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YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

BRAZIL, In 1909.
By J. C. OAKENFULL

Published under the auspices of the
BRAZILIAN GOVERNMENT COMMISSION
OF PROPAGANDA AND ECONOMIC EXPANSION,
28, Boulevard des Italiens, Paris.
First Edition (April, 1909).

BRAZIL, 1909.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. page
INTRODUCTION ... ... ... ... ... g
CHAPTER II.
GEOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY ... ... ... ... n
CHAPTER III.
CLIMATE AND DISEASES ... ... ... ... 19
CHAPTER IV.
ETHNOGRAPHY ... ... ... ... ... 26
CHAPTER V.
¦DISCOVERY AND FIRST SETTLEMENT ... ... 37
CHAPTER VI.
THE CAPITANIAS AND STRUGGLES WITH THE DUTCH,
BRITISH, FRENCH AND SPANISH INVADERS ... 44
CHAPTER VII.
CROWN COLONY AND EMPIRE  59
CHAPTER VIII.
THE REPUBLIC  73

.¦?'•

CHAPTER IX.

AREA, DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION AND COLONIS
ATION  83
'¦vi
CHAPTER X.
LAWS, CONSTITUTION AND EDUCATION  102

CONTENTS.— Continued.
CHAPTER XI. page
COMMUNICATIONS, FINANCE AND COMMERCE ... 1 13
CHAPTER XII.
.NATURAL HISTORY  FAUNA ... ... ... 124
CHAPTER XIII.
NATURAL HISTORY  FLORA ...

CHAPTER XIV.

132

AGRICULTURE — COFFEE, SUGAR, COTTON, COCOA,
TOBACCO  150
CHAPTER XV.
AGRICULTURE — CEREALS AND TUBERS ... ... 1 62
CHAPTER XVI.
AGRICULTURE — TROPICAL AND EUROPEAN FRUITS,
VITICULTURE, BEE CULTURE, SERICULTURE ... 171
CHAPTER XVII.
AGRICULTURE — THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY  J.87
CHAPTER XVIII.
GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY ... ... .., ... 195
CHAPTER XIX.
MINERAL WATERS AND TOURIST RESORTS ... ... 209
CHAPTER XX.
SCIENCE, ART AND LITERATURE — CONCLUSION ... 223
APPENDIX, BIBLIOGRAPHY, ETC  232

CHAPTER I.

TJntro&ucUott.

,HE task which confronts the con
scientious writer who attempts to
deal adequately with such a vast
country as Brazil, is so gigantic
that he may well pause before un
dertaking it. The very fact that
so many writers have failed to pre
sent a satisfactory picture, in spite of their undoubted
literary ability, has increased the difficulty of the under
taking. When it is understood by the reader that the
Brazilian Republic is an agglomeration of states, with
different, and sometimes conflicting interests, that these
states are situated in quite different zones, whose climate
and productions are as varied as those of Europe and
Africa, and that many different factors have been at
work to determine the development of character and
idiosyncrasy, he may perhaps appreciate the labour en
tailed on one who wishes to give a truly comprehensive
view of the country, its past, present, and future, and
its productions and possibilities, as well as some idea of
its rulers and public men.
There are many particulars in which Brazil offers
a contrast to her neighbours, and racial differences are
not the least modifying ones. It must also be remem
bered that Brazil had an .aristocracy, and that its

6 BRAZIL.
influence is still to be traced to-day. It may possibly
be news to many that the Monarchial element still exists,
and has its organ in the press. I venture also to affirm
that .several of the most highly placed and trusted
Brazilians of to-day are still Imperialists to the back
bone, but none the less good citizens and ardent patriots.
A casual visitor to Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo, has
no proper conception of. the native character. If he is
a lion, he is hurried through a round of excursions and
banquets, and presentations to this or that notability.
Probably he is met on the steamer, and personally con
ducted as it were from one object of interest to another,
until the all too brief period of his visit has come to an
end, and he flits off to Buenos Aires and elsewhere to
go through the same performance over again. During
an experience of many years, I cannot remember any
really important or observant guest of the nation, who
had sufficient time to see more than that which he was
especially desired to. Within the lact two or three
years there has been a procession of celebrities passing
across the stage. Their parts have all been rehearsed
for them, and (as desired) they have returned home to
France, Italy, etc., to sing the praises of the glorious
and great Republic. Now I state it as an indictment of
the British, that it is many years since an English
savant has spent some time in Brazil. In spite of the
glowing pictures drawn by Wallace, Burton, Bates, etc.,
the country is a real terra-incognita to the vast majority
of Englishmen. There is no other land under the sun
(and I say this without fear of contradiction), that offers
so many opportunities to the trader, miner, naturalist, or
simple tourist ; the mountain lands of Minas, Goyaz,
Matto Grosso, etc., etc., are real health resorts, where
one meets with no extremes of climate, and encounters

INTRODUCTION. 7
no demonstrations of nature's awe inspiring . and all
destroying forces.
To come back to the people. One finds outside official
life, the surviving aristocrats, as a rule, quiet, dignified,
and. often striking, looking men, of a philosophic turn of
mind. They, like some of the members of the old French
schools, speak of the decadence of the country, of the
absence of character amongst the younger generation of
more pushing business-like Brazilians. There is, of
course, some truth in this, but it must be borne in mind
that the Republic was, as it were thrust on the people.
Like the emancipation of the slaves; a necessary, but
badly executed measure, the Empire's downfall was pre
mature. Although the far-seeing Dom Pedro himself
foretold its coming, and expressed his conviction that it
could not be deferred ; it would be quite untrue to say
that even now it is one and indivisible. It is very
improbable that another revolution (bloodless or other
wise) will take place ; that is as regards the central or
Federal Government, but of course it is not possible to
say that the whole of the states will perpetually own
allegiance to the party in power at Rio Janeiro. On the
other hand, it speaks well for the acumen of the
Brazilian statesmen, when one President follows the
course made patent to us in the United States of America
of choosing, so as to speak, his successor. To claim that
the proletariat elect the chief magistrate would be
absurd, and it is a very good thing indeed that it is not
so. By this means also the bonds which link the different
states together are tightened. A President from Minas,
for example, holding that part of the Republic closely to
the Union. When we come to examine the constitution
we shall perceive the weak points in the armour, and
understand the difficulties, in the paths of those who

8 BRAZIL.
keep the Governmental machine in working order. For
the present the subject may be dropped. Let us analyse
the man in the street. As a rule he is pretty well
informed, and his education is usually superior to that of
the average in his class in England. He has a working
knowledge at least of French, and his Mecca (like that
of all Latin Americans), is Paris. There is even a shop
in the gay Lutetia, where one may buy the making of
peculiar and distinctively Brazilian dishes. The same
feeling that separates the Englishman from his trans
atlantic cousin is to be found in the relations between the
Brazilian and Portuguese peoples. Although it is true
that the younger branch practically feeds the elder, and
that there is hardly a family in Portugal that does not
receive periodical sums of money from its members in
Brazil, in spite of that the Brazilian, or at least the
Portuguese Brazilian, affects a contempt for the Mother
Country, that is sometimes engendered by the attitude of
the people themselves, and when a relative goes home with
his hard earned savings they are ready to devour him.
From the moment he puts his foot on shore at the
custom house at Lisbon, until he shakes the dust of the
land from his feet on re-embarking, it is nothing but
beg, borrow, or steal. True, Portugal is so wretchedly
poor that her sons are impelled to get money in any way
from the fortunate possessor thereof. So the Portuguese
who has been some fifteen or twenty years in Brazil, and
become naturalised, is a more vehement patriot, than the
native born one.
Those who are prone to attack certain petty vices of
the Brazilian of to-day, whether European born or
otherwise, must again cast their eyes in the direction of
the first great American Republic. There are no inherent
faults in the Brazilian that one does not find intensified

INTRODUCTION. 9
in the north. Youth cannot possess the calm reflection
and staid customs of the mature. Their defects are
those of their qualities, and if (as may be devoutly
hoped), the Republic succeeds in uniting all its diversi
fied parts into one really homogenous whole; these
defects will disappear. A great deal of my belief in the
future of this great nation lies in the earnest efforts now
being made to educate, and properly educate, the people.
Where else, for example, could one find the children of
a Secretary of State sitting side by side with the peasant's
sons on the bench of a public elementary school. The
intellect of the people is keen, they are good material to
work on, they are (almost without exception) musical.
In the few years since their real history began they have
produced many men of real scientific attainments, and
their literature is rich from every point of view. With
out the slightest attempt at flattery I assert that this
people are destined to fill the same place in South
America, as the United States in the north. Comparing
their diplomats, for example, with those from the old
European nations, there is nothing whatever in the
balance in favour of the latter. The Hague Conference
is a case in point, and, only one. The annals of the
country furnish many others.
Before commencing the story of Brazil in detail it is
necessary to remind the reader that the great distances
between different parts of the country render it always
difficult, and sometimes impossible, to obtain definite
information on some subjects. The work of the Official
Information Bureau itself at headquarters in Rio de
Janeiro, has been hindered by the ignorance or apathy of
certain provincial functionaries. This is, of course,
inevitable. No need to go further afield than an English
country town to discover the obstructive abilities of the

10 BRAZIL.
petty parochial dignitary. Taking the disadvantages
under which we work in Brazil into consideration, and
the newness of everything, I think wonders have been
done. It must also be distinctly understood that politics
play a not inconsiderable part in the development, or
non-development of a nation, and like all the other
South American countries, Brazil suffers from the all too
frequent changes in the Government. The spoils to the
victor is a fundamental law, without a doubt, and it is a
melancholy fact that the passion for office is nowhere
necessarily accompanied by capacity for administration.
I must then ask the indulgence of the critic, in case of
any short-comings, and trust that my efforts to marshal
an army of facts and figures have been so far successful,
and that the book fills a want which undoubtedly exists.
I cannot pretend to have made no, use of the scissors
and paste pot, but claim at least to have borrowed that
which is useful, and done my best to make of many
parts a reasonable whole, added to, and altered where
necessary in conformity with the needs of to-day, and
more especially of to-morrow, for it is of the future that
I have been especially thinking whilst compiling this
work; to the future we must look, and in the future
hope. The most important thing to remember is, that what
ever shortcomings are discoverable in this little work are
due entirely to two things. One is the fallibility of the
writer, and the other is the certainty that no one can
satisfy every critic. With this truism I am content to
leave my compilation in the hands of the reader, hoping
that I have at least succeeded in disarming any pro
spective antagonist.

CHAPTER II.
Geography and Topography.

Almost the whole of Brazil is in the Southern Hemi
sphere. It attains its greatest demensions between the
Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. The only South
American countries which are not in contact with it are
Chili and Ecuador. The significant result is, that of all
the southern Republics, the only one openly and firmly
friendly to Brazil is Chili. A long chapter on political
economy might be penned taking this statement as a
text, but this is neither the time nor the place to enter
into international questions.
The Atlantic Ocean forms the natural boundary on
the east and a greater part of the north, for an exten
sion of about 5,000 miles, from Cape Orange, frontier
of Dutch Guiana, to Chuy on the boundary line of
Uruguay. The number of degrees from north to south
are about 37, and between Pernambuco, on the eighth
parallel south of the line, and the Cardillera of the Andes
there are as many east to west, or a distance of 4,350 kilo
metres. In area, Brazil is nearly sixteen times as large
as France, and excluding Alaska form the United States,
she is the fourth largest country in the world. A most
remarkable fact may be noted, viz.: that there are few
natural harbours or bays of a great size, those of San
Salvador (Bahai) and Rio de Janeiro being by far the
most important. To make up for this, however, the
river system is a magnificent one. Americans are proud

12 BRAZIL.
of calling the Mississippi the father of waters, but its
• volume is far less than that of the Amazon. This
gigantic stream freshens the waters of the ocean for a
distance of at least 180 miles out. It is (as is the
Paraguay) navigable throughout its course. The latter
river rises in the state of Matto Grosso, not a great
distance from the head waters of the Tapajoz, the last
great affluent of the Amazon on its course to the sea,
but, unlike that river, its course is almost due south from
its source to its junction with the Parana, at the point
where Paraguay touches Argentina. The Parana, itself
rises in the range of mountains (known by its name)
which forms a natural boundary to the State of Goyaz, on
the east. These mountains also contain the source of
the Tocantins, which falls into the sea by Para, whilst
further west in the same state springs the Araguaya,
which joins the Tocantins at the junction of Goyaz with
Maranhao and Para on the north. The Madeira river,
from the Bolivian Acre (now Brazilian), and on the
northern bank of the Amazon, the River Negro, are the
other two important tributaries of the great stream.
Coming eastward we find the Parnahyba between the
Maranhao and Piauhy, and then there are no more
considerable streams till we encounter the Sao Francisco,
which rises in southern Minas Geraes, and wends its
way right through the central part of that state, and
Bahia, before turning eastward, and taking a tre
mendous leap of 286 feet at the falls of. Paulo Affonso,
and so to the sea at Sergipe. We have now only to
consider the comparatively insignificant Jequitinhonha.
From central Minas to the coast at Belmonte, and the
Parahyba, which forms the western boundary of the
State of Rio Janeiro. Where Argentina, Paraguay and
Brazil meet, and the Iguassu join the Parana, we find

GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY.

13

one of the world's wonders, the seven falls of the latter.
The Iguassu itself is noteworthy for a vast semi-circle of •
cascades, the largest of which is 200 feet high. There
are several other rivers which empty themselves into the
Parana, as the Paranapanema, and Rio Grande, and the
Tiete flowing through the city of Sao Paulo. These*
together with the Uruguay (bounding Rio Grande do.
Sui State on the north and west), all rise in the coast
ranges, or in their offshoots, on the Atlantic side.
We have then a vast network of streams watering
almost the whole of Brazil. The volume of some of the"
principal rivers gives a somewhat clear idea of the
enormous extent of territory through which they wend
their way, and the sketch map at the beginning of
the book will demonstrate their relative position' and
course. Amazon, basin 3,356,400 square miles, length 3,380
miles. This does not include any part of the river extra
Brazilian. Northern Affluents.
Rio Negro, basin 429,000 sq. miles, length 1,020 miles.
Japura, „ 186,000 ,, „ 2,7.79 »

Southern Affluents.

Javary,

basin

45,600 sq. miles,

length

573 miles.

Jurua,

>>

144,000 „

)»

Ij200 ,,

Purus,

)>

233,200 „

)>

2,190 „

Madeira,

»>

637,600 „

j>

3,000 „

Tapajaz,

3)

258,300 „

3)

iji58 .1

Xingii,

J?

237,000 „

J»

1,260 „

The Tocantins is 1,560 miles, the Araguary 1,080 miles,
the Sao Francisco 1,820 miles, and the Jequetinhonha
680 miles long.

14 BRAZIL.
Supposing one wished to travel by water from Cuyaba
in Matto Grosso, to Manaos on the Amazon, the distance
would be from Cuyaba to Rio Janeiro, via River Plate
and Monte Video, 3,242 miles, Rio Janeiro to Manaos,
3,204 miles, total distance 6,446 miles, and it would be
necessary (at present) to allow at least six weeks for the
journey, which would be performed in Brazilian steam -
vessels the whole distance. It might, however, be
possible in a very wet season, to go by canoe (with
perhaps a little portage), from Cuyaba into the Amazon
direct. The voyage might thus take a third or a fourth
part of the time.
By looking at the map, one may see that there
are very few spots indeed in Brazil that are not well
provided with water. The natural source of most of the
rivers seem to be the central plateau, and the majority
flow either south or north from the States of Matto
Grosso and Goyaz. As we have already remarked, a
narrow mountain chain forms the watershed in many
cases of two rivers whose course is widely divergent.
Thus we may call Brazil, a country of many mountains.
This is due naturally to the erosive influences of the
rivers thoughout the ages, dividing and multiplying the
mountain ranges. We shall observe a curious instance
of this, if we turn our attention to the Serra da
Sincora, in the State of Bahia. The river Paraguassu
has with its feeders separated that range into three or
four distinct sections, confronting each other.
More than half of Brazil consists of an elevated
plateau cut into by a vast number of rivers. The mean
altitude is from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, with isolated ranges up
to 7,000 feet, and one peak (Itatiaia) reaching over 9,000
feet. We find the highest summits along the eastern side
of the country, near the sea, and in the centre forming

GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. 15
three long chains separated by the basins of the Sao
Francisco and Paraguay rivers. Thus the elevation of
the land is by no means commensurate with the length
and volume of the rivers, and it may perhaps be safely
asserted that the accidence of the topography is
responsible for the extent of the fluvial system.
There are then, four quite distinct mountain
ranges : —
(1) The Andes, and their offshoots, in which nearly
all the great tributaries of the Amazon find their
sources, in territory extra Brazilian.
(2) The ranges which separate the valleys of the
Amazon and the Orinoco, and which divide Venezuela
and the Guianas from Brazil.
(3) The central plateau, rising in vaious localities,
into elevated peaks. This covers the greater part of
Matto Grosso, Goyaz, central and western Minas
and Sao Paulo, Pernambuco, Piauhy and Maranhao,
and forms the watershed of the Paraguay, Parana
and Uruguay rivers on the one side, and of the lower
tributaries of the Amazon on the right bank, and
of the Tocantins, and the branches on the left hand of
the Sao Francisco on the other.
(4) The coastal ranges, extending from the Sao
Francisco river on the north, to the southern part of
the State of Rio Grande. Here we find the sources
of all the minor streams that discharge their waters
into the Atlantic, as far south as the River Plate basin.
These ranges are practically unbroken. There are
no extensions of plain or wide valleys intervening.
Here and there they approach quite close to the sea, in
the vicinity of Rio Janeiro and Santos notably, and

