ORT W HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE M4. :By1.2-X-f GIFT OF FREDERICK SHELDOH PARKER HA,LLB. YALE 1873 TO THE YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY I9Ie A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE BY J. R. GREEN, M.A. •ffllustrateO Ebttlon EDITED BY Mrs. j. R. GREEN and Miss KATE NORGATE Vol. IV. NEW YORK HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE 189s CONTENTS Notes on the Illustrations Ixxxiii — evi CHAPTER IX the revolution (continued) Sect. s. — Shaftesbury, 1679 — 1682 141 1 6. — The Second Stuart Tyranny, 1682 — 1688 1431 7. — William of Orange 1465 8. — The Grand Alliance, 1689 — 1697 1492 9. — Marlborough, 1698 — 1712 1531 10. — Walpole, 1712 — 1742 1577 CHAPTER X MODERN ENGLAND Sect. I. — William Pitt, 1742 — 1762 1607 „ 2. — The Independence of America, 1 761 — 1782 1657 „ 3. — The Second Pitt, 1783 — 1793 1718 „ 4. ^The War with France, 1793 — 1815 1763 Epilogue 1829 Chronological Annals of English History 1851 Genealogical Tables 1865 Index 1875 NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS Ixxxiii PAGE Engraving ON Title-page OF "Musick's Handmaide," 1663 . . 1411 The Duchess of Lauderdale's Boudoir, Ham House . 141 3 Ham House, Peter.sham, built by Sir Thomas Vavasour in 1610, was for a time the residence of Prince Henry, eldest son of James I. In 1643 Charles I gave it to his friend William Murray, whom he created Earl of Dysart. Title and house passed to Lord Dysart's eldest daughter, Elizabeth ; from her first marriage sprang the family which still owns the place ; her second husband was the too famous Duke of Lauderdale, and the state rooms at Ham, furnished and decorated by the Duke and Duchess, have remained unaltered ever since. The polished parquet floor of the boudoir is inlaid with the Duchess's monogram, E. D. L. ; she and the Duke are said to have usually held their private talks seated in the two arm-chairs in the recess. Ham House : The Cabal Room . . 1414 In this room, which adjoins the boudoir, the Cabal ministry held its private meetings. Furniture and decorations remain exactly as they were then. The tapestry hangings represent rural scenes ; they were made for the Duke of Lauderdale at the neighbouring tapestry works at Mortlake. Ham House : The Long Gallery . . . 1415 James, Duke of Monmouth (picture by Lely at Dalkeith Palace) . . . 1417 Banner used by the Covenanters at Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge (Napier, " Memoirs of Dundee") 1418 Of blue silk, the inscriptions painted in gold, white and red. The Hebrew words are "Jehovah Nissi," i.e., " The Lord is my banner." Samuel Pepys (picture by fohn Hayls in National Portrait Gallery) 1419 Pepys (bom 1632, died 1703) was clerk of the Acts of the Navy, while James, Duke of York, was Lord High Admiral. The close relations into which they were brought by their offices served as a pretext for Pepys' imprisonment in the Tower in 1679 on account of the Popish Plot. Nine months later he was . released and made Secretary to the Admiralty, a post which he kept tUl the Revolution. The portrait here given is mentioned by Pepys in his " Diary " ; it was painted in 1666, and represents him holding in his hand a song of his own composition, " Beauty, retire," to which he frequently alludes. Francis North, Lord Guilford, Keeper of the Great Seal, 1680 (from an engraving by G. Vertue after Da'vid Loggan) , . . 1420 Medal of the Duchess of Portsmouth, 1673 . . 1423 By John Roettier. The die is in the British Museum. George Savile, Viscount Halifax (from Jloubraken's engraving of a picture in the possession of Sir George Savile) . . . 1424 Parade of Militia at Abergwili, 1684 (from Messrs. Blades' facsimile of Thomas Dineley's " Progress of the Duke rf Beaufort through Wales, 1684"). 1426 Medal Struck to Commemorate Shaftesbury's Acquittal, 1681 1428 A rare silver medal, by George Bower : struck for Shaftesbury's partizans, who wore it on their breasts. Dryden thus describes it in a satirical poem entitled " The Medal " -. " One side is fill'd with title and with face ; And, lest the King should want a regal place. On the reverse a Tower the town surveys O'er which our mounting sun his beams displays The word, pronounced aloud by .shrieval voice, Lcetamur, which, in Polish, is rejoice." The title of "king'' given to Shaftesbury, and the word "Polish," allude to a tale current among his enemies, that he had hoped to be elected King of Poland in 1674. The Lord Mayor and Court of Aldermen (De Laune, "Present State of London," 1681) 1429 Ixxxiv NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE .Frost Fair on the Thames, 1683 1430 From a broadside (in the British Museum) entitled " God's Works is the World's Wonder." In 1683 the Thames froze so hard that a fair was held upon it. Lead and Coal Mines at Mostyn, South Wales (from Messrs. Blades' fac simile of Dinele}^ s " Progress of the Dupe of Beaufort ") . . 1431 William, Lord Russell (from an engraving by Pieter van der Banck, after Sir G. Kneller) . . 1432 Monument of John Martin, Printer 1434 In the crypt of S. Paul's Cathedral. The inscription contains some unde cipherable words, but may be thus rendered: " Sacred to piety and to the republic of letters. Near this place lie (alas ! alas ! ) the mortal remains of John Martin, late Warden of the . . . . Printers' Company of N. . . . ; a man famous even in foreign lands for the learned books which he published, but more illustrious at home for the highly honourable qualities of his mind. He expired on the third day of May, 1680, in the 72nd year of his age. Under here rest also his children, Henry and Mary. That this should not be unknown was the care of his faithful wife, Sara (daughter of) Henry Graunt, citizen and draper, who erected this monument to her worthy husband. " " The Abolition of Monarchy " 1436 Frontispiece tothe second volume of Nalson's "Collection of Affairs of State from 1639 to the Murder of King Charles I.," 1683. Some verses on the opposite page explain its meaning : "Thus black look't Heav'n, the Lightning thus did fly. Thus th' Hurricane orespred the British sky. When th' Royal Sovereign weather-beaten lay On the proud Billows of the popular Sea ; The Captain from his Cabin driven away In that for ever execrable Day ; From that adjacent House, behold the cause Of all this Tempest, whence perverted Lawes, Unpresidented, undetermin'd Power, Blasted our Hopes, and did our Land devour, A Land like that of Canaan heretofore ; TiU, by mad Zeal into Confusion hurl'd, 'Twas made the Scom and By- word of the World." The chief value of the picture lies in the view which it gives of the exterior of the old House of Commons. Corporation Insignia of Coventry (Art Journal) . . 1437 Coventry is unusually rich in corporation insignia, including, besides a sword and several maces, a chair of state, the town keys, and some remarkable robes of office. Practically they may be said to date from the seventeenth century, although, as they have all continued in use down to the present time, all have been restored or renewed more than once ; in all these restorations, however, the old pattern has been faithfully adhered to. The great mace bears the initials of Charles II. ; the smallest is of the same period ; the third, intermediate in size, has the arms of the Commonwealth. The sword is two-edged, and bears the inscription, "Civitas Coventre." Above the large mace is the hat of the mace-bearer ; at the foot of the chair is shown the sword-bearer's cap of maintenance. On the chair lie the town keys, and the hat of the city crier, more modern than the others, and dating probably from the eighteenth century. His coat hangs above ; on the left sleeve is the only ancient badge which Coventry still possesses, of silver, and dating probably from about 1606 NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS Ixxxv PAGE Maces, Fifteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 1438 The first two figures (from the Proceedings ofthe Society of Antiquaries, 1888) are typical illustrations of the way in which the mace as a symbol of office was evolved out of the war-mace. When the mace was no longer wanted for fighting, its handle was first fashioned into a knob or boss to receive the royal arms ; then the mace was turned upside down, the head became the handle, the flanges were converted into mere ornaments, and in course of time disappeared, and were replaced by a heavy boss, to counterbalance the weight of the head, which had meanwhile been growing in size, and to which a crown had been added. The first stage of this development is shown in the Southampton mace, where the flanged end still forms the head. In the Newtown mace the head is formed by the broad boss. The plate on the top of this bears the arms of Henry VII. ; it is loose, and on its reverse are engraved the arms of the Commonwealth. The two Stamford maces (reproduced from the Art Journal) are fine examples of the complete development which the mace had reached in the time of Charles II. Royal Order for the Expulsion of John Locke from Christ Church, Oxford. ... . ... . 1439 Locke, knowing that he was suspected by the Government on account of his intimacy with Shaftesbury, went in 1683 to Holland. In November, 1684, the Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, was desired by Sunderland to remove Locke's name from the list of Students ; a few days later came a peremptory order, in the King's name, which was at once obeyed, and which is here reproduced from the original, still preserved at Christ Church. It will be noticed that neither King nor minister seems to have even known the Christian name of the great philosopher. The conduct of Charles towards Locke strikingly illustrates the "danger" to English freedom which lay "in the character and purpose of Charles himself" (p. 1438). Enthronement of James II. and his Queen (F. Sandford, " History of the Coronation of James II," 1687) 1440 The Challenge (Sandford, "Coronation of James II.") 1442 The manor of Scrivelsby, co. Lincoln, had been held to carry with it the office of champion since the time of Henry I. at least, though there is no record of the actual ceremony earlier than the coronation of Richard II. At that of James II. the champion was Sir Charles Dymoke ; he was " com- pleatly armed in one of His Majesties best suits of white armour, mounted on a goodly white horse, richly caparisoned." Two trumpeters, the sergeant trumpeter (carrying a mace), two sergeants-at-arms, the champion's two squires (bearing his lance and shield), and the York Herald, preceded him into the hall! On his right rode the Lord High Constable, on his left the Earl Marshal. The engraving here reproduced represents the first challenge to combat of any person who disputed the King's title. York Herald is reading the closing words of the challenge, and the gauntlet lies on the floor. After a pause it was taken up, the procession moved on, and the challenge was repeated in the middle of the hall, and then again at its upper end before the dais where sat the King and Queen. The only occasion when the challenge was taken up was the coronation of George III., when a Jacobite in woman's dress was said to have snatched up the gauntlet, and left another in its place. The ceremony was last performed at the crowning of George IV. J PMY.i \l. (illumination on patettf in Public Record Office) 1443 Bridgewater High Cross . 144S Now taken down ; here reproduced from an engraving in the Proceedings of the Somerset Archaeological Society. The Cross stood on Cornhill, oppo site the entrance to the High Street, and was used as a market-place. On it was inscribed : " Mind your own bu.-iiness. " Over it was a cistern supplied from a brook Ijy an engine at Queen's Mill, and from this cistern water was conveyed to the streets. The cross was also used as a place of assembly. Monmouth was proclaimed king there, after he left Taunton, and his declara tion read by the Mayor. Ixxxvi NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Scythes found at S-EDa-zuoo-K (Tower of London). ... . . . . 1446 Mounted on poles and used as weapons by the peasantry. Battle of Sedgemoor {"Engelants Schouwtoneel verbeeldende het vlugte van Jacobus II. Sfc," Amsterdam, 1690) . . . 1446 George Jeffreys, Lord Chief Justice (from an engraving by R. White after Sir G, Kneller) . . ..... . . ... 1447 The Royal Horse Guards, temp. Charles II. . . . . . . . 1448 From Hollar's engraving ofthe coronation procession of Charles II. The Guards were then commanded by the Duke of York, who is seen riding at their head. Medal of Louis XIV., Commemorating the Revocation of the Edict OF Nantes (British Museum) ... . 1449 House of a Huguenot Silk Weaver in St. Peter's Street, Canter bury 1450 From a photograph. This is a typical illustration of the domestic silk- factories set up by the French Protestant refiigees in England after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The shop-window occupies the whole front on the ground floor ; over this is the living-room of the family, where the weaver wrought at his trade, assisted by his sons and daughters ; higher still, in the gable, is a tall, narrow door with two valves, opening down to the floor of the attic, through which, by means of a small crane, raw material and bales of finished goods were drawn up to be stored in this warehouse on the top story. A Calico-Printer, temp. James II. (Bagford Collection, British Museum) . 145 1 The Pope Receiving the Ambassador of England, 1687 . . . . 1452 In 1687 Roger, Earl of Castlemaine, was sent by James II. on a special embassy to Rome. Next year an authorised "Account " of his journey and reception was published in Italian and English, with this frontispiece and other illustrations, by Castlemaine's secretary, John Michael Wright. Title-Page of Missal . . 1454 From a photograph obtained through the kindness of the Rev. Dr. Stokes. This missal was given by James II. to John Brenan, Roman Catholic Arch bishop of Cashel. Brenan, as the inscription in his handwriting on the title- page shows, presented it to Cashel Cathedral (of which he had possession throughout James's reign, no successor having been appointed to the Protest ant Archbishop Price, who died in 1685). Thence it passed with the books left by the next Protestant Archbishop, Narcissus Marsh, to the library of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, where it is now. Satirical Playlng-Card, temp. James II. (British Museum) . . . 1455 Halbert (Seventeenth Century) from Rome (7>i£/«?-ff^Zo«rfi7«) . . . . 1457 Magdalen College, Oxford, in the Seventeenth Century (picture inthe College, painted temp. Charles I.) 1460 The Seven Bishops (picture in National Portrait Gallery) 1462 The Seven Bishops going to the Tower ("Engelands Godsdienst en Vryheid hersteld door den Heere Prince van Oranjen," Amsterdam, 1689) .... 1463 Medal commemorating Victories of Denmark over Sweden 1464 Reverse of a gold medal, struck after a triple success gained at sea by the King of Denmark over Sweden, in 1677. Louis XIV. and Officers of his Staff 1466 From the "Cabinet du Roy,"z.«., original engravings ofthe designs for the tapestry and other decorations at Versailles, made specially for Louis XIV. Cardinal Mazarin (miniature by Petitot, in South Kensington Museum) . . . 1467 Marshal Turenne (miniature by P. Seuin, in same collection) 1468 Louis XIV. (from engraving by R. Nanteuil, 1670) 1469 NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS Ixxxvii PAGE Louis II., Prince of Condi!: (miniature in South Kensington Museum) : . . 1470 John de Witt (from an engraving by Lambert Vischer) 1472 William HI. of Orange when a child (from an etching b-y L. Richeton, in the " Portfolio," of a picture by Rembrandt in the collection of Earl Spencer) 1474 Dutch '^'u^viY.t (To-wer of London) 1475 The inscription means " True to Orange until death." French Pistoliers at the Storming of Aerdenburgh, 1672 (contem porary Dutch engraving) . . . . 1476 The pistoliers here depicted show that the lock has been so far perfected as to admit of a piece being used easily with one hand. A formidable volume of fire was delivered on a given point by lines charging, halting, firing and wheeling in rapid succession. The French are said to have adopted this system of warfare from the Germans. Palace at the Hague ; Exterior 1478 Palace at the Hague ; Courtyard 1480 These two views are from engravings published while William III. was Stadholder. The palace was the residence of the Princes of Orange, and in it were held the Sessions of the High Court of Justice, the Provincial Court of Brabant, and the States-General of the United Provinces. The Seven Bishops returning from the Tower (" Engelands Godsdienst, S^c, hersteld") . . ^ 1482 Satirical Playing-card, temp. James II. (British Museum) . . ... 1483 William of Orange landing in England ("Engelands Godsdienst, " &°c) . 1484 " The Protestants' Joy " at the " Glorious Coronation of King William Pli^-d Qv-EE!^ 'M.tAY " (Ballad in Bagford Collection, British Museum) . . . 1488 Great Seal of William and Mary 1490, 1491 The art of seal-engraving, which had reached its perfection in England under the Commonwealth, had since the Restoration been gradually declining, both as to design and execution. This example shows that it was now fast approach ing the lowest depth to which it sank under the House of Hanover. King William III. (picture by Kneller at Windsor Castle) . . . . 1493 John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee (picture in the possession of Lady Elizabeth Leslie-Melville-Cart-wright . ... 1495 The Battle-field of Killiecrankie 1496 GUET^COE (from a photograph) . . . 1497 James II. landing at Kinsale ("£«^«/a»/.r .SVAoMwifuwe^/," &"(:., 1690) . . . 1499 The Walls of Londonderry (after W. H. Bartiett) 1500 Built 1609. Siege of Londonderry (" Engelants Schouwtoneel") . 1501 Tabernacle and Candlesticks given by James II. to Christ Church, Dublin 1502 From a drawing very kindly made by Mr. Thomas Drew, R.H. A., specially for this book. The Cathedral of the Holy Trinity (commonly called Christ Church) was from the English invasion till 1870 the Chapel Royal of Dublin Castle. During the occupation of Dublin by James IL, April, 1688 — July, 1690, Mass was said in the Cathedral for the King. The tabernacle and candlesticks then used are preserved in the crypt ; they were originally richly gilt and decorated. The ornamental cover of the ciborium was stolen many years ago, and is now in the Carmelite Church, Whitefriars Street. Isnu'DOK-D-E.'B.'KV 'E.S.CUA.IfiG-e, (from print in British Museum) ... 1503 The old Exchange was destroyed in the siege ; William and Mary gave ;^iSOO towards the building of the new one here represented. Mace (Irish), 1696 (South Kensington Museum) 1504 Made in 1696 by a silversmith named Martin, of Cork, for the Gilds of that city, but not bought by them, owing to a dispute about the price. The head is given here to show that in the time of Ireland's deepest desolation the Irish metal workers had yet lost nothing ofthe artistic feeling and manual skill which had characterised their race from the very beginning of its history. William III. in Parliament (from an engraidng by Romeyn de Hooge) . . 1506 Ixxxviii NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Nonconformist Chapel, Dean Row, Cheshire (Earwaker, "East Cheshire") 1508 Probably the oldest Nonconformist Chapel in the hundred of Macclesfield. It was built c. 1693, for a Presbyterian Congregation, whose minister was Eliezer Birch. It is now used by a congregation of Unitarians. I'HE SoiMll.'KOYAl. (Charnock, " History of Marine Architecture") 1510 The finest ship of the navy of Louis XIV. , or of any navy in its day ; built in 1690 ; carried 104 guns, and 1000 men. It was Tourville's flagship at La Hogue, and was burnt at Cherbourg by Admiral Delaval. Medal commemorating Restoration of Charters to Towns, 1690 . . . 1512 In January, 1690, a bill was passed to restore the rights of all towns which had lost their charters under Charles and James. As the inscription on the reverse ofthe medal says, " Privileges are restored, liberty revived." TujMERiCK FROwmE Se\ (drawing c. l6Ss, in British Museum) . . . 151 J Carrickfergus ((/?-awz'«^ <:. 1680, in British Museum) . . ... 1513 Armour WORN by James II. at the BoYNE (7bw«?-<2/'Z(7«afc«) 1514 King John's Castle, Limerick 1515 From a view by Bartiett, made before modern changes. The castle was really built by John ; it Is now used as barracks. Medal COMMEMORATING French Victory AT Beachy Head (reverse) . . . 1517 Represents a sea-fight — " The fight at Beves " [Beachy Head], "English and Dutch together put to flight, 10 July 1690 ; " in the foreground Louis XIV. is represented as Neptune, and the vanquished are sarcastically admon ished — " Speed your flight ; to him belongs the empire of the seas." Mons 11^ TH'E I'jT'H C'ENTVKY (from a Dutch print) 1518 The Battle of La Hogue (from an engraving by Romeyn de Hooge) . . . 1520 Medal commemorating Victory at La Hogue (reverse) . . . 1521 William's reply to Louis's medal for Beachy Head (see above, and p. 1517). William, as Neptune, drives away Louis, the pseudo-Neptune, with his trident, saying "To me it" \i.e., the empire of the seas] "is given by Fate " " The offences committed are expiated by a like punishment." Robert Spencer, second Earl of Sunderland (from an engraving by R. Cooper of a picture by Carlo Maratta at Althorpe) . . 1524 Medal commemorating the Storming of Toubocan, 1700 1527 A gold medal, given by the African Company of Scotland as a reward to Alexander Campbell, who, at the head of 200 men whom he had commanded in Flanders, drove 1,600 Spaniards from their entrenchments at Toubocan on the Isthmus of Darien, and thus for a time delivered the Scottish settlers from danger. The obverse represents a Highlander scaling a fortress, with the words: " What not for our country?" "Toubocan, where Captain Alex ander Campbell defeated 1,600 Spaniards, Sth February, 1700." The reverse bears the shield of the African and Indian Company of Scotland, with the legend : " Whithersoever the world extends. Strength united is stronger." The Mint, Bristol (Seyer, " Metnorials of Bristol") 1528 In 1696 a new coinage was ordered. A tax was laid upon windows to defray its expenses ; and in order that it might be the sooner ready, mints were set up at Chester, York, Bristol and Exeter. At Bristol a ' ' sugar-house " behind S. Peter's Church was bought and fitted up for the purpose ; ;^4So,coo was coined there in 1696-7 ; then the house was bought by the Guardians of the Poor, "therein to employ the poor and youth of this city in spinning and weaving cotton. " Thenceforth its proper title was S. Peter's Hospital, but its older name of the Mint still clung to it in popular speech in the early years of the present century. yiKRU&O'i.CiMQ.v. (drawing by Kneller, in British Museum) 153° Silver Call-Whistle 1531 Used to summon a household before ihe introduction of bells. This whistle is English work of the 1 7th century ; it was dug out of a hedgerow at Reigate in 1854, and it is the property of Lord Zouche, by whose kind permission it is reproduced here. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS Ixxxix. page- Medal commemorating First Partition Treaty 1533: The enclosure in which hangs the Golden Fleece is guarded by a dragon, representing WUliam III. ; legend, "Watchful, he disappoints the greedy one." On the reverse, William, Lewis, and three other allies join hands over an altar inscribed, "to Jupiter, guardian of boundaries;" the legefid runs, " Agreement of sovereigns for public safety. " Dutch Guards, temp. William III 1534 From an engraving by Romeyn de Hooge, in " Relation du Voyage de S. M. le roi d'Angleterre en HoUande," the Hague, 1692. These foot-soldiers are armed with muskets ; the collar of bandoliers, or little cylinders containing charges of powder, may be seen suspended from the shoulder. William's Blue Guards marched across St. James's Park with lighted matches to take possession of St. James's Palace, December 17th, 1688. Medal commemorating Homage of Duke of Lorraine to Lewis XIV. 1699 (reverse) .... . . . . 1535 Medal commemorating offer of the Crown of Spain to the Duke of Anjou, 1700 (reverse) . . . . ... 1535 Satirical Playing-Card (British Museum) 1536- One of a pack designed under Queen Anne. The Duke of Anjou is repre sented stealing the Spanish Crown. John Dryden (picture by Sir G. Kneller) . . 1537 Sophia, Electress of Hanover ... 1539. Reverse of a medal struck in commemoration of the Act of Settlement, 1701. The obverse bears another female head, meant to represent Matilda, Duchess of Saxony, daughter of Henry II., through whom the Electors of Hanover were descended from the old royal house of England. Ensign John Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) .... 1540 From an engraving (in the British Museum) thus inscribed : " Mr de Marleborough tel qu'il ^tait en 1668, quand il servait en qualite d'enseigne dans le Regiment des Gardes fran9aises. Grave d'apres Van der Meulen." John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough (picture by J. Closterman in National Portrait Gallery) .... 1 542: Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough (picture by Sir G. Kneller, in National Portrait Gallery) . . . . . . 1543 Memorial of William III. (British Museum) IS44 An unique gold medal, formerly in the possession of the Scott family, of Ballingarry, co. Tipperary, to whose ancestor land was granted in Ireland for his services at the Boyne. The obverse, which bears a portrait of William, is cast and chased ; the reverse, representing the Irish harp and some mUitary emblems, is engraved. Satirical Playing-Card 1547 A satire on Marlborough's known avarice and alleged peculations ; one of the same pack as the card given in p. 1536. Running Footmen ¦ • ; • • ¦ '54^ Reproduced for the first time, by kind permission of the Duke of Marlborough, from tapestry at Blenheim Palace, made for the first Duke. This illustration and that on p. 1552 are taken from the tapestry which represents the battle of Blenheim. The figures of the footmen who ran in front of the carriage are of special interest as features of domestic life, as no similar figures occur in pictures of the time. Eugene and Marlborough reconnoitring (from an engraving by Camsvelt) . 1549. The Battle of 'RocnsTXDT (frot?i an engraving by J. van Huchtenburg) . . . 155a Surrender of Marshal Tallard (reproduced for the first time from tapestry at Blenheim Palace) 1552 "Malborouk" . . 1554 From a broadside in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. This iUustration of the French popular song "Malborouk s'en va-t-en guerre," dating from the early part of the present century, witnesses to the persistence of the Marlborough legend. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS Charles Mordaunt, Earl of Peterborough (from a mezzotint by J. Simon of a picture by M. Dahl) . . .... 1557 Medal commemorating Victory of Ramillies . 1558 A very rare bronze medal ; reproduced here from an engraving m the Metallic History of William III., Amie, &c., published in 1747, to illustrate Rapin's History of England. The obverse represents the victory—" French, Bavarians, and Spaniards captured, destroyed, or put to flight all in one battle at Ramillies, 1706 " ; round the ^ge is written : " May 23. Ill-gotten gains are not enjoyed by the third generation." The reverse represents "Brabant and Flanders restored to their lawful ruler by the alliance of England and Holland." The encircling legend runs : " They shine with stainless honours. Under this commander I preserve my country ; with him " \i.e. Marlborough] " for my leader, I maintain the King." Second Great Seal of Anne, 1707 1560, 1561 The first seal of Great Britain. On the obverse is the Queen enthroned, with the emblems of her three kingdoms ; on the reverse, the union just accomplished between two of them is commemorated in a wholly new des%n, the figure of Britannia. Joseph Addison (picture by Sir Godfrey Kneller) 1563 Addison entered the Ministry in 1706 as Under Secretary of State. In 1709 he became Secretary to Lord Wharton, when the latter was Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland (see p. 1 565). He was also made Keeper of the Records, but lost his office at the fall ofthe Whig Ministry in 1710. English Squadron carrying Troops to take possession of Dunkirk ('^ History of Queen Anne," 11^0) . .... . 1564 The Battle of Mai.plaquet (from the same) . 1566 Designs for Playing-cards, 1710 (British Museum) 1567, 1568, 1569 From a. sheet of designs for twenty-six cards, evidently made in 1710. The first card here reproduced shows Sacheverell in his coach and the crowd cheering him ; the second represents the newly-elected members for London addressing their constituents in the GuildhaU ; in the third the Queen is receiving an address from the new Parliament which met in November 1710. Henry St. John, Viscount Bolingbroke (picture by Kneller, at Petworth) . 1571 Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford (from an engraving by J. van Huchten burg) ... . . .... 1572 Emblems of the Silversmiths' Craft, c. 1700 (Bagford Collection, British Museum) . . ... . . 1573 By Robert White, who died 1704. Invitation to a Meeting of the Goldsmiths' Company, 1707 (same collec tion) .... . . . . ... 1574 Advertisement of John Marshall, Optician, 1694 (savie collection) . 1575 Advertisement of John Heaton, 1709 (Crowle collection, British Museum) . 1576 John Heaton was a maker of agricultural implements. The curiosity of his advertisement consists in its having been printed on the frozen Thames, like the picture of "Frost Fair " in 1683, given in p. 1430. Printing-office, c. 1710 (Bagford Collection) . . . . . . . . 1577 Cries of London, 1688— 1702 . . . . 1578, 1579, 1580, 1581 From Cryes of the City of London, engraved by Pierce Tempest from drawings by Marcellus Lauron (or Laroon) the elder, who died in 1 702. The first edition was published in 1688; the British Museum copy, from which these reproductions are made, dates from 1711. Sir Robert Walpole (picture by J. B. van Loo, in National Portrait Gallery) . I^gj The Six Lords Pleading in Westminster Hall 1585 Lord Nithsdale's Escape . . . . jcgg These twoillustrations are parts of a contemporary broadsheet, representing the events of the Jacobite rising in 1715-16. The six lords— Derwentwater, NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS xci page Nithsdale, Carnwath, Kenmure, Widdrington, and Nairne — who surrendered at Preston in November 1715 (see p. 1586), were impeached in Parliament, and condemned to death in February 1716. Derwentwater and Kenmure were beheaded, February 24 ; Nithsdale's wife visited him in prison on the previous night, changed clothes with him," and thus effected his escape. ¦Criks OF London (Tempest and Lauron, 1688 — 1702) .... 1587, 1588, 1589, 1590 Trade Label OF THE South Sea Company (G'«j7(^'m//7l/«j««OT) 1591 Medal Commemorating the Siege of Gibraltar, 1727 1593 A very rare bronze medal. Obverse : " Gibraltar besieged, 22nd Febr., 1727. To conquer or to die." Reverse : " But there is given a third course, less perilous — to go away " ; a sarcastic allusion to the withdrawal of the Spanish besiegers (see p. 1594). Jonathan Swift, Dean of S. Patrick's, Dublin (from an engraving by E. Scriven, after F. Bindon) 1 595 -Alexander Pope (picture at Chiswick House) 1596 The House of Commons in Walpole's Administration (from A. Fag^s en graving of a picture by Hogarth and Thornhill) 1598 The chief persons represented are Walpole, Speaker Onslow, Sydney Godolphin, Sir Joseph Jekyll, Colonel Onslow, Edward Stables (clerk of the House), Sir James Thomhill (the painter), and Mr. Aiskew (clerk-assistant). -"\n 'f-LXCe." (satirical print, iT^Si in British Museum) 1600 The age of political caricature began in England under George II., and instead ofthe half-emblematical satires, chiefly Dutch, which were common in the preceding century, we now have a series of real caricatures by English artists. After the Revolution of 1688, the progress of the art of engraving made possible the. effective production of caricatures, and from the time of George II. a number of artists were actively employed in satirizing political intrigues. Walpole is here represented turning away from Jenkins, who shows his severed ear (see p. 1601). Opposite Walpole sits a lady (probably his wife) receiving a box of jewels from a Frenchman (an allusion to Walpole's alleged secret intelligence with France). In the foreground a man burns a number of The Craftsman in which Walpole's BUl for licensing the stage had been attacked. A courtier pushes away a merchant holding a memorial on " Spanish Depredations," and a pet dog tears the " Merchants' Complaint." In the next room a man pours " £10,000 " through a gridiron into the " Sink ing Fund " ; and in the distance, through the open door, an English ship is seen defeated by a Spanish one. •" The IAotion" (satirical print, 1741) 1602 Inside the coach, crying, "Let me get out," is Lord Carteret, who had moved in the Lords a resolution "that Sir R. Walpole should be dismissed fi-om his Majesty's presence and councUs for ever." The driver is the Duke of Argyll, represented with a flaming sword for a whip, because hehad supported the motion with such vehemence that his speech alarmed his own party, and nearly defeated its own object. Between his feet is a dog, " Bub," i.e., Bubb Doddington, an obsequious follower of the Duke. The postiUion is Lord Chesterfield, the footman Lord Cobham. The bishop who bows to the car riage is Smalbroke, of Lichfield. The man dropping the " Place BUl " is Mr. Sandys ; he had introduced in the Commons a motion for removing Walpole, aud he here seems to ascribe its failure to the rash violence of Argyll. Pulteney, the leader of the Opposition, is seen leading his followers by the nose. Medal Commemorating Capture of Portobello, 1739 1603 Action AT Cartkaguna (engraving, 1741, from drawing by H. Gravelot) . . . 1604 State Lottekv, I'jsg (contemporary print in British Museum) 1606 A State Lottery, the earliest of along series, was set on foot by Act of Parliament in 1737, to raise money for building a bridge at Westminster. The drawing ofthe lots began on loth December, 1739, in Stationers' Hall ; the hall here represented, however, appears to be the Guildhall. The Govem- VOL. iv.-b. xcii NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS page ment commissioners superintending the lottery sit at the table on the platform. Behind them are two closed lottery-wheels, under the table is a wheel in use ; four secretaries sit at a lower table. According to a practice which became usual, the lots are being drawn by boys of the Blue-Coat School. Chained Library, All Saints Church, Hereford (Blades, "Bibliographical Miscellanies") 1607 Interesting as the latest example of a chained library. The books (285 volumes) were bequeathed to the parish by Dr. W. Brewster in 1715 ; they fill three shelves along two sides of the vestry. The chains were evidently copied from those in the neighbouring cathedral library. The Vicar of the Parish Receiving His Tithes . . 1608 The Curate of the Parish returning from Duty 1609 From engravings, 1793, by T. Burke, after pictures by H. Singleton. 'Reading "PooR-KOVSE (Coates, " History of Reading") . . 1610 Built in 1727. Frome School and Bridge (drawing in British Museum) . 161 1 This school was buUt in 1720. Dean Berkeley, his Wife, and Fellow-missionaries (picture at Yale College) . . . . . . 1612 In 1728 George Berkeley (then Dean of Derry, afterwards Bishop of Cloyne) sailed with his wife, her friend Miss Handcock, Sir James Dalton, Mr. John James, and Mr. John Smybert, to found a missionary college in America. Bermuda was the place fixed upon, but the home government failed to give Berkeley the support which it had promised him, and three years later he went back again, having never got further than Rhode Island. It was there that Smybert painted this picture. Berkeley stands on the spectator's right ; next him sits his wife with one of their children in her lap ; beside her sits Miss Handcock ; James stands behind them ; Dalton is seated at the table, writ ing ; behind him stands Mr. Moffat, a friend of Smybert's, and furthest to the left is Smybert himself. George Whitefield (picture by Nathaniel Hone) 1613 John Wesley (picture by William Hamilton, in the National Portrait Gallery) . 1615 %CB.OO'L (from T. Faber' s engraving of a picture, 1739, by P. Mercier) . . . 1617 The subject of this picture is English, although the style of treatment is French. Philippe Mercier was a Frenchman by birth, but he lived and worked in England. Samuel Johnson (from an engraving by Finden) . 161S Hannah More (picture by Opie, 1786) . 1619 John Howard (picture by Mather Brown, in the Nalional Portrait Galle-ry) . 1620 Medal Commemorating Battle of Dettingen . . .... 1622, 1623 Piper in Highland Regiment (G^-oj?, " Military Antiquities") . 1625 Soldiers in Highland Regiment (from the same) . . . 1626 Medal Commemorating Battle of Culloden . . . 1627 Fort William (old print in British Museum) . . . 1628 The Mogul Emperors (miniature at Windsor Castle) .... 1630 A French Canadian (Bacqueville de la Potherie, " Histoire de VAmSrique septrntrionale," 1722) . 1632 The inscription in the corner explains that this man is "going out over the snow to war." " HABiTATiON de l'ile Ste. Q,RO\yi" (Champlain, " Voyages," 1613) . . . 1633 This "habitation," founded in 1604, was the earliest French settlement in Acadie. The island, now called Douchet, lies at the mouth of the river Ste. -Croix. Frederick II., King of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg (from an engraving in the Bibliothique Nationale, Paris) . . ... 1635 NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS xciii PAGE Greenwich Hospital 1636 The English kings had long had a residence at Greenwich when Charles II. , in 1664, resolved to build there a new palace, which was begun by Inigo Jones, but never completed. James II. wished to convert the building into a hospital for disabled seamen ; Mary eagerly desired to commemorate the great victory of La Hogue (1692) by carrying out her father's project, and after her death (1694) William took it up no less eagerly as a memorial of her. Wren drew the plans and superintended the work without charge, saying, ' ' Let me have some share in a work of mercy." His designs were hampered by the necessity of adapting them to the existing work of Inigo Jones, which Mary had desired to retain untouched ; but the result was a triumph of Wren's genius. The effect of the whole group of buildings, seen from the river, is extremely fine, and it evidently formed in Wren's mind part of a grand scheme for giving a worthy approach to the capital, where he was already embellishing the Tower and erecting the new cathedral of S. Paul's, and which he had proposed to rebuild entirely according to a design still in existence, though never carried into execution. The view here given shows the hospital as Wren left it, with the road originally reserved from the Thames up to the " Queen's House " (at the rear of the hospital), built by Inigo Jones for Anne of Denmark and Henrietta Maria. King Charles's building forms the west wing ; behind it is " King William's building," erected 1696-8 ; opposite to this is "Queen Mary's buUding," begun in 1702, finished in 1752. The east wing (fronting Charles's building) is known as " Queen Anne's buUding,'' and was begun in 1698, but not completed till after Anne's death ; it was here that Admiral Byng was confined after his disgrace in 1756 (see p. 1635). An Election Entertainment, 1755 (picture by W. Hogarth) 1638 William Pitt (picture by Hoare) . . .... .... 