for two ; the
payment, besides, is not always made at once,
but at different times, according to the fortune
VOL. II. x

306 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
ofthe husband; and the whole is sometimes
not completed before the expiration of six or
seven years.
When every thing is agreed upon, the parents
of the bride are bound to build her a new tent,
furnished with every thing necessary for the
household, made, as they express it, that she
may not be obliged to ask any thing of others ;
they give her besides every article of dress, and
even a saddled horse, on which she is to ride to
the residence of the husband. This obligation
often compels the parents to deprive themselves
of their own effects.
As soon as all the cattle have been delivered
-to the father of the bride, he gives a fete, which
is soon returned by the bridegroom to the parents
and relations ofthe bride. The young man, ac
companied by his family and friends, sometimes
to the number of a hundred persons, goes to his
father-in-law's with several dishes of boiled mut
ton ; the rich send as many as twenty different
dishes, with a great quantity of brandy and
khadaks. All the guests are already assembled
in the tent ofthe father-in-law. After adorning
the idols, khadaks are presented to the father
and mother-in-law, and the nearest relations.
Afterwards, all the guests leave the tent, sit down
in a circle, and the repast begins ; it consists of
meat, wine, and brick tea. After this fete is
over, the bridegroom sometimes goes with his

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 307
suite to other near relations of the bride, to
repeat it.
This feast is called khorun kourghekou, offer
ing ofthe nuptial festival. It is at this time that
the bridegroom, and often his father and mother,
receive rich habits. The bridegroom, however,
has not the pleasure of paying his court to his in
tended bride, for according to the customs of
the Mongols, she is obliged, after the day of her
being betrothed, to avoid every interview, not
only with her lover, but also with his parents.
It is at this fete also that, at the entreaty of the
mother of the bridegroom, the two parties con
sult the lamas, who choose a fortunate day for
the marriage.
The day before the wedding, two lamas go
from the bridegroom to inquire of the parents
of the bride if any obstacles have arisen. At
the approach of this day, the bride pays her
visits to her relations, and passes at least one
night with each of them, in amusing herself, and
walking with her female friends, who afterwards
accompany her to the abode of her parents,
where, during the remainder of the time, which
is a night or two, she plays, sings, and regales
her companions, her relations, and neighbours,
who are assembled together. The day preced
ing that on which she is to quit the paternal rcof,
the lamas put up prayers, according to the rite
called Gouroum kikou ; and, before her de-
x 2

308 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
parture, offering according to the rite San tabi-
khou. While the tents and other articles of the
dowry are being sent away, her female friends
assemble in the tent, and seat themselves in a
circle near the door, with the bride, to whom
they keep as close as they can ; and the envoys
of the bridegroom have a great deal of trouble
to make them all go out one by one, and to
get hold of the bride to carry her out of the
tent ; they then place her on a horse, throw a
cloak over her, make her go three times round
the sacred fire ; and then set out, accompanied
by the nearest female relations, the mother of
the bride, and her other relations ; the father
remains at home, if he has not been invited the
day before, and goes on the third day to inquire
after the health of his daughter. The carrying
away ofthe bride (bouliat solda) is generally not
effected without violent opposition, especially if
there are many grown up young women among
her friends. This was more especially the case
in former times, when they used to make a kind
of band, with which they fastened the bride to
the tent.
At the distance of half a werst from his tent,
the bridegroom orders wine and meat to regale
the bride, and those who accompany her. On
her arrival, she remains surrounded by her com
panions, till her own tent is prepared. As soon
as she enters it, they make her sit on the bed,

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 309
Undo the many tresses which she wore before
marriage, take off her ornaments of coral, and
after they have added some ornaments to the
two tresses which are left her, she is invested
with the dress of a married woman, and taken to
her father-in-law, to make her obeisance (mour-
goulikou) to him ; there she finds all the' rela
tions and friends of her future husband assem
bled. While the prayers are reading from the
Mongol ritual, she has her face covered, and
imitating the various motions of a man, behind
whom she stands, (and who is always chosen of
the same age as herself) she makes an obeisance
first towards the fire, then to the father, the
mother, and other near relations of the bride
groom ; all give her their benediction aloud
(youroughel). During this ceremony, garments
and other things are presented to them in her
name. The father-in-law, by a previous ar
rangement, chooses what suits him.
Thereupon the bride returns to her tent.
Sometimes the young husband does not sleep
with his wife till the expiration of six or seven
days, especially while the mother-in-law is there,
who must stay at least one night with her daugh
ter. At the departure of her mother, and the
other near relations, the bride is forbidden to
accompany them.
A month afterwards, the young wife sets out
with her husband, or one Of her near relations,
x 3

310 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
to visit her parents, which she repeats some
months, or a year, later. She makes this last
visit solely to receive the cattle, which are part of
her portion ; and the parents, out of love to their
daughter, give her as many as their means will
allow. The rich give their daughters as many
as a hundred head of cattle of different kinds.
The young wife must not receive in her tent,
or go to see her father and mother-in-law, or the
uncles and aunts of her husband, without being
dressed in a short upper garment, called oudji,
of nankeen or silk, without sleeves, and without a
cap on her head. When they come into her tent,
she immediately rises ; in their presence she must
kneel on one knee, and when she goes out ofthe
tent, she must not turn her back upon them.
In the tent of her father-in-law, her place is near
the door ; she is not permitted to go as far as the
khoimor, or that part between the hearth and the
idols. The same is the case with the father-in-law,
who must not seat himself near the bed of his
daughter-in-law, which is generally situated on
the right side of the tent.
The Mongols are not prohibited from having
a plurality of wives ; the first manages the do
mestic concerns, and is the most respected.
Divorce is frequent among them ; the least
miscontent on either side is sufficient to procure
it. If the husband, without any lawful reason,
wishes to be separated from his wife, he is

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 311
obliged to give her one of his finest robes, and
a saddled horse, to return to her friends ; he
retains the remainder of her dowry as an equi
valent for the cattle which he has given to her.
If a woman clandestinely leaves her husband, to
whom she has taken an aversion, and returns to
her parents, the latter are obliged to send her
back three times to her husband. If she leaves
him a fourth time, negotiations are commenced
about a divorce. The whole of her dowry re
mains in the possession of the husband : and
the father of the woman is obliged to return to
his son-in-law a eertain number of the cattle,
which is determined by the authorities,
This restitution, which, among the most
wealthy, never exceeds thirty-five head of cattle,
and is called andzanou-mal, is not made till the
woman is married again, unless the parents, out
of affection for their daughter, and to avoid any
unpleasantness, satisfy the demand out of their
own property. But a separation of this nature
being very disadvantageous to the parents of the
woman, as also to herself, the latter sometimes
finds means to carry off with her her best ap
parel and trinkets.
If the woman is cited before the judges for
this offence, she is obliged to return the effects
to her husband, with the exception of a saddled
horse, and one of the best robes which formed
part of her dowry,
x 4

312 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
The Mongols sometimes bury their dead;
often they leave them exposed in their coffins, or
cover them with stones, paying regard to the
sign under which the deceased was born, his
age, the day and hour of his death, which de
termine the mode in which he is to be interred.
For this purpose they consult some books,
which are explained to them by the lamas.
Sometimes they burn the corpse, or leave it
exposed to the birds and wild beasts. Parents,
whose children die suddenly, leave them on the
road side, wrapped up in leathern sacks, with
provisions, consisting of butter, &c, ; they are
persuaded that by this means they keep off
ghosts. They celebrate the funeral rites of the
deceased according to the wealth and affection
of the parents. The longest last forty-nine
days, during which the lamas continually recite
prayers in the house of the deceased, for the
purification of his soul. They are rewarded by
gifts of cattle, and other things. Rich people,
likewise, make valuable presents of cattle to the
temples, in order that the lamas may pray for
the soul of the deceased.
The Mongol shamans are interred by other
shamans, who conjure the evil spirits not to
disturb the soul of the deceased. The bodies
of the shamans are generally buried, according
to a desire expressed before their decease, in
elevated places, or in the cross-ways, that they

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 313
may be more easily able to do mischief to those
who pass by.
The shamans sometimes predict, especially to
those with whom they have not been on good
terms, that their ghost will come and require of
them sacrifices, which it will be difficult to per
form. The Mongols believe that the soul of the
shamans cannot go to God, but remains on
earth in the form of an evil spirit, doing mis
chief to mankind ; and the shamans avail them
selves of this belief, to demand marks of respect
and sacrifices.
Hence, if a person is attacked by some un
known disorder, the Mongols instantly run to
the shaman to consult him on the cause of the
disease. The wizard never fails to attribute it
some evil spirit, who demands a sacrifice ; he
conjures the malignant spirit to be appeased by
an offering, and to leave the patient; and he
receives some recompence for his trouble.
The intrigues of the shamans, who regard
their will as a law, have been the cause of their
downfall. In 1819, and 1820, a very distinguished lama,
who lived in the Kochoun of Merghen vang,
opposed with so much energy the knavery of
the shamans, that in a short time he succeeded
in expelling them from the country of the
Kalkas. This example was followed by the
Bouriats of Selenghinsk, and in part by those of

314 HISTORICAL ESSAY,
Khorin. The utensils and apparel of these im
postors were burnt.
History informs us, that from the remotest
times, the Mongols were always engaged in
wars, occasioned by their nomade life. It is,
therefore, not surprising that they should have
remained strangers to the arts and sciences.
A man who constantly carries a bow and
arrows, and is accustomed to tame spirited
horses, cannot easily prevail upon himself to sit
down at a loom, or to handle the saw or the
chisel. The Mongols have retained the warlike
character of their ancestors. They are excellent
riders, good marksmen, and use their arrows
with much skill in the chase of wild beasts ; but
it is difficult to find among them a good me
chanic ; there are but very few workmen. We
meet with some goldsmiths ; but these are
attached to the private service of the princes
to make trinkets, for the Mongols have an ex
cessive inclination for show. The smiths and
carpenters perform their work in but an in
different manner. Felts and hair lines, which
are indispensable for their tents, are the only
things which the Mongols manufacture ; they
likewise tan sheep-skins for their winter dresses.
On examining the dress of a Mongol, his
wretched furniture, and even his saddle, we
find that he is supplied with every thing by the
Chinese. China, which is rich in manufactures,

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 315
but poor in the productions of the animal king
dom, always finds means to satisfy its wants by
exchanging with the Mongols the fruit of its
industry, for those things of which it is in need.
Brick tea, tobacco, silks, and woollens, boots,
and various iron utensils, are given in exchange
by the Chinese merchants for horses, camels,
sheep, and oxen. A good horse was in our
presence sold for about sixty bricks of tea.
Every square or brick weighs only four Russian
pounds. To carry on this trade, the Chinese go to
Mongolia. Like our merchants, who carry their
goods to the remotest provinces, the Chinese
bring theirs into the steppes of Mongolia ; then
return to sell at Kalgan, Peking, and other
places in their country, the cattle, raw hides,
butter, &c. which they have procured. The
Mongols, however, more frequently proceed to
China to obtain the things which they want, for
which they give in return cattle, or silver bars ;
but it is of such base alloy, that they call it in their
language kara mongou (black silver). To make
these exchanges, the Mongols repair to the
Maimatchin, or entrepots of Chinese trade, esta
blished at Kiakhta, and near Ourga. In the
former place they purchase every thing at
second-hand from the Chinese merchants. They,
therefore, prefer driving their cattle to the dif
ferent towns situated near the great wall, or

316 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
beyond it, Dolon nor, Kalgan, and Koukou-
khoto, (in Chinese, Kouei-khoua-tching). During
my stay in Mongolia, a good camel was sold
for twenty or thirty liang ; a strong draught
horse for six, ten, or fifteen liang ; a sheep at
two to three liang. The Mongols go into those
towns to sell the salt which they procure from
their lakes. Merely the conveyance of the
Chinese merchandize from Kalgan to Kiakhta,
and that of the articles which the Chinese have
exchanged with the Russian merchants, is a
great source of profit to the Mongols, as they
employ their camels, and the Tsakhars their
oxen. They receive payment from the Chinese
in silver, but principally in merchandize.
In the present situation of Mongolia it would
be difficult to point out any branch of trade
which might be carried on with Russia. The
Mongols consume a considerable quantity of
linen, of which the inhabitants of Siberia are
equally in want. We might supply them with
corn, tobacco, and hardware, but we could take
in exchange only cattle, which the people of
Siberia do not want.
Mongolia is composed of several principalities,
which recognise the sovereignty of the emperor
of China. Each principality is governed by one
of the oldest princes, or by a vang. The horde
of the Kalkas, on account of its extent, is
divided between four khans.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 317
These khans are independent of each other.
The Chinese government has always endeavoured
to keep Mongolia divided into several prin
cipalities ; for a bold khan, who should under
take to extend his power over China, in imitation
of his ancestors, who governed it for above a
century, might occasion much embarrassment
and uneasiness, as well with respect to its safety,
as the supply of its provinces.
The subdivision of the Mongol hordes into
banners, regiments, and squadrons, is founded
upon the necessity of a military administration ;
thus several corps are formed, which lead a
nomade life in the steppes, and are commanded
by vangs, beile, beisse, koung, taidzi, and
tabounan ; assisted by a certain number of sub
altern officers, as the dzassak, toussoulaktchi,
dzakirokotchi, meiren ; and some still inferior,
as dzalan, dzanghin, koundou, dzaissang, boshko,
&c. These officers, at the same time, superintend
the civil and military administration. The pro
perty of the soil is in the princes ; their subjects
pay them a moderate contribution in cattle,
and supply them with the number of servants
and shepherds necessary to guard their flocks
and herds. These princes decide, in the last
instance, all disputes between the inhabitants in
their provinces, conformably to laws established
long since, and which are retained to preserve
order in the armies.

318 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
The emperor of China has inspectors-general,
or chiefs of corps, chosen from among the Mant
choos. The inspector of the troops of the Kalkas
resides at Ouliassoutou, a town near the fron
tiers of Siberia, to the west of the Selenga.
To him is joined a djandjoun, in each of the
four divisions of the Kalkas ; these djandjouns
receive their instructions direct from the em
peror, and are themselves each assisted by a
counsellor. The Tsakhars are dependent upon
the gousai amban of Kalgan.
All the affairs under the jurisdiction of the
chiefs of the banners, must be submitted to the
diet of their principality. The supreme chiefs
of the principalities meet every three years in a
general diet. The princes of the Kalkas hold
it in the town of Ouliassoutou, where they ex
amine and decide on the most important affairs.
At every diet there is a djoulgani-da as president,
and his assistant. The djoulgani-da are chosen
from among the assistants, and the khans from
among the vang, beile, beise, and koungs of
mature age, whether in service or not, and ac
cording to their rank and seniority in the banner.
For this reason, all the princes composing the
diet, are obliged to appear in person at the court
of Peking, with their diplomas, in order to ob
tain their confirmation from the emperor.
Among the Kalkas, as well as among the other

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 319
Mongols, a census of the population is taken
every three years. When this time draws near,
the tribunal of foreign affairs, after having re
ceived orders from the emperor, immediately
dispatches couriers to the djandjoun of Oulias
soutou, to the amban of Khobdo, the presidents
ofthe diets ofthe four tribes of the Kalkas, &c.
Every banner provides itself in time with books
of writing paper, to which the seal of the em
pire is affixed, to inscribe the names of the
children born since the preceding census ; the
names of the deceased must be erased, and the
slightest neglect is severely punished. These lists
are sent to the tribunal of foreign affairs at Peking
to be revised, and copies are kept in the banners.
According as these lists show an increase or a
diminution in the number ofthe inhabitants, new
Mongol somouns are formed or reduced. Each
somoun is composed of a hundred and fifty men.
The soldier, if his bodily constitution permit,
must serve from the age of eighteen to sixty;
if not, he is struck out of the lists. For every
three men, only one set of accoutrements is
given, so that there are but fifty men armed
in each somoun ; but in case of war, two are
obliged to take the field, and the third re
mains at home. Every somoun must have one
dzanghin, and seven koundoui, one of a superior
rank ; one dzalan presides over six somoun.
There must be in every banner one dzanghin,

320 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
and two meiren; but if the banner contains
fewer somoun, the dzanghin has only one meiren
to assist him. All this makes part of the mili
tary administration.
Every banner is farther dependent on a dzassak
(hereditary prince), who is chosen from among
princes of different ranks. He has under him
a toussoulaktchi, or assistant, selected from the
taidzi of the third and fourth classes, and even
among the koung, beisse, and beile, who are
not in service.
In the principality of the Kalkas, which is
adjacent to a foreign country (Russia), the court
of Peking appoints a vang, and an amban, who
preside over the civil affairs, and those which
concern the frontiers, and are particularly en
trusted with the political relations. These go
vernors reside at Urga, where they have a
tribunal (yamoun) under them.
The vang of Urga has under him three
boshko ; there is also a boshko with the dzar-
goutchi of Urga, and another at the maimatchin
of Kiakhta, who are relieved every three years
by others nominated by the tribunal of foreign
affairs at Peking. The offices ofthe djandjoun,
assistants of the Mongol tribes of the Touchetou
Khan, and the Tsetsen Khan, supply clerks for
the yamoun of the vang of Urga. Those clerks
who have distinguished themselves by their zeal,
experience, and good conduct, receive, on the

HISTORICAL ESSAY. S21
recommendation of their superiors, the rank of
officers ; for this reason, there are vacancies in
this tribunal for the sixth and eighth class.
The vang has the right to deprive of this ad
vantage, those who misconduct themselves.
There are, besides, in this yamoun, one dzar
goutchi, and two bitketchi, who are chosen
among the Mantchoos. These three officers, as
well as the dzargoutchi of the maimatchins of
Ourga and Kiakhta, receive from the Chinese
government a silver ruble daily for table money,
with this difference, that this sum is paid to the
dzargoutchi by the tribunal of foreign affairs at
Peking, and to the bitketchi by the yamoun of
Ourga. The supreme administration of Mongolia is
confided to the tribunal of foreign affairs at
Peking, which is more known by the name of
the Mongol tribunal.
The dignity of the Mongol princes is here
ditary in the eldest son alone ; the younger
brothers descend from generation to generation
to the lowest class of the taidzi, who compose a
pretty considerable body of poor nobility. In
ferior employments are given to the most skilful
of them, according to the choice of the princes %
or chiefs of the regiments.
With respect to the attachment of the Mon
gols to the dynasty of the Mantchoos now
reigning in China, it is difficult to speak posi-
vol. n. y

322 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
tively. The hatred of the Mongols to the Chi
nese does not appear to be extinguished ; it is
confirmed in their hearts by the cupidity of the
Chinese, who are guilty of the greatest mean
ness to gratify this passion. The causes of this
mutual enmity are of very ancient date, having
originated at the time when China was the
theatre of the warlike exploits of the Mongols,
and the prey of their plundering expeditions.
The Mongols made several invasions into China,
carried off considerable treasures, and even
made themselves masters of the empire, from
which they were expelled in 1368.
The Mantchoo dynasty has found means to
subdue the warlike spirit of these nomades,
after having declared them its tributaries, and
publicly exacted from their princes tributes
which consist of a small number of cattle : the
court of Peking gives them in return ten times
the value of these tributes, under the pretext
of rewarding their zeal and fidelity.
The Mongol princes receive considerable
presents from the emperor, of silver, silks, rich
dresses from the imperial wardrobe, caps adorned
with peacock's feathers, &c. The Chinese
emperors have likewise succeeded in attaching
to themselves several of these princes, especially
those who live in the eastern countries near the
great wall, by giving to them in marriage their
daughters, sisters, or nieces. Among the per-

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 323
sons in the suite of these princesses, there are
always some Mantchoos, who are inviolably
attached to the court of Peking, to watch over
the conduct of these princes. The latter, besides,
receive from the court of Peking fixed salaries,
as follows : —
The thsin vang of Kharatchin, called Dza-
rikhtou, Touchetou, and Darkhan, as well as the
khans of the Kalkas, and the other princes, have
each 2500 liang (20,000 francs), and 40 pieces
of various kinds of silk (each 16 yards long);
the other thsin vang receive 2000 liang, and 35
pieces of silk ; the kiun vang 1200 liang, and 15
pieces of silk, except the dzassaktou kiun vang
of Kharatchin, who has 1500 liang and 20 pieces
of silk : the beile have only 800 liang and 13
pieces of silk ; the beisse, 500 liang, and 10
pieces of silk ; the koung of the first rank, 300
liang and nine pieces, and those of the second
class, 200 liang and seven pieces of silk ; the
dzassak taidzi, 100 liang and four pieces of silk.
Imperial princesses married to Mongol princes,
and other Chinese princesses, and even their hus
bands, after the decease of their wives, enjoy
the same privilege, if they do not contract any
other marriage ; otherwise they must renounce
their title of son-in-law to the emperor, and their
pension. Taidzi and tabounang Mongol, they
who do duty at the gate ofthe palace of Peking,
Y 2

324 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
called Kian thsing men, receive annually, those
ofthe first class, 100 liang in silver; of the se
cond, 80 liang ; of the third, 60 ; and those of
the fourth, 40 liang. All these payments to the
princes and officers out of China, as well as
in the empire, are made once a year, on the
fifteenth day of the last month of winter.
If the Mongol princes and taidzi are guilty of
any neglect of duty, part of their salary is with
held ; but if they die before these deductions
are made, nothing can be claimed from their
children. A Gourou ni Koung tchu, imperial princess,
married in Mongolia, receives during her stay
at Peking 400 liang in silver, and 200 sacks of
rice, each weighing 80lbs., per annum ; if she
lives in Mongolia, 1000 silver liang, and 30
pieces of various kinds of silk. Her husband
receives at Peking 300 liang, and 150 sacks of
rice ; if he remains in his usual residence, the
same sum of money, and 10 pieces of silk.
A Khochoi koung tchu, a natural daughter of
the emperor, receives, when at Peking, 300 liang,
and 150 sacks of rice, per annum ; but if she
lives in Mongolia, 400 liang and 15 pieces of
silk. Her husband, if he resides at Peking, has
255 liang and 127 sacks of rice; if in his own
country, the same sum of money, but nine pieces
of silk instead of the rice.
The daughter of a thsin vang receives, in

HISTORICAL ESSAY. S25
Peking, 160 liang in silver, and 80 sacks of rice a
year; in Mongolia the same sum, and instead of
the rice, 12 pieces of silk. The son-in-law of a
thsin vang, if he lives at Peking, has annually
200 liang and. 50 sacks of rice ; and if he con
tinues in his own country, eight pieces of silk in
lieu of the rice.
The daughter of a kiun vang has an allowance
of 1 10 liang per annum ; if she resides in Peking,
she is supplied with 55 sacks of rice, which are
replaced by 10 pieces of silk, if she remains in
the province. Her husband receives 60 liang,
and if at Peking, 30 sacks of rice ; if at home,
six pieces of silk.
The daughter of a beile has 60 liang and 30
sacks of rice, or eight pieces of silk a year ; her
husband, 50 liang and 25 sacks of rice, or five
pieces of silk.
The daughter of a beisse has 50 liang and 25
sacks of rice, or six pieces of silk ; her husband,
40 liang and 30 sacks of rice, or four pieces of
silk. The daughter of a koung has 40 liang and 20
sacks of rice, or five pieces of silk; her husband,
like all the other sons-in-law of the inferior of
ficers, receives no allowance.
The daughters of the vang and koung, who
are distantly related to the imperial family,
simply enjoy their title, without any claims to
an annuity. y 3

326 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
The husbands of the imperial infantas and
other princesses nearly related to the emperor
are chosen in Mongolia among the princes of
Barin, Kharatchin, Naiman, Oniout, Toumet,
and Aokhan, in all, from thirteen banners. These
princes are obliged to send annually, in the first
winter month, a report to the tribunal of foreign
affairs at Peking, of such of their sons and bro
thers, from fifteen to twenty years of age, who
are distinguished for their good character and
abilities, stating their names, rank, and time of
their birth, passing over those whose health is
delicate. If the parents, respecting whose chil
dren the tribunal has received the necessary in
formation, come to Court, they are obliged to
bring them with them. The tribunal entrusted
with the affairs of the imperial family, after
having communicated with that of foreign affairs,
and having desired the dzassak to bring before
it all the young princes, selects the most worthy
and presents them to the emperor, to obtain his
consent/ In the choice of sons-in-law it is not
expressly ordered that they must be eighteen
years of age ; it is permitted to report to the
tribunal such as are five years older or younger
than the precise age. The neglect of this for
mality is punished by a fine.
The imperial princesses who are married to
Mongol princes are not permitted to present
their compliments to the emperor till they have

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 327
been married ten years ; they have then the
right to require, during their stay at Peking, to
be maintained at the expense of the court, con
formably to their rank, and degree of consan
guinity to the imperial house. AU those who
come before the expiration of this term on their
private affairs to Peking, must live there at their
own expense. None of these' princesses is al
lowed to go to court, without having first asked
and obtained permission from the emperor
through the tribunal. In their petition they
must state their reasons for wishing to see their
parents. The tribunal of foreign affairs has the
right of refusing its consent to such petitions as
do not appear to be founded on sufficient reasons.
If a princess ventures to go to the capital, or
to any other town, without having informed the
dzassak ofthe tribe, the latter is obliged to stop
her on her journey. If he does not, he, as well
as the princess and her husband, is liable to a
fine ; especially if the dzassak, not being accu
rately informed of the reasons of such a journey,
makes a false report : he is then punished by the
loss of one year's salary, and the princess and
her husband are deprived of it for two years. If
the father of the princess is above sixty years
of age, she is permitted to come to the capital
after having passed five years in Mongolia. The
princesses must, in all cases, solicit this permis
sion from the dzassak of their tribe. If the
y 4

328 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
tribunal of foreign affairs, after comparing the
accounts of the dzassak with those of the parents
of the princess, find them worth attention, they
ask the consent of the emperor.
The princesses are permitted to remain six
months at Peking, reckoning from the day of
their arrival. When this period has expired, the
parents are obliged to send them back imme
diately, and to give notice of it to the tribunal
of foreign affairs, to which the dzassak are ob
liged to announce their return to their habita
tions. A princess who comes to capital on
account of her health, likewise receives per
mission for six months only ; at the end of
which time, if she is not recovered, her parents
must solicit from the tribunal a renewal of the
license for six months more. When this term is
expired, if the patient is not yet cured, the tri
bunal must make a report to the emperor, after
having first ascertained the reality of the motive
alleged. If the parents of the princess, as well
as the dzassak, suffer the time fixed to be ex
ceeded, or neglect to send in a report, they are
liable to a fine.
Thus the Mongol princes, finding both their
political and domestic interest in their attachment
to the government, are not likely to entertain
an idea of freeing themselves from its dominion,
unless from some particular reasons, or hatred to
the emperor. The people, accustomed blindly

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 329
to follow the will of their chiefs, would not
readily act in opposition to their intentions.
Every Mongol is, on the contrary, so satisfied
with the administration of his chief, and is so
much attached to him, that he takes every
opportunity of proving his fidelity by all kinds
of sacrifices.
The Mongols recollect the protection which
was granted them by Kanghi, the Mantchoo
emperor, in their sanguinary wars against Gal
dan, prince of the Soungarians ; and, contented
with the blessings of uninterrupted peace, which
they have so long enjoyed, it is probable that
they will not think of changing their masters,
unless great advantages should be offered them
by a new protector.
Of all foreign powers, Russia is the best known
to the Mongols, by the embassies, couriers, and
caravans which pass through their steppes ; but,
principally, by the ecclesiastical missions to
Peking. The Kalkas, as the nearest neigh
bours, have conceived a high idea of our power,
and on every opportunity manifest their regard
for Russia. Laws.
He who first taught the inhabitant of the
steppes to tame wild horses, to remove their
tents from place to place, to harass their ene
mies as well by invasion as by flight, to throw

330 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
the dart, and discharge arrows at full gallop
against their pursuers, — he who taught his
countrymen to make use ofthe same animal for
its milk, and to kill it for food, was naturally
looked upon as the chief of his nation. Regard
for their own safety, and a thirst for rule, induced
the Mongols to extend their power : glory and
plunder were, at first, the objects of their warfare;
dominion and the ransom of their prisoners were
the price for which they granted peace. History
informs us, that the most famous warriors were
at the same time the most renowned citizens ;
for when nations desire to join to the benefits
of internal administration, the advantages of fo
reign war, they are no less obliged to the man
who ensures their tranquillity, than to him who
leads them to battle ; and without justice there
is no tranquillity. It is for this reason that the
military chiefs of the Mongols were convinced,
by their own experience, ofthe necessity of esta
blishing the administration of justice, and of
determining the duties of their subjects by per
manent regulations. They took the opportunity,
when the people assembled to assist them in
their enterprises ; and found a sufficient sup
port for their power, by acting as supreme
judges when circumstances required, and, at
the same time, means to consolidate order in
the administration of the government, by recon
ciling contending parties.