16 BRAZIL.
lower down they recede, leaving a wide alluvial strip
in the State of Rio Grande, and in the north, in Bahia
(at Cannaveiras) a boggy district, but in general the
line is more or less parallel to the coast, and like it,
shows- no very great tendency to become broken or
undulating.
The coastal range is however divided into three
distinct parts. The first called the Serra do Mar, is
very near the sea, and lies principally in the States of
Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, S. Paulo, Parana, and
Santa Catherina. In the. State of Rio it is partly
bounded on the west by the Parahyba river, Which
forms a natural limit in this direction. Its highest point
is Itatiaia, considered to be the culminating peak of the
Brazilian mountain system. There are many different
figures given for its altitude, but 9,000 feet is as near as
possible. To the northward of the city of Rio, a short
spur (separated from the rest by the Piabanha stream)
is known as the Serra do Orgaos (organ mountains).
Here, within 40 miles of the capital of the Republic, we
find a mean altitude of 6,500 feet, with one or two
summits (Itaassu) reaching 7,000-7,300 feet. The
massive of the latter peak is noteworthy for being isolated
on the east from the main range of the Organs, by
tremendous precipices. At Theresopolis (t.\ hours from
Rio) we find the finger-like peaks, which give their name
to the range. The southern half of the Organ Moun
tains is known as the Serra da Estrella, and reaches in
the Cortico (near Petropolis, two hours from Rio) about
4,500 feet, or some 2,000 feet above the valley, in which
lies Petropolis (the summer residence of the well to
do). Behind Rio Janeiro itself we find the Corcovado,
(hunchback), 2,200 feet. The Tijuca, 3,400 feet, and more
to the north, an isolated mountain of somewhat different

GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. 17
formation to the surrounding peaks. It is called Tingua,
and gives its name to some curious mineral found in
nodules, and known as Tinguaote. Its origin has been
presumed to be volcanic, although no crater can be said
to exist now.
The second range (Mantiqueira) lies in the States of
S. Paulo and Minas Geraes. At Itatiaia, or near it, it be
comes allied to the Serra do Mar, thus this mountain
may be said to belong to two systems, as it may be
stated to be in two distinct states. Like the Tingua, it
is of a different nature to the others in its vicinity, being
composed mainly of later eruptive rocks, such as syenites
and phonolites. The crest of this Mantiqueira Range lies
at an average of 6,500 feet above the sea, thus forming
the most dominating and imposing mountain chain in
the east of South America. Its direction from the
valley of the Tiete is N.E. generally, contrary to that of
the third section of the system, the backbone of Brazil,
as it is called (Espinhaco), which trends N.W. This
latter forms part of the eastern edge of the Sao Francisco
basin. The most important mountains in the Mantiqueira,
beside Itatiaia, are situated near the pass by which the
central railway makes its way westward at Barbacena.
This little city has an altitude of about 4,000 feet, and
may be termed the gate of the mineral district.
In the Espinhaco Range we find Itacolumi (near Ouro
Preto), 5,700 feet, Caraca, 6,300 feet, Piedade, 5,800 feet
and Itambe, 6,000 feet.
In Goyaz we find the Pyrenees, attaining, it is said,
nearly the height of 8,000 feet, and the Serra da Canastra
reaching 4,200 feet.
The Parana Plateau (Campos Geraes) extends into
Santa Catherina and Rio Grande do Sui, and thrusts out

18 BRAZIL.
spurs into Minas and Sao Paulo, and its maximum
height is about 4,000 feet, with a mean level of some
2,000 feet. The broken series of mountains to the
west of the Sao Francisco in Minas and Bahia, attain
some 2,500 feet.
It should be noted that the triangulation of most of
the peaks in every state, but Sao Paulo and Minas, has
not been completed, and that in consequence most of the
old maps are topographically incorrect.

CHAPTER III.
Climate and Diseases.

It is impossible to speak of the climate of Brazil as a
distinct concrete thing. The country is so immense, and
its topography, as we have seen, so varied, that it has at
least three different zones. Generally speaking, we find
that the latitude in Brazil has hardly anything to do with
its climate. Of course, it is naturally warmer (on the coast)
in the winter at Para, than it is at Rio Grande, but the
maximum summer heat is quite as great in all probability
in the latter state. The average temperature of Para is
26° centigrade, or 780 Fahrenheit. In spite of this rather
high percentage (owing to the absence of winter, as far as
loss of solar heat is concerned), the death rate is only 20
per thousand per annum. To show how; figures prove
misleading at first sight, we may note that Rio de Janeiro
(within the tropic of Capricorn), has a maximum tem
perature of about 370 centigrade (980 Fahrenheit), whilst
Buenos Aires (1 1 degrees further south) has a maximum
of 1050 Fahrenheit (shade). In the summer in this
Argentine city, one cannot sleep at night owing to the
heat, whilst in Rio de Janeiro, however hot the day may
be, the nights are. always agreeable. How can one
account for such apparent anomalies ? To understand
the reason for this, one must consider the question of
winds, and therein lies the secret of the relative healthi
ness of places lying well within the tropics, and in some
instances almost on the line itself. We shall now pro-

20 BRAZIL.
ceed to deal systematically with the three different zones
into which we propose to divide Brazil. It may be
safely concluded, in fact boldly asserted, that the climate
of Brazil, generally speaking, is quite suited to European
colonists, whether from the north or south, and any
government warning its subjects to the contrary acts
either in blind ignorance, or stupid antipathy, with some
reason for its calumny which may not be very difficult
to ascertain.
The average temperature of the first, or tropical zone,
is 25° centigrade, 770 Fahrenheit, but it must be divided
by its relative humidity into three parts. (1) The upper
Amazon ; (2) the interior of the States of Maranhao,
Para, Matto Grosso, Piauhy, Parahyba, and Pernam
buco ; and (3) the coast line itself.
In the first region, the season of rains is from Febru
ary to June. From the middle of October till January,
there is a modicum of wet weather, and from July to
October, and January to February, the weather is dry.
The temperature rises and falls rapidly in some parts of
the Amazon valley. Now and then the thermometer has
marked only 510 Fahrenheit. Although the day may be
too hot, as soon as the evening approaches, the influence
of the breeze is felt. Agassiz noted that a peculiarity of
this climate was the almost continual action of a wind
blowing from east to west. Maury said : The rains
falling abundantly during some months are invigorating,
It is very rare that the wind becomes violent. There is
between the Amazon region and India, for example, the
same difference as between Rome and Boston, U.S.A.
The two cities are situated in the same latitude, but
their climates are, of course, very different. It must not
be supposed that the average minimum of 640 Fahren
heit, and maximum of 98° Fahrenheit is uniform all

CLIMATE AND DISEASES. 21
over Amazonia. In the elevated parts of the state,
frosts have been observed, and the climate may be
considered as temperate. At a contest in Paris, in 1898,
between 1,200 children, the first prize for healthy ap
pearance and physical development was given to a boy
who had been born in Manaos, of Amazonian parents.
Longevity is common. An authenticated case is chron
icled of a man who lived to 145 years. Malarial fevers,
found in some zones in the valley, are identical with
the Italian forms, and in the Campagna of Rome are far
more dangerous and difficult to cure.
The dangerous parts of the Amazon valley are limited
to a very small section indeed of the country. There
are 204,000 square miles of territory where, to quote
Bates (naturalist on the Amazon), the climate is glorious.
According to Hartt, part of the plateau has the best
climate in the world, and one finds in the Campos
Geraes, at least 600,000 square miles of lands well suited
to stock raising, and even the cultivation of such cereals
as oats and barley, as well as wheat.
Wallace says : " The temperature is marvellous, and
the nights are noteworthy tor the balsamic perfumes
wafted through the air."
Herbert Smith wrote : " I have travelled through
Amazonas during four years, without the least touch of
fever. There are no sunstrokes ever known in this
country." Orton says : " Para is an invalid's paradise."
Bates says, further, "that Englishmen who have lived
30 years in Para, conserve the same aspect, and the
same freshness of colour as they had when they left their
native land."
The extension of this first zone may be calculated as
from the second degree north of the line, to the tenth

22 BRAZIL.
south. With regard to its diseases, there are none peculiar
to the country, and certainly none which are not more
the result of carelessness or unhygienic habits than of
climatic or topographical defects.
Manaos is only some inches above the sea, and Para
about 22 feet, yet, surrounded as it were by water, they
present the following remarkable figures.
Absolute Absolute Death rate
Lat. max. temp. min. temp. per 1,000.
Para ... 1.27 910 (Fahr.) 66° (Fahr.) 20.2
Manaos ... 3.8 970 „ 64s „
Compare this with Madras, mortality 58.7 ; Bombay,
48.6; Mexico, 48.5 ; Lima, 34.7; Cairo, 34.6; Calcutta,
34-4- The second division comprises the interior of the
Northern States of Brazil. The prevailing winds are
from the N.W. and from the S.E. They are now warm
and humid, now dry and cold, causing variations in the
temperature of as much as 68° Fahrenheit. In the
month of August the day temperature has reached over
900 Fahrenheit, whilst at night the thermometer has
gone down to 440 Fahrenheit. However hot the weather
may be, the wind and the rain cause it to sink rapidly.
The dry season lasts about two months, with, at most,
two days' rain during this time, but an exception must
be made of the States of Ceara, Parahyba, Piauhy,
and Rio Grande do Norte, where the dry season some
times extends to three or four months. The climate of
the plateau of Matto Grosso is exceedingly healthy, the
water is excellent, the air dry, and the temperature mild.
There are no endemic diseases. Although this zone is
within the torrid zone, frosts are frequently seen during
the winter. There are also many parts of the States of

CLIMATE AND DISEASES. 23
Parahyba, Pernambuco, and Piauby, where the average
temperature does not exceed 68° Fahrenheit. It must
also be particularly noted, in comparing such a tempera
ture with that of Great Britain, for example (of about
500 Fahrenheit), that the latter is greatly reduced by the
low winter ratio. Presuming that in England we had
winters such as in the South of France, the mean tem
perature would not be much less than that of the whole
of Brazil. The maximum heat encountered in London is
quite as high as Rio de Janeiro (or even Para, with a
difference of 50 degrees of latitude.)
The extension of this zone may be reckoned from io°
south of the Equator, to the line of Capricorn, 23^° south
(about), comprising Sergipe, Bahia, Goyaz, Espirito
Santo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes, almost all Matto
Grosso, and the western part of Sao Paulo.
The third zone is to be calculated from the tropic of
Capricorn to the southern frontier. It must be divided
into two parts, the first comprising the coast line of part
of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catherina,
and Rio Grande du Sui, where there is an average tem
perature of not more than 66° Fahrenheit. The climate
along the whole of this zone, and indeed much further
north, is very equable. The Serra de Mar, being very
steep on the Atlantic side, and covered with luxuriant and
dense vegetation, right up to its summits, or to within four
or five hundred feet of them, attracts the rain and retains
humidity. The highest point attained by the mercury at
Rio Janeiro, shut in as it is by high mountains, is quite
6° lower than at Paris. If we take the train northward,
after crossing the bay at Rio, we shall find in two summer
resorts, one 3,250-ft. above the sea, has a mean temperature
of 6o° Fahrenheit, with a maximum of about 890 Fahren
heit, and a minimum, July- August, of perhaps 28° or 290.

24 BRAZIL.
The other, situated 2,500-ft. above (and so near Rio that
the city may be seen from the summit of the pass in fine
weather), has a mean heat of 640 Fahrenheit, a maximum
of 9i°-92° Fahrenheit, and a minimun of below freezing
point. Novo Friburgo, situated some little distance further
on another line, is 2,845-ft. in altitude, and has a mean
annual temperature of 620 Fahrenheit, a maximum of
750 Fahrenheit, and a minimum which marks freezing
point. The salubrity of the capital itself is unquestion
able, being about as low in death rate as Paris and Berlin.
Santos is now quite healthy, and yellow fever may be
said to have entirely disappeared from both cities. The
greater part of the States of Sao Paulo, and Southern
Minas, and the higher parts of Rio Janeiro, as well as all
the land still further south, is subject to frosts during
some weeks of each year, but of course the days are
delightfully fine and invigorating. The wet season is
usually from December to April, but at the beginning
and end of it, the rain frequently comes on after
three or four p.m., and although it may pour in torrents
all night, the morning is gloriously fine. Warning is
generally given of the approach of a wet spell, by a week
or two of oppressive heat during the day. After a good
storm, the air is crisp and invigorating, and one feels
impelled to get out and up the hills. I should hardly
imagine that there is a more agreeable climate, than that
of the mountain resorts during the winter (April to
September). It is hardly possible to say there are more
than two seasons, as flowers are blooming in profusion all
the while, and one need never complain of either the
heat or the cold. Last year there was an influx of new
diplomats, and it was rather amusing to notice their
complaints about the weather. They said they had not
come to Brazil to be chilled to the backbone. To sum

CLIMATE AND DISEASES. 25
up, there is no doubt that in many towns of the interior,
the mortality is not so great as in similar places in
Europe, indeed in some cities, as Ponta Grossa, in Parana,
there are years without a single death. St. Hilaire, in
speaking of this region, says, " There is no place in this
world where an European might establish himself with
greater advantage." The words of our own savant
(Wallace) will prove a fitting termination to the unani
mous chorus of appreciation. In Brazil a man may, with
six hours of labour, obtain more of the comforts and
necessities of life, than by twelve hours work in Europe.
The adventurer has nothing to fear. The death rate of
this vast country will bear comparison with any other.
Medical science is undoubtedly as far advanced there as
anywhere, and as far as sanitary hygiene is concerned,
Brazil took first prize at the great international congress
recently held in Germany. Personally speaking, I would
far rather be in the most despised Brazilian city in the
interior, than in a provincial European town.
It may be a recommendation or not, but within the
short space of time of three years in the mountains
I gained not less than two stone in weight, in spite of
the most active life, passing at least half my time, either
in the depths of the virgin forests or attacking the most
difficult peaks, sometimes marching 16 and 18 hours
a day.

CHAPTER IV.
Ethnography.

Keane divides the aboriginal Brazilians into four great
groups, or families, namely, Cariban, Arawakan, Gesan,
and Tupi-Guaranian. The physical features of the
country closely connect themselves with the inhabitants,
but there is no correspondence between the configuration
of the interior, and its political divisions. Both the
racial constituents from which the American type was
developed appeared in Brazil. The later neolithic
Mongolian immigrant, who came by way of Behring
Strait, represented advancing peoples probably more
numerous than their Pleistocene predecessors, and also
possessing a much higher development. Survivals of
this type would, therefore, seem as if they should be
more widely scattered, and distinctly marked, when
compared with the ruder, fewer, or less formidable men.
There is, however, no doubt about these Brazilian
Proto-Mongols. As Burton remarks, this strain demon
strates itself in big, round Calmuck skulls, flat faces,
with broad, prominent cheek bones, oblique oriental
eyes, rather blown than black. They have also dark,
thick eye-brows and thin moustaches fringing large
mouths, with pointed teeth, and sparse beards, hardly
covering the long, pointed chin. Variation through
vast ages of wandering, produced another sub-race. It

ETHNOGRAPHY. 27
came to the southern continent when the climates of the
far north were much milder, and there were no spaces of
open sea between Scandinavia and Greenland. These
(the first arrivals in all probability) were scattered widely
over the country, principally due to the pressure exerted
by the hordes of invading Asiatics. They seem to have
become more or less concentrated in Minas Geraes, and
it is supposed that this state is the centre whence
subsequent migrations took place.
In the new world these stout, dark men, with narrow
skulls, receding foreheads, flat crowned incisor teeth,
and projecting jaws, form a separate group that was
exterminated, absorbed, or driven into remote and
isolated regions. Keane supposes them to have held
their own for some time against the invaders, but accord
ing to the scientific dogma of Von Virchow, prognathism
is not compatible with normal intelligence, and, there
fore, this stand could not have been of long duration.
Tribal catalogues and philological analyses will go
but a very little way towards bringing these groups into
view as they are. Information contributive towards
this end is very unequal with respect to different families,
while for all of them the constant intercrossing, wander
ing, regrouping, and decay, have done their work in the
way of modification and destruction. Whole popula
tions have vanished, leaving hardly a trace behind. In
others they have been so broken up, that their very
tribal names and original languages have been entirely
lost. The mode of their life, in very small communities,
continually sub-divided by the slightest dispute or diffi
culty, was a very potent factor in their disappearance.
Mirhanas, for example, is an arbitrary title for a multi
tude of indistinguishable ethnic fragments, including
about half of the Indians in the valley of the Amazon.