1639 Sword-Bearer and Mace-Bearer of the City of London (map of London, 1-J26, in Grace collection, British Museum) ... . . 1 641 Mardol Street, Shrewsbury (Owen and Blakeway, "History of Shrews bury") . ¦ ¦ .... 1642 A good example of the houses which the " great middle class " in the coun try towns were beginning to build for themselves in Pitt's time. Town-hall, Carusle (Nutter, " Carlisle in the Olden Time") . 1643 From a drawing c. 1 780 ; showing the Mayor's procession. The hall itself was built in the reign of Elizabeth. William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (picture by Richard Brompton, in the possession of Earl Stanhope, at Chevening) . 1645 Surajah Dowlah (miniature in the India Museum) . 1647 Medal commemorating Battle of Plassey . _ . . . 1648 A Society for promoting Arts and Commerce, founded in 1754, caused medals to be struck on various occasions, as an encouragement to art. The first of these was the medal here reproduced, struck by Thomas Pingo in 1758. Medal commemorating Battles of Rossbach and Leuthen 1649 A brass medal, illustrating English feeling towards Frederick and Maria Theresa. The obverse bears a head of Frederick ; on the reverse he brandishes his sword over the head of the kneeling queen. Medal commemorating the Battle of Minden 1650 A rare brass medal. The obverse represents the opening of the battle by an attack on the village of Dodenhausen ; the reverse shows the victor, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, on horseback, with his camp in the background. "A View of the City of Quebec in New France in America" . . . 1651 From a drawing signed "Margaret CecU, 1740," in the British Museum ; interesting as the work of an Englishwoman who had somehow visited Quebec while it was still in French hands. xciv NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Medal commemorating the Capture of Louisburg and Cape Breton . 1652 Brass ; rare, because of inferior workmanship, and thought at the time not worth preserving. The design is, however, more interesting than those of some much finer medals issued on the same occasion, as the one side bears a head of Admiral Boscawen and the other a curious little view of Louisburg harbour and fort. General Wolfe (picture by Schaak, in National Portrait Gallery) 1653 The Capture of Quebec (contemporary print) 1654 Medal commemorating Successes of 1759 1655 Bronze ; an illustration of the feeling towards Pitt. The reversed' lily symbolizes the defeat of France ; the lion and the horse are the emblems of England and Hanover ; the list of the year's triumphs, with the names of the victorious commanders, is grouped around the name of the leader to whom all these successes were ascribed, " WiUiam Pitt, Prime Minister, under the auspices of George II." Fight between the "Centurion" and a Manilla Ship (Harris's " Voyages") 1656 In 1740 an English squadron commanded by George Anson was sent to attack the Spaniards in the South Seas. It sailed round the world ; one of the great exploits of the expedition was the fight which took place off Macao, 2ist June, 1743, between Anson in the "Centurion" and the great Spanish ship which traded between Manilla and Acapulco, and which was captured by Anson. North American Traders and Indians (Gauthier and Fadeiis Map of Canada, 1777) ... . . 1657 Shah Allum, Mogul of Hindostan, reviewing East India Company's Troops . . 1658 From a picture painted in India in 1 781, for Sir Robert Barker, by Tilly Kettle ; now in the possession of Mr. Robert Webb, who has kindly allowed it to be reproduced for the first time here. The Mogul is reviewing th'e third brigade of the Company's troops, from a state tent, on the plain of Allahabad ; an officer of Sepoys is explaining to him the manoeuvres. Captain Cook (fi-om Sherwin' s engraving, 1784, of a picture by N. Dance) . . 1660 Map of the Colonies of North America at the Declaration of Independence ... . . ... to face 1660 William Penn (picture in National Museum, Philadelphia) 1661 Pine-tree Shilling of Massachusetts . . 1662 In 1652 Massachusetts set up at Boston a mint of its own, which issued coins bearing for device an American pine-tree. Charles II. on his restoration was very angry at this infringement of his royal prerogative, but Sir WiUiam Temple appeased his wrath by assuring him that the tree was meant for the Royal Oak, and thus symbolized the loyalty of Massachusetts at a time when England itself was in rebeUion. New Amsterdam (N. J. Visseher' s Map of New England and New Belgium, mid I'J Century) . . .... 1662 New Amsterdam was the original name of the town which, when transferred to British rule, became New York (see p. 1661). "A Prospect of the Colledges at Cambridge in New England" (American print, u. 1739) jfig- These are the three old halls of Harvard College, Cambridge, Massachusetts. On the left is the original Harvard Hall, founded by John Harvard in 1650 and completed in 1675 5 the middle building is Stoughton Hall, founded by Wilham Stoughton in 1699 ; on the right is Massachusetts HaU, added in 1720. George III. (picture by Allan Ramsay, in National Portrait Gallery) 1666 State Coach (built 1762) of George III. (South Kensington Museum) . . 1667 YREDF.RICV. THE Great (print in Bibliothique Nationale, Paris) 1669 • NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS xcv PAGE The Tschudi Family . 1670 Burkhardt Tschudi, of an old Swiss family, came to England in 1718, and founded in 1732 the famous business of J. Broadwood and Sons, the oldest business devoted to key-board instruments in the world, and the oldest of any kind in England that is stUl carried on in the very house where it was first started. That house, known in Tschudi's time by its sign of ' ' The Plume of Feathers " (adopted under the patronage of the then Prince of Wales), is now No. 33 Great Pulteney Street, the piano factory of Messrs. Broadwood. The picture here reproduced belongs to Mr. J. H. Tschudi Broadwood, Tschudi's great-great-grandson, who has kindly allowed it to be photographed for this book. The painter is unknown. The group consists of Tschudi, his wife and his two sons, one of whom continued the business in partnership with his brother-in-law, John Broadwood. The harpsichord Tschudi is tuning was presented by him to Frederick the Great in 1744-5, ^fts>^ the battle of Prague (see p. 1623), when Frederick became the Protestants' great hero, Tschudi being a zealous Protestant. Mr. A. J. Hipkins, the writer of the articles on key-board instruraents in the Dictionary of Music, has been unable to discover this harpsichord in Berlin or Potsdam, but he there identified two other harpsichords which Frederick purchased from Tschudi in 1766 for his new palace at Potsdam. In 1773, the last year of Tschudi's life, a harpsichord made by his firm was presented by the Prussian King to Maria Theresa, and another to the Empress Catherine of Russia as tokens of reconcUiation ; the three sovereigns having just divided Poland among them, and thus become allies (see p. 1748). The Mansion House, London . 1673 This and the next two iUustrations are from pictures by Samuel Scott, c. 1750, in the GuildhaU Art Gallery. London Bridge and Dyers' Wharf . 1674 The Fleet River ... . . . . . . . 1675 "The City Chanters" (from an engraving by S. Okey, 1775, of a picture by John Collett) ... . . 1679 An illustration of the " Wilkes and Liberty " excitement. Benjamin Franklin (Medallion by Nini, in the National Portrait Gallery) 1681 British Stamps for America (Harper's Magazine) . . 1682 '^D'^XSND^VRV.E (picture by Reynolds, in National Portrait Gallery) . . . 1683 Satirical Sketch of Burke, by Sayer, 1782 . ... 1684 " The Astonishing Coalition— neither War nor Peace " 1685 A satirical but characteristic sketch by James Gillray, the great caricaturist of this period. The occasion of the sketch was the union of Burke and Fox with Lord North, to whom they had been opposed, in denouncing the Shel burne ministry of 1783, which their coalition brought to ruin. This and the preceding drawing are given to illustrate the effect produced by Burke's vehement and impassioned manner. Wilkes before the Court of King's Bench (Gentleman's Magazine, 1768) . 1688 Frontispiece to the Middlesex Petition, 1769 . . ... .... 1690 The petition was from 1565 freeholders of Middlesex, protesting against the " despotic counsellors " to whom was attributed the violation of constitutional rights in the matter of Wilkes's election. The frontispiece, here reproduced from a copy in the British Museum, represents a deputation presenting the petition to the king. William Beckford (monument in Guildhall, London) 1691 The inscription below the statue is as follows : — " William Beckford, Esq., twice Lord Mayor. His speech to His Majesty King George III, on the 23rd of May, 1770. " 'Most Gracious Sovereign, — Will your Majesty be pleased so far to con descend as to permit the Mayor of your loyal City of London to declare in your Royal Presence, on behalf of his Fellow Citizens, how much the bare apprehension of your Majesty's displeasure would at all times affect their minds. The declaration of that displeasure has already filled them with inex pressible anxiety, and with the deepest affliction. Permit me. Sire, to assure xcvi NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS your Majesty that your Majesty has not in all your dominions any subjects more faithful, more dutiful, or more affectionate to your Majesty's person and family, or more ready to sacrifice their lives and fortunes in the maintenance of the true honour and dignity of your Crown. We do therefore, with the greatest humility and submission, most earnestly supplicate your Majesty that you will not dismiss us from your presence, without expressing a more favour able opinion of your faithful Citizens, and without some comfort, some pro spect at least, of redress. Permit me. Sire, farther to observe, that whoever has already dared or shall hereafter endeavour by false insinuations and sug gestions to alienate your Majesty's affections from your loyal subjects in general, and from the City of London in particular, and to withdraw your confidence in, and regard for your people is an enemy to your Majesty's Person and Family, a violator of the public peace, and a betrayer of our happy constitution as it was established at the glorious Revolution." " A. Voi.lTlciAN" (after W. Hogarth) Iggj Hogarth is said to have here caricatured a Mr. Tibson, a laceman in the Strand, well known in his day for his keen interest in politics. The picture marks the growth of journals, mentioned in the text, and the popular interest excited by them. 'Exact Draught of Boston Harbour" (drawing, 1733, in British Museum) .... . . ' . 1694 Landing of British Troops at Boston, 1768 (contemporary engraving by Paul Revere) ... . . ..... i6gi; George Washington (picture by Gilbert Stuart, in possession of the Earl of Rosebery) .... .... . ... 1698 An American Rifleman 1 An American General I ^^- ^«^«'^'-'=^' " history of England," 1 790) . 1 700 Fight of Bunker's Hill and Burning of Charlestown (from the same) . 1701 Medal commemorating Washington's Capture of Boston (British Museum) 1 702 Several medals in honour of Washington and American Independence were struck in 1789 at the Royal Mint of Paris ; possibly owing to the influence of Lafayette, who had returned from America in 1783. The reverse ofthe finest of these medals is figured here. It represents Washington, surrounded by his officers, watching from a distance the evacuation of Boston by the English • "The enemies first put to flight— Boston recovered, 17 March 1776." On a cannon to the right is the engraver's signature, "Duviv.," i.e. Benjamin Duvivier, chief engraver to the Royal Mint of France. The obverse bears a fine portrait of Washington, with the inscription, " To George Washington, commander-in-chief, assertor of liberty— American Congress." "Duvivier Paris, f " o , Medal commemorating Declaration of American Independence (i'«ozwa'e« " Medallic Memorials of Washington)" .... . . ' 170^ 1, \^^^^ designed and engraved by C. C. Wright. "The obverse bears the head of Washington ; there are two reverses ; one consists of a tablet on which are inscribed the chief events of American history, from the "Discovery of North America bythe English, July 3, 1497 " to the "Assault on Quebec by the Americans, December 31, 1775 ;" the other, here figured, is copied from a picture by Colonel Trumbull of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. '^^^HhtT^") ^^^^' ^"'^^'°'^^PHI'^ (Lossing, " Cyclopcedia of United States In 1751 the State House at PhUadelphia '(built '1720-44) received the addition of a tower and belfry, for which the Assembly of Pennsylvania ordered a good bell of about 2000 lbs. weight" to be cast in England, and T?u^ 71-'! *^'\'^"'^M " Proclaim liberty throughout aU the land unto all the mhabitants thereof" (Levit. xxv. 10). The bell was cast in London ?.^'?,T u^^'' ^"' "^''^^^ °" '''""' '"=''• Pass and Stow, bell-founders at Philadelphia, re-cast it twice, and it was finally hung in its place on Tune 7 1753- Its sound was the first proclamation of the signing of the Declaratioil of Independence on July 4, 1776. In September 1777 it was taken down and 1704 NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS xcvii PAGE removed to AUentown to save it from falling into the hands of the British when Philadelphia was abandoned to them ; the seizure of bells as spoils of war, and their employment for casting cannon-balls, being a recognised military privilege. In 1778 the bell was restored to its place. In 1835 it cracked, and is now preserved as a relic. The Death of Chatham (picture by J. S. Copley, i']79, in the National Gallery) 1706 Robert, Lord Glvje (from Bartolozz-t s engraving of a picture by N. Dance) 1708 Warren Hastings (from a mezzotint by T. Watson, 1777, of a picture by Reynolds) . . 1710 Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown (Barnard, "History of England," 1"]^) 1713 The Parliament House, Tixs-slin (from a photograph) 1714 BuUt in 1782 for the Independent Parliament of Ireland ; now used as the Bank of Ireland. Admiral 'Rodnei (from an engraving by E. Scriven of a picture by Reynolds) . 1715 The Relief of Gibraltar (European Magazine, 1782) 1716 The " Discovery " (Lindsay, " History of Merchant Shipping," from a drawing by E. W. Cook, R.A.) ... 1717 The ship which, under the command of Captain Gierke, accompanied Cook in his last voyage. When this drawing was made she was being used as a coaling-vessel at Newcastle ; hence the addition of the steam-funnels. •"The Impeachment — The Father of the Gang turned King's '¥sv\- denoe" (after Gillray) 1718 A satire upon Burke's separation from the Tories in May, 1 791 (seep. 1753). Fox, Sheridan, and their party regarded themselves as Burke's disciples, and now represented him as turning against and impeaching his own political children. Postage-stamp, Newfoundland 1718 Postage-stamp, Canada . . 1718 Seal of Cape Colony, Eastern Division (collection of Mr. Allan Wyon) . 1719 Seal of Natal (same collection) 1719 Postage-stamp, New South Wales 1719 Postage-stamp, Tasmania 1719 Each of these stamps and seals bears a device typical of the colony to which it belongs. Newfoundland is represented on its stamp by a seal, Canada by a beaver ; on the Cape seal is figured a native with spear and shield, on that of Natal the gnu, a. species of antelope peculiar to South Africa ; New South Wales places on its stamp the lyre-bird indigenous to its woods, and Tas mania's emblem is the singular animal known as platypus or ornithorhynchus, which is found nowhere else. The stamp of New South Wales here repro duced belongs to a Centenary issue, designed to commemorate the hundredth year from the foundation ofthis colony, in 1788. William Pitt (picture by Gainsborough) 1720 Charles James Fox (picture by Karl Anton Hickel, in National Portrait Gallery) 1721 Front of the Old East India House 1723 This Ulustration, kindly lent by Mr. F. C. Danvers from his paper on " India Office Records," represents the original headquarters of the East India Company in LeadenhaU Street. The escutgheon with the royal arms and Elizabeth's motto, "Semper Eadem," shows that the fafade was coeval with the incorporation of the Company in i6oo. The carved woodwork and latticed windows may be compared with those of the contemporary house of Sir Paul Pindar, engraved in p. 988. The design of the frieze seems to be a bold and free development of the Company's arms, figured in p. 990 ; it dis plays the ships, but increased in number from three to seven ; the sea-lions again appear as supporters, though here with their heads downwards ; while XCVIII NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS the figure at the top doubtless represents a merchant adventurer with his staff in his hand. The house was puUed down and rebuUt in 1726; to this new buUding, again, a front was added in 1799 ; finally, the Company having been dissolved on the transfer of India to the Crown in 1858, the house was entirely demolished in 1862. A View of Bombay Green in 1767 (Forbes, " Oriental Memoirs") . . 1724. From a drawing made by one of the Company's writers of what he saw from his apartment at the Bunder ; viz. part of Government House, the English church, the Secretary's office, the residence of the Second in Council, all interesting for the style of architecture ; while the daily life of the place is illustrated by the groups on the green, the official English coach with liveried servants after the fashion of London, the Company's troops, the palanquin, the Bengal chair, and the hackeree drawn by a white Indian ox. The House of Commons in 1793 (picture by Karl Anton Hickel, in the National Gallery) between pp. 1726 and 1727' ''^ AGGON (Pyne, " Costumes of Great Britain," 1808) 1728- • Illustrates "the want of a cheap and easy means of transport" for goods, as mentioned in the text. Aqueduct over the Irwell at Barton, Lancashire (" drawn and engraved by W. Orme, 1793") ¦ • 1729' Weaving at ^^\ta-i.eie\.d% (Hogarth, " Industry and Idleness") .... 1730 James ''^ att (picture by Sir T. Lawrence) 1731 Samuel Crompton (picture by Allingham) 1732, Richard Arkwright (picture by Joseph Wright of Derby, in the possession of Mr. P. A. Hurt) . . 1733 Adam Suit-r (from engraving by Holl of a medallion by Tassie) . 1734 Token of John Wilkinson (W. Hawkes Smith, "Birmingham") . . 1735. John Wilkinson, ironmaster at Bradley, near Wrexham, made the first castings for Boulton and Watt, before they set up their own foundry in Soho. Colliery- work (i^«^, "Microcosm,'' 1803-6) . . 1735; Iron-foundry (from.the same) . . 1736 Casting Cannon--&a-L'LS (from the same) ... 1737 T-RE Linen 'Kau.-.'Dwi.in (from engraving by W. Hincks,!']^^) . . . I73&- Bas-relief in Wedgwood Ware i739> Pottery, now so universally used for all purposes of utility and ornament, was unknown, except to the wealthy, in the beginning of last century. Its plnce was taken for domestic purposes by wood, pewter or horn. The change was effected by Josiah Wedgwood (1738 — 1795), who, in the words on his monu ment in Stoke Church, " converted a rude and inconsiderable manufactory into an elegant art, and an important part of national commerce." Born in the humblest class, he set himself to improve upon the imperfect ware then sparsely employed in domestic use, and, by means of experiments ofa very enterprising character in the then state of chemical knowledge, achieved the production of earthenware, substantiaUy such as we have it now, and called by him Queen's Ware. The practical benefit to the community of such a new appear ance among the commodities of daily life can hardly be over-estimated, but the invention with which his name is more particularly connected is that of the material he called Jasper ; a fine semi-vitreous unglazed body, coloured in severely quiet tones, and decorated with white bas-reliefs. In this form of pottery he developed a branch of art deriving its inspiration from classic Greece, though not directly imitative. It is peculiar in being entirely the work of the potter, without aid from painter or gilder, and appeals to educated taste by the beauty of its form, and the perfection combined with simplicity of its execution. In its production he was assisted by the refined taste of Bentley and the genius of Flaxman. The engraving here reproduced is kindly lent by Mr. Godfrey Wedgwood. It represents Mercury, as the god of commerce, joining the hands of England and France. This bas-relief was modelled by Flaxman in 1787, to commemorate the negotiation of the commercial treaty- with France in that year. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS xcix The " Fourteen Stars " Tavern, Bristol (old drawing in British Museiitn) . . . . 1741 This tavern, which stood at the end of Tucker Street, was a favourite resort of the sea-captains who traded with the Guinea coast. Clarkson frequently visited it in order to obtain from these men information about the slave- trade. William Wilberforce (monument in Westminster Abbey) 174^ The Fruit Barrow (from an engraving by J. Raphael Smith after H. Walton) . 1743 A good illustration of children's dress in the latter half of the eighteenth century. Itinerant Trades of London 1743, 1744, 1745, 1746 Drawn by Francis Wheatley, engraved by Schiavonetti, Cardon, and Vendramini, 1794 — 5. Medal Commemorating the Capture OF THE Bastille, 1789 1747 Medal Commemorating THE King's Entry INTO Paris, 1789 1749 Medal CoMME.MORATiNG THE General Confederation, 1790 . . . . 1750 " The Tree of Liberty, with the Devil Tempting John Bull," (satire by Gillray, 1798) . 1754 The serpent is Fox, tempting John Bull to taste the fruit of the "tree of liberty," z'.«., of revolution : " Nice apple, Johnny! nice apple!" John Bull replies : " Very nice napple, indeed ! but my pokes are all full of pippins from off t'other tree " (the British Constitution); "and besides, I hates medlars, they're so domn'd rotten, that I'se afraid they'll gee me the guts-ach for all their vine looks ! " "De Quoi Vous Plaignez- vous ?" (a/?*;- .ffa^^)_ . . ..... 1758 " L'ennemi menace la France, vous vous elancez, il est foudroye ! Les peuples g^missent dans I'esclavage, iis vous tendent les bras et vous les affran- chissez du joug qui les opprime ! I ! Le drapeau tricolore couvre de ses plis genereux les capitales conquises par vous ! ! ! Et vous vous plaignez ! quand il n'est pas un mortel qui ne vous porte envie ! " An officer is represented encouraging by this address a troop of peasant recruits, wounded, ragged, and shod with bands of straw. "The splendid series of Raffet's illustrations of the war, one of which is here reproduced from H. Beraldi's " Raffet," revives the finest traditions of the army of the Re public and of the whole career of Napoleon. Placard of Order for Execution OF Louis XVI 1760 This placard, which is here reproduced for the first time, has been photo graphed from the. only one ofthe original placards which escaped destruction, \ and is now preserved in the Musee Carnavalet. The proclamation was posted up in the streets of Paris, and set forth the decree issued, 20 January, 1793, by the Executive Council for the carrying out on the following day of the sentence of death passed upon " Louis Capet," with the time appointed and the order to be observed in the proceedings. "Georges Tournant la Meule de Put" (print in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris) . 1761 A French satire on Pitt and George III. Horatio Nelson (picture by J. Hoppner, in St. James's Palace) . 1762 An English Sailor .... 1763 From a print, dated 1779, entitled "A Dance by the Virtue of British Oak." The Englishman is defying a Frenchman and a Spaniard. "Kidnapping, or A Disgrace TO Oi.D England," 1794 1764 A satirical picture of the horrors of the press-gang. Recrxs-lt^ (satirical sketch by W. H. Bunbury, \']%o) -1765 Napoleon Bonaparte (from an engraving by Fiesinger of a picture by Guirin, 1799) . . . ¦ 1766 "The Glorious First of June" (from an engraving by T. Medland of a picture painted in/\. by R. Cleveley, R.N.) . . . 176S NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Nelson at Cape St. Vincent 1770 In this battle Nelson held the rank of Commodore. His ship, the "Captain," after engaging with six Spanish vessels in succession, ran along side the Spanish "San Nicolas "and took her by boarding ; Nelson himself boarded through the cabin windows. Beyond the "San Nicolas" lay the " San Josef," which carried the Spanish Rear-Admiral. Nelson led his men from the one ship to the other, captured the " San Josef," and received on her quarter-deck the surrender of the Admiral and officers. The view of this incident here reproduced was " painted under the direction of Lord Nelson and the officers of H.M.S. 'Captain,'" by D. Orme, "historical engraver to the King and the Prince of Wales," and published by him in 1800. Flag OF THE "'Niger,'' I'jgy (United Service Museum) 1771 The "Niger" was the one ship whose crew remained loyal during the mutiny at the Nore. This flag was designed at the time by the men themselves, and presented by them to their captain, E. J. Foote. View of Onore Fort after the Siege in 1783 (Forbes, " Oriental Memoirs") 1772 A fort on the Malabar coast, taken from Tippoo by the English under Captain Torriano in January 1783, held by them against Tippoo's forces through a siege of three months, and a blockade of seven more. May 1 783 — March 1784, and only surrendered on the conclusion of peace between Tippoo and the East India Company, in the condition which this view displays, and which tells something alike of the character of Tippoo's fortifications and of the stubbornness of the English resistance. Tippoo's Tiger (India Museum) 1773 This representation of a tiger mauling one of the Company's servants was found on the fall of Seringapatam (1799) in Tippoo's palace, in a room full of musical instruments. The tiger and the man are both life-size, and both figures are hollow. A handle on the tiger's left shoulder turns a crank ; this works some machinery inside, which causes the man's arm to move up and down with a gesture of supplication, while from his mouth issue a succession of cries, to which the tiger responds at intervals by a harsh growl. A door in the animal's side gives access to another and wholly independent musical mechanism, consisting of an organ with a row of keys to be played on with the hand, and two stops placed near the tail of the tiger. Medal Commemorating the Battle of Marengo 1774 Obverse, head of "Napoleon, First Consul of the French Republic" — "Battle of Marengo, 25 and 26 Prairial, year 8." Reverse: "The First Consul commanding the Army of Reserve in person. Remember, my lads, my custom is to sleep on the battle-field." "Portrait of an Irish Chief, Drawn from the Life at Wexford" (satire by Gillray, 1798) ... . . . . 1775 The Irish Volunteers Saluting the Statue of William III. on College Green, Dublin, \'jc)% (contemporary picture by F. Wheatley) 1776 John Philpot Curran (from a mezzotint by J. Raphael Smith, of a picture by Lawrence) Curran, one of the most brilliant and chivalrous of Irish patriots, stands as an orator among the greatest of his countrymen. In the opinion of Burke he was " the greatest advocate that ever lived." He acted as counsel for the prisoners in aU the great trials of 1798; and Lord Brougham declared his defence of Hamilton Rowan to be the most eloquent speech ever delivered at the Bar. O'Connell's judgment that he was "the most eloquent man that ever spoke in English," is probably true in the sense which O'Connell intended — a passionate appeal to the reason, the imagination, and the feelings. His marvellous imagination and humour are commemorated by Byron, who describes him : — "wUd as an j^Jolian harp With which the winds of heaven can make accord." 1777 NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS ci PAGE Henry Grattan (picture by F. 'Wheatley, 1782, in National Portrait Gallery) 1778 Grattan first entered the Irish Parliament in 1775, and became the greatest leader of the movement for Catholic emancipatiori, and opponent of the Act of Union. In Mr. Lecky's judgment his eloquence was perhaps the finest that has been heard in either country since the time of Chatham. Montalembert thought him the greatest of all modern orators. Byron's tribute to him is well known. " Ever glorious Grattan, the great and the good. With all that Demosthenes wanted endued. And his rival or master in all he possessed." The noble personal side of his character is also marked by Sydney Smith's words. " What Irishman does not feel proud that he has lived in the days of Grattan? .... No government ever dismayed him — the world could not bribe him — he thought only of Ireland — lived for no other object — dedicated to her his beautiful fancy, his elegant wit, his manly courage, and all the splen dour of his astonishing eloquence . . . . All the highest attainments of human genius were within his reach, but he thought the noblest occupation of man was to make other men happy and free ; and in that straight line he went on for fifty years, without one side-look, without one yielding thought, without one motive in his heart which he might not have laid open to the view of God and man." Henry Flood (from an engraving, in Barrington's "Memoirs of Lreland," of a drawing by J. Comerford) 1779 Flood, who entered the Irish Parliament in 1759, inaugurated the great movement for its reform and independence. He was one of the very greatest of Parliamentary reasoners, the finest orator whom Ireland had till then produced, and by the universal judgment of his contemporaries one of the greatest intellects that ever adorned the Irish Parliament. If oratorically Grattan and Curran may be called the Irish Demosthenes and Cicero, Flood may be distinguished as the Irish Mirabeau. Illustrations ofthe Irish Linen Manufactory, County Down (" drawn, engraved and published by W. Hincks, London, I'ji^^") 1780 — 1 790 Map of Europe after THE Peace of Luneville to face p. 1792 Medal GIVEN TO the Indian Troops WHO served IN Egypt, 1801 (Tancred, " Record of Medals") 1793 Obverse, a Sepoy with the Union Jack ; legend in Persian, " This medal has been presented in commemoration of the defeat of the French armies in the Kingdom of Egypt by the great bravery and ability of the victorious army of England." Reverse, an English ship, with the Pyramids and obelisk in the background. Proclamation of the Peace of Amiens at the Royal Exchange (print, 1802) 1794 Malta (after J. M. W. Turner) . . . . 1795 The Action off Pulo Aor, 15TH February, 1804 (picture by T. Butter- worth, in the India Office) . 1796 From 1793 onwards great efforts were made by France to destroy British commerce in the Eastern Seas by squadrons of heavy frigates reinforced occasion ally by ships of the line, and aided by numerous privateers. The Company itself fitted out ships to cruise for the protection of trade, and an animated warfare was carried on for several years. In the East India Office there is a print which represents the English fleet along with a strong contingent of the Company's ships sent to reinforce it. The ordinary vessels, however, by which the East India Company carried on the Eastern trade of Great Britain were of a size altogether exceptional in those days. Traders between America and Europe averaged under 300 tons, whUe a large proportion of the East Indiamen were of 1,200 tons burden, considerably larger than a first-class frigate and almost the size of a small ship of the line. No other trading ships carried so formidable an armament for defence against privateers, though quite inferior in fighting power to men- cii NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE of-war. The picture here reproduced represents the celebrated encounter which took place on 15th February, 1804, in the China Seas between a fleet of merchant vessels under Commodore Dance and a squadron of French men-of-war under Admiral Linois, and in which, as stated in an address after wards presented to Dance by the Society of East Indian Commanders, he and the other English commanders, officers, and men "under the favour of Divine Providence preserved these 16 S|il of the Hon. East India Company's ships, with 1 1 more belonging to the Merchants of India, from this formid able enemy, who had sailed from the Isles of France and Batavia for the avowed and almost for the sole purpose of intercepting them ; a noble incitement to provoke his valour and enterprise considered either with relation to the value of the booty — not less than six millions sterling — or to the incalculable loss which his success would have brought on the commercial and public interests of the British Empire." According to the account given by Capt. Mahan this body of trading ships ' ' by their firm bearing and compact order imposed upon a hostile squadron of respectable size commanded by an admiral of cautious temper though of proved courage, making him for a brief period the laughing-stock of both hemispheres and bringing down on his head a scathing letter from the Emperor The ships which thus ' bluffed ' Admiral Linois were none of them a match for a medium frigate." In a letter to the Secretary of the East India Company Captain Dance gives a singularly modest and interesting account of the manner in which his traders bore down upon and gave chase to the French squadron with its line-of-battle ships. He concludes with the words: "In justice to my brother commanders, I must state that every ship was clear and prepared for action ; and as I had com munication with almost all of them during the two days we were in presence of the enemy, I found them unanimous in the determined resolution to defend the valuable property intrusted to their charge to the last extremity, with a full conviction of the successful event of their exertions ; and this spirit was fully seconded by the gallant ardour of all our officers and ships' companies. " For this engagement Dance was rewarded by knighthood and a pension. The five French ships are seen on the right, formed in close line ; they are under full saU, and are discharging their broadsides at the Indiamen. These occupy the centre and left of the picture ; the rest of the English fleet are seen to leeward. The King of Brobdingnag and Gulliver (after Gillray) 1798 A satire on Napoleon's preparations for an invasion of England in 1804. Napoleon, as Gulliver, is "manoeuvring with his little boat in the cistern," intently watched by King George, Queen Chariotte, and their chUdren. Medal Commemorating the Oath at Boulogne . 1799 On l6th August the army assembled for the invasion of England swore fidelity to Napoleon, and he distributed to officers and men crosses of the Legion of Honour, from the casque of Bayard, which he sent for to grace the ceremony. This distribution of crosses is represented on the side of the medal here figured, with the date ; the other side has a plan of the positions occupied by the different corps on that day, with some of their names, and the legend, " Oalh of the army of England to the Emperor Napoleon." Medal designed to Commemorate Napoleon's Invasion of England . 1799 The die of this medal was prepared in Paris, with the intention of using it in London after the expected victory. It represents Hercules overthrowing a merman, and bears the legend, " Frappk h Londres "— " Struck in London," "1804." It was afterwards counterfeited in England; but the counterfeit betrays its origin by spelling " frappi" with only one e. KvTOGRAFFL OF Nelson (Royal Naval College, Greenwich) 1800 Part of Nelson's last letter to Lady Hamilton, written just before going into action at 'frafalgar, "Monday 21st " [October] "1805." The whole para graph runs thus : " May the great God whom 1 worship grant to my country and for the benefit of Europe in general a great and glorious victory, and may no misconduct in any one tarnish it, and may humanity after victory be the predominant feature in the British fleet. For myself individually I commit my life to Him who made me, and may His blessing light upon my endeavours for serving my country faithfully ; to Him I resign myself and the great cause which is intrusted to me to defend. Amen. Amen. Amen." NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS ciii PAGE Old Bristol Volunteer (Nicholls and Taylor, "Bristol") 1801 In 1797 Bristol raised a Volunteer regiment consisting of ten companies of infantry and two troops of light horse ; the Mayor was honorary colonel. While waiting to procure regular arms, they bought up all the mopsticks in the city and turned them into pikes with iron heads ; with these weapons they mounted guard over the French prisoners, when the soldiers who had been performing that duty were ordered away to meet the French invasion at Fishguard. Sarcophagus of Nelson (in crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral) -802 Of black marble ; originally designed by Torregiano for Cardinal Wolsey in his days of power, and left unused in his chapel at Windsor ever since his fall till the body of Nelson was placed in it in 1805, when the cushion and coronet were added. Akber, King of Delhi, and Sir Thomas Metcalfe (illumination in India Museum) 1804 Delhi, the last remnant of the Mogul Empire, passed into English hands in 1803. The Moguls, whose sovereignty had long been merely nominal, re ceived the honorary title of Kings of Delhi, with a grant of lands, to be managed by British officers, for their support. Akber was thus titular king of Delhi from 1806 to 1837. Sir T. Metcalfe, whose dress and features contrast so oddly with those of the Orientals around him, held various appointments in the Delhi territories under the Bengal Civil Service from 1813 onwards, and was Commissioner and Governor-General's agent at Delhi, 1835-53. The illumination, by an Indian artist, probably dates from about 1830. Calcutta Militia, 1802 (" Gentleman's Magazine") . 1805 Map of Europe after the Peace of Tilsit to face p. 1806 George Canning (bust in National Portrait Gallery) * .... 1807 Officer of the 40TH Regiment, 1792 (Smythies, "History of the Fortieth Regiment") 1808 Officer of the 15TH, or King's Hussars, 1807 (contemporary print) . 1808 French Eagle from the Yeninsv-la (United Service Museum) .... 1809 Napoleon distributed eagles to the Frencii regiments in the camp at Boulogne in 1804, when he took the title of Emperor. The new flags differed from the old Republican ones in having an eagle instead of a spike on the top of the staff. A small number of these were captured at various places — Salamanca, Vitoria, Waterloo, Maida, &c. — and some of them are in public institutions in London. Spanish Royalist Cockade ( United Service Museum) 1809 Inscribed in Spanish, " Long live Ferdinand and George III." Major-General Wellesley (engraved by 0. Lacour from a picture by Robert Home, 1806) . ... .... 1810 Silver Penny of Washington, I'jcji (Snowden, " Medals of Washington") . 1813 The mint of the United States was founded in 1792, and issued its first coins in 1793. As early as 1791, however, some experimental dies were pre pared, bearing on the obverse a head of Washington, and on the reverse the design shown here. Washington himself objected to the placing of his like ness on the coinage, and in the Bill for establishing the mint it was accordingly ordained that "an impression emblematic of Liberty" should be substituted for the portrait of the President. Liverpool Halfpenny, 1793 (from a cast in the British Museum) 1813 An early American coin, or token, used in trade with England ; on the edge is inscribed, " Payable in Anglesey, London, or Liverpool." The other side bears a head of Washington. English Sailor, 1807 (Atkinson, " Costumes of Great Britain") 1814 Midshipman, 1799 (after T. W. Rowlandson) . 