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 331
The Mongols have always preserved a great
number of ancient usages. They have also
written laws emanating from their princes ; some
of which are of the time of Ginghis Khan. This
code of laws, composed, perhaps, during the
lapse of several ages, was, on the union of Mon
golia with the Chinese empire, in 1691, revised
at Peking, and printed in Mongol, Mantchoo,
and Chinese.
The Mongol princes are obliged every year to
go to Peking, to present their congratulations
to the emperor, on the first day of the first
month. It is for this reason that the Kalkas,
and other Mongol tribes, are divided into four
series, each of which goes to court in turn.
When it is not the turn ofthe dzassak,* each of
them must send one of the assistant taidzi of
his tribe, and a taidzi of the families of the
princes who have contracted alliances with the
imperial princesses.
The touchetou khan and the tsetsen khan of
the Kalkas, as well as the dziabdzoung-dombo
koutouktou, must each send a white camel and
eight white horses every year. These animals
are received by a tribunal, which has under its
direction the emperor's studs : they select only
four of the eight horses. Each of the princes
who sends this present, receives a dombon, or
* This is the title of all the Mongol princes who possess
some territory.

332 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
silver tea-pot, weighing about three pounds,
thirty pieces of satin, seventy large pieces of co
loured nankeen, &c. On the death of the princes,
such of their sons as have not attained the age
of seventeen are exempted from the obligation
of going annually to court ; but as soon as they
are eighteen, they must take the place of their
fathers. The taidzi, as nobles of the last class, have
not the right of going to the imperial court
to present their congratulations ; they send the
tribute called dzoulma khoni, consisting of eight
sheep, killed, and with the wool singed.
This privilege is granted only to the taidzi
of the thirty-seven interior Mongol banners ;
namely, Kharatchin, Khorlos, Barin, Naiman,
Oniout, &c, and even these do not all equally
enjoy it.
The ten taidzi of the banner of Oudjoumout
chin, for instance, have the permission to send
each two dzoulma khoni ; whereas, only one is
received from the ten taidzi of the other
banners. The annual tribute amounts to 500 dzoulma,
50 bags of melted butter, which is produced by
the evaporation of the milk heated in an oven,
and 20 wild boars' heads.
The taidzi go to Peking during the three
winter months ; out of a thousand of them, two
hundred go with the tribute, out of five hundred,

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 333
a hundred, and so on. The dzassak deliver to
these envoys passports, sealed with their seal,
describing the name, age, and rank of the
bearer. Every false statement is severely pu
nished. The thsing vang of Oudjoumoutchin,
and the dzassak of Kechikten, pay their tri
bute in live sheep. The vang, koung, and
taidzi, also furnish the emperor with trained
falcons and dogs for hunting, eagles' feathers
for the arrows, &c. All these tributes, as we
have already said, are very generously rewarded
by the sovereign.
A hundred and fifty Mongol families compose
a company, or a squadron ; a colonel commands
six squadrons. In each family one man in three
is exempt from military service.
The dzassak are obliged to compose their ban
ners or divisions of robust and skilful archers,
chosen among the taidzi and the tabounan ; and
when the taidzi are not in sufficient number,
from among the common soldiers, but such as are
strong and fit for service. Officers of inferior
rank, and horsemen, are replaced by able-bodied
men who possess cattle.
There must be in ten tents, a commander of
ten men ; when this regulation is not observed,
the government withholds three months' pay of
the princes-dzassak, beile, beisse, koung, taidzi,
and tabounang.
The Mongols of the Chinese frontier meet

334 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
every three years, to discuss their affairs, and
settle the number of men who are to be under
arms. If when the assembly has been announced,
the princes who are on active service, and those
without employment, do not attend it, govern
ment withdraws six months' pay of such as are
on duty, and obliges the taidzi and tabounang
who are without employment to pay a fine of
ten horses.
Every year during the autumn, the princes
dzassak and the, taidzi of the different banners
assemble their troops and review them, to ascer
tain whether the bows and arrows are in good
order, to complete the number of soldiers, and,
at the same time, to exercise them in archery.
If one or two soldiers quit their standards and
loiter behind the army, they are arrested, and
brought before the princes and dzanghin of the
banner, and condemned to forfeit an ox, which
is given to the informer.
Incendiaries are beheaded. Those who steal
a saddle, a bridle, &c. are punished with the
whip, like the vilest thieves. When the troops
march during the night, they must refrain from
hallooing or making a noise : the disobedient
are punished. The princes who conduct the
army are to take care to maintain order, and to
give assistance to the inhabitants.
If the officers ofthe army, and those who are

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 335
not in service, over fatigue the post-horses, or
those belonging to the army, they lose six months'
salary, or pay a fine of ten horses.
If during a battle a banner takes flight, and if
the prince of another comes into the field to its
assistance, the officers of the banner which has
fled are punished by taking away one squadron,
which is given to the prince who has rallied
them. If the other banners are not in battle arrav,
and a prince with his banner goes alone to
battle, he is rewarded in proportion to the
service he has rendered, or to the number of
enemies whom he has made prisoners.
Soldiers who have suffered themselves to be
beaten are beheaded : they must conquer or die.
Their effects and their families are confiscated,
and given as a recompense to those, whether they
be princes or private soldiers, who, by rushing
upon the enemy's ranks, have gained the victory.
If on the day of battle the commanders impru
dently attack the enemy, thinking his numbers
to be small, because they have not taken suf
ficient care to inform themselves, they are pu
nished by the confiscation of the horses and
prisoners they may possess. If during the war
any one who has quitted his corps to plunder is
killed, his family are considered as prisoners ;
the dzanghin of the banner is likewise called to
account for him. Temples and houses are not

336 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
to be destroyed, nor travellers killed, without
necessity ; but those who attempt to resist are
to be put to death. They are to treat well
those who surrender, not to strip prisoners of
their clothes, not to separate a man and his wife,
and not to give to the prisoners the charge of
the horses.
If any one returning from the emperor's hunt
ing parties, or the diet, goes home before his
turn is come, the princes, beile, beisse, koung,
taidzi, and the tabounang who are in service,
forfeit three months' pay ; and the taidzi and
tabounang who receive no pay, forfeit five horses,
and each of their attendants one saddle horse.
Whoever passes the boundary of his district,
especially if he fixes himself with his tents in
another, if he is a prince commanding a banner,
or not in actual service, he is punished by the
loss of a year's salary ; or if he receives none,
by a fine of fifty horses. If the offender is of an
inferior class, all his cattle, and that of his com
panions who were aware of the circumstance,
are confiscated, and given to the owners of the
ground upon which they have trespassed.
The Mongols are prohibited from selling to
the Russians, the Eluths, and the Turkestans,
coats of mail, bows and arrows, and other mili
tary accoutrements.
The dzanghin on guard is obliged to accom
pany the ambassadors who pass through his ter-

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 337
ritory, and to provide for their safety. If he
neglects this duty, and if the ambassador is
robbed, the dzanghin is fined three times nine
(twenty-seven) head of cattle ; the soldiers are
punished with a hundred stripes.
When a beile, &c. meets with deserters, he
must' bind the most guilty, and deliver him in
two days to the tribunal ; if he keeps him longer,
he is liable to a fine, and loses three months'
salary. When a dzanghin and his soldiers suffer a de
serter to pass the frontiers, and cannot catch him,
the dzanghin loses his place, and must pay a fine
of three times nine head of cattle ; the corporal
is discharged from service, and pays five head
of cattle, and receives a hundred lashes ; and
each soldier is condemned to suffer a hundred
stripes. The Chinese officers and dzargoutchi, who
occasionally reside on the frontiers and in Mon
golia, to superintend the commerce, and to
decide differences between the Chinese mer
chants, enjoy the right of choosing annually
seniors and inspectors over ten men, among the
merchants of good reputation, who have to
watch over the conduct of the others. If these
superintendents remark that any one behaves
ill, they are obliged to inform the dzargoutchi of
it, who, according to circumstance, sends them
back to their own country. The dzargoutchi,
vol. n. z

338 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
and local Mongol magistrates, are also bound to
enjoin the inspectors in no case to conceal per
sons who misconduct themselves, and to enter
them upon their journal. They are, conse
quently, answerable for all the crimes that are
committed. The dzargoutchi, likewise, exercise
strict vigilance that no Chinese from other parts
shall come into the towns of Mongolia, under
pretence of looking for work : and they send
them back immediately, unless they have rela
tions in the place who will be answerable for
their good conduct.
In years of scarcity the dzassak, or princes,
the rich people and lamas of each banner, are
bound to provide for the supply of the inha
bitants. If they have not sufficient means, the
community must come to the assistance of the
unfortunate ; the lists of those who have been
relieved are sent to the tribunal of foreign
affairs at Peking. In case the want of pasture,
and the death of the cattle, continue for several
years, the resources of the community are not
adequate to the demands upon them, the pre
sident, after convoking all the dzassaks, is bound
to draw up with them a report, to be ad
dressed to the tribunal, and to petition the em
peror to send an officer to the spot, to examine
into the facts, as well as a sum of money to
purchase the necessary provisions.
Under these circumstances, government pays

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 389
a year's salary in advance to the princes, dzas
sak, koung, taidzi, and tabounang, who are
obliged to purchase with these sums provisions
for their subjects. If the dzassak and the other
chiefs do not take measures to prevent their
subjects from being reduced to extremity, they
are deprived of them, and they are transferred
to better chiefs.
Every reigning Mongol prince receives an
nually the contributions of his subjects. He
has the right of taking a sheep from the pro
prietor of five or more oxen ; of twenty sheep,
one, and of forty, two. He cannot demand
more than two, even out of a greater number
of cattle.
At the time of the departure of the tributes
to Peking, of journies to the diet, change of
habitation, and marriages, the princes have the
right to demand, for every ten tents, one horse,
a cart drawn by an ox or a camel ; and from
him who possesses three cows, or more, a pail of
milk ; from the owner of five cows, or more, a
pitcher of brandy distilled from milk ; and from
the proprietor of a hundred sheep and more, a
piece of felt, If they require more they may
be summoned before justice.
The number of the servants of the wife of a
Mantchoo thsing vang of the first rank, besides
a nurse and her husband, is fixed at eight
waiting maids, and eight families ; for the wife
' z 2

340 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
of an inferior thsing vang, besides a nurse and
her husband, at seven waiting maids, and four
families, &c. ; besides, the parents of the bride,
when they furnish the dowry, are at liberty to
send to their son-in-law the thsing vang, what
number of servants they think proper.
In families of an inferior rank, the presents
given on the betrothing of a daughter consist of
two horses, two oxen, and two sheep ; if more
cattle were given, they would be confiscated for
the use of the emperor. It is not forbidden to
give fewer. If the bridegroom dies, all the
cattle are returned ; if the bride dies, only the
half are given back. If the man refuses to
marry his promised bride, her parents have not
the right to demand the restoration of the cattle.
If the woman, when she has attained the age of
twenty, is still refused, her parents are at liberty
to marry her to another.
In case of divorce, the wife is not permitted
to appropriate any one of the articles which she
has made use of during the whole time that she
has lived with her husband.
A Mongol who has no children may adopt
the legitimate children of other people, by giving
notice to his prince and his dzanghin, that the
adopted child may be inscribed in the registers
of the banner.
If an officer, or person of inferior class, either
alone or in conjunction with others, is guilty of

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 341
robbery and murder, both he and his accom
plices, without distinction of rank, are punished
with death, and their heads are publicly exposed.
If an officer, or one of inferior rank, commits
a robbery without wounding any person, he is
transported with his family, his effects, and
cattle, into the provinces of Ho nan, or Shan
toung, in China, where he is employed in
working on the high roads. When the robbery
has been committed by two, three, or more
persons, the principal one is strangled, his effects
and cattle are given to the injured person, and
his family sent to work in Ho nan. The latter
punishment is also inflicted on his accomplices
and their families.
If horses belonging to the emperor are stolen
while he is on his hunting excursions, he who
steals five horses or more, whether a Mongol
or a Chinese, is strangled on the spot. Those
who steal three or four are sent to the un
healthy parts of the provinces of Yun nan,
Koei tcheou, Kouang toung, and Kouang si, in
China. Those who take only one or two are
transported to Hou kouang, Fou kian, Kiang
si, Tche kiang, and Kiang nan, to work on the
high roads.
Persons guilty of stealing from ten to twenty
horses*, oxen, or camels, are thrown into
* Without doubt, the thefts there meant are those not
committed in the camp of the emperor.
z 3

342 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
prison, and afterwards strangled ; such as take
two horses, are sent to Ho nan, or Shan toung.
One horse, camel, or ox, are equivalent to four
sheep. A person who steals fewer than four sheep is
punished with a hundred stripes. He who steals
a dog must pay five head of cattle to its owner.
Princes and others who harbour thieves, are
punished by the loss of one year's salary ; such
as do not receive any are fined forty head of
cattle. If a person swears that he has not har
boured a robber, his paternal uncle is obliged
to confirm his innocence by oath ; if he has no
uncle, his cousin german must take the oath.
If, in the search for stolen cattle, the traces
of them are lost within an arrow's shot of an
habitation, the owner of it is obliged to take an
oath ; if the distance is greater, this oath is not
required. When a prince, either in anger, or in a state
of intoxication, kills one of his subalterns, or
one of his slaves with a pointed weapon he is
fined forty horses; a beile, beisse, or koung,
thirty head of cattle. These fines are given to
the brothers of the deceased, and to his family,
who are removed to any place where they desire
to reside.
If any one in an affray wounds another so
severely that death ensues within the space of
fifty days, he is put into prison, where he is

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 343
strangled. An officer or an inferior who kills
his wife designedly, is thrown into prison and
strangled ; if he kills her by accident, and in a
quarrel, he is fined three times nine head of
cattle, which are given to his mother-in-law.
If the wife misconducts herself, and the husband
kills her, without giving notice to the magistrates,
he is condemned to the same fine.
Whoever commits a murder, in whatever
manner, being armed, is imprisoned and stran
gled. A slave who kills his master is cut to pieces.
An officer who maliciously causes a fire, in
which a person loses his life, is strangled ; if he
is a person of lower rank, he is thrown into
prison and beheaded. Whoever demolishes the
tomb of a prince, or his consort, is liable to the
same punishment ; his family become the pro
perty of the crown, and his effects and cattle go
to the owner of the burying ground. He who
destroys the tomb of an ordinary person, is
punished with a hundred stripes, and pays a fine
of nine head of cattle to the owner of the
burying ground.
If an inferior Mongol slanders a prince either
in his presence or absence, he must pay a fine of
three times nine head of cattle to the injured
person. A Mongol of inferior rank, who has an illicit
connection with a woman of his own class, pays
z 4

344 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
five times nine head of cattle. The guilty
female is delivered up to her husband, who may
kill her ; and in this case, he keeps the cattle ; if
he spares her life, the cattle belong to his prince.
A prince who sleeps with the wife of a com
mon Mongol, must pay "a fine of nine times nine
head of cattle ; a beile, beisse or koung, seven
times nine ; a taidzi and a tabounang five times
nine. These cattle are given to the husband of
the guilty female.
A man of the lower class, who has an illicit
connexion with the wife of a prince, is cut to
pieces ; the princess is beheaded ; and the family
of the criminal are made slaves.
Whoever wears in his cap a tassel hanging
over the brim, a hat covering the ears, or a felt
cap without brim, if he is a beile, is fined three
horses ; if an inferior Mongol, an ox three years
old. If a person with the small-pox is confined in a
strange house, and communicates the disease to
the others, so that death ensues, he is to be
fined three times nine head of cattle ; but if the
person infected recovers, he shall be fined only
nine head of cattle. If any one communicates
to another a disorder, not the small-pox, he must
pay a horse.
An insane person is confided to the care of his
uncles, nephews, and near relations ; and in de
fault of relations, he is given in charge to a com-

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 345
mander of ten men in the next squadron. If he
escapes through the carelessness of his keepers,
they receive a hundred stripes.
If a person refuses to receive a traveller for the
night, and he perishes through cold, the owner
of the tent forfeits nine head of cattle ; if
however, the traveller does not die, he is fined
only one ox two years old. If a stranger is
robbed, his host is bound to make good the loss.
A Mongol of whatever rank, whose conduct is
bad, shall not be retained in the banner, but sent
with his family, effects, and cattle to Ho nan or
Shan toung, to work on the high roads.
Religion.
Among the religions of Asia, the Lamaic, by
its singular doctrines, its strange mythology, and
its precepts of pure morality, is one which parti
cularly merits our attention. Numerous and pro
found researches have proved that this faith had
its origin in India, on the banks of the Ganges,
and thence spread over the greater part of Asia.
It prevails from the Imaus to the shores of the
Great Ocean, in China, and Japan. In central
Asia, it Has softened the manners of the Nomade
tribes, and extended its benign influence among
the savage hordes of Siberia.
The Mongols affirm that their religion did not
originate in Tibet, but that it came from Enet-
kek, or India. The exact period when the La-

346 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
maic religion was introduced into Mongolia is
not known. Several Mongols are of opinion that
it succeeded to Shamanism in the seventeenth
century ; at which time a pious Eluth, an inha
bitant of Soungaria, brought the Gandjour.
This celebrated book, containing the doctrines
of Boudha, is written in the Tibetan language.
Its true sense has not yet been discovered by the
Mongol priests, though by continually reading it
they almost know it by heart.
The basis of this doctrine is, that the universe
is animated by one incomprehensible Being, who
manifests himself under an infinite diversity of
forms. It is owing to the influence of the reli
gion of Boudha that the Mongols, having re
nounced Shamanism, laid aside their violent
passions, and abjured the opinion which they had
generally entertained, that every thing was per
mitted by the law of the strongest. The precepts
of Boudha have rendered them mild and consi
derate. This religion recognises the immortality
of the soul ; but it teaches that the soul migrates
from one living being to the body of another ;
its adherents believe that by virtuous actions
eternal happiness may be acquired, which they
make to consist in sensual enjoyments ; they
believe also that bad actions will be punished by
dreadful torments. The soul, after its separa
tion from the body, is to appear before the sove
reign of hell, who judges of its actions, and

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 347
inflicts the punishment which it has deserved,
but which is not eternal ; for the soul, after
having suffered the torments of hell, is some
times transferred to the body of some living
being, according to the sins which it had com
mitted during its abode on earth. As a reward
for good actions, a person may be received
among the Bourkhans ; a name which signifies a
divinity, and sometimes a saint. To designate
the Creator the Mongols use the words, heaven,
king of the worlds, or other terms indicating
unlimited power. It is surely a phenomenon
worthy of attention, that among a people who
are scarcely able to manufacture the wool of their
flocks, and to milk their animals, there has ex
isted for many centuries a religion remarkable
for the purity of its moral precepts ; which
astonishes by its allegories and its metaphysical
subtleties ; which bewilders the imagination by
vague hypotheses of eternity ; but which, on the
other hand, engages the understanding by pro
found ideas.
The sacred books are very numerous ; a
complete collection of them would form a con
siderable library.
The Tibetan books hold the first rank ; they
contain prayers only, and are, for that reason,
known by the name of books of salvation (tous-
satyn nom) ; they are written and printed like
the Mongol books, on long and narrow sheets of

348 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
paper, which are only kept in wooden boxes, of
the shape of books ; whereas the Mongol writings
are wrapped up in handkerchiefs, and afterwards
pressed between two thin boards. The lines of
the Mongol books go perpendicularly from the
top to the bottom of the page ; the lines of the
Tibetan, on the contrary, go from left to right.
After the idols and images, the sacred books
are most revered. When a Mongol, whether a
priest or a layman, holds an image or a holy
book, one may perceive it in a moment ; he has
then something solemn in his countenance, which
seems to indicate that he feels himself raised
above terrestrial objects. The lamas, before
they open the sacred books, wash their hands
and rinse their mouths, that they may not defile
them by unclean hands, or impure breath.
Those books which contain an account of the
miraculous deeds of the divinities, can be read
only in spring, or in summer ; because at other
seasons the reading of them would produce
tempests or snow. The persons who copy the
sacred books are taken from among the lamas;
they have no other employment.
The Mongol prayers are partly Indian, or
Tibetan, and partly proper to the country.
Most of them are short, unintelligible as well
to the priests as to the laity ; they are continu
ally recited ; those of Tibetan origin fill many
volumes ; persons of high rank read them ; but

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 349
not a single layman understands their meaning.
The prayers in the Mongol language are min
gled with Tibetan expressions, and are sung
at religious ceremonies. The Mongols think
that it is not necessary to understand the mean
ing of the prayers, and that it is quite sufficient
to repeat the words. For this reason, they are
not angry when divine service is interrupted by
words spoken aloud, or even by laughter, pro
vided it is not directed against their prayers.
The most usual prayer, which every pious
Mongol, and in general every follower of Boud
ha repeats a thousand times in a day, is that of
Om man'i padma houm*
It is written on the banners, and every thing
pertaining to the service of the temple. If
the signification of it is demanded of any one,

* This Indian formula has given rise to numerous mystical
explanations among the followers of Boudha. It is con
sidered as an all-powerful safeguard against misfortunes, and
evil influences. Pallas and Mr. J. J. Smith have given us
some of the explanations of these six syllables, which do
not deserve to be copied here. I will only observe, that
this prayer, if that name may be given to a short exclam
ation, is composed of four Hindoo words, of which the fol
lowing is the meaning : — Om is an interrogation, correspond
ing to our Oh ! — man'i signifies jewel or precious stone ;
padma is the lotus which performs so great a part in the .
mythology and religion of India ; houm is a mystical inter
jection in Sanscrit, which has no particular meaning.
The meaning of the whole, therefore, is, Om man'i pad
ma houm, Oh ! precious lotus. — Klaproth.

350 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
he answers, that volumes must be written to
explain the meaning. The Boudhists ascribe to
every word of this prayer a miraculous effect ;
the first banishes all the dangers which surround
existence ; the two second are preservatives
against the terrors of hell and purgatory.
There is, perhaps, no country in Asia where
the priests are so much respected, and, perhaps,
they are no where so sensible of their own im
portance as in Mongolia. Not only those of a
high rank, but even those of an inferior class
think themselves superior to every body who is
not a member of the priesthood. The Mongol
work called Nomoun Dalai (Sea of laws), speaks
in the following terms on this subject.
The lamas are not to be treated with indiffer
ence ; on the contrary, gratitude is to be shewn
to them for all the good they do. It is proper
to abstain from combating, and from not re
ceiving as perfect all that is written in the sacred
books ; in short, every thing must be done to re
joice the soul of the lamas, and to prevent all
that might diminish their satisfaction."
Another work, the Tsagoun kourdounou
oundoussoun tantaris, says among other things,
" You will attain the highest wisdom if you
honour the lamas ; the sun itself, which dispels
impenetrable mists, rises only that honour may
be rendered to the lamas ; the most enormous
sins obtain pardon, by showing respect to the

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 351
learned lamas. By glorifying the grand lama,
you incline the Bourkhans and the Bodisadou
(divine emanations) to diffuse blessings, and to
avert evil. The benediction of the grand lama
gives bodily strength, communicates great ad
vantages to youth, and confers glory. If you
sincerely implore, during a whole day, the bene
diction of a lama, all the sins committed during
innumerable generations are effaced ; a man
then becomes a Bourkhan.
" On the contrary, if we render ourselves un
worthy of such a favour, we become the prey of
hell. Any offence to a lama annihilates the
merit acquired by a thousand generations. Who
soever shows any contempt for the holiness of the
lamas, is punished by accidents, sickness, &c.
If any one turns into ridicule the precepts of the
lama, he is punished by impediment in his speech,
giddiness, &c. Ridiculing the soul of the lama
leads to possession by the devil, loss of reason,
and memory, and banishment into the place
of eternal torment. This derision is the greatest
of all sins. He who is guilty of it will never
have rest ; neither his body, nor his tongue, nor
his soul will enjoy the least tranquillity. He
who succeeds in correcting himself of this vice,
may hope to escape the unhappy fate which
awaits him. If he succeeds in overcoming this
evil propensity, by* acknowledging it to be the
most hurtful of all evils, he is certain of sub-

352 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
duing his enemies. It is for this reason, that the
holy books order us to pray and to honour the
Dalai lama of Tibet with indefatigable perse
verance." As zealous disciples of Boudha, the Mongols
have the highest veneration for the Dalai lama,
their supreme pontiff; however, they place him
after the Bantchan Erdeni, or Bogdo lama, who
resides in the convent of Djassilumbo. They
believe him to be the object of the peculiar affec
tion of Boudha, who governs the universe. Rich
Mongols frequently undertake long and fatiguing
journies to receive his benediction.
It is with sincere piety that the Mongols pro
strate themselves before the koutouktous, the re
presentatives of their supreme pontiffs. There
is in the country of the Kalka, a koutouktou
confirmed by the court of Peking, who resides
at Ourga. The other tribes apply in all points
concerning religion to particular koutouktous
residing at Peking. These high priests enjoy
extraordinary respect. The Mongols believe
that they do not die, but that after having lived
several years in the world, they quit it for a
moment, and that their soul then returns to
animate the body of young men of handsome
figure. Independent of daily prayers to their domestic
idols, and of those which the Mongols repeat in
the neighbouring temples on holidays, every

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 353
one considers it as his duty to go at least once a
year to present to the koutouktou his respects,
and offerings chosen from among" his flocks.
The temples are not numerous.
The Mongol lamas are not much distinguished
from the common people by their knowledge and
their morals. They learn to read the Tibetan,
because all the sacred books are copied and
printed in that language in Tibet; and they
must read them during divine service. We
seldom meet with a priest who is perfectly ac
quainted with the Tibetan language, and still
more rarely, one who knows the origin and
meaning ofthe religious ceremonies.
Every father of a family considers it as his
duty to bring up one of his sons to the priest
hood ; and this is the reason why the lamas are
so numerous. At home they attend to their
domestic affairs ; buy, sell, &c. with the firm
assurance of being peculiarly protected by
Boudha. They are exempt from military ser
vice ; but in case of necessity they are bound,
on the order ofthe chiefs ofthe banners, to cul
tivate the ground and to attend to the cattle.
The lamas, though often very unskilful, are the
only physicians in Mongolia. Their remedies
consist principally in plants and powders.
The Mongol priests observe celibacy. Their
conduct is regulated by the strict principles of
monastic life.
VOL. II. a A

354 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
Persons of both sexes, who dedicate them
selves to a religious life, are ranged in different
classes. The lowest is that of obouchi, in Tibetan ghe-
nin, in Hindoo oubachika ; they are secular and
married, and have only taken upon themselves,
for the salvation of their souls, to observe a
greater degree of cleanliness than people in
general. They wear, as a mark of distinction,
a red girdle ; but they do not shave their hair,
and are at liberty to live at home, in the bosom
of their family.
The second class, the bandi, in Tibetan rab-
tsioun, in Mongol to'in; that is, one who has
renounced the world. This is really a priest,
observes celibacy, wears a yellow robe, and, after
his first consecration, has a right to wear a red
sash, and to do duty in the temples. He belongs
to the lowest class of the priests of Boudha, and
as such, is obliged to observe the fifty-eight
ordinances of austere life.
Above these are the ghetsoul, so called also in
Tibetan as well as in Mongol. To distinguish
themselves from the bandi, they have, besides
their sashes, scarfs and veils, which they wear
on holidays. At their ordination they engage to
observe the hundred and twelve rules, and
duririg divine service they take precedence of
the bandi.
The gheloung, so called both in Tibetan and

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 355
Mongol, have for their badge a second scarf.
They are bound to follow two hundred and fifty-
three rules.
The kidnbou, in Mongol kambou, or khamba,
are ordained by the koutouktou, and have the
power of conferring, with the assistance of four
gheloungs, the three inferior degrees of priest
hood. During divine service they are seated on
a throne, invested with a mantle, and turn their
faces towards the idols. These mantles are with
out folds, in the form of a square shawl. The
Tibetans sent to Peking by the dalai lama, are
generally kianbous.
It is by passing through the three inferior
degrees, that the lamas make themselves familiar
with the practices of a religious life. The kou
touktous, whatever be their birth, are equally
obliged to pass through all these degrees of pro
bation ; but when they have attained the last
degree of purification, after several regenerations,
they are exempted from this obligation.
The lamas, with the exception of the obouchi,
shave their heads, wear full robes, and red wool
len scarfs, which descend from the right shoulder
to the girdle. All, with the exception of the
kianbou, sometimes wear, during divine service,
small cloaks, called tagum, and high-pointed
yellow caps : the names of these articles of dress
are Tibetan.
There are also female religious, or a kind of
aa 2

356 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
nuns, called in Mongol tchabkhantsi, in Kalmuck
obouchintsa ; but some are married. They sub
mit to the rules of an austere life, and are conse
crated. They have a right to wear a yellow
robe, with a red scarf. They entirely shave
their heads, but reside in houses with their
families. The functions of the lamas in the temples are
classed according to the rank of each.
The tsiaibartsi, in Tibetan tsabri, is chosen
among the bandi, the ghetsoul, and the gheloung.
The nerbu (a Tibetan word) is the steward of
the temple ; he is taken from among the three
inferior classes.
The kesgoui (a Tibetan and Mongol word) has
the duty of preserving order during divine service.
The oumdzdt (a Tibetan and Mongol word)
directs, the music in the temples. These two
last officers are chosen from the ghetsoul and
the gheloung.
The demtsi, or treasurer, keeps the accounts,
and takes care that every thing is in order in the
temples. He is taken among the kesgoui and
the oumdzat, and being raised to the rank of
second superior, he remains for some time with
out employment, till there is a vacant place in
the temple.
The da lama, or superior of the temple, is
generally chosen among the second superiors, N ,
who compose the administration that directs the

HISTORICAL ESSAY. 357
ecclesiastical affairs. The members of the ad
ministration are called dzassak lamas.
The priests are to abstain from all sin, and
scrupulously to observe the precepts of religion.
The book called Ikhe mouranou tantaris, says,
upon this subject,-—
" The sins are, 1st. the ten black sins ; 2d.
the five mortal sins ; 3d. the five near sins ; 4th.
the four heavy sins ; 5th. the three vices.
«« I. The black sins are divided into sins by
actions, sins by words, sins by thoughts. There
are three sins by actions ; murder, robbery ac
companied by violence, and impure actions.
There are four sins by words ; lying, threatening,
calumny, arid idle discourse. The three sins by
thought are envy, hatred, and evil thoughts.
" The ten following virtues are to be prac
tised :
" 1. To pardon the condemned, or save any
one's life ; 2. to be charitable ; 3. to observe
cleanliness ; 4. to speak politely ; 5. to speak
the truth; 6. to preach and preserve peace;
7. to follow the precepts contained in the sa
cred books ; 8. to be contented with one's
station; 9. to assist one's neighbour; and,
10. to believe in remuneration, that is to say,
in the punishment of evil, and the reward of
virtue. A a o

358 HISTORICAL ESSAY.
" II. The mortal sins are, the assassination
of one's parents, superiors, conquerors, khou-
bilgans (those regenerated), and exciting dis
cord among the priests.
" III. The five near sins are, throwing down
the soubourgans, causing the death of an her
mit, attacking his reputation, seizing on the
presents made to priests, wickedly shedding the
blood of regenerated persons devoted to the
service of the temple, whom the Mongols regard
as saints.
" IV. The four heavy sins. Each sin is
sub-divided into four degrees, which are, 1. sins
that tend to total perdition ; such as plots against
the saints, the breach of the oath not to reveal
the mysteries ; 2. sins arising from contempt ;
such as, depreciating the merit of others, refusing
to listen to truth, contempt of the lamas, &c. ;
3. sins arising from blasphemy ; such as criticis
ing the true religion, taking the defence of the
ten black sins, being guilty of the five mortal
sins, &c."