28 BRAZIL.
Carayas is a term similarly applied to those in the
basin of the Tingu and Araguaya Rivers. Those Indians
called Coroados are so termed, because of their tonsures.
Botucudo means one who wears a botogue or labret (an
ornament of shell or bone inserted into the lip).
Tapuyo, originally signifying stranger or Carbarian, is
now synonymous with a savage well disposed towards
foreigners. Caribs cannot be traced beyond Central
Brazil, where they appear to have originated. Although
these latter had a reputation as warriors, the fugitive
slaves, fighting by their side, far excelled them.
Carijones, with Witotos, on the Amazon, are also
affiliated to this group, as are likewise some scattered
bands of Penientaires roaming the borders of Pernambuco
and Piauhy. The manners and customs of these tribes
were (and are) so dissimilar that it is easy to understand
how it is they never formed a real nation, and even to
day do not advance a single step towards civilisation,
unless taken in hand by the white man. It is supposed
that the flat heads found in certain regions of the
plateau are derived from unions between the conquering
Europeans and the Caribs. The Arawaks of Guiana
call themselves Loconos (or natives). They are widely
distributed in Brazil, but their origin is impossible to
discover. Like many other groups, the tribes are hardly
more than large families, each under its own elder.
They are, contrary to the. Caribs, very cleanly in their
habits. They have adopted many European articles,
whilst the latter live in filth, and reject all foreign
improvements. There is, however, an offshoot of the
. Arawak group (Warrans), possessed of much ability in
canoe construction, and having the virtue of thrift, but
indescribably dirty in their ways. The Carib distorts
his limbs by ligatures, uses the labret, arrays himself in

ETHNOGRAPHY. 29
feathers, skins, and hand-made fabrics, whilst the Warran
seems to be entirely destitute of personal vanity, is more
stolid than his neighbours, and not being so well
developed physically, hard work soon exhausts him.
Both these loosely connected hordes build temporary
huts of branches of trees, and wherever the Warrans
are permanently established, they construct pile dwellings.
All of these races living in the wide river basins
are in the habit of proceeding to the most extravagant
excesses. These orgies are, of course, succeeded by
periods of morose, surly depression, culminating in
destructive impulses. Primary traits having a true
value for classification purposes, are more marked
amongst the Gessan than in any of the other families
inhabiting Brazil. They had this name from Von
Martius, who took the common terminal of tribal names
for a collective designation. This individuality( Botu
cudo, as Kean calls it), in large measure, escaped the
process of evolution, which created a distinct American
type, out of entirely different elements coming from
opposite quarters of the globe. They preserve those
characteristics which distinguished their paleolithic
European progenitors. When taken en bloc the mental
inequality shown by divergent branches of other stocks,
is here scarcely recognisable in varying degrees of
aptitude, more or less skill or ingenuity, and an unequal
response towards incitements that initiate progress.
Gessan tribes have hardly become modified, they, remain
undeveloped, and no group of this family is otherwise
than completely savage.
Caribs, Arawaks, and Tupis are sometimes indistin
guishable. Structural survivals cut Aimores or Botu-
cudos off from these, and closely unite them with
proto- Europeans. Kayapos, Akuas, Cholengs, Karnes,

30 BRAZIL.
and several minor hordes representing a single group,
extending from Amazonia to La Plata. These are true
aborigines, fragments of a mass broken up by Tupi-
Guarani invaders, and the nearest representatives, and
probably the direct descendants of that primitive race
whose osseous remains have been found in the Lagoa
Santa caves, and Santa Catherina shell mounds.
Boutcudos, Tapuyos, Capayos, etc., in Eastern Brazil,
have not even reached the stone age, but although on
the great Solim6es one may travel for weeks without
seeing a fragment which might be worked, every tribe
within this latter region, has contrived to remedy the
deficiency. Botucudos use wood almost exclusively,
and until lately were without hammocks, and lived
entirely on such poor provision that badly equipped
hunters could supply ; their diet consisting of every kind
of insect or reptile that might by any stretch of the
imagination be termed edible.
Such tribes as Chicriabas, Akroas, Apinages, and
Charentes (Akuas) are, like many others, cannibals, and
have been known to eat their own dead children, friends,
and relatives, as well as prisoners of war. Enemies
killed in battle and devoured were supposed to impart
whatever courage' they possessed to their devourers.
The Botucudos hunt men as they do other creatures,
killing members of neighbouring tribes for food, whenever
other supplies run short. Marital relations are only
temporary, and of the lowest order. Women have no
position or influence, and receive neither consideration
or mercy. During long expeditions on occasion they
accompany their lords as beasts of burden, whilst the
latter stalk magestically in front, carrying their weapons.
Usually, however, the women remain at home to per
form the duties common to their sex, as well as to do

ETHNOGRAPHY. 31
what primitive planting and harvesting is customary to
the family. Tupi-Guarani tribes are distributed by
Deniker, over the plains of the Amazon and Orinoco,
and in Guiana, and on the table lands of Eastern and
Southern Brazil. This is a composite group, as indicated
by its name, although the difference is largely geo
graphical. Their ethnical constituents are, in fact,
similar, but the Guarani branch are presumed to have
come from Paraguay. It may be remarked in this con
nection. that this country is full of the Guaranis to-day,
the bulk of the menial service being performed by these
Indians, so much so that it is frequently necessary for
employers to learn Guarani in order to make themselves
understood, even in the capital (Assumption). Early
missionary priests constructed a sort of lingua franca,
which by degrees came to be known as Tupi, although
the real language of the Tupis had originally a great
range, covering about one-fourth of South America.
Tupi communities, purer in blood, and far more powerful
than now, or at any rate much more numerous, were
established on the Amazon itself, and all its branches.
At present each has dwindled, and, except along the
Solimoes, it is impossible to find an unamalgamated
population. These groups, in common with most others, crossed
in all directions, have mingled foreign strains amongst
themselves, until by far the greater proportion are now
Mamelucos (descendants of aborigines and white men) ;
M.ulattos, Cafuzos (crossed between Negroes and Indians).
Curibocos, who combine Cafuzo with Indian blood, and
Xibaros, the progeny of Cafuzos and Negroes.
Bates uses the term Tapuza for what he calls semi-
civilized Tupis. Properly speaking none have reached
this degree of social development, although in some

32 BRAZIL.
instances there has been a greater or lesser adoption of
civilized appliances. At certain places aborigines, or at
least barbarians, masquerade as cultivated Christians, but
this is all outside show. The savage remains at bottom.
When Cabral reached Brazil he found Guaranis estab
lished from Paraguay to Uruguay, in Southern Brazil,
and already united to Tupis. They were without cloth
ing of any kind, although they used some personal deco
rations, which have since been abandoned. Nadaillac
reports them as living in commercial settlements, Usually
consisting of four long houses built in a square.
^Tattooing and scarification is still common, and they
paint themselves with red and black designs, and use the
labret. The nearly disorganised low caste Tupi families keep
up hereditary feuds, plunder, and murder whenever
opportunity occurs, avoid any contact with foreigners,
and despise their inventions. They are not to be con
founded with the main branch of the group, as they are
allied to the Caribs, or degenerate Arawaks, more than
to the real Tupi. They may be distinguished as Indios
bravoes (savage Indians). It is extraordinary what con
fusion arises, as hardly an Indian group throughout
Brazil, but has some isolated families, outcasts, as it were,
living under conditions far different to those of the rest
of the tribe.
This country exhibits every kind of stone implement,
from the rudest paleolithic wedge, to finely-shaped arrow
heads of rock crystal, and the polished neolithic axe.
There is no possibility of explaining why Botucudos use
wooden arrow tips when plenty of shells, stone, and
metal are at hand, or why Caribs, Arawaks, and Tupis
often prefer stone to iron.

ETHNOGRAPHY. 33
The Gessan tribes advanced less than any others, and
accomplished nothing representing the lowest degree of
human life in communities. An average Botucudo hut
is a rude bamboo erection, about 7 feet high and 9 feet
wide. The openings are barely large enough to crawl
through, and the interior is black with soot. Bugre
settlements consist of a few of such structures standing
in partial clearances in the forest, and every trace of
ordinary decency is banished from their surroundings.
Bigg- Wither, prospecting amidst rubbish heaps, found
bones of all kinds of animals, including monkeys, that
had been slain by a creature more like a simian than a
man. These Indians are not more than 5-ft. 4-in. in height
on an average, and their lower limbs have generally grown
crooked. They cut off their coarse, black hair in front,
and ornament it with Toucan feathers, stuck on with
wax. Every Bugre pulls out his eyebrows and eye
lashes, and pulls down his under lip with a huge appen
dage, besides ornamenting himself (if fortune be kind)
with a necklace, composed of rows of teeth ; their bows
and arrows are very inferior, and a kind of snare made of
creepers, is more effectual against big game. They still
carry stone axes, counterparts of those used in pre
historic times in Europe. Attempts to civilise these
wretched beings have generally proved entirely in vain,
and of 27 taken prisoners by Mr. Bigg- Wither, all except
one boy died of a mysterious complaint, in spite of wash
ing, clothing, and proper feeding; or in all probability,
because of these improvements in their condition and
appearance. Near the coast the Lingua Franca (or Geral) pre
dominated amongst the tribes who had made their way
thither from the central plains. Those Indians who have
come into enforced and continual contact with the white

34 BRAZIL.
man, are generally docile, but taken as a whole it is very
difficult to inculcate habits of order and cleanliness in
them. A peculiar characteristic of the whole of the Indian
races is a deeply seated superstition. They believe in
lunar phantoms and beings of light, who are spirits of
good. They are afraid of certain dark shadowy forms,
powers of ill, vengeful, and awful, whom it is necessary
to propitiate. These are supposed to be the souls of
their ancestors. They also believe in spirits of the deep
waters, and were afraid of bathing in the dark, except in
company, as traditions are current that many had been
dragged down into the lakes and rivers, and never
returned. A little reflection would have taught them the
real tangible cause of the loss of their fellows, as
alligators are naturally very common in many parts of
the country. In common with other primitive races,
their natural powers of observation are very highly
developed. Many of the tribes are capable of pro
ducing artistic ceramic ware, and they have some ability
for wood-carving, and making grotesque masks. Some
of them plant maize and mandioca, weave baskets, and
construct large canoes, of course, by the hollowing out
process, aided by fire. Amongst the River Indians har
poons are used, which are fitted with heads that become
detached on entering the fish or manatee, the shaft acting
as a float. The tradition of a flood is current amongst
them. It is related that the Chief Tamandare, on the
rising of the waters, took his wife in his arms, and
climbed up into the crown of a palm tree, there he
remained for three days and nights, until the flood began
to recede. The palm, which had become uprooted, had
floated into the middle of a plain, where it stopped, and
Tamandare descended, and saw that all other humans

ETHNOGRAPHY. 35
had perished. He remained on the spot with his wife,
and originated the great Guarani race, who were, like
unto him, mighty and tall men.
There were many legends circulating amongst this
people, and they were in the habit of sitting round their
camp fires to listen to a tale-teller, sometimes the whole
night through. The dominating note in these stories,
and indeed in the whole character of the people, was
melancholy. They were (and are) a very musical people,
and it is remarkable to notice how Brazilians to-day are
devoted to melody. Hardly a town of the slightest pre
tensions, is without its band of music, in spite of the great
cost of instruments (all, of course, imported). Many of
these orchestras are quite good, and we find free schools
of music established in the most unlikely places. Un
doubtedly the aboriginal character is preserved amongst
the white people now inhabiting Brazil. Traces are
found of its influence in the mode of celebrating the
carnival, in the very character of the national music, in
its literature, and sometimes its art. The Negro, on the
contrary, has not made himself felt to any great extent,
of course, owing to his thraldom, as well as to his
natural characteristics. The evolution of the Brazilian
type is proceeding slowly, but surely, and out of
the Sclavo-Teutons, Ibero-Tuscan-Romano, Franco-
Iberians, Syrians, and remaining aboriginal elements, is
being constructed a composite, but none the less virile
race, destined to play a great part in the future history of
the world. The predominance of the white is assured.
Colonisation is the predominant question of the day, and
although such experiments as the introduction of Asiatic
settlers (Japanese) are somewhat dangerous ones, there
is no doubt as to the final result. Envy and ignorance
may work hard to stay the progress of Brazil, but her

36 BRAZIL.
advance to the position of a great nation is sure, and
even now she demands and obtains a prominent place in
the world's councils. Who knows what the future holds
in store for the " Colossus of the South," as she may
fitly be termed.
Even as this goes to press, I am instructed that im
migration should not be forced, and I am obliged to
delete three articles from the new Colonisation Law, in
order not to paint too glowing a picture of what our
Government will do for newcomers of the proper sort.

CHAPTER V.
Discovery and First Settlement.

At the beginning of the 16th century, Portugal was in
the throes of transition from the middle ages to the
modern era. The Church had lost many of its powers,
and was obliged to relinquish a number of its pretentions.
Its political force was a thing of the past, except through
the astuteness of the prelates. The power of the Throne
had greatly increased. The desire for expansion, stimu
lated by the triumphs of Bartholomew Diaz (i486), and
Vasco de Gama (1498), had turned men's eyes in the
direction of the new world. The time was ripe for
further discoveries, and the rivalry between Portugal and
Spain served as a greater stimulus. Times were hard,
and laws severe, death was the penalty for such crimes
as robbery of a mark. Moreover, the King was the
absolute lord of his people. He could make war, and
force the people to provide for themselves whilst fighting
his battles. The animals, carriages and vessels of his
subjects were all his, the roads, rivers; ports and port
dues, minerals and fisheries, all belonged to him. Small
wonder then, when Brazil offered oprortunities of greater
riches and freedom, that the Portuguese flocked thither.
The geographical position of Portugal destined her
people to a maritime life. Arabian traditions speak of
the Mogharriun adventurers from Lisbon. The expedi
tion against Ceuta, in 1415, consisted already of several
hundreds of vessels. The first European who can be

38 BRAZIL.
said to have cast eyes on the southern half of the new
world was Vicente Yanez Pinzon, a Spaniard of Palos
(Murcia), and one of the companions of Columbus. He
sighted Cape Augustine (as it is now called), some
twenty miles to the south of Pernambuco, on the 26th
of January, 1500. Before Pinzon reached the limit of
his voyage (the mouth of the Amazon), Portugal had
despatched Pedro Alvarez Cabral, and in spite of his
intention of following up Vasco da Gama, he was forced
by calms and contrary winds, so much out of his course
that, on the 25th of April, he sighted Brazil in about the
10th degree of latitude, close to where Alagoas is to-day.
The entire squadron (13 vessels) dropped anchor on
Good Friday in a harbour, which was given the name of
Porto Seguro, and is four leagues north of the place
actually called so. Cabral established friendly relations
with the Indians, and after sending home a small
caravel to convey the news of his discoveries, set sail
again en route to India, on the 2nd of May.
When the tidings reached Portugal, the King, Don
Manuel, immediately fitted out three ships, and invited the
Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, from Seville, to take charge of
the expedition. The little fleet left in the middle of May,
1501, and reached land in latitude 50 south, and sent
two of their party on shore to negotiate with a group of
natives they saw congregated on a hill. Several days
passed without the return of the sailors, and another was
sent. Women came forward when the messenger
reached the shore, he was surrounded by the Indians,
who seized and examined him with evident curiosity and
wonder. Suddenly another woman came behind him
with a stake and dealt him a blow which brought him to
the ground. Immediately he was dragged away, and the
men amongst the party rushed down to the beach and

DISCOVERY, ETC. 39
discharged a cloud of arrows at the sailors remaining in
their boats. Several guns were fired at the savages, who
then fled to the woods. The barbarous Indians cut the
poor youth's body in pieces, and boiled it within sight of
his enraged comrades, who would have landed to revenge
their three fellows if they had been permitted. Dis
heartened at the non-success he met with, Amerigo
returned to Lisbon in 1502, but set out again with six
ships the ensuing year. Four of the caravels were cast
away owing to the incompetence of their commander,
but the other two reached All Saints Bay (Bahia), where
they remained five months on friendly terms with the
natives, and then returned home laden with parrots,
monkeys and Brazil wood, leaving behind them twenty-
four men who had been saved from the wreck of the flag
ship (at Fernando do Noronha Island). Thus was
formed the first settlement in Brazil.
The Brazil wood had become so noted in Europe, that
the name which Cabral had given to the country (Vera
Cruz) became lost in the denomination which it uni
versally received of the Brazils, or the Brazil wood
country, finally becoming Brazil simply. The harmony
which marked most of the first intercourse between the
aborigines and the discoverers did not continue for
very long. The former found little reason to be satisfied
with their neighbours, and, like most savages, passed from
the one extreme of attachment and veneration, to that
of hatred and fear, and their minds were soon filled with
the idea of taking revenge for some provocations which
they had sustained. Warfare of the most sanguinary
sort succeeded, and the Portuguese were frequently
defeated, and suffered such tortures that cannot be related.
A temporary end was thus put to voluntary emigration
' to Brazil. At this crisis the Government adopted the