1814 Procession and Chairing of Sir Francis Burdett on his election for Westminster, 1807 (contemporary print) . . 1816 Medal Commemorating Wellington's Entry into Madrid (South Ke7i- sington Museum) .... . ... . . 1819 NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Medal given to American Indian Chiefs (Tancred, " Record of Medals") 1822 During the American War of Independence the English Government caused medals to be struck as rewards for the Indian chiefs who adhered to the English side. This practice was renewed in the later wars with America. These medals aU bore on their obverse a bust of the King ; the reverse of the one here figured is interesting for its design, an Indian and an Englishman smoking the pipe of peace together—" Happy while united." The loop for suspension is formed by an eagle's wing and a calumet, or pipe of peace, placed crosswise. Hougomont (after j. M. W. Turner) 1825 The " Bellerophon " (after J. M. W. Turner) 1827 The ship which carried Napoleon to St. Helena. Chelsea Pensioners reading the Gazette of Waterloo (picture by Sir David Wilkie, 1822) .... 1828 The Hat-Finishers in Combination, 1820 (Place MSS., vol. i., MS. Add. 27799, British Museum) . . . 1829 A print at the head of a written paper of "Resolutions agreed to at a meeting of finishers held at the 'Prince and Princess,' Gravel Lane, on Thursday, the 25th of May, 1820." The assembled finishers fix the price for hats (ws. per dozen, or I2J. per dozen, according to "inches yeoman"), and for the finishing work ; they resolve that all workmen in shops where the prices thus fixed are not agreed to, shall "solicit their employers " and bring their answer to another meeting, to be held a week later ; that each shop shall send to the next and every succeeding meeting representatives in the proportion of one for every five men ; and "that Thos. Meyers be Fined ij. lOd. for the first, and 5^. yl. for the second offence of being disorderly at this meeting." The Bombardment of Algiers by Viscount Exmouth, 1816 (picture by George Chambers, at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich) 1830 Daniel O'Connell (miniature by B. Mulrenin, 1836, in the National Portrait Gallery) . 1833 'Kf.fea'L'&mttons (" Illustrated London News," lie^-^ . ... ... 1833 Town Hall, Birmingham (buUt 1834) 1834 A Manchester Operative (" Illustrated Lo-ndon News," 1842) 1836 Staffordshire Q.01AAERS (" Penny Magazine," li-^d) » . . . 1836 The "Rocket" 1837 Built by George Stephenson to compete in a trial of locomotive engines for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway at Rainhill, in October, 1829, where it gained the prize of ;^500 offered by the directors to the makers of the best locomotive complying with certain stated conditions. The greatest speed it attained in the trial was 29 miles an hour ; some years later it ran 4 miles in 4^ minutes ( = 53 miles an hour). It was used on the Liverpool and Man chester line till 1837, thence removed to the Midgeholme Railway, near Carlisle, ceased working in 1844, and was placed in the South Kensington Museum in 1862. It has been much altered at different times ; the view here given is from a photograph of a model at Crewe, made from drawings in the possession of the London and North Western Railway Company, showing the engine as it was originally built. Diameter of driving wheels, 4 ft. 8J in. ; diameter of cylinders. Sin;, with stroke of i64in. ; weight of engine when empty, 3 tons 5 cwt. ; in working order, 4 tons 5 cwt. Total working weight of engine and the four-wheeled truck which formed the tender, 7 45 tons. " Greater Britain " . . 1837 London and North Western compound express passenger engine, designed by Mr. F. W. Webb, and built at the Company's works, Crewe, 1893. Diameter of driving wheels, 7 feet; diameter and stroke of cylinders, low, 30 X 24, high, 15 X 24. Total weight of engine, 52 tons 2 cwt. ; total weight with tender, 77 tons 2 cwt. ; lengtii of engine and tender over buffers, 54 ft. oJ in.; heating surface, 1,505 sq. ft. 7 sq. in. The leading wheels are fitted with a patent radial axle-box to allow the engine to travel over curves with safety. NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS cv PAGE Medal Commemorating the Bombardment of Acre 1838 Given by the Sultan to the officers and crews of the English ships which took part in this exploit. The design represents a fortress on which flies the Turkish flag; above are six stars, below is a Turkish inscription with date. The other side has the Sultan's cypher surrounded by a wreath of laurel. Chhmese Sketch of an English Sailor (" Illustrated London News," 1857) 183& Issued during the war between China and England in 1839. The cloud issuing from the mouth of the figure is doubtless meant for tobacco-smoke. The original has at the side an inscription in Chinese which runs thus : "This creature appears in the Tsing-teen-heen district of Choo-chow-foo, of the capital of Che-keang. Several troops of men surrounding it, it then changed into blood and water. Soldiers should shoot it with fire-arms, for bows and arrows are unable to injure it. When it appears, the people and troops should be informed that whoever is able to destroy or ward it off wUl be most amply rewarded. If the monster find itself surrounded by soldiers, it turns and falls into the water. When it meets any one it forthwith eats him. It is traly a wonderful monster." Viscount Melbourne (picture by Sir T. Lawrence) . 1839 Great Seal of Queen Victoria 1840, 1841 Sir Robert Peel (picture by John Linnell, 1838, in National Portrait Gallery) . 1842 Lord John Russell (bust by John Francis, in National Portrait Gallery) . . 1843 Medal Commemorating Defence of Silistria (Tancred, "Record of Medals") 1844 Given by the Sultan to the English officers who took part in the defence of Silistria against the Russians in May — ^June, 1 854. The reverse, here figured, has a view of the fortress of SUistria, with the Turkish flag flying over it, and the river Danube in the foreground ; below is the date in Turkish, "Hegira 1271, A.D. 1854." Rupee of Bombay, 1675 1845 Obverse: " Money of Bombay, seventh year of the English rule. Peace and increase come from God." Reverse, the arms of the " Honourable East India Company of England." Bombay, ceded by Portugal to Charles II. in 1662 (see pp. 1345, 1329), was made over to the East India Company in 1668. These first coins were for use in Bombay alone ; in 1676 a mint was set up there to coin money current throughout all the Company's possessions. Rupee of Bhurtpoor . . . ........ 1845 A native coin struck just after the transfer of India from the Company to the Crown. It bears the Queen's head and an inscription in Persian, " In the year 1858, ofher Majesty the victorious lawful sovereign of England." Viscount Palmerston (from an engraving by Joseph Brown of a photograph by John Watkins) . . . . . ... 1846 Benjamin Disraeli^ Earl of Beaconsfield (bust by Sir E. J. Boehm) . . 1848 The Right Hon. William Ewart Gladstone (after an engraving by W. Biscombe Gardner, from a photograph by Samuel A. Walker) . ... 1849 The " Union Jack " . 1850 This group of flags is designed to show the gradual building up of the now famUiar emblem of Great Britain and Ireland. At the close of the twelfth century the English warriors in Holy Land were distinguished by the badge of a red cross, as the French crusaders were by a white one. By the end of the fourteenth century this red cross on a white ground, known as " S. George's cross," was the recognised badge of English nationality throughout Europe, and especially at sea. Under this flag (i) English ships saUed, traded, and fought from the days of Edward III. to those of Elizabeth. Scotland meanwhile had its own national flag, a white saltire on a blue ground (2) ; the saltire, or " S. Andrew's cross," being the emblem appropri ate to Scotland's patron saint, while the colours were almost certainly adopted in the fourteenth or early fifteenth century from France, at that time Scotland's close ally. In AprU 1606 James I. ordered that "henceforth all our subjects of this isle and kingdom of Great Britain and the members thereof shall bear evi NOTES ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE in their maintop the red cross commonly called S. George's cross, and the white cross commonly called S. Andrew's cross, joined together according to a form made by our heralds and sent by us to our Admiral, to be published to our said subjects." Thus was formed the first union flag (3). After the union of Ireland with Great Britain, there was added a red saltire on a white ground (4), commonly called " S. Patrick's cross." A cross, however, is not the proper emblem of S. Patrick ; the device in this case is really the letter X, part of the sacred monogram of the Labarum, and while its form may thus have been handed down from the earliest days of Irish Christianity, its colours are those of England, introduced by the Anglo-Norman settlers of the Pale. At the beginning ofthe eighteenth century, however, this so-called "cross of S. Patrick " was recognised as the Irish flag, and as such it was, in 1801, in corporated in the flag of Great ' Britain and Ireland (5), now known as the "Union Jack." The word "Jack," used in this sense, is sometimes said to be derived from "Jacobus," the Latin form of James, and supposed to allude to the union of England and Scotland under James I. It seems, however, to have had anotherand a far earlier origin. In 1386 Richard II. , when about to invade Scotland, ordered that " everi man of what estate, condicion or nacion thei be of, so that he be one of oure partie, here a signe of the armes of S. George, large, both before and behynde, upon parell that yff he be slayne or wounded to deth, he that hath so doon to hym shall not be putte to deth for defaulte of the crosse he lacketh " : — i.e., the soldiers of England were to make themselves known, like their forefathers in Holy Land, by the cross of S. George on their tunics or surcoats — an order which was renewed under Henry VI. ; and as early as 1375 these wadded, quilted, or leathern tunics worn by the common soldiers were knovi n zs Jacks. In the sixteenth century the word had another application. In 1575 there is an account " for making 1,500 Jackes, plated before, for furniture of the Queene's ma"''^ shippes." The details of the account show that these were shield-like defences, made of leather stretched over frames, stuffed inside, and strengthened externally (as the men's jacks also were sometimes) with iron plates. A whole row of them, looking like shields, and all marked with the cross of S. George, is shown on each quarterdeck along the sides of the king's ship in the picture at Windsor representing _ Henry VIII.'s embarkation for France in 1520, and also in Anthony's picture of the Harry-GrSce-a-Dieu, 15 12, reproduced in p. 612 above. The two kinds of "jacks "—those of the ships and those of the men- are in fact illustrated side by side in pp. 612 and 613. It is easy to see how the name would get transferred from soldier's tunic and ship's furniture to the cross of S. George, which was the distinguishing badge of both, and thence to the flag on which that cross was emblazoned more conspicuously still. M.AF OF "London (Lof tie, " History of London") Frontispiece to Vol. IV. title-page of musick's handmaide, 1663. THE REVOLUTION Section V.— Shaftesbury, 1679— 1682 [Authorities. — As before. We may add for this period Earl Russell's Life of his ancestor, William, Lord RusseU.] The new Parliament was elected in a tumult of national Sir „, , 'William excitement. The members were for the most part Churchmen Temple and country gentlemen, but they shared the alarm of the country, and even before their assembly in IVIarch their temper had told on the King's policy. James was sent to Brussels. Charles began to disband the army and promised that Danby should soon withdraw from office. In his speech from the throne he asked for supplies to maintain the Protestant attitude of his Government in foreign affairs. But it was impossible to avert Danby's fall. The Commons insisted on carrying his impeachment to the bar of the Lords. It was necessary to dismiss him from his post of The New Treasurer and to construct a new ministry. Shaftesbury became President of the Council. The chiefs of the Country party. Lord Russell and Lord Cavendish, took their seats at the board with Lords Holies and Roberts, the older representatives of the Presby- VOL. IV— I Ministry I4I2 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec v terian party which had merged in the general Opposition. Savile, Shaftes- Lord Halifax, as yet known only as a keen and ingenious speaker, 1679 entered the ministry in the train of Shaftesbury, with whom he 1682 was connected ; Lord Sunderland was admitted to the Council ; while Lord Essex and Lord Capel, two of the most popular among the Country leaders, went to the Treasury. The recall of Sir William Temple, the negotiator of the Triple Alliance, from his embassy at the Hague to fill the post of Secretary of State, promised a foreign policy which would again place England high among the European powers. Temple returned with a plan of administration which, fruitless as it directly proved, is of great importance as marking the silent change which was passing over the Constitution. Like many men of his time, he was equally alarmed at the power both of the Crown and of the Parliament. In moments of national excitement the power of the Houses seemed irresistible. They had overthrown Clarendon. They had overthrown Clifford and the Cabal. They had just overthrown Danby. But though they were strong enough in the end to punish ill government, they showed no power of securing good government or of permanently influencing the policy of the Crown. For nineteen years, with a Parliament always sitting, Charles as far as foreign policy went had it pretty much his own way. He had made war against the will of the nation and he had refused to make war when the nation demanded it. While every Englishman hated France, he had made England a mere dependency of the French King. The remedy for this state of things, as it was afterwards found, was a very simple one. By a change which we shall have to trace, the Ministry has now become a Committee of State-officers, named by the majority of the House of Commons from amongst the more prominent of its representatives in either House, whose object in accepting office is to do the will of that majority. So long as the majority of the House of Commons itself represents the more powerful current of public opinion it is clear that such an arrangement makes government an accurate reflection of the national will. But obvious as such a plan may seem to us, it had as yet occurred to no English statesman. Even to Temple the one remedy seemed to lie in the restoration of the Royal Council to its older powers. This body, composed as it IX THE REVOLUTION 1413 was of the great officers of the Court, the royal Treasurer and sec. v Secretaries, and a few nobles specially summoned to it by the Shaftes- sovereign, formed up to the close of Elizabeth's reign a sort of 1679 TO deliberative assembly to which the graver matters of public 1682 Temple and his Council THE duchess OF LAUDERDALE S BOUDOIR, HAM HOUSE. administration were commonly submitted by the Crown. A practice, however, of previously submitting such measures to a smaller body of the more important councillors must always have existed ; and under James this secret committee, which was then I4I4 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec V Shaftes bury 1679 TO 1682 known as the Cabala or Cabal, began almost wholly to supersede the Council itself. In the large and balanced Council which was formed after the Restoration all real power rested with the " Cabala " of Clarendon, Southampton, Ormond, Monk, and the two Secretaries ; and on Clarendpn's fall these were succeeded by Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley, and Lauderdale. By a mere coincidence the initials of the latter names formed the word " Cabal," which has ever since retained the sinister meaning their unpopularity gave to it. The effect of these smaller committees had undoubtedly been to remove the check which the larger THE "cabal" room, HAM HOUSE. numbers and the more popular composition of the Royal Council laid upon the Crown. The unscrupulous projects which made the Cabal of Clifford and his fellows a by-word among Englishmen could never have been laid before a' Council of great peers and hereditary officers of State. To Temple therefore the organization of the Council seemed to furnish a check on mere personal government which Parliament was unable to supply. For this purpose the Cabala, or Cabinet, as it was now becoming the fashion to term the confidential committee of the Council, was abolished. The Council itself was restricted to thirty members IX THE REVOLUTION 1415 Sec V Shaftes bury 1679 TO 1682 and their joint income was not to fall below ;^300,ooo, a sum Httle less than what was estimated as the income of the whole House of Commons. A body of great nobles and proprietors, not too numerous for secret deliberation, and wealthy enough to counter balance either the Commons or the Crown, would form. Temple hoped, a barrier against the violence and aggression of the one power, and a check on the mere despotism of the other. The new Council and the new ministry gave fair hope of a wise The Ex- ... T-, , ,.^ ¦ . .,, elusion and patriotic government. But the difficulties were still great. BiU THE LONG GALLERY HAM HOUSE. The nation was frenzied with suspicion and panic. The elections to the Parliament had taken place amidst a whirl of excitement which left no place for candidates of the Court. The appointment of the new ministry, indeed, was welcomed with a general burst of joy. But the question of the Succession , threw all others into the ¦shade. At the bottom of the national panic lay the dread of a Catholic King, a dread which the after history of James fully justified. Shaftesbury was earnest for the exclusion of James, but as yet the majority of the Council shrank from the step, and i4i6 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec. V supported a plan which Charles brought forward for preserving the Shaftes- rights of the Duko of York while restraining his powers as BURY ° . . 1679 sovereign. By this project the presentation to Church livings was 1682 to be taken out of his hands on his accession. The last Parliament TheBillof of the preceding reign was to continue to sit ; and the appointment Securities ^j- ^jj Councillors, Judges, Lord-Lieutenants, and officers in the fleet, was vested in the two Houses so long as a Catholic sovereign was on the throne. The extent of these provisions showed the pressure which Charles felt, but Shaftesbury was undoubtedly right in setting the plan aside as at once insufficient and impracti cable. He continued to advocate the Exclusion in the royal Council ; and a bill for depriving James of his right to the Crown, and for devolving it on the next Protestant in the line of succession, was introduced into the Commons by his adherents, and passed the House by a large majority. It was known that Charles would use his influence with the Peers for its rejection, and the Earl therefore fell back on the tactics of Pym. A bold Remonstrance was pre pared in the Commons. The City of London was ready with an address to the two Houses in favour of the bill. All Charles could do was to gain time by the prorogation of the Parliament, and by -its dissolution in May. Men- But delay would have been useless had the Country party mouth remained at one. The temper of the nation and of the House of Commons was so hotly pronounced in favour of the exclusion of the Duke, that union among the ministers must in the end have secured it and spared England the necessity for the Revolution of 1688. The wiser leaders ofthe Country party, indeed, were already leaning to the very change which that Revolution brought about. If James were passed over, his daughter Mary, the wife of the Prince of Orange, stood next in the order of succession : and the plan of Temple, Essex, and Halifax after the failure of their bill of Securities, was to bring the Prince over to England during the pro rogation, to introduce him into the Council, and to pave his way to the throne. Unhappily Shaftesbury was contemplating a very different course. He distrusted the Prince of Orange as a mere adherent of the royal house, and as opposed to any weakening of the royal power or invasion of the royal prerogative. His motive for setting aside William's claims is probably to be found in the IX THE REVOLUTION maxim ascribed to him, that " a bad title makes a good king." Whatever were his motives, however, he had resolved to set aside the claims of James and his children, as well as William's own 1417 Sec V Shaftes bury 1679 TO 1682 JAMES, DUI^E OF MONMOUTH. Picture hy Sir Peter Lety at Dalkeith Palace. claim, and to place the Duke of Monmouth on the throne. Monmouth was reputed to be the eldest of the King's bastards, a weak and worthless profligate in temper, but popular through his I4i<: HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec V .Shaftes bury 1679 TO 1682 personal beauty and his reputation for bravery. The tale was set about of a secret marriage between the King and his mother ; Shaftesbury induced Charles to put the Duke at the head of the troops sent to repress a rising of the Covenanters in the west of Scotland, and on his return pressed the King to give him the com- f. --^^%% ^'m^^ML BANNER USED BY THE COVENANTERS AT DRUMCLOG AND BOTHWELL BRIG, 1679. Napier, ^^ Memoirs of Dundee." Shaftes bury's Second dismissal mand of the Guards, which would have put the only military force possessed by the Crown in Monmouth's hands. Sunderland, Halifax, and Essex, however, were not only steadily opposed to Shaftesbury's project, but saw themselves marked out for ruin in the event of Shaftesbury's success. They had advised the dissolution of the last Parliament ; and the Earl's anger had vented itself in threats that the advisers of the dissolution should pay for it with their heads. The danger came home to them when a sudden illness of the King and the absence of James made Monmouth's accession a possible contingency. The three ministers at once induced Charles to recall the Duke of York ; and though Jie withdrew to Scotland on the King's recovery, Charles deprived JX THE REVOLUTION 1419 Monmouth of his charge as Captain-General of the Forces and Sec v ordered him like James to leave the realm. Left alone in his cause Shaftes bury 1679 TO 1682 SAMUEL PEPyS. Imprisoned in the Tower, 1679, during the panic of the Popish Plot. Picture hy John Hayls, in the National Portrait Galle-ry. by the opposition of his colleagues, Shaftesbury threw himself more and more on the support of the Plot. The prosecution of its £ UcUif- t FRANCIS NORTH, LORD GUILFORD, KEEPER OF THE GREAT SEAL, 1680. I- rom an engraving by G. Vertue after David Loggan. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1421 victims was pushed recklessly on. Three Catholics were hanged in London. Eight priests were put to death in the country. Pur suivants and informers spread terror through every Catholic household. He counted on the reassembling of the Parliament to bring all this terror to bear upon the King. But Charles had already marked the breach which the Earl's policy had made in the ranks of the Country party. He saw that Shaftesbury was unsupported by any of his colleagues save Russell. To Temple, Essex, or Halifax it seemed possible to bring about the succession of Mary without any violent revolution ; but to set aside not only the right of James but the right of his Protestant children, and even of the Prince of Orange, was to ensure a civil war. It was with their full support therefore that Charles deprived Shaftesbury of his post of Lord President of the Council. The dismissal was the signal for a struggle to whose danger Charles was far from blinding himself What had saved him till now was his cynical courage. In the midst of the terror and panic of the Plot men " wondered to see him quite cheerful amidst such an intricacy of troubles," says the courtly Reresby, " but it was not in his nature to think or perplex himself much about anything." Even in the heat of the tumult which followed on Shaftesbury's dismissal, Charles was seen fishing and sauntering as usual in Windsor Park. But closer observers than Reresby saw beneath this veil of indolent unconcern a consciousness of new danger. " From this time," says Burnet, " his temper was observed to change very visibly." He became in fact " sullen and thoughtful ; he saw that he had to do with a strange sort of people, that could neither be managed nor fright ened." But he faced the danger with his old unscrupulous cool ness. He reopened secret negotiations with France. Lewis was as alarmed as Charles himself at the warlike temper of the nation, and as anxious to prevent the assembly of a Parliament ; but the terms on which he offered a subsidy were too humiliating even for the King's acceptance. The failure forced him to summon a new Parliament ; and the panic, which Shaftesbury was busily feeding with new tales of massacre and invasion, returned members even more violent than the members of the House he had just dismissed. A host of petitions called on the King to suffer Parliament to meet at the opening of 1680. Even the Council shrank from the King's Sec. V Shaftes bury 1679 TO 1682 Oct. 1679 Shaftes bury's struggle 1422 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec V Shaftes bury1679 TO 1682 Peti tioners and Ab horrers The re-action proposal to prorogue its assembly to November, 1680, but Charles persisted. Alone as he stood, he was firm in his resolve to gain time, for time, as he saw, was working in his favour. The tide of public sympathy was beginning to turn. The perjury of Oates proved too much at last for thq credulity of juries ; and the acquit tal of four of his victims was a sign that the panic was beginning to ebb. A far stronger proof of this was seen in the immense efforts which Shaftesbury made to maintain it. Fresh informers were brought forward to swear to a plot for the assassination of the Earl himself, and to the share of the Duke of York in the con spiracies of his fellow-religionists. A paper found in a meal-tub was produced as evidence of the new danger. Gigantic torch-light processions paraded the streets of London, and the effigy of the Pope was burnt amidst the wild outcry of a vast multitude. Acts of yet greater daring showed the lengths to which Shaftesbury was ready to go. He had grown up amidst the tumults of civil war, and, greyheaded as he was, the fire and vehemence of his early days seemed to wake again in the singular recklessness with which he drove on the nation to a struggle in arms. Early in 1680 he formed a committee for promoting agitation throughout the country ; and the petitions which it drew up for the assembly of the Parliament were sent to every town and grand jury, and sent back again with thousands of signatures. Monmouth, in spite of the King's orders, returned at Shaftesbury's call to London ; and a daring pamphlet pointed him out as the nation's leader in the coming struggle " against Popery and tyranny." So great was the alarm of the Council that the garrison in every fortress was held in readiness for instant war. But the danger was really less than it seemed. The tide of opinion had fairly turned. Acquittal followed acquittal. A reaction of horror and remorse at the cruelty which had hurried victim after victim to the gallows succeeded to the pitiless frenzy which Shaftesbury had fanned into a flame. Anxious as the nation was for a Protestant sovereign, its sense of justice revolted against the wrong threatened to James's Protestant children ; and every gentleman in the realm felt insulted at the project of setting Mary aside to put the crown of England on the head of a bastard. The memory too of the Civil War IX THE REVOLUTION 1423 was still fresh and keen, and the rumour of an outbreak of revolt rallied men more and more round the King. The host of petitions which Shaftesbury procured from the counties was answered by a counter host of addresses from thousands who declared their " abhorrence " of the plans against the Crown. The country was divided into two great factions of " petitioners '' and " abhorrers," the germs of the two great parties of " Whigs " and " Tories " which have played so prominent a part in our political history from the time of the Exclusion Bill. Charles at once took advantage of this turn of affairs. He recalled the Duke of York to the Court. He received the resignations of Russell Sec V Shaftest BURY 1679 TO 1682 MEDAL OF THE DUCHESS OF PORTSMOUTH, 1673. and Cavendish, as well as of the Earl of Essex, who had at last gone over to Shaftesbury's projects "with all his heart." Shaftesbury met defiance with defiance. Followed by a crowd of his adherents he attended before the Grand Jury of Middlesex, to indict the Duke of York as a Catholic recusant, an'd the King's -mistress, the Duchess of Portsmouth, as a national nuisance, while Monmouth made a progress through the country, and gained favour everywhere by his winning demeanour. Above all, Shaftesbury relied on the temper of the Commons, elected as they had been in the very heat of the panic and irritated by the long delay in calling them together. The first act of the House on meeting in 1424 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec V October was to vote that their care should be " to suppress Popery Shaftes- and prevent a Popish successor." Rumours of a Catholic plot in Ireland were hardly needed to push the Exclusion Bill through the Commons without a division. So resolute was the temper of BURY1679 TO 1682 GEORGE SAVILE, VISCOUNT HALIFAX. From an engraving by Houhraken of a picture in the possession of Sir George Savile. the Lower House that even Temple and Essex now gave their adhesion to it as a necessity, and Sunderland himself wavered towards accepting it. Halifax, whose ability and eloquence had now brought him fairly to the front, opposed it resolutely IX THE REVOLUTION 1425 and successfully in the Lords ; but Halifax was only the mouthpiece of William. " My Lord Halifax is entirely in the interest of the Prince of Orange," the French ambassador, Barillon, wrote to his master, " and what he seems to be doing for the Duke of York is really in order to make an opening for a compromise by which the Prince of Orange may benefit." The Exclusion Bill once rejected, Halifax followed up the blow by bringing forward a plan of Protestant securities, which would have taken from James on his accession the right of veto on any bill passed by the two Houses, theright of negotiating with foreign states, or of appoint ing either civil or military officers save with the consent of Parliament. This plan also was no doubt prompted by the Prince of Orange ; and the States of Holland supported it by pressing Charles to come to an accommodation with his subjects which would enable them to check the perpetual aggressions which France was making on her neighbours. But if the Lords would have no Exclusion Bill the Commons with as good reason would have no Securities Bill. They felt — as one of the members for London fairly put it — that such securities would break down at the very moment they were needed. A Catholic king, should he ever come to the throne, would have other forces besides those in England to back him. "The Duke rules over Scotland; the Irish and the English Papists will follow him ; he will be obeyed by the officials of high and low rank whom the King has appointed ; he will be just such a king as he thinks good." Shaftesbury however was far from resting in a merely negative position. He made a despairing effort to do the work of exclusion by a Bill of Divorce, which would have enabled Charles to put away his Queen on the ground of barrenness, and by a fresh marriage to give a Protestant heir to the throne. The Earl was perhaps already sensible ofa change in public feeling, and this he resolved to check and turn by a great public impeachment which would revive and establish the general belief in the Plot. Lord Stafford, who from his age and rank was looked on as the leader ofthe Catholic party, had lain a prisoner in the Tower since the first outburst of popular frenzy. He was now solemnly impeached; and his trial in December 1680 mustered the whole force of informers to prove the truth of a Catholic conspiracy Sec. V Shaftes bury " 1679 TO 1682 Willia-mand the Exclusion 1680 The Oxford Parlia ment Tried of Lord Stafford 1426 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec V Shaftes bury 1679 TO 1682 against the King and the realm. The evidence was worthless ; but the trial revived, as Shaftesbury had hoped, much of the old panic, and the condemnation of the prisoner by a majority of his peers was followed by his death on the scaffold. The blow produced its effect on all but Charles. Sunderland again pressed the King to give way. But deserted as he was by his ministers, and even by his mistress, for the Duchess of Portsmouth had been cowed into supporting the exclusion by the threats of Shaftesbury, Charles was determined to resist. On the coupling of a grant PARADE OF MILITIA AT ABERGV>?ILI. T. Dineley, "Progress of the Duke of Beaufort through IVales," 1684. of supplies with demands for a voice in the appointment of officers of the royal garrisons he prorogued the Parliament. The truth was that he was again planning an alliance with France. With characteristic subtlety, however, he dissolved the existing 1681 Parliament, and called a new one to meet in March. The act was a mere blind. The King's aim was to frighten the country into reaction by the dread of civil strife ; and his summons of the Parliament to Oxford was an appeal to the country against the disloyalty of the capital, and an adroit means of reviving the IX THE REVOLUTION 1427 memories of the Civil War. With the same end he ordered his secv guards to accompany him, on the pretext of anticipated disorder ; ^"g'^jf™^" and Shaftesbury, himself terrified at the projects of the Court, 1679 TO aided the King's designs by appearing with his followers in arms 1682 on the plea of self-protection. Monmouth renewed his progresses through the country. Riots broke out in London. Revolt seemed at hand, and Charles hastened to conclude his secret negotiations Charles 'tztV'ftS to with France. He verbally pledged himself to a policy of peace, in France other words to withdrawal from any share in the Grand Alliance which William was building up, while Lewis promised a smaU subsidy which with the natural growth of the royal revenue sufficed to render Charles, if he remained at peace, independent of Parliamentary aids. The violence of the new Parliament played yet more effectually into the King's hands. The members of the House of Commons were the same as those who had been returned to the Parliaments he had just dissolved, and their temper was naturally embittered by the two dissolutions. Their rejection of a new Limitation Bill brought forward by Halifax, which while granting James the title of King would have vested the actual functions of government in the Prince and Princess of Orange, alienated the more moderate and sensible of the Country party. The attempt of the Lower House to revive the panic by im peaching an informer named Fitzharris before the. House of Lords, in defiance of the constitutional rule which entitled him as a commoner to a trial by his peers in the course of common law, did still more to throw public opinion on the side of the Crown. Shaftesbury's course, in fact, went wholly on a belief that the penury of the Treasury left Charles at his mercy, and that a refusal of supplies must wring from the King his assent to the Exclusion. But the gold of France had freed the King from his thraldom. He had used the Parliament simply to exhibit himself as a sovereign whose patience and conciliatory temper was rewarded with insult and violence ; and now that his end was accomplished, he no sooner saw the Exclusion Bill re-introduced, than he suddenly dissolved the Houses after a month's sitting, and appealed in a royal declara tion to the justice of the nation at large. The appeal was met by an almost universal burst of loyalty. Shaftes- bury's The Church rallied to the King ; his declaration was read from Death Vol. IV— 2 1428 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec V Shaftes bury 1679 TO 1682 every pulpit ; and the Universities solemnly decided that " no religion, no law, no fault, no forfeiture," could avail to bar the sacred right of hereditary succession. The arrest of Shaftesbury on a charge of suborning false witnesses to the Plot marked the new strength of the Crown. J^ondon indeed was still true to him ; the Middlesex Grand Jury ignored the bill of his indictment ; and his discharge from the Tower was welcomed in every street with bonfires and ringing of bells. But a fresh impulse was given to the loyal enthusiasm of the country at large by the publication of a plan said to have been found among his papers, the plan of a secret association for the furtherance of the Exclusion, whose members bound themselves to obey the orders of Parliament even after its MEDAL STRUCK TO COMMEMORATE SHAFTESBURY'S ACQUITTAL, I681. prorogation or dissolution by the Crown. So general was the reaction that Halifax advised the calling of a new Parliament in the belief that it would be a loyal one. William of Orange too visited England to take advantage of the turn of affairs to pin Charles to the policy of the Alliance ; but the King met both counsels with evasion. He pushed boldly on in his new course. He confirmed the loyalty of the Church by a renewed persecution of the Nonconformists, which drove Penn from England and thus brought about the settlement of Pennsylvania as a refuge for his fellow Quakers. He was soon strong enough to call back James to Court. Monmouth, who had resumed his progresses through the country as a means of checking the tide of reaction, was arrested. THE REVOLUTION 1429 The friendship of a Tory mayor secured the nomination of Tory sec v sheriffs in London, and the juries they packed left the life of every Shaftes bury 1679 TO 1682 The Jj ord- Mayor sr Catirt Of AlderYtveiV' Frontispiece to De Laune. "Present State of London." i68t. Exclusionist at the mercy of the Crown. Shaftesbury, alive to the new danger, plunged madly into conspiracies with a handful of 1430 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Secv , adventurers as desperate as himself, hid himself in the City, where ^"buky^ he boasted that ten thousand " brisk boys " were ready to appear at 1679 his call, and urged his friends to rise in arms. But their delays 1682 drove him to flight ; and two months after his arrival in Holland, Jan. 1683 the soul of the great leader, great from his immense energy and the wonderful versatility of his genius, but whose genius and energy had ended in wrecking for the time the fortunes of English freedom, and in associating the noblest of causes with the vilest of crimes, found its first quiet in death. FROST FAIR ON THAMES, 1683, Broadside in British Museum. IX THE REVOLUTION 1431 Sec VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 LEAD AND COAL MINES AT MOSTYN, 1684. T. Dineley, ^'Progress Qf ihe Duke of Beaufort throttgh Wales." 