359

CHAP. IV-
DEPARTURE FROM PEKING. ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGAS
SOU, THROUGH THE COUNTRY OF THE TSAKHAR MON
GOLS.
On the 15th of May, 1821, we quitted Peking,
to return to our native country. The thermo
meter of Reaumur was 23° of heat. At six
o'clock in the evening we arrived at Thsing ho.
After we passed Houang szu, the meadows were
green ; the wheat was already in ear ; but, in
consequence of the dry weather, very low and
thin. Between the wheat kio liang (holcus
sorghum) was sowed ; but it is put into the
ground after the wheat, and consequently reaped
when the wheat is cleared off. Near Thsing ho
there are immense magazines of wheat, for the
supply of the palace of Yuan ming yuan.
On the following day the heat was very op
pressive. To the west we clearly distinguished
the mountains, particularly the heights of Hian
chin, occupied by the brigade of artillery of
Peking ; we likewise saw the white walls of the
palace of Ming yuan, and the pyramid, which is
near the spring whence water is drawn for the
imperial palace.
The town of Chaho is surrounded with sand ;
the road from that city to the fort of Nan kheou,
A A 4

360 ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU.
is crossed by a great many narrow roads, leading
to villages. The houses of the peasants are
sheltered by tufted-trees, and there was no indi
cation that we were passing through an inhabited
country, except the little groves of willows. We
met with no travellers, except a caravan, coming
from Kalgan, with wool. We arrived at Nan
kheou at three o'clock in the afternoon, and set
out again on the following morning at eight
o'clock. We found the great heat extremely
oppressive in passing the ravine of Kouan kou.
The wealthy Chinese travel in chaises, borne by
four men. The ground was covered with ver
dure ; and the thick foliage of the walnut and
chestnut trees here and there concealed the
barrenness of the rocks and hollows. On every
side we heard the murmur of the mountain
streams ; but there was no shelter from the
burning rays of the sun, which were reflected
from the naked rocks.
In this ravine we visited a temple built on a
rock, and inhabited by a young lama from
Tibet; the caprices of fortune, and fanaticism
had induced him to settle in this spot. We
would not deny ourselves the pleasure of seeing,
for the last time, the great wall.*
At two o'clock in the afternoon we arrived at
* That is the double southern wall which is different from
the northern, which passes to the north of Kalgan.— Klap
roth.

ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU. 361
Tchha tao, and were overtaken by a heavy fall
of rain, accompanied by a storm ; but the sky
soon cleared, and we reached Yu lin at eight
o'clock. The corn was very backward here ; but per
haps it had been sown later than usual, because
the cold had been of long duration this year.
We found a very great change in the temper
ature ; in fact, this part is two hundred and
fifty toises higher than the plains of Tchy li,
and the atmosphere becomes colder the nearer
we approach Kalgan.
The night was very rainy, accompanied with
a great deal of thunder and lightning ; and at
eight o'clock in the morning we continued our
journey. The fields of wheat and rye were very
fine. After having passed a sandy and stony
ravine, we arrived at Thou meou at two o'clock
in the afternoon.
We met to-day three criminals, covered with
red cloaks, and riding on asses, on their way to
Peking. The soldiers in garrison at this place
cultivate the ground.*
* In the History of the Chinese emperors of the dynasty of
Ming, it is said, that the maintenance of the numerous garri
sons in those vast countries which separate China from Mon
golia, is very expensive to the government. This is the reason
that Houng vou, the first emperor of the dynasty of Ming,
who reigned in the fourteenth century, ordered that three
quarters of the soldiers should employ themselves in agri
culture, and the other quarter do duty in the fortresses.

362 ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU.
The following day we set out early. The
fields on this side of Thou meou were well
cultivated ; the crops were principally wheat,
which was nearly ripe.
At Cha-tchin there was a fair, being the first
day of the new moon. A number of country

In case of a hostile invasion, all were bound to take up
arms to defend the fortresses, and their own homes. The
winter was employed in military exercises. Each soldier
was obliged to cultivate fifty acres of land called mou,
being about thirty toises in length, and six in breadth.
The government provided them with arms, seed-corn, cattle,
and other things of which they stood in need. They did not
pay any taxes. Orders were likewise given to lay down
rules, for teaching them the best method of cultivating
the ground, and managing gardens ; in short, every thing
relative to rural economy. This wise ordinance was
crowned with success, agriculture continued to improve
in these countries ; the soldiers were soon sensible of its
advantages ; the state was at less expence, and the people
not only felt themselves released from ruinous taxes, and
the extortion of the tax-gatherers, but they also found the
imposts diminished ; for they were required to give only a
measure, containing seventy -seven cubic inches of corn, per
mou. The emperor was much pleased at having found a
means of rendering his soldiers useful to the country, by
accustoming them to labour, and thus preventing idleness
which is the source of all vices, and at having combined
with this great advantage, that of diminishing the taxes,
which were burdensome to the nation. — Timkowski.
Similar colonies of agricultural soldiers had existed in the
frontier provinces of the Chinese empire, ever since the
dynasty of Han, or the second century before our era.
Houng vou only restored them again  Klaproth.

ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU. 363
people were assembled to sell corn, vegetables,
and asses ; for the latter they asked ten liang,
or one hundred and sixty francs a piece.
After having passed the towns of Toung pa
li and Paongan, we arrived, after travelling
seven wersts and a half, at a place in the chain
of the neighbouring mountains, from which
springs issue, that fall into a basin near the tem
ple of Fo. This basin supplies a vast plain with
the water necessary for the cultivation of rice.
The land is divided into squares, on which rice
was sown, which was already springing up. The
ground here, as throughout China, belongs to
the government. The peasants pay annually
one third of their harvest, and are obliged to
convey it at their own expense to Siuan houn
fou, the principal town of the district, about
forty wersts from this place.
We stopped at the fort of Ki ming. Its low
houses, and the poverty of its inhabitants, do
not correspond with the fine ramparts by which
it is surrounded.
In the first volume of this work I have
spoken of an ancient temple, situated on a
mountain to the north of Ki ming : it is very
difficult to get at it on account of the steepness
of the ascent. As we were very near, and
the weather was fine, the chief, and several
members of the Mission, including myself, set
out to visit this temple. A Chinese peasant

364 ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU.
showed us the road, but we missed it, and were
soon stopped by precipices and rocks. I,
and several of my companions, turned to the
east, and after much difficulty arrived at the
temple. Those who took a southern direction,
returned without having seen any thing.
The steepness of the mountain, the pointed
rocks, the numerous chasms, their depth, and
the violence of the wind, almost made us
despair of attaining our object ; overcome by
fatigue, and holding each other by the hand,
we continued to ascend, till the barking of a
dog informed us that we were approaching a ha
bitation. After having again passed a very dif
ficult part of the mountain, by a road leading to
other temples, situated higher up, we came to
that which we were looking for. This temple,
like all the others, is built of brick, and com
posed of several chapels, detached from each
other, and filled with idols. It is near a garden
and orchard. A gigantic rock seemed every
moment ready to fall upon the temple, and crush
it. In this temple we found only one Chinese,
who is the keeper of it ; he spoke a little Mon
gol. A crooked and rough path, hewn in the
rock, led us to the top of the mountain. It is
difficult to conceive the motive which can have
induced the erection of such a monument, on
this narrow part of the mountain, surrounded
by precipices, and exposed to tempests. Merely

ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU. 365
the conveyance of the materials from the bottom
of the mountain, which is nearly three wersts
distant, must have been attended with vast ex
pense. The Ho chang, or priest, and two assistants,
who spoke Mongol, came to receive us. These
hermits were quite astonished at seeing Russians,
of whom they probably knew nothing, except
by hearsay. They very politely showed us the
interior of the temple, as well as their own
habitations. The summit of the mountain is
divided into two parts, which are united by a
marble bridge over a deep chasm. To the
right, is a little temple ; to the left, a large one ;
before which are a belfry and the house for the
priests. The whole level of the summit is co
vered with buildings; a little lower down are
rocks, which form terraces. Towards the north
west, between the mountains, is the river Yang
ho ; and to the south, at the foot of the moun
tain, the fort of Ki ming, the buildings of
which, seen from this height, appear very in
distinct. The horizon is bounded by chains of
high mountains. This temple, which is erected
in honour of Fo, is kept in very good order.
In the middle of the fourth moon a great num
ber of pilgrims resort hither ; no one could
give us any information of the time when this
singular edifice was built. If we may judge
by appearance, it may be about two hundred

366 ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU.
years old. The temple in the centre receives
its provisions from Ki ming, and supplies the
upper temple with water, coals, &c. Asses are
used to convey these articles.
The sun was ready to set, and if was advisable
to think of our return. I made a present to the
Ho chang of two ounces of silver ; and to the
assistants of some small pieces of coin. We de
scended by the same road as far as the centre
temple. This side of the mountain, which is
exposed to the north-west, is covered with small
bushes and shrubs. On the terraces there were
small fields of wheat ; a little below the middle
temple there is another ; and at the foot of the
mountain there is a small soubourgan. We went
towards the west, as far as the cottages of the
labourers employed in the coal mines, and having
reached the main road, returned home at ten
o'clock. Between Ki ming and Siuan houa fou we saw
very fine corn. The fields are watered. We
were told that the pasturage in the country of
the Tsakhar is very good ; but the farther we
advance to the north, the worse it becomes.
The waters of the Yang ho are brought to
this place by numerous canals ; in the middle of
this river there are pillars intended for a bridge.
A dike along the bank secures the country from
inundation. The Yang ho, like the Houang ho,
or yellow river, has low banks ; as it comes

ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU. 367
from the mountains, it is very much swollen
during the season when the heavy rains fall, be
comes very rapid, and causes terrible devast
ations ; as was the case in the year 1801.
We saw some Chinese at work in the fields.
Their usual plough, which resembles ours, is
drawn by two oxen ; then they employ a sowing
machine, which has a great resemblance with
the plough, and has three hollow teeth, with
iron supports. Above the wheels there is a box,
from the bottom of which the seed falls through
the teeth, which are about an arsheen in length,
constantly following the motion of the plough
in the furrows. Behind, is a small wooden
roller, which covers the seed which has been
sown ; it supplies the place of a harrow. This
plough is so light, that it may be lifted with
one hand. If the harvest in China produces
fifty, seventy, and even a hundred fold, the
cause will be found in the care with which they
manure the ground, and the custom of sowing
early, of weeding and watering ; besides, the
furrows are from seven to fourteen inches distant
from each other, which gives the corn suffi
cient room to grow freely. In sowing, they
cast the seed by a tube, or with their hands, so
that the grains may be equally spread upon the
ground, and not hinder each other in growing.
Late wheat is sown in the intervals left between
the early wheat. The Chinese farmer saves his

368 ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU.
land, his seed, his time, and the strength of his
cattle. The environs of Siuan houa are but indif
ferently cultivated, doubtless, on account ofthe
aridity of the soil. The whole plain which sur
rounds this city, to the distance of about seven
wersts, consists only of clay and sand, like most
of the lands on the Yang ho.
The inhabitants of this city carry on an ex
tensive trade in tobacco. They mix a great
quantity of juniper leaves with it, which give it
a scent that is agreeable to the Mongols. To
bacco is sold in almost every house.
The walls of the city, which have fallen into
ruins, prove that China has enjoyed a long
peace. The western part is the most populous ;
there are a great many shops ; several have a
good stock of merchandize. We saw two
wooden triumphal arches in the principal street ;
in the centre of the city is a grand portico, with
four issues : it is richly ornamented. Further to
the east is a small row of houses, with kitchen
gardens ; this street is bordered by willows ;
it is the quarter inhabited by the poor.
Beyond Siuan houa we saw fields of rye, beans,
peas, barley, &c, and four wersts from the town
passed by the ruins of an ancient burying-
ground ; its gates of granite, broken monu
ments, lions, &c. lie scattered about the fields.
At last we came to the high road, and proceeded

ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU. 369
through deep sand, which, at the time of our
journey to Peking in the winter, was frozen hard,
and consequently did not hinder our progress.
After passing a defile paved with stones, twelve
wersts and a half from Siuan houa, we halted in
a small teinple on the declivity of the mountain.
From this place to Kalgan, which is about twenty
wersts, the road descends ; on this plain there
are many villages ; the country is wooded and
well cultivated ; but the crops are poor, on
account of the severity of the climate, and espe
cially for want of water. The peasants impa
tiently expect the summer rains.
About half-way, the Nerba of the Boshko, who
accompanied us, hastened after me, and re
quested me not to be in a hurry to enter Kalgan,
in order that the Nerba of the Bitkechi, who was
sent before, might be able to "prepare fhe quar
ters usually -assigned by the city for the Mission.
After stopping about two hours in this village,
we set out again, and arrived at Kalgan at four
o'clock in the afternoon. The sand, the clouds
of dust, and the great heat incommoded us very
much on this road. When we had passed through
the suburb of Kalgan, we could not enter the
city by the usual way. The stone bridge had
fallen down in the centre, and was now under
' repair, for which purpose large blocks of grey
granite were brought from the neighbouring
mountains. We went higher up the river, which
VOL. II. B B

370 ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU.
we crossed by a ford, and came to a large street,
where the inn assigned for the Mission was
situated, not far from the great square, in which
the house of the Amban of Kalgan stands. The
old Nerba had chosen our quarters, which were
very inconvenient and disagreeable, on account of
the noise made by people playing cards.
The merchants of Chansi, who trade to Ki
akhta, come in great numbers to Kalgan upon
business, and spend large sums in games of
chance. A public theatre, which was open not
withstanding the Court mourning, Kalgan being
at a considerable distance from the capital, gives
these travellers another opportunity to spend
their money. We were assured at Peking that
the inhabitants of Chan si are distinguished above
all the inhabitants of the Chinese empire, except
those of Eastern Turkestan, who resemble them,
by their prodigality and love of pleasure. In
their own domestic arrangements they are ex
tremely avaricious. We here received the dis
agreeable information, that for want of orders
from the tribunal of Peking for the continuation
of our journey, we should be obliged to stop two
or three days at Kalgan, till dispatches arrived.
Asses are very dear here, and cost from twelve
to eighteen liang a-piece. The introduction of
these useful animals into Siberia would be very
advantageous. We had occasion to hear at a distance the

Route to tsagan balgassou. 37!
firing of a battalion of infantry, which was per
forming its exercise very irregularly ; a Mongol
lama, about thirty years of age, who was con
demned to death for having committed several
murders, passed before our inn ; he was in a
cart, surrounded by a strong detachment of
cavalry, and followed by one of the oldest offi
cers in Kalgan, in a litter carried by men, who
was also attended by an escort of cavalry. The
criminal was to be beheaded out of the western
gate ofthe city, or of the great wall*, his body
buried at the place of execution, and his head
exposed in the place where the crime had been
committed. We learned from our landlord, that the bridge
here had been built at the expense of the
merchants. On the 24th of May, having received the
permission to proceed, we took the road to Nor
tian, because that to Tolai soume was flooded by
heavy rains. We crossed the mountains, where
there was still much snow, which had fallen in
abundance some days before.
It was cold upon the heights ; the wheat arid
rye were but just springing up, whereas at Peking
the wheat was already in flower.
On the following day we left Nor tian for
Tsagan balgassou ; a thick fog hindered us from
* This passage confirms what I have said relative to the
error in Mr. Timkowski's map.
B B 2

372 ROUTE TO TSAGAN BALGASSOU.
seeing more than a few steps before us, but it
cleared up about noon, and the steppe opened to-
our view : the coolness of the atmosphere, and
the singing of the larks, * revived our hope* of
soon seeing our native country.
In the meadows there were a great number of
horses belonging to the emperor. Father Ger-
billon, who accompanied Khang hi, I696, ob
serves, that that monarch, when he passed
through this country, had inspected his studs, of
which there were 230, each containing 300 mares
and stallions, and 32 tabouns of horses three
years old. The good horses, when four years
old, are sent to the emperor's stables, the rest
are at the disposal of the war department, for
the service of the army and for the post. At
this time 40,000 oxen and 180,000 sheep, be
longing to the emperor, were feeding in these
pastures. From Peking^ to Tsagan balgassou, we had
been eleven days in travelling 263 wersts. The
rain poured down in torrents almost every day.
* The lark of the Pyrenees, called in Chinese pai ling.
This bird is highly esteemed by the Chinese for its song«
On our return we had one in a cage, placed on the seat of
one of our carriages, which sung without ceasing..

373

CHAP. V.
iSWURNEY THROUGH THE COUNTRY OF THE TSAKHARS 
PASTURAGES — THE STUDS AND FLOCKS OF THE EM
PEROR OF CHINA.
1 went with the inspector of our baggage to
visit our taboun, which was under the care of
three Cossacks and ten Mongols ; it was about
seven wersts to the north of our halting place, in
the midst of fine pasturages, numerous salt lakes,
and well watered. The Chinese, who graze in
these parts the oxen, sheep, and horses, which
they buy in Mongolia or at Kiakhta, of our Bou
riats and Cossacks, have built villages here, the
houses of which are constructed of brick and sods
of earth. We had only twenty-six camels and a
hundred and three horses left ; the first had grown
fat, and the latter, on the contrary, were very
lean, which made me resolve to make an ex
change with the Mongols as soon as" an oppor
tunity should offer.
Camels cannot be employed to convey burdens
to a great distance, till the beginning of August
or September ; because before that time their
bunch is not sufficiently fat. In the autumn
they lose their hair, so that their skin is entirely
b b 3

374 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
naked ; the new hair does not grow till the fol
lowing July.
Our halting place was two wersts to the east
of Tsagan balgassou, a little town near the Narin-
gol, a small narrow river, formed by three
sources, called Chabartai ; the east, the centre,
and the west, which all come from mount King-
kan, near Kalgan. A short distance to the
north of Tsagan balgassou, the Narin-gol falls
into a lake which is connected with the An-
gouli nor, a great lake to the north-west of a
vast plain. Game is very plentiful in these
parts, especially swans, which are much esteemed
by the Mongols, who are accustomed to eat
only mutton, and very seldom beef; they do
not kill any other bird. The Chinese and Mon
gols were much surprised to see our Cossacks
shoot wild ducks.
On the 29th of May, at four o'clock in the
afternoon, we set out, accompanied part of the
way by the inhabitants of the town. Two
wersts and a half, towards the west, we reached
the main road which we had followed when we
came. It is very convenient for carriages. The
pasturage on the low ground was excellent.
We saw flocks of ducks and wild geese. Seven
teen wersts farther, we waded through a brook
which united the lakes, bounding on the north
the valley of Balgassoun. From that place to
the banks of the Tola, which are about a thou-

COUNTRY OF THE TSAKHARS. 375
sand wersts distant, no more rivers are met
with. Thirteen wersts farther, we halted at
Toulghi, to the north of a hill on which there
is an obo. The valley where we stopped on
the 12th and 13th of November last year, is
behind this tract.
Ten wersts to the west of this station, is the
temple c-f Boudha; to the east, dwells the
family of the famous Tsi-efou, or seventh son-
in-law of Kien long. He was on all occasions
the zealous advocate of the Mongols with the
emperor. His memory is dear to the Tsakhars.
During the summer, the Mongols of the en
virons set up their tents upon the hills to
.breathe the purer air, and to prepare the argal,
or dry manure, on the ground which they in
tend to occupy in the winter. In the evening,
at sun-set, we heard the sound of horns, which
are large shells. The lama recited prayers to
thank the bourkhan for having protected the
emperor's sheep from the diseases which then
prevailed among the cattle.
We visited our oid friend Dargoui Molon,
who had under his care five hundred mares with
their foals ; he regaled us with brick tea, Jbutter,
cheese, and koumis.
The Mantchoos have in Mongolia, near the
great wall, and in the country of the Tsakhar,
immense pasturages, under the direction of
b b 4

376 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
officers, who have also the inspection of the
studs. The following is a view of them : — .
J . The pasturages of Yang ching mou are
210 li to the north of the city of Kuang ning
hian, of the district of Kin tcheou, of the pro
vince of Ching king or Moukden, beyond the
barrier of palisades which forms the eastern pro
longation of the great wall. These pastures
extend 150 li from east to west, and 250 li
from north to south. They are bounded on the
east by the territory of the Karatchin ; to the
west by that of the Toumet ; to the south they
extend to the gate of Tchang von thai ; and to
the north to the frontier of Karatchin. It is
1250 li from the chief residence ofthe directors,
to Peking.
2. The pasturages ofthe court, or Chang tou,
are 145 li from Tou chy kheou, one of the gates
of the great wall. The directors of the pas
turage reside at Boro khoto, from which it is
80 li eastwards, to Gourban Kourde ; 50 li west,
to the frontier of the Tsakhar, of the bordered
white banner ; 70 southwards, to Tsagan kourde;
140 to the great wall ; and 50 northwards, to
the frontiers of the Tsakhars of the bordered
white banner ; and 675 li to the capital, by the
gate of Tou chy kheou.
Lake Dolon nor (seven lakes) is in the midst
of these pastures. The princes of Kalkas having

COUNTRY OF THE TSAKHARS. 377
been beaten in 1691, by Galdan Khan ofthe
Soungarians, came to the frontiers of China,
and submitted to that empire. The emperor
Khang hi being in this country, all the Mongol
princes waited upon him ; the Touchetou khan
of the Kalkas, and the Koutouktou, accom
panied by the princes, were presented to the em
peror, who received them with great affability.
On this occasion, the Mongols asked the em
peror's permission to build a temple at the place
where they had acknowledged his sovereignty.
The temple received the Chinese name of Goei
tsoung szu ; a stone monument erected near it,
bears an inscription suitable to the occasion.
3. The pasturages of the Li pou, or the tri
bunal of ceremonies, 230 li north-west from
Kalgan, near the lake Djakhirtou tsagan nor,
extend 46 li from east to west, and 65 from
north to south. It is 640 li to Peking by way
of Kalgan. These pastures are crossed by the
Chabartai and the Bodoun, which fall into the
above mentioned lake. The latter rises to the
north-west of these pasturages, runs south-east,
and falls into the lake to the north-east of the
studs. ,
,4. The pasturages ofthe Tai phou, the left
wing of the Mantchoo army, are 140 li north
east of Kalgan. They extend 130 1 i from east
to west, and 50 from north to south. It is 550
li to Peking by way of Kalgan.

378 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
5. The pastures of the right wing, 810 li
north-west of Kalgan, on the banks of the
Tsitirkhan gol. They extend 150 li from east
to west, and 65 from north to south. By way
of Kalgan, it is 720 li to Peking.
6. The pasturages of the four bordered ban
ners of the army. The Russian Missions which
go to Peking, generally pass through these
pastures, the administration of which is 100
li north of Kalgan, near mount Kongor Obo.
They extend 140 li from east to west, and 150
from north to south. Under the dynasty of
Han, these countries were a part of* the prin
cipality of Shang kou ; under that of the Ming,
they had a separate governor. In 1422, the
residence of the governor was fixed at Siuan
houa fou, and this place became the frontier.
Under the present dynasty, this tract was
assigned for the studs of the four Mantchoo
banners, stationed in the interior of China.
The principal mountains are the Olon tologoi,
70 li to the east of the administration of the
pastures, Kaptagai, and Yadai ola.
The ancient city of Hing ho is 20 li to the
south-west of the seat of the administration,
and 100 li north of Kalgan ; it now bears in
Mongol the name of Khara balgassou. It was
founded under the dynasty Kin; its circum
ference is six li ; and there are four gates, the
ruins of which are still "to be seen. Sha tching,

COUNTRY OF THE TSAKHARS. 379
20 li north-west of the administration, and 10 li
north of Hing ho, was founded under the dy
nasty of Yuan. The Mongols call it Tsagan
balgassou ; its circumference is seven li ; and the
ruins of its four gates still exist.
7. The pastures of the four banners of the
army without a border, are 200 li north-west
of Kalgan, near mount Nomokoun boro. They
extend 130 li from east to west, and 250 from
north to south. By way of Kalgan, it is 610 li
to Peking.
The Chabartai' is seven li to the west ; it rises
in mount Nomokoun boro, flows to the north,
and falls into the lake Djakhirtou tsagan nor.
The Kalioutai is 80 li to the south-east; it
rises in mount Noutchou-goun shara chabartai,
flows north-west, and falls into the lake An-
gouli nor.
Lake Tsi ning hai tsu, in Mongol, Angouli
nor, or Angla, is situated 60 li to the east ; it
receives the two small rivers of Kalioutai, and
Khara oussou. The town of Tsi ning is on its
west bank. Lake Djakhirtou tsagan nor, or
Khousoutou, is 40 li to the north; the pastu
rages of the Li pou, or the tribunal of cere
monies, are situated on its western bank. The
rivulet of Dariang boulak is 20 li to the south
east, flows to the north-west, and falls into the
lake.