40 BRAZIL.
plan (borrowed by the English at a latter period) of
making the country a penal settlement. Banishment
thence taking the place of capital punishment. Owing
to the character of the new colonists, the Indians natur
ally lost all awe for those whom they at first regarded
as vastly superior beings to themselves. Hardened by
crime, and rendered desperate by their circumstances, the
new comers were well fitted to contend with the difficult
ies that awaited them. In the sanguinary battles that
ensued, atrocities were committed not unsurpassed in
enormity by those which attended the conquests of Peru
and Mexico. It was said to be their practice on storming
a village, to massacre all the old men and children, and
carry the rest off as slaves. During this time, Amerigo
Vespiecci had returned to the service of the Castilian
King, and undoubtedly counselled the latter to take posses
sion of the territories which he (Vespucci) had discovered.
The Spanish Sovereign sent out Don Juan de Solis in
1509, with Vicente Yanez Pinzon as pilot. The King of
Portugal did not act tardily in remonstrating with the
Castilian on this proceeding, and on return of Solis and
Pinzon, the idea was abandoned.
Seven years later, De Solis, coasting along the Brazils,
came to the harbour of Rio de Jeneiro. From thence he
proceeded southward until he reached what he presumed
to be a strait communicating with the Indian Ocean,
but which turned out to be the mouth of the great River
Plate. With this important discovery, the career of the
great navigator terminated, for in attempting to make a
descent on the coast, he and several of his crew were slain
in sight of the ships. Discouraged by the loss of their
commander, the survivors set sail for Europe, without
attempting any further discovery. The King of Portugal
claimed their cargoes, and remonstrated so effectually

DISCOVERY, ETC. 41
against the interference of Spain that Magalhaes, when
reaching the coast three years afterwards (1518), pur
chased nothing but necessary provisions from the
inhabitants. Meanwhile the French had formed settle
ments on the northern coast of Brazil, and when
Christovao Jacques, a Portuguese commander, entered
All Saints Bay, he found two Gallic vessels laden with
Brazil wood. These he attacked and succeeded in
destroying, after a gallant defence. The first settler in
Bahia was Diogo Alvarez, a native of Vianna do Castello.
He was wrecked upon shoals on the north ofthe bar. Part
of the crew were drowned, others were slain and devoured
by the Indians, and Diogo himself only saved his life by
making himself useful to the savages. By design he
secreted a musket and barrel of powder, and when an
opportunity offered to astonish his masters, he promptly
brought down a bird with a shot. He was in a moment
translated from a slave to a great personage. The
Indians gave him the title of Caramuru (man of fire). He
became a chief, led his followers against the Tapuyas, and
the fame of his terrible engine of war having preceded him,
his tribe gained a bloodless victory. He fixed his abode
upon the spot where Villa Velha was afterwards erected,
and living as one of the patriarchs of old, soon saw a
numerous progeny rising round him. It is undoubtedly
true that the best Bahian families owe their origin to
him. At length a French vessel entered the bay, and
Diogo Alvarez resolved to take the opportunity of once
more seeing his native land. He loaded the ship with
wood, and embarked with his favourite wife Paraguassu.
They were received with great honour at the French
Court. His wife was baptized by the name of the Queen
of Portugal (Catherina), and the King and Queen were

42 BRAZIL.
her sponsors, her marriage was then celebrated. Diogo
would have proceeded home, but the French would
not permit him. By means, however, of a young com
patriot (Fernandez Sardinha), he sent the information to
Lisbon that he was not permitted to carry personally, and
exhorted the Portuguese Monarch (Joao III.) to colonise
the province in which his own lot had been so strangely
cast. After some time, however, he bargained with a
wealthy merchant to take him back, and leave him the
artillery and ammunition of two ships, together with a
large store of useful goods for trading. In return for
this he undertook to fill the vessel with Brazil wood.
The arrangement was faithfully performed on both sides,
and Diogo fortified his little capital. The Portuguese
Government had continued to neglect their Transatlantic
possessions, and for more than 30 years the attempts to
colonise it had been of the feeblest description. Finding,
however, that the Frencfy were profiting by their apathy,
and that the Spanish were forming settlements on the
bank of the Paraguay River, the Portuguese Court took
alarm, and a plan was formed for the division of the
country into Capitanias (captaincies), each containing
about fifty leagues of coast, which were bestowed by
Joao III. upon such grandees as had distinguished
themselves by their services to the crown, and were able
and willing to embark on such an adventure. They
were either to go in person, or send colonists at their own
expense, and in return they were invested with complete
powers, both civil and criminal, over their respective
jurisdictions. We thus see that the policy of the
Portuguese King and Cortes was the same as that of the
Spanish, i.e. : to colonise and enrich the nation at the
expense of the people, not of the royal treasury.
Before proceeding with the next chapter in Brazilian

DISCOVERY, ETC. 43
history, the parcelling of the coast into a series of semi-
independent communities, we will glance at the actual
state of the country at this time. The first arrivals
found no difficulties in procuring wives amongst the
Indians, as the latter had a peculiar ambition to possess
children by a race of men whom they at first deemed a
sort of demi-gods, when they saw them apparently call
down the thunder and lightning at the pointing of a sort
of wand. Besides, according to their ideas, the only
side of parentage worth anything was the male. They
were further seduced by the store of trinkets, such as
looking-glasses, scissors, knives, rings, etc., which were
profusely displayed by the mariners. On the other hand,
of course, the new comers brought no women with them
on their first voyages, and so it is easy to understand that
a large number of mezticos soon sprang up wherever the
Portuguese were settling. Some of these became quite
as savage as their mothers, and forgot their partial white
origin in the primeval instincts of the Indian. Others
assisted in the brutal massacres of their relatives, and
were even more ferocious than their fathers. An inter
mediate type is presented in Diogo Alvarez, and being
the first, as well as one of the best kinds of colonists, it
is small wonder that the little port he founded soon rose
to be the capital of all Brazil. From the time of his ship
wreck (1510) to 1557 when he died, progress was slow
but never failin .

CHAPTER VI.
The Capitanias and Struggles with the French,
British, Spanish and Dutch Invaders.

The first person to take possession of a Capitaina was
Martim Affonso de Souza, who, with his brother's aid,
fitted out a considerable expedition. He first began to
survey the coast near Rio de Janeiro, and gave the place
its name, being discovered on the first day of the year,
and thought to be the mouth of a river. This allotment
was situated near Sao Vicento. Pedro Lopez, his
brother, had two sections, one part, Sao Amaro, immedi
ately to the south of Sao Vicente ; the second consider
ably to the north, not far from where is now Pernambuco.
Joao de Barros, the celebrated historian, obtained Mar
anhao, and Pernambuco became the portion of Duarte
Coelho Pereira. The territory adjacent to the Southern
Parahyba River, was conceded to Pedro de Goes. The
country between the River Sao Francisco and Bahia
was allotted to Francisco Pereira Coutinho. The next
portion of territory southward was known as the Captaincy
of Ilheos, it was granted to Jorge Figueiredo Correa.
Cabral's Porto Seguro was included in the range of coast
which formed the Capitania of the same name, and came
under the control of Pedro Campo Tourinha. Espiritu
Santo was the appellation given to the next in rotation,
and fell to Vasco Fernandez Coutinho.

THE CAPITANIAS— STRUGGLES, ETC. 45
Few of the settlements were founded immediately by
the Crown, and the lords proprietors enjoyed feudal
privileges and most regal rights, except issuing a coinage.
They made their own laws and imposed taxes. This
system of Government was, as might have been expected,
attended by serious evils. An authority so absolute, and
so uncontrolled, was inevitably abused by the adventurers
to whom its administration was entrusted. Complaints
of their brutal and arbitrary conduct became at length so
frequent that it afforded the Crown a fair pretext for
revoking the powers which had been so hastily conferred
on the proprietors, and defaoto, the settlements had been
entirely alienated from the Government.
A Governor-General was appointed with plenipotentiary
attributions, and the only thing left the adventurers was
possession of their lands as fiefs.
Thome de Souza, a fidalgo (or noble), was appointed to
this high office, and he was given instructions to build
and fortify a city, which was to be called Sao Salvador.
He arrived at Bahia in April, 1549, accompanied by six
Jesuits, the first who had set foot in the new world. It
should be noted that the introduction of slaves had already
taken place, most of them brought from the West Coast
of Africa, and were principally of Bantu Race. They
came especially for the purpose of agriculture, but were
made use of in the extraction of the precious metal, and
as we shall afterwards see, entered into the whole life of
the country at a later period.
Amongst the Jesuits was father Nobrega, a con
temporary of St. Francis Xavier, and his rival in dis
interested exertions for the good of his fellows. He has
been truly called the Apostle of Brazil. Of noble birth,
he had been disappointed in some position looked for,
and renounced the world in disgust, little thinking that

46 BRAZIL.
his future was destined to be far greater than as a simple
and useless aristocrat. His memory deserves to be held
by the Brazilians in everlasting honour.
Some have ascribed the appointment of Thome de
Souza to other causes than that of the misdeeds of the
feudal lords. Many Jews had found their way to Brazil,
being banished thither by the inquisition, after having
been stripped of all their possessions. Here they founded
a colony, imported sugar-cane from Madeira, and soon
were so flourishing that the Crown became imbued with
the idea of forming a new city in Brazil, and making it
the seat of Government. The Jews had hardly been
a year exiled when the new Governor arrived, so it can
hardly be said that they were the cause of his appoint
ment. On De Souza's arrival at Bahia he found old Caramuru
settled there. This man was of great assistance to the
Portuguese in promoting a friendly understanding be
tween them and the Indians, and the latter helped them
to build the city. Within four months a hundred houses
were erected, a cathedral was begun, batteries were made,
commanding both sea and land, and a mud wall was
built to defend the place against any sudden attack from
the natives. Supplies of all kinds were received next
year from Portugal, and the year following several young
orphans of noble families were sent out by the Queen as
wives for the officers, with large dowries in cows, mares,
and slaves.
This was the very first royal settlement, and its
prosperity was attended by advantages to all the Captain
cies. De Souza did not, however, bring a sufficient force
to cope with the disorders and repress the insubordina
tion which began to prevail. By building Sao Salvador
he gave a Central Government to the colony, but the

THE CAPITANIAS— STRUGGLES, ETC. 47
honour of settling and extending it, and of making it
really useful to the Mother Country,' was reserved for the
Jesuits. These men, by their arts of insinuation and address,
have been surpassed by none, and* they dispersed them
selves amongst the savages, and seemingly inspired by
peace and charity, succeeded in obtaining their attach
ment and confidence. The obstacles which they had to
encounter were most formidable, but their fiery zeal and
assiduity rose with the difficulties met with, and the most
salutary effects resulted from their exertions. They
began by instructing the native children in the Portuguese
language, and thus whilst fitting the Indians to become
interpreters, they acquired their tongue, and, as we have
seen, formed a Lingoa Geral. Nobrega had a school near
the city, and the children were taught the elements of
readirig, writing, and arithmetic, to assist at mass, to
sing the church service, and were frequently led in pro
cession through the town. Great pains was taken to
substitute the folk lore of the Indians by legends from
holy writ, and as to these poor people it was only a case
of exchanging one set of stories by another, they did not
lose by the substitution. Unfortunately for posterity,
through this policy, most of the Indian lore has been
entirely lost.
The greatest obstacle in the path of the missionaries
was the cannibal propensities of the Indians. Their very
pride and beliefs were implicated in these horrid orgies.
In spite of their curing the savages of drunkenness, of
polygamy, and of the custom of the vendetta, the latter
still possessed the propensity to delight in human flesh.
Southey (History of Brazil) relates a story of a Jesuit,
who having administered extreme unction to a very old
Indian woman, desired to know whether he could get her

48 BRAZIL.
anything to eat. Said the old convert, my stomach
rebels against everything, but if you could only get me
the little hand of a tender Tapuyo boy, I think I could
pick the little bones ; but woe is me, there is nobody \o
go out and shoot one for one. The priests, who were
already established, in the country, were in continual
opposition to the Jesuits. Their interests were at stake ;
for what the missionaries did gratuitously they demanded
payment, for the priest maintained that slavery was
lawful, because the Indians were beasts, although their
own manners were not less dissolute than those of the
savages, and they hated the Jesuits, who sought to
humanise the natives. The first settlement consisted of
an array of officials, directly responsible to the Governor-
General, and who were deputed to visit the Capitanias to
transact the business of the Crown ; four hundred soldiers,
six hundred exiles, and many mechanics, and others;
Hardly had the place taken the aspect of a permanent
settlement when the first Bishop (Don -Pedro Fernandez
Sardinha) arrived in 1552. The following year Thome
de Souza, having been four years in Brazil, asked for and
received his recall, and was succeeded by Duarte de
Costa, who came, accompanied by Father Anchieta and
six other Jesuits, who soon after established a college in
the Plains of Piratininga (now Sao Paulo) on the Tiete
River, in a secluded and beautiful spot. Southey, on
visiting it, complained of the tremendous ascents, and the
thinness of the air, although its elevation is not more
than about 2,500 feet above sea level.
Difficulties arising between the new Governor and the
Prelate, the former embarked for Lisbon, with the inten
tion of stating his grievances to the King, but was
wrecked, and, together with a hundred Europeans, was
murdered by the Cahete tribe of Indians.. In revenge

Launch of the Brazilian Battleship "Minas Geraes," largest and most heavily armed war vessel injthe" world.

pa

THE CAPITANIAS— STRUGGLES, ETC. 49
for this the Portuguese hunted them until they were
almost all exterminated, the remainder being condemned
to perpetual slavery.
Da Costa was replaced, in 1558, by Menrde Sa, a man
of enlightenment and humanity. < On his arrival he
immediately set to work to reclaim the natives, and to
make them fully understand that they might expect
justice in the future, he issued an order that all who had
been wrongfully enslaved should be set at liberty. He
also took vigorous measure to enforce the laws against
cannibalism, pursuing and chastising such tribes as were
found to continue the abominable practice. He soon had
to turn his attention to a foreign enemy. Durand de
Viiiegagnon, a native of Provence and Knight of Malta,
a man high in the French naval service, had taken pos
session, of one of the islands in the bay of Rio de Janeiro,
for the avowed purpose of founding an asylum thefre for
the persecuted French Huguenots. For this project he
had obtained the patronage of Admiral de Coligny him
self, and by this means had succeeded in inducing a
number of respectable colonists to make their way to
Brazil. The French Court was inclined to view the
scheme with entire satisfaction, as it afforded a means of
forming colonies after the fashion of their Iberian neigh
bours. Viiiegagnon having landed, he began to build
a fort, calling it after the name of his protector, Coligny,
and although the whole territory was hardly a mile in
circumference the continent was already honoured with
the name of Antarctic France. On the return of his
ships to Europe for another cargo of Protestants, a con
siderable zeal was kindled by the establishment of the
reformed religion in these remote regions, and the Church
of Geneva took such interest in the expedition that two
clerics and fourteen students from that city determined

50 BRAZIL.
to brave all the hardships of a new climate and mode of
life. Repairing to the seat of Admiral Coligny, they soon
found their numbers swelled, and new recruits being con
tinually enrolled as they made their way towards the sea.
Their departure was hastened by a disagreeable adven
ture. At Harfleur the Catholic inhabitants, instigated
by the priests, rose in arms against them, and one of
their best officers was killed. On their passage they met
with very bad weather, and on arriving off the Coast of
Espirito Santo they had a slight brush with the Portu
guese. Finally they reached the settlement of their
countrymen at Rio de Janeiro, where they were received
at first with great apparent cordiality. But Viiiegagnon
was a scoundrel, he soon threw off the mask, and those
who had come so far to enjoy liberty of conscience, found
themselves brought under a worse yoke than that which
they had previously suffered from. They, therefore,
demanded permission to leave Brazil, and he gave written
permission to the captain of a ship to convey them to
France. When they got on board, however, the vessel
was found to be in such a state that five of the party
returned on shore, rather than put to sea in her. Jean
de Lery was one of the others who thought death better
than the cruelty of the traitor Viiiegagnon, and they
pursued their voyage, and after having endured the
utmost miseries of famine they reached Hennebonne.
They had been forced to devour the leather coverings
of their trunks, and hunted the rats and mice until none
remained. Several died of hunger, and the frightful
thought came to them that they would have to draw lots
and devour each other. Viiiegagnon had given them a
box of letters wrapped in cloth, and amongst them was
one addressed to the chief magistrates of whatever port

THE CAPITANIAS— STRUGGLES, ETC. 51
they might arrive at, in which this worthy servant of the
Guises denounced the men whom he had invited to Brazil
to enjoy the peaceable exercise of the reformed faith.
His devilish malignity was, however, frustrated, and his
treachery exposed, as the authorities at Hennebonne
happened to favour the Protestants. Of the five who
had trusted to his tender mercies, three were executed.
Others fled to the Portuguese, and were compelled to
profess a religion which they despised as much as they
hated. The attention of the Portuguese Government was soon
directed towards this fine port, and the nephew of Mem
da Sa was sent to Bahia, for such assistance as might
enable him to extirpate the French, and take possession
of the place. An expedition was fitted out accordingly
of two ships of war, and several merchantmen and the
Governor himself took command, and was accompanied
by the Jesuit Nobrega. Early in January, 1560, they
reached Rio de Janeiro. The intention of the Governor
was to enter in the dead of the night, and effect a land
ing by surprise. They were, however, seen by the
sentinels, and in consequence obliged to anchor off the
bar. The French retired to their forts with a company
of eight hundred native archers.
Mem da Sa now saw that he needed small craft, and
sent to Sao Vicente for aid, and for men who had some
knowledge of the harbour. When reinforcements arrived
the Portuguese won a landing, but they vainly battered
the solid rock fortifications for two days and nights, and
uselessly spent all their ammunition, besides having
many of their men wounded. There was no lack of
courage amongst them, though they had evinced little
skill, and in a desperate assault they won the largest of
the outworks, then stormed the rock which hid the