1684. Section VI — The Second Stuart Tyranny, 1682— 1688 [Authorities. — To those given before we may add Welwood's " Memoirs," Luttrell's " Diary," and above all Lord Macaulay's " History of England."] The flight of Shaftesbury proclaimed the triumph of the King. The His marvellous sagacity had told him when the struggle was over xriunmh and further resistance useless. But the country leaders, who had delayed to answer the Earl's call, still believed opposition possible ; and Monmouth, with Lord Essex, Lord Howard of Ettrick, Lord Russell, Hampden, and Algernon Sidney held meetings with the view of founding an "association whose agitation should force on the King the assembly of a Parliament. The more desperate spirits who had clustered round him as he lay hidden in the City took refuge in plots of assassination, and in a plan for murdering Charles 1432 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO and his brother as they passed the Rye-house on their road from London to Newmarket. Both projects were betrayed, and though they were wholly distinct from one another the cruel ingenuity of Rye-house Plot WILLIAM, LORD RUSSELL. From an engraving by Pieter van der Banck. after Sir Godfrey Kneller. the Crown lawyers blended them into one. Lord Essex saved himself from a traitor's death by suicide in the Tower. Lord Russell, convicted on a charge of sharing in the Rye-house plot, was beheaded in Lincoln's Inn Fields. The same fate awaited i.v THE REVOLUTION 1433 Algernon Sidney. Monmouth fled in terror over sea, and his sec. vi flight was followed by a series of prosecutions for sedition directed the •' '- Second against his followers. In 1683 the Constitutional opposition which ^^^^^^'^ had held Charles so long in check lay crushed at his feet. A 1682 TO weaker man might easily have been led into a wild tyranny by the 1688 mad outburst of loyalty which greeted his triumph. On the very day when the crowd around Russell's scaffold were dipping their handkerchiefs in his blood, as in the blood of a martyr, the Univer sity of Oxford solemnly declared that the doctrine of passive obedience, even to the worst of rulers, was a part of religion. But Charles saw that immense obstacles still lay in the road of a mere tyranny. The great Tory party which had rallied to his succour against the Exclusionists were still steady for parliamentary and legal government. The Church was as powerful as ever, and the mention of a renewal of the Indulgence to Nonconformists had to be withdrawn before the opposition of the bishops. He was careful therefore during the few years which remained to him to avoid the appearance of any open violation of public law. He suspended no statute. He imposed no tax by royal authority. Nothing indeed shows more completely how great a work the Long Parliament had done than a survey of the reign of Charles the Second. " The King," Hallam says very truly, " was restored to nothing but what the law had preserved to him." No attempt was made to restore the abuses which the patriots of 1641 had .swept away. Parliament was continually summoned. In spite of its frequent refusal of supplies, no attempt was ever made to raise money by unconstitu tional means. The few illegal proclamations issued under Clarendon ceased with his fall. No effort was made to revive the Star Chamber and the Court of High Commission; and if judges were servile and juries sometimes packed, there was no open interfer ence with the course ofjustice. In two remarkable points freedom had made an advance even on 1641. From the moment when Freedom printing began to tell on public opinion, it had been gagged by a Press system of licences. The regulations framed under Henry the Eighth subjected the press to the control of the Star Chamber, and the Martin Marprelate libels brought about a yet more stringent control under Elizabeth. Even the Long Parliament laid a heavy hand on the press, and the great remonstrance of 1434 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 Milton in his " Areopagitica" fell dead on the ears of his Puritan associates. But the statute for the regulation of printing which MONUMENT OF JOHN MARTIN, PRINTER, 1680. In Crypt of S. Paul's Cathedral. was passed immediately after the Restoration expired finally in 1679, and the temper of the Parliament at once put an end to any attempt at re-establishing the censorship. To the new freedom of IX THE REVOLUTION 1435 the press the Habeas Corpus Act added a new security for the Sec vi personal freedom of every Englishman. Against arbitrary im- sI"oId prisonment provision had been made in the earliest ages by a ,^y^^^^y famous clause in the Great Charter. No free man could be held in 1682 TO prison save on charge or conviction of crime or for debt, and every 1688 prisoner on a criminal charge could demand as a right from the Habeas Court of King's Bench the issue of a writ of " habeas corpus," which "au bound his gaoler to produce both the prisoner and the warrant on which he was imprisoned, that the court might judge whether he was imprisoned according to law. In cases however of im prisonment on a warrant of the royal Council it had been sometimes held by judges that the writ could not be issued, and under Clarendon's administration instances had in this way occurred of imprisonment without legal remedy. But his fall was quickly followed by the introduction of a bill to secure this right of the subject, and after a long struggle the Act which is known as the Habeas Corpus Act passed finally iri 1679. By this great statute the old practice of the law was freed from all difficulties and exceptions. Every prisoner committed for any crime save treason or felony was declared entitled to his writ even in the vacations of the courts, and heavy penalties were enforced on judges or gaolers who refused him this right. Every person committed for felony or treason was entitled to be released on bail, unless indicted at the next session of gaol delivery after his commitment, and to be discharged if not indicted at the sessions which followed. It was forbidden under the heaviest penalties to send a prisoner into any places or fortresses beyond the seas. Galling to the Crown as the freedom of the press and the Death of Charles Habeas Corpus Act were soon found to be, Charles made no attempt to curtail the one or to infringe the other. But while cautious to avoid rousing popular resistance, he moved coolly and resolutely forward on the path of despotism. It was in vain that Halifax pressed for energetic resistance to the aggressions of France, for the recall of Monmouth, or for the calling of a fresh Parliament. Like every other English statesman he found he had been duped, and that now his work was done he was suffered to remain in office but left without any influence in the government. Hyde, who was created Earl of Rochester, still remained at the head "THE ABOLITION OF MONARCHY." Nalson, "Collection of Affaiis of State." 1683. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1437 of the Treasury ; but Charles soon gave more of his confidence to the supple and acute Sunderland. Parliament, in defiance of the Triennial Act, which after having been repealed had been re-enacted but without the safeguards of the original act, remained unassembled during the remainder of the King's reign. His secret alliance with France furnished Charles with the funds he immediate ly required, and the rapid growth of the customs through the increase of English commerce promised to give him a revenue which, if peace were preserved, would save him from the need of a fresh appeal to the Commons. All opposition was at an end. The strength of the Country party had been broken by its own dissensions over the Exclusion Bill, and by the flight or death of its more prominent leaders. Whatever strength it retained lay chiefly in the towns, and these were now attacked by writs of "quo warranto," which called on them to show cause why their charters should not be declared forfeited on the ground of abuse of their privileges. A few verdicts on the side of the Crown brought about a general surrender of municipal liberties ; and the grant of fresh charters, in which all but ultra-loyalists were carefully excluded from their corporations, placed the representation of the boroughs in the hands INSIGNIA OF THE CORPORATION OF COVENTRY. Seventeenth Century. Art Journal. Sec VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 New Town Charters 1438 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap, ix Sec. VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 of the Crown. Against active discontent Charles had long been quietly providing by the gradual increase of his Guards. The withdrawal of its garrison from Tangier enabled him to raise their force to nine thousand well-equipped soldiers, and to supplement MACE, MACE, NEWTOWN SOUTHAMPTON. (iSLE OF WIGHT). Temp. Henry VIL Temp. Henry VII. Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries. MACES, STAMFORD. Temp. Charles II. A ri Journal. this force, the nucleus of our present standing armj', by a reserve of six regiments, which were maintained till they should be needed at home at the service of the United Provinces. But great as the danger really was, it lay not so much in isolated acts of tyranny as in the character and purpose of Charles himself His death at the 'St.' V c^^^ 'yu3-^.>r. <^r yMf y^ /62^-i^ y- M(^j4''^/t- X. ^T^M^i^ ^ £a^I^^ ROYAL MANDATE TO ERASE THE NAME OF LOCKE FROM THE STUDENTS OF, CHRIST CHURCH, OXFORD, 1 684. ENTHRONKMENT OF JAMES IT. AND HIS QUEEN. Sandford, ^'"Coronation of fames TT.,'* 1687. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1441 very moment of his triumph saved English freedom. He had regained his old popularity, and at the news of his sickness crowds thronged the churches, praying that God would raise him up again to be a father to his people. But the one anxiety of the King was to die reconciled to the Catholic Church. His chamber wa= cleared and a priest named Huddleston, who had saved his life after the battle of Worcester, received his confession and adminis tered the last sacraments. Not a word of this ceremony was whispered when the nobles and bishops were recalled into the royal presence. All the children of his mistresses save Monmouth were gathered round the bed. Charles " blessed all his children one by one, pulling them on to his bed ; and then the bishops moved him, as he was the Lord's anointed and the father of his country, to bless them also and all that were there present, and in them the general body of his subjects. Whereupon, the room being full, all fell down upon their knees, and he raised himself in Jiis bed and very solemnly blessed them all." The strange comedy was at last over. Charles died as he had lived : brave, witty, cynical, even in the presence of death. Tortured as he was with pain, he begged the bystanders to forgive him for being so un conscionable a time in dying. One mistress, the Duchess of Portsmouth, hung weeping over his bed. His last thought was of another mistress, Nell Gwynn. " Do not," he whispered to his successor ere he sank into a fatal stupor, " do not let poor Nelly starve ! " The first words of James on his accession in February 1685, his promise " to preserve the Government both in Church and State as it is now by law established," were welcomed by the whole country with enthusiasm. > All the suspicions of a Catholic sovereign seemed to have disappeared. " We have the word of a King ! " ran the general cry, " and of a King who was never worse than his word." The conviction of his brother's faithlessness stood James in good stead. He was looked Upon as narrow, impetuous, stubborn, and despotic in heart, but even his enemies did not accuse him of being false. Above all he was believed to be keenly alive to the honour of his country, and resolute to free it from foreign dependence. It was necessary to summon a Parliament, for the royal revenue ceased vvith the death of Charles ; but the Sec VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 1685 James the Second THE CHALLENGE AT THE CORONATION OF JAMES IT. Sandford^ " Coronation of James II. " 1687. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1443 elections, swayed at once by the tide of loyalty and by the com mand of the boroughs which the surrender of their charters had Sec VI The Sec6nd Stuart Tyranny 1682 to 1688 JAMES II. IUumination on Patent in Pnblic Record Office. given to the Crown, sent up a House of Commons in which James found few members who were not to his mind. The question of religious security was waived at a hint of the royal displeasure. Vol. IV— 3 1444 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP„ Sec. VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 Argyll's •rising Mon mouth's rising A revenue of nearly two millions was granted to the King for life. All that was wanted to rouse the loyalty ofthe country into fanati cism was supplied by a rebellion in the North, and by another under Monmouth in the West. The hopes of Scotch freedom had clung ever since the Restoration to the house of Argyll. The great ¦ Marquis, indeed, had been brought to the block at the King's return. His son, the Earl of Argyll, had been unable to- save himself even by a life of singular caution and obedience from the ill-will of the vile politicians who governed Scotland. He was- at last convicted of treason in 1682 on grounds at which every English statesman stood aghast. " We should not hang a dog here," Halifax protested, "on the grounds on which my lord Argyll has been sentenced to death." The Earl escaped however to Holland, and lived peacefully there during the last years of the reign of Charles. Monmouth had found the same refuge at the Hague, where a belief in the King's purpose to recall him secured him a kindly reception from William of Orange. But the accession of James was a death-blow to the hopes of the Duke, while it stirred the fanaticism of Argyll to a resolve of wresting Scotland from the rule of a Catholic king. The two leaders determined to appear in arms in England and the North, and the two expeditions sailed within a few days of each other. Argyll's attempt was soon over. His clan of the Campbells rose on his landing in Cantyre, but the country had been occupied for the King, and quarrels among the exiles who accompanied him robbed his effort of every chance of success. His force scattered without a fight ; and Argyll, arrested in an attempt to escape, was hurried to a traitor's death. Monmouth for a time found brighter fortune. His popularity in the West was great, and though the gentry held aloof when he landed at Lyme, and demanded effective parliamentary government and freedom of worship for Protestant Nonconformists, the farmers and traders of Devonshire and Dorset flocked to his standard. The clothier-towns of Somerset were true to the Whig cause, and on the entrance of the Duke into Taunton the popular enthu siasm showed itself in flowers which wreathed every door, as well as in a train of young girls who presented Monmouth with a Bible and a flag. His forces now amounted to six thousand men, but whatever chance of success he might have had was lost by his IX THE REVOLUTION 1445 assumption of the title of king. The Houses supported James, and passed a bill of attainder against the Duke. The gentry, still true to the cause of Mary and of William, held stubbornly aloof ; while the Guards hurried to the scene of the revolt, and the militia gathered to the royal standard. Foiled in an attempt on Bristol and Bath, Monmouth fell back on Bridgewater, and flung himself BRIDGEWATER HIGH CROSS. Proceedings of Somerset Archieological Society, in the night ofthe sixth of July, 1685, on the King's forces, which lay encamped on Sedgemoor. The surprise failed ; and the brave peasants and miners who followed the Duke, checked in their advance by a deep drain which crossed the moor, were broken after a short resistance, by the royal horse. Their leader fled from the field, and after a vain effort to escape from the realm, was captured and sent pitilessly to the block. Never had England shown a firmer loyalty ; but its loyalty was changed into horror by the terrible measures of repression Sec. VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 The Bloody Circuit 1446 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec. VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 which followed on the victory of Sedgemoor. Even North, the Lord Keeper, a servile tool of the Crown, protested against ithe SCYTHES PICKED UP AT SEDGEMOOR ; USED AS WEAPONS BY THE PEASANTS. Tower of London. licence and bloodshed in which the troops were suffered to indulge after the battle. • His protest however was disregarded, and he withdrew broken-hearted from the Court to die. James was, in fact, resolved on a far more terrible vengeance ; and the Chief- BATTLE OF SEDGEMOOR. "Engelants Schou-wtoneel," &'c., Amsterdam, 1690. Justice Jeffreys, a man of great natural powers but of violent temper, was sent to earn the Seals by a series of judicial murders which have left his name a byword for cruelty. Three hundred and fifty rebels were hanged in the "Bloody Circuit," as Jeffreys ¦made his way through Dorset and Somerset. More than eight IX THE REVOLUTION 1447 hundred were sold into slavery beyond sea. A yet larger number were whipped and imprisoned. The Queen, the maids of honour, the courtiers, even the Judge himself, made shameless profit from the sale of pardons. What roused pity above all were the cruelties wreaked upon women. Some were scourged from market-town to market-town. Mrs. Lisle, the wife of one of the Regicides, was Sec. VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 LORD JEFFREYS AS CHIEF JUSTICE. From an engraving by R. White, after Sir Godfrey Kneller. sent to the block at Winchester for harbouring a rebel. Elizabeth Gaunt, for the same act of womanly charity, was burned at Tyburn. Pity turned into horror when it was' found that cruelty such as this was avowed and sanctioned by the King. Even the cold heart of General Churchill, to whose energy the victory of Sedgemoor had mainly been owing, revolted at the ruthlessness with which James turned away from all appeals for mercy. " This marble," he cried as he struck the chimney-piece on wh^ch he leant, " is not harder "THE DUKE OF YORK^S HORSE <^ARDS." From Hollar s engraving of the Coronation Procession of Charles II. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1449 than the King's heart." But it was soon plain that the terror which the butchery was meant to strike into the people was part of a larger purpose. The revolt was made a pretext for a vast increase of the standing army. Charles, as we have seen, had silently and cautiously raised it to nearly ten thousand men ; James raised it at one swoop to twenty, thousand. The employ ment of this force was to be at home, not abroad, for the hope of an English policy in foreign affairs had already faded away. In the designs which James had at heart he could look for no consent from Parliament ; and however his pride revolted against a depend- ¦ence on France, it was only by French gold and French soldiers that he could hope to hold the Parliament permanently at bay. A week therefore after his accession he assured Lewis that his gratitude and devotion to him equalled that of Charles himself. " Tell your master," he said to the French ambassador, " that with out his protection I can do nothing. He has a right to be con sulted, and it is my wish to consult him, about everything." The pledge of subserviency was rewarded with the promise of a subsidy, and the promise was received with the strongest expres sions of delight and servility. Never had the secret league with France seemed so full of danger to English religion. Europe had long been trembling at the ambition of Lewis ; it was trembling now at his bigotry. He had proclaimed warfare against civil liberty in his attack upon Sec VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 The Tyranny MEDAL OF LOUIS XIV. COMMEMORATING REVOCATION OF EDICT ¦ OF NANTES, 1685. Holland ; he declared war at this moment upon religious freedom by revoking the Edict of Nantes, the measure by which Henry 145° HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec- VI the Fourth after his abandonment of Protestantism secured tolera tion and the free exercise of their worship for his Protestant sub- The Second tyra^n^ny jects. It had been respected by Richelieu even in his victory over 1682 TO i688 HOUSE OF HUGUENOT SILK-WEAVER, CANTERBURY. the Huguenots, and only lightly tampered with by Mazarin. But from the beginning of his reign Lewis had resolved to set aside its provisions, and his revocation of it in 1685 was only the natural IX THE REVOLUTION 1451 close of a progressive system of persecution. The Revocation was Sec vi followed by outrages more cruel than even the bloodshed of Alva. the Second Dragoons were quartered on Protestant families, women were flung .^'^"'^^ from their sick-beds into the streets, children were torn from their 1682 to mothers arms to be brought up in Catholicism, ministers were sent i68S tiacob Siamvz uuinci dhj Jicjhriof^lric bnuico cPnntcr in rjxouniditck [Prints cit^QrU^A SfcuVcccy 4lT\cmcf: ojiikrj QjtufhGy::^ . ^^ . ^^ 01 Ct^ Or "^T^' J- orUwCdL ct os^'g.'onaoce Ji/xlrsj STAMPING CALICO. Temp. James II, Bagford Collection, British Museum. to the galleys. In spite of the royal edicts, which forbade even flight to the victims of these horrible atrocities, a hundred thousand Protestants fled over the borders, and Holland, Switzerland, the Palatinate, were filled with French exiles. Thousands found refuge in England, and their industry founded in the fields east of London the silk trade of Spitalfields. But while Englishmen were POPE INNOCENT XI. RECEIVING THE AMBASSADOR OF JAMES II. , 1687. Wrightf ^''Account of the Earl of Castle7naine's Embassy," 1688. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1453 looking with horror on these events in France, James drew from them new hopes. In defiance of the law he was filling his fresh regiments with Catholic officers. He dismissed Halifax from the Privy Council on his refusal to consent to a plan for repealing the Test Act. He met the Parliament with a haughty declaration that whether legal or no his grant of commissions to Catholics must not be questioned, and with a demand of supplies for his new troops. Loyal as was the temper of the Houses, their alarm for the Church, their dread of a standing army, was yet stronger than their loyalty. The Commons by the majority of a single vote deferred the grant of supplies till grievances were redressed, and demanded in their address the recall of the illegal commissions. The Lords took a bolder tone ; and the protest of the bishops against any infringe ment of the Test Act was backed by the eloquence of Halifax. But both Houses were at once prorogued. The King resolved to obtain from the judges what he could not obtain from Parliament. He remodelled the bench by dismissing four judges who refused to lend themselves to his plans ; and their successors decided in the case of Sir Edward Hales, a Catholic officer in the army, that a royal dis pensation could be pleaded in bar of the Test Act. The principle laid down by the judges asserted the right of the King to dispense with penal laws according to his own judgment, and it was applied by James with a reckless impatience of all decency and self-restraint. Catholics were admitted into civil and military offices without stint, and four Catholic peers were sworn as mem bers of the Privy Council. The laws which forbade the presence of Catholic priests in the realm, or the open exercise of Catholic worship, were set at nought. A gorgeous chapel was opened in the palace of St. James for the worship of the King. Carmelites, Benedictines, Franciscans, appeared in their religious garb in the streets of London, and the Jesuits set up a crowded school in the Savoy. The quick growth of discontent at these acts would have startled a wiser man into prudence, but James prided himself on an obstinacy which never gave way ; and a riot which took place on the opening of a fresh Catholic chapel in the City was followed by the establishment of a camp of thirteen thousand men at Hounslow to overawe the capital. The course which James intended to Sec VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 16881686 The Test Aci set aside James and the Church XITA AIMVM vi^BANI PAP^ OCT AVI AiVCTORITATE RECOGNITVM. Gujus .Saiiditas, ne vctus Griduale reciida- . V tor, gravi interminatiooe iaiixit. : Cui'aAlitHs eft Cannis MiffanimomniUravotivanjin,i|uianichac deuderab«ur:itctn Caaxus KModulauQncs Kyriaics, Hymni Angelici VSymboU Apoftolotum, ac omnium pr«cres qua in fiagulis Miffis psfjlin dccancaci folent.- : candcm , Sanciorura fimniumOfiBcia, quorum no- ^ il'-.-'-'DpRo -p 1"! -^^fcupca leperiuntur. vUDlUM~.rOSSE i vii Jacobea fub Columbarum. M , D C. LXVlir f 1)a4 APPHOBATIONE; TITLE-PAGE OF MISSAL GIVEN BY JAMES II. TO JOHN BRENAN, ROMAN CATHOLIC ARCHBISHOP OF CASHEL. Library of S. Patrick's Cathedral. Dublin. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION I4SS follow in England was shown by the course he was following in the sister kingdoms. In Scotland he acted as a pure despot. He placed its government in the hands of two lords, Melfort and Perth, who had embraced his own religion, and put a Catholic in command of the Castle of Edinburgh. The Scotch Parliament had as yet been the mere creature of the Crown, but servile as were its members there was a point at which their servility stopped. When James boldly ^ ¦ — ~ — ~v required them to le galize the toleration of Catholics, they re fused to pass such an Act. It was in vain that the King tempted them to consent by the offer of a free trade with England. " Shall we sell our God ? " was the in dignant reply. James at once ordered the Scotch judges to treat all laws against Catho lics as null and void, and his orders were obeyed. In Ireland his policy threw off even the disguise of law. Catholics were admitted by the King's command tp the Coun cil and to civil offices. A Catholic, Lord Tyrconnell, was put at the head of the army, and set instantly about its re-organization by cashiering Protestant officers and by admitting two thousand Catholic natives into its ranks. Meanwhile James had begun in England a bold and systematic attack upon the Church. He re garded his ecclesiastical supremacy as a weapon providentially left' to him for undoing the work which it had enabled his predecessors nish in Ireland SATIRICAL PLAYING-CARD Temp. Jamef! 1 1. British Museum. Sec. VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 1456 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec. VI The Second I Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 The High Commis sion1686 Declara tion of Indul-gence to do. Under Henry and Elizabeth it had been used to turn , the Church of England from Catholic to Protestant. Under James it should be used to turn it back again from Protestant to Catholic. The High Commission indeed had been declared illegal by an Act of the Long Parliament, and this Act had been confirmed by the Parliament of the Restoration. But it was thought possible to evade this Act by omitting from the instructions on which the Commission acted the extraordinary powers and jurisdictions by which its predecessor had given offence. With this reserve, seven commissioners were appointed for the government of the Church, with Jeffreys at their head ; and the first blow of the Commission was at the Bishop of London. James had forbidden the clergy to preach against " the King's religion," and ordered Bishop Compton to suspend a London vicar who set this order at defiance. The Bishop's refusal was punished by his own suspension. But the pressure of the Commission only drove the clergy to a bolder defiance of the royal will. Sermons against superstition were preached from every pulpit ; and the two most famous divines of the day, Tillotson and Stillingfleet, put themselves at the head of a host of controversialists who scattered pamphlets and tracts from every printing press. It was in vain that the bulk of the Catholic gentry stood aloof and predicted the inevitable reaction his course must bring about, or that Rome itself counselled greater moderation. James was infatuated with what seemed to be the success of his enterprises. He looked on the opposition he experienced as due to the in fluence of the High Church Tories who had remained in power since the reaction of 1681, and these he determined "to chastise." The Dukeof Queensberry, the leader ofthis party in Scotland, was driven from office. Tyrconnell, as we have seen, was placed as a check on Ormond in Ireland. In England James resolved to show the world that even the closest ties of blood were as nothing to him if they conflicted with the demands of his faith. His earlier marriage with Anne Hyde, the daughter of Clarendon, bound both the Chancellor's sons to his fortunes ; and on his accession he had sent his elder brother-in-law, Henry, Earl of Clarendon, as Lord- Lieutenant to Ireland, and raised the younger, Laurence, Earl of Rochester, to the post of Lord Treasurer. But Rochester was now IX THE REVOLUTION 1457 Sec. VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 1687 told that the King could not safely entrust so great a charge to any one who did not share his sentiments on religion, and on his refusal to abandon his faith he was deprived of the White Staff. 'His brother. Clarendon, shared his fall. A Catholic, Lord Bellasys, became First Lord of the Treasury, which was put into commission after Rochester's removal ; and another Catholic, Lord Arundel, became Lord Privy Seal, while Father Petre, a Jesuit, was called to the Privy Council. One official after another who refused to aid in the repeal of the Test Act was dismissed. In defiance of the law the Nuncio of the Pope was received in state at Windsor. But even James could hardly fail to perceive the growth of public The Tory discontent. If the great Tory nobles were staunch for the Crown, they were as resolute English men in their hatred of mere tyranny as the Whigs them selves. James gave the Duke of Norfolk the sword of State to carry before him as he went to Mass. The Duke stopped at the Chapel door. " Your father would have gone further," said the King. " Your Majesty's father was the better man," re plied the Duke, " and he would not have gone so far." The young Duke of Somerset was ordered to introduce the Nuncio into the Presence Chamber. " I am advised," he answered, " that I cannot obey your Majesty without breaking the law." "Do you not know that I am above the law.'" James asked angrily. ''Your Majesty may be, but I am not," retorted the Duke. He was dismissed from his post ; but the spirit of resistance spread fast. In spite of the King's letters the governors of the Charter House, who numbered among them some of the greatest EngHsh nobles, refused to admit a Catholic to the benefits of the founda- HALBERT FROM ROME. Seventeenth Century. Tower of London. 1458 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 TO 1688 The Non-con- Jormists James and the Univer sities tion. The most devoted loyalists began to murmur when James demanded apostasy as a proof of their loyalty. He had soon in fact to abandon all hope of bringing the Church or the Tories over to his will. He turned, as Charles had turned, to the Noncon formists, and published in 1687 a Declaration of Indulgence which suspended the operation of the penal laws against Nonconformists and Catholics alike, and of every Act which imposed a test as a qualification for office in Church or State. The temptation to accept the Indulgence was great, for since the fall of Shaftesbury persecution had fallen heavily on the Protestant dissidents, and we can hardly wonder that the Nonconformists wavered for a time, or that numerous addresses of thanks were presented to James. But the great body of them, and all the more venerable names among them, remained true to the cause of freedom. Baxter, Howe, and Bunyan all refused an Indulgence which could only be purchased by the violent overthrow of the law. It was plain that the attempt to divide the forces of Protestantism had utterly failed, and that the only mode of securing his end was to procure a repeal of the Test Act from Parliament itself. ¦ The temper of the existing Houses however remained absolutely opposed to the King's project. He therefore dissolved the Parliament, and summoned a new one. But no free Parlia ment could be brought, as he knew, to consent to the repeal. The Lords indeed could be swamped by lavish creations of new peers. " Your troop of horse," his minister. Lord Sunderland, told Churchill, " shall be called up into the House of Lords." But it was a harder matter to secure a compliant House of Commons, The Lord-Lieutenants were directed to bring about such a " regulation " of the governing body in boroughs as would ensure the return of candidates pledged ta the repeal of the Test, and to question every magistrate in their county as to his vote. Half of them at once refused, and a long Hst of great nobles — the Earls of Oxford, Shrewsbury, Dorset, Derby, Pembroke, Rutland, Abergavenny, Thanet, Northampton, and Abingdon — were dismissed from their Lord-Lieutenancies. The justices when questioned simply replied that they would vote according to their consciences, and send members to Parliament who would protect the Protestant religion. After repeated " regulations " it was IX THE REVOLUTION 1459 found impossible to form a corporate body which would return Sec. vi representatives willing to comply with the royal will. All thought rJo^.q of a Parliament had to be abandoned ; and even the most bigoted tyra^n'ot courtiers counselled moderation at this proof of the stubborn 1682 '- TO opposition which James must prepare to encounter from the peers, 1688 the gentry, and the trading classes. The clergy alone still hesitated in any open act of resistance. Even the tyranny of the Commission failed to rouse into open disaffection men who had been preaching Sunday after Sunday the doctrine of passive obedience to the worst of kings. But James cared little for passive obedience. He looked on the refusal of the clergy to support his plans as freeing him from his pledge to maintain the Church as established by law ; and he resolved to attack it in the great institutions which had till now been its strongholds. To secure the Universities for Catholicism was to seize the only training schools which the clergy possessed. Cambridge indeed escaped easily. A Benedictine monk who presented himself with royal letters recommending him for the degree of a Master of Arts was rejected on his refusal to sign the Articles : and the Vice- Chancellor paid for the rejection by dismissal from his office. But a violent and obstinate attack was directed against Oxford. The Master of University College, who declared himself a convert, was authorized to retain his post in defiance of the law. Massey, a Roman Catholic, was presented by the Crown to the Deanery of Christ Church. Magdalen was the wealthiest Oxford College, and James in 1687 recommended one Farmer, a Catholic of infamous life and not even qualified by statute for the office, to its vacant headship. The Fellows remonstrated, and on the rejection of their remonstrance chose Hough, one of their own number, as their President. The Ecclesiastical Commission declared the election void ; and James, shamed out of his first candidate, recommended a second, Parker, Bishop of Oxford, a Catholic in heart and the meanest of his courtiers. But the Fellows held stubbornly to their legal head. It was in vain that the King visited Oxford, summoned them to his presence, and rated them as they knelt before him like schoolboys. " I am King," he said, " I will be obeyed ! Go to your chapel this instant, and elect the Bishop ! Let those who refuse look to it, for they shall feel the Vol. IV— 4 MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD, IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Picture in Magdalen College. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 146 1 whole weight of my hand ! " It was seen that to give Magdalen Sec. vi as well as Christ Church into Catholic hands was to turn Oxford sJ^ond into a Catholic seminary, and the King's threats were disregarded. xI^a^^v But they were soon carried out. A special Commission visited the '^^^ University, pronounced Hough an intruder, set aside his appeal to 1688 the law, burst open the door of his President's house to install Parker in his place, and on their refusal to submit deprived the Fellows of their fellowships. The expulsion of the Fellows was followed on a like refusal by that of the Demies. Parker, who died immediately after his installation, was succeeded by a Roman Catholic bishop in partibus, Bonaventure Giffard, and twelve Catholics were admitted to fellowships in a single day. Meanwhile James clung to the hope of finding a compliant The Seven Parliament, from which he might win a repeal of the Test Act. Bishops In face of the dogged opposition of the country the elections had been adjourned ; and a renewed Declaration of Indulgence was Aprili(&% intended as an appeal to the nation at large. At its close he promised to summon a Parliament in November, and he called on the electors to choose such members as would bring to a successful • end the policy he had begun. His resolve, he said, was to estab lish universal liberty of conscience for all future time. It was in this character of a royal appeal that he ordered every clergyman to read the declaration during divine service on two successive Sundays. Little time was given for deliberation, but little time was needed. The clergy refused almost to a man to be the instru ments of their own humiliation. The Declaration was read in only four df the London churches, and in these the congregation flocked out of church at the first words of it. Nearly all of the country clergy refused to obey the royal orders. The Bishops went with the rest of the clergy. A few days before the appointed Sunday Archbishop Sancroft called his suffragans together, and the six who were able to appear at Lambeth signed a temperate protest to the King, in which they declined to publish an illegal Declara tion. " It is a standard of rebellion," James exclaimed as the Primate presented the paper ; and the resistance of the clergy was no sooner announced to him than he determined to wreak his vengeance on the prelates who had signed the protest. He ordered the Ecclesiastical Commissioners to deprive them of their sees, but 1462 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec VI in this matter even the Commissioners shrank from obeying him. The Chancellor, Lord Jeffreys, advised a prosecution for libel as an THE SEVEN BISHOPS. Picture in National Portrait Gallery. easier mode of punishment ; and the bishops, who refused to give bail, were committed on this charge to the Tower. They passed to IX THE REVOLUTION 1463 their prison amidst the shouts of a great multitude, the sentinels knelt for their blessing as they entered its gates, and the soldiers of the garrison drank their healths. So threatening was the temper of the nation that his ministers pressed James to give way. But his obstinacy grew with the danger. " Indulgence," he said, '' ruined my father ; " and on the 29th of June the bishops appeared as criminals at the bar of the King's Bench. The jury had been packed, the judges were mere tools of the Crown, but judges and jury were alike overawed by the indignation ofthe people at large. No sooner had the foreman of the jury uttered the words " Not guilty " than a roar of applause burst from the crowd, and horse men spurred along every road to carry over the country the news of the acquittal. Sec. VI The Second Stuart Tyranny 1682 to 1688 THE SEVEN BISHOPS GOING TO THE TOWER. "¦Engelands Godsdienst en Vryheid hersteld door den Heere Prince van Oranfe; Amsterdam, 1689. MEDAL COMMEMORATING TRIPLE VICTORV OF DENMARK OVER SWEDEN, 1677. (Reverse.) CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1465 Sec. VII William OF Orange Section VII. — 'William of Orange {^Authorities. — As before.] Amidst the tumult of the Plot and the Exclusion Bill the wiser William among English statesmen had fixed their hopes steadily on the Europe succession of Mary, the elder daughter and heiress of James. The tyranny of her father's reign made this succession the hope of the people at large. But to Europe the importance of, the change, whenever it should come about, lay not so much in the succession of Mary, as in the new power which such an event would give to her husband, William Prince of Orange. We have come in fact to a moment when the struggle of England against the aggression of its King blends with the larger struggle of Europe against the aggres sion of Lewis the Fourteenth, and it is only by a rapid glance at the political state of the Continent that we can understand the real nature and results of the Revolution which drove James from the throne. At this moment France was the dominant power in Christen- The . Great- dom. The religious wars which began with the Reformation had ness of broken the strength of the nations around her. Spain was no longer able to fight the, battle of Catholicism. The Peace of Westphalia, by the' independence it gave to the German princes and the jealousy it kept alive between the Protestant and Catholic powers of Germany, destroyed the strength of the Empire. The German branch of the House of Austria, spent with the long struggle of the Thirty Years' War, had enough to do in battling hard against the advance of the Turks from Hungary on Vienna. The victories of Gustavus and of the generals whom he formed had been dearly purchased by the exhaustion of Sweden. The United ^ Provinces were as yet hardly regarded as a great power, and were trammelled by their contest with England for the empire of the seas. France alone profited by the general wreck. The wise policy of Henry the Fourth in securing religious peace by a grant LOUIS XIV. AND OFFICERS OF HIS STAFF. Contemporary Tapestry at Versailles. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1467 of toleration to the Protestants had undone the ill effects of its religious wars. The Huguenots were still numerous south of the Loire, but the loss of their fortresses had turned their energies into the peaceful channels of industry and trade. Feudal disorder was roughly put down by Richelieu, and the policy which gathered all local power into the hands of the crown, though fatal in the end to the real welfare of France, gave it for the moment an air of good government, and a command over its internal resources which no other country could boast. Its compact and fertile territory, the natural activity and enterprise of its people, and the rapid growth of its commerce and manufactures, were sources of natural wealth which even its heavy taxation failed to check. In the latter half of the seventeenth century France was looked upon as the wealthiest power in Europe. The yearly income of the French crown was double that of Eng land, and even Lewis the Four teenth trusted as much to the credit of his treasury as to the glory of his arms. " After all," he said, when the fortunes of war began to turn against him, " it is the last louis d'or which must win 1 " It was in fact this superiority in wealth which enabled France to set on foot forces such as had never been seen in Europe since the downfall of Rome. At the opening of the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth its army mustered a hundred thousand men. With the war against Holland it rose to nearly two hundred thousand. In the last struggle against the Grand Alliance there was a time when it counted nearly half a million of men in arms. Nor was France content with these enormous land forces. Since the ruin of Spain the fleets of Holland and of England had alone disputed the empire of the seas. Under Richelieu and Mazarin France could hardly be looked upon as a naval power. But the early years of Lewis saw the creation of a navy of 100 men-of-war, and Sec VII William OF Orange CARDINAL MAZARIN. Front a miniature by Petitot, in the South Kensington Museum. MARSHAL TURENNE. From a miniature by P. Seuin, in the South Kensington Museum. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1469 the fleets of France soon held their own against England or the Dutch. Such a power would have been formidable at any time ; but it was doubly formidable when directed by statesmen who in know ledge and ability were without rivals in Europe. No diplomatist Sec vii William OF OrangeLewis the Four teenth LOUIS XIV. From an original engraving by R. Nanteuil, 1670. could compare with Lionne, no war minister with Louvois, no financier wfth Colbert. Their young master, Lewis the Fourteenth, bigoted, narrow-minded, commonplace as he was, without personal honour or personal courage, without gratitude and without pity, insane in his pride, insatiable in his vanity, brutal in his selfishness, had still many of the qualities of a great ruler : industry, patience. LOUIS II., PRINCE DE COND^. From a miniature in the South Kensington Museum, CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 147 1 quickness of resolve, firmness of purpose, a capacity for discerning Sec vii greatness and using it, an immense self-belief and self-confidence, William and a temper utterly destitute indeed of real greatness, but with a Orange dramatic turn for seeming to be great. As a politician Lewis had simply to reap the harvest which the two great Cardinals who went before him had sown. Both had used to the profit of France the exhaustion and dissension which the wars of religion had brought upon Europe. Richelieu turned the scale against the House of Austria by his alliance with Sweden, with the United Provinces, and with the Protestant princes of Germany ; and the two great treaties by which Mazarin ended the Thirty Years' War, the Treaty of Westphalia and the Treaty of the Pyrenees, left the Empire disorganized and Spain powerless. From that moment France indeed Spain sank into a strange decrepitude. Robbed of the "" ^"'^^ chief source of her wealth by the independence of Holland, weakened at home by the revolt of Portugal, her infantry annihilated by Conde in his victory of Rocroi, her fleet ruined by the Dutch, her best blood drained away to the Indies, the energies of her people destroyed by the suppression of all liberty, civil or religious, her inteHectual life crushed by the Inquisition, her industry crippled by the expulsion of the Moors, by financial oppression, and by the folly of her colonial system, the kingdom which under Philip the Second had aimed at the empire of the world lay helpless and exhausted under Philip the Fourth. The aim of Lewis from 1661, the year when he really became master of France, was to carry on the policy of his predecessors, and above all to complete the ruin of Spain. The conquest of the Spanish provinces in the Netherlands would carry his border to the Scheldt. A more distant hope lay in the probable extinction of the Austrian line which now sat on the throne of Spain. By securing the succession to that throne for a French prince, not only Castille and Aragon with the Spanish dependencies in Italy and the Nether lands, but the Spanish empire in the New World would be added to the dominions of France. Nothing could save Spain but a union of the European powers, and to prevent this union by his negotia tions was a work at which Lewis toiled for years. The intervention of the Empire was guarded against by a renewal of the old alliances between France and the lesser German princes. A league 1472 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec vii with the Turks gave Austria enough to do on her eastern border. William ^]yQ qJ^ league with Sweden, the old friendship with Holland were Orange skjifuHy maintained. The policy of Charles the Second bound England to the side of Lewis. At last it seemed that the moment JOHN DE WITT. From a contemporary engraving by Lambert Vischer. for which he had waited had come, and the signing of the Treaty of Breda gave an opportunity for war of which Lewis availed him self in 1667. But the suddenness and completeness of the French success awoke a general terror before which the skilful diplomacy of Charles gave way. Holland was roused to a sense of danger at IX THE REVOLUTION 1473 home by the appearance of French arms on the Rhine. England woke from her lethargy on the French seizure of the coast-towns of Flanders. Sweden joined the two Protestant powers in the Triple Alliance ; and the dread of a wider league forced Lewis to content himself with the southern half of Flanders, and the possession of a string of fortresses which practically left him master of the Netherlands. Lewis was maddened by the check. He had always disliked William the Dutch as Protestants and Republicans ; he hated them now as Sec vii William OF Orange 1668 Orange an obstacle which must be taken out of the way ere he could resume his projects upon Spain. Four years were spent in preparations for a decisive blow. The French army was gradually raised to a hundred and eighty thousand men. Colbert created a fleet which rivalled that of Holland in number and equipment. Sweden was again won over. England was again secured by the Treaty of Dover. Meanwhile Holland lay wrapped in a false security. The French alliance had been its traditional policy since the days of Henry the Fourth, and it was especially dear to the party of the great merchant class which had mounted to power on the fall of the House of Orange. John de Witt, the leader of this party, though he had been forced to conclude the Triple Alliance by the advance of Lewis to the Rhine, still clung blindly to the friendship of France. His trust only broke down when the French army crossed the Dutch border in 1672, and the glare of its watch-fires was seen from the walls of Amsterdam. For the moment Holland lay crushed at the feet of Lewis, but the arrogance of the conqueror roused again the stubborn courage which had wrung victory from Alva and worn out the pride of Philip the Second. De Witt was murdered in a popular tumult, and his fall called William, the Prince of Orange, to the head of the Republic. Though the new Stadholder had hardly reached manhood, his great qualities at once made themselves felt. His earlier life had schooled him in a wonderful self-control. He had been left fatherless and all but friendless in childhood, he had been bred among men who looked on his very existence as a danger to the State, his words had been watched, his looks noted, his friends jealously withdrawn. In such an atmosphere the boy grew up silent, wary, self-contained, grave in temper, cold in demeanour. 1672 1474 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec VII blunt and even repulsive in address. He was weak and sickly William from his cradlc, and manhood brought with it an asthma and OF Orange consumption which shook his frame with a constant cough; WILLIAM III. WHEN A CHILD. From an etching by Lion Richeton, in " The Portfolio," of a picture by Rembrandt, ai Althorp. his face was sullen and bloodless and scored with deep lines which told of ceaseless pain. But beneath this cold and sickly presence lay a fiery and commanding temper, an immovable courage, and a political ability of the highest order. William was IX THE REVOLUTION 1475 ~1 a born statesman. Neglected as his education had been in other ways, for he knew nothing of letters or of art, he had been carefully trained in politics by John de Witt : and the wide knowledge with which in his first address to the States-General the young Stadholder reviewed the general state of Europe, the cool courage with which he calculated the chances of the struggle, at once won him the trust of his countrymen. Their trust was soon rewarded. Holland was saved, and province after province won back from the arms of France, by William's dauntless resolve. Like his great ancestor William the Silent, he was a luckless commander, and no general had to bear more frequent defeats. But he profited by defeat as other men profit by victory. His bravery indeed was of that nobler cast which rises to its height in moments of ruin and dismay. The coolness with which, boy-general as he was, he rallied his broken squadrons amidst the rout of Seneff, and wrested from Conde at the last the fruits of his victory, moved his veteran opponent to a generous admiration. It was in such moments indeed that the real temper of the man broke through the veil of his usual reserve. A strange light flashed from his eyes as soon as he was under fire, and in the terror and confusion of defeat his manners took an ease and gaiety that charmed every soldier around him. The political ability of William was seen in the skill with which he drew Spain and the House of Austria into a coalition against France, a union which laid the foundation of the Grand Alliance. But France was still matchless in arms, and the effect of her victories was seconded by the selfish ness of the allies, and above all by the treacherous seventeenth diplomacy of Charles the Second. William was .^J^^T^'^ondon. forced to consent in 1678 to the Treaty of Nimeguen, which left France dominant over Europe as she had never been Vol. IV— 5 DUTCH MUSKET. Sec vii William OF Orange 1476 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec vii William OF Orange William and Charles II. before. Holland indeed was saved from the revenge of Lewis, but fresh spoils had been wrested from Spain, and Franche-Comt^, which had been restored at the close of the former war, was retained at the end of this. Above all France overawed Europe by the daring and success with which she had faced single-handed the wide coalition against her. Her King's arrogance became unbounded. Lorraine was turned into a subject state. Genoa FRENCH PISTOLIERS AT THE STORMING OF AERDENBURGH, 1672. Frofn Contemporary Dutch Engraving. was bombarded, and its Doge forced to seek pardon in the antechambers of Versailles. The Pope was humiliated by the march of an army upon Rome to avenge a slight offered to the French ambassador. The Empire was outraged by a shameless seizure of Imperial fiefs in Elsass and elsewhere. The whole Protestant world was defied by the persecution of the Huguenots which was to culminate in the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In the mind of Lewis peace meant a series of outrages on the IX THE REVOLUTION 1477 powers around him ; but every outrage helped the cool and silent Sec. vii adversary who was looking on from the Hague to build up that William Great Alliance of all Europe from which alone he looked for any Orange effectual check to the ambition of France. The experience of the last war had taught William that of such an alliance England must form a part, and the efforts of the Prince ever since the peace had been directed to secure her co-operation. A reconciliation of the King with his Parliament was an indispensable step towards freeing Charles from his dependence on France, and it was such a reconciliation that William at first strove to bring about ; but he was for a long time foiled by the steadiness with which Charles •clung to the power whose aid was needful to carry out the schemes which he was contemplating. The change of policy however which followed on the fall of the Cabal and the entry of Danby into power raised new hopes in William's mind ; and his marriage 1677 with Mary dealt Lewis what proved to be a fatal blow. James was without a son, and the marriage with Mary would at any rate ensure William the aid of England in his great enterprise on his father-in-law's death. But it was impossible to wait for that event, and though the Prince used his new position to bring Charles round to a decided policy his efforts remained fruitless. The storm of the Popish Plot complicated his position. In the earlier stages of the Exclusion Bill, when the Parliament seemed resolved simply to pass over James and to seat Mary at once on the throne after her uncle's death, William stood apart from the struggle, doubtful of its issue, though prepared to accept the good luck if it came to him. But the fatal error of Shaftesbury in advancing the claims of Monmouth forced him into action. To preserve his wife's right of succession, with all the great issues which were to come of it, no other course was left than to adopt the cause of the Duke of York. In the crisis of the struggle, therefore, William threw his whole weight on the side of James. The eloquence of Halifax secured the rejection of the Exclusion Bill, and Halifax was but the mouthpiece of WilHam. But while England was seething with the madness of the William Popish Plot and of the royalist reaction, the great European james II. struggle was drawing nearer and nearer. The patience of Germany was worn out by the ceaseless aggressions of Lewis, CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION i479 and in 1686 its princes had bound themselves at Augsburg to sec vii resist all further encroachments on the part of France. From that William moment war became inevitable, and WilHam watched the course of Orange his father-in-law with redoubled anxiety. His efforts to ensure English aid had utterly failed. James had renewed his brother's secret treaty with France, and plunged into a quarrel with his people which of itself would have prevented him from giving any aid in a struggle abroad. The Prince could only silently look on, with a desperate hope that James might yet be brought to a nobler policy. He refused all encouragement to the leading malcontents who were already calling on him to interfere in arms. On the other hand he declined to support the King in his schemes for the abolition of the Test. If he still cherished hopes of bringing •about a peace between the King and people which might enable him to enlist England in the Grand Alliance, they vanished in 1687 before the Declaration of Indulgence. It was at this moment that James called on him to declare himself in favour of the abolition of the penal laws and of the Test. But simul taneously with the King's appeal came letters of warning and promises of support from the leading English nobles. Some, like the Hydes, simply assured him of their friendship. The Bishop of London added promises of support. Others, like Devonshire, Nottingham, and Shrewsbury, cautiously or openly warned the Prince against compliance with the King's demand. Lord Churchill announced the resolve of Mary's sister Anne to stand by the cause of Protestantism. Danby, the leading repre sentative of the great Tory party, sent urgent warnings. The letters dictated William's answer. No one, he truly protested, loathed religious persecution more thdn he himself did, but in relaxing political disabilities James called on him to countenance an attack on his own religion. " I cannot," he ended, " concur in what your Majesty desires of me." But William still shrank from the plan of an intervention in arms. General as the disaffection undoubtedly was, the position of James seemed fairly secure. He -counted on the aid of France. He had an army of twenty thou sand men. Scotland, disheartened by the failure of Argyll's rising, •could give no such aid as it gave to the Long Parliament. Ireland was ready to throw a Catholic army on the western coast. It was COURTYARD OF THE PALACE AT THE HAGUE. Temp. William III. Contemporary Dutch en^avine-. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1481 Sec. vii William OP Orange 1688 doubtful if in England itself disaffection would turn into actual rebellion. The " Bloody Circuit " had left its terror on the Whigs. The Tories and the Churchmen, angered as they were, were hampered by their doctrine of non-resistance. William's aim therefore was to discourage all violent counsels, and to confine himself to organizing such a general opposition as would force James by legal means to reconcile himself to the country, to abandon his policy at home and abroad, and to join the alliance against France. But at this moment the whole course of William's policy was The In- changed by an unforeseen event. His own patience and that of the ^"a'>°n nation rested on the certainty of Mary's succession. But in the midst of the King's struggle with the Church it was announced that the Queen was again with child. The news was received with general unbelief, for five years had passed since the last pregnancy of Mary of Modena. But it at once forced on a crisis. If, as the Catholics joyously foretold, the child turned out a boy, and, as was certain, was brought up a Catholic, the highest Tory had to resolve at last whether the tyranny under which England lay should go on for ever. The hesitation of the country was at an end. Danby, loyal above all to the Church and firm in his hatred of subservience to F"rance, answered for the Tories ; Compton for the High Churchmen, goaded at last into rebellion by the Declara tion of Indulgence. The Earl of Devonshire, the Lord Cavendish of the Exclusion struggle, answered for the Nonconformists, who were satisfied with William's promise to procure them toleration, as well as for the general body of the Whigs. The announcement of the birth of a Prince of Wales was followed ten days after by a j.^ formal invitation to William to intervene in arms for the restora tion of English liberty^and the protection of the Protestant religion ; it was signed by the representatives of the great parties now united against a common danger, and by some others, and was carried to the Hague by Herbert, the most popular of English seamen, who had been deprived of his command for a refusal to vote against the Test. The Invitation called on William to land with an army strong enough to justify those who signed it in rising in arms. It was sent from London on the day. after the acquittal of the Bishops. The general excitement, the shouts of the boats June 30 1482 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec, vii which covcred the river, the bonfires in every street, showed indeed ^"'o"'^" that the country was on the eve of revolt. The army itself, on Orange which James had implicitly relied, suddenly showed its sympathy National ^'^'^ ^'^ people. James was at Hounslow when the news of the Discontent verdict reached him, and as he rode from the camp he heard a great shout behind him. "What is that.?" he asked. "It is nothing," was the reply, " only the soldiers are glad that the Bishops are acquitted ! " " Do you call that nothing ">. " grumbled the King. The shout told him that he stood utterly alone in his THE SEVEN BISHOPS RETURNING FROM THE TpWER. "Engelands Godsdienst hersteld" 1689. realm. The peerage, the gentry, the Bishops, the clergy, the Universities, every lawyer, every trader, every farmer, stood aloof from him. And now his very soldiers forsook him. The most devoted Catholics pressed him to give way. But to give way was to change the whole nature of his government. All show of legal rule had disappeared. Sheriffs, mayors, magistrates, appointed by the Crown in defiance ofa parliamentary statute, were no real officers in the eye of the law. Even if the Houses were summoned, members returned by officers such as these could form no legal Parliament. Hardly a Minister of the Crown or a Privy Councillor ax THE REVOLUTION 1483 exercised any lawful authority. James had brought things to such a pass that the restoration of legal government meant the absolute reversal of every act he had done. But he was in no mood to reverse his acts. His temper was only spurred to a more dogged obstinacy by danger and remonstrance. He broke up the camp at Hounslow and dispersed its troops in distant cantonments. He, dismissed the two judges who had favoured the acquittal of the Bishops. He ordered the chancellor of each dio cese to report the names of the clergy who had not read the Declaration of Indulgence. But his will broke fruitlessly against the sullen resist ance which met him on every side. Not a chan cellor made a return to the Commissioners, and the Commissioners were cowed into inaction by the temper of the nation. When the judges who had displayed their ser vility to the Crown went on circuit the gentry refused to meet them. A yet fiercer irritation was kindled by the King's resolve to supply the place of the English troops, whose temper proved unserviceable for his purposes, by draughts from the Catholic army which Tyrconnell had raised in Ireland. Even the Roman CathoHc peers at the Council table protested against this measure ; and six officers in a single regiment laid down their commissions rather than enrol the Irish recruits among their men. The ballad of " LillibuUero," a scurrilous attack on the Irish recruits, was sung from one end of England to the other. Sec vii William OF Orange SATIRICAL PLAYING CARD. Temp. James II. British Museum. LANDING OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE, 1688. " Snge lands Godsdienst hersteld," 1869. .,.-'^^g^^ CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1485 An outbreak of revolt was in fact inevitable. William was secvii straining all his resources to gather a fleet and sufficient forces, William while noble after noble made their way to the Hague. The Earl orange of Shrewsbury brought ;£'2,ooo towards the expenses of the William's expedition. Edward Russell, the representative of the Whig Earl 1688 of Bedford, was followed by the representatives of great Tory houses, by the sons of the Marquis of Winchester, of Lord Danby, of Lord Peterborough, and by the High Church Lord Macclesfield. At home the Earls of Danby and Devonshire prepared silently with Lord Lumley for a rising in the North. In spite of the pro found secrecy with which all was conducted, the keen instinct of Sunderland, who had stooped to purchase continuance in office at the price of a secret apostasy to Catholicism, detected the preparations of William ; and the sense that his master's ruin was at hand encouraged him to tell every secret of James on the promise of a pardon for the crimes to which he had lent himself James alone remained stubborn and insensate as of old. He had no fear of a revolt unaided by the Prince of Orange, and he believed that the threat of a French attack on Holland would render William's departure impossible. But in September the long-delayed war began, and by the greatest political error of his reign Lewis threw his forces not on Holland, but on Germany. The Dutch at once felt themselves secure ; the States-General gave their sanction to William's project, and the armament he had prepared gathered rapidly in the Scheldt. The news no sooner reached England than the King passed from obstinacy to panic. By draughts from Scotland and Ireland he had mustered forty James thousand men, but the temper of the troops robbed him of all trust ^^^^ """'''' in them. Help from France was now out of the question. He could only fall back on the older policy of a union with the Tory party and the party of the Church. He personally appealed for support to the Bishops. He dissolved the Ecclesiastical Commis sion. He replaced the magistrates he had driven from office. He restored their franchises to the towns. The Chancellor carried back the Charter of London in state into the City. The Bishop of Winchester was sent to replace the expelled Fellows of Magdalen. Catholic chapels and Jesuit schools were ordered to be closed. Sunderland pressed for the instant caUing of a Parliament, but to 1486 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec vii Jamcs the counsel seemed treachery, and he dismissed Sunderland WiHTam from office. In answer to a declaration from the Prince of Orange, Or^ge which left the question of the legitimacy of the Prince of Wales to Parliament, he produced before the peers who were in London proofs of the birth of his child. But concessions and proofs came The too late. Detained by ill winds, beaten back on its first venture by Rising a violent storm, William's fleet of six hundred transports, escorted by fifty men-of-war, anchored on the fifth of November in Torbay ; and his army, thirteen thousand men strong, entered Exeter amidst the shouts of its citizens. His coming had not been looked for in the West, and for a week no great landowner joined him. But nobles and squires soon flocked to his camp, and the adhesion of Plymouth secured his rear. Insurrection broke out in Scotland. Danby, dashing at the hfead of a hundred horsemen into York, gave the signal for a rising. T]jie militia met his appeal with shouts of "A free Parliament and the Protestant religion ! " Peers and gentry flocked to his standard ; and a march on Nottingham united his forces to those under Devonshire, who had mustered at Derby the great lords of the midland and eastern counties. Every where the revolt was triumphant. The garrison of Hull declared for a free Parliament. The Duke of Norfolk appeared at the head of three hundred gentlemen in the market place at Norwich. At Oxford townsmen and gownsmen greeted Lord Lovelace with uproarious welcome. Bristol threw open its gates to the Prince of Orange, who advanced steadily on Salisbury, where James had mustered his forces. But the King's army, broken by dissensions and mutual suspicions among its leaders, fell back in disorder ; and the desertion of Lord Churchill was followed by that of so many other officers that James abandoned the struggle in despair. He fled to London to hear that his daughter Anne had left St. James's to join Danby at Nottingham. " God help me," cried the wretched Flight of King, " for my own children have forsaken me!" His spirit was James y^i^'^Q^^^iy broken ; and though he promised to call the Houses together, and despatched commissioners to Hungerford to treat with William on the terms of a free Parliament, in his heart he had resolved on flight. Parliament, he said to the few who still clung to him, would force on him concessions he could not endure ; and he only waited for news of the escape of his wife and child to make IX THE REVOLUTION 1487 his way to the Isle of Sheppey, where a hoy lay ready to carry him sec vii to France. Some rough fishermen, who took him for a Jesuit, William prevented his escape, and a troop of Life Guards brought him Orange back in safety to London : but it was the policy of William and his advisers to further a flight which removed their chief difficulty out of the way. It would have been hard to depose James had he remained, and perilous to keep him prisoner : but the entry of the Dutch troops into London, the silence of the Prince, and an order to leave St. James's, filled the King with fresh terrors, and taking advantage of the means of escape which were almost openly placed at his disposal, James a second time quitted London and embarked on the 23rd of December unhindered for France. Before flying James had burnt most of the writs convoking the The Re- hew Parliament, had disbanded his armj^, and destroyed so far as he could all means of government. For a few days there was a wild burst of panic and outrage in London, but the orderly instinct ofthe people soon reasserted itself The Lords who were at the moment in London provided on their own authority as Privy Councillors for the more pressing needs of administration, and resigned their authority into William's hands on his arrival. The difficulty which arose from the absence of any person legall})' authorized to call Parliament together was got over by convoking the House of Peers, and forming a second body of all members who Tlid sat in the Commons in the reign of Charles the Second, with the Aldermen and Common Councillors of London. Both bodies requested William to take on himself the provisional The Con- government of the kingdom, and to issue circular letters inviting ^^"^*°" the electors of every town and county to send up representatives to a Convention which met in January, 1689. In the new Conven tion both Houses were found equally resolved against any recall of or negotiation with the fallen King. They were united in en trusting a provisional authority to the Prince of Orange. But with this step their unanimity ended. The Whigs, who formed a majority in the Commons, voted a resolution which, illogical and inconsistent as it seemed, was well adapted to unite in its favour every element of the opposition to James : the Churchman who was simply scared by his bigotry, the Tory who doubted the right of a nation to depose its King, the Whig who held the theory of a "the protestants' joy." Ballad, 1689, in Bagford Collection, British Mjiseum. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1489 contract between King and People. They voted that King James, Sec. vii " having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of this kingdom William ''of by breaking the original contract between King and People, and Orance by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, has abdicated the Government, and that the throne is thereby vacant." But in the Lords, where the Tories were still in the ascendant, the resolution was fiercely debated. Archbishop Sancroft with the high Tories held that no crime could bring about a forfeiture of the crown, and that James still remained King, but that his tyranny had given the nation a right to withdraw from him the actual exercise of government and to entrust his functions to a Regency. The moderate Tories under Danby's guidance admitted that James had ceased to be King, but denied that the throne could be vacant, and contended that from the moment of his abdication the sovereignty vested in his daughter Mary. It was in vain that the eloquence of Halifax backed the Whig peers in struggling for the resolution of the Commons as it stood. The plan of a Regency was lost by a single vote, and Danby's scheme was adopted by a large majority. But both the Tory courses found a sudden obstacle in William. He declined to be Regent. He had no mind, he said to Danby, to be his wife's gentleman- usher. Mary, on the other hand, refused to accept the crown save in conjunction with her husband. The two declarations put an end to the question. It was agreed that William and Mary should be acknowledged as joint sovereigns, but that the actual adminis tration should rest with William alone. A Parliamentary Com- Declara- mittee in which the most active member was John Somers, a young %°{^^£ lawyer who had distinguished himself in the trial of the Bishops and who was destined to play a great part in later history, drew up a Declaration of Rights which was presented on February 1 3th to William and Mary by the two Houses in the banqueting-room at Whitehall. It recited the misgovernment of James, his abdication, and the resolve of the Lords and Commons to assert the ancient rights and liberties of English subjects. It condemned as illegal his establishment of an ecclesiastical commission, and his raising an army without Parliamentary sanction. It denied the right of any king to suspend or dispense with laws, or to exact money. 1490 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP, Sec vii savc by consent of Parliament. It asserted for the subject a right ^'ot*" ^° petition, to a free choice of representatives in Parliament, and to Orange ^ p^j.