380 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
The Tsakhars of the banner of Koubo
shara occupy the country situated between
Toulghi and the district of the Sounites.
Lake Doutou nor is 15 wersts from Toulghi,
to the right of the road.
The great heat had entirely parched the grass
upon the hills. We found ourselves surrounded
by an inquisitive crowd, whose outward appear
ance indicated extreme poverty. A Jama seventy
years old, asked alms of us ; we offered him
some brick tea, but he wanted money.
In the evening we arrived at Dzamyin oussou,
or Tsagan-obo, having travelled 20 wersts. We
were surprised on the way by a thunder-storm,
accompanied with heavy rain.
The mountains offered good pasturages in
places which, in the year before, were burnt
at the approach of spring, as is practised in the
Ukraine, in Bessarabia, among the Bashkirs and
the Kirgise. We saw here and there some wild
flax ; and pretty often flocks of wild goats. The
surface of these countries is covered with moun
tains, which are intersected by vallies; some
open, and others very confined. The Mongol
steppes are generally very stony ; the soil is
o-ravel mixed with sand. The fineness of the
pastures made us desire to stop some time at
Dzamyin oussou ; but the koundoui of the
Tsakhars, having learnt that the environs were

COUNTRY OF THE TSAKHARS. 381
destitute of the means to entertain the bitketchi,
the boshko, and their suite, made us change
our resolution.
On the 1st of June, at noon, a heavy rain
inundated the valley, and penetrated our tents*
which were covered only with old felt. Eleven
wersts farther, we were surprised by a second
shower, accompanied by hail and loud claps of
thunder; the whole road was inundated, and
we were completely wet through. Half an hour
afterwards the sky cleared up ; there had been
no rain in the mountains. At eleven o'clock at
night we arrived at Ikhe oussou (abundance of
water), or Oulan khochou (red rock). The
weather was very cold.
On the 2d of June the night was very cold,
but the moon shone bright. Towards day
break, a high wind from the south-west arose,
which continued the whole day, dispersed the
clouds, and purified the atmosphere.
The inhabitants of these countries are very
poor; they eame in crowds to ask alms, and
were very well contented with the biscuit which
we gave them.
The exchanges in cattle are made with more
advantage inthe spring than inthe autumn. The
Russian horses are much sought for, on account
of their strength.
On the 3d of June, after travelling about
three wersts, we reached the point where the

382 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
great road of Goundjou dzam turns to the
north ; another road to the north-east, that of
Argali, is generally taken by our Missions going
to Peking. About a werst and half from the
place where the roads divide, we ascended a
pretty steep mountain, and then proceeded
seven wersts and a half between hills, to the
east of a lofty chain of mountains. At ten
o'clock in the morning, we halted opposite the
well of Khadyin oussou, the water of which is
very good. It is situated to the west of the
road, .near a rock surrounded with sand hills,
covered with derissou (stipa pennata). Hares
were very plentiful here.
The cold south-west wind continued through
the day. In the afternoon the sky was dark
ened by clouds, which passed in the direction
of the mountains. It rained a great deal during
the night, and the wind, which had veered to
the north, was very high, and dispersed the
clouds. June 4th. — We set out at nine o'clock in the
morning, and after travelling 30 wersts, reached
the station of Ougoundouin khachatou. For
about two wersts we proceeded along the high
road, directly north ; then turned considerably
towards the west, and for five wersts farther
continued to ascend. The rain had moistened
the sand on the plain, and the steep places which
we had to pass over, so that the road was much
16

COUNTRY OF THE TSAKHARS. 383
more convenient for travelling. On the top of
the mountain there is an obo. We then fol
lowed a winding path between mountains, on
the top of which lofty granite rocks appear like
ruined buildings. We afterwards crossed the
Oulan daba, a high and rude mountain, from
which the descent was very rapid into a narrow
defile between high mountains, leading to the
valley of Tcheloun ongotso (stone boat), in
habited by some of the emperor's shepherds.
We then came to a plain 10 wersts in length,
and having crossed a branch of mount Khak,
entered another plain of very great extent,
bounded in the distance by the high mountains
which separate the country of the Tsakhars from
that of the Sounites. Numerous flocks be
longing to the emperor were at pasture in these
plains. It is 10 wersts from the mountain Khak
to the following station. The three last are
over mount Ougoundouh which is situated to
the north. Our tents were prepared beyond
this mountain, in the territory of the western
Sounites, which begins at this place. Here,
too, we may place the commencement of the
sandy steppe, known by the name of Gobi.*
* In Mongolia, the name of Gobi is given to every steppe
destitute of water and vegetation, as they designate by the
name of Khangai, every place where the mountains are
covered with wood, and where the valleys abound in grass
and water.

384 COUNTRY OF THE TSAKHARS.
Near this station, and at the foot of the moun
tain, is the bed of a lake now dry ; towards the
north, there is a well of good water, and an
other towards the east, near a camp, inhabited
by shepherds. The pasturage is bad.
We were welcomed to the station by two
dzanghin of the Sounites, one of whom wore in
his hat a blue button and a peacock's feather, a
distinction which had been conferred on him by
the late emperor, for the skill and courage which
he had displayed in one of the imperial hunting
parties.

385

CHAP. VI.
JOURNEY THROUGH THE COUNTRY OF THE SOUNITES.
On the 5th of June, at daybreak, we had a
north wind, and a considerable degree of cold ;
the thermometer was 5° below zero ; probably
there had been a fall of snow in the vicinity.
In the evening we arrived at Seoudji.
We had travelled the first eight wersts over
the heights to a clayey mountain, which on
che south side had a steep and difficult ascent.
We then descended into the deep valley of
Tsaptchir, where there was an assemblage of
about twelve tents. The remaining twenty-two
wersts were through a steppe, by a level road, to
Seoudji. The grass, having been refreshed by
the rain, was very good, which circumstance
had attracted a great many Sounites to the spot ;
we saw a great many bustards and wild ducks.
Larks had been more rarely seen since the com
mencement of the desert of Gobi ; the most
common birds were cranes, ravens, and black
ducks. Many horses belonging to the emperor
were near a salt lake, to the east of Seoudji.
Seoudji is situated on a sandy declivity on the
right side of the road ; to the south, in a deep
vol. ii. c c

386 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
valley, are two wells, the water of which is abun
dant, and very good.
June 6. — The weather was fair and warm
till the afternoon, when it began to rain.
Near the station to the right of the road, we
observed a square stone, on which the Tibetan
prayer, " Om mani bat me khom," with a Mon
gol translation, was inscribed.
It rained the whole day of the 7th ; the wind
was again in the north. At eight in the evening
we arrived at Kobour (bridge).
For fifteen wersts, the road was level and good,
over a gravelly soil. Towards the left, we saw
the habitations of Ouidzyn, toussoulaktchi of
the Sounites, consisting of seventeen tents, and
towards the east, the well of Koudouktou ; the
whole of this district is called Enke bain (eter
nal plenty). The servants of the toussoulaktchi
told us, that their master possessed 500 horses,
300 oxen, and 2,000 sheep.
A lama who came from the residence of the
toussoulaktchi, with two camels, brought the
sacred book Gandjour, to read in the tent of an
officer of the Sounites. The lama and his at
tendant were very well dressed, in yellow gar
ments. Beyond Enke bain, we travelled five wersts
northwards, amidst marshes, and fifteen wersts
over sandy hills. To the right are eminences
bounded by the deep sands, which we had crossed

COUNTRY OF THE SOUNITES. 387
the preceeding winter, between Shara boundour-
gonna, Dourma, and Tsakildak ; this is the real
desert of Gobi. The proper road Goundjou
dzam, is parallel to that of Argali, but is not so
sandy. The poisonous plant called souli, grows
in these parts.
About a werst before we reach Kobour, there
is on the right side of the road a salt lake
belonging to the banner ; it is a werst in cir
cumference, but not deep, and abounds in salt,
which is deposited on its banks, where, at this
time, there were large heaps of it, several of which
were covered with earth to secure them from the
sun. The salt is white, and has no adventitious
taste. Saline streams flow from the heights to the
east and west, towards this lake ; in general salt
lakes are very frequent in this country. The
inhabitants sell the salt at Dolon nor, Kalgan,
and Koukoukoto.
A werst from this station is a well of clear
water, though rather brackish.
On the 8th of June we arrived at Khadatou.
After proceeding one werst, we descended into
a large valley, where the road turns to the south
west ; to the left' there is in the distance a lake,
and to the right stony hills. The soil of the
plain was argillaceous ; in several places the
water bubbled up under the feet of our horses ;
the wells are only half an arsheen in depth. The
c c 2

388 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
only plant found in this neighbourhood is the
derissou, which affords shelter to numbers of
hares and cranes.
After travelling eight wersts, we came to the
hamlet of Oulan tologoi (red hill). To the
right there is a very steep sandy mountain, and
in the distance, on every side, sand hills covered
with souli. The road is in general sandy, with
here and there gravelly and stony spots ; seven
teen wersts further, we ascended by a difficult
road,- exposed to the sun, a lofty sandy moun
tain ; then, turning to the left, we reached, by a
narrow road, the station which was lately esta
blished ; the whole country through which we had
passed was sterile, and the vallies without water.
Nevertheless, we saw in those sandy tracts,
tents and small flocks of sheep, cows, and horses.
The cattle, especially the horses, were small,
but very strong.
The station of Khadatou, situated on a sandy
eminence, extending from east to west, is sur
rounded by high hills, and nearer to the tents
there are blocks of granite. The valley contains
two wells of good water ; but there was no pas
ture whatever for our cattle.
On the following day, we arrived at Koudjir
oussou ; after proceeding five wersts through
a sandy and mountainous country we came to a
high road to the right. A werst from Khadatou,
a stream of salt water runs to the north. At

COUNTRY OF THE SOUNITES. 389
the distance of two wersts, on a gravelly soil,
we" turned to the right, and having passed a
deep valley, arrived with great exertions at a
sandy mountain ; twelve wersts further, we met
with a salt lake, and a well of very good water.
The Mongols call this place Khourka ; it is
only three wersts from the station ; but we had
another high mountain to cross before we reached
it ; some Mongols had put up their tents here.
At some distance to the east of the station, is a
salt lake, and a well of muddy water. A great
many horses belonging to a rich nobleman, were
grazing in the environs to the west ; and near the
station, there is upon the high road a place
called Mingan (in Mongol a thousand). From
Mingan to Peking it is 1000 li, and to Ourga
1300 ; the ground here begins to descend to the
north. Here terminates the sandy steppe, which ex
tends 120 wersts ; for 80 wersts further, the soil
is gravelly and equally sterile. It is also in these
parts that the souli ceases to grow; the ears
spring immediately from the root; they are
given to the cattle, and the poor collect the seed
to make a kind of gruel. These parts abound
in lizards, which are smaller than ours ; their
forefeet are marked with red stripes.
The guides given us here were oriental Sou
nites, though the road passes over the territory
of the western Sounites ; this measure had been
cc 3

390 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
adopted, in order that the burden might be
equally distributed.
In the evening we received a visit from the
taidzi Arachi, of the canton of Dourmy ; he
had kept two of our horses, which we had en
trusted to him. This honest Mongol rendered
great service to our preceding Missions, in 1807
and 1820.
June 10. — The night was cold, and the west
wind blew the whole day, during which we
halted for the sake of our cattle, which were
much fatigued, by travelling in three days about
a hundred wersts, in a very bad road.
At eight o'clock the following morning we
resumed our route, and at three o'clock in the
afternoon we halted at the station of Boroldji,
thirty wersts from the preceding station.
For five wersts we crossed the steppe towards
the west, before we reached the high road, which
inclines to the north, and goes through the great
plain of Tamtchin tala ; the ground is covered
with gravel, mixed with sand and coloured stones
which look like flint. This road is so smooth
and level, that it might be supposed to be artifi
cial. At the end of twelve wersts, we saw some
heights, called, by the Mongols, Taboun tologoi
(five hills). Eight wersts further rises the Sain
touchetou olo (good support), a sandy mountain,
over which we passed. Numerous herds of
camels and very fine horses belonging to the

COUNTRY OF THE SOUNITES. 391
taidzi Namtdjil, were at pasture. The other ten
wersts are through the plain ; the station is situ
ated at the foot of hills which extend from east
to west. In the neighbourhood are two wells.
A crowd of persons, attracted by curiosity,
had assembled round my tent ; among them was
the taidzi Namtdjil, a young man thirty years of
age, extremely fat, which is very rare in this
country, and is considered among the Mongols
as a deformity. The chiefs of the station told
us that he was very rich, and that his horses
were considered as the best and handsomest in
the whole banner.
A poor taidzi of the fifth class, a descendant
of princes, lived in this neighbourhood, and
subsisted entirely by the chase. Yellow foxes
and wolves are very common in this canton.
On the following day we arrived at the well
of Dzam yin khoudouk, situated near the road,
21 wersts from the preceding station.
For 1 5 wersts the road had been gravelly and
level. The steppes of this region are perfectly
sterile ; there is neither grass nor water, and
consequently there are no habitations. We then
descended into a deep valley, by the steep de
clivity of the Naratou ; it may be considered
as the shore of a vast lake. The fragments
of it form large heaps of clay and stones,
which rise in the shape of lofty towers. The
valley itself is covered with argillaceous hills,
c c 4

392 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
overgrown with boudourgouna, the robinia pyg-
masa, and the tamarind. We travelled four wersts
among these hills beyond the Dzamyin boulak,
a salt stream which is very turbid, and emits a sul
phurous smell ; its surface was covered with wild
ducks. The two last wersts were over a hill of
whitish clay, where our tents were erected near
a well. The wind blew from the north-west with so
much violence, during the whole day, that it
threw down one of our tents ; it dried up the
grass, which, since the spring, had grown to the
height of three inches. For the five last stages
we had met with no good pasture, and our
cattle suffered greatly in consequence.
Towards evening a Mongol caravan of forty
camels, on the way from Ourga to Kalgan,
with goods from Kiakhta, halted opposite to our
tents. The camels were extremely lean ; and
we learnt, with much regret, that the country
through which we were going to pass was en
tirely destitute of pasture.
June 13. — The heat was very oppressive ; a
south wind rose towards the evening, and the
western horizon was covered with clouds, which
made us hope for rain ; in which, however, we
were disappointed.
In order to keep up a good understanding with
the bitketchi and the boshko, of whom the latter
had suffered severely by the cold, and requested

COUNTRY OF THE SOUNITES. 393
permission to travel in our carriage, I pro
posed to Ourgeutai to use my carriage, as the
bitketchi had done the year before, as I tra
velled on horseback.
June 14. — At daybreak it was very cold,
and rather gloomy ; but soon after sunrise the
heat was again oppressive. Fortunately, the
air was cooled by a breeze from the south-west.
We set out at seven o'clock in the morning,
and crossed a steppe, the soil of which was gra
velly. Proceeding about eight wersts, we per
ceived mount Kharadou (visible at a distance).
Here and there were scattered tents, and cattle,
chiefly camels, grazing round them. Seven
wersts farther we descended into a deep clayey
valley ; it was a desert which presented the
image of desolation, destitute both of grass and
water. This valley extends five wersts, as far
as Iren, a station to the left of the road, among
rocks, where there is a well of brackish water.
Farther to the east, beyond some sandy hills, is
the salt lake of Iren nor. Laurence Lange,
who crossed this desert in the beginning of the
eighteenth century, reckons, that this lake may
be about three wersts in circumference ; it is in
reality only two. It belongs to the Vang of the
Baroun Sounites, who allows the Mongols of his
banner to collect salt from it. A camel load
is sold on the spot for about four shillings En
glish. This lake is under the protection of a

394 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
dargoui and four boshkos. On account of the
drought there was very little salt in it at this
time. After heavy rains it is abundant.
At this station the eastern Sounites, who were
our guides, were replaced by a taidzi of the
same tribe, but of a different squadron, who
was to accompany us to the country of the
Kalkas. There are among the Sounites a great number
of taidzi, or nobles, who, by their poverty, and
their pride at the greatness of their ancestors,
may be compared in some measure with de
scendants of some illustrious European families ;
they are the last poor offspring of a long line of
princes. Besides the lands assigned to them,
the banners give a taidzi of the first class
eighteen labourers ; to one of the second class,
twelve ; of the third, eight ; and of the fourth,
four. The taidzi of the fifth class belong to an
inferior degree of nobility, and are ranked with
the common Mongols. According to a regu
lation still in force in China, when the taidzi
arrive at Peking, they must present to the em
peror live sheep ; which they often hire in the
market. When the emperor condescends to
accept them, he gives to these taidzi ten hang
in silver, out of the public treasury (the best
sheep is sold for no more than five liang), two
measures of rice, and four pieces of nankeen.
If the offer is refused, the taidzi obtains only

COUNTRY OF THE SOUNITES. 395
five liang in silver, and one measure of rice.
This custom, established when China still feared
the Mongols, is daily falling into disuse.
Some Sounites who inhabit these parts wear
Chinese summer hats made of bamboo roots.
The Mongols of Kalka despise this foreign
fashion. June 1 5. — At seven o'clock in the morning
we set out, proceeding towards the north. Im
mediately on leaving the station we had to
ascend an eminence, and then, passing a plain
for two wersts and a half, came to a mountain,
on the summit of which was an obo. This road
was very fatiguing, being covered with sharp
pointed stones. Beyond this was a long sandy
plain, intersected by good pastures. The re
mainder of the road was among the defiles of a
mountain, extending as far as the station of
Koutoul; a distance of 12 wersts.
This road was much more fatiguing and des
titute of pasturage than that of Argali, which
is further to the east. This scarcity of grass
arises from the great elevation of the country ;
it is stony, and people travel through it, at all
seasons, more in carriages than on horseback.
This is also the road by which cattle are driven
to Kalgan for sale, which is another cause of the
want of pasture.
As the moon did not shine during the night
of the 15th of June, we could not think of

396 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
setting out early ; but after eight o'clock in the
morning the heat was very great. Our departure
was delayed till the afternoon.
The journey to Tougourik (small circle),
the next station, was as fatiguing as that of the
preceding day. At the third werst, to the left
of the road, there is a deep well of good water,
opposite to which is a lake quite dried up.
Would it be thought, that in these sterile parts
we met with several tents ; abodes of complete
misery. Seven wersts farther we descended some rocks
towards the west, into a sandy narrow valley
which crossed our road. From that place to
the station, we passed over hills covered with
blackish gravel, and fragments of rock. At a
distance to the west, we distinguished the white
walls of the temple of Soudjou soume, situated
at the foot of the mountain. This temple is in
habited by a lama who founded it. His name is
Dalai koutouktou, and he is eighty years of age.
The lower grounds were covered with excellent
grass, quite a novelty to us. Descending into
an extensive valley, surrounded by mountains,
we found, close to the road, a deep well, the
water of which was cool and very good.
The south wind, which had begun at mid
night, blew during the whole of the 19th, on
which day we halted.
Towards the east was a lake, then dried up,

COUNTRY OF THE SOUNITES. 397
but which is full after heavy rain. There are a
great many similar lakes among these moun
tains. We were visited by a Chinese merchant,
who had come on foot from Ourga ; he was a
native of the province of Chan si, and had long
carried on trade with Ourga and Kiakhta.
Having lost large sums at play, he was going to
Kalgan to his eldest brother, to request his
assistance. He told us that we were expected at
the first station in the territory of the Kalkas by
the toussoulaktchi Idam dzap, the old and faith
ful guide of the Russian Missions.
The morning of the 18th of June was cool,
with an easterly wind. At eleven at noon we
arrived at Khailassoutou.
We first passed sandy hills of considerable
extent, which we found it difficult to ascend.
Eight wersts farther we reached an extensive
eminence, composed of red clay ; it inclines to
the north, and is divided by large vallies, in
the direction of east to west, from more distant
mountains. Four wersts farther we descended
a salt plain, through which we travelled the last
six wersts.
The valley was covered with mat-grass, or
feather-grass, and produced no other plant fit
for cattle. These places, which are surrounded
by mountains, afford a very agreeable prospect
at a distance. About two wersts from this

398 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
station, to the east of the road, are the ruins of
a wooden temple ; the lama who was its founder,
died before it was completed, and nobody was
willing to finish it. There being no pasturage,
the road was destitute of habitations ; there were
four very wretched ones near the station.
About two wersts from this station, the moun
tains to the west were covered with elms, which
appeared at a distance like black spots. In one
of the great clefts of the rocks we found thirty
trees, and a well of good water which issues
from the rock. Apricot trees were growing in
many places upon the heights. To the south
there is a view over an extensive plain ; the blue
mountains which bounded the distant, horizon,
presented an agreeable and majestic coup-d'ceil.
To the north, a narrow and sandy road divides,
and leads to habitations at no great distance.
Some Mongol girls came to draw water when
we were at the well. On seeing us, they were
at first embarrassed ; but on our addressing them
in the Mongol language, paying them some
compliments, such as are usual in these steppes,
their apprehensions were dispelled. We con
versed with them for some time and parted,
with a promise on our side to meet them again,
some years afterwards, at the same place.
The sight of elms (in Mongol, khailasou),
in these barren steppes, appeared to us as a
kind of prodigy. This proves that it would not

COUNTRY OF THE SOUNITES. 399
be difficult to introduce agriculture in these
parts, if there were any fixed habitations ; for
the soil is very favourable.
June 19th. — A violent east wind blew the
whole night ; at sun-rise it rained, but the wind
soon dispelled the clouds.
We set out at six o'clock from Kailassoutou,
and after travelling 20 wersts, arrived in six
hours at Gachoun, the first station in the ter
ritory ofthe Kalkas.
Our road lay at first to the north-east,
through the same valley in which the last sta
tion was situated ; we then turned to the north,
and having passed a small encampment, pro
ceeded nine wersts, sometimes over stony emi
nences, and sometimes through the vallies be
tween ; the last of which was very extensive,
and was formerly watered by a rivulet, now dried
up. The pasturage was very good. We here
saw several Mongol tents.
After travelling in this manner about fourteen
wersts, we arrived at mount Oulan khada, which
divides the country of the Sounites from that of
the Kalkas. Oulan khada, in Mongol, signifies
red rock ; and in fact it is principally composed
of red granite, ^ grow in the clefts of the
rocks ; and there we*e a great number of tents
at the foot of the mountain.
A werst from this station we were received by
our old friend the toussoulaktchi Idam. On
15

400

JOURNEY THROUGH THE

our arrival he invited us into his tent, where
he regaled us in the most friendly manner with
brick tea, ourma (dried plums), dried cheese,
and mutton. After the usual enquiries respecting
each other's health, Idam told us that every
thing was going on well upon our frontiers, and
that nothing important had taken place in the
course of the year. He regretted the loss of our
cattle in the preceding winter ; and added, that
Demit, from whom we had received thirteen
camels the year before, had lost fifteen out of the
twenty-three we gave him in exchange.
We passed about an hour with him, and then
returned to our tents, of which the Kalkas had
erected only two for the Mission, after the ex
ample of the Sounites.
Two hours afterwards he returned our visit,
and we made him various presents, with which
the old man was much pleased. We told him
on what occasion, and with what intention I
had presented to the tribunal of foreign affairs,
a petition for the supply of the Mission with
cattle on the journey, and the decision of the
tribunal upon it. Idam informed me that the
vang of Ourga had received from the -tribunal
notice of the departure ofl'Ae Mission at the
end of the fourth month ; and at the same time
an invitation to co-operate in providing for the
safety and convenience of its journey to the
Russian frontiers ; according to ancient custom.

COUNTRY OF THE SOUNITES. 401
The vang immediately sent Idam to conduct the
Mission through the country of the Kalkas ;
but as no former order had been given in that
province to supply us with Mongol cattle, Idam
having previously learned that the Mission had
been so accommodated in the country of Tsak
hars and the Sounites, sent an express to Ourga,
requesting the decision of the vang. He assured
us, however, that while expecting the answer,
we should meet with no difficulty in our journey.
We afterwards visited the bitketchi Fou lo je,
and requested him to continue his attention to us
through the territory of the Kalkas. He was
much pleased with this, for, knowing the regard
of the vang for the Russians, he was afraid that
we might unite with Idam, who possessed his
confidence, and neglect the Chinese.
The Sounite guides having placed the Mis
sion under the care of the toussoulaktchi of the
Kalkas, and received from him a written ac
knowledgment, came to ^take leave of us. In
return for their having provided camels and
horses for our baggage for four stages, I pre
sented the, five guides with four fox, and two
sable skins, and two skins of morocco, for
which they were very grateful.

VOL. II. D D

402

CHAP. VII.
JOURNEY THROUGH THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE COUNTRY
OF THE KALKAS TO OURGA.
June 20. — This day we halted. The night
was very cold, and a high south wind blew the
whole day.
At ten o'clock on the following morning we
set out, and at seven wersts from Gachoun
reached the summit of a mountain, whence we
commanded a view of the valley in its whole ex
tent. We proceeded about four wersts between
hills, having on our right a chain of rocks, called
Dzabouk oulan daba, which extends towards the
east. We descended by a steep declivity into a
large plain, where we met a Chinese caravan
which was going from Kalgan to Ourga, with
150 carts, each drawn by one ox, and loaded
with brick tea. The drivers were Mongols of
the district of the Tsakhars. They took one
liang, and four tchina in silver, for the carriage
of a hundred kin (about 126 pounds). This
caravan had been already 40 days on the road,
and had halted six days at this place.
Five wersts farther we came to a rock, called,
in Mongol, Erdeni obo (the precious heap),

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 403
which resembles a large edifice in ruins. There
is another rock a little further to the east, and
considerable eminences extending towards the
west ; part of which consist of red clay. From
the obo, where there is a well, to the station,
which is a distance of eight wersts, we went
first through a clayey tract, and then by an
even road with a gentle descent. We met a
great many Sounites returning from Ourga,
whither they had gone to pay homage to the
koutouktou. They had already passed nine days
on the road.
We at length reached some mountains which
almost block up the way. A great many elms
grow in this place. Having passed through a
narrow defile, we reached the station called
Oude, situated near a well, in a stony valley
surrounded by mountains. The toussoulaktchi
treated us, upon our arrival, with brick tea,
milk,' &c. We received similar proofs of hos
pitality among the Kalkas, till our arrival at
Kiakhta. Oude, in Mongol, means gate ; a name very
suitable to the issue from a defile into the plain.
At the commencement of our journey, we men
tioned places among the Kalkas and the Sounites,
on the winter road, which bear the same name.
It is said by some, that this defile is the en
trance to the desert of Gobi, which extends 280
wersts to the habitations of the Tsakhars. We
d d 2

404 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
also met with such gravelly and stony tracts in
the neighbourhood of the river Tola. The Chi
nese call Gobi by the name of Shamo (sandy
steppe) ; which, in my opinion, is more suitable
to the sandy tract to the south of the territory
of the Sounites, which is about 125 wersts in
breadth. At eleven o'clock the heat was extreme. The
wind dispelled the clouds ; but from four o'clock
till sunset, we had a violent storm, which filled
the air with dust.
Having nothing more that I could give to our
Mongol guides, I sent to ask the bitketchi Fou
laoye permission to offer them money ; he
would not consent to this proposal on account
of the strict orders given him by the tribunal.
My messenger had scarcely returned with this
answer, when the old nerba of the bitketchi
came and proposed to me to purchase of him a
dozen snuff-boxes, made of a kind of • com
position, in imitation of precious stones, which
his master had brought from Peking. I thought
it best to consent to this arrangement, and paid
about two shillings English apiece for them. The
Mongols received these snuff-boxes with much
pleasure as a proof of our regard.
On the following day we arrived at Sendji,
after travelling 33 wersts. The west wind blew
the whole day.
There are two roads -leading from Oude to

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 405
Ourga ; one going straight to the north, and
passing by mount Darkhan, which is 200
wersts to the south-east of Ourga, is frequented
by Chinese caravans of carts. Our Mission
had travelled by it in 1808. The other inclines
more to the west. To equalize the burdens im
posed upon the banners, the Mongol admini
stration had ordered the present Mission to take
•the second road, which is the continuation of
that of Goundjou dzam, or road of the prin
cesses. Proceeding north-west, we went two wersts
by a beaten road to an eminence, from which
we gradually descended six wersts into the
marshy valley of Dolodo, where there are two
deep wells ; the water is muddy, and not more
than an arsheen from the surface. From this
place we had to ascend four wersts to the sum
mit of a craggy mountain ; and three wersts
farther among the mountains, to a spot where
large blocks of granite lay scattered about. We
then passed over low eminences covered with
pretty good grass, but destitute of wells ; for
which reason we did not meet with any tents.
But the inhabitants ofthe steppe come here in the
winter, when they use the snow instead of water.
The soil is white quartz ; which at a distance
has the appearance of marble. We then passed
through a valley covered with derissou and
bourdourgouna ; and on all sides are eminences,
d d 3

406 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
with immense blocks of stone scattered on them.
Two wersts before we reached the station, the
sandy mountains, on which there were great
piles of white and grey marble, rendered the
road very fatiguing. Towards the east of the
station is mount Adzarga (stallion), which is of
a blackish colour. At the foot of hills of white
marble, which extend to a considerable distance,
there is a well, the water of which was better
than any we had met with in the steppes. The
valley was covered with Mongol tents, and large
frocks of sheep and herds of camels.
Sendji is kept by vassals depending on a con
vent. On the west is the temple of the lama
Noin koutouktou.
On the 24th, we set out early, having to tra
vel thirty wersts to Oulan khoudouk, the follow
ing station. Six wersts from Sendji, the coun
try rises ; to the east we saw at a distance mount
Kektchin, and nearer to us Tsagan tougourik ;
we then passed mount Chouboutyin khara, which
is pointed and insulated. Farther to the east is
mount Chanaga. The valleys were broad, and
large tracts were covered with salt, in a state of
efflorescence ; on the declivities there are many
carnelions and agates. Eleven wersts from
Sendji, on the left of the road, we saw the pro
montory of the chain of mountains, called by
the Mongols Ourgoun oulan, at the foot of which
is a well of good water ; here too we saw an

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 407
elm, the last we met with on this road. The
surrounding country was covered with verdure,
and had a very pleasing appearance. Eight
wersts further is mount Oudoyin ola, the sum
mit of which looks like a rampart. Having
passed through a narrow valley, we reached the
station which receives its name Oulan khoudouk
(red well), from an extensive neighbouring plain
of that colour.
June 25. — Our road on this day was less
mountainous, but fatiguing on account of its
length. About half way from the station, we
had a view of an extensive plain between the
mountains, and having passed several eminences,
came to the well of Oudzour at the foot of the
mountain, near which there were herds of oxen,
and a Mongol encampment. Thus far the soil
is for the most part gravel, after which the road
lay over low sand hills, with a sensible descent
towards the north. Three wersts from the sta
tion, there were extensive salt marshes and
lakes. The whole of this marshy plain is covered
with the robinia pygmaca and derissou, which,
when the wind blows, have the appearance
of a waving corn-field. Here the derissou grows
to the height of five feet or more ; there are also
some reeds. Hares, cranes, and. wild ducks, are
very common in this plain.
June 26. -- On this day, during which we
D D 4