52 BRAZIL.
magazine. This so intimidated the French that they
abandoned the other works in the ensuing night, and
fled, some to their ships, and others to the mainland. As
this action took place on January 20th (St. Sebastian's
Day) Mem da Sa called the place Sao Sebastiao, in
honour as well of the young King of Portugal, who bore
that name. Here the city was founded, and the whole
of the work of construction was performed by the
Indians, under the control of the Jesuits, without any
expense to the State. The troubles of the Governor
were not at an end, however, for he had now to contend
with the most formidable and savage of the Indian races,
the Botucudos, who were continually attacking the out
lying settlements in Bahia, and even threatened the
capital itself.
English adventurers were at this time making
endeavours to settle themselves in the country, and
they fixed themselves in some considerable numbers at
Parahyba do Sui. Allying themselves with the natives
they might have succeeded in becoming a serious menace
to the Portuguese, had not Mem da Sa attacked and
exterminated them. This successful administrator had
been in control of the colony for an unusually long period,
when Dom Luiz de Vasconcellos was appointed to
succeed him, and brought out a new concourse of Jesuits,
headed by F. Ignacio de Azeredo. Nearing the Azores
they met with several French and English vessels. The
nev> Governor was killed in action, and the Jesuits made
to walk the plank by a French pirate, named Jacques
Sore. Only one escaped in a lay habit. Nobrega had
spent his last breath before, prematurely worn out, and
thus was spared hearing the sad fate of his brethren.
Luiz de Almeida being appointed Governor, he reached
Bahia, and was welcomed by Mem da Sa, before the

THE CAPITANIAS— STRUGGLES, ETC. 53
latter's death (1572). Later, when Luiz de Brito took
the place of De Almeida, the growth of the colony had
been so rapid that it was found necessary to divide it
into two distinct parts, each with its own head. These
were, however, re-united in 1578, under D. Diogo
Lourenzo da Veiga. This coincided with the passing of
Portugal and Brazil under the Spanish Dominion for
sixty years, owing to the death of the Portuguese King,
and his chief nobility in a memorable expedition against
the Moors. The colony was offered to the Duke of
Braganza, with the title of King, provided he forfeited
all claim to the Portuguese Crown. Neither Phillip of
Spain, in making the offer, nor Braganza, when he refused
it, had any conception of the importance of the country
and its destiny. Little either dreamed that the then
insignificant colony was fated to eclipse Portugal itself,
and to furnish an asylum to the Court in two hundred
years time. In spite of fhe search for gold and precious
stones that had been going on for twenty years, very
little intimation of the real riches of the interior could
have been given then, or probably the fate of Brazil
would have been quite different.
Bahia, Pernambuco, and Rio de Janeiro were in a
most flourishing condition at this time, and would doubt
less have made far greater progress had it not been for
the temporary placing of the power in Spanish hands.
Phillip had too many affairs to consider at this time to
bestow proper attention to Brazil, and his subjects were
filled with dreams of the better known El Dorado, on
the Western Coast. This was also undoubtedly the
reason why the attempts of the Earl of Cumberland,
under whom Raleigh served, and Cavendish, and Sir
James Lancaster were fated to produce no lasting results,
although their filibustering expeditions were temporarily

54 BRAZIL.
crowned with success. At this time Roberto Diaz,
a colonist who had discovered a great mine of silver, and
who lived in such magnificence, that everything used at
the table or the toilet was of the precious metal, offered
to disclose the secret to King Phillip, on condition he was
made a marquis. The crafty Castilian was not willing
to comply with this suggestion, but sent out emissaries
with instructions to discover the mine. In spite of his
offers to show as much silver as there was iron in the
mines of Biscay, it was not forthcoming. The Governor-
General set out with some miners for the Serra Itabayana
(Bahia), but could discover nothing, and only the timely
death of Diaz saved him from the vengeance of the
King. The probability is that he had, in common with
many of the old colonists, amassed his fortune through
other means. The exploitation of the Indians was a
vast source of riches. In two years no fewer than
80,000 arrived on the coast, in the neighbourhood of the
capital, to be employed in the sugar mills, etc. Almost
the whole of these died in a very brief space of time, and
were replaced by Negroes. Astounding stories are still .
(1908) current as to the means employed by the first
settlers to enrich themselves at the expense of the natives,
and when these failed, by traffic in black ivory.
In 161 1 the French renewed their efforts to form
a settlement, and established themselves until 1620, in
the Island of Maranhas. The Dutch now turned their
eyes in the direction of Brazil, and in 1624 the West
India Company fitted out a considerable armament under
Jacob Willekins and Peter Heyne. Their instructions
to attack the capital were completely carried out, and
Bahia was taken almost without a struggle. The
Hollanders soon set to work to strengthen the place, and
prepared to renew hostilities, which were conducted with

THE CAPITANIAS— STRUGGLES, ETC. 55
the greatest barbarity on both sides. The Portuguese
Bishop, Marcos Teixeira, hoisted the crucifix for his
standard, and commenced guerilla warfare with such
success that Sao Salvador was soon blockaded. He died
shortly after, in consequence of the hardships he had
undergone, but his successors carried out the campaign.
The Dutch were weakened by the return of Willekins to
Europe, and the departure of Heyne, as well as by the
loss of their General, Hans Vandort, who was killed in
ambush. In 1626 the Spanish King sent forty ships and
8,000 soldiers to retake the place, under the leadership of
Fabrique de Toledo, and the Dutch capitulated on condi
tion of being permitted to return to Holland with their
personal belongings and arms. New attempts were
made by the Holland West India Company, but the
enormous expense delayed an expedition. They, how
ever, harassed the Spanish and Portuguese merchant
fleets on their homeward voyages, and in thirteen years
took 546 vessels, the proceeds of which amounted to
^"7,500,000. Early in 1630 Admiral Hendrick Lonck appeared off
Pernambuco, and took the place after a feeble resistance
on the part of Albuquerque, the Governor. A predatory
warfare, with the aid of the Indians, was carried on by
the vanquished, but in three short months they had to
accept defeat, and were transported to the Dutch
Indies. Disaster overwhelmed every fleet sent out by
the Portuguese to recover the lost city, and in 1636 the
Dutch had made themselves masters of the Provinces of
Pernambuco, Parahyba, and Rio Grande do Norte, in
reality the whole of Brazil lying northward of the Sao
Francisco River.
These successes inspired the Dutch with the hope that
they might, by a great effort, complete the conquest of

56 BRAZIL.
Brazil, and Count Maurice of Nassau, arrived at
Pernambuco with fresh troops, and made himself Master
of Sergipe and Ceara. His entire force at this time
amounted to 6, 1 80 European soldiers, and about 1,000
Indians. His efforts to reduce the capital were unavail
ing, and in 1639 Spain despatched 46 ships of war, and
5,000 troops under Mascarenhas. Half the fleet was
lost, and the rest arrived at Sao Salvador in a melancholy
condition. Mascarenhas was, however, enabled to raise
a total force of 12,000 men, and proceeded, against
Pernambuco. The result of an engagement lasting three
days was the total defeat of the Portuguese, and of that
mighty armament, but six ships returned to Europe.
Negotiations took place, and hostilites were suspended
for some time.
In 1640 Portugal regained her independence, and in
164 1 an alliance was concluded between the Dutch and
the Portuguese, marking the limits of the territory of
each in Brazil.
The West India Company now recalled Count Maurice,
and a large number of the troops, and the commissioners
appointed were foolhardy enough to sell to the Portuguese
vast stores of ammunition. Their conduct became be
sides so intolerable that peace was not possible for any
length of time, and it was left to the colonists themselves
to finally expel the invaders in January, 1654. The
Portuguese Crown received its Empire of Brazil from
the hands of the patriot, Fernandez Vieira, and although
desultory attempts were made by the Dutch to regain
a footing in Brazil, they were speedily obliged to re
linquish all pretentions to dominion.
The 10th of August, 1661, a treaty, was signed, by
which the whole of the country was finally ceded to
Portugal, on payment of 8,000,000 florins. in 16 instal-

THE CAPITANIAS— STRUGGLES, ETC. 57
ments, and free commerce being allowed Holland in all
commodities, except Brazil wood. The Portuguese now
appreciated fully the value of their possession, and
Joao IV. conferred on his heir apparent, the title of
Prince of Brazil.
In 1710 a French squadron, under M. du Clerc, arrived
off Rio de Janeiro, and an attack on the city was made.
After a short but desperate struggle the Portuguese were
victorious, and massacred all who fell into their hands.
Du Clerc himself taken prisoner, was murdered in his
bed. Next year France sent her great Admiral Duguay*
Trouin to inflict vengeance on the Brazilians, and he led
his fleet daringly between the lines of batteries which
defended the city, and carried it by storm, holding it
until a heavy ransom was paid. Thus ended the last
attempt to wrest Brazil from the hands of her discoveriers.
During the two hundred years that had elapsed since the
first settlement, the opening up of the Sertao (as the
interior was called) proceeded slowly. Most of the
settlements were due to the discovery of gold and precious
stones, and the convenient course of the rivers provided
a highway easily accessible. The State of Sao Paulo
(as it is now) was prominent in the work of pioneering.
Groups of adventurers (bandeirantes) forced their way
over the serras, in search of slaves. They marched
under a chief who was completely equipped with the
fullest power over his subordinates, and a priest was an
obligatory member of the band. Montaya speaks of
these wolves in sheep's clothing whose office was to
Christianise the natives, whilst the others despoiled
them. Making use of the poor Indians for all the pur
poses of beasts of burden, and for every kind of labour,
by this means the bandeirantes made their way into
Minas, Goyaz and Matto Grosso, and linked up the

58 BRAZIL.
great plateau with the Amazon. Those of the 16th
century devastated the whole basin of the Tiet6, and
the districts to the south and south-west. By 1610
the Jesuits established in Paraguay, had extended their
work by the Uruguay, Parana, and Iquassu Rivers to
the Paranapanema (Parana). In spite of the unspeak
able barbarities perpetrated by these bandeirantes, it is
undoubtedly true that credit is due to them for opening
up the country. Many of the Paulistas never made their
way southward again, remaining in certain favourable
spots, and forming the beginning of future prosperous
cities.

CHAPTER VII.
Crown Colony and Empire.

In 1699, the first great discovery of gold took place, and
was followed, 30 years later, by that of diamonds. Amongst
the other charges made against the Jesuits, was that they
had found the precious metal in many places, and were
working it by slave labour, without giving the Govern
ment its share. The missionaries at first were of serious,
earnest character, and entirely devoted to good works,
but little by little they became contaminated by the greed
of their lay neighbours, and were gradually losing their
influence, and being hated by the people. On Sebastiao
Joseph de Carvalho e Mello becoming Prime Minister, he
determined to remove them. They were the only persons
whom he feared, and the great multitude of clericals, and
the continual conflicts between them, gave him an excuse
to expel those whom he considered the propagators of
intolerance, ignorance and superstition. The priests were
let alone, as they were good servants to the Crown. One
of his most legitmate ambitions was to lessen the influence
of Rome. The future Marquez de Pombal was 50 years
of age when he entered into his ministry. He found the
country in a state of decay, largely due to the pernicious
influence of the clerics over the Court and the people, and
he resolved to purge Portugal of as many of its most
undesirable elements as possible. It was said of him
by his enemies that he acted first and thought afterwards,

60 BRAZIL.
and persisted in his plans whether they were right or
wrong. It is possible that he had not at first conceived
the thought of extinguishing the Jesuits, but when events
arose which seemed to render such a measure necessary,
he pursued this scheme with characteristic perseverance.
His brother, Xavier de Mendoza Furtado, was appointed
Captain-General of Maranhao and Para. He used all his
influence to deprive the missionaries of their authority,
and finally, in 1760, they were expelled from Brazil.
Their colleges, churches and other property was confis
cated. They were sent home under inhuman conditions,
by which many died, and others were cast into prison, to
remain there for eighteen years, until, on the disgrace of
Pombal, they were set free.
Brazil suffered many injuries at the hands of this
tyrant. He granted licenses to a number of exclusive
companies, and ordained that their stock should bear a
certain price, and in order to enforce this regulation,
decreed that the script should become legal payment. In
1762 the Spanish Governor of Buenos Aires, seized on
Colonia, a port on the opposite side of the River Plate,
and it never fell into the power of the Portuguese again.
The following year the Conde da Cunha, on being
appointed Viceroy of Brazil, was instructed to take up
his residence at Rio de Janeiro, which being more con
venient to the mines, and to the River Plate, had become
of much greater importance than Bahia, and presented a
more secure and easier defended port. From this period
down to the emigration of the Royal Family from Lisbon,
the development of the country was uninterrupted, in
spite of the exactions of the Crown. In 1704, the
Brazilians got the better of the Portuguese in the muni
cipal elections, and in 1708, 17 10 and 1720, revolts
occured in Sao Paulo, Pernambuco, and Minas Geraes

CROWN COLONY AND EMPIRE. 61
(as the mining province was now called). The conduct
of the home Government was little calculated to soothe
the Brazilians. The colonists were taxed for the benefit
of Portugal, as heavily as they could be. The Brazilian
capital was filled with a tribe of functionaries and other
Portuguese, who found life much more agreeable in Rio
than in Lisbon. The appearance of a printing press was
the signal for an order from the Court for its destruction,
and every means was taken to prevent the fostering of a
national spirit. In 1755 and 1758, laws were passed
forbidding the enslavement of the Indians, and by others
in 1761, 1767 and 1776, the introduction of Negro slaves
into Portugal, including Madeira (which formed part ofthe
Reino, or Kingdom), as well as the Azores, was prohibited.
No mention was made of Brazil, where the number in
creased rapidly. After the establishment of the capital, in
Rio de Janeiro, when the population of the city exceeded
30,000, the coffee berry was introduced into the country,
and many other kinds of industries were stimulated, all of
them, however, depending for their profits on the supply
of forced labour, which was increased by every means in
the power of the colonists.
The revenues obtained by Portugal from Brazil at this
time were very great, one fifth of the production of the
gold and diamond mines going to the Crown. From
1728 to 1734, this amounted to an average of nearly
£"500,000 yearly, and, with the many other iniquitous
taxes, reached an annual sum of not less than
£"2,000,000. All goods imported from the Mother Country
paid 12 per cent. duty.. Salt and iron were taxed 100 per
cent., and most of the impositions were farmed out to the
highest bidder. Every article introduced into the mining
districts was surcharged 2d. per lb. In^passing ferries,
goods paid not according to their value/but their weight.

62 BRAZIL.
No trade of any kind was allowed between the natives
and the British, although the latter often found means to
evade the vigilance of the fiscal agents, who, on their
sjde, frequently found it worth their while to turn their
backs when any contraband trade was going on. Under
such circumstances the development of the country was
retarded, and the aspirations of the Brazilians for freedom
could not be realised, owing to the sparsity of the
population and difficult communications. At the begin
ning of the nineteenth century, Brazil is said to have
contained 12 cities, 66 towns, and 430,000 inhabitants of
pure blood, as well as some 1,500,000 Negroes, and 700,000
Indians. These figures are as near as can be obtained
from various sources, but, of course, are quite liable to
be somewhat erroneous. The colonies were however
outstripping the Mother Country, and the exports had
reached £"2,500,000, and the imports £"2,100,000.
Twenty thousand slaves were being annually imported,
and 5,000 were sold in the market at Rio de Janeiro.
Many of these poor" wretches were the property of the
Crown, 10,000 being employed in the diamond fields.
Others were attached to convents, the Benedictines
having 1,000 on their plantations. Social life at this time
was of the most degraded kind. The habits of the lower
orders were filthy, and those of the rich abominably
vicious. The monks swarmed in every street, and were
at once sluggards and libertines. For the sum of two
dollars, any coward could hire a bravo to waylay and
stab his enemy. The Negro population were employed
in every description of labour, both agricultural and
domestic. It was the custom of a man who had 20, 50 or 100
slaves, to turn them loose in the morning without a crust,
and compel them to produce a sum of money at night.