^ ^^^ mcrciful administration ofjustice. It declared the right GREAT SEAL OF WILLIAM AND MARY. (Obverse.) of both Houses to liberty of debate. It demanded securities for the free exercise of their religion by all Protestants, and bound the new sovereign to maintain the Protestant religion and the law and liberties of the realm. In full faith that these principles would be IX THE REVOLUTION 1491 accepted and maintained by William and Mary, it ended with secvii declaring the Prince and Princess of Orange King and Queen William of England. At the close of the Declaration, Halifax, in the name Orange GREAT SEAL OF WILLIAM AND MARY. (Reverse.) of the Estates of the Realm, prayed them to receive the crown. William accepted the offer in his own name and his wife's, and declared in a few words the resolve of both to maintain the laws and to govern by advice of Parliament. Vol IV— 6 1492 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec VIII The Grand Alliance 1689 to 1697 The Grand Alliance Section VIII. — The Grand Alliance, 1689— 1697 {Authorities. — As before.] The blunder of Lewis in choosing Germany instead of Holland for his point of attack was all but atoned for by the brilliant suc cesses with which he opened the war. The whole country west of the Rhine was soon in his hands ; his armies were masters of the Palatinate, and penetrated even to Wiirtemberg. His hopes had never been higher than at the moment when the arrival of James at St. Germain dashed all hope to the ground. Lewis was at once thrown back on a war of defence, and the brutal ravages which marked the retreat of his armies from the Rhine revealed the bitter ness with which his pride stooped to the necessity. The Palatinate ¦ was turned into a desert. The same ruin fell on the stately palace of the Elector at Heidelberg, on the venerable tombs of the Emperors at Speyer, on the town of the trader, on the hut of the vine-dresser. In accepting the English throne William had been moved not so much by personal ambition as by the prospect of firmly knitting together England and Holland, the two great Pro testant powers whose fleets held the mastery of the sea, as his diplomacy had knit all Germany together a year before in the Treaty of Augsburg. But the advance from such a union to the formation of the European alliance against France was still delayed by the reluctance of the two branches of the House of Austria in Germany and Spain to league with Protestant States against a CathoHc King while England cared little to join in an attack on France with the view of saving the liberties of Europe. All hesitation, however, I passed away when the reception of James as still King of England ,! at St. Germain gave England just ground for a declaration of war, a step in which it was soon followed by Holland, and the two countries at once agreed to stand by one another in their struggle against France. The adhesion of Spain and the Court of Vienna in 1689 to this agreement completed the Grand Alliance which William had designed ; and when Savoy joined the Allies France found herself girt in on every side save that of Switzerland with a IX THE REVOLUTION 1493 ring of foes. The Scandinavian kingdoms alone stood aloof from Sec viii the confederacy of Europe, and their neutrality was unfriendly to '^^liance" France. Lewis was left without a single ally save the Turk : but 1689 to 1697 WILLIAM III. From a picture by Sir Godfrey Kneller at Windsor Castle. the energy and quickness of movement which sprang from the con centration of the power of France in a single hand still left the contest an equal one. The Empire was slow to move ; the Court 1494 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap.. Sec. viii of Vienna was distracted by a war with the Turks ; Spain was all The Grand but powcrlcss ; Holland and England were alone earnest in the Alliance ¦'¦ ^ 1689 struggle, and England could as yet give little aid in the war. One 1697 English brigade, indeed, formed from the regiments raised by James, joined the Dutch army on the Sambre, and distinguished itself under Churchill, who had been rewarded for his treason by the title of Earl of Marlborough, in a brisk skirmish with the enemy at Walcourt. But William had as yet grave work to do at home. William In England not a sword had been drawn for James. In Scotland Scotland his tyranny had been yet greater than in England, and sO' far as the Lowlands went the fall of his tyranny was as rapid and complete. No sooner had he called his troops southward to meet William's invasion than Edinburgh rose in revolt. The western peasants were at once up in arms, and the Episcopalian clergy whO' had been the instruments of the Stuart misgovernment ever since the Restoration were rabbled and driven from their parsonages in every parish. The news of these disorders, forced William to act,. though he was without a show of legal authority over Scotland. On the advice ofthe Scotch Lords present in London, he ventured to summon a Convention similar to that which had been summoned in England, and on his own responsibility to set aside the laws which excluded Presbyterians from the Scotch Parliament. This Convention resolved that James had forfeited the crown by mis government, and offered it to William and Mary. The offer was accompanied by a Claim of Right framed on the model of the Declaration of Rights to which they had consented in England, but closing with a demand for the abolition of Prelacy. Both crown and claim were accepted, and the arrival of the Scotch regiments which William had brought from Holland gave strength to the new Government. Its strength was to be roughly tested. John Graham of Claverhouse, whose cruelties in the persecution of the Western Covenanters had been rewarded by a high command in the Scotch army, and the title of Viscount Dundee, withdrew with a few troopers from Edinburgh to the Highlands, and appealed to the clans. In the Highlands nothing was known of English government or misgovernment : all that the Revolution meant to a Highlander was the restoration of the House of IX THE REVOLUTION 1495 Argyll. To many of the clans it meant the restoration of lands sec viii which had been granted them on the Earl's attainder ; and the t«e grand ^ Alliance 1689 to 1697 JOHN GRAHAME OF CLAVERHOUSE, VISCOUNT DUNDEE. From a picture in the possession of Lady E. Leslie-Melville-Cartwrighi. Macdonalds, the Macleans, and the Camerons, were as ready to join Dundee in fighting the Campbells and the Government which 1496 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec viii Upheld them as they had been ready to join Montrose in the same The Grand causc forty ycars before. They were soon in arms. As William's Scotch regiments under General Mackay climbed the pass of Killiecrankie, Dundee charged them at the head of three thousand clansman and swept them ii^ headlong rout down the glen. But his death in the moment of victory broke the only bond which held the Highlanders together, and in a few weeks the host which had spread terror through the Lowlands melted helplessly away. In the next summer Mackay was able to build the strong post of Fort Alliance 1689 to 1697 Killie crankie July 1689 KILLIECRANKIE. William in the very heart of the disaffected country, and his offers of money and pardon brought about the submission of the clans. Sir John Dalrymple, the Master of Stair, in whose hands the government of Scotland at this time mainly rested, had hoped that a refusal of the oath of allegiance would give grounds for a war of extermination, and free Scotland for ever from its terror of the Highlanders. He had provided for the expected refusal by orders of a ruthless severity. " Your troops," he wrote to the officer in command, " will destroy entirely the country of Lochaber, Lochiel's IX THE REVOLUTION 1497 lands, Keppoch's, Glengarry's and Glencoe's. Your powers shall Sec viii be large enough. I hope the soldiers will not trouble the The Grand ° ^ ^ Alliance Government with prisoners." But his hopes were disappointed by 1689 TO the readiness with which the clans accepted the offers of the 1697 GLENCOE. Government All submitted ' in good time save Macdonald of Massacre Glencoe, whose pride delayed his taking of the oath till six days ciencoe after the latest date fixed by the proclamation. Foiled in his larger hopes of destruction, Dalrymple seized eagerly on the pretext given by Macdonald, and an order " for the extirpation of 1498 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec VIII that sect of robbers" was laid before William and received the The Grand royal signature. " The work," wrote the Master of Stair to Colonel Alliance •' ° ' 1689 Hamilton who undertook it, " must be secret and sudden." The 1697 troops were chosen from among the Campbells, the deadly foes of the clansmen of Glencoe, and quartered peacefully among the Macdonalds for twelve days, till all suspicion of their errand Feb. 13, disappeared. At daybreak they fell on their hosts, and in a few moments thirty of the clansfolk lay dead on the snow. The rest, sheltered by a storm, escaped to the mountains to perish for the most part of cold and hunger. " The only thing I regret," said the Master of Stair when the news reached him, " is that any got away." Whatever horror the Massacre of Glencoe has roused in later days, few save Dalrymple knew of it at the time. The peace of the Highlands enabled the work of reorganization to go on quietly at Edinburgh. In accepting the Claim of Right with its repudiation of Prelacy, William had in effect restored the Presby terian Church, and its restoration was accompanied by the revival of the Westminster Confession as a standard of faith, and by the passing of an Act which abolished lay patronage. Against the Toleration Act which the King proposed, the Scotch Parliament stood firm. But the King was as firm in his purpose as the Parliament. So long as he reigned, William declared in memor able words, there should be no persecution for conscience' sake. " We never could be of that mind that violence was suited to the advancing of true religion, nor do we intend that our authority shall ever be a tool to the irregular passions of any party." The It was not in Scotland, however, but in Ireland that James and Revolt Lewis hoped to arrest William's progress. In the middle of his reign, when his chief aim was to provide against the renewed depression of his fellow religionists at his death by any Protestant successor, James had resolved (if we may trust the statement of the French ambassador) to place Ireland in such a position of independence that she might serve as a refuge for his Catholic subjects. Lord Clarendon was dismissed from the Lord Lieutenancy and succeeded in the charge of the island by the Catholic Earl of Tyrconnell. The new governor, who was raised to a dukedom, went roughly to work. Every Englishman was turned out of office. Every Judge, every Privy Councillor, every iX THE REVOLUTION 1499 Mayor and Alderman of a borough was required to be a Catholic Sec viii and an Irishman. The Irish army, raised to the number of fifty '^^^^^J^^^^" thousand men and purged of its Protestant soldiers, was entrusted to Catholic officers. In a few months the English ascendency was overthrown, and the life and fortune of the English settlers were at the mercy of the natives on whom they had trampled since CromweU's day. The King's flight and the agitation among the native Irish at the news spread panic therefore through the island. I6»9 TO 1697 JAMES IL LANDING AT KIN.SALE. "Engelants Schouwtoneel verbeeldende het vlugte van Jacobus II." Amsterdam, 1690. Another massacre was believed to be at hand ; and fifteen hundred Protestant families, chiefly from the south, fled in terror over sea. The Protestants of the north on the other hand drew together at Enniskillen and Londonderry, and prepared for self-defence. The outbreak however was still delayed, and for two months Tyrconnell intrigued with William's Government. But his aim was simply to gain time. He was in fact inviting James to return to Ireland, and at the news of his coming with officers, ammunition, and a supply of money provided by the French King, Tyrconnell threw off the 1689 1500 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP- TO 1697 Sec VIII mask. A flag was hoisted over Dublin Castle, with the words The Grand embroidered on its folds " Now or Never." The signal called Alliance ° 1689 every Catholic to arms. The maddened natives flung themselves on the plunder which their masters had left, and in a few weeks havoc was done, the French envoy told Lewis, which it would take years to repair. Meanwhile James sailed from France to Kinsale. His aim was to carry out an invasion of England with the fifty thousand men that Tyrconnell was said to have at his disposal.. But his hopes were ruined by the war of races which had broken THE WALLS OF LONDONDERRY. Built 1609. After W. H. Bartiett. out. To Tyrconnell and the Irish leaders the King's plans were utterly distasteful. Their policy was that of Ireland for the Irish, and the first step was to drive out the Englishmen who still stood Siege of at bay in Ulster. Half of Tyrconnell's army therefore had been London- . derry Sent against Londonderry, where the bulk of the fugitives found shelter behind a weak wall, manned by a few old guns, and destitute even of a ditch. But the seven thousand desperate Englishmen behind the wall made up for its weakness. So fierce were their sallies, so crushing the repulse of his attack, that the King's general, Hamilton, at last turned the siege into a blockade. IX THE REVOLUTION 1501 The Protestants died of hunger in the streets, and ofthe fever which Secviii comes of hunger, but the cry of the town was still " No Surrender." alliance" The siege had lasted a hundred and five days, and only two days' food remained in Londonderry, when on the 28th of July an English ship broke the boom across the river, and the besiegers sullenly withdrew. Their defeat was turned into a rout by the men of Enniskillen, who struggled through a bog to charge an Irish force of double their number at Newtown Butler and drove horse and foot 1689 TO 1697 SIEGE OF LONDONDERRY. "Engelants Schouwtoneel," ^^c, 1690. before them in a panic which soon spread through Hamilton's whole army. The routed soldiers fell back on Dublin, where James lay helpless in the hands of the frenzied Parliament which he had summoned. Every member returned was an Irishman and a Catholic, and their one aim was to undo the successive confiscations which had given the soil to English settlers and to get back Ireland for the Irish. The Act of Settlement on which all title to property rested was at once repealed in spite of the King's reluctance. Three thousand Protestants of name and 1502 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec VIII fortune were massed together in the hugest Bill of Attainder The Grand which the world has seen. In spite of James's promise of religious Alliance loi o 1689 TO 1697 TABERNACLE AND CANDLESTICKS GIVEN BY JAMES II. TO CHRISTCHURCH CATHEDRAL, DUBLIN. From a drawing by Mr. Thomas Drew, R.H. A. freedom, the Protestant clergy were driven from their parsonages. Fellows and scholars vvere turned out of Trinity College, and IX THE REVOLUTION 1503 the French envoy, the Count of Avaux, dared even to propose Sec viii that if any Protestant rising took place on the English descent, as '^^^liance" was expected, it should be met by a general massacre of the Protestants who still lingered in the districts which had submitted to James. To his credit the King shrank horror-struck from the proposal. " I cannot be so cruel," he said, " as to cut their throats 1689 TO 1697 EXCHANGE, LONDONDERRY, AS REBUILT AFTER THE SIEGE. while they live peaceably under my government." " Mercy to Protestants," was the cold reply, " is cruelty to Catholics." Through the long agony of Londonderry, through the proscrip tion and bloodshed of the new Irish rule, William was forced to look helplessly on. The best frpops in the army which had been mustered at Hounslow had been sent with Marlborough to the Sambre ; and the political embarrassments which grew up around England and the Revolu tion 1504 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec viii the Government made it impossible to spare a man of those who The Grand remained. The great ends of the Revolution were indeed secured. Alliance '^ 1689 even amidst the confusion and intrigue which we shall have to 1697 Bill of Sights describe, by the common consent of all. On the great questions of civil liberty Whig and Tory were now at one. The De claration of Rights was turned into the Bill of Rights by the Convention which had now be come a Parliament, and the passing of this measure in 1689 restored to the monarchy the character which it had lost un der the Tudors and the Stuarts. The right of the people through its representatives to depose the King, to change the order of succession, and to set on the throne whom they would, was now established. All claim of Divine Right, or hereditary right independent of the law, was formally put an end to by the election of William and Mary. Since their day no English sovereign has been able to ad vance any claim to the crown save a claim which rested on a particular clause in a particular Act of Parliament. William, Mary, and Anne were sovereigns simply by virtue of the Bill of Rights. George the First and his successors have been sovereigns solely by virtue of the Act of Settlement. An English monarch is now as much the creature of an Act of Parliament as the pettiest tax-gatherer in his realm. Nor was the older character of the kingship alone restored. The older constitution returned with it. Bitter experience had taught MACE MADE FOR THE GILDS OF CORK, 1696. South Kensington Museum. IX THE REVOLUTION 1505 England the need of restoring to the Parliament its absolute secviii power over taxation. The grant of revenue for life to the last The Grand Alliance two kings had been the secret of their anti-national policy, and 1689 the first act of the new legislature was to restrict the grant of the 1697 royal revenue to a term of four years. William was bitterly galled Taxation by the provision. " The gentlemen of England trusted King James," he said, " who was an enemy of their religion and their laws, and they will not trust me, by whom their religion and their lavsrs have been preserved." But the only change brought about in the Parliament by this burst of royal anger was a resolve henceforth to make the vote of supplies an annual one, a resolve which, in spite of the slight changes introduced by the next Tory Parliament, soon became an invariable rule. A change of almost The Army as great importance established the control of Parliament over the army. The hatred to a standing army which had begun under Cromwell had only deepened under James ; but with the •continental war the existence of an army was a necessity. As yet, however, it was a force which had no legal existence. The soldier was simply an ordinary subject ; there were no legal means of punishing strictly military offences or of providing for military discipline : and the assumed power of billeting soldiers in private houses had been taken away by the law. The difficulty both of Parliament and the army was met by the Mutiny Act. The powers requisite for discipline in the army were conferred by Parliament on its officers, and provision was made for the pay of the force, but both pay and disciplinary powers were granted only for a single year. The Mutiny Act, like the grant of supplies, has remained annual ever since the Revolution ; and as it is impossible for the State to exist without supplies, or for the army to exist without discipline and pay, the annual assembly of Parliament has become a matter of absolute necessity. The greatest consti tutional change which our history has witnessed was thus brought about in an indirect but perfectly efficient way. The dangers -phe which experience had lately shown lay in the Parliametit itself ^«''^»«- were met with far less skill. Under Charles, England had seen a Parliament, which had been returned in a moment of reaction, maintained without fresh election for eighteen years. A Triennial Bill, which limited the duration of a Parliament to three, was WILLIAM III. IN PARLIAMENT. Frotn an engraving by Romeyn de Hooge- CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1507 passed with little opposition, but fell before the dislike and veto of William. To counteract the influence which a king might obtain by crowding the Commons with officials proved a yet harder task. A Place Bill, which excluded all persons in the employment of the State from a seat in Parliament, was defeated, and wisely defeated, in the Lords. The modern course of providing against a pressure from the Court or the administration by excluding all minor officials, but of preserving the hold of Parliament over the great officers of State by admitting them into its body, seems as yet to have occurred to nobody. It is equally strange that while vindicating its right of Parliamentary control over the public revenue and the army, the Bill of Rights should have left by its silence the control of trade to the Crown. It was only a few years later, in the discussions on the charter granted to the East India Company, that the Houses silently claimed and obtained the right of regulating English commerce. The religious results of the Revolution were hardly less weighty than the political. In the common struggle against Catholicism Churchman and Nonconformist had found themselves, as we have seen, strangely at one ; and schemes of Comprehension became suddenly popular. But with the fall of James the union of the two bodies abruptly ceased : and the establishment of a Presbyterian Church in Scotland, together with the "rabbling" of the Episcopalian clergy in its western shires, revived the old bitterness of the clergy towards the dissidents. The Convocation rejected the scheme of the Latitudinarians for such modifications of the Prayer-book as would render possible a return of the Nonconformists, and a Comprehension Bill which was introduced into Parliament failed to pass in spite of the King's strenuous support. William's attempt to partially admit Dissenters to civil equality by a repeal of the Corporation Act proved equally fruitless ; but the passing of a Toleration Act in 1689 practically established freedom of worship. Whatever the religious effect of the failure of the Latitudinarian schemes may have been, its political effect has been of the highest value. At no time had the Church been so strong or so popular as at the Revolution, and the reconciliation of the Nonconformists would have doubled its strength. It is doubtful whether the disinclination to all political Vol. IV— 7 Sec viii The Grand Alliance 1689 TO 1697 Tolera tion and the Church Tolera tion Act i5o8 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec viii change which has characterized it during the last two hundred The Grand years would havc been affected by such a change ; but it is certain 1689 that the power of opposition which it has wielded would have been TO 1697 enormously increased. As it was, the Toleration Act established a group of religious bodies whose religious opposition to the Church forced them to support the measures of progress which NONCONFORMIST CHAPEL, DEAN ROW, CHESHIRE. Built 1693. Earwaker. ^^ East Cheshire." the Church opposed. With religious forces on the one side and on the other England has escaped the great stumbling-block in the way of nations where the cause of religion has become identified with that of political reaction. A secession from within The Non- its Own ranks weakened the Church still more. The doctrine of Divine Right had a strong hold on the body of the clergy, though they had been driven from their other favourite doctrine of passive jurors IX ' THE REVOLUTION 1509 obedience, and the requirement of the oath of allegiance to the sec viii new sovereigns from all persons in public functions was resented the grand as an intolerable wrong by almost every parson. Sancroft, the 1689 Archbishop of Canterbury, with a few prelates and a large number 1697 of the higher clergy, absolutely refused the oath, treated all who took it as schismatics, and on their deprivation by Act of Parliament regarded themselves and their adherents, who were known as Nonjurors, as the only members of the true Church of England. The bulk of the clergy bowed to necessity, but their bitterness against the new Government was fanned into a flame by the religious policy announced in this assertion of the supremacy of Parliament over the Church, and the deposition of bishops by an act of the legislature. The new prelates, such as Tillotson, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury, were men of learning and piety ; but it was only among Whigs and Latitudinarians that William and his successors could find friends among the clergy, and it was mainly to these that they were driven to entrust the higher offices of the Church. The result was a severance between the higher dignitaries and the mass of the clergy which broke the strength of the Church ; and till the time of George the Third its fiercest strife was waged within its own ranks. But the resentment at the measure which brought this strife about already added to the difficulties which William had to encounter. Yet greater difficulties arose from the temper of his Parliament. The Act,,,, In the Commons the bulk of the members were Whigs, and their first aim was to redress the wrongs which the Whig party had suffered during the last two reigns. The attainder of Lord Russell was reversed. The judgements against Sidney, Cornish, and Alice Lisle were annulled. In spite of the opinion of the judges that the sentence on Titus Oates had been against law, fhe Lords refused to reverse it, but even Oates received a pardon and a pension. The Whigs however wanted not merely the redress of wrongs but the punishment of the wrong-doers. Whig and Tory had been united, indeed, by the tyranny of James ; both parties had shared in the Revolution, and William had striven to prolong their union by joining the leaders of both in his first Ministry. He named the political Tory Earl of Danby Lord President, made the Whig Earl of diffi<^lties THE "SOLEIL ROYAL." Finest ship of the navy of Louis XIV. ; built 1690. Charnock, "History of Marine Architecture." CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 151 1 Shrewsbury Secretary of State, and gave the Privy Seal to Lord Sec.viii Halifax, a trimmer between the one party and the other. But tke grand ' •' Alliance save in a moment of common oppression or common danger union 1689 [ TO was impossible. The Whigs clamoured for the punishment of 1697 Tories who had joined in the illegal acts of Charles and of James, and refused to pass the Bill of General Indemnity which William laid before them. William on the other hand was resolved that no bloodshed or proscription should follow the revolution which had placed him on the throne. His temper was averse from persecu tion ; he had no great love for either of the battling parties ; and above all he saw that internal strife would be fatal to the effective prosecution of the war. While the cares of his new throne were chaining him to England, the confederacy of which he was the guiding spirit was proving too slow and too loosely compacted to cope with the swift and resolute movements of France. The armies of Lewis had fallen back within their own borders, but only to turn fiercely at bay. Even the junction of the English and Dutch fleets failed to assure them the mastery of the seas. The English navy was paralyzed by the corruption which prevailed in the public service, as well as by the sloth and incapacity of its commander. The services of Admiral Herbert at the Revolution had been rewarded by the Earldom of Torrington and the command of the fleet ; but his indolence suffered the seas to be swept by French privateers, and his want of seamanship was shown in an indecisive engagement with a French squadron in Bantry Bay. Meanwhile Lewis was straining every nerve to win the command of the Channel ; the French dockyards were turning out ship after ship, and the galleys of the Mediterranean fleet were brought round to reinforce the fleet at Brest. A French victory off the English coast would have brought serious political danger, for the reaction of popular feeling which had begun in favour of James had been increased by the pressure of the war, by the taxa tion, by the expulsion of the Nonjurors and the discontent of the clergy, by the panic of the Tories at the spirit of vengeance which broke out among the triumphant Whigs, and above all by the presence of James in Ireland. A new party, that of the Jacobites The • r Jacobites or adherents of King James, was just forming ; and it was feared that a Jacobite rising would follow the appearance of a French fleet ISI2 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. The Grand Alliance 1689 TO 1697 1690 Sec viii OU the coast In such a state of affairs William judged rightly that to yield to the Whig thirst for vengeance would have been to 1 ain his cause. He dissolved the Parliament, which had refused to pass a Bill of Indemnity for all political offences, and called a new one to meet in March. The result of the election proved that he had only expressed the general temper of the nation. The boroughs had been alienated from the Whigs by their refusal to pass the Indemnity, and their attempts to secure the Corporations for their own party ; while in the counties parson after parson led his flock to the poll against the Whigs. In the new Parliament the bulk of the members proved Tories. William accepted the resignation of the more violent Whigs among his councillors, and MEDAL COMMEMORATING RESTORATION OF TOWN CHARTERS, 169O. Battle of the Boyne placed Danby at the head of affairs. In May the Houses gave their assent to the Act of Grace. The King's aim in this sudden change of front was not only to meet the change in the national spirit, but to secure a momentary lull in English faction which would suffer him to strike at the rebellion in Ireland. While James was King in Dublin it was hopeless to crush treason at home ; and so urgent was the danger, so precious every moment in the present juncture of affairs, that William could trust no one to bring the work as sharply to an end as was needful save himself In the autumn of the year 1689 the Duke of Scfiomberg, an exiled Huguenot who had followed William to England, had been sent with a small force to Ulster, but his landing had only roused IX THE REVOLUTION 1513 Ireland to a fresh enthusiasm. The ranks of the Irish army were sec viii filled up at once, and James was able to, face the Duke at Drogheda '^^^j^,^^*^° with a force double that of his opponent. Schomberg, whose i^en 1689 TO were all raw recruits whom it was hardly possible to trust at such 1697 I Pro5ptci 01 Ljiiiiu'S.. LIMERICK FROM THE SEA. Drawing, i;. 1685, in British Museum. odds in the field, entrenched himself at Dundalk, in a camp where pestilence soon swept off half his men, till winter parted the two armies. During the next six months James, whose treasury was utterly exhausted, strove to fill it by a coinage of brass money, while his soldiers subsisted by sheer plunder. William meanwhile was toiling hard on the other side of the Channel to bring the Irish CARRICKFERGUS. Drawing, c. 1680, British Museum. war to an end. Schomberg was strengthened during the winter with men and stores, and when the spring came his force reached thirty thousand men. Lewis too felt the importance of the coming struggle ; and seven thousand picked Frenchmen, under the Count ISI4 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. July I, 1690 secv^iii of Lauzun, were despatched to reinforce the army of James. They ^aluance" ^^"^ hardly arrived when William himself landed at Carrickfergus, '^^9 .^^^^ H^^^^^^^B and pushed rapidly to the 1^97 iBt^^^^ ^^^^^^^1 south. His columns soon caught sight of the Irish forces, posted strongly behind the Boyne. " I am glad to see you, gentle men," William cried with a burst of delight ; " and if you escape me now the fault will be mine." Early next morning the whole English army plunged into the river. The Irish foot broke in a sudden panic, but the horse made so gallant a stand that Schomberg fell in repulsing its charge, and for a time the EngHsh centre was held in check. With the arrival of William, how ever, at the head of the left wing all was over. James, who had through out been striving to se cure the withdrawal of his troops rather than frankly to meet Wil liam's onset, forsook his troops as they fell back in retreat upon Dublin, and took ship at Kin sale for France. But though the beaten army was forced by William's pursuit to abandon the capital, it was still resolute to fight. The incapacity ARMOUR WORN BY JAMES II. AT THE BOYNE. Tower of London. The Irish War IX THE REVOLUTION 1515 of the Stuart sovereign moved the scorn even of his followers. Sec. viii " Change kings with us," an Irish officer replied to an Englishman the grand 10 Alliance who taunted him with the panic of the Boyne, " change kings with us and we will fight you again." They did better in fighting with out a king. The French, indeed, withdrew scornfully from the routed army as it stood at bay beneath the walls of Limerick. " Do you call these ramparts ? " sneered Lauzun : " the English will need no cannon ; they may batter them down with roasted apples." But twenty thousand men remained with Sarsfield, a brave and skilful officer who had seen service in England and abroad ; and 1689 TO 1697 KING JOHN S CASTLE, LIMERICK. Afier IV. H. Bartiett. his daring surprise of the English ammunition train, his repulse of a desperate attempt to storm the town, and the approach of the winter, forced William to raise the siege. The course of the war abroad recalled him to England, and he left his work to one who was quietly proving himself a master in the art of war. Churchill, now Earl of Marlborough, had been recalled from Flanders to command a division which landed in the south of Ireland. Only a few days remained before the operations were interrupted by the coming of winter, but the few days were turned to good account. Cork, with five thousand men behind its walls, was taken 15 16 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec viii in forty-cight hours. Kinsale a few days later shared the fate of ^^liance" Cork. Winter indeed left Connaught and the greater part of 1689 Munster in Irish hands ; the French force remained untouched, and TO 1697 the coming of a new French general, St. Ruth, with arms and Ireland suppHes encouragcd the insurgents. But the summer of 1691 had hardly opened when Ginkell, the new English general, by his seizure of Athlone forced on a battle with the combined French and Irish forces at Aughrim, in which St. Ruth fell on the field and his army was utterly broken. The defeat left Limerick alone in its revolt, Oct. 1691 and even Sarsfield bowed to the necessity of a surrender. Two treaties were drawn up between the Irish and English generals. By the first it was stipulated that the Catholics of Ireland should enjoy such privileges in the exercise of their religion as were con sistent with law, or as they had enjoyed in the reign of Charles the Second. The Crown pledged itself also to summon a Parliament as soon as possible, and to endeavour to procure to the good Roman Catholics security " from any disturbance upon the account of the said religion." By the military treaty those of Sarsfield's soldiers who would were suffered to follow him to France ; and ten thousand men, the whole of his force, chose exile rather than life in a land where all hope of national freedom was lost. When the wild cry of the women who stood watching their departure was hushed, the silence of death settled down upon Ireland. For a hundred years the country remained at peace, but the peace was a peace of despair. The most terrible legal tyranny under which a nation has ever groaned avenged the rising under Tyrconnell. The conquered- people, in Swift's bitter words of contempt, became " hewers of wood and drawers of water " to their conquerors. Though local risings of these serfs perpetually spread terror among the English settlers, all dream of a national revolt passed away ; and till the eve of the French Revolution Ireland ceased to be a source of political danger to England. The Short as the struggle of Ireland had been, it had served Lewis Plots well, for while William was busy at the Boyne a series of brilliant successes was restoring the fortunes of France. In Flanders the Duke of Luxembourg won the victory of Fleurus. In Italy Marshal Catinat defeated the Duke of Savoy. A success of even greater moment, the last victory which France was fated to win at IX THE REVOLUTION 1517 sea, placed for an instant the very throne of William in peril. Sec.viii William never showed a cooler courage than in quitting England the grand to fight James in Ireland at a moment when the Jacobites were 1689 only looking for the appearance of a French fleet on the coast to 1697 rise in revolt. He was hardly on his way in fact when Tour\jille, June 30, the French admiral, put to sea with strict orders to fight. He was ' ^° met by the English and Dutch fleet at Beachy Head, and the Dutch division at once engaged. Though utterly outnumbered, it fought stubbornly in hope of Herbert's aid ; but Herbert, whether from MEDAL OF LOUIS XIV. COMMEMORATING VICTORY AT BEACHY HEAD. (Reverse.) cowardice or treason, looked idly on while his allies were crushed and withdrew at nightfall to seek shelter in the Thames. The danger was as great as the shame, for Tourville's victory left him master of the Channel, and his presence off the coast of Devon invited the Jacobites to revolt. But whatever the discontent of Tories and Nonjurors against William might be, all signs of it vanished with the landing of the French. The burning of Teignmouth by Tourville's sailors called the whole coast to arms ; and the news of the Boyne put an end to all dreams of a rising in French descent on England CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1519 favour of James. The natural reaction against a cause which Secviii looked for foreign aid gave a new strength for the moment to The grand WiHiam in England ; but ill luck still hung around the Grand 1689 TO Alliance. So urgent was the need for his presence abroad that 1697 William left, as we have seen, his work in Ireland undone, and crossed in the spring of 1691 to Flanders. It was the first time since the days of Henry the Eighth that an English king had appeared on the Continent at the head of an English army. But the slowness of the allies again baffled William's hopes. He was forced to look on with a small army while a hundred thousand Frenchmen closed suddenly around Mons, the strongest fortress of the Netherlands, and made themselves masters of it in the presence of Lewis. The humiliation was great, and for the moment all trust in William's fortune faded away. In England the blow was felt more heavily than elsewhere. The Jacobite hopes which had been crushed by the indignation at Tourville's descent woke up to a fresh life. Leading Tories, such as Lord Intrigues Clarendon and Lord Dartmouth, opened communications with England James ; and some of the leading Whigs, with the Earl of Shrewsbury at their head, angered at what they regarded as William's ingratitude, followed them in their course. In Lord Marlborough's mind the state of affairs raised hopes of a double treason. His design was to bring about a revolt which would drive William from the throne without replacing James, and give the crown to his daughter Anne, whose affection for Marlborough's wife would place the real government of England in his hands. A yet greater danger lay in the treason of Admiral Russell, who had succeeded Torrington in command of the fleet. Russell's defection would have removed the one obstacle to a new attempt which James was resolved to make for the recovery of his throne, and which Lewis had been brought to support. In the beginning of 1692 an army of thirty thousand troops was quartered in Normandy in readiness for a descent on the English coast. Transports were provided for their passage, and TourviUe was ordered to cover it with the French fleet at Brest. Though Russell had twice as many ships as his opponent, the belief in his purpose of betraying William's cause was so strong that Lewis ordered TourviUe to engage the allied fleets at any disadvantage. BATTLE OF LA HOGUE. From a contemporary engraving by Romeyn de Hooge. Represents the final destruction of the French fleet at the close of the six days' fight. A. Admiral RusseU's squadron. B. Light frigates to protect the fire-ships and schooners. C. "Le Conqu^rant." "X D. "Le Magnifique." ^ | French ships. Le Triomphant ' and " Le Trident." j. Schooners and skiff's, whence many English nobjes themselves stop the fire in the French ships. G. " L'Ambitieux." H. "Le Tonnant." L "Le Terrible." K. "Le St. Philippe." L. "L' Amiable." M. Small .French frigates and transports, between the Continent and the islands of Marcou. N. Remaining raerchantmen, with stores and ammunition, also mostly burnt in the Bay. E. F. O. Encampments of the late King James, the Marquis de Bellefonds, &c., abandoned owing to the fire of our schooners and frigates. P. Ste. Pernelle, second encampment where the powder-magazine exploded. Q. St. Vas, with the platforms on both sides of the Bay, overshot with the Cape of Barfleur. R. 'The "Soleil Royal," Tourville's flagship. S. *'L' Admirable." T. "Le Fort," with some smaller ones burnt by the schooners on Cape de . Wyk. V. Chevalier Delaval and his squadron (which burned the French flag- ' ship, Sec.) W. Cherbourg. X. Admiral Allemonde destroying most of the remaining fugitives. Y. Rear-Admiral Schey, with some French ships at Cape de La Hogue. Z. Fosse d'Aumonville. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1521 But whatever Russell's intrigues may have meant, he was no Sec. viii Herbert. " Do not think I will let the French triumph over us in the gkand ^ Alliance our own seas," he warned his Jacobite correspondents. " If I meet 1689 TO them, I will fight them, even though King James were on board." 