408 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
halted, the weather was very warm. Some
lamas and Mongols ofthe lower class, passed us
on their way to a celebrated obo. Like the
Bouriates and the Tunguses of Siberia, they
meet in the temple once or twice during the
summer. The lamas recite prayers, and the
heads of families give entertainments, followed
by diversions, such as horse-racing, wrestling,
archery, &c. This assembly continues five days
or more. The anniversary of the dedication of
an obo is a holiday for all the inhabitants who
have contributed towards its erection.
June 27. — We set out at five in the morning,
and after a fatiguing journey of 35 wersts,
reached at four o'clock in the afternoon, the sta
tion of Oulan tologoi (red hill). We first crossed
a narrow plain covered with good pasturage ;
the soil is gravelly, and in many places there are
fragments of stones of various colours. During
the first five wersts, we saw on the side of the
road some tents, and great numbers of sheep and
camels. Seven wersts farther, we came to a
road which joins that of Darkhan, from which
it is 10 wersts to the well of Khadain khochou,
where Lawrence Lange halted with his caravan,
the 24th of October 1 727.
On an eminence situated towards the north,
near the well of Khadain khochou, we saw the
blue tents of the Gheghen or koutouktou of
Barin, who was going on a pilgrimage to the

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 409
mountain of Ou thai chan, in the Chinese pro
vince of Chan si, where there is a great number
of temples of Fo, in one of which the last
koutouktou of Ourga ended his days.
Among the hills which we had to pass, there
,was one abounding in red stone, from which
circumstance, the* following station had obtained
its name. The pasturage was good, but the
wells were too distant, and the water in, them
muddy, and in small quantity.
The preceding station was the last of the ban
ner of Merghan vang, in the territory of the
Touchetou khan, which begins at Gachoun, that
is the southern frontier, between the country of
the Kalkas and the Sounites. Oulan tologoi, and
the following stations are in the district of
Djandjoun beile, under the dominion of Tsetsen
khan. But to make the burdens equal, they are
supported by the banner of Khardal dzassak,
which is also in the territory of Tsetsen khan to
the east, beyond the road to Darkhan, near
mount Noin. The country occupied by this
division, extends to Ourga, and farther east
wards to the Russian frontier.
We obtained three camels from a rich lama
residing in the neighbourhood, giving for each
two of ours, which were so exhausted, that they
were unable to proceed. In general, the Mon
gols in these parts have great numbers of fine
camels, sheep and horses. At ten o'clock at

410 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
night, I received a visit from our friend Idam.
The reason of his coming at that late hour, was
to inform us that he had received from Ourga
the resolution of the Vang, and the Amban,
that Mongol camels and horses should be fur
nished as far as was necessary for conveying the
baggage of the Mission, without remuneration.
We accepted with gratitude this proof of the
kindness ofthe governors of Ourga. Idam told
me, at the same time, that the Vang would set
out on the 29th of this month, and go as far as
Kiakhta to inspect the post-stations, and would
return to Ourga in twelve days, by the time the
Mission should arrive there.
On the 28th, we arrived at Ouidzyn. For
12 wersts we went through a level steppe ; the
grass, as at the preceding station, was good
and pretty high ; the soil gravel, with small
fragments of coloured stones. Mountains began
to appear in the distance, and nearer to the west
is a bed of red sandstone.
The well at the station is deep, situated in the
middle of a hollow, between blocks of granite
and sand hills, which are covered with feather
grass. From the negligence of the Mongols in
not surrounding the edge of the well, with a
wooden enclosure, as usual, all kinds of dirt
fall into it, and spoil the water, so that we were
obliged to clean it, and surround it with sand,
that the fresh water which collected in it might

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 411
be fit for use. This was not the first time that
we had been obliged to use this expedient.
On the following day (29th), during which
we halted, a high north wind- filled the air with
dust ; after which we had a fall of rain and light
ning in the horizon.
On the 30th we had a very bleak east wind.
The appearance of the steppe remained the
same, and there were no habitations. For 11
wersts we passed through a plain, strewn with
coloured stones, and covered with pretty good
grass, to mount Khongor, on which there is an
obo of white quartz. At the distance is a chain
of mountains of moderate height.
On the road we met a lama, and a Mongol,
from the principality of the Kalkas, who had
been to pay their respects to the Koutouktou at
Ourga. They told us that the four next sta
tions were destitute of pasturage. The station
Boukhain mo oussou is near the great mountain
of Boukha ola (ox mountain).
Mo oussou signifies bad water ; and in fact
the well, which is half a werst to the south,
being entirely open, contains dirty and ill-tasted
water. The worst, however, was the want of
grass for our cattle. The neighbouring valleys
and mountains, on one of which is a large
obo of quartz, were quite parched by the long
drought.

412 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
Boukhain mo oussou is almost parallel with
the district of Olon baichin, on the road of
Argali, a day's journey to the east of our
present route. One of the Mongols, who had
passed ten years on the frontiers, opposite our
station of Tchindant Touroukouiev, knew
several Russian words, which he pronounced
very indifferently. The office of these guides is
a very great hardship ; for though their com
mission was but for a very short time, they had
been obliged to come from their encampments
on the banks ofthe Keroulun; a distance often
days' journey, or 500 wersts.
July 1. — At sunrise it was as cold as in the
month of September, a violent north wind
blowing for some hours. We set out at five
o'clock in the morning, and at eleven arrived at
Mogoitou (abounding in serpents). Our road
was in a westerly direction, alternately over
stony mountains, and in narrow deep valleys.
Four wersts from the preceding station, we saw,
on the right hand, a lake surrounded by several
tents ; and further to the east, the summits of
the chain of mount Gourban Mandal, in the
country of the Kalkas. Half way, we saw the
trace of two lakes now dried up ; and half a
werst farther, a rock of white marble.
The narrow valley in which the station is
situated, is surrounded by high rocks, which

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 413
are traversed with veins of white and grey
marble. The water in an open pit was so bad,
that even the horses would not drink it.
On the following day we arrived at Khododo,
after a journey of 23 wersts over high moun
tains, of which both the ascent and the descent
was very deep. About half way from Mogoitou,
we found a good well in a deep valley ; but
neither tents nor cattle were to be seen. The
country appeared as if it had been laid waste by
an enemy, or desolated by some pestilence.
This was an effect of the long continued
drought. At the distance of 20 wersts to the
east of our road, we saw the mountain of Otzol ;
to the north of which are the habitations of the
Djandjoun beile, who possesses considerable
tracts of land in the territory of Tsetsen khan.
These possessions are celebrated among the
Kalkas for the wealth of the inhabitants, and
the beauty of the domestic animals ; particularly
the horses. The mountains which we passed
were of red granite, quartz, and white and grey
marble. Three wersts before Khododo, the road of
Goundjoun djam, which from Oude goes to
the west, here suddenly turns to the north. Our
tents were in a narrow valley, on the left of
which rises mount Narada(of the sun), crowned
with immense rocks of granite. The soil is
sand mixed with clay ; the grass was dried up,

414 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
and derissou grew here in abundance. Op
posite our camps were two wells of good water.
This station, as well as the next, are main
tained by the banner of Akhai koung, director
of the police of Ourga.
July 3. — The cold was very sensible at six
o'clock in the morning. We arrived at the
wells of Khapkaktou at one o'clock in the
afternoon, a distance of 25 wersts.
Near Khododo the road turns tothe north-west.
Half way we met with a well of good water;
and near it a small river issuing from the foot of
a mountain. Six wersts farther, Otzol presented
itself to our view. At some distance to the
north-east runs the great chain of the Sansar
mountains, from which the view commands an
immense horizon.
The road was intersected by valleys and
mountains ; one of the former abounded in car-
nelions, calcedonies, &c.
The well of Khapkaktou is near a lake now
dried up ; the earth had fallen into it, and we
could scarcely obtain sufficient water to drink.
There was ho pasturage ; though there was
a greater abundance of plants than at the three
preceding stations ; particularly wild garlic.
On the 4th we proceeded four wersts on the
slopes of the mountains to the well of Boulen,
situated to the right of the road, at the foot of
a mountain where there is a small lake, or rather

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 415
a marsh ; and a hundred toises further a spring
of fresh water. We then ascended five wersts by
a narrow path to an eminence, from which we
again saw the Otzol, and many mountains in
the horizon. The well of Gachoun is situated
in a deep valley four wersts farther. To the
north, at the foot of the mountains, there were
a great many tents, and numbers of sheep,
camels, &c. Beyond, we had to climb a lofty
steep mountain ; and ten wersts farther came to
the well of Dzamyin oulan khoudouk (red well
on the road). Near this station there were.
several tents of nomade Mongols, attracted to
the spot by the abundance of water and pas
ture. Wild garlic is very common. This sta
tion, and the following, are maintained by the
banner of the Djandjoun beile, as inspector of
the troops of Tsetsen khan. There is a djandjoun
in each chanate of Kalka ; they are under the
command of a dzianghiun-in-chief or Mantchoo
inspector-general, who resides at Ouliasoutai,
and commands all the Kalka troops ; particularly
those posted along the Russian frontiers. In
case of war, he puts himself at their head.
These sub-inspectors are obliged to go every
three years to Ouliasoutai on business connected
with their duty, and pass four months there.
This year it was the turn of the Djandjoun
beile ; but he being prevented by illness, the
Khardal beise took his place.

416 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
July 5. — We halted ; the weather was cool.
The bitketchi was obliged to confess the in
conveniences of our mode of travelling. It is
difficult to procure cattle strong enough to go
in autumn from Kiakhta to Kalgan, a distance
of 1200 wersts ; and very troublesome to return
in summer by a road which is very fatiguing,
on account of the high mountains, deep sands,
and want of water and pasturage. The bitketchi
thought that it would be better that the Missions
coming from Peking should make use of Mongol
horses and cattle.
July 6. — The road lay through two valleys,
separated from each other by mountains. The
fine pasture had attracted a great number of
Mongols, of whom we counted in the first
valley, twenty-five tents, with camels, horses,
and sheep grazing round them. We also saw
a caravan of pilgrims of the banner of Merghen
vang, who were returning from Ourga.
The well lay half a werst to the west of the
station ; the water was muddy, and the pasture
not so good as at the last station. At a distance
to the south-east lay the Dzala, a high moun
tain ; and mount Otzol was still visible towards
the south-east.
On the 7th of July we arrived at Olon obo
(many heaps). On the way, which was through
valleys intersected by hills, we saw some tents
and sheep. On the summit of Olon obo there

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 417
are several heaps of stones. The well at the
station was in very good condition, and the
water excellent. The soil is sand and gravel,
with fragments of stones of various colours,
Near the well we saw a great number of tents,
thousands of sheep, and many camels. At this
encampment there was a goldsmith, a subject of
the Djandjoun beile, who, with much skill,
soon made for our toussoulaktchi pretty silver
ornaments on the lid of his snuff-box, and the
buckle of his girdle.
July 8th. — In a valley extending from east
to west, a werst and a half from the station,
there were several tents ; and after the -moun
tains, which terminate it, the well of Tsaptchir,
to the left of the road, six wersts from Olon
obo. We afterwards reached the summit of a high
mountain, from which we could still perceive,
at a distance to the south-east, mounts Sansar
and Otzol. We had then to cross a great valley
before we reached the mountains of Bain khara ;
which, likewise, extend from east to west. On
the south side we saw about thirty tents ;
where, as we were told, the lamas were assembled
to read the nom, or books of the law. To the
west, at the foot of the mountain, were several
tents, and the well of Dzoulghetou, which is
well built, and contains good water. Our sta
tion was a werst from it, on a hill opposite the
VOL. II. E E

418 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
the Bain khara, which separates the country of
Tsetsen khan from that of Touchetou khan,
lying towards the north.
The pasture at this station, though not so
good as at the preceding, was, however, pretty
green, which was really surprising, considering
the drought in the spring, and the excessive
heat in the summer.
July 9th. — Three wersts before we reached
Oulan nor (red lake), though the soil was
sandy, and covered in many places with fine
gravel, the pasturage was very good, and every
thing announced that we were approaching a
country more favoured by nature than the
southern steppes of the Kalkas, and the sandy
territories of the Sounites.
The station of Oulan nor is on the right of
the road, on the northern declivity of a range
of mountains, which surround on all sides a
deep valley. In the rainy season the bottom of
the valley is covered with water ; but at present
it appeared like a large circle of red sand. The
water in the well was very good and cool.
The station is maintained by the banner of
the Amban beisse, residing at Ouliassoutai. Far
ther on begins the territory of the Shabi, or
subjects of the Koutouktou.
The east wind, which had been very high the
day before, continued to blow with the same
violence. At noon a little rain fell. On the

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS, 419
following day (10th), when we halted, we had
a strong and very hot south wind.
July 11th. — Having been informed by the
toussoulaktchi that the next station was very
distant, we set out at two o'clock in the morning.
The moon had risen at midnight ; but it was ob
scured by clouds. At sunrise there was a little
rain. It was not without difficulty that we crossed
in the dark the hills which surround the station.
We afterwards went 12 wersts on an even and
well beaten road, and then ascended a gentle
eminence, from which we beheld the immense
plain of Borghio surrounded by mountains, A
chain running directly from north to south
bounds this plain. In the district of Verkhneu
Oudinsk, in Siberia, and on the left bank ofthe
Djida, there is another great plain, which like
wise bears the name of Borghio or Borgoi.
Three wersts farther we came to a small en
campment ; about two wersts from the road is
lake Khaia. The valleys were covered with the
finest pasture which we had seen since we left
the steppe of Tsagan balgassoun. On every
side there were tents, numerous flocks of sheep,
and herds of oxen and horses. Seven wersts
farther is lake Chakshour. We then went three
wersts over hills, which extend from the place
where the mountains meet towards the south,
forming a very narrow chain. Five wersts farther
E e 2

420 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
on we came to some habitations at the well of
Borghio, where we halted ; the toussoulaktchi
having caused a tent to be erected for the Mis
sion. Our taidzi told us.that we had performed
about half our journey ; whereas other Mongols
affirmed that it was 60 wersts. It is proper to
observe, that if you ask Mongols whom you
meet on the road the distance to any place, and
they answer kholo (far), you must understand
25 wersts ; if they say oiro (near), 15 wersts ;
and if they cry with an appearance of pleasure,
orikhon (very near), about seven wersts. The
inhabitant of the steppe, accustomed to travel
on horseback, considers a distance of ten or
fifteen wersts more or less, as not worth
attending to ; besides, he rides straight forward
over the mountains and through the valleys.
The banner ofthe Amban beisse had fixed for
our station this place, which is at the foot of
mount Bain arik, to the west of the road; but the
elders ofthe banner ofthe Djonon dzassak, who
desired to shorten their stages, had persuaded
Idam to place the station at Oulan nor, where
we had passed the preceding night, under pre
tence that the distance from Bain khara to
Borghio was too great.
During eight wersts we traversed a level
steppe, where the road was covered with grass.
On our left we had the mountain of Bain arik,
and ten wersts to the east the colossal moun-

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS, 421
tain of Bain tsokto, the Summit of which is red
granite. It was the same that we saw last year,
on the 28th of December, on our way from
Gakhtsa khoudouk to Djirgalantou. We after
wards passed to the east of mount Khaptsal, and
having crossed it, descended two wersts to its
northern foot. There, in a narrow defile, we en
camped near a well of cold and clear water, which
issues from a rock. Near to us there were two
miserable tents ; the rich Mongols had left the
place the day before, for fear cattle might be
demanded of them, for the use of the Mission,
which the elders ofthe stations very often do.
The waggons arrived at Khaptsal at two in
the afternoon, having already travelled 40 wersts.
As I saw the horses so exhausted by their long
journey, I did not venture to go to the station,
which was still distant ; but, after consulting with
the Chinese guides and Idam, resolved to stop
here till the following morning. The toussou
laktchi was much embarrassed at having, by the
advice of the inhabitants, fixed so very long a
stage. Meantime the bitketchi went on with
the boshko to the station. Idam did the same,
leaving two taidzi with the Mission.
The next day (12th), we proceeded directly
north to the defile of Kholoto, where the road
called Goundjou dzam, joins that of Darkham,
but we went by that of Narin dzam (narrow
road), which inclines more to the west. After
E e 3

422 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
going three wersts in this direction to the valley
of Bilghike, we entered a deep hollow, which ex
tends from mount Tsantou, from north to south
between high mountains, and travelled seven
wersts through it. The pasture in this valley is
excellent, but it is inhabited only in the winter
time. We then ascended for two wersts mount
Tsantou, the summit of which is a long ridge ;
near the road is a small obo. A great deal of
wild rhubarb grows upon the mountain. We
met some lamas coming from Ourga, who told
us that the vang had already returned from
Kiakhta. Descending into the plain of Tsantou,
which is watered by streams running from the
north, and the soil of which is salt, we saw a
great number of tents, and large flocks belong
ing to a rich Mongol of the banner of the Am
ban beisse, who possesses 2000 sheep, 1000
horses, 300 oxen, and above 150 camels. We
proceeded eight wersts in this plain, to a rock,
opposite to which is another, forming together a
kind of defile to the plain of Tsantou, which is
surrounded by mountains. Two wersts farther,
we stopped at the well of Khachatou, where
two tents were erected for the Mission.
Soon after our arrival, Idam waited on me to
enquire how we had passed the night in his ab
sence, and whether we had reached the new
station without accident. The bitketchi Thou
lao ye, vexed with Idam, for having caused him

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 423
and his attendants to make on the preceding day
so long a journey as 70 wersts, requested our stu
dents to draw up for him, in the Mantchoo lan
guage, of which he was ignorant, a report to the
tribunal, on the irregular distribution ofthe sta
tions in the principality of the Kalkas ; but I ad
vised them not to intermeddle in these disputes.
The station of Khachatou is maintained by
the Shabi. At noon we were still able to see
the three peaks of mount Bain tsokto, and to
wards the north mount Khanola, near Ourga.
This station resembles a large village ; the
Mongols resort to it in great numbers ; there are
tents, large flocks of sheep, herds of oxen,
buffaloes, and horses. The well is superior to
all that we had seen in Mongolia, in the abund
ance of good water, and in its construction ; it
is very deep and broad, and lined with deal
planks. Above 1000 horses, which are part of the
innumerable herds of the Gheghen koutoukou,
were at pasture in this district. There are very
handsome ones among them, but many of them
are old. We were assured, that they are never
used for riding, and never exchanged. Khacha
tou is inhabited by several lamas, who take
care of the flocks of the Gheghen ; they are
rude and haughty to strangers, as well as to the
Mongols. We had been told, that there were in the en-
E E 4

424 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
virons of Ourga, buffaloes of the hairy species
of Tibet (bos grunniens) ; they are of various
colours, black, white, grey, and brown. Their
body is long and large, the middle of their back
appears to be sunk in, because the neck and the
rump, on account of the stiff upright hair,
seem to be higher. Some of them have horns ;
the head is small, the neck thin and short, the
feet and tail are also short ; the hair of the
mane is short, but on the breast, the upper part
of the legs and the tail, they have hair a quarter
of an arsheen in length.
The Chinese make use of this hair for tassels
to their summer caps, to their standards, &c. ;
but they use only the white hair. The greater
part of it comes from Tangout ; it is dyed at
Hangtcheou, the capital of the Chinese pro
vince of Tche kiang, which is celebrated for
its silk, and other manufactures. These buffa
loes do not low, but grunt like pigs. They are
found, both wild and tame, on the western fron
tiers of China, in all Tangout, and in Tibet.
On the 14th of June it was very cold : we
travelled six wersts to the west in the plain of
Tsantou, as far as mount Ouneghetou, which
bounds it on the north. After going along the
western foot of this mountain, we entered the
defiles of Bain tologoi (rich hill). Two roads
lead from the station of Khachatou to Seoudji,
one goes to the east of the defile, and the other

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 425
to the west. Notwithstanding the ascent of the
Salkitou, which is very difficult, we took the
first, because it was the shortest. The ravine
abounds in grass, but we saw neither habitations
nor wells ; it is inhabited only in the winter.
We descended for 17 wersts in a northern
direction, as far as the Salkitou (stormy), a very
high mountain. Rhubarb grows in the clefts, and
marmots are very numerous. The Mongols
eat the flesh of these animals, and their fur
serves as trimming for the sleeves of their robes,
and for their winter caps. Mr. Bell in his tra
vels, speaking of the quantity of marmots, and
of the abundance of rhubarb in the environs of
Ourga, says, " That in those places where there
are only a dozen tufts of rhubarb, burrows
covered with leaves are constantly found at short
distances. It is probable," he says, " that the
marmots feed on the roots and leaves of this
plant, and it may also be supposed that their
digging in the earth contributes to propagate
the seed."
From this place we had at length a view of
Khanola, which is the more remarkable because
it is the first in Mongolia coming from the
south, and the last coming from the north,
which is covered with woods. From the foot of
Salkitou we proceeded for a long time between
mountains, known in Mongolia by the name of
Khingan, to which chain mount Khanola be-

426 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
longs. They are the highest that we had crossed
since we left Tsagan balgassou. At the end of
five wersts we reached a beaten road, then
turning to the west, we ascended, with much
difficulty, mount Seoudji, one of the highest
in the chain. We descended it for two wersts
by a very steep and dangerous path, which
brought us to the station of Seoudji, situated
on the declivity of a mountain near a well of
good water.
The horizon is bounded on all sides by moun
tains, of which Khanola is the highest. The
forests which cover it are held sacred by the
Mongols. At the time of our arrival the
Kalkas brought to the well a number of good
horses, which they came to offer to the tu
telary genii who inhabit the summit of the
Khanola. Two hours after the arrival of the Mission at
the station, the boshko was sent before to Ourga,
to inform the members of the tribunal of our
approach. At three o'clock we had a heavy rain mixed
with large hail, which lasted about an hour. A
great many Mongols passed our camp on the
way to Ourga, to pay their respects to the
Koutouktou. The following day, after proceeding six wersts
and a half towards the north, we ascended the
Chirdyktou, a very steep mountain. There is

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 427
a tradition, that Galdan, khan of the Soun
garians, being pursued by the army of the em-
peror Khang hi, lost upon these mountains his
baggage, and even the felt housings of his
camels. Chirdyk, in Mongol, means a felt co
vering. Eight wersts farther to the east we reached
the stream of Chirdyk, which issues on the
south-east side of Khanola from a forest of
larches. At this place we had the pleasure to see
taidzi Aynuchi ouidzyn of the Kalkas, who ac
companied us last year for five stations. He
was returning from the Touchetou khan, who
lives on the Selenga, and being informed at
Ourga of our approach, was induced, by his
friendship for us, to come some wersts out of
his road to see us again.
The station of Koul, where we arrived after
going five wersts towards the north, along the
eastern foot of Khanola, has been established on
the road of Darkhan, for the purpose of for
warding the dispatches sent from Ourga to
the banners which are encamped in the steppes.
In the clefts of the Khanola there are tents,
where sentinels are stationed to hinder people
from ascending the mountain. The banks of
the Koul were covered with tents and horses
belonging to the worshippers of the Gheghen
koutouktou, who resorted to Ourga from the re-

428 JOURNEY THROUGH THE
motest part of Mongolia ; even from Dolon nor,
near Kalgan. From Koul to the banks of the
Tola, we had to travel six wersts on the Dar
khan road. We beheld, with great satisfaction,
the rapid stream of the Tola, which marks the
boundaries of the desert steppes which we had
just crossed. At four o'clock in the afternoon we
arrived at the left bank of that river, where we
found our baggage which had been sent before.
Idam informed us that the members of the
tribunal at Ourga wished the Mission not to
enter the town this day, as no preparations had
been made for its reception. This proposal was
disapproved both by us, and by our guides, be
cause there were no tents on the banks of the
Tola, on account of the poverty of the in
habitants ; and our cattle could not find suffi
cient pasture. It was, therefore, resolved that
we should continue our journey, and at five in
the afternoon we arrived at Ourga.
Darma dzap, accompanied by twenty Mongol
horsemen, armed with bows and arrows, came
to meet us at the gate of the Russian convent,
in the court yard of which three tents were pre
pared ; one was occupied by the bitketchi of the
tribunal of war at Peking, who was the bearer
of the proclamation of the favours of the new
emperor for the town of Ourga. He was after
wards to go with this proclamation to Oulias-
soutai and Khobdo.

COUNTRY OF THE KALKAS. 429
Four other tents, intended for our reception,
were erected in our presence, as had been done
at our first visit.
I was soon visited by Tanbai, bitketchi ofthe
tribunal at Ourga, and by an aid-de-camp of the
vang of the first class, who had in his cap an
opake dark blue button, and a peacock's feather.
They congratulated us in the name of the vang,
and the amban, on our happy arrival, and in
formed us that the governor of Ourga would
receive the members of the Mission on the fol
lowing day. They then went to the archiman
drite.