CROWN COLONY AND EMPIRE. 63
Any surplus they might keep for themselves. Builders
used to impose a further condition that each Negro should
bring back with him a large stone suitable for construction.
If one hired a mechanic for any trifling work about the
house, he would bring a slave with him to carry his tools.
In my lady's chamber would be found a group of females
ready to peform her slightest behest. Events had been
hastening to a crisis, in Portugal, since the beginning of
1807, and on the 29th of November, the Prince (Joao VI.),
who was Regent, hastily embarked on board the
squadron of Sir Sidney Smith, with his retinue and all
the valuables that could be got together. He reached
Bahia on the 25th of January, 1808, and was joyfully
welcomed by the people. He was persuaded to stop there,
but with praiseworthy firmness, he adhered to the resolu
tion he had taken, and after spending a month in the city,
sailed to Rio de Janeiro, where he arrived on the 7th of
March. The great Marquez de Pombal had forseen the future
necessity of transferring the seat of the Monarchy to
Brazil. The first beneficial consequence of the arrival of
the Royal Family, was the opening of the ports to inter
national commerce, and the centenary of this was cele
brated by a great national exhibition last year (August to
November, 1908), at Rio de Janeiro. In the very first
year, 90 foreign ships entered the new port, and many
visited Maranhao, Pernambuco, and Bahia. In 1810 a
treaty was concluded with England, which gave a pre
ference to British goods, these paying 15 per cent, duty,
whilst commodities of other origin were taxed to the
extent of 24 per cent. Gold and silver, however, still
continued to be prohibited. Santa Catherina Island was
declared a free port, and privileges were granted to
employ the splendid woods of the Brazils for the purpose

64 BRAZIL.
of constructing British men-of-war. Before 1814, a
number of English merchants took up their residence at
Rio, and the place soon became a great commercial
centre, and later, the seat of a British plenipotentiary
ranking higher than his colleagues elsewhere in South
America. The abrogation of the colonial laws, which took place
soon after the arrival of the Regent, the introduction of
the vine, and the encouragements given to improvements
in horticulture, the adoption of vaccination, and better
sanitary laws, and some reform in the courts of judicature
may be enumerated among the benefits for which Brazil
is indebted to the residence of the Court. The most vital
stimulus in promoting improvement, and in forming a
national character and feeling, arose out of the decree
which gave to the country equal rights and privileges to
those enjoyed by Portugal herself. The important decla
ration of this measure was fixed for the Queen's birthday,
in December, 1815. The new title of the King's posses
sions was the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the
Algarve. When the merchants of Rio met to congratu
late their Sovereign, they subscribed a large sum of money
to form a fund for general education. Schools multiplied,
and even the slaves were sent to learn to read and write.
The classical languages began to be taught, and public
libraries were established at Rio, and Bahia, and printing
offices throughout Brazil. A botanical garden was opened
at Pernambuco, a medical college at Bahia, a museum,
a school for engineers, and a naval college started at Rio.
In 1 82 1 the Cortes invited the Regent (now King) to
return home. The invitation was couched in such
language as might have been considered minatory, but it
was coupled with the information, or pretext, that the
English were about to take possession of the country.

. '»%V **¦£-, " ¦ '''J,'-'. ¦'" ¦'¦-- '-.t *-h^ * "_ *^

Cutting and transporting Sugar Cane, Sao Paulo.

Tobacco Plants.

CROWN COLONY AND EMPIRE. 65
The truth was that they were jealous of the rising
influence of Brazil, and to mark their displeasure,
ordered the schools and other institutions in that country
to be closed, and the central Government at Rio to be
dissolved. A manifesto issued by order of the Cortes
bore the significant phrase : " Commerce and industry
seemed entirely destroyed by the unlimited license
granted to foreign vessels in all the Brazilian ports, and
by the fatal treaty of commerce with England." On the
1 8th of February, 1821, the King nominated a commission
to consider the Constitution, the clauses of which had been
promulgated in the Mother Country.
Shortly afterwards, the Prince Dom Pedro read to the
people of Rio a royal proclamation, securing to them the
Constitution, such as it should be framed by the Cortes at
Lisbon, and ended by taking the oath to observe it. His
example was followed by the Governors of Pernambuco,
Bahia, etc., and the King confirmed all that had taken
place. Having resolved to return, Joao VI, embarked
on the 24th of April. As soon as he arrived in Europe,
he found himself in the hands of his Cortes, and found it
necessary to lend his authority to a Constitution which
treated the Brazilians as mere colonists. A rupture
between the two countries became inevitable. Measures
taken by the Government at Lisbon, to compel the
abasement of Brazil, and the recall of the Prince,
hastened a crisis. • The decrees reached Rio on the 10th
of December, and, listening to the entreaties of his
subjects, the Prince decided to disobey the obnoxious
laws and remain. Independence was finally proclaimed
September 7th, 1822, and the prince was proclaimed
Emperor Pedro I. The first assembly was opened in
1823, and the Parliament was inaugurated in 1826. The
reign of the first Emperor was, however, unfortunate.

66 BRAZIL.
The southernmost part of the Empire was lost for ever,
and now became the Uruguay Republic, acting as a con
venient buffer state, between Brazil and Argentina.
Revolts succeeded each other, and Pedro abdicated in
favour of his son on April 7th, 1831. He then embarked
for Portugal to take the Government of that country
into his hands. After a number of insurrections, the
Regency was placed in the hands of Father Diogo Feijo,
who exercised a wise control until 1840. He was
succeeded by Araujo Lima, and the young Emperor came
into his own at the age of 14, on July 23rd, 1843. Dis
turbances had now become chronic, and pacification was
a long way off. For five years, the reign of Pedro II.
was marked by revolt and insurrection. In 1851 the
slave trade was abolished, and was entirely achieved by
Constitutional means. The fact of the Royal Family
emphatically refusing any compensation to the' practically
ruined planters, turned against them a great majority of
the agricultural class of Brazil, who were almost entirely
dependent on this enforced labour.
Now begins an heroic page of Brazilian history. In
1 85 1, war was declared against the Argentine Dictator,
Rosas, in defence of the Republic of Uruguay, and,
although not very sanguinary, lasted three years. The
second was an affair of quite a different kind. It cost
Brazil £"63,000,000, and many thousands of lives. She
was engaged in a petty struggle (1864) with Uruguay,
when Lopez, the Paraguayan Dictator, invaded Brazil
and Argentina. This led to an alliance between the two
countries attacked and Uruguay, and in 1865 operations
were commenced. At first the allies were under the
command of the Argentine President, General Bartolome
Mitre. In the battle of the Riachuelo the Brazilian
Navy, under Admiral Barroso, destroyed the Paraguayan

CROWN COLONY AND EMPIRE. 67
ships engaged, but the operations on land were not so
decisive. A victory was won at Uruguayana (1866), but
Lopez preserved intact the whole of Paraguay. The
allied forces were now placed under the Marshal Duque
de Caxias, and Paraguay was invaded. General Osario
was already there, and the Brazilian battleships forced the
passages of Curupaito, 1867, and Humayta, 1868. The
latter was a feat worthy to rank with the most famed in
history, as the Parana was lined with heavy batteries,
and tbe gallant Brazilian commander forced a passage,
after several failures, by disobeying the commands of
his chief. The army was now able to push its way
into the interior of the country, repulsing the Para
guayans at Itororo, Avahy, and Valentinas (1868),
and forcing Lopez to take refuge in the inaccessible
parts of the country, to recruit fresh forces. The last
campaign, 1869-70, was conducted by Conde d' Eu,
son-in-law of the Emperor, who defeated the enemy
at Campo Grande, and so ended the war. Lopez,
in attempting to escape, was surprised by General
Camara, and killed. This war secured for Brazil the
free navigation of the Paraguay, placing Matto Grosso
in fluvial communication with the capital. It was almost
the financial ruin of the country, however, and the results
were so disastrous to Paraguay that she has never
recovered. Almost depopulated, there were very few
men of mature age left in the country. The movement
for the complete abolition of slavery had been growing for
a long time, but the war with Paraguay had occupied the
entire attention of the country for years, and in conse
quence the advocates for manumission had no opportunity
of appealing to the country on this momentous question.
Visconde Silva Paranhas do Rio Branco, the great
statesman (father of the present Foreign Minister),

68 BRAZIL.
succeeded in obtaining Parliamentary sanction to a bill
providing that every child born of a slave should be free.
The Emperor at this time was in Europe, and the
Regent, Princess Isabel, signed the law. The franchise
was voted on the 9th of January, i88r, proposals were
soon made for completing the good work already com
menced, but were not successful until May, 1888, when a
clear sweep of the whole system of slavery was made, by
a law promulgated by both chambers, signed by the
Princess, Regent for the second time, owing to the ill
health of the Emperor, and received by great demonstra
tions of approval on the part of the populace. There is
no doubt whatever that the act was premature. Sage
reflections showed that the supply of free labour was
entirely inadequate, and that the Negro was, through
centuries of dependence on his masters, quite unfitted to
suddenly find his relations with his master entirely
changed. In place of security of tenure, and in many
cases great license, which he had under the old regime, he
found himself looked upon as a creature with no right to
a living, and was all too frequently an outcast. The time
was not ripe for such a coup d'etat, much less to place
the franchise in the hands of such a class as the ex-slaves
were. Chaos resulted, hundreds of plantations were
abandoned or only half cultivated, and in the State of Rio
de Janeiro to-day, within fifty miles of the capital, one
may see the melancholy result of what was intended to
be an act of humanity.
The coffee producing states, and especially Sao Paulo
and Rio de Janeiro, were the fertile soil in which was
sown the seeds of revolution, and certainly the Republic,
impossible to delay much longer, was precipitated by that
law which gave freedom to the many, and penury to the
few. The death knell of the Empire was tolled. The

CROWN COLONY AND EMPIRE. 69
Emperor had alienated the sympathies of the leading
statesmen during the last few years, and his voyage to
Europe was doubtless a most injudicious act. Isabel
was disliked, both with regard to her ultra religious
principles, and owing to her partisanship of the slaves.
At this time the doctrines of Compte had found many
disciples in Brazil, and Masonry had become a force to
reckon with. Many circumstances were responsible for
the debacle, but the most important have been stated.
The leading spirits amongst the planters formed a
Republican Party. It had, however, been organized on
a small scale in 1870, by Saldanha Marinho, in Sao
Paulo. The Church itself became an enemy to the Crown,
throwing its weight (as always) into the side of the
balance that appeared heavier. The demagogues hated
the Emperor for his assumption of so much power.
Benjamin Constant became the apostle of a movement
that in one day gained a bloodless and stupendous victory.
Changing, with the declaration of Mashal Deodoro da
Fonseca, an Empire to a Republic, surely never had the
militant arm achieved its aims by such means. Dom
Pedro found himself without a single powerful friend
when the crisis came. He bent his venerable head to
the blow, and one of the most intellectual and patriotic
rulers the world has ever known, passed out of history. A
proposal was made recently to erect a statue to his
memory in Rio, and the subject was mooted in Parlia
ment, with the view of obtaining state assistance. Surely
Republicians are more generous than Royalists. I
wonder what the House of Lords would say to spending
money to commemorate the memory of Oliver Cromwell,
a man who deserved far more of posterity than a pitiable
and despicable return to hereditary kings.
At the time of the Empire, the cities of Brazil were in

70 BRAZIL.
a very parlous state indeed. The streets of the capital
were narrow, unpaved and sparsely illuminated with fish
oil. Sewers and waterworks were not in existence, and
the necessities of the people in this direction were confided
to private enterprise. Most of the houses were one storied,
and those more elevated, generally possessed a store on
the ground floor. The few mechanics were careless and
improvident, and scarcely any of the smaller master men
had their own materials to choose from. Take the case
of carpentry work. Friends had to be found who would
travel into the country to buy the timber. None would
work whilst possessed of money. Ladies scarcely ever
went out, and when obliged by the necessity of attending
mass, were carried in a sort of sedan chair, surrounded
by a group of attendent Negresses. In the house, they
usually sat, without stockings or slippers, in a very bare
sort of deshabille indeed, listening to all the small talk
and scandal collected by their favourite body-woman.
They occupied themselves by lace or sweet making. (The
Brazilian ladies are great adepts even to-day at concocting
all kinds of delicious preserves and similiar dainties.) At
18 they were quite women, and too frequently began to
age before the age of 25. The men occupied themselves
in gambling, frequenting cafes and discussing politics. A
shop was a convenient place of assignation, and ap
parently the last business transacted there was to sell the
commodities exposed. Luccock and Burton relate many
amusing stories of the apathy and indifference of the
tradesmen, as well as of their profound ignorance of the
arts of which they called themselves masters. There
was no social life, because there was no society, properly
speaking, apart from the aristocratic and bureaucratic
element. The home life of the planter was of the
simplest and most unpretentious description, and there

CROWN COLONY AND EMPIRE. 71
were no hotels or inns deserving of the name. Somewhat
previous to the declaration of independence, it was a
pleasant custom of the Prince to ride round, with his
entourage and point out a house he fancied. The door
was accordingly marked " P.R." (Principe Real), and the
owner compelled to dispose of it at an arbitrary figure, or
too frequently make a gift of it to his august master.
Small wonder, with the exactions of the Royal Family
and the nobility, the people sought to avoid display, or
anything which brought them under the notice of their
rulers. These customs die hard. I know a tradesman,
rich, even from an English point of view, yet he sleeps
in a dirty little hovel, dresses in the 'most ordinary of
clothes, and eats at the poorest kind of chop-house. His
manners are as uncouth as his habits, and he represents
a type still common amongst the Lusobrazileros of the
present age. You may meet with them in the steerage of
homeward bound steamers, and little dream that they
could in all probability make you feel small, from a
financial point of view. In spite of the encouragement
given under the Empire to education, yet at least fifty per
cent, of the population were quite illiterate. Lindley said
that when he was there, the ignorance evinced on most
ordinary subjects was startling. During the height of a
sanguinary campaign, many never knew that the country
was at war, and if they were aware, didn't care a rap.
One or another casual reader of an European book,
might speak of the possibility of future liberty. The
proletariat had no interest in social and concrete
questions, and were more inquisitive in parochial affairs
than in national ones. Out of this people has sprung,
in spite of their natural indolence of character, a race
imbued with life and vigour. It seems as if the nation
slept and required gigantic efforts to be awakened. If it

72 BRAZIL.
has done nothing else, the Republic has breathed the
breath of life into Brazil. The whole country is astir,
and if the early travellers, who found so much to decry,
were enabled to step from their graves and revisit it, their
amazement would be great, and they would admit that
they themselves were quite out of date.

CHAPTER VIII.
The Republic, 1889 — 1909.

The 15th of November, 1889, saw the advent of the
Republic. The military dictatorship of Marshal Da Fonseca was
brief, but remarkable for the formulation of the new con
stitution, which took place in February, 1891 ; the same
year Parliament was dissolved, and he was obliged to
resign, and place the reins of Government in the hands
of another soldier, but an abler man, Marshal Floriano
Peixoto. The crisis caused by the sudden emancipation
of the slaves now came to a head, and the country was
plunged, in addition, in a state of disorder and civil war.
In 1892 a revolution broke out which lasted nearly
three years in Rio Grande do Sui. The Federal Govern
ment was called in by the state to restore order, but soon
afterwards the revolters were joined by nearly the whole
of the fleet (September, 1893). A monarchial character
was given to the affair, in spite of the efforts of one of
the admirals. This was one of the most severe crises
through which Brazil passed, and, contrary to the
general rule, the army was the saviour of the country.
Marshal Peixoto played a great part in the struggle, and
on one occassion the bombardment of Rio de Janeiro was
commenced, and only stopped through the intervention of
the foreign war vessels at that time in port.

74 BRAZIL.
In 1894 Peixoto was succeeded by the first civil
President, Dr. Prudente de Moraes, who concluded the
civil war, and started the work of reconstruction, so well
followed by his successors. An attempt was made on his
life by a fanatic, but the political disturbances were
becoming fewer, and the state of the country improving,
in spite of the terrible financial depression. During this
period the first efforts of the Methodists to make active
propaganda met with but little success, owing to the
attitude of the priests, especially in Bahia, where bibles
were publicly burned in the squares, without the slightest
attempt on the part of the authorities to keep order.
This can hardly be wondered at, considering the origin
and want of discretion, tact, and tolerance on the part of
the Protestant colporteurs.
The majority of these men were drawn from a class ill-
fitted to do pioneer work in such a country. I remember
a case where one occupied rooms in the same house as a
Catholic father. He used to enter the apartment of the
latter and place testaments on his bed, and lost no
opportunity of insulting the faith and character of his
religious enemies. Another fellow, ex-bible agent, blos
somed out into a reverend after a couple of years in the
country. Another took paying guests (in his house, in
quite a modest street in Rio), contrary to the expressed
rule of the society. During the administration of Dr.
Moraes the limits between Argentina and Brazil were
fixed in favour of the latter, after a dispute of more than
a hundred years standing. This was owing to the good
offices of the United States as arbitrator.
Compos Salles became President in 1898, and the
rehabilitation of Brazil proceeded rapidly. The boundary
between French Guiana and Para was fixed (Treaty of
Berne).