1697 When the allied fleets met the French off the heights of Barfleur his Battle of fierce attack proved Russell true to his word. Tourville's fifty " °^" vessels were no match for the ninety ships of the allies, and after five hours of a brave struggle the French were forced to fly along the rocky coast of the Cotentin. Twenty-two of their vessels MEDAL COMMEMORATING VICTORY AT LA HOGUE. (Reverse.) William's reply to Louis's medal for victory at Beachy Head. reached St. Malo ; thirteen anchored with TourviUe in the bays of Cherbourg and La Hogue ; but their pursuers were soon upon them, and in a bold attack the English boats burnt ship after ship under the eyes of the French army. All dread of the invasion was at once at an end ; and the throne of William was secured by the detection and suppression of the Jacobite conspiracy at home which the invasion was intended to support. But the overthrow of the Jacobite hopes was the least result of the victory of La Hogue. France ceased from that moment to exist as a great naval power ; The tum of the •war 1522 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec. viii for though her fleet was soon recruited to its former strength, the The Grand confidence of her sailors was lost, and not even TourviUe ventured Alliance 1689 again to tempt in battle the fortune of the seas. A new hope, too, 1697 dawned on the Grand Alliance. The spell of French triumph was broken. Namur indeed surrendered to Lewis, and the Duke of Luxembourg maintained the glory of the French army by a victory 1692 over William at Steinkirk. But the battle was a useless butchery in which the conquerors lost as many men as the conquered. France felt herself disheartened and exhausted by the vastness of her efforts. The public misery was extreme. " The country," Fdnelon wrote frankly to Lewis, "is a vast hospital." In 1693 the campaign of Lewis in the Netherlands proved a fruitless one, ahd Luxembourg was hardly able to beat off the fierce attack of WilHam at Neerwinden. For the first time in his long career of prosperity Lewis bent his pride to seek peace at the sacrifice of his conquests, and though the effort was vain it told that the daring hopes of French ambition were at an end, and that the work of the Grand Alliance was practically done. The First In outer seeming, the Revolution of 1688 had only transferred Mhfisfry ^^ sovereignty over England from James to William and Mary. In actual fact it had given a powerful and decisive impulse to the great constitutional progress which was transferring the sovereignty from the King to the House of Commons. From the moment when its sole right to tax the nation was established by the Bill of Rights, and when its own resolve settled the practice of granting none but annual supplies to the Crown, the House of Commons became the supreme power in the State. It was impossible permanently to suspend its sittings, or in the long run to oppose its will, when either course must end in leaving the Government penniless, in breaking up the army and navy, and in suspending the public service. But though the constitutional change was complete, the machinery of government was far from having adapted itself to the new conditions of political life which The sove- such a change brought about. However powerful the will of the ^of^ie Hou.se of Commons might be, it had no means of bringing its will Commons directly to bear upon the conduct of public affairs. The Ministers who had charge of them were not its servants, but the servants of the Crown ; it was from the King that they looked for direction. IX THE REVOLUTION 1523 and to the King that they held themselves responsible. By sec viii impeachment or more indirect means the Commons could force the Grand ^ Alliance a King to remove a Minister who contradicted their will ; but they 1689 TO had no constitutional power to replace the fallen statesman by a 1697 Minister who would carry out their will. The result was the growth of a temper in the Lower House which drove WilHam and his Ministers to despair. It became as corrupt, as jealous of power, as fickle in its resolves and factious in spirit, as bodies always become whose consciousness of the possession of power is untempered by a corresponding consciousness of the practical difficulties or the moral responsibilities of the power which they possess. It grumbled at the ill-success of the war, at the suffering of the merchants, at the discontent of the Churchmen : and it blamed the Crown and its Ministers for all at which it grumbled. But it was hard to find out what policy or measures it would have preferred. Its mood changed, as William bitterly complained, with every hour. It was, in fact, without the guidance of recognised leaders, without adequate information, and destitute of that organization out of which alone a definite policy can come. Nothing better proves the inborn political capacity of the English mind than that it should at once have found a simple and effective solution of such a difficulty as this. The credit of the solution belongs to a man whose political character was of the lowest type. Robert, Earl of Sunderland, had been a Minister in the later days tordSun- of Charles the Second ; and he had remained Minister through ^^''^'^ almost all the reign of James. He had held office at last only by compliance with the worst tyranny of his master, and by a feigned conversion to the Roman Catholic faith ;. but the ruin of James was no sooner certain than he had secured pardon and protection from William by the betrayal of the master to whom he had sacrificed his conscience and his honour. Since the Revolu tion Sunderland had striven only to escape public observation in a country retirement, but at this crisis he came secretly forward to bring his unequalled sagacity to the aid of the King. His counsel The new was to recognize practically the new power of the Commons by X«w choosing the Ministers of the Crown exclusively from among the ^y^t^m members of the party which was strongest in the Lower House. As yet no Ministry in the modern sense of the term had existed. Vol. IV— 8 1524 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. .Secviii Each great officer of state. Treasurer or Secretary or Lord Privy The Grand Seal, had in theorv been independent of his fellow-officers ; each Alliance j j u j 1689 was the " King's servant " and responsible for the discharge of his TO 1697 ¦ ¦ I 1 ¦ H ^^H ^^^1 P^ 11 1 ^1 ^^^^ ^^1 ^^H m^ ^ 1 H ^Ih^'' ¦ Q. J, ^^^g "" 5S ? H 1 y l|v'| 1 1 ^M ^ J^M wk ^j c ^3 ^ HB^ 'f^^^^H ^^^^^m^^^^i 1 1 E ROBERT SPENCER, SECOND EARL OF SUNDERLAND. Picture by Carlo Maratta. at Althorpe. special duties to the King alone. From time to time one Minister, like Clarendon, might tower above the rest and give a general direction to the whole course of government, but the IX THE REVOLUTION 1525 predominance was merely personal and never permanent ; and Sec viii even in such a case there were colleagues who were ready to the Grand ° •' Alliance oppose or even impeach the statesman who overshadowed them. 1689 It was common for a King to choose or dismiss a single Minister 1697 without any communication with the rest ; and so far was even William from aiming at ministerial unity, that he had striven to reproduce in the Cabinet itself the balance of parties which prevailed outside it. Sunderland's plan aimed at replacing these independent Ministers by a homogeneous Ministry, chosen from the same party, representing the same sentiments, and bound together for common action by a sense of responsibility and loyalty to the party to which it belonged. Not only would such a plan secure a unity of administration which had been unknown till then, but it gave, an organization to the House of Commons which it had never had before. The Ministers who were represen tatives ofthe majority of its members became the natural leaders of the House. Small factions were drawn together into the two great parties which supported or opposed the Ministry of the Crown. Above all it brought about in the simplest possible way the solution of the problem which had so long vexed both King and Commons. The new Ministers ceased in all but name to be the King's servants. They became simply an executive Committee representing the will of the majority of the House of Commons, and capable of being easily set aside by it and replaced by a similar Committee whenever the balance of power shifted from one side of the House to the other. Such was the origin of that system of representative govern- The ment which has gone on from Sunderland's day to our own. But J"° '^ though William showed his own political genius in understanding and adopting Sunderland's plan, it was only slowly and tentatively that he ventured to carry it out in practice. In spite of the temporary reaction Sunderland believed that the balance of political power was really on the side of the Whigs. Not only were they the natural representatives of the principles of the Revolution, and the supporters of the war, but they stood far above their opponents in parliamentary and administrative talent. At their head stood a group of statesmen, whose close union in thought and action gained them the name of the Junto. Russell, 1 526 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec. viii as yet the most prominent of these, was the victor of La Hogue ; The Grand John Somcrs was an advocate who had sprung into fame by his Alliance '' i o 1689 defence of the Seven Bishops ; Lord Wharton was known as 1697 the most dexterous and unscrupulous of party managers ; and Montague was fast making a reputation as the ablest of English financiers. In spite of such considerations, however, it is doubtful whether William would have thrown himself into the hands of a purely Whig Ministry but for the attitude which the Tories took 1694 towards the war. Exhausted as France was the war still languished, and the allies failed to win a single victory. Mean while English trade was all but ruined by the French privateers, and the nation stood aghast at the growth of taxation. The Tories, always cold in their support of the Grand Alliance, now became eager for peace. The Whigs, on the other hand, remained resolute in their support of the war. William, in whose mind the contest with France was the first object, was thus driven slowly to The follow Sunderland's advice. Montague had already met the strain Z>ebt of the war by bringing forward a plan which had been previously 1694 suggested by a Scotchman, William Paterson, for the creation of a National Bank. While serving as an ordinary bank for the supply of capital, the Bank of England, as the new institution was called, was in reality an instrument for procuring loans from the people at large by the formal pledge of the State to repay the money advanced on' the demand of the lender. A loan of ;^ 1, 200,000 was thrown open to public subscription ; and the subscribers to it were formed into a chartered company in whose hands the negotiations of all after loans was placed. In ten days the list of subscribers was full. The discovery of the resources afforded by the national wealth revealed a fresh source of power ; and the rapid growth of the National Debt, as the mass of these loans to the State came to be called, gave a new security against the return of the Stuarts, whose first work would have been the repudiation of the claims of the lenders or " fundholders." The evidence of the public credit gave strength to William abroad, while at home a new unity of action followed the chaijge which Sunderland counselled and which was quietly carried out. One by one the Tory Ministers, already weakened by Montague's success, were replaced by members of the Junto. Russell went to IX THE REVOLUTION 1527 the Admiralty ; Somers was named Lord Keeper ; Shrewsbury, Secretary of State ; Montague, Chancellor of the Exchequer. Even before this change was completed its effect was felt. The House of Commons took a new tone. The Whig majority of its members, united and disciplined, moved quietly under the direc tion of their natural leaders, the Whig Ministers of the Crown. It was this which enabled William to face the shock which was given to his position by the death of Queen Mary. The renewed attacks ofthe Tories showed what fresh hopes had been raised by William's lonely position. The Parliament, however, whom the King had just conciliated by assenting at last to the Triennial Bill, Sec viii The Grand Alliance 1689 TO 1697 Death of Mary 1694 MEDAL COMMEMORATING THE STORMING OF TOUBOCAN (DARIEN), 170O. went steadily with the Ministry; and its fidelity was rewarded by triumph abroad. In 1695 the Alliance succeeded for the first time in winning a great triumph over France in the capture of Namur. The King skilfully took advantage of his victory to call a new Parliament, and its members at once showed their temper by a vigorous support of the war. The Houses, indeed, were no mere tools in William's hands. They forced him to resume prodigal grants of lands made to his Dutch favourites, and to remove his ministers in Scotland who had aided in a wild project for a Scotch colony on the Isthmus of Darien. They claimed a right to name members of the new Board of Trade, established for 1696 1528 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec VIII the regulation of commercial matters. They rejected a proposal, ^^Iiance" never henceforth to be revived, for a censorship of the Press. But 1689 TO 1697 HOUSE AT BRISTOL, USED 1696 — 1697 AS THE MINT. Seyer. "Memorials of Bristol." there was no factious opposition. So strong was the ministry that Montague was enabled to face the general distress that was caused for the moment by a reform of the currency, which had been X THE REVOLUTION 1529 reduced by clipping to far less than its nominal value ; and in sec viii spite of the financial embarrassments created by the reform, the grand ^ Alliance William was able to hold the French at bay. 1689 But the war was fast drawing to a close. Lewis was simply 1697 fighting to secure more favourable terms, and William, though he Peace of held that " the only way of treating with France is with our swords y^wic in our hands," was almost as eager as Lewis for a peace. The defection of Savoy made it impossible to carry out the original aim of the Alliance, that of forcing France back to its position at the Treaty of Westphalia, and the question of the Spanish succession was drawing closer every day. The obstacles which were thrown in the way of an accommodation by Spain and the Empire were set aside in a private negotiation between William and Lewis, and the year 1697 saw the conclusion of the Peace of 1697 Ryswick. In spite of failure and defeat in the field William's policy had won. The victories of France remained barren in the face of a United Europe ; and her exhaustion forced her, for the; first time since Richelieu's day, to consent to a disadvantageous peace. On the side of the Empire France withdrew from every annexation save that of Strassburg which she had made since the Treaty of Nimeguen, and Strassburg would have been restored but for the unhappy delays of the German negotiators. To Spain Lewis restored Luxemburg and all the conquests he had made during the war in the Netherlands. The Duke of Lorraine was replaced in his dominions. A far more important provision of the peace pledged Lewis to an abandonment ofthe Stuart cause and a recognition of William as King of England. For Europe in general the Peace of Ryswick was little more than a truce. But for England it was the close of a long and obstinate struggle and the opening of a new aera of political history. It was the final and decisive defeat of the conspiracy which had gone on between Lewis and the Stuarts ever since the Treaty of Dover, the conspiracy to turn England into a Roman Catholic country and into a dependency of France. But it was even more than this. It was' the definite establishment of England as the centre of European resistance against all attempts to overthrow the balance of power. MARLBOKOUGH. Drawing by Sir G. Kneller^ in British Museum. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1531 Sec IX Marl borough 1698 TO I7IZ SILVER CALL-WHISTLE. Seventeenth Century. In tlie possession of Lord Zouche. Section IX. — Marlborough, 1698 — 1712 {Authorities. — Lord Macaulay-s great work, which practically ends at the Peace of Ryswick, has been continued by Lord Stanhope (" History ef England under Queen Anne ") during this period. For Marlborough himself the main authority must be the Duke's biography by Archdeacon Coxe, with his " Despatches." The French sideof the war and negotiations has been carefully given by M. Martin ("Histoire de France") in what is the most accurate and judicious portion of his work. Swift's Journal to Stella and his political tracts, and Bolingbroke's correspondence, show the character of the Tory opposition.] What had bowed the pride of Lewis to the humiliating terms of the Peace of Ryswick was not so much the exhaustion of France as the need of preparing for a new and greater struggle. The death of the King of Spain, Charles the Second, was known to be at hand ; and with him ended the male line of the Austrian princes, who for two hundred years had occupied the Spanish throne. How strangely Spain had fallen from its high estate in Europe the wars of Lewis had abundantly shown, but so vast was the extent The SpanishSucces sion 1532 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec IX of its empire, so enormous the resources which still remained to it. Marl- that uudcr a vigorous ruler men believed its old power would at BOROUGH ° * 1698 once return. Its sovereign was still master of some of the noblest 1712 provinces of the Old World and the New, of Spain itself, of the Milanese, of Naples and Sicily, of the Netherlands, of Southern America, of the noble islands of the Spanish Main. To add such a dominion as this to the dominion either of Lewis or of the Emperor would be to undo at a blow the work of European independence which William had wrought ; and it was with a view to prevent either of these results that William freed his hands by the Peace of Ryswick. At this moment the claimants of the Spanish succession were three : the French Dauphin, a son of the Spanish King's elder sister ; the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, a grandson of his younger sister ; and the Emperor, who ,was a son of Charles's aunt. In strict law — if there had been any law really applicable to the matter — the claim of the last was the strongest of the three ; for the claim of the Dauphin was barred by an express renunciation of all right to the succession* at his mother's marriage with Lewis the Fourteenth, a renunciation which had been ratified at the Treaty of the Pyrenees ; and a similar renunciation barred the claim of the Bavarian candidate. The claim of the Emperor was more remote in blood, but it was barred by no renunciation at all. William, however, was as resolute in the interests of Europe to repulse the claim of the Emperor as to repulse that of Lewis ; and it was the consciousness that the Austrian succession was inevitable if the war continued and Spain remained a member of the Grand Alliance, in arms against France, and leagued with the Emperor, which made him suddenly conclude the Peace of Ryswick. Had England, and Holland shared William's temper he would have insisted on the succession of the Electoral Prince to the whole Spanish dominions. But both were weary of war. In England the peace was at once followed by the reduction of the army at the demand of the House of Commons to fourteen thousand men ; and a clamour had already begun for the disbanding even of these. It First was necessary to bribe the two rival claimants to a waiver of their ^T^aty claims; and by the First Partition Treaty, concluded in 1698, 1698 between England, Holland, and France, the succession of the IX THE REVOLUTION 1533 Electoral Prince was recognized on condition of the cession by Spain of its Italian possessions to his two rivals. The Milanese was to pass to the Emperor ; the Two Sicilies, with the border province of Guipuzcoa, to France. But the arrangement was hardly concluded when the death of the Bavarian prince made the Treaty waste paper. Austria and France were left face to face, and a terrible struggle, in which the success of either would be equally fatal to the independence of Europe, seemed unavoidable. The peril was greater that the temper of England left William without the means of backing his policy by arms. The suffering which the war had caused to the merchant class, and the pressure of the debt and taxation it entailed, were waking every day a more bitter Sec. IX Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 MEDAL COMMEMORATING FIRST PARTITION TREATY, 1698. resentment in the people, and the general discontent avenged itself on William and the party who had backed his policy. The King's natural partiality to his Dutch favourites, the confidence he gave to Sunderland, his cold and sullen demeanour, his endeavours to maintain the standing army, robbed him of popularity. In the elections held at the close of 1698 a Tory majority pledged to peace was returned to the House of Commons. The Junto lost p^n ^y all hold on the new Parliament. The resignation of Montague the Junto and Russell was followed by the dismissal of the Whig ministry, and Somers and his friends were replaced by an administration composed of moderate Tories, with Lords Rochester and Godolphin as its leading members. The fourteen thousand men 1534 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec. IX Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 Second Partition Treaty 1700 who still remained in the army were cut down to seven. William's earnest entreaty could not turn the Parliament from its resolve to send his Dutch guards out of the country. The navy, which had numbered forty thousand sailors during the war, was cut down to eight. How much William's hands were weakened by this peace-temper of England was shown by the Second Partition Treaty which was concluded between the two maritime powers and France. The demand of Lewis that the Netherlands should DUTCH GUARDS. Temp. William III. Frotn an engraving by Romeyn de Hooge. be given to the Elector of Bavaria, whose political position left him a puppet in the French King's hands, was resisted. Spain, the Netherlands, and the Indies were assigned to the second son of the Emperor, the Archduke Charles of Austria. But the whole of the Spanish territories in Italy were now granted to France ; and it was provided that Milan should be exchanged for Lorraine, whose Duke was to be summarily transferred to the new Duchy. If the Emperor persisted in his refusal to come into the Treaty, the IX THE REVOLUTION 1535 Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 Th'e Second Grand MEDAL COMMEMORATING HOMAGE OF DUKE OF LORRAINE TO LOUIS XIV. share of his son was to pass to another unnamed prince, who was Sec ix probably the Duke of Savoy. The Emperor still protested, but his protest was of little moment so long as Lewis and the two maritime powers held firmly together. Nor was the bitter resentment of Spain of more avail. The Spaniards cared little whether Alliance a French or an Austrian prince sat on the throne of Charles the Second, but their pride revolted against the dismemberment of the monarchy by the loss of its Italian dependencies. Even the dying King shared the anger of his subjects, and a will wrested from him by the factions which wrangled over his death-bed be queathed the whole monarchy of Spain to a grandson of Lewis, the Duke of Anjou, the second son of the Dauphin. The Treaty of Partition was so recent, and the risk of accepting this bequest so great, that Lewis would hardly have resolved on it but for his belief that the temper of Eng land must necessarily render Wil liam's opposition a fruitless one. Never in fact had England been so averse from war. So strong was the antipathy to William's foreign policy that men openly approved the French King's course. Hardly any one in Eng land dreaded the succession of a boy who, French as he was, would as they believed soon be turned into a Spaniard by the natural course of events. The succession of the Duke of Anjou was generally looked upon as far better than the increase of power which France would have derived from the cessions of the last MEDAL COMMEMORATING NOMINA TION OF DUKE OF ANJOU AS. * KING OF SPAIN. ^536 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec IX Treaty of Partition, cessions which would have turned the Mediterranean, it was said, into a French lake, imperilled the English trade with the Levant and America, and raised France into a formidable power at sea. " It grieves me to the heart," William wrote bitterly, " that almost every one rejoices that France has preferred the Will to the Treaty." Astonished and angered as he was at his rival's breach of faith, he had Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 Spain 1 701 Duke of no means of punishing it The Duke of Anjou entered Madrid^ Anjou in t x ¦ n - ¦ and Lewis proudly boasted that hence forth there were no Pyrenees. The life- work of William seem ed undone. He knew himself to be dying. His cough was inces sant, his eyes sunk and dead, his frame so weak that he could hardly get into his coach. But never had he shown himself so great. His courage. rose with every diffi culty. His temper,. which had been heated by the personal af fronts lavished on him through EngHsh fac tion, was hushed by a supreme effort of his will. His large and clear-sighted intellect looked through the temporary embarrass ments of French diplomacy and English party strife to the great interests which he knew must in the end determine the course of European politics. Abroad and at home all seemed to go against him. For the moment he had no ally save Holland, for Spain was now united with Lewis, while the attitude of Bavaria '''^ (rran^^Me^-i^lir^im 'waf,qTfvi^ flxa£^paMeGroitmj^Iave& m^iujjtlf SATIRICAL PLAYING-CARD. Temp. War of the Spanish Succession. British Museum. IX THE REVOLUTION 1537 Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 divided Germany and held the House of Austria in check. The sec. ix Bavarian Elector indeed, who had charge of the Spanish Nether lands and on whom William had counted, openly joined the French side from the first and proclaimed the Duke of Anjou as King in Brussels. In England the new Parhament was crowded with Tories who were resolute against war. The Tory Ministry pressed him to acknowledge the new King of Spain ; and as even Holland did this William was forced to submit. He could only count on the greed of Lewis to help him, and he did not count in vain. The approval of the French King's action had sprung from the belief that he intended to leave Spain to the Spaniards under their new King. Bitter too as the strife of Whig and Tory might be in England, there were two things on which Whig and Tory were agreed. Neither would suffer France to oc cupy the Netherlands. Neither would endure a French attack on the Protestant succession yrhich the Revolution of 1688 had established. But the arrogance of Lewis blinded him to the need of moderation in his hour of good-luck. In the name of his grandson he introduced French troops intol the seven fortresses known as the Dutch barrier, and intO' Ostend and the coast towms of Flanders. Even the Peace- Parliament at once acquiesced in William's demand for their withdrawal, and authorized him to conclude a defensive JOHN DRYDEN, DIED 1700. Picture by Sir G. Kneller. England and the 1538 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec. IX alliance with Holland. The King's policy indeed was bitterly Marl- blamcd, while the late ministers, Somers, RusseU, and Montague BOROUGH 1698 (now become peers), were impeached for their share in the treaties. 1712 But outside the House of Commons the tide of national feeling rose as the designs of Lewis grew clearer. He refused to allow the Dutch barrier to be re-established ; and a great French fleet gathered in the Channel to support, it was believed, a fresh Jacobite descent, which was proposed by the ministers of James in a letter intercepted and laid before Parliament. Even the House of Commons took fire at this, and the fleet was raised to thirty thousand men, the army to ten thousand. Kent sent up a remon strance against the factious measures by which the Tories still struggled against the King's policy, with a prayer that addresses might be turned into Bills of Supply; and William was encouraged by these signs of a change of temper to despatch an English force to Plolland, and to conclude a secret treaty with the United Provinces for the recovery of the Netherlands from Lewis, and for their transfer with the Milanese to the house of Austria as a means of counter-balancing the new power added to France. But Death of England was still clinging desperately to a hope of peace, when Lewis by a sudden act forced it into war. He had acknowledged Sept. 1701 William as King in the Peace of Ryswick, and pledged himself to oppose all attacks on his throne. He now entered the bed chamber at St. Germain where James was breathing his last, and promised to acknowledge his son at his death as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The promise was in fact a declaration of war, and in a moment all England was at one in accepting the challenge. The issue Lewis had raised was no longer a matter of European politics, but the question whether the work of the Revo lution should be undone, and whether Catholicism and despotism should be replaced on the throne of England by the arms of France. On such a question as this there was no difference between Tory and Whig. When the death, in 1700, of the last child of the . , „ Princess Anne had been followed by a new Act of Succession, not Act of -^ ' Settle- a voice had been raised for James or his son ; and the descendants j.jjj of the daughter of Charles the First, Henrietta of Orleans, whose only child had married the Catholic Duke of Savoy, were passed over in the same silence. The Parliament fell back on the line of IX THE REVOLUTION 1539 James the First. His daughter Elizabeth had married the Elector Palatine, and her only surviving child, Sophia, was the wife of the late and the mother of the present Elector of Hanover. It was in Sophia and her heirs, being Protestants, that the Act of Settlement vested the Crown. It was enacted that every English sovereign must be in communion with the Church of England as by law established. All future kings were forbidden to leave England without consent of Parliament, and foreigners were excluded from all public posts. The independence of justice was established by a clause which provided that no judge should be removed from office save on an address from Parliament to the Crown. The two prin ciples that the King acts only through his ministers, and that these ministers are responsible to Parliament, were as serted by a requirement that all public business should be formally done in the Privy Council, and all its decisions signed by its members — provi sions which went far to complete the parliamen tary Constitution which had been drawn up by the Bill of Rights. The national union which had already been shown in this action of the Tory Parliament, now showed itself in the King's welcome on his return from the Hague, where the conclusion of a new Grand Alliance between the Empire, Hol land, and the United Provinces, had rewarded William's patience and skill. The Alliance was soon joined by Denmark, Sweden, the Palatinate, and the bulk of the German States. The Parlia ment of 1702, though still Tory in the main, replied to WiUiam's stirring appeal by voting forty thousand soldiers and as many sailors for the coming struggle. A Bill of Attainder was passed Vol. IV— 9 THE ELECTRESS SOPHIA. Reverse of a medal struck to commemorate the Act of Succession, 1701. Sec. IX Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 1540 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec IX Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 Marl borough against the new Pretender ; and all members of either House and all public officials were sworn to uphold the succession of the House of Hanover. But the King's weakness was already too great to allow of his taking the field ; and he was forced to entrust the war in the Netherlands to the one Englishman who had shown himself capable of a great command. John Churchill, Earl of Marlborough, was born in 1650, the son of a Devonshire Cavalier, whose daughter became at the Restoration mistress of the Duke of York. The shame of Arabella did more per- _haps than her father's loyalty to win for her brother a commission in the royal Guards ; and, after five years' service abroad under Turenne, the young captain became colonel of an English regiment which was retained in the service of France. He had already shown some of the qualities of a great soldier, an un ruffled courage, a bold and venturous temper held in check by a cool and serene judgement, a vigilance and capacityfor enduring-fatigue which never forsook him. In later years he was known to spend a whole dayin reconnoitring, and at Blenheim he remained on horseback for fifteen hours. But courage and skill in arms did less for Churchill on his return to the English court than his personal beauty. In the French camp M, DE JMARLEBOROUGH, From an engraving after Van der Meulen. IX THE REVOLUTION 1541 he had been known as " the handsome Englishman ; " and his sec ix manners were as winning as his person. Even in age his address marl- ° BOROUGH was almost irresistible : " he engrossed the graces," says Chester- 1698 field ; and his air never lost the careless sweetness which won the 1712 favour of Lady Castlemaine. A present of ;£'5,000 from the King's mistress laid the foundation of a fortune which grew rapidly to greatness, as the prudent forethought of the handsome young soldier hardened into the avarice of age. But it was to the Churchill and Duke of York that Churchill looked mainly for advancement, and James he earned it by the fidelity with which as a member of his household he clung to the Duke's fortunes during the dark days of the Popish Plot. He followed James to the Hague and to Edinburgh, and on his master's return he was rewarded with a peerage and the colonelcy of the Life Guards. The service he rendered James after his accession by saving the royal army from a surprise at Sedgemoor would have been yet more splendidly acknowledged but for the King's bigotry. In spite of his master's personal solicitations Churchill remained true to Protestantism ; but he knew James too well to count on further favour. Luckily he had now found a new groundwork for his fortunes in the growing influence of his wife over the King's second daughter, Anne ; and at the crisis of the Revolution the adhesion of Anne to the cause of Protestantism was of the highest value. No sentiment of gratitude to his older patron hindered Marlborough from corresponding with the Prince of Orange, from promising Anne's sympathy to William's effort, or from deserting the ranks of the King's army when it faced William in the field. His desertion Churchill proved fatal to the royal cause ; but great as this service was it wnUam was eclipsed by a second. It was by his wife's persuasion that Anne was induced to forsake her father and take refuge in Danby's camp. Unscrupulous as his conduct had been, the services which he rendered to William were too great to miss their reward. He became Earl of Marlborough ; he was put at the head of a force during the Irish war where his rapid successes won William's regard ; and he was given high command in the army of Flanders. But the sense of his power over Anne soon turned Marlborough from plotting treason against James to plot treason against William. Great as was his greed of gold, he had 1542 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec. IX married Sarah Jennings, a penniless beauty of Charles's court, in Marl- whom a violcut and malignant temper was strangely combined BOROUGH " ^ & y 1698 with a power of winning and retaining love. Churchill's affection 1712 for her ran like a thread of gold through the dark web of his career. In the midst of his marches and from the very battle-field JOHN CHURCHILL, DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH. Picture by J. Closterman, in National Portrait Gallery. he writes to his wife with the same passionate tenderness. The composure which no danger or hatred could ruffle broke down into almost womanish depression at the thought of her coldness or at any burst of her violent humour. He never left her without a pang. " I did for a great while with a perspective glass look upon IX THE REVOLUTION 1543 the cliffs," he once wrote to her after setting out on a campaign, Sec. ix " in hopes that I might have had one sight of you." It was no marl. r i3 & J BOROUGH wonder that the woman who inspired Marlborough with a love like 1698 this bound to her the weak and feeble nature of the Princess 171 2 Anne. The two friends threw off the restraints of state, and SARAH, DUCHESS OF MARLBOROUGH. Picture by Sir Godfrey Kneller, in National Portrait Gallery. addressed each other as "Mrs. Freeman" and "Mrs. Morley." It was on his wife's influence over her friend that the Earl's ambition counted in its designs against William. His plan was to drive the King from the throne by backing the Tories in their opposition to the war as well as by stirring to frenzy the English 1544 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec. IX Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 hatred of foreigners, and to seat Anne in his place. The discovery of his designs roused the King to a burst of unusual resentment. " Were I and my Lord Marlborough private persons," William exclaimed, " the sword would have to settle between us." As it was, he could only strip the Earl of his offices and command, and drive his wife from St. James's. Anne followed her favourite, and the court of the Princess became the centre of the Tory opposition ; while Marlborough opened a correspondence with James. So notorious was his treason that on the eve of the MEMORIAL OF WILLIAM IIL Unique gold medal in British Museum. French invasion of 1692 he was one of the first of the suspected persons sent to the Tower. jyi^jj. The death of Mary forced William to recall Anne, who became borough ^jy ^.jijs event his successor ; and with Anne the Marlboroughs and the ¦' ' » Grand returned to court. The King could not bend himself to trust the Earl again ; but as death drew near he saw in him the one man whose splendid talents fitted him, in spite of the baseness and treason of his life, to rule England and direct the Grand Alliance in his stead. He employed Marlborough therefore to negotiate the treaty of alliance with the Emperor, and put him at the head of the army in Flanders. But the Earl had only just taken the IX THE REVOLUTION 1545 command when a fall from his horse proved fatal to the broken Sec. ix frame of the King. " There was a time when I should have been marl- ° borough glad to have been delivered out of my troubles," the dying man 1698 , . ¦ TO whispered to Portland, "but I own I see another scene, and could 1712 wish to live a little longer." He knew, however, that the wish was Death of vain, and commended Marlborough to Anne as the fittest person ;^^^ 2 to lead her armies and guide her counsels. Anne's zeal needed no quickening. Three days after her accession the Earl was named Captain-General of the English forces at home and abroad, and entrusted with the entire direction of the war. His supremacy over home affairs was secured by the construction of a purely Tory administration with Lord Godolphin, a close friend of Marlborough's, as Lord Treasurer at its head. The Queen's affection for his wife ensured him the support of the Crown at a moment when Anne's personal popularity gave the Crown a new weight with the nation. In England, indeed, party feeling for the moment died away. All save the extreme Tories were won over to the war now that it was waged on behalf of a Tory queen by a Tory general, while the most extreme of the Whigs were ready to back even a Tory general in waging a Whig war. Abroad, however, William's death shook the Alliance to its base ; and even Holland wavered in dread of being deserted by England in the coming struggle. But the decision of Marlborough soon did away with this distrust. Anne was made to declare from the throne her resolve to pursue with energy the policy of her predecessor. The Parliament was brought to sanction vigorous measures for the prosecution of the war. The new general hastened to the Hague, received the command of the Dutch as well as of the English forces, and drew the German powers into the Confederacy with a skill and adroitness which even William might have envied. Never was greatness more quickly recognized than in the case of Marlborough. In a few months he was regarded by all as the guiding spirit of the Alliance, and princes whose jealousy had worn out the patience of the King yielded without a struggle to the counsels ofhis successor. His temper fitted him in an especial way to be the head of a great confederacy. Like William, he owed little of his power to any early training. The trace of his neglected education was seen to the last in his reluctance tb write. 