430

CHAP. VIII.
STAY AT OURGA — DEPARTURE FOR KIAKHTA — RETURN
TO RUSSIA.
We purchased at the maimatchin of Ourga the
articles we intended to present to our Mongol
conductors. We, paid for an arsheen of black
plush, five tchina in silver ; for four skins of
Russia leather, one liang eight tchina ; and for
a dozen of Mongol knives, one liang four tchina
and a half.
The day after our arrival the bitketchi of the
yamoun of the town came to me, with a clerk,
to take down the names of all the members of
the Mission, in order to report them to the
vang. At ten o'clock we were invited to pay our
compliments to the vang, who received us with
much affability. Father Hyacinth having an
swered him in Chinese, the vang politely ob
served, that he pronounced this language like a
Chinese of the south. He then addressed the
students in the Mantchoo language ; and being
surprised at their speaking it so well, he re
marked to the amban, that the Russians, after
a few years stay at Peking, made themselves

STAY AT OURGA. 431
perfect masters of the Mantchoo and the Chi
nese ; whereas the Mantchoos, who attended
the Russian school in Peking, were unable to
learn the Russian, He had recently proposed
to the government to remove the Mantchoo and
Chinese students from Peking to Ourga, to fa
cilitate their study of the Russian by their fre
quent intercourse with our countrymen. Pre
vious to our departure we purchased several
young buffaloes, giving two horses for five of
those animals.
On the 19th of "July, at seven o'clock in the
morning, we left Ourga. As far as Koui, the
first station, I was accompanied by a dzanghin
and ten Mongols, armed with bows and arrows.
This was a very extraordinary mark of honour.
The heavy rains which had lately fallen had
made the roads very bad ; however, the car
riages all came without accident to the moun
tain Gountoui, which is very steep on the side
towards Ourga, and arrived safe at the station
32 wersts from Ourga. The pasturage here was
very rich, and accordingly there were numerous-
tents, and large flocks of sheep.
On the 20th, in the morning, there was a
thick fog, and the cold was very sensible, as
usual in the vallies enclosed between mountains.
All the vallies and mountains near the Bour
goultai were covered with flowers and rich ver
dure, which we had not seen to the south of

432 JOURNEY FROM OURGA
Ourga. The mountains of Narin were clothed
with groves of birch, in which there is an abun
dance of wild strawberries. The Mongols make
no use of them, nor of any kind of vegetable.
We met many Mongol women in carriages,
on their way to pay their respects to the kou
touktou. Towards evening we saw some Chi
nese carts drawn by oxen, and loaded with
swine, which were purchased at Kiakhta and in
tended for Ourga, where the flesh of those
animals is much esteemed by the Mantchoos and
the Chinese. The Mongols prefer mutton.
On the 21st of July the fog was not so thick
as on the preceding day ; but it was cold, with
a heavy dew. We reached Khountsal, and the
following day came to Khorimtou.
The negligence of the Mongols is the cause
that the fertile lands about mount Noinola, ten
wersts from Khountsal, are not turned to any
account. Hay might be made in abundance in
this district, and prevent the immense loss of
cattle which these people experience during the
winter, when the ground is covered with snow.
This had been the case last winter, and they
complained to us of their great loss in sheep and
camels. The horses bear the cold better. Some
persons had not above thirty sheep left out of
three hundred.
The river Boro abounds in fish, particularly
the salmo lenoc. In the meadows there are

TO KIAKHTA. 433
great numbers of quails. In the plain on the
right of this river we observed traces of cul
tivated fields, surrounded with trenches, which
probably served as canals to water them. When
we asked why these fields had been abandoned,
the Mongols answered, because post stations
had been established here.
On the 23d of July we arrived on the banks
of the Khara, the water of which is tolerably
good. In the spring, this river overflows the
country as far as the mountains, in consequence
of which the grass is very high and thick. In
summer, the cattle graze on the plains, and in
winter on the mountains. The Mongols do ntf.
mow the grass till the month of September,
when, as they say, it cannot rot in the stack ;
but it has naturally lost a great part of its nu
tritious quality.
The Khara produces a great variety of fish.
We caught carp, perch, salmon-trout, tench, &c.
Some of the salmon-trout weighed twenty-five
pounds. On the 24th of July I thought it best, as we
had travelled five stages from Ourga, to give the
cattle a day's rest, particularly as the pasture
was very abundant. From this station to the
Baingol, the post road had been carried over the
high mountain of Mangatai, on occasion of the
journey of the vang of Ourga to Kiakhta with
a suite of seventy persons, the month before.
VOL. XI. F F

434 JOURNEY FROM OURGA
As I was unacquainted with this road, the Mis
sion having come last year over mount Tou-
moukei, I resolved to go before, with two
Cossacks, and some of the Mongol officers.
After riding ten wersts towards the north, in a
narrow defile, we passed a torrent which flows
from the summit to the foot of the mountain
towards the south. On the nearest mountains
lie prodigious stones of various forms ; and the
summits are crowned with thick woods of pine,
birch, ash, and various shrubs. The scenery of
this spot is very grand and picturesque. We
observed a great many trees and plants of the
same species as are met with in the inland
provinces of Russia. The road to the top of the
mountain, though not steep, was very difficult,
on account of the large stones, over which we
could not have got the waggons without the aid
of levers.
Having reached a Mongol chapel, erected on
the summit of Mangatai, five wersts from the
Bainola, we turned back. It was resolved to
send the loaded camels by this route, and the
waggons over Toumoukei.
On the 25th we reached the Bainola ; and on
the 26th the Ourmoukhtoui. The day was very
warm. On the 27th, in the morning, we had
rain. The country through which we travelled
on this day was extremely beautiful : large
pines grow on the sides of the mountains, be-

TO KIAKHTA. 435
sides birches, asps, &c. The river Shara flows
at their feet; the meadows are covered with
rich herbage and groves of elms. On the other
side of the river is a temple, with a red roof,
behind which is a ridge of mountains, and a
sandy plain covered with evergreen firs ; and the
valley was clothed with the golden harvest. On
the whole journey through Mongolia 1 did not
see any other place that promised so many ad
vantages for settled inhabitants who would follow
agriculture. There is a road from the temple to the banks
of the Iro, which was made on occasion of the
late journey of the vang to Kiakhta, in order
to shorten the distance from Ourga to the Rus
sian frontier. Though this is now the post road,
we did not find what was necessary to the ac
commodation of carriages; the vang himself
travelled in a litter borne by four men. Per
sons who are hr- the service of the state travel
on horseback. The agreeable situation of this
mountain induced the vang to give it the name
of Saikhan Oulou (the beautiful Oulou). There
is an obo on its summit.
The soil to the north of Oulou is sandy, and
the grass is consequently parched up during the
hot weather. Mountains rise on every side.
Having ascended mount Khara tologai (black
head), which has several peaks, we saw an ex
tensive valley, watered by the Kouitoun gol.
f f 2

436 JOURNEY FROM OURGA
When we reached the station on the right bank
of that river, which is formed at a considerable
distance, by the union of two streams bearing
the same name, we saw numerous habitations,
and, for the last time, herds of buffaloes. Seven
wersts farther to the west, the Kouitoun falls in
to the Shara, where our Mission last year, and
those of 1807 and 1808, halted.
In the evening there was a storm, accom
panied by heavy rain, which continued during
the 28th. On the 29th the weather was mild ;
on this we halted on the banks of the Iro, where
we found boats ready to carry us over. On
the 30th we had very hot weather, but the
sight of the mountains in the Russian territory,
which we descried from the top of Tsagan daba,
filled us with so much joy that we forgot all
our fatigues.
On the 31st we arrived at Gilan nor, the last
station before Kiakhta, of which town we came
in sight on issuing from a forest. The heat be
came more oppressive, and we every where per
ceived the effects of the long drought; the
mountains were covered with corn, ready for the
sickle. After passing the Boro, a muddy stream,
called by the Russians, Boura, we arrived at our
station. Two interpreters from the custom
house at Kiakhta brought us, from the director,
bread and salt to congratulate us on our safe
arrival.

TO KIAKHTA. 437
On the 1st of August, early, Mr. Goliakhov-
sky, the director of the customs, and other
officers, the ataman of the light Bouriate troops,
and two taidzis of Selenghinsk came to meet
us. At ten o'clock we set out with them, and at
length entered Kiakhta.
Thus our journey was accomplished : it is
really one of the most troublesome, fatiguing, and
even dangerous to health, that it is possible to
make by land. The uniformity of the steppes,
and the slow manner in which we traversed
them, have perhaps given an appearance of mo
notony to the narrative of our journey ; but the
reader may feel assured, that it is founded solely
on truth.

F F 3

APPENDIX.

STATISTICAL VIEW OF CHINA,
EXTRACTED FROM ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS,
BY
M. KLAPROTH.

A. CHING KING,
IN THE COUNTRY OF THE MANTCHOOS.
Ching King, in Mantchoo Moukden, is the capital of
the vast countries situated to the north of the Phou hat,
or Gulf of Peking, and of the kingdom of Corea, which is
separated from it by the chain of high snowy mountains,
called in Chinese Tchang pe chan, and in Mantchoo
Golmin chanyan alin. This city is situated at the dis
tance of 1470 li east north east of Peking. Its terri
tory comprises the province of Liao toung, and the
ancient country of the Mantchoos ; it is traversed by the
great river Saghalien, or Amour, and its tributary streams.
To the east it extends to the sea; to the north it is
separated by the lofty chain of Khinggan from Siberia,
and on the west it has the steppes of the Kalkas and
F f 4

440 APPENDIX.
Mongols; to the south-east it extends only to the
Khikata mountains, which separate it from the eastern
sea, the shores of which are not inhabited in these parts.
The whole country is divided in the following manner :
1. Department of Ninggouta.
2.  Ghirin.
3.  Fung thian fou, which is another
name of Moukden.
4.  Kin tcheou fou.
5. District of Sieou yan tching.
The revenues of the territory of Ching king, are not
very considerable.
This country has its separate government, and its own
tribunals ; it brings in annually
In money - 38,780 liang, or ounces.
In grain - - 58,582 chy.
Land tax, paid in rice - - 32,391 chy.
Grain collected at Ninggouta and
atBedoune - - - 20,700 chy.

Total 111,673 chy.

The province of Ching king, must not be reckoned
among those of China, properly so called. That em
pire is now composed of eighteen, not of nineteen
provinces.
B. CHINA PROPER.
1. Province of Tchy li. Peking, or Chun thian fou,
is the capital of this province, and of the whole empire ;
the second capital of the province is Pao ting fou.
Tchy li is 1228 li, in its greatest extent from east to
west, and 1628, from north to south. To the east 'it
has the gulf of Peking and Chan toung; on the north

APPENDIX. 441
it is separated from Mongolia and Ching king, by the
great wall. The road to this latter province is by
the gate of the fort of Chan hai kouan in the great wall.
On the west Tchy li is bounded by Chan si and Ho nan,
and on the south by the latter province and Chan toung.
It is divided into seventeen departments, viz. :
1 . Department of Chun thian fou, or Peking.
2.  Tsun houa tcheou.
3.  Pao ting fou.
4.  Y tcheou.
5.  Tching tefou, or Je ho.
6.  :  Young phing fou.
7.  Ho kian fou.
8.  Thian tsin fou.
9.  Tching ting fou.
10.  Ki tcheou.
11.  Tchao tcheou.
1 2.  Chin tcheou.
13.  —Ting tcheou.
14.  Chun tefou.
15.  Kouang. phing fou.
16.  Ta ming fou.
1 7.  Siuan houa fou.
Revenues. liang.
Taxes levied at Peking, or Chun thian fou - 154,173
Land tax, &c. raised by the treasurer of the
province .... 2,334,475
Produce of the coal mines - 32,420
Licences of pawnbrokers, and other taxes - 42,093
Produce of the salt works - - 437,949
 Customs at Chan hai kouan - 28,200
 of Tchan kia kheou, or Kal
gan, in- the Great Wall - 10,000
¦ — of the custom at Thian tsin - 40,460
Total 3,079,770

442 APPENDIX.
2 and 3. Provinces of Kiang su, and Ngan hoei,
forming together the ancient Kiang nan. The capital
of Kiang su is Kiang ning fou or Nan king, 2,400 li
south east of Peking : that of Ngan hoei is Ngan khing
fou, 2700 li from Peking. The province of Kiang nan
extends 1630 li from east to west, and 1700 li from north
to south. To the east it has the Houang hai, or Yellow
Sea ; to the south Tche kiang and Kiang si ; to the west
Honan, and to the north Chan toung. The two pro
vinces which compose it are divided as follows :
A. in Kiang su.
] . Department of Kiang ning fou, or Nan king.
2. —  Su tcheou fou.
3.  Thai thsang tcheou.
4.  Soung kiang fou.
5.  Tchang tcheou fou.
6.  Tchin kiang fou.
7.  Hoai ngan fou.
8.  Hai tcheou.
9.  Yang tcheou fou.
10.  ¦  • Thoung tcheou.
1 1. .  Sin tcheou fou.
B. in Ngan hoei.
] . Department of Ngan khing fou.
2.  Hoei tcheou fou.
3. .  Ning kouefou.
4,.  Tchi tchdou fou.
5. .  Thai phing fou.
6.  Lou tcheou fou.
7.  Fung yang fou.
8.  Yng tcheou fou..
9.  Kouang te tcheou.
10.  Siu tchdou.
1 1 .  Ho tcheou.
12.  Lou ngan tcheou.
1 3. ,  Szu tcheou.

APPENDIX. 443
Revenues ofthe Province of Kiang su. liang.
Taxes levied on the farmers - - 3,116,826
Other taxes . - 46,930
Produce of the salt works ... 93,940
Revenues ofthe Province of Ngan hoei.
Taxes levied on the farmers - - 1,718,824
Licences and other taxes - - 6,620
Produce of the salt works - - - 285,282
Customs at Loung kiang and Si sin - 23,680
Duties on manufactures and customs at the
gates of the town - - - 191,149
Customs at Yang tcheou fou - - 55,753
Duties levied at the sluice of Koua i tcha - 7,666
Toll at Tchang tchin and customs at Hoai
ngan .... 201,960
Duties on salt paid at the saltworks, and the cus
tom houses of Vou hou and of Hou koung 194,026
Customs of Fung yang ... 79,830
Customs of Chang hai - 25,526
Total 6,048,012
The whole of the grain which these two provinces
furnish as a tax to the government, amounts to
1,431,273 chy. ' It has there sixty-five vessels for their
conveyance. 4. Province of Kiang si, (Kiang see). Its capital is
Nantchangfau, 2850 Ii south of Peking. This province
is 970 li in its greatest breadth from east to west, and
.1800 li from north to south. On the east it is bounded
by Fou kian ; on the south _by Kouang toung, on the
west by Hou nan, and on the north by Hou pe and
Ngan hoei. Kiang si is divided into fourteen depart
ments :

444 appendix.
1. Department of Nan tchang fou.
2.  Jao tcheou fou.
3.  Kouang sinfou.
4.  Nan khang fou.
5.  Kieou Hang fou.
6.  Kian tchang fou.
7.  Fou tchdoufou.
8.  Lin kiang fou.
9.  Soui tcheou fou,
10.  Yuan tchdou fou.
1 1 .  Ky ngan fou.
1 2.  Kan tchdoufou.
1 3.  Ning tou tcheou.
14.  Nan ngan fou.
Revenues. liang.
Taxes paid by the peasants - - 1,878,682
Licences of the pawnbrokers and other taxes 4,470
Produce ofthe salt works - - - 5,150'
Customs of Kieou kiang and Ta kou thang - 173,880
Customs of Kan tcheou - 46,471
Total 2,108,653
The corn which the government receives by way of
taxes, amounts to 775,063 chy ; and it keeps fourteen
ships in the provinces for their conveyance.
5. Province of Tche kiang. The capital is Hang
tcheou fou, 3300 li south south east of Peking. The extent
ofthe province is 860 li from east to west, and 1280 li
from north to south. On the east it has the Toung hai,
or Eastern sea, on the south Fou kian, on the west
Kiang si, and on the north Kiang su. It is divided into
twelve departments :
1. Department of Hang tcheou fou.
2.  Kia hing fou.

APPENDIX. 44,5
3. Department of Hou tcheou fou.
*•  Ning pho fou.
^' —  • Tchao hing fou.
b* '  Thai tcheoufou.
>•  ¦  Kin houa fou.
8'  Heng tcheoufou.
"• '  Khiu tcheoufou.
10- '  '  Yan tcheoufou.
J *•  Ouen tcheou foiim
12.  Tchu tcheou fou.
Revenues.
Taxes paid by the peasants - '2,914,946
Patents and other taxes - 10 650
Produce of corn and salt in the eight last
departments - ' _ 501,044
Customs of Pe sin kouan - - 22 660
 Nan sin kouan - 26,500
 Ning hai kouan - 32 030
Total 3,507830,
Impost on grain, levied in the first three
departments - - 611,720 chy.
White rice - - 66,600
Total 678,320
The government keeps 24 ships for the conveyance
of this grain.
6. Province of Fou kian (Fou kien.) The capital is
Fou tcheoufou, 6 1 30 li south south-east of Peking. The
greatest extent of this province, from east to west, is
950 li, and from north to south, 980 li. On the east it
is bounded by the Eastern Sea and the Strait of For
mosa; on the south, by Kouang toung; on the east, by
Kiang si ; on the north, by Tche kiang. It is divided
into 12 departments :

446

APPENDIX.

1. Department of Fou tcheoufou.

2.
3.4.5.6.7. 8.9.
10.11.12.

Thsiuan tcheoufou.
Kian ning fou.
Yan phing fou.
¦ Thing tcheoufou.
¦ Hing houa fou.
¦ Chao won fou.
¦ Tchang tcheoufou.
¦ Fou ning fou.
¦ Yung tchun tcheou.
Loungyan tcheou.
Thai ouan fou, which includes
the western half of the island
of Formosa.

Revenues.

Taxes paid by the peasants
Produce of the salt works
Divers other imposts
Customs of Fou kian kouan

liang.
1,074,489 85,470
24,850 73,549
Total 1,258,358

7. Province of Hou pe. Its capital is Vou tchang
fou, 3155 li from Peking. Its greatest extent, from east
to west, is -2440 li, and from north to south, 680. To
the east it has Ngan hoei and Kiang si ; to the south,
Hou nan ; to the west, Szu tchouan and Chen si ; and to
the north, the province of Ho nan. It is divided into
1 1 departments :

1.
2. 3.4.
5.6.7.

Department of Vou tchang fou.
 Han yang fou.
.  Ngan lofou.
 King men tcheou.
 1  Siang yang fou.
 Yun yang fou.
 — — Te ngan fou.

APPENDIX. 4,47
8-  ¦  Houang tcheoufou.
9-  King tcheoufou.
10.  =— —  I tchang fou.
U.  Chi nan fou.
Revenues. liang.
Taxes paid by the farmers - - 1,174 110
Licences and other taxes - 58 780
Customs of King tcheou - - 9 644
Total 1,243,534
Grain which the government receives as a tax,
96,934 chy.
Twelve vessels are kept for its conveyance.
8. Province of Hou nan. Its capital is Tchang cha
fou, 4550 li south-west of Peking. The greatest extent
of this province, from east to west, is 1420 li, and 1150
from south to north. To the east it has Kiang si ; to
the south, .Kouang toung and Kouang si ; to the west,
Kouei tcheou and Szu tchouan ; and to the north, Hou
pe. It is divided into 1 3 departments :
1 . Department of Tchang cha fou.
2.  Yo tcheoufou.
3.  Li tcheou.
4.  Pao khing fou.
5.  Heng tcheoufou.
6.  ¦ Kouei yang fou.
7.  Tchang tefou.
8.  — Chin tcheoufou.
9.  Yuan tcheoufou.
10.  Young tcheoufou.
11.  Tsing tcheou
12.  Tchin tcheou.
13.  Young chunfbu.

448 APPENDIX.

Revenues.

Taxes levied on the farmers
Other taxes
Taxes on beasts of burden
-
liang.
- 882,745 30,530 13,880
Total
927,155
The grain which the government receives as a tax,
amounts to 96,214 chy. — It is conveyed on board the
vessels of the province of Hou pe.
9. Province of Ho nan. Its capital is Khai fung fou,
1540 li south-west of Peking. Its greatest breadth
from east to west, is 1120 li, and its greatest length
from north to south 1290 li. On the east it is bounded
by Tchy li and Ngan hoei ; on the south by Hou pe, on
the west by Chen si and Chan si ; lastly, on the north it
has Chan si, Tchy li, and Chan toung.
It is divided into thirteen departments :
1. Department of Khai fung fou.
2.  Tchin tchSoufou.
3. -^—  Hiu tcheou.
4.  Kouei tefou.
5.  .  Tchang tefou.
6.  Ouei hiunfou.
7.  Hoai khing fou.
8.  Ho nan fou.
9.  Chen tcheou.
10.  Nan yang fou.
11.  Ju ning fou.
12. — —  Kouang tcheou.
13.  Ju tcheou.
Revenues. liang.
Taxes paid by the farmers - - 3,164,758
Licences and other taxes - - 12,650
Total 3,177,408
APPENDIX. 449
Utice received as a Tax 221,342 chy. A military
commandant is appointed, to forward it by the imperial
ships, from Chan toung to Peking.
10. Province of Chan toung. Its capital, Tsi nan
fou, is above 800 li south of Peking. This province is
1640 li, in its greatest extent from east to west, and
800 li from north to south. To the east it has the
Yellow Sea ; to the south Kiang su, Ngan hoei, and Ho
nan ; to the west, Tchy li ; and to the north the gulf of
Peking and the Yellow Sea. It is divided into twelve
departments :
1. Department of Tsi nan fou.
2.  Thai nganfom
3.  ->  Vou ting fou.
4. ¦  Yan tcheoufou.
5.  Tsi ning tch4ou.
6.  I tcheoufou.
7. _  Thsao tcheoufou.
8.  - Toung tchang fou.
9.  Lin thsing tcheou.
10.  : — ¦  Thsing tcheoufou.
11.  Teng tchdou fou.
12.  Lai tcheou fou.
Revenues. liang.
Taxes paid by the farmers - 3,376,165
Licences and other taxes - - 47,850
Produce'of the salt works - - 120,720
Customs of Tshing tcheou kouan, on the
great canal ... 29,680
Total 3,574,415
The grain which the government receives as a tax,
amounts to 353,963 chy ; it is conveyed to Peking by
12 imperial vessels.
VOL. II. G G

450 APPENDIX.
11. Province of Chan si. Thai yuan fou, its capital,
is 1200 li south-west of Peking. Its greatest breadth
from east to west is 880 li; and its extent from north to
south, 1620 li. On the east it is bounded by Tchy li
and Ho nan ; on the south, by Ho nan ; on the west,
the Yellow River divides it from Chen si ; and on the
north it is defended by the great wall, forming its
boundary towards Mongolia.
There are 19 departments in this province:
1. Department of Thai yuan fou.
2.  Phing ting tcheou.
3.  Hin tchdou.
4. >  Tai tcheou.
5.  Pao te tcheou.
6.  ; — Phing yang fou.
7.  Ho tcheou.
8.  Phou tcheoufou.
9.  Kiai tchdou.
1 o.  — —  Kiang tcheou.
1 1 . .  — _— Hian tchdou.
12.  Lou ngan fou.
13, .  Fen tcheou fou.
14.  TsintchSou.
15.  Tse tcheou fou.
16.  Liao tcheou.
1 7.  ;  Ta thoung fou.
18.  Ning vou fou.
19,  .  So phing fori.
Revenues. liang.
Taxes paid by the farmers- - 2,990,675
Licences and other taxes - - 31,100
Produce of the salt mines and salt works 507,028
Customs at Cha hou kheou, in the great wall 10,919
Total 3,539,722

APPENDIX. 4J1
12. Province of Chen si. Its capital, Si ngan fou,
is 2650 li south-west of Peking. The greatest extent of
this province, from east to west, is 935 li; and from
north to south, 2426 li. To the east it has the Yellow-
River, which separates it from Chan si ; more ter the
south, Ho nan. On the west it adjoins Kan su ; and on
the north, the Great Wall separates it from the country
of the Ordos Mongols, called in Chinese Ho thao.
It is divided into 12 departments:
1. Department of Si ngan fou.
2.  Chang tcheou.
3. •  Thoung tchdou fou.
4.  : — Kian tchdou.
5.  Pin tcheou.
6.  — — Fung thsiang fou.
7.  Han tchoung fou.
8.  Hing ngan fou.
9.  Yan ngan fou.
10.  Fou tcheou.
11.  :  Soui te tcheou.
12.  Yu lin fou.
Revenues.
Taxes paid by the farmers - 1,658,700 liang.
13. Province of Kan su. Lan tcheou fou, its ca
pital, is 4040 li from Peking. The greatest extent of
this province, from east to west, is 2120 li; and from
north to south, 2400 li. It comprises at present the
ancient countries of Cha tcheou, Bar koul, and Ou-
roumtsi, to the north of Little Bucharia. To the east,
it has Chen si ; to the south, Szu tchouan, and Mount
Boura, in the country of the Si fan ; to the west, the
country of the Mongols of lake Koukou nor, and Little
Bucharia, and the country of Hi; to the north, the
country of the Eluths of Mount Alashan, the desert of
g g 2

452

APPENDIX.

Gobi, the country of the Kalkas, and the government
of Kour kara oussou. It is divided into 15 departments:
1 . Department of Lan- tcheoufou.
2.  Phing liang fou.
3.  ___ King tcheou.
4.  — Koung tchang fou.
5.  Kiai tcheou.
6.  Thsin tcheou.
7. —  Khing yang fou.
8. *-¦  Ning hia fou.
9. ¦  Si ning fou.
10.  Liang tcheou fou.
11.  Kan tcheou fou.
12.  u Su tcheou.
13.  Ngan si fou.
14.  1 chin si fou or Bar koul.
15.  Ty houa tcheou or Ouroumtsi.
Revenues. liang.
Taxes levied on the farmers - 280,652
Other taxes and produce ofthe sale of salt 39,450

Total 320,102
Grain which the government receives by way of tax,
218,550 chy.
14. Province of Szu tchouan (Setchuen). Its capital
is Tching tou fou, 5700 li south-west of Peking. Its
greatest extent, from east to west, is 3000 li, and from
north to south 3200 li. On the east, it borders on Hou
nan and Hou pe ; on the south, on Kouei thcheou and
Yun nan ; to the west, on the savage Tibetans, called
Maorlce ,• and to the south-west, on the country of Ari
goungdan, belonging to Tibet. To the north it is
bounded by Chen si, Kan su, and the country of the
Si fan, or Eastern Tibetans. It is divided into twenty
departments :

APPENDIX. 453
1. Department of Tchhing tou fou.
2.  Tsu tcheou.
3.  Mian tcheou.
4.  'Meou tcheou.
5.  Ning yuan fou.
6. ¦  Pao ning fou.
7. ¦  Chun khing fou.
8.  Siu tcheoufou.
9.  Tchoun khing fou.
10.  Si yang tcheou.
1 1 ,  Tchoung tcheou.
12.  Kouei tcheoufou.
13.  Ta tcheou.
14.  Loung ngan fou.
15.  Thoung tchouan fou.
16.  Mei tchdou.
17.  Kia ting fou.
18.  Kioung tcheou.
19.  — — —  Lou tcheou.
20.  Ya tcheoufou.
Revenues. liang.
Taxes paid by the peasants - - 631,094
Other taxes - - 20,520

Total 651,614
15. Province of Kouang toung (Quangtong). The
capital, Kouang toung fou, or Canton, is 7570 li south
west of Peking. On the east this province borders on
Fou kian, and the Nan hai, or southern sea ; to the
south it has the same sea, and the kingdom of An nam,
or Tonquin ; on the west, Kouang si ; on the north,
the same province, and those of Hou nan, Kiang si, and
Fou kian. It is divided into 1 3 departments :
1. Department of Kouang tcheou.
2.  — — Lian tcheou.
G G 3

454 APPENDIX.
3-  Chao tcheoufou.
4.  Nan hioungfou.
5.  Hoei tcheoufou.
6.  — Tchao tchdou fou~
7.  ¦  Kia ing tcheou.
8.  Tchao king fou.
9.  ¦ Kao tcheoufou.
10.  Lian tcheoufou.
11.  Loui tcheou fou.
12.  Kioung tchdou fou.
13.  ¦  Lo ting tchiou.
Revenues. liang.
Taxes paid by the farmers 1,264,304
Licences and other taxes - - 5,990
Produce of salt - 47,510
Produce of the customs on the river of Canton 43,750
Customs in the port of Thai ping khiao, at
Chao tcheou fou - - 53,670

Total 1,415,224
16. Province of Kouang si (Quang see). Its capi
tal is Kouei lin fou, 7460 li south-west of Peking. The
greatest breadth of this province, from east to west, is
2800 li; from south to north, it is 960. To the east it
has Kouang toung and Hou nan ; to the south Kouang
toung, and the kingdom of Tonquin ; to the west, the
same kingdom and Yun nan : to the north, Kouei tcheou
and Hou nan. It is. divided into thirteen departments:

Department of Kouei linfott.
 Lieou tcheoufou.
 Khing yuan fou.
 ¦  Szu ngan fou.
 ¦  Si loung tcheou.
¦ — =  Szu fchinfou.

APPENDIX. 455
7. Department of Phing l&fou.
8.  Ou tchdou fou.
9-  Yu lin tcheou.
10.  Sin tcheoufou.
11.  Nan ning fou.
12.  Thai phing fou.
13. — —  Tchin ngan fou.
Revenues. liang.
Imposts paid by the peasants - 416,399
Licences, and other taxes - - 25,880
Produce of salt - - - 47,150
Total 489,429
17. Province of Yun nan. Its capital, Yun nan fou,
is 8200 li south-west of Peking. It is 2510 li in its
greatest extent from east to west, and 1150 from north
to south. On the east it has Kouang si, Kouei tcheou,
and Szu tchouan ; on the south the kingdoms of An
nam, or Tonquin, of Lao tchoua, or Laos, and oi Mian, or
Ava ; on the west it borders on the latter kingdom, and
the barbarous countries of Ly sou and Nou i; to the
north on that of the Tibetan Lamas of Moung fang, and
on Szu tchouan. It is divided into twenty-one depart
ments :
m 1. Department of Yun nan fou.
2.  Ta lifou.
3.  —  Lin ngan fou.
4.  Thsu hioungfou.
5.  Tching kiang fou.
6.  -i King toung thing.
7.  Kouang nan fou.
8.  Kouang si tchdou.
9.  Chun ning fou.
10. — —  Khiu thsing fou.
G G 4

456 appendix.
11. Department of Vou ting fou.
12.  Li kiang fou.
13.  — - Yuan kiang fou.
14,  Pfiou eul fou.
1 5.  Moung houa thing.
16.  Young tchang fou.
17.  Young pe thing.
18.  Khai houa fou.
19.  Toung tchouan fou.
20.  Tchin yuan fou.
21. —  Tchao thoung fou.
Revenues.
Taxes paid by the farmers - - 209,581 liang.
The province furnishes the government with 227,626
chy of corn, and of summer and autumn rice, pulse, &c.
18. Province of Kouei tcheou. The capital, Kouei
yang fou, is 7640 li south-west of Peking. Its greatest
extent, from east to west, is 1900 li; and from north to
south, 770. To the east it has Hou nan ; to the south,
Kouang si ; to the west, Yun nan ; to the north, Szu
tchouan. It is divided into fourteen departments:
1. Department of Kouei yang fou,
2.  Szu tchdou fou.
3.  Szu nan fou.
4. — .  Tchin yuan fou.
5, _  Chy thsian fou.
6.  • Thoung jin fou,
7.  Li phing fou.
8. — —  Ngan shun fou.
9.  Nan toung fou.
10.  Tou kiun fou.
1 1.  Phing yue fou.
12.  Ta ting fou.
13.  Tsun ifou.
1 4.  Jin houa'i thing.

Taxes paid by the farmers
Licences, and other taxes
Produce of salt

APPENDIX.

457

Revenues.
lersses

-

liang. 102,628 13,690 6,230

Total

122,548

GENERAL RECAPITULATION.

Liang

Rice, Corn, &c.

or ounces of
sent annually
'.
silver.
to Peking.
Ching king
38,780
11 1,673 chy.
Tchy li - -
3,079,770
Kiang su - - 1
Ngan hoei - - J
6,048,012
1,431,283
Kiang si
2,108,653
775,063 (*)
Tche kiang
3,507,830
678,320
Fou kian
], 258,358
Hou pe -
1,243,534
96,934
Hou nan -
927,155
96,214
Ho nan -
3,177,408
221,342
Chan toung
3,574,415
353,963
Chan si - -
3,539,722
Chen si -
1,658,700
Kan su -
. 320,102
218,550
Szu tchouan
651,614
Kouang toung -
1,415,224
Kouang si -
489,429
Yun nan -
209,581
227,626
Kouei tcheou -
122,548
33,350,835
4,21 0,958 chy.
(*) The Imperial Almanac of 1795 has 795,065 chy; that of 1820,
only 7 75,065. We follow the latter.
458

APPENDIX.

CORN AND RICE
PRESERVED IN THE MAGAZINES OF EACH PROVINCE.

•

Corn.

Rice.

Ching king -

156,810

139,504

Tchy li

869,192

91,077

Kiang su -

1,466,000

1,048,602

Ngan hoei -

864,110

155,053

Kiang si

1,139,689

787,454

Tche kiang -

1,503,605

615,663

Fou kian -

1,778,887

232,547

Hou pe - - -

465,627

96,848

Hou nan - - -

1,435,958

72,462

Ho nan «¦

2,221,300

221,941

Chan toung -

966,500

478,690

Chan si -

1,306,987

Chen si

2,697,620

636,523

Kan su -

3,080.000

402,246

Szu tchouan

1,045,179

9,840

Kouang toung

2,585,000

Kouang si -

990,471

127,175

Yun nan -

750,411

Kouei tcheou

157,818

Total of chy
25,481,164
5,115,625
Sum Total of the Revenues ofthe Empire.
Imposts and taxes of the several pro
vinces of China -
Value of 4,210,958 chy of rice sent an
nually to Peking at one liang and a
half per chy - Total
liang.
33,350,835
6,316,437
39,667,272
The expences of the government are nearly equal to
the revenues ; for which reason it is often embarrassed
in its operations.
APPENDIX. 459
POPULATION OF CHINA.
We have no authentic documents except relative to
the population of China Proper : they are preserved in
the new edition of 1790 of the Great Imperial Geo
graphy. We can say nothing positive respecting the
number of the inhabitants of the other provinces of the
empire, such as the ancient country of the Mandchoos,
Mongolia, Little Bucharia, the country of the Soungar
ians and Tibet. By a rough calculation, we may esti
mate the population of these countries at twelve millions
of souls.
POPULATION OF CHINA PROPER, WITH THAT OF THE
PROVINCE OF CHING KING, OR LIAS TOUNG, IN 1790.
Ching king .... 486,643
Peking et Tchy li 3,504,038
Kiang su - - 28,967,235
Ngan hoei - 1,438,023
Kiang si - - - 5,922,160
Tche kiang - - 18,975,099
Fou kian - - - 1,684,528
Hou pe - 24,604,369
Hou nan - - - 9,098,010
Ho nan - - - 2,662,969
Chan toung - - - 25,447,633
Chan si 1,860,816
Chen si - - 257,704
Kansu - - - - 340,086
Szu tchouan - - - 7,789,782
Kouang toung - - 1,491,271
Kouang si - - 2,569,518
Yunnan - - - 2,255,459
Kouei tchKm - - - 2,941,391

Total 142,326,734

460 APPENDIX.
Having given the population of China after the census
of 1790, I think it right to annex that of the peasants
paying taxes, drawn up after the conquest of China by the
Mandchoos in 1644. It must be remembered that the
empire had at that time been desolated by long and cruel
civil wars; and that the inhabitants of the cities, who do hot
belong to the agricultural class, are not included in this
census. The result of it, for all the provinces of China,
including Liao toung, is about twenty-six millions. If
we reckon eleven millions more for the inhabitants of the
towns, we should have thirty-six millions of inhabitants
for all China. The population of that empire may have
quadrupled in a hundred and forty years of profound
peace.

NUMBER OF CHINESE PEASANTRY ABOUT THE MIDDLE
OF THE 17TH CENTURY.
Ching king - - - 47,124
Pe king et Tchy li - - 3,340,544
Kiang su) _ _ . 4}256,7I2
Ngan hoei J
Kiang si - - - 337,069
Tche kiang - - - 3,124,798
Fou kian - - - 1,528,607

Houpe I 752,970
Hou nan J
Ho nan - - - 2,527,456
Chan toung - - - 2,431,936
Chan si - 1,799,895
Chensi - - " 2,262,438
Kansu - - " 451,693
Szu tchouan - - 650,208
Kouang toung - - 1,201,320
Kouang si - 220,690

APPENDIX. 461

Yun nan - - 237,965
Kouei tchdou - - - 41,089

Total 26,122,514

CHINESE ARMY.
M. Timkowski says (Vol. II. p. 16), that the English
look at the Chinese empire through a magnifying glass
when they estimate the number of its troops at a million
infantry, and eight hundred thousand cavalry. This esti
mate is, in fact, too high ; yet it will be seen from authen
tic documents, that the Chinese army should consist of
1,358,000 men, both infantry and cavalry. But it must
be observed, that the number of the Chinese troops is
not so considerable as it ought to be, because each officer
keeps back, for his own benefit, almost one-third of the
pay of the soldiers ; the officers have a great number of
servants, who serve them on easy terms : their wages are
taken out of what is kept back of the pay of the soldiers.
They muster these servants with the soldiers, to deceive
the inspectors-general, and to make their companies ap
pear complete. Not content with this, they also keep
back two or three pence per month ofthe pay of each man.
These frauds have been practised almost in all ages by the
officers, both high and low, of the Chinese government.
We may therefore deduct one-third from the amount of
1,358,000 men, of which the Chinese army is presumed to
be composed. The following is the complete estimate :

A. China.

Peking • -

- -

90,000

Tchy li

-

151,000

Kiang su "}
Ngan hoei J

.

132,000

Kiang si
-
39,000
462

- APPENDIX.

Tche kiang

59,000

Fou kian

76,000

Hou pe

37,000

Hou nan -

51,000

Ho nan - -

24,000

Chan toung

35,000

Chan si

35,000

Chen si -

104,000

Kan su

123,000

Szu tchouan

85,000

Kouang toune

99,000

Kouang si

42,000

Yun nan

53,000

Kouei tcheou

70,000

Total 1,232,000

B. Other Provinces

of the Empire.

Ching king or Liao toung
Country ofthe Mandchoos
MongoliaIn the ancient country of the
and in Little Bucharia

4,000
- 10,000
- 30,000
Soungarians, - 45,000

In Tibet

6,000

Total 95,000

C. Marine.
Troops and sailors - - 31,000
recapitulation.
In China - - • 1,232,000
In the other Provinces of the Empire 95,000
Marine - - - 31,000
Total 1,358,000

appendix. 463
The population ofthe whole Chinese empire will be
therefore .-
Population of China Proper, and of
Liao toung - - 142,326,734
Population of the pther countries
subject to the Emperor - - 12,000,000
Civil officers - - - 9,611
Military Officers - - 7,552
Effective force of the troops by sea
and land ... 906,000
Total 155,249,897

464 APPENDIX.

EXPLANATION

OF

THE PLATES

Explanation of Plate I.
Arachi taidzi,- a Mongol noble, of the district of
Dourmy, with whom M. Timkowski, on his journey to
Peking, left some horses that were unable to proceed, to
be taken care of till his return. This honest Mongol
had rendered great services to the preceding Russian
Missions, and it seems that his portrait has been added
to this work out of gratitude. It shows the costume of
the Mongols, and their mode of travelling on camels.
Dourmy is in the territory of the Oriental Sounites,
in lat. 44° N., and longitude 1 1 1° 50' E. of Paris.
Explanation of Plate II.
Map of the Route from Kiakhta to Peking, through
Mongolia, and bach — 1820, 1821.
The double road across the desert of Gobi, repre
sented in this map, is not marked in those which the
Jesuit Missionaries drew up at the beginning of the
eighteenth century, by order ofthe Emperor Khang hi,
and which are copied in the General Description of
China by Du Halde. The country through which
these roads pass, is also left blank in the great map
of the Chinese Empire, made under the reign of the
Emperor Kien long, and engraved at Peking in 1760.

appendix. 465
This map, sketched by M. Timkowski, affords, there
fore, a real addition to our geographical knowledge, by
giving us some details respecting this imperfectly known
part of Mongolia, which had not been described, except
by Laurence Lange, when he went in 1727, from the
frontiers of Siberia to Peking. The diary of this
journey is interesting, and deserves to be compared
with that of M. Timkowski. It has not been published
in any language except German, and is inserted in the
Nordische Beytrcege of Pallas, vol. II., page 83, &c.
M. Timkowski's map represents correctly only the
roads by which he travelled : the remainder is less de
serving of confidence ; and our mamfacturers of maps
would be wrong, if they hastened to copy every thing in
this map ; for instance the course of the Keroulun, and
the shape of lakes Dalai and Bouir, which are much
broader than the map represents them. The position of
Nor tian, and that of Kalgan, or Tchang kia kheou,
with respect to the great wall, are also incorrect, as I
have already observed in the note to page 277 of the
first volume of this work.
Explanation of Plate III.
Plan of Peking.
The name of Peking signifies Northern Capital,
which name was given to the city in 1403. The plan
is sufficiently explained by the description contained in
this work, vol. II. 127, which is that of Father Gaubil,
augmented by some remarks of M. Timkowski. The
figures in the plan refer to this description. Peking is
composed of two squares ; the upper forms the King
tching or Imperial city, called by the Missionaries the
Tartar city. This has nine gates, the names of which
I repeat here to facilitate the references to the plan.
VOL. II. H H

466 APPENDIX.
1. Tching yang men. 6. Te ching men.
2,' Thsoung ven men. 7. Si tchy men,
3. Tchao yang men. 8. Feou tching men.
4. Toung tchy men, 9. Siuan vou men.
5. Ngan ting men.
The lower square contains the Vai lo tching, or outer
town, called by the Missionaries the Chinese city. It has
the following seven gates :
10. Toung pian men. 14. Yeou ngan men.
11. Kouang kiu men. 15. Koung ning men.
12. Tso ngan men. 16. Si pian men.
.13. Young ting men.
Peking is almost twice as large as Paris, and the
surface of the ground on which it stands, is about 20
English square miles. According to a manuscript plan
in my possession, which appears to be very accurate, its
circumference within the walls is fifty-eight li and a half.
The population of Peking is estimated at 1,300,000
souls.

APPENDIX.

467

STATIONS
ON THE ROUTE FROM KIAKHTA TO PEKING,
From August SI to December 1, 1820.

In Mongolia.

Aug. 31
Sept. I
23

9
10

1112 13 14
15

A. In the country of
the Kalkas.
Post road,
Ghilan nor

Ibitzyk
Iro, river
Halt.

The Kouitoun falls
into the Shara
Halt.Ourmouktou

Bain-gol, a small river
Khara gol

Halt. Korimtou

KountsalBourgoultai, a small
river
Halt.The Arachan, a rivulet
Ourga, or Kouren -
From Kiakhta to
Ourga
From the 15th to the
25th September the
Mission stopped at
Ourga, on account
of the death of the
Emperor Kia king

2525

30

25

20 18

23

25

20

is;
25'

261

Remarks.

There are post stations between Kiakhta
and Ourga,
Bad water, coming from a marsh in
the neighbourhood from which the
Boro issues.
It is crossed in boats. From this place
to Ourga the water is good ; it is
supplied by the rivers. The moun
tains, the ravines, and meadows afford
abundant pasture. Green wood is
used for fuel.
Halt near cultivated fields.
The road is along the banks of the
Shara. At the commencement of it
there is a temple and cultivated fields.
The river abounds in fish. The road
to the Khara is very fatiguing, on
account of the chain of mountains
called Mangatai, and especially Tou-
moukei.
The road passes through a level plain,
and between corn fields. Wild ducks
are in great numbers.
Tlie road is mountainous. The station
is surrounded with several lakes.

The road very mountainous.

At Ourga the weather was cold and
damp.

H II '2

468

APPENDIX.

Months

and

In Mongolia.

Wersts,

Remarks.

Days.

On the Darkan road.
From Ourga to Kalgan the stations
are expressly for the journey of the
Sept.
Russian missions.
25
Nalika
35
From this station to Kalgan the water,
both for men and cattle, is supplied
by wells. For fuel dried dung,
called in Mongol argal, is used.
26
Gaktsa Koudouk
40
Well.
27
Halt.
28
Djirgalantou
35
29
Ghilteghentai
28
Brackish water. The grass is short,
and parched up in hot weather.
30
Halt.
Oct. 1
2
Mou kotou, or Goto
Boumbatou
23$
20 1
Herds of fine horses. We fortunately
obtained some in exchange for some
of our own, which were knocked up.
3
Boro koudjir
22
Mount Darkan, consecrated to Ghingis
Khan.
4& 5
Halt.
6
Mount Shibetou
20
From Ourga to this place the grass
7
Halt.
and water are good. The road, as
in all Mongolia, is in general moun
tainous, and covered with gravel.
8
The wells of Shara
Shorotou
20
Camels may be exchanged with advan
tage.
On the road of Argali.
9
Olon Baishing
23
A long chain of mountains appears
under different aspects. In the vi
cinity of the station are ruins of an
10
The valley of Dzoul-
ancient edifice.
ghetou
12
11
Soudjin-oussou
20
The road to this place is covered with a
12
Halt.
kind of flints of different colours.
13
Koulongour
18
Commencement of the territory of the
banner of the Merghen Vang.
14.
Deressouin-oussou -
18
15
Abourgain Soum^ -
15
There is a fine temple. The inhabit
16
Halt.
ants have abundance of cattle, par
ticularly camels.
17
Dourban deretou
20
Sands. In the vicinity the studs of
camels belonging to the Emperor.
18
Oude
15
A natural gate-way in the rocks. The
water very bad.
19
Erghi
17
20
Halt. B. Country of tlie
Eastern Sounites
21
Oubour-oude'
35
From this place to the frontier of tlie
Tsakhars grass is rare, the water
blackish, the road in general sandy.
APPENDIX.

469

Months and
Days.

In Mongolia.

Wersts.

Remarks.

Oct. 22 2324 25 26

27 2829 30 31

Nov. 1
23 4

10

11

12 13

Gachoun
Halt. Karatouin Seoudji
Dzoun- Seoudji
Bathkai

HaU. Olon koudouk
Sain oussou
Halt. Koudjirtou

C. Country of the
Western Sounites.
Koul-koudouk Halt. Shara-boudourgouna Dourma

Halt.Tsakildak D. Country of tlie
Tsakhars of tlie ban
ner of Koubo-shara.
Elesoutou

Khara tologoi
Halt. On the road called
Goundjou dzam.
Kouitoun Dzamyn oussou -
E. Encampments of
¦ th e banner of Goulou
shara.
Toulga Halt.

26

2030 25

40 23

23

2:3

22 25

22

30

35

20

37

In the neighbourhood there is a fine
obo.
An excellent well.
Here we pass a very narrow defile
between rocks. There is a stud be
longing to the Emperor.

Bad water. Salt lake.
Here begin the sands which produce
the souli, a plant very pernicious to
strange horses.

Difficult passage.
The road to Dourma, by mountains
covered with deep sand, and steep
heights, is the most fatiguing on the
whole journey from Kiakhta to
Peking.
Road mountainous and sandy.

Here begins a country in which pas
ture is abundant, and where there
are wells skilfully made, the water
of which is good. Flocks of the
Emperor-
Hospitable shepherds.

Stop with the inhabitants of an oulos,
or Mongol encampment.
Excellent pasturage ; a great number
of antelopes.

The Tsakhars of these parts are polite
and hospitable.

H H S

470

APPENDIX.

Months

and

In Mongolia.

Wersts.

Remarks.

Days.

Nov.
14
Tsagan balgassou
27
Our cattle remained here for the winter.
The steppe abounds in pasture.
There are small rivers and lakes,
great numbers of wild swans, ducks,
and geese.
15
Halt. In China.
16
Nor-tian, village
40
A very fatiguing road over the chain
of mountains Kinkan-dabakhan,
which separates Mongolia from
China.
17
Halt.
18
Kalgan, or Tchang
kia kheou
10
From Ourga to Kal

gan
944
We remained here till
From Kalgan to Peking the Mission
24th November.
Was conveyed by Chinese relays,
hired at .our expense.
24
Siuan houa fou
35
End ofthe sandy road.
25
Station of Fort Kim-
ihg y
30
Difficult road, on account of the rocks.
A temple on a high mountain.
26
Thou meou, a little
town
SO
27
Houai laihian, a small
town
15
28
Fort of Tcha tao -
25
29
Fort of Nan keou
23
An extremely fatiguing road, on ac
count of a ravine between rocks,
which the south part of the great
wall crosses.
30
The village of Tsing-
ho
35
A level road on a plain.
Dec.
1
Peking From Kalgan to Pe
10
king
203
From Ourga to Kal
gan -
944
From Kiakhta to
Ourga
261
In all, from Kiakhta
to Peking, about -
1408
 k  .  .  .  — < 
APPENDIX.

471

ROUTE OF THE MISSION
ON ITS RETURN FROM PEKING TO KIAKHTA,
From May 15 to August 1, 1821.

Months

and

In China.

Wersts.

Remarks.

Days.

May
Post road.
From Peking to Tsagan balgassou the
15
Tsing ho
10
Mission was conveyed by Chinese
.,.{
Cha ho
Nan "keou
15
20
relays, at our own expense.
"{
Tcha tao
23
Yulin
12*
Houai lai - ~)
12i
18 1
Halt. £
(_
Thou meou j
15
'»{
Cha-tching
10
Kiming
20
20
Siuan houa fou
30
21
Kalgan
35
22)23)
Stop at Kalgan.
24
Nor-tian Mongolia.
A. Country of the
Tsakhars.
20
25
Tsagan balgassou
From Peking to Tsa
40
gan balgassou
263
From the 25th to the
29th of May was
employed in pre
paring for our jour
ney through Mon
golia.
Road called Goundjou
dzam.
B. Stations of the
banner of Goulou
shara.
29
Toulga
30
30
Halt.C. Stations of the
banner of Kovho
shara.
31
Dzamyn oussou
35
Rich pastures.
H H 4
72

APPENDIX.

Months

and
In Mongolia.
Wersts.
Remarks.
Days.
-
June
1
Ikhe oussou, or Oulan
khochou
27
2
Halt.
3
Khadain oussou
D. Western Sounites.
12
i
4
Ougoundouin Kha-
chatou
30
From Tsagan balgassou to this place
the water is good, the pasturage ex
cellent.
5
Seoudji
30
6
Halt.
7
Khadjou-kobour
35
A salt lake. The soil sandy, without
grass ; the road bad.
8
Khadatou
E. Stations of tlie
Western Sounites.
30
9
Khoudjir oussou, or
Mingan
25
Sand, but little' grass ; bad water.
10
HaU.
11
Boroldji
30
Good water ; bad pasture, on account
of the sand. Good horses in the
neighbourhood.
12
Dzam yin Khoudouk
21
Brackish water.
13
Halt.
14
Iren
20
Mountains ; no grass.
¦ 15
Koutoul
20
A mountainous district, without grass.
16
Tougourik
15
Abundance of good water.
17
Halt.
18
Kailassoutou F. The Kalkas.
18
A long row of elms in a ravine.
19
Gachoun
20
Brackish water.
20
Halt.
21
OudeWestern road, or
Goundjou dzam.
23
22
SendjiHalt.
33
The road difficult, on account of the
2S
mountains of sand. A well under
a marble rock, very well made ; the
water good.
24
Oulan Khoudouk
30
25
Koukou derisou
35
Marshy and sandy plains ; little grass.
26
Halt.
27
Oulan tologoi
85
Little water.
28
Ouidzyn
22
A good well.
29
Halt.
30
Boukhain-mo-oussou
24
Mountains ; little grass.
July
1
Mogoi
20
Grass.
2
Khododo
23
Good water ; a chain of rocks.
APPENDIX.

473

Months and
Days.

In Mongolia.

July 345
6 78 9
10 1112 13 14 15

16, 17,
& 18
19
2021 2223 24 25

2627 283031
Aug. 1

Wersts.

Kapkbaton Dzamyn-oulan- khoudouk.
Halt. Kochotou i
Olon-obo
Mount Bain Khara
Oulan-nor
Halt. Mount Khaptsal
KbachatouHall. Seoudji OurgaFrom Tsagan balgas
sou to Ourga
}The Mission stops
at Ourga.
The river Koui
The Bourgoultai
Khoundzal
Korimtou Right bank of the]
Khara
Halt. The river Baingol,
Mount Toumoukei,
and over Mount
Mangatai
Ourmoukhtoui Right bank of the
Kouitoun
The Iro
The little river Ibitsyk
Ghilan nor
Kiakhta From Ourga to
Kiakhta
From Tsagan balgas
sou to Ourga -
From Peking to Tsa
gan balgassou
From Peking to
Kiakhta

25 23 12 13 1515

40 26

30

35

887

Remarks.

Little water.

Little water.
Excellent wells.
The country to the north abounds in
pasture ; the water of the springs is
good.
Excellent water.
A well very skilfully made of wood ;
a difficult passage through the moun
tains.
High mountains at the end of the day's
journey.
At the beginning the road is moun
tainous.

32 12 17
25 23

24 15
25252025 7
250 887 263
1400

\ A very picturesque country.

ADDITIONAL NOTES.

Ail the dates in this Work are according to the Russian
or ojd style, and therefore twelve days must be added to
make them agree with our Calendar.
The hurricane mentioned Vol. II. p. 73., did not happen on
the 30th April (12th May) 1819, but on the same day
1818. Mr. Timkowski, in his description of Mongolia, p. 207,
&c. has omitted the great tribe of Khortsin, divided into
six banners, which occupies the country between the Shara
mouren and Non or Nonni-oula.
Klaproth.

INDEX.

A
Abaga, a Mongol tribe, ii. 251.
Abkhanar, or Abaganar, a Mongol tribe, ii. 250.
Abo urga serpent, i. 190.
Abourga (temple of), i. 193.
Adzarga (stallion) mount, ii. 406.
Agriculture, Chinese, ii. 366.
Akhai koung, chief ofthe police at Ourga, i. 126. 170. 173.
ii. 414.
Aksou, town of, i. 393.
Alashan (mountains), ii. 278.
Altagany, (robinia pygmaa).
Altai (mountains), ii. 230.
Altan gachoun tcholo, rock at the source ofthe Houang ho,
ii. 274.
Altan oulougoui, chain of mountains, i. 149.
Altoun, khan of the Kalkas, i. 142.
Ama, mouth.
Amban, at Ourga, i. 58. 91.
Ambassador, English in China, i. 83. 1 36.
 - — , Russian ; vide Golovkin.
Amherst (Lord), his unaccountable conduct in China, i. 136.
Ami'e maldzin moussoun ola, snowy mountains, ii. 272.
Amour (peace), a Mongol salutation, i. 17.
Andzidjan, principality and town, i. 398.
Angouli nor, a great lake, i. 268.
Aokhan, Mongol tribe, ii. 249.

476 INDEX.
Arachan, or Arshan, a hot spring, i. 71.
 , holy water, i. 224.
Arachi, taidzi of Dourmy, ii. 390.
Arangata, a ravine, i. 59.
Argal, dried camel's dung used for fuel, i. 20.
Argali, mountains of, i. 202. 206.
Argalingtou, heights of, i. 186.
Argoun, a river, i. 152.
Army, Chinese, ii. 16.
Aro khortchin, a Mongol tribe, ii. 2-12.
Arou, or aro, northern.
Arou oude, northern gate of the Desert, i. 199.
Asia central; i. 377.
Asia middle, the manner in which Mr. Timkowski divides
it, ii. 220.
Asses on hire at Peking.
Assumption, Russian church at Peking, ii. 44.
Astronomy in China, i. 367.
Audience of the Vang of Ourga, i. 85.
Aynouchi ouidzyn taidzi, ii. 427. B
Badakhan, country and town, i. 421.
Baiching, fixed habitation.
Bain, rich.
Bain arik (mount), ii. 420.
Bain djiroukhe (mount), i. 56. 139.
Bain gol, a river, i. 44. 46. ii. 433.
Bain khara (mount), ii. 417.
Bain khoundoui (mount), i. 187.
Bain oulan, mountains, i. 152.
Bain ouldzouitou, mountain, i. 183.
Bain soum6, the Mongol name of Siuan houa fou, i. 294.
Bain tsokto (mount), i. 153.
Baitarik, a river, ii. 240.
Bandi, ii. 354.
Banghi (mount), i. 44.
Banner, vide Khochoun.
Banner green, or the Chinese army, i. 292.

INDEX. 477
Bantchan, or Bantchan erdeni, ii. 40.
Bargou (mount), i. 181.
Bargout Bouriat, a Mongol tribe, ii. 242.
Barin, or Bagarin, a Mongol tribe, ii. 245.
Barkol, a town, i. 433,
Baroun, right, tvest.
Batkhai, a station, i. 220.
— ¦.  (mount), i. 221.
Beg, name of the Mongol magicians, i. 258.
Bell, a large one at Peking, ii. 61.
Bezi, a kind of calico, i. 420.
Bezoar, or yada tach, i. 402.
Bichou, cloves.
Birsalak, dried cheese.
Bitkhechi or secretary, i. 5.
Bitkhechi Tching, i. 5.
Boddi-sado Darnatou, Mongol divinity, i. 143.
Bogdo ola (mount), i. 429. 435.
Bogdo khan, Mongol title of the Emperor of China, i. 46.
Bogol, servant.
 (mount), i. 151.
Booksellers, Chinese, ii. 12.
Bor, dry and sandy soil.
Borghio, well and plain of, 419, 420.
Boro, river, i. 14. ii. 432.
 another river, i. 55. 57.
Boro khoudjir, a station, i. 165.
Boro tsedji, temple, i. 272.
Boshko or sergeant-major, i. 6.
Boshko Ourghentai, i. 6.
Bot, or Bot-ba, original name of Tibet, i. 441.
Bouda (mount), i. 157.
Boudala, or Pamouri, (mount), i. 446.
Boudha, a divinity, i. 194.
 , religion of, ii. 345.
Boudourgeuna, a plant, i. 185. 187. 209, 216.
Bogour, town, i. 398.
Bouilan (mount), i. 170.
Bouir nor, ii. 241.

4-78 INDEX.
Boukhain oussou, a station, ii. 411.
Boulen, wells of, ii. 414.
Boumba, a copper cup, i. 224.
Boumbatou station, i. 163.
 wells, i. 224.
Bourgassoutou, a river, i. 271.
Bourgoultai, river and mount, i. 64.
Bourgoultai river, ii. 431.
Bourjoie (Peter), a converted Chinese soldier, who under
stands Latin and French, ii. 27. 86.
Bourkhan, divinities, ii. 347-
Bouroulyn, grey.
Bouroulyn daba (mount), i. 149.
Bourout, vide Kirghise Bourout.
Boury, stallion.
Bouryn, a metal, i. 173.
Boussyn, girdle, i. 180.
Boussyn tcholou, chain of mountains, i. 180.
Brahmin, in Mongolia, i. 51.
Bucharians, their origin, i. 378.
— .  caravan of, i. 121.
Buffaloes of Tibet (bos grunniens), i. 76. ii. 424. 431.
Burial, Mongol, i. 256.
Byr6 boulak, a station near which is the burning plain,
i. 435.

Chaho town, ii. 359., vide Shaho.
Cha tching, vide Tsagan balgassou, ii. 379.
Cha tching town, i. 301, ii. 362.
Chakchour (station), lake of, ii. 419.
Chansi (merchants ofthe province of), ii. 370. 397
Chanaga (watering place), mount, ii. 406.
Changtou, (pastures of), ii. 376.
Chignan, or Siknan, canton and tribe, i. 421.
Chinese, their commerce in Mongolia, ii. 315.
Chirdyk (felt covering) river, ii. 427.
Chirdyktou (mount), ii. 426.
Chouboutyin khara (mount), ii. 406.

INDEX. 479
Christians persecuted in China, i. 363.
Clothing of the Chinese and Mantchoos, i. 352.
Code of Mongol laws, i. 324.
Colonies, military, Chinese, ii. 361.
Convent, Russian, at Peking ; vide Russian.
Corea, account of this country and its inhabitants, ii. 9. 97,
98, 101.
Corean (prince), ii. 57. ; officers of this nation, ii. 97. ; a
Corean general, ii. 97.
Corps de garde, Chinese, i. 291. D
Da Lama, ii. 356.
Dalai Lama, i. 455.
Dalai nor, a lake, i. 152.
Dara, which excels.
Dargoui, commander of 500 men, i. 36.
Dari ganga, canton, i. 201.
Darkhan, smith.
Darkhan (mount), i. 151. 162. 165. 167- 171.
 another mountain, i. 219.
Dayan koubilgan, i. 222.
Deguignes the 3'ounger, ii. 70.
Demtsi, ii. 356.
Deretou, pillow.
Derissou (stipa pennata), ii. 382.
Derissouin oussou, i. 188.
Dictionary of Mr. Morrison, i. 350.
Dictionary of P. Basil, published under the name of M.
Deguignes, i. 350.
Distribution of provisions to the poor at Peking, ii. 15.
Djab dzioung, Dombo koutouktou Ghegen, title of the pre
sent koutouktou of Ourga, i. 106.
Djabkan, a river, ii. 240.
Djachi loumbou, a town and convent in Tibet, i. 449. ii. 40.
Djakhirtou tsagan nor, lake, ii. 379.
Djarot, or Dzaragout, a Mongol tribe, ii. 247.
Djibkhalantou, a colossal mountain, i. 259.
Djida river, ii. 419.