1546 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec IX " Of all things," he said to his wife, " I do not love writing." To Marl, pen 3. dcspatch indeed was a far greater trouble to him than to borough ^ 1698 plan a campaign. But nature had given him qualities which in 1712 other men spring specially from culture. His capacity for business was immense. During the next ten years he assumed the general direction of the war in Flanders and in Spain. He managed every negotiation with the courts of the allies. He watched over the. shifting phases of English politics. He crossed the Channel to win over Anne to a change in the Cabinet, or hurried to Berlin to secure the due contingent of Electoral troops from Brandenburg. At one and the same moment men saw him reconciling the Emperor with the Protestants of Hungary, stirring the Calvinists of the C^vennes into revolt, arranging the affairs of Portugal, and providing for the protection of the Duke of Savoy. But his air showed no trace of fatigue or haste or vexation. He retained to the last the indolent grace of his youth. His natural dignity was never ruffled by an outbreak of temper. Amidst the storm of battle his soldiers saw their leader " without fear of danger or in the least hurry, giving his orders with all the calmness imaginable." In the cabinet he was as cool as on the battle-field. He met with the same equable serenity the pettiness of the German princes, the phlegm of the Dutch, the ignorant opposition of his officers, the libels of his political opponents. There was a touch of irony in the simple expedients by which he sometimes solved problems which had baffled Cabinets. The touchy pride of the King of Prussia made him one of the most vexatious among the allies, but all diflficulty with him ceased when Marlborough rose at a state banquet and handed him a napkin. Churchill's composure rested partly indeed on a pride which could not stoop to bare the real self within to the eyes of meaner men. In the bitter moments before his fall he bade Godolphin burn some querulous letters which the persecution of his opponents had wrung from him. "My desire is that the world may continue in their error of thinking me a happy man, for I think it better to be envied than pitied." But in great measure it sprang from the purely intellectual temper of his mind. His passion for his wife was the one sentiment which tinged the colourless light in which his understanding moved. In all else he was without love or hate, he IX THE REVOLUTION 1547 knew neither doubt nor regret. In private life he was a humane and compassionate man ; but if his position required it he could betray Englishmen to death, or lead his army to a butchery such as that of Malplaquet. Of honour or the finer sentiments of mankind he knew nothing ; and he turned without a shock from guiding Europe and winning great victories to heap up a matchless fortune by peculation and greed. He is perhaps the only instance of a man of real greatness who loved money's sake, money for The pas sions which stirred the men around him, whether noble or ignoble, were to him simply elements in an intellectual problem which had to be solved by patience. " Patience will overcome all things," he writes again and again. "As I think most things are governed by destiny, having done all things we should submit with patience." As a statesman the high qualities of Marlborough were owned by his bitterest foes. " Over the Confeder acy," says Bolingbroke, " he, a new, a private man, acquired by merit and management a more decided influence than high birth, confirmed authority, and even the crown of Great Britain, had given to King William." But great as he was in the council, he was even greater in the field. He stands alone amongst the masters of the art of war as a captain whose victories began at an age when the work of most men is done. Though he served as a young oflficer under Turenne and for a few months in Ireland and the Netherlands, he had held ^cuHnotifca- satirical playing-card. Temp. Marlborough. British Museum. Sec. IX Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 Marl borough and the War 1548 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec IX no great command till he took the field in Flanders at the age of Marl- fifty-two. He stauds alone, too, in his unbroken good fortune. "'1698 Voltaire notes that he never besieged a fortress which he did not take. TO I7I2 THE DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH S RUNNING FOOTMEN. Tapestry ai Blenheim Palace, representing the Battle of Blenlieim. or fought a battle which he did not win. His diflSculties came not so much from the enemy, as from the ignorance and timidity of his own allies. He was never defeated in the field, but victory after victory was snatched from him by the incapacity of his oflScers or IX THE REVOLUTION 1549 the stubbornness of the Dutch. What startled the cautious strategists of his day was the vigour and audacity of his plans. Old as he was, Marlborough's designs had from the first all the dash and boldness of youth. On taking the field in 1702 he at once resolved to force a battle in the heart of Brabant. The plan was foiled by the timidity of the Dutch deputies. But his resolute Sec IX MARL BOKOUGH 1698 TO I7I2 opening of the •war EUGENE AND MARLBOROUGH RECONNOITRING. From an engraving by Camsvelt. advance across the Meuse drew the French forces from that river, and enabled him to reduce fortress after fortress in a series of sieges, till the surrender of Lidge closed a campaign which cut off the French from the Lower Rhine, and freed Holland from all danger of an invasion. The successes of Marlborough had been brought into bolder relief by the fortunes of the war in other quarters. Though the Imperialist general. Prince Eugene UAlTLr OF HOCHSTADT (OR BLENHEIM). From an engr.xving br J. van H ttchtenburg. chap. IX THE REVOLUTION 1551 of Savoy, showed his powers by a surprise of the French sec ix army at Cremona, no real successes had been won in Italy. Marl borough An English descent on the Spanish coast ended in failure. In 1698 Germany the Bavarians joined the French, and the united armies 1712 defeated the forces' of the Empire. It was in this quarter that Lewis resolved to push his fortunes. In the spring of 1703 a fresh army under Marshal Villars again relieved the Bavarian Elector from the pressure of the Imperial forces, and only a strife which arose between the two commanders hindered the joint armies from marching on Vienna. Meanwhile the timidity of the Dutch deputies served Lewis well in the Low Countries. The hopes of Marlborough, who had been raised to a Dukedom for his services in the previous year, were again foiled by the deputies of the States-General. Serene as his temper was, it broke down before their refusal to co-operate in an attack on Antwerp and French Flanders ; and the prayers of Godolphin and of the pensionary Heinsius alone induced him to withdraw his offer of resignation. But in spite of his victories on the Danube, of the blunders of his adversaries on the Rhine, and the sudden aid of an insurrection which broke out in Hungary, the difficulties of Lewis were hourly increasing. The accession of Savoy to the Grand Alliance threatened his armies in Italy with destruction. That of Portugal gave the allies a base of operations against Spain. The French King's energy however rose with the pressure ; and while the Duke of Berwick, a natural son of James the Second, was despatched against Portugal, and three small armies closed round Savoy, the flower of the French troops joined the army of Bavaria on the Danube ; for the bold plan of Lewis was to decide the fortunes of the war by a victory which would wrest peace from the Empire under the walls of Vienna. The master-stroke of Lewis roused Marlborough at the opening Blenheim of 1704 to a master-stroke in return ; but the secrecy and boldness of the Duke's plans deceived both his enemies and his allies. The French army in Flanders saw in his march upon Maintz only a design to transfer the war into Elsass. The Dutch were lured into suffering their troops to be drawn as far from Flanders as Coblentz by proposals for an imaginary campaign on the Moselle. It was only when Marlborough crossed the Neckar and struck . ^ ^^C- ' ^^m^ w2 ^^^B^H^HBn^T. '¦'^ ^BKKBUfaMHffU^k'* ; 'j4;J1 1 ' '^'iS f^W^VFT '"'^'j'^E^HI SURRENDER OF MARSHAL TALLARD. Tapestry at Blenheim Palace, representing the Battle of Blenheim. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1553 through the centre of Germany for the Danube that the true aim Sec ix of his operations was revealed. After struggling through the hill marl- ^ °° ° ° borough country of Wiirtemberg, he joined the Imperial army under the 1698 Prince of Baden, stormed the heights of Donauwerth, crossed the 1712 Danube and the Lech, and penetrated into the heart of Bavaria. The crisis drew the two armies which were facing one another on the Upper Rhine to the scene. The arrival of Marshal Tallard with thirty thousand French troops saved the Elector of Bavaria for the moment from the need of submission ; but the junction of his opponent. Prince Eugene, with Marlborough raised the con tending forces again to an equality. After a few marches the armies met on the north bank of the Danube, near the little town of Hochstadt and the village of Blindheim or Blenheiin, which have given their names to one of the most memorable battles in the history of the world. In one respect the struggle which followed stands almost unrivalled, for the whole of the Teutonic race was represented in the strange medley of Englishmen, Dutchmen, Hanoverians, Danes, Wiirtembergers, and Austrians who followed Marlborough and Eugene. The French and Bavarians, who numbered like their opponents some fifty thousand men, lay behind a little stream which ran through swampy ground to the Danube. Their position was a strong one, for its front was covered by the swamp, its right by the Danube, its left by the hill-country in which the stream rose ; and Tallard had not only entrenched himself, but was far superior to his rival in artillery. But for once Marlborough's hands were free. " I have great reason," he wrote calmly home, " to hope that everything will go well, for I have the pleasure to find all the ofificers willing to obey without knowing any other reason than that it is my desire, which, is very different from what it was in Flanders, where I was obliged to have the consent of a council of war for everything I undertook." So formidable were the obstacles, however, that though the allies were in motion at sunrise, it was not till midday that Eugene, who ¦commanded on the right, succeeded in crossing the stream. The English foot at once forded it on the left and attacked the village Aug. 13, of Blindheim in which the bulk of the French infantry were '^"'^ entrenched ; but after a furious struggle the attack was repulsed, while as gallant a resistance at the other end of the line held 'MALBOROUK.' Illustration, Early Nineteenth Century, to French song (hroadside), Biblioth&que Nationale, Paris. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1555 Eugene in check. The centre, however, which the French believed sec ix to be unassailable, had been chosen bv Marlborough for the chief marl- •' ° BOROUGH point of attack ; and by making an artificial road across the morass 1698 he was at last enabled to throw his eight thousand horsemen on 1712 the French cavalry which occupied this position. Two desperate charges which the Duke headed in person decided the day. The French centre was flung back on the Danube and forced to surrender. Their left fell back in confusion on Hochstadt : while their right, cooped up in Blindheim and cut off from retreat, became prisoners of war. Of the defeated army only twenty thousand escaped. Twelve thousand were slain, fourteen thousand were captured. Germany was finally freed from the French ; and Marlborough, who followed the wreck of the French host in its flight to Elsass, soon made himself master of the Lower Moselle. But the loss of France could not be measured by men or fortresses. A hundred victories since Rocroi had taught the world to regard the French army as invincible, when Blenheim and the surrender of the flower of the French soldiery broke the spell. From that moment the terror of victory passed to the side of the allies, and " Malbrook " became a name of fear to every* child in France. In England itself the victory of Blenheim aided to bring about Ramillies a great change in the political aspect of affairs. The Tories were resolved to create a permanent Tory majority in the Commons by excluding Nonconformists from the municipal corporations, which returned the bulk of the borough members. The Protestant Dissenters, while adhering to their separate congregations, in which they were now protected by the Toleration Act, "qualified for ofiftce" by the " occasional conformity" of receiving the sacrament at Church once in the year. It was against this " occasional Occasional conformity" that the Tories introduced a test to exclude the '^°"'X°""- Nonconformists ; and this test at first received Marlborough's support. But it was steadily rejected by the Lords as often as it was sent up to them, and it was soon guessed that their resistance was secretly backed by both Marlborough ahd Godolphin. Tory as he was, in fact, Marlborough had no mind for an unchecked Tory rule, or for a revival of religious strife which would be fatal to the war. But he strove in vain to propitiate his party by inducing the Queen to set aside the tenths and first-fruits hitherto Vol. IV— 10 i5S6 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec. IX paid by the clergy to the Crown as a fund for the augmentation of Marl- Small benefices, a fund which still bears the name of Queen Anne's BOROUGH -^ 1698 Bounty. The Commons showed their resentment by refusing to TO JO 1712 add a grant of money to the grant of a Dukedom after his first campaign ; and the ^higher Tories, with Lord Nottingham at their head, began to throw every obstacle they could in the way of the continuance of the war. At last they quitted oflfice in 1704, and Marlborough replaced them by Tories of a more moderate stamp who were still in favour of the war : by Robert Harley, who became Secretary of State, and Henry St. John, a man of splendid talents, who was named Secretary at War. The Duke's march into Germany, which pledged England to a struggle in the heart of the Continent, embittered the political strife. The high Tories and Jacobites threatened, if Marlborough failed, to bring his head to the block, and only the victory of Blenheim saved him from political ruin. Slowly and against his will the Duke drifted from his own party to the party which really backed his policy. He availed himself of the national triumph over Blenheim to dissolve Parliament ; and when the election of 1705, as he hoped, returned a majority in favour of the war, his efforts brought about a The_ coalition between the moderate Tories who still clung to him and mnistry ^^^ Whig Junto, whose support was purchased by making a Whig, William Cowper, Lord Keeper, and by sending Lord Sunderland as envoy to Vienna. The bitter attacks of the peace party were entirely foiled by this union, and Marlborough at last felt secure at home. But he had to bear disappointment abroad. His plan of attack along the Hne of the Moselle was defeated by the refusal of the Imperial army to join him. When he entered the French lines across the Dyle, the Dutch generals withdrew their troops ; and his proposal to attack the Duke of Villeroy in the field of Waterloo was rejected in full council of war by the deputies of the States with cries of " murder " and " massacre." Even Marl borough's composure broke into bitterness at the blow. " Had I had the same power I had last year," he wrote home, " I could have won a greater victory than that of Blenheim." On his complaint the States recalled their commissaries, but the year was lost ; nor had greater results been brought about in Italy or on the Rhine. The spirits of the allies were only sustained by the IX THE REVOLUTION 1557 romantic exploits of Lord Peterborough in Spain. Profligate, unprincipled, flighty as he was, Peterborough had a genius for war, and his seizure of Barcelona with a handful of men, his recognition of the old liberties of Aragon, roused that province to support the cause of the second son of the Emperor, who had been acknow- Sec IX Marl borough 1698 to 1712 CHARLES MORDAUNT, EARL OF PETERBOROUGH. From a mezzotint' by J. Simon of a picture by M. Dahl. ledged as King of Spain by the allies under the title of Charles the Third. Catalonia and Valencia soon joined Aragon in declaring for Charles : while Marlborough spent the winter of 1705 in negotiations at Vienna, BerHn, Hanover, and the Hague, and in preparations for the coming campaign. Eager for freedom of 1558 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec IX Marl borough 1698 to 1712 action, and sick of the Imperial generals as, of the Dutch, he planned a march over the Alps and a campaign in Italy ; and though his designs were defeated by the opposition of the allies, he found himself unfettered when he again appeared in Flanders in 1 706. The French marshaji Villeroy was as eager as Marlborough for an engagement ; and the two armies met on the 23rd of May at the villa^ of Ramillies on the undulating plain which forms the highest ground in Brabant. The French were drawn up in a wide curve with morasses covering their front. After a feint on their left, Marlborough flung himself on their right wing at Ramillies, crushed it in a brilliant charge that he led in person, and swept along their MEDAL TO COMMEMORATE BATTLE OF RAMILLIES. -U whole line till it broke in a rout which only ended beneath the walls of Louvain. In an hour and a half the French had lost fifteen thousand men, their baggage, and their guns ; and the line of the Scheldt, Brussels, Antwerp and Bruges became the prize of the victors. It only needed four successful sieges which followed the battle of Ramillies to complete the deliverance of Flanders. The year which witnessed the victory of Ramillies remains yet more memorable as the year which witnessed the final Union of Scotland England with Scotland. As the undoing of the earlier union had been the first work of the Government of the Restoration, its revival was one of the first aims of the Government which followed The Union with IX THE REVOLUTION 1559 the Revolution. But the project was long held in check by sec ix religious and commercial jealousies. Scotland refused to bear any Marl- o J J borough part of the English debt. England would not yield any share in 1698 TO her monopoly of trade with the colonies. The English Churchmen 1712 longed for a restoration of Episcopacy north of the border, while the Scotch Presbyterians would not hear even of the legal tolera tion of Episcopalians. In 1703, however, an Act of Settlement which passed through the Scotch Parliament at last brought home to English statesmen the dangers of further delay. In dealing with this measure the Scotch Whigs, who cared only for the independence of their country, joined hand in hand with the Scotch Jacobites, who looked only to the interests of the Pretender. The Jacobites excluded from the Act the name of the Princess Sophia ; the Whigs introduced a provision that no sovereign of England should be recognized as sovereign of Scotland save upon security given to the religion, freedom, and trade of the Scottish people. Great as the danger arising from such a measure undoubtedly was, for it pointed to a recognition of the Pretender in Scotland on the Queen's death, and such a recognition meant war between Scotland and England, it was only after three years' delay that the wisdom and resolution of Lord Somers brought the question to an 1706 issue. The Scotch proposals of a federative rather than a legisla tive union were set aside by his firmness ; the commercial jealousies of the English trader were put by ; and the Act of Union provided that the two kingdoms should be united into one under the name of Great Britain, and that the succession to the crown of this United Kingdom should be ruled by the provisions of the English Act of Settlement. The Scotch Church and the Scotch law were left untouched : but all rights of trade were thrown open, and a uniform system of coinage adopted. A single Parliament was henceforth to represent the United Kingdom, and for this purpose forty-five Scotch members were added to the five hundred and thirteen English members of the House of Commons, and sixteen representative peers to the one hundred and eight who formed the English House of Lords. In Scotland the opposition was bitter and almost universal. The terror of the Presbyterians indeed was met by an Act of Security which became part of the Treaty of Union and which required an oath to support the Presbyterian 1560 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec. IX Church from every sovereign on his accession. But no securities Marl- could Satisfy the enthusiastic patriots or the fanatical Cameronians. borough •' ^ 1698 The Jacobites sought troops from France and plotted a Stuart 1712 SECOND GREAT SEAL OF ANNE, 1707, COMMEMORATING THE UNION WITH SCOTLAND. (Ohverse.) restoration. The nationalists talked of seceding from the Houses which voted for the Union, and of establishing a rival Parliament. In the end, however, good sense and the loyalty of the trading classes to the cause of the Protestant succession won their way. IX THE REVOLUTION 1561 The measure was adopted by the Scotch Parliament, and the sec ix Treaty of Union became in 1707 a legislative act to which Anne makl- •^ » < o borough gave her assent in noble words. " I desire," said the Queen, " and 1698 to I7I2 SECOND GREAT SEAL OF ANNE, I707, COMMEMORATING THE UNION WITH SCOTLAND. (Reverse.) expect from my subjects of both nations that from henceforth they act with all possible respect and kindness to one another, that so it may appear to all the world they have hearts disposed to become one people." Time has more than answered these hopes. The 1562 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec IX two nations whom the Union brought together have ever since Marl- remained one. England gained in the removal of a constant borough '^ ° 1698 danger of treason and war. To Scotland the Union opened up TO 1712 new avenues of wealth which the energy of its people turned to wonderful account. The farms of Lothian have become models of agricultural skill. A fishing town on the Clyde has grown into the rich and populous Glasgow. Peace and culture have changed the wild clansmen of the Highlands into herdsmen and farmers. Nor was the change followed by any loss of national spirit. The world has hardly seen a mightier and more rapid developement of national energy than that of Scotland after the Union. All that passed away was the jealousy which had parted since the days of Edward the First two peoples whom a common blood and com mon speech proclaimed to be one. The Union between Scotland and England has been real and stable simply because it was the legislative acknowledgement and enforcement of a national fact. Marl- With the defeat of Ramillies the fortunes of France reached borough and the j their lowest ebb. The loss of Flanders was followed by the loss of '^® Italy after a victory by which Eugene relieved Turin ; and not only did Peterborough hold his ground in Spain, but Charles the Third with an army of English and Portuguese entered Madrid. Marlborough was at the height of his renown. Ramillies gave him strength enough to force Anne, in spite of her hatred of the Whigs, 1706 to fulfil his compact with them by admitting Lord Sunderland, the ' bitterest leader of their party, to oflfice. But the system of political balance which he had maintained till now began at once to break down. Constitutionally, Marlborough's was the last attempt to govern England on other terms than those of party government, and the union of parties to which he had clung ever since his severance from the extreme Tories soon became impossible. The growing opposition of the Tories to the war threw the Duke more and more on the support of the Whigs, and the Whigs sold their support dearly. Sunderland, who had inherited his father's conceptions of party government, was resolved to restore a strict party administration on a purely Whig basis, and to drive the moderate Tories from oflfice in spite of Marlborough's desire to retain them. The Duke wrote hotly home at the news of the pres- 1706 sure which the Whigs were putting on him. " England," he said. IX THE REVOLUTION 1563 " will not be ruined because a few men are not pleased." Nor was Marlborough alone in his resentment. Harley foresaw the danger of his expulsion frpm oflfice, and began to intrigue at court, through Mrs. Masham, a bedchamber woman of the Queen, who was supplanting the Duchess in Anne's favour, against the Whigs and against Marlborough. St. John, who owed his early promotion to oflfice to the Duke's favour, was driven by the same fear to share Harley's schemes. Marlborough strove to win both of them back, but he was helpless in the hands of the only party that steadily supported the war. A factious union of the Whigs with their JOSEPH ADDISON. Picture hy Sir Godfrey Kneller. opponents, though it roused the Duke to a burst of unusual passion in Parhament, effected its end by convincing him of the impos sibility of further resistance. The opposition of the Queen indeed was stubborn and bitter. Anne was at heart a Tory, and her old trust in Marlborough died with his submission to the Whig demands. It was only by the threat of resignation that he had forced her to admit Sunderland to oflfice ; and the violent outbreak of temper with which the Duchess enforced her husband's will changed the Queen's friendship for her into a bitter resentment. Marlborough was driven to increase this resentment by fresh compliances with Sec IX Marl borough 1698 to 1712 ENGLISH SQUADRON CARRYING TROOPS TO TAKE POSSESSION OF DUNKIRK. ''^History of Queen Ajine.,*' 1740. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1565 the conditions which the Whigs imposed on him, by removing Peterborough from his command as a Tory general, and by wrest ing from Anne her consent to the dismissal from oflfice of Harley and St. John with the moderate Tories whom they headed. Their removal was followed by the complete triumph of the Whigs. Somers became President of the Council, Wharton Lord-Lieu tenant of Ireland, while lower posts were occupied by men destined to play a great part in our later history, such as the young Duke of Newcastle and Robert Walpole. Meanwhile, the great struggle abroad went on, with striking alternations of success. France rose with singular rapidity from the crushing blow of Ramillies. Spain was recovered for Philip by a victory of Marshal Berwick at Almanza. Villars won fresh triumphs on the Rhine, while Eugene, who had penetrated into Provence, was driven back into Italy. In Flanders, Marlborough's designs for taking advantage of his great victory were foiled by the strategy of the Duke of Vend6me and by the reluctance of the Dutch, who were now wavering towards peace. In the campaign of 1708, however, Vend6me, in spite ofhis superiority in force, was attacked and defeated at Oudenarde ; and though Marlborough was hindered from striking at the heart of France by the timidity of the English and Dutch statesmen, he reduced Lille, the strongest of its frontier fortresses, in the face of an army of relief which numbered a hundred thousand men. The pride of Lewis was at last broken by defeat and by the terrible suffering of France. He offered terms of peace, which yielded all that the allies had fought for. He consented to withdraw his aid from Philip of Spain, to give up ten Flemish fortresses to the Dutch, and to surrender to the Empire all that France had gained since the Treaty of Westphalia. He offered to acknowledge Anne, to banish the Pretender from his dominions, and to demolish the fortifications of Dunkirk, a port hateful to England as the home of the French privateers. To Marlborough peace now seemed secure ; but in spite of his counsels, the allies and the Whig Ministers in England demanded that Lewis should with his own troops compel his grandson to give up the crown of Spain. " If I must wage war," replied the King, " I had rather wage it agaihst my enemies than against my children." In a bitter despair he appealed to France ; and Sec IX MARL BOKOUGH 1698 TO 1712 Triumph of the Whigs 1708 1707 Oude narde England and the War BATTLE OK MALPLAQUET. ^^ History of Queen Anne," 1740. CHAP. IX THE REVOLUTION 1567 exhausted as it was, the campaign of 1709 proved how nobly France answered his appeal. The terrible slaughter which bears the name of the battle of Malplaquet showed a new temper in the French soldiers. Starving as they were, they flung away their rations in their eagerness for the fight, and fell back at its close in serried masses that no efforts of Marlborough could break. They had lost twelve thousand men, but the forcing their lines of entrench ment had cost the allies a loss of double that number. Horror at such a " deluge of blood " increased the growing weariness of the war ; and the rejection of the French offers was unjustly attributed to a desire on the part of Marlborough of length ening out a contest which brought him pro fit and power. A storm of popular passion burst suddenly on the Whigs. Its occasion was a dull and silly sermon in- which a High Church divine, Dr. Sacheverell, maintained the doctrine of non-resistance at St. Paul's. His boldness challenged prosecution ; but in spite of the warning of Marlborough and of Somers the Whig Ministers resolved on his impeachment before the Lords, and the trial at once widened into a great party struggle. An outburst of popular en thusiasm in SachevereU's favour showed what a storm of hatred had gathered against the Whigs and the war. The most eminent of the Tory Churchmen stood by his side at the bar, crowds escorted him to the court and back again, while the streets rang 0Aem7mmMJ7treZTinth3ide.iflJiiu carei'd. S.4CHEVERELL S TRIUMPH. Design for Playing-Card, 1710. British Museum. Sec IX Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 MaU plaquet Sache verell 1568 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Sec. IX Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 F^of Marl borough with cries of " The Church and Dr. Sacheverell." A small majority of the peers found the preacher guilty, but the light sentence they inflicted was in effect an acquittal, and bonfires and illuminations over the whole country welcomed it as a Tory triumph. The party whom the Whigs had striven to crush were roused to new life. The expulsion of Harley and St. John from the Ministry had given the Tories leaders of a more subtle and vigorous stamp than the High Churchmen who had quitted oflfice in the first years of the war, and St. John brought into play a new engine of political attack whose powers soon made themselves felt. In the Exa'mmer and in a crowd of pam phlets and periodicals which followed in its train, the humour of Prior, the bitter irony of Swift, and St. John's own brilliant sophistry spent themselves on the abuse of the war and of its general. " Six mil lions of supplies and almost fifty millions of debt !" Swift wrote bit- the High Allies have been the ruin of us ! " Marlborough was ridiculed and reviled, he was accused of insolence, cruelty and ambition, of corruption and greed. Even his courage was called in question. The turn of popular feeling freed Anne at once from the pressure beneath which she had bent : and the subtle intrigue of Harley was busy in undermining the Ministry. The Whigs, who knew the Duke's alliance with them had simply been forced on him by the war, were easily persuaded that the Queen had no aim but Seefen^ondttzensmthHeMtmd Vom, ChueZeifal Tflmil'ers t/iatiMmfeAarOince, Design for Playing-Card, British Museum. terly ; IX THE REVOLUTION 1569 Sec IX The Qiumii/^diref/rl, andh^nemfyeiMte tdd, fheu'l/^tmAmiTcOl^eduri^e thanHer aid. Design for Playing-Card, 1710. British Museum. Marl borough 169S to 1712 of the Whigs 1710 to humble him, and looked coolly on at the dismissal of his son-in- law, Sunderland, and his friend, Godolphin. Marlborough on his part was lured by hopes of reconciliation with his old party, and looked on as coolly while Anne dismissed the Whig Ministers and appointed a Tory Ministry in their place, with Harley and St. John Dismissal at its head. But the intrigues of Harley paled before the subtle treason of St. John. Resolute to drive Marlborough from his command, he fed the Duke's hopes of re conciliation with the Tories, till he led him to acquiesce in his wife's dismissal, and to pledge himself to a co-operation with the Tory policy. It was the Duke's belief that a reconciliation with the Tories was effected that led him to sanc tion the despatch of troops which should have strengthened his army in Flanders on a fruitless expedition against Canada, though this left him too weak to carry out a masterly plan which he had formed for a march into the heart of France in the opening of 1711. He was unable even to risk a battle or to do more than to pick up a few seaboard towns, and St. John at once turned the small results of the campaign into an argument for the conclusion of peace. In defiance of an article of the Grand Alliance which pledged its members not to carry on separate negotiations with France, St. John, who now became Lord Bolingbroke, pushed forward a secret accommodation between j-jj England and France. It was for this negotiation that he had 157° HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE chap. Sec. IX crippled Marlborough's campaign ; and it was the discovery of his Marl- perfidy which revealed to the Duke how utterly he had been borough ^ ^ J 1698 betrayed, and forced him at last to break with the Tory Ministry. to 1712 He returned to England ; and his efforts induced the House of Lords to denounce the contemplated peace ; but the support of the Commons and the Queen, and the general hatred of the war among the people, enabled Harley to ride down all resistance. At the opening of 171 2 the Whig majority in the House of Lords was swamped by the creation of twelve Tory peers. Marlborough was dismissed from his command, charged with peculation, and condemned as guilty by a vote of the House of Commons. The Duke at once withdrew from England, and with his withdrawal all opposition to the peace was at an end. Treaty of Marlborough's flight was followed by the conclusion of a Treaty 1713 at Utrecht between France, England, and the Dutch ; and the desertion of his allies forced the Emperor at last to make peace at Rastadt. By these treaties the original aim of the war, that of preventing the possession of France and Spain by the House of Bourbon, was abandoned. No precaution was taken against the dangers it involved to the " balance of power," save by a provision that the two crowns should never be united on a single head, and by Philip's renunciation of all right of succession to the throne of France. The principle on which the Treaties were based was in fact that of the earlier Treaties of Partition. Philip retained Spain and the Indies : but he ceded his possessions in Italy and the Netherlands with the island of Sardinia to Charles of Austria, who had now become Emperor, in satisfaction of his claims ; while he handed over Sicily to the Duke of Savoy. To England he gave up not only Minorca but Gibraltar, two positions which secured her the command of the Mediterranean. France had to consent to the re-establishment of the Dutch barrier on a greater scale than before ; to pacify the English resentment against the French privateers by the dismantling of Dunkirk ; and not only to recog nize the right of Anne to the crown, and the Protestant succession in the House of Hanover, but to consent to the expulsion of the Pretender from her soil. The failure of the Queen's health made the succession the real question of the day, and it was a question which turned all politics into faction and intrigue. The Whigs, IX THE REVOLUTION 1571 who were still formidable in the Commons, and who showed the strength of their party in the Lords by defeating a Treaty of Commerce, in which Bolingbroke anticipated the greatest financial triumph of William Pitt and secured freedom of trade between England and France, were zealous for the succession of the Sec, IX Marl borough 1698 to 1712 Harley and Boling broke HENRY ST. JOHN, VISCOUNT BOLINGBROKE. Picture by Sir G. Kneller, at Petworth. Elector ; nor did the Tories really contemplate any other plan. But on the means of providing for his succession Harley and Bolingbroke differed widely. Harley inclined to an alliance between the moderate Tories and the Whigs. The policy of Bolingbroke, on the other hsmd, was so to strengthen the Tories by Vol. IV— II 1572 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE CHAP. Secjx the utter overthrow of their opponents, that whatever might be the botough Elector's sympathies they could force their policy on him as King. 1698 To ruin his rival's influence he introduced a Schism BiU, whicb 1712 ROBERT HARLEY, EARL OF OXFORD. From an engraving by J. van Huchtenburg. hindered any Nonconformist from acting as a schoolmaster or a tutor ; and which broke Harley's plans by creating a more bitter division than ever between Tory and Whig. But its success went IX THE REVOLUTION 1573 beyond his intentions. The Whigs regarded the Bill as the first step in a Jacobite restoration. The Electress Sophia was herself alarmed, and the Hanoverian ambassador demanded for the son of the Elector, the future George the Second, who had been created Duke of Cambridge, a summons as peer to the coming Parliament, with the aim of securing the presence in England of a Hanoverian Prince in case of the Queen's death. The Queen's anger, fanned Sec IX Marl borough 1698 TO I7I2 EMBLEMS OF THE SILVERSMITHS' CRAFT, 170O. Bagford Collection, British Museum. by Bolingbroke, broke out in a letter to the Electress which warned her that " such conduct may imperil the succession itself ; " and in July Anne was brought to dismiss Harley, now Earl of Oxford, and to construct a strong and united Tory Ministry which would back her in her resistance to the Elector's demand. As the crisis grew nearer, both parties prepared for civil war. In the beginning of 17 14 the Whigs had made ready for a rising on the Queen's death, and invited Marlborough from Flanders to head fOib arc deswed iD-mea^^^t ^A4? Ill^tMy of^ iLtJvJ at dw^^msk^mrrA^ d ..^mna irm^^fuUhcdL utAe'1ea.'Iho-u£sai.iTana6i3-. JHeroCiejOvAi'Doc'hov/u^ Bectorie Uazfe>r, Jni}u.efh g/*«.Erize, br lorocure- >4i«Iiawii-Sleeves T^e-ttadelman ,-nt/u>nCSiyxa.a.JoTlJieifM.m^w^oriim For tfio' ikwJor'Stfs^ti eaaerlu WiX/cA. 'd , 3ert.,ht!auirdJ hu-JCLL,for ik'jlebftuuie'ofhi^^vs^xai.e,: fo-r7u>un^Ai/^ixQiaa.ot, andvie.rvU^AbfiSxSieri The CoofcWen cK delerminefily tm^ ludgrHit , Tojree-he*- fair 'B.aoAiJrom.iAeSo^aoki andSpit: 7^ChsaB]aer--mM.iJiru6f ut-AsrlaHeiCeSiGavm., JncLhopey lo be du-i.- 'di^Tap Toafb g/i4(*Town, : Su/^'So-rhin.e alaJjf.'nill/hatfe