480 INDEX.
Djirgalantou (abundant), a station, i. 158. ii. 421.
Djonoudzassak, ii. 420.
Djoro, blackish brown.
Dolon nor, town and lake, i. 206. 259. ii. 81.
Doroi eldengghe, Mantchoo name of the reign of the pre
sent Emperor of China, i. 267.
Dourban deritou, station, i. 197..
Dourban keouket, in Mantchoo Douin djouse ; in Chinese
Szu tsu pou lo, that is to say, the four sons ; a Mongol
tribe, ii. 256.
Dourma, station, i. 249.
Doutou, a Mongol encampment, i. 264.
Doutou nor, lake, i. 264. ii. 380.
Durbet, a Mongol tribe, ii. 244.
Dzadi, nutmeg.
Dzam, road.
Dzamyin arik, mountain, i. 185.
Dzamyin boulak, ii. 392.
Dzamyin khoudouk, a well, ii. 391.
Dzamyin oussou, station, i. 262. ii. 380.
Dzanghin, a Mongol officer, i. 12.
Dzang bo tchou, the principal river of Tibet, i. 449.
Dzargoutchi, arbitrator, an officer on the Chinese frontiers,
i. 6.
Dzassak, a Mongol officer, i. 75. ii. 315.
Dzoulghetou, well, ii. 417.
ii  , station, i. 182.
Dzoulma khoni, ii. 332.
Dzougan, marley clay.
Dzofin, left, east.
Dzoun, hundred.
Dzoun modo, valley, i. 56. E
Elephants at Peking, ii. 63.
Elesoutou, sandy, station, i. 253.
Embassy, English in China, i. 83. 128.
 , Russian, vide Golovkin.
Enke bain, district, ii. 386.

INDEX, 481
Erdeni obo, ii. 402.
Erghi, station, i. 203.
 , hole, crevice.
Ergol, river, i. 390.
Erketou, mountain, i. 158.
Eul liang phing (or yerliamping), a Chinese weight, i. 321.
ii. 206.
Exposure of the dead in leather sacks, i. 255.

Fereira, missionary at Peking, ii. 69. 111.
Funeral of the emperor Kia khing, ii. 92.
G
Gachoun station, i. 210. ii. 399. 409 ; well, ii. 415.
Gadzar, or Mongol league, nearly equivalent to a Chinese
li, i. 81.
Gaktsa karkai, post station, i. 430.
Gaktsa koudouk, station, i. 150. ii. 421.
Gaktsa soume, ruins, i. 183.
Galdan, prince of the Soungarians, i. 142.
Gangdis-ri mountains in Tibet, i. 444.
Gandjour, a religious book of the Lamas, i. 38. 195. ii. 346.
386.
Gau, a Portuguese, bishop of Peking, i. 356. ii. 35. 123.
Gheghen koutouktou of Ourga, i. 23.
Gheloung, ii. 354.
Ghessur khan, a Mongol divinity, i. 231.
Ghetsoul, ii. 354.
Ghilan nor, plain, i. 13. ii. 437.
Gobi, desert of, i. 209. ; signification of this word, u. 383. 404.
Golovkin, count, Russian ambassador, i. 121.
 Remarks on his embassy, i. 128.
Gorkas, war ofthe Chinese against them, i. 454.
Gouli shara, a division of the Tsakhar Mongols, i. 261. 265.
271.
Goudjiktou, i. 59.
Goundjou, i. 261.
Goundjou dzam, road, ii. 387. 405.
VOL. II. * l

482 INDEX.
Gountou, mount, i. 74. 76.
Gourandzata, mount, i. 59.
Gourban Mandal, mountain, ii.412.
Gourban ourtou nirou, chain of mountains, i. 64.
Gourban Tulgotou, rocks, i. 266.
Gourou ni koung tchu, imperial infantas, ii. 324.
Great wall, i. 277. 306. 309. ii. 371.
H
Ha mi, a town, i. 386.
Habitations at Ourga, i. 114.
Hian chin, ii. 359.
Hingho, vide Khara balgassou.
Ho choung tong, or Ho quen, prime minister to the emperor
Kien long, ii. 3.
Houai-lai, a town, i. 302.
Houang ho, the yellow river, ii. 263. 268. 271.
Houang szu, temples of the Lamas at Peking, i. 325. 351.
ii. 37. 51.
Houang yang mou, the trunk of a beech tree, highly revered
at Peking, ii. 106.
Houang yuan shan, a mountain, i. 296.
Hours, Chinese, ii. 76.
Hyacinth, i. 323. His Chinese or Russian dictionary is a
translation of that of P. Basile de Glemona, i. 350.
I
Ibitsyk, river, i. 16.
Ikhe oussou, station, ii. 381.
Hi (government of), i. 433. 438.
Hi, or Hoei yuan tching, town, i. 436.
Hi, river, i. 437-
In chan, mountains, ii. 264.
Ing tchang fou, a ruined town in the Mongol district of
Kechikten, ii. 208.
Iom, a sacred book, i. 195.
Iren, station, ii. 393.
Iren nor, lake, ib.
Iro, or Iouro, refreshing, cool.
Iro river, i. 20, 21. 25. 61. ii.435.

INDEX. 483
J
Japan, ii. 94.
Jeho, vide Tching te fou.
Jendjhounnin-dzeba, a temple in which the Bantchan Er
deni resides, i. 450.
Jiga-gounggar, a large city in Tibet, i. 468.
Joui-ti, posthumous title of the late Emperor of China,
i. 72. 371- K
Kashkar, or Kashghar, i. 396.
Kao liang (holcus sorghum), i. 301. ii. 3,59.
Kara koroum, an ancient city of Northern Mongolia now
destroyed, ii. 208.
Kadack, i. 66.
Kaidou, a river, i. 388.
Kailar, a river, i. 152.
Kaldzan, mountain, i. 158.
Kalga, gate.
Kalgan, i. 276. 288. 291. ii. 369.
Kalkas, history of their war with Galdan prince: of the
Soungarians, i. 142. ii. 223.
Kalkas, right wing of the, ii. 278.
Kamardaba mountain, i. 170.
Kamkoun, i. 268.
Kangai, a very high mountain, i. 150. ; signification of the
word, ii. 383.
Kangai, a river, i. 150.
Kara koutchkatch, a kind of starling, i. 403.
Karatouin seoudji, station, i. 218.
Karbatou, i. 229.
Kardjou mouren, a river in Tibet, i. 449.
Kechikten, a Mongol tribe, ii. 252.
Kektchin, mountain, ii. 406.
Keroulun, a river, i. 256. ii. 233.
Kesgoui, ii. 356.
Khachatou, well and station, ii. 422.
Khadatou, station, ii. 387» I t °2

484 INDEX.

%.

Khadain khochou, ii. 408.
Khadyn oussou, station, ii. 382.
Khaia, lake, ii. 419.
Khailasou, elm in Mongol, ii. 398.
Khailassoutou station, ii. 397.
Khak, mountain, ii. 383.
Khan, the white, title of the Emperor of Russia among the
Mongols, i. 129.
Khan ola, mountain, i. 115. ii. 425, 426.
Khans of the Kalkas, i. 43.
Khaotchit, or Khagotchit, a Mongol tribe, ii. 251.
Khapkatou, well, ii. 414.
Khaptsal, mountain, ii. 421.
Khara, river, i. 46. 48. ii. 433.
Khara tologoi, a hill, i. 210. 255, ii. 435.
Kharashar, a city, i. 388.
Kharatchin, a Mongol tribe, ii. 256.
Kharakou, mount, ii. 393.
Khardal beisse, a Mongol prince, ii. 415.
KI. o Emil, ii. 209.
Khobdo, town, ii. 319. 428.
Khochoi koung tchu, natural daughters of the Emperor of
China, ii. 324.
Khodjo, a title, i. 376.
Khododo, a station, ii. 413.
Khokand, i. 398. 418.
Khoto, far, ii. 420.
Khototo, defile, ii. 421.
Khongor, i. 437. ii. 411.
Khorimtou, i. 57. ii. 432.
Khorlos, a Mongol tribe, ii- 243.
Khou phing, a Chinese weight, i. 287. ii. 205.
Khoubarak, Mongol priests, i. 16.
Khoudjir oussou, ii. 388.
Khountsal, station, i. 60. ii. 432.
Khourka, ii. 389.
Khoutouktou, or koutouktou, divine incarnations, i. 23.; in
stallation of one, i. 96. ,, at Peking, and description of the
temple in which he resides, ii. 121.

INDEX. 485
Kiming wie, fort, i. 297, 298. ii. 363. ' A temple near to,
n. 365.
Kia Khing, emperor of China; attempt to assassinate him in
1803, i. 339. Named after his death Joui houang ti, or
Joui ti, i. 381.
Kia yu kouan, fort, i. 385.
Kiakhta, i. 4 — 9. ii. 436.
Kianbou, or kambou, ii. 355.
Kin cha kiang, river, i. 459.
Kiran, a Russian post, i. 13.
Kiran river, i. 16.
Kirghis khassaks, i. 213.
Kiu young kouang fort, i. 311.
Kiun vang, viceroy of Ourga, i. 58.
Klaproth, letters from Mr. Timkowski addressed to him,
ii. 70.
Kobok sari district, i. 440.
Kobour station, ii. 386.
Kochoun, banner, or military division of the Mongols, i. 63 .
75.
Komoun, see Ham.
Komyga, a boat, in Russian, i. 27.
Kouan kou, i. 312. ii. 360.
Kouan yu, see Ghessur khan.
Koubo shara, banner, or division of the Tsakhar Mongols,
i. 254. 262.271.
Koudjir, sulphate of natron, ii. 287.
Koudjirtou station, i. 227.
Kouei houa tching, vide Koukou-koto, i. 264. ii. 265.
Koui, river, i. 64. 71. ; station, ii. 431.
Kouitoun (cold), a rivulet, i. 37. 39. ii. 436.
 , station, i. 262.
Koukou-koto, or Kouei houa tching, a town, i. 264. ii. 265.
Koukou nirou, or the blue mountain, i. 15.
Koukou nor, or the blue lake, in Chinese Thsing hai, ii. 269.
275. Mongols of Koukou nor, ii. 269.
Koukou tcholo, mount, i. 48.
Koul koudouk, well, i. 227, 248. ,
Koulkoun, or kuen lun mountains, ii. 278.
i i 3

486 INDEX.
Koulung nor, the same lake as the Dalai nor, i. 158. ii. 240.
Koulougour, i. 187.
Kouloun Bouyur, town, i. 158.
Koung ming, vide Tchu ko liang.
Koundoui, a Mongol serjeant-major, i. 11.
Koung tchu dzam, vide Goundjou dzam.
Kouren, vide Ourga.
Koutche, town, i. 389.
Koussoutou (having birches,) mount, i. 60.
Koutoul, well, i. 200.
Koutoul, station, ii. 395-
-Koutoul narasou (mount), i. 40.
Kuen lun, vide Koulkoun.
Kurd6, i. 217. L
Lake, dried up, i. 225.
Lamas, Mongol priests, i. 28. ii. 353.
Lama Eremboutchi, a title of the Dalai Lama, ii. 40.
Lan, or liang, the Chinese ounce, i. 17.
Lan yu, a Chinese general, ii. 208.
Lao ye, meaning " Sir" in Chinese, i. 5.
Lark of the Pyrenees, in Chinese Pai ling, ii. 372.
Lassa, the capital of Eastern Tibet, i. 441. j particular*
respecting its district, 445. ; monument on which is in
scribed the treaty of peace concluded in 821 between
China and Tibet, 461 .
Laws of China, i. 340, &c.
 of the Mongols, ii. 329, &c.
Li fan yuan, tribunal of foreign affairs, i. 130. 318. ii. 321.
Li pou (pasturages of) ii. 377.
Li thang, a town in Tibet, i. 451.
Lian houa, or Nympheea nelumbo (lake of), ii. 73.
Lieou li tchang, street, and manufactory of earthen-ware
and glass at Peking, ij. 11.
Lob nor (lake), i. 387, 388. 431.
Lobdzang Galdzang Ghiamtso, the sixth Dalai Lama, i. 451.
Lokba, a country, i. 443.

INDEX.

487

M
Maha gallan, a Mongol divinity, i. 143.
Maha ransa (Maha radja), Indian divinities, i. 194.
Maimatchin, entrepots, or towns destined for commerce
i. 62. '
 ¦— of Ourga, i. 79. 94.
""  of Kiakhta, i. 81. 94.
Mandal (mount), i. 54. 181.
Mangatai (steep), i. 44. 54., ii. 434.
Manghirtou, (wild garlick,) a narrow valley, i. 34.
Manitou, place qf prayer, i. 36.
Manoul, a wild cat.
Mao mingan, a Mongol tribe, ii. 262.
Mao yu lin, i. 292.
Mapama, or Manas sarovar, a lake in Tibet, i. 459.
Mardjan, glass ware, i. 157.
Mendicants at Peking, ii. 14.
Merghen Vang, a Mongol prince, ii. 409. 416.
Mingadara (mount), i. 34.
Mingan, station, ii. 389.
Mirdjai (mount), i. 429.
Mission (Russian Ecclesiastical) at Peking i. 1, &c.
Missionaries (Catholic) at Peking ; their ignorance, i. 358. ;
persecutions which they suffered in 1805, i. 363.
Modo, wood, tree.
Mogoitou (abounding in serpents,) mount, i. 54. ; station,
ii. 412.
Mongols, their manners, ii. 292. ; their dress, 293, 294. ;
their tents of felt (jourtes), 295.; their food, 296.; their
songs and poems, 297 — 302. ; their marriages, 303 —
310.; their genealogy, 303. ; their divorces, 310.; their
burials, 312.; their character, 314.; their trade, 315.;
their military divisions, 316. ; their government, 320. ;
their princes and nobles, 322, &c. ; attached to the
Mantchoo dynasty, which reigns in China, 328 ; their
laws, 329, &c. ; their history after their expulsion from
China in 1367, 207—218.
II 4

488 INDEX.
Mongolia, historical, geographical, and ethnographical essay
upon, ii. 207 — 283. ; observations upon, by Mr. Timkowski,
283.; quadrupeds, 288. ; domestic animals, 289.; agri
culture, 290. ; population, 290.
Mountains (celestial), Thian chan, which separate Little
Bucharia from the country of the Sungarians, i. 428, &c.
— :  which divide Mongolia from China, i. 272.
Monument at Lassa, i. 461.
Mosque at Peking, built by Kien long, ii. 56.
Moukhor boulak, a stream, i. 176.
Mouran ou aba, hunting excursions of the emperor, i. 174.
Moussour, mountain of ice, i. 429.
N
Naiman, a Mongol tribe, ii. 248.
Nalika, heights, i. 141. 146.
Namtdjil, taidzi, ii. 391.
Nan kheou, fort, i. 312. ii. 359.
Narada (mount), i. 203. ii. 413.
Narassoutou (mount), i. 60.
Naratou, ii. 391.
Narin (mount), i. 65. 70.
Narin dzam, a road, ii. 421.
Narin koundou (mount) i. 34.
Nerba, a Tibetan word received in Mongol, which signifies
steward ; it is also the name which is given to the servants
of Chinese officers, i. 31. ii. 356.
Ngan si fou, a city, i. 385.
Ngangwang Lobdzang Ghiamtso, the fifth Dalai Lama,
i. 451.
Nidou, eye.
Nirou, mountain.
Nogon nirou, (green mountain,) i. 253.
Noin, lord.
Noin ola (mount), i. 56, 57. 59. ii. 409. 434.
Nor tian, a Chinese village, i. 273. ii. 371-
.New year, ofthe Chinese, ii. 48.

INDEX. 489
O
Obo, piles of stones, i. 25.
Obouchi, ii. 354.
Oiro (near), Oirkhon (very near), ii. 420.
Olon, old.
Olon Baishing station, i. 180. 262. ii. 412.
Olon koudouk, well, i. 222.
Olon obo, ii. 416.
Om ma ni bat me khom, or rather, Om man'i padma houm,
a mystic form of prayer, i. 22. 217. ii. 386. Explanation
of these words, ii. 349.
Ongon, mountain and idol, i. 258.
Oniout, a Mongol tribe, ii. 247.
Onon, river, ii. 235.
Oral, or Oirad, a Mongol tribe, ii. 263.
Ordos, a Mongol tribe, ii. 266.
Orgoun (mount), i. 151.
Orkhon, river, i. 37. 45. 62. ii. 237.
Otzol (mount), ii. 413, 414. 416, 417-
Ou thai chan, a mountain in the province of Chan si, on
which there are several temples of Fo, ii. 409.
Oubsa (lake), ii. 242.
Oubour, southern.
Oubour Oude, southern gate ofthe desert, i. 199. 204. 209.
Ouchi, a town, i. 390, 391. 432.
Ouchki, light, i. 155.
Ouddogoun, a female shaman in Mongol, i. 258.
Oude (gate), station, i. 198- "• 403.
Oudoyn ola, mount, ii. 407.
Oudyn, open, i. 154.
Oudyn ama, defile at the entrance of the desert of Gobi,
i. 154.
Oudzour, well, ii. 407.
Oughemyl (mount), i. 57.59.
Ougoundoui (mount), ii. 383.
Ouidzyn, station, ii. 410.
Oulandaba, mountain, ii. 383.
Oulan khada, mountain, ii. 399.

490

INDEX.

Oulan khochou, ii. 381.
Oulan khoudouk (plain of), i. 180.; station, ii. 406.
Oulan kouchoutou, a bird, i. 117.
Oulan obo, a high mountain, i. 190.
Oulan tologoi, ii. 388. 408.
Ouliassoutai, town, i. 61. 121. 202. ii. 318. 415. 418. 428.
Oulougoui, cradle.
Oululoui, river, i. 139-
Oumdzat, ii. 356.
Oundoui, height.
Oundoui oulan, mount, i. 45.
Ourga, or Kouren, i. 77. ii. 432.; climate of, i. 125.; the
old town of, situated on the banks of the Selbi, i. 96.
Ourgoun, broad.
Ourgoun oulan mountains, ii. 406.
Ouriankai, a people, i. 174.
Ourma, dried plums, ii. 400.
Ourmouktou, a mountain, i.42.
Ourountsi, or Ty houa tcheou, a town, i. 433.
Ourtou, long. P
Pa ta ling, a mountain, i. 308.
Pai ling, the lark of the Pyrenees, ii. 372
Palace of the Vang of Ourga, i. 116.
Pao ngan tcheou, city, i. 300. ii. 363.
Pastures of the banners of the Mantchoo-Chinese army,
ii. 377-
Pastures of the Court, ii. 376.
Peking, i. 316.; wall of that city, 316, 317.; streets,. 318. ;
want of cleanliness there, ii. 88. ; general description of
that capital, 127. ; general observations on the city,
183. 198.; prices of various articles, 199. Departure
from Peking, 359.
Pe tang, or the convent of the North occupied by the
Franciscans at Peking, ii. 35.
Pe tchy li, a Chinese province, its soil, i. 313. See
Tchy li.
Phalangium aranoides, i, 405.

INDEX. 4Q1
Phou tsa, buttons of different colours, which the Chinese
officers wear on their caps, ii. 59.
Pi tshan, a town, i. 386.
Pitchouiev, see Hyacinth.
Pius (father), a missionary, ii. 66.
Plain (the burning) ; see Byre boulak.
Prayers (Mongol), ii. 348.
Priests (Mongol), ii. 350.
Princesses (Imperial) married in Mongolia, ii. 326.
Punishments (cruel) in Mongolia, i. 111.
R
Rampart in Mongolia, i. 259.
Rampart of stone, i. 272.
Rapacity of the Mandarins, i. 328.
Religions in China, ii. 87.
Ribeira (father), missionary at Peking, ii. 66, 84.
Russians, their establishments at Peking, i. 329.
S
Saddles (Mongol), i. 51.
Saikan Oulou, mount, ii. 435.
Sain oussou, well, i. 223.
Sain touchetou ola, a high mountain, ii. 390.
Sair oussou, a post station, i. 151.
Salkitou (stormy) mount, ii. 425.
Sansar, mount, ii. 417-
Selby, river, i. 34.
Selenga, river, ii. 239.
Seoudji, mount, ii. 426. ; station, 385. 426.
Seoudjiyn obo, a very high mountain, i. 219-
Seren, mount, i. 227.
Sha ho, or Cha ho, a small town, i. 313, 314.
 river, i. 314.
Shamo, see Gobi.
Sha tcheou, town, i. 385.
Sha tching, see Tsagan balgassou, ii. 378,
Sharbatai, station, i. 270.

492 INDEX.
Shabi, (disciples,) subjects of the Koutouktou of Ourga,
i. 29. ii. 418.
Shamans, Mongol, ii. 312.
Shan hai phou, a village, i. 296.
Shan kouan, fort, i. 311.
Shandzab, an ecclesiastical office, i. 106.
Shara gol river, i. 35. 37. 39. ii. 436. ; temple near the banks
of that river, i. 41.
Shara boudourgouna, station, i. 248.
Shara shorotou, station, i. 180. 262.
Shara koudouk, i. 158.
Shara koutoul, i. 47.
Shara mouren, river, ii. 252.
Shi phing, Chinese weight, i. 287. ii. 206.
Shibetou)t/or^rm.
—  station, i. 170.
 mountain, i. 172.
Si szu thai lo, a street in Peking, ii. 72.
Siah pouchi, a people, i. 425.
Sibe, troops of, i. 437.
Siknan, or Chignan, i. 421.
Siuan houa fou, a Chinese city, i. 290. 293. ii. 366. 368.
Sins, the ten of the religion of Boudha, i. 49.
Soldiers, Chinese, ii. 16.
Songs, Mongol, ii 67.
Songhin, mountains, i. 140.
Sou thsing vang, a Mantchoo prince, ii. 107-
Soubourgan, Mongol chapels in the shape of pyramidal
columns, i. .40. 124. 182.
Soudjin oussou, station, i. 185.
Souli, a noxious plant, i. 223. ii. 387, 388, 389.
Soum6, i. 189.
Soumer, a fabulous mountain, i. 194.
Soumel, cardamom.
Soumyin tcholo, stony mountains, i. 220.
Soung, or Soung ta jin, a Chinese minister, i. 333.
Soungarians (description ofthe country ofthe), i. 428.
Sounites, a Mongol tribe, i. 209. ; eastern and western, i. 225.
Soussouktou, i. 60.

INDEX. 493
Spaski (Mr.), his mistake concerning the river Argoun,
i. T52.
Springs (warm) near Tchang phing tcheou, ii. 115.
Steppes in Mongolia, ii. 386.
Studs belonging to the Emperor in Mongolia, 4. 201. ii. 372.
Strove (Mr.), believes the existence of a subterraneous fort
ress, i. 19. T
Ta tchao, great temple at Lassa, i.460.
Taboun tologoi, hills, ii. 390.
Tachbelik, town, i. 217.
Tachtava, see Tarbakhatai.
Tai thsing y thoung tchi, the great Chinese geography,
i. 324.
Taidzi, Mongol nobles ofthe lowest class, ii. 332.
Taidzi of the Sounites, ii. 394.
Talain irmyk, mount, i. 223.
Tamtchin tala, plain, ii. 390.
Tang pou, houses where money is lent on pledges, frequent
at Peking, i. 326.
Tangout, i. 442.
Tao kouan (in Mantchoo, Doroi eldenghi), honorary name of
the years of the reign of the present Emperor of China,
i. 267. ii. 49.
Tarbakhatai, mountains and country, called likewise Tach
tava, i. 439.
Tcha tao, fort, i. 307. ii. 361.
Tchabkhantsi, ii. 356.
Tchakhar, see Tsakhar.
Tchalit, a Mongol tribe, ii. 244*
Tchang kia kheou, see Kalgan.
Tchao naiman soume Khoto, a town, i. 206.
Tchang phing tcheou, a town, i. 314.
Tcheou keou, the stinking canal at Peking, ii. 63.
Tching te fou, or Je ho, town and department, ii. 279.
Tchin, a coin, see Thsian.
Tchickoi, river, i. 16.
Tchindamoni, a colossal mountain, i. 190.
Tchiptchi, a rivulet, i. 206.

491 INDEX.
Tchokhi, see Thsian.
Tcholou, stone.
Tchoros Eluths, ii. 276.
Tchoukoutchou, see Tarbakhatai.
Tchu ko liang, a Chinese general in the third century, i. 160
Tchy li, or Pe tchy li, a Chinese province, ii. 110.
Tea, brick, much used by the Mongols, i. 35.
Temple in ruins, i. 182.
Temple of Fo, i. 349.
Tengri nor, lake of heaven in Tibet, i. 446.
Terme' khada, station, i. 430, 431.
Tes, river, ii. 240.
Thai pou, pastures of, ii. 377.
Theatres at Peking, ii. 175.
Thou meou, i. 301. ii. 361.
Thoung tcheou, a town, ii. 106.
Thsian, a Chinese coin, i. 274.
Thsing hai, see Koukou nor.
Thsing ho, village, i. 312. 314. ii. 359.
Tibet, i. 370. ; particulars relative to the country, 441.
frontiers and divisions, 443. ; dependence on China, 450.
tribute, 455. ; government, 456. ; military force, 457.
arts, 458. ; productions, 459. ; antiquities, 460.
Tibetans (the), resemble the gipsies, ii. 44. ; in the temples
at Peking, ii. 55.
Timkowski (Mr. George), his letters to M, Klaproth, ii.
70.
Tobacco, ii. 368.
Tola, river, i. 77. 138. ii. 236. 428.
Tolai soume", temple, i. 270.
Tologoi, head, hill.
Tono (mount), i. 162. 173.
Tougourak, a tree, i. 402.
Tougourik (round, circle), station, ii. 396.
Toui tsu, inscriptions, i. 322.
Toulgotou, tripod.
Toumet, a Mongol tribe, ii. 255.
i of Koukou khotO; ii. 265.
Toumou, Cumin. 1 4

INDEX. 4<),j
Toumoukei (mount), i. 44, 45. ii. 434.
Touang houang hian, a town, i. 385.
Toung pa li, fort, i. 301. ; town, ii. 363.
Tourfan, or Tourpan, town, i. 386.
Toussoulaktchi, Mongol officers, i. 6.
~"  , Idam dzap, i. 6.
Treaty of peace between Russia and China, i. 1.
Troitsko Sauskaia, fortress of Kiakhta, i. 10.
Troops, Chinese, ii. 370.
Tsagan-balgassou, or Cha tching, a town nearly in ruins,
i. 269. 283. ii. 374. 379.
Tsagan daba, ii. 436.
Tsagan obo, i. 217. 263.
Tsagan ola (mount), i. 21.
Tsagan tougourik, lake of, i. 185. ; mount, ii. 406.
Tsaidatn (saline) a plain, i. 44.
Tsakhar, a Mongol tribe, i. 252. 255. ii, 257. 286. 318.
Tsakildak, station, i. 250.
Tsantou (mount), ii. 422. ; plain, ib.
Tsaptchir, valley, ii. 381. ; well, ii. 417.
Tsatsa, small cones of clay, i. 40.
Tsi-efou, seventh son-in-law of the Emperor Kien long,
ii. 375.
Tsi-ning, a city, ii. 379.
Tsi-ning hai tsu, or Angouli nor, ii. 379.
Tsiaibartsi, ii. 356.
Tsiokan, temple at Lassa, i. 443.
Turkestan Chinese, i. 375. ; towns, 385, ; climate, 399. ;
nature of the soil, 400. ; productions of the soil, 401.;
manners and costume, i. 407-
Tyrghetou (mount), i. 37. U
Utensils which the Mongols carry about them, i. 2.59, 260.

Vai lo tching, the Chinese town at Peking, i. 325. ii. 172,
Vang of Ourga, see Youngdoung-dordzi.

496 INDEX.
Van cheou szu, a temple, near which is the great bell of
Peking, ii. 62.
Visit to the Dzargoutchi of the commercial town at Ourga,
i. 94. W
Weights and measures at Peking, ii. 205.
Y
Yamdjo-youmtso, a great lake in Tibet, ii. 40.
Yang-ching mou (pasturages), ii. 376.
Yang ho, river, i. 295. 298. 302. ii. 366.
Yar, see Tarbakhatai.
Yarkiang, a town, i. 393.
Youldouz, or Djouldouz, (mount), i. 388. 429.
Youngdoung-dordzi, Vang of Ourga, a descendant of Gengis
khan, i. 89. 329. 370. ii. 422. 430.
Yu, or oriental jade, i. 395.
Yu lin phou, a town, i. 305.
Yu ho, arive»which runs through Peking, i. 318.
Yu men hian, a town, i. 385. Z
Zaryn, or rather Dzaryn, (mount), i. 227.

THE END.

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