THE REPUBLIC, 1889— 1909. 75
Dr. Salles was a Paulista, and had the mortification of
seeing the country, and his own state, in particular, in
very bad financial straits. His chief task was to re
establish the national credit, and to do this it was neces
sary to take serious measures. Specie payments were
suspended for some time, and paper money, in large
quantities, withdrawn and burnt. Another President from
S.Paulo (Rodrigues Alves) came on the scene in 1902,
and found things on a much better footing all round.
During his term of office railway construction was pushed
on rapidly, and the City of Rio de Janeiro in great part
pulled down and rebuilt on magnificent lines. 1904 saw
a great triumph at the St. Louis Exhibition, and the
wonderful white palace in which were housed myriads of
splendid examples of Brazilian products, was transferred
to Rio de Janeiro, and rebuilt in a few weeks on a site
in front of the bay, surrounded by gardens and fine
promenades. In honour of the Monroe doctrine, it was
called by the name of the American President, who was
responsible for that much-discussed definite exposition of
United States political views.
The Munroe Palace is constructed of marble and
granite, and is a distinctive landmark. Its first note
worthy use was a meeting place for the third 'Pan-
American Congress, attended by 80 representatives of 20
nations. The Brazilian Government installed in the building a
complete telegraph, telephone, and postal service entirely
free to the delegates. It also maintained translators,
typists, and clerks, and nothing in connection with the
comfort or convenience of the delegates was left undone.
The conference was opened by Baron Rio Branco (Foreign
Minister), and a few words from his address are perhaps
permissable —

76 BRAZIL.
" As young nations still, we should not forget what
we owe to those who have furnished the capital with
which we have entered into the world of competition.
The very immensity of our territories, in a great part
unpopulated and unexplored, and the certainty that we
have ample resources for a population twenty times
larger, would suggest to us the advisability of
strengthening our friendly relations, and trying to
develop the commercial interests which we have in
common. From Europe we came; Europe has been
our teacher, from her we receive continual support and
example, the light of science and art, the commodities
of her industry, and the most profitable lessons of
progress. What in exchange we can give for this, by
our growth and prosperity, will certainly constitute a
more important field for the employment of her com
mercial and industrial activity  "
A potent factor in the success of the administration of
Dr. Rodrigues Alves was his ability in the selection of a
Cabinet. Of Baron Rio Branco we have already spoken,
and shall again, and need only remark now that he is a
fit son of the noble Visconde. He has succeeded in
settling the claims of Bolivia, and has added to Brazil a
territory (The Acre) as large as the whole of France.
Dr. Laura Muller, Minister of Public Works, Industry,
and Agriculture, was of German origin, and was
popularly called Allemaozinho (the little German). He
was responsible for a whole host of improvements.
Rio itself was transformed. Stately mansions sprung
up in all directions. Dr. Passos (Prefect) worked like a
Trojan, and a loan of £"8,000,000 raised in Europe was
added to a local one of half that sum in municipal bonds.
Docks were started, which will be the largest in South
America. They will be leased to a company under con-

THE REPUBLIC, 1889— 1909. 77
ditions now being prepared. The railway terminus now
somewhat outside the centre of the city, will be brought
up to the quays.
The Central Avenue is considerably over a mile long,
and is about 108 feet wide. Its continuation, and flank
ing by marine drives, is between four and five miles long)
and 140 feet wideband has long since been completed.
The resewering of the whole of the city (which occupies
an area as large as any in the world), and the provision
of a new and plentiful supply of water, of excellent
quality. The Central Avenue cost about £"2,750,000, and
the municipal theatre about £"1,000,000.
600 Houses were pulled down in three months, and
3,000 workmen were employed.
The avenue is a magnificent street, and is lined with
splendid buildings, some nearly 200 feet high, prominent
amongst these may be noted the palatial offices of the
Jornal do Commercio (doyen of South American papers,
and established nearly 90 years), and 0 Paiz, a sort of
Daily Mail of Brazil, as well as the National Steamship
Line (the Brazilian Lloyd), Royal Mail Company, etc.
Many other fine streets were built, and a feverish
activity was displayed during the whole of the last
presidential term. One of the greatest victories was the
improvement of the sanitation of Rio. Dr. Oswaldo
Cruz, the Health Officer, banished entirely the spectre of
yellow fever, and, indeed, was the original, but unwilling,
cause of the attempt to create a revolution, in con
sequence of the compulsory vaccination law formulated
by him. The popular demonstrations, headed by a
section of the press, were so great that it was found
impossible to carry its provisions into force, and it has
been, although passed by the Chambers and signed by
the President, practically dropped.

78 BRAZIL.
A concession was also granted to an Anglo-American
Company to unify the whole of the tram service, and to
supply light and power to the Metropolis. In a very few
years Rio will be equipped with a rapid transit service of
the very first class.
In 1906, President Alfonso Penna took his seat under
most auspicious conditions. He had the assistance of
the most notable member of the last Cabinet, and he
came into office, pledged to continue the good work of
his predecessor. Unlike the two former Presidents, he is
a Mineiro (native of Minas Geraes).
Dr. Alfonso Penna has a long and honourable record
as a public man. He has been Minister of War, Agri
culture, and Industry at different times, and President of
the Bank of Brazil, and President of his native state.
Previous to his taking office he made a tour through all
the seaboard cities of Brazil, in order to acquaint himself
with the actual condition of the country. The outstanding
figure in the new group of statesmen, by whom the
President is surrounded, is a young but remarkably
energetic man, Dr. Miguel Calmon du Pin e Almeida,
Minister of Public Works, etc. Hardly 30 years of age
he has the burden of an atlas on his shoulders. Railway
extensions, and a new great trunk line ; harbour works
at Bahia, Santos, Para, Victoria, Pernambuco, Rio
Grande, etc. ; the completion of the improvements in
Rio de Janeiro itself, and, perhaps, most important of all,
a great scheme of colonisation in co-operation with most
of the states. This includes propaganda work in all the
capitals of Europe, with a central bureau in Paris. The
State of Sao Paulo has, it may be noted, en passant, its
own separate office in Antwerp, and agencies in addition.
It would be no exaggeration to say that Dr. Calmon has
the work of three men at- least, and that he has already

THE REPUBLIC, 1889— 1909. 79
done wonders in the short time available.
Peace must always be given the preference to war, so
we go on to speak of the Department of Finance, whose
chief is Dr. David Campista, who is engaged in the
arduous task of dealing with the ever-pressing problem
of money, and in so doing naturally interested in curtail
ing the heavy expenses voted to his colleagues.
The Services go, as a natural sequence, hand-in-hand,
and we cannot discriminate between Admiral Alexandrinho
de Alencar, Minister of Marine, and Marshal Hermes da
Fonseca, both a great contrast physically to the towering
figure of the head of the Department .of Industry. Little
men though they may be in stature, there is no doubt they
are great leaders of men, and which looms larger in the
public eye, it is difficult to tell.
One is responsible for the renaissance of Brazil as a
naval power, bringing her to the ninth place at a bound,
with a really fine fleet. Three leviathians in construction
are of 23,000 tons, and will be the largest, finest, and
most heavily-armed battleships in the world. Their
names will be appropriately " Minas Geraes," " Sao
Paulo," and " Rio Janeiro." There are also some very
fast scouts and destroyers, etc.
The Minister of War has succeeded, in the face of
great opposition, in getting passed a bill providing for
compulsory military service, from the age of 21 to 40.
He has also re-organized the service, and weeded out
a great number of undesirables. Both of these members
of the Cabinet are severe disciplinarians, and necessarily'
so in a country like Brazil. The personnel of the navy is
largely obtained from the north, the descendants of the
Indian fishermen, who are accustomed to brave the terrors
of the ocean in all weathers, being the best possible type
for the purpose. They are mostly recruited near Per-

80 BRAZIL.
nambuco. The navy will also soon possess an up-to-date
arsenal in the port, somewhat to the south of Rio, and
much more suited to the purpose than the present one in
the worl J-famous capital itself.
The Hague Conference, in 1907, showed to the world
how Brazil knew how to look after her interests. Another
triumph for the Baron Rio Branco was the selection of
Dr. Ruy Barbosa as chief delegate.
This distinguished statesman has been by turns, deputy,
juris consult, and journalist, and, owing to his attitude
in the opposition during the naval revolt, he had to find
a temporary home in England, and learned to appreciate
the character of the Britisher; too much so, in fact, for
many of his compatriots.-
Dr. Barbosa was christened, at first, by the other
delegates, Verbosa (Chatterbox), but he always had
something worth noting to say when he made a speech.
His was the triumph of the conference, for he brought
his country into the limelight, where she is likely to
remain. The honours of the Hague went undoubtedly
to Brazil and Germany, representing the two extremes of
welt politic. The United States, of course, had a good
deal to say, and their delegates upheld bravely the
country's traditions.
In January, 1908, the American Pacific Fleet dropped
anchor in the Bay of Rio, and, although composed of the
largest number of battleships and destroyers that had
exer been assembled in the harbour, they were mere
specks on the vast expanse of waters. Some 10,000 to
12,000 men had shore leave during the stay of the
squadron, and hardly a discordant note was struck. The
only disadvantage connected with their visit being (as a
United States Diplomat said to me) that if they had
remained longer they would have become demoralised by

THE REPUBLIC, 1889— 1909. 81
kindness. On the 20th of the month, the Munroe Palace
served again as an international rendezvous, a banquet
being given that night to the Admirals, Commanders, and
other superior officers of the American Fleet, as well as
to the Foreign Diplomats, and the most distinguished
Brazilians and strangers visiting the capital.
Some 600 sat down in that splendid building, and the
scene will linger long in the memory of those who
witnessed it. Baron Rio Branco made two remarkable
speeches in English, and the American Ambassador and
two American Admirals, as well as a Brazilian (the
hero of Humayta), uttered significant and trenchant
discourses. The latest success of the present administration was
the great Exhibition, opened 15th of August, and closed
15th November', 1908. The whole of the surveys and
the constructive work was completed in eight months.
There were pavilions of posts and telegraphs, the
central railway, machines, communications, woods and
forests, liberal arts, fire, department of the press, of
industry, besides those of the Federal Government,
Portugal, Bahia, Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, Santa
Catherina, and many others, and halls devoted to con
certs and amusements. The area could not have been
short of 500 acres, and the site such as no other great
exhibition ever boasted. Access was- possible from the
bay by water, and by electric car from the centre of the
city. A fitting commemoration of the centenary of the
opening of Brazilian ports to international commerce,
and we shall observe in a later chapter how much Brazil
has progressed in the last 100 years. The Republic has
amply justified its existence, and its motto, " Ordem e
Progresso," needs no garter King-at-Arms to decide as
to its legitimacy, or to that of the banner on which it is

82 BRAZIL.
placed. The blue globe, showing the Southern Cross
(though this is wrongly arranged), and the yellow lozenge
on a green field, typify bravely the golden riches of the
south, and her verdant plains and hills, awaiting the
millions who will, one day, fill her desert places with a
hundred white cities : fit satellites of the great Metropolis
(Rio de Janeiro).

CHAPTER IX.
Area, Distribution of Population, and
Immigration.

The first census was taken in 1872, and the last in 1900,
and the estimated population is given up to 1908. It
must be understood, however, that with a large number
of savage and semi-savage tribes of Indians, inhabiting
such states as Amazonas, Goyaz, and Matto Grosso, not
to speak of parts of Sao Paulo and Parana, it has been
found impossible to give accurate figures.
Alog6as has an area of 35,000 square miles. The
population in 1872 was 348,000, now 720,000 ; Maceio
has 36,000, Penedo 18,000, Pilar 16,000, Palmeira 20,000
and Santa Luzia 15,000 inhabitants.
Amazonas- — area 1,138,212 square miles. Population
(1872) 57,000, (1908) 280,000. The capital (Manaos)
70,000. Bahia — area 255,855 square miles. Population (1872)
1,379,613, (1908) 1,900,000. Cachoeira has 50,000,
Santo Amaro 85,000, Nazareth and Maragogipe about
20,000 each, Valenca 25,000. Joazeiro, Bomfim, Alagoin
has, Santa Anna, Ilheos, Cannavieiras and Calaverras are
other important towns.
Ceara — area 62,550 square miles. Population (1872)
721,686, (1908) 850,000. The capital (Fortaleza) 50,000
souls.

84 BRAZIL.
Espirito Santo — area 26,901 square miles. Population
(1872) 82,137,(1908) 240,000. Victoria 15,000, Itapemerim
20,000. Goyaz — area 448,431 square miles. Population (1872)
160,395, (1908) 280,000. Goyas city 14,000.
Maranhao — area 275,931. Population (1872) 360,740,
(1908) 540,000. St. Luiz de Maranhao 32,000.
Matto Grosso — area 897,871 square miles. Population
(1872) 60,417, (1908) 160,000. Cuyaba 40,000, Corumba,
Matto Grosso, Caceres, etc.
Minas Geraes — area 344,913. Population (1872)
2,102,689, (1908) 4,500,000, Bello Horizonte (capital)
25,000, Ouro Preto 20,000, Juiz de Fora 30,000. Other
cities — St. Joao d'El-Rey, Barbacena, Queluz, etc., some
thousands each. •
Para — area 686,829 square miles. Population (1872)
275,237, (1908) 500,000. Belem do Para about 120,000.
Parahyba do Norte — area 44,838 square miles. Popu
lation (1872) 376,226, (1908) 550,000. Parahyba (capital)
30,000. Parana — area 132,792 sq. miles. Population 126,722,
(now) 400,000. Curityba 55,000. Paranagua, Antonina,
Morretes, Ponta Grossa, Castro, Guarapuava and
Palmeiras are all small towns.
Pernambuco — area 77,037 square miles. Population
(1872) 841,539, (1908) 1,400,000, Pernambuco city
(Recife) 120,000. There are many cities beside the
capital, but all quite small.
Piauhy — area 181,078 square miles. Population (1872)
211,822, (1908) 400,000, Therezinha about 50,000.
Rio Grande do Norte — area 34,491 square miles.
Population (1872)233,976, (1908) 350,000. Natal 18,000,
Mossoro 12,000.

AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 85
Rio Grande do Sui — area 148,933 square miles. Popu
lation (1872) 446,962, (1908) 1,400,000. Porto Alegre
90,000, Pelotas 30,000, Rio Grande 25,000, Uruguayana
15,000. Bage, Livramento, etc., are all small places.
Santa Catherina — area 44,493 square miles. Popu
lation (1872) 159,802, (1908) 350,000, Florianopolis
35,000, "Blumenau and Joinville are colonial centres of
small urban population.
Sao Paulo — area 174,585 square miles. Population
(1872) 837,354, (I9°8) 2,600,000. Sao Paulo city (1872)
26>557> (!9o8) 300,000, Santos 50,000, Arnparo 35,000,
Piracicaba 40,000, Guaratingueta 40,000, Taubate
35,000. Sergipe— area 23,450 square miles. Population (1872)
234,643, (1908) 380,000. Aracaju (capital) 25,000,
Estancia 15,000, Larangeiras 12,000.
The State of Rio has an area of 491,736 square miles,
and about 1,350,000 population.
The Federal District of Rio has an area of 669 square
miles. The population in 1872 was 274,972, in 1890,
522,651 ; in 1900 746,749 ; in 1908 the probable popula
tion was 850,000, this is, of course, judging by that
given by the census of 1900, although it was considered
to be very deficient.
The city itself has about half a million souls, and
Nictheroy (Praia Grande) the State Capital some 40,000,
Petropolis 25,000, Campos 35,000, Macah6 7,500,
Parahyba do Sui 28,000, Rezende 16,000, Vassouras
10,000, Novo Friburgo is also an important place, as also
are Cantagallo, Valenca and Barra do Pirahy.
The Acre Territory has 114,600 square miles. There
is, however, no record as yet of its population.
We thus find Brazil has an area of 5,682,415 square

86 BRAZIL.
miles, and an approximate population of 20,000,000, of
whom 45 per cent, are males. The most remarkable
thing in these figures is, undoubtedly, the absolute want
of comparison between the sizes of the states and their
population. A curious effect -of the gold and diamond
fever may be also noticed in the disparity between the
number of inhabitants in the States of Rio de 'Janeiro
(including the capital of the Republic) and Minas Geraes,
in spite of the fact that the latter has no city which
may, by any stretch of imagination, be called a large
one. Of course the ravages caused in the greater part of
the former state, up to 1900, by the yellow fever, has a
great deal to do with the discrepancy, not so much
through the actual mortality, but owing largely to the
exodus of the inhabitants. Many parts of the State
of Rio have a lesser population now than fifty years
ago. With regard to the Constitutional law, which fixes
the Capital of the Republic at a selected site in Goyaz, a
syndicate offers to build all the necessary Government
offices and the President's Palace, to complete the rail
ways necessary, establish power and light, sewage, trams
and water supply, in short, to create a model city, free, if
the surplus lands and concessions for public services be
granted to it for a term of 90 years, and that it shall be
free of taxes for 20 years. Colonisation.
The first attempt at colonisation, other than by
Portuguese, was by John VI., in 1818-19. He started
two German villages in Bahia, and one Swiss one at
Novo Friburgo (State of Rio). In 1851 the Emperor,
Dom Pedro, invited over a number of Germans, and the
colony of Blumenau, and that of Joinville, were soon
founded, to be shortly followed by that at Petropolis. In

AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 87
1859 the Prussian Government passed a law prohibiting
emigration of its subjects to Brazil, followed long after by
the French, and later by the Italian restrictive measures.
It cannot be wondered that emigration has fallen off since
1 89 1, the year which reached the high- water mark.
In 1867 a large number of Americans from the South
em States reached Brazil, and were settled in Parana,
Sao Paulo, Minas, Rio, Espirito Santo, etc., and about the
same time the British immigration was not inconsiderable.
The grand total of 1891 was 277,808, of whom more
than 1 16,000 were Italians. This influx was doubtless due
in part to the crisis in the Argentine Republic (1890-92),
as at no period since have the arrivals totalled half that
number in one year. Since 1895 the figures have de
monstrated the necessity of measures for encouraging the
flow of colonists into the country, and the first of the
states to show the way was Sao Paulo. In 1896, 1899
and 1907, the State of Minas Geraes created laws dealing
with this problem, and Parana, Bahia, Matto Grosso,
etc., followed suit. On the 19th of April, 1907, the
Federal Government issued a national decree regarding
immigration and colonisation, the text of the principal
articles of which is herewith appended. The raison
d'etre of this decree lies in the position of irresponsibility
of the several states before the Federal Government, and,
in consequence, as regards propaganda in Europe. This
had been the cause of the obnoxious laws passed by most
of the European Governments, as regards Brazil, and the
most important result, of an immediate nature, achieved
by the new Government department is the practical
revoking of these measures.
The project, establishing a commission in Europe, was
vigorously attacked by a certain section of the Brazilian
press, but, as a matter of fact, the propaganda has amply

88 BRAZIL.
justified itself. The fact that from many parts of the
United States repeated requests for concessions are
coming in, shows that the conditions of life in Brazil are
not such as certain Europeans imagine. A society,
numbering 1,600, desires to come all the way from San
Francisco, California, to Sao Paulo, and the great
interest takhn in Brazil generally in the United States
shows that the shrewd farmers of that vast Republic
know a good thing when they see it. The Japanese
societies of emigration have also succeeded in inducing
some 5,000 Nipponese to leave their native land. 787
arrived at Santos on June 18th, last year (1908), and
to crown all, came in a Japanese steamer, the " Kasato
Maru," which made the passage from Yokohama in less
than six weeks. It is, however, doubtful whether the
introduction of these Coolies will prove an unmixed
blessing, and the yellow press is now engaged in warning
the nation of the "Asiatic Peril," as the German question
is by this time, and deservedly so, a thing of the past.
Referring to the Teutonic colonies in Santa Catherina
and Rio Grande do Sui, it is a curious fact that coloured
servants are often obliged to learn German, instead of the
alien learning the language of the country. Some towns
are entirely Teuton : mayor, councillors, police, national
guards, etc., but they are none the less good Brazilian
citizens, and would prove good soldiers in defence of their
adopted Faderland. The fact of their adhering to their
own language, and to their old forms of Sangerbunds and
Vereins, is an instance of their strength rather than their
weakness. The Englishmen who have lost their mother
tongue (as many have in Brazil) are less virile than those
who retain their idiom as well as their national attributes.
Figures just to hand give the immigration in 1908 as
94,695, a very large increase on 1907.

AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 89
To those who have been misled by malicious and
interested persons, I would say, get hold of the books in
English, mentioned at the end of this work, and digest
them carefully. Hear what Professor Wallace says,
laugh at Captain Burton's quaint criticisms (he was
British Consul at Santos) and study Fletcher and Kidder,
Scully, Bates, etc. The overwhelming testimony of the
greatest and best scientists, business men, and ordinary
travellers, during the last 50 years, is that Brazil is a
country eminently fitted for the European. Read, mark,
learn, and inwardly digest, and then treat with the
contemptous scorn it merits, the attempt to discredit a
country that, but for the short-sightedness of the British
in the days of the conquistadors, would have been now
the brightest ornament in the constellation of colonies.
Again, he who is afraid of the security of his earnings
need have no care. His wages are the very first call on
an estate. If he hires himself out through the medium
of the Government, the latter will see that the contract
is entirely in order, and enforce its provisions. I speak,
however, more to the man who will plough his own
furrow, he who wishes a stake in the country, and I say
with St. Hilau-e, if ever there is a place that could do
without the rest of the world, it is Minas Geraes, and I
go further, and add to Minas at least one half of the whole
of Brazil, from the Amazon to the Parana. There is
room for all, and the only condition necessary is ability
to work, and the leading of moral lives. There are no
religious disabilities of any kind, and one may find
members of almost any faith, scattered over the Republic,
including Mohammedans, Jews, Evangelicals, Posit ivists,
as well as the majority, Roman Catholics. There are, as
we have stated in another place, Methodist churches in
plenty, especially in the State of Minas Geraes.

90 BRAZIL.
In 1907, 30,723 immigrants entered the port of Rio de
Janeiro. Of these 119 were English and 36 American.
During the first half of 1908, 40,791 persons arrived
as colonists in Brazilian ports, and of these 6,467 were
state aided. The number at Rio de Janeiro alone reached
19,788, comparing with 13,552 in the same period of
1907. There was 149 British and 49 Americans more
than in the whole of 1907. Figures, just to hand, give the
number of immigrants in 1908 as 95,000, in round figures.
The Federal Government has founded the following
new colonies :
State of Espirito Santo, Affonso Penna, State of
Minas, Joao Pinheiro, State of Janeiro, Itatiaja (con
sidered by all travellers as a national sanitorium),
Visconde de Maua, State of Parana, Xavier da Silva,
State of Santa Catherina, Alto, Bra?o, Norte.
Minas, with Federal aid, has established two colonies.
Sao Paulo started six new colonies, and Rio Grande do
Sui, assisted, enlarged the colony Guarauy.
Surveys have been made by the engineers of the new
department of colonisation, in all of the states which
have responded to the appeal of the Federal Government,
and this year will, without a doubt, show remarkable
activity, and a great increase in the number of immi
grants. Bahia has also established a department of
colonisation, and issued literature in various European
languages. The only state to offer free rural lots at
present is Matto Grosso, but the cost of land in all the
others is quite low, and payments are spread over a
number years. The special inducements offered also
quite justify a normal price for the lots, as they are
surveyed and selected by the Government, and the
colonists are transported thither at the expense of the
department.

AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 91
Extracts from FEDERAL DECREE, No. 6,455,
April igth, 1907.

Regulations regarding Immigration and
Colonisation in Brazil.
Art. I. The peopling of the soil will be promoted by
the Union in agreement with the State Governments,
railway and river navigation companies, other companies
or associations, and with private individuals, provided
that the sureties and rules hereby guaranteed and laid
down are duly observed.
Art. II. There shall be counted as immigrants, all
foreigners of less than 60 years of -age, who are not
suffering from contagious diseases, nor plying illicit
trades, and who are not criminals, rogues, beggars,
vagabonds, lunatics, or invalids, who arrive at Brazilian
ports, travelling third class, at the cost of the Union, States
or third parties, as well as those who (Ceteriparibus) have
paid their own passages, and desire to enjoy the same
privileges as other new arrivals. Persons over 60 years
of age, or unfitted for work, will only be admitted when
accompanied by their families, or when coming to join
them, provided that there is in the family at least one
or two against the member who is over 60 years of age.
Art. III. To immigrants who establish themselves in
any part of the country, and devote themselves to any
branch of agriculture, industry or trade, or to any useful
craft or profession, the following guarantees will be
granted : complete liberty of action and freedom to engage

92 BRAZIL.
in any trade, provided that the same does not endanger
public safety, health or morals ; complete liberty of
religious belief; and finally, civic rights, as enjoyed under
the Constitution and laWs by Brazilians themselves.
Art. IV. The Union, without interfering with the
liberty of similar action on the part of the states, will
enter into an accord with them to direct and facilitate the
placing the immigrants who desire to settle as owners of
their own land, and will protect and advise such spon
taneous immigrants as need material aid for their first
instalment. Art. V. The colonies shall be of sufficient extent to
admit of devolopment, easy and convenient means of
transport, on land chosen as fertile, where conditions are
healthy, and there is abundance of drinking water.
Art. VII.
(5) The State will provide the immigrants with tools
and seeds free of charge, on first being installed,
whilst the Union (Federal Government) may grant
them these, and other favours for the same.
Art. VIII. The State may give any assistance to the
immigrants, independent of that given by the Union.
Art. XIII. Localities will be chosen which conform
to the conditions in Art. V., as well as the following :
(1) Convenient altitude and soil fitted for all kinds of
cultivation. (2) A position on or near railways, or navigable
rivers, or close to populous centres, where the holders
of the lots will find a ready market.
(3) A constant and ample supply of water, both for
domestic and drinking purposes, and for agricultural
and industrial purposes.
(4) Topographical configuration, and other condi
tions permitting the use of agricultural machinery.

AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 93
(5) Forests which will afford a sure and cheap
supply of timber for building and other works.
(6) A large enough area to permit of the increase of
the nucleus, so that relatives or descendants of the first
immigrants may be invited to come and form new
households, and hold lots in the same vicinity.
Art. XIV. When the locality has been chosen, the
lots will be marked, and all necessary work put in hand,
and the place prepared for occupation by the colonists.
Art. XVIII. If the position and importance of the
nucleus demand the establishment of headquarters, a site
will be reserved, and the necessary buildings erected.
Art. XIX. In each nucleus, ground will be set apart
for the erection of schools, and for experiments in agri
culture, for instruction farms, and for industrial purposes.
Art. XX. The lots will be classified as rural and
urban. (1) Rural lots will be devoted to agriculture and
cattle breeding, and will be of sufficient extent for the
colonists who own them.
(2) As a general rule, rural lots will not exceed 25
hectares (about 62 acres), when situated along or near
a railway, or river navigated by steamers, but other
wise they may be up to 50 hectares.
(3) Urban lots will be those situated at the head
quarters, and will ultimately form the township, and
all their fronts will be on streets and squares.
(4) No urban lot may exceed 3,000 square meters,-
unless set apart for some special purpose.
Art. XXI. As a general rule, a good and sanitary
house will be built on each urban lot to be occupied by
the ^immigrant and his family, whilst the ground will be
prepared for the first cultivation, to be made by the
person who acquires it.

94 BRAZIL.
(i) Immigrants who desire to erect houses at their
own expense and according to their own taste, will
have lots without houses reserved for them.
(2) Under the conditions of the preceding, the
immigrant and his family, who acquire the lot, will be
afforded temporary quarters, until they have built the
house, which must be within the space of one year.
Art. XXII. Rural lots will be sold either for bash or
for payments in instalments, in the former case, a
definite title will be handed over immediately, and in
the latter, a provisional title, which will be substituted by
a definite one as soon as all payments have been made.
(1) Anyone purchasing a lot on the instalment
system, may pay off the debt in full, or in part, before
the due date, at any time, in order to shorten the period
for receiving the definite title.
(2) Under the conditions of the preceding paragraph,
the purchaser will enjoy the privileges of paragraph
2, Art. XL.
Art. XXIII. Urban lots will only be sold for cash.
Art. XXIV. Lots will be sold at a moderate price,
which shall be previously fixed, according to their size
and position.
Art. XXV. Where there is a house on the lot, the
cost price of the same will be added to the debit.
Art. XXVII. Immigrants not accompanied by their families
may only purchase rural lots for cash.
Art. XXVIII. Immigrants accompanied by their
families may acquire a new lot after obtaining a definite
title to the first. When the family consists of more than
five workers, or when the immigrant has improved the
first lot, he will be allowed the preference for the purchase
of a second, near the first.

AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 95
Art. XXIX. The foreign immigrant (agriculturalist)
who has been less than two years in Brazil, who marries
a Brazilian woman, or the daughter of a Brazilian born
in the country, or the Brazilian who marries an alien
woman, who has been in the country less than two years
as an immigrant, will be given a lot with a provisional
title, without the couple having to pay anything, provided
that they have lived in harmony for a year, and have
improved the said lot.
Art. XXX. If such immigrant desires to obtain a lot
with a definite title immediately after his marriage, the
same will be sold to him for half the stipulated price.
Art. XXXI. On the provisional title shall be written
the full price of the lot, and the conditions to be observed
for the obtaining of a definite title.
Art. XXXIV. Immigrants will be transported to the
colonial nucleus free of charge.
Art. XXXV. Immigrants will be given, free of charge
at first, seeds, hoes, spades, picks, axes, and scythes.
Art. XXXVI. During the first six months, from the
date of their arrival at the nucleus, and until the harvest
and sale of their produce, immigrants .coming from
abroad, and settled as owners of lots shall, when
necessary be granted means for the maintenance of their
families. Art. XXXVII. For the space of one year, under the
conditions of the preceding article, all immigrants will
receive medical attendance and medicines free of charge.
This period may be prolonged at the discretion of the
administrator of the nucleus.
Art. XXXVIII. Stores, where provisions and other
articles of prime necessity will be sold at moderate prices,
will be established in the colonies, to guarantee supplies

96 BRAZIL.'
to the inhabitants who, however, will be entirely free to
purchase where they like.
Art. XXXIX. During the first year after his instal
ment, or for a longer period if the Government so decrees,
aid may be given to such immigrants as desire it, for the
purchase, or hiring, of agricultural implements and
machinery, live stock and vehicles necessary for the
cultivation of the lots, preparation and transport of the
produce. Art. XL. The price of the lots, with or without a
house, when the same are purchased on the instalment
system, as well as any aid granted, except for work done,
or classed as gratuitous, shall be written in a book and
handed to the debtor, in the form of a current" account,
and shall constitute the debt of the immigrant, for which
•the head of the family is responsible. He shall begin
amortisation by yearly instalments, not later than at the
end of the second year after his establishment. After
this date, if no payment has been made, interest will be
charged at the rate of three per cent, per annum, on the
instalments due.
(i) When the colony is situated on or near railways,
or rivers navigated by steamers, the period for amortis
ation shall be five years, counting from the first day of
the third year of the instalment of the immigrant, in
other cases, or when the Government deems it
advisable, the period will be eight years, under the
same conditions.
(2) The immigrant who pays his debt in advance
will have a right to rebate at the rate of twelve per
cent, per annum, on instalments that are outstanding.
(3) The immigrant who pays the full value of the
lot, will immediately receive a definite title to the

AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 97
same, even though he has still other debts outstanding,
contracted with the administration of the nucleus.
Art. XLI. In the event of the decease of the head of
the family, in whose name the provisional or definite
title had been drawn up, the lot will pass to his heirs, or
legal representatives, on the same conditions on which he
himself held it.
If the nucleus has not yet been emancipated, the
transfer- will be made by an official order of the adminis
tration without any legal intervention.
Art. XLII. Any debt which the deceased head of the
family had contracted with the nucleus, will be considered
extinct, if he leaves a widow and orphans, save that
arising from the purchase of the lot on the instalment
system. Art. XLIII. If the lot was purchased by instalments,
and three had been already paid by the deceased, the
remainder will be remitted in favour of the widow and
(or) orphans, and a definite title granted.
Art. XLIV. Government will maintain primary
schools free, and will organise agricultural shows if
deemed expedient.
Art. XLV. Prizes will be offered to producers who
most distinguish themselves at such exhibitions.
Art. XLVI. Where the nucleus is intended for aliens
not more than 10 per cent, of the lots may be sold to
Brazilians, but where the former exceed a certain num
ber, a special area near the lots will be set aside for
Brazilians if deemed advisable.

98 BRAZIL.
Colonies Due to the Enterprise of Railway
Companies.
Art. LXIII. The choice of the localities will depend
on careful study of all the circumstances essential to the
development of the colony.
Art. LXIV. The choice must be examined and ap
proved by the Federal Government.
Art. LXV. In addition to the foregoing, the plans,
roads, divisions of lots, types of houses, etc., must be
approved by the Government.
Art. LXX. The Government may authorise, or pro
mote at its own expense, the introduction of immigrants
from Europe to these colonies.
Art. LXXI. The service of settling the immigrants
shall be at the expense of the company, which shall
furnish the new comers with tools and seeds, and when
possible, give them paid work on the railway or near the
lots, and shall supply them, whenever necessary, with
advances of food or money until harvest time.
Art. LXXIII. The price of lots, and houses, and
conditions of payment depends on the approval of the
Government, which reserves to itself the right to fiscalise
anything in the colonists' interests.
Art. LXXIV. The company binds itself to grant
a rebate of 50 per cent, on the ordinary tariffs on
colonial produce for five years, dating from the instal
ment of the first family on a loi.

AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 99
Art. LXXV. The company will render every aid in
its power, and will stimulate the formation and increase
of small industries. It will create free primary schools,
and build churches for the immigrants, regardless of
denomination. Reception of Immigrants.
Art. XCVII.
(2) At ports properly equipped for the reception of
immigrants, disembarcation, lodging, food, etc., until
the destination in chosen, and transport there with all
belongings ; and
(3) Transport will be gratuitous.
Art. C. Immigrants' baggage, including tools, will be
admitted duty free.
Art. CXVII. The service of reception and distribution
of immigrants will be carried out at the expense of the
Union at the port of Rio Janeiro.
Art. CXVIII. In state ports (as Bahia, Santos, etc.)
the service will be at the expense of the state interested,
aided by mutual arrangement by the Union.
Repatriation.
CXXVII. Government will repatriate such agricul
tural immigrants who may have been brought in at its
expense, if they have resided less than two years in
Brazil, and are incapacitated from earning their living,
and have none of their family to support them.

ioo BRAZIL.
Colonisation.
Regulations of the State of Sao Paulo,
27th December, 1906.
Every immigrant intending to settle in the state, and
who gives notice to the official of the department before
leaving the ship at Santos, will be conveyed, with his
luggage and other belongings, free of charge, to S. Paulo,
and those who take up land will be allowed the amount
of their third class passage, from Europe, towards paying
the price of same. Five to ten years are allowed to settle
the same debt. The families of such immigrant are
received into the Home at S. Paulo, and the head of the
family is franked as far as the colony he intends to settle
in, and back again to S. Paulo. On arrival at the lot
selected the colonists are sustained there for 15 days, and
receive tools, and seeds necessary for the first crops,
without any charge.
Of the colonies under Government protection, it may
be said that they are situated along the railway lines.
The annual payments vary from £"6 5s. to £"18 15s.
Recent arrivals, without resources, are given three days'
work weekly if required, in order to maintain themselves
and their families until the harvest is in.
Immigrants are considered to be persons under 60
years of age, either in families or single men, who, as
agriculturists or workmen of any kind, enter the country
with the intention of remaining, and come third class or
steerage from Europe. In the case of those over 60, they
mustjDe accompanied by a family of two or more male

AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 101
adults, in order that their support may be assured. The
number of colonies established by the state is at present
22. One only being somewhat distant from a railway
station or port. The price of land ranges from 5/- to 35/-
per acre, according to its quality and situation. Free
schools are established in each colony, and there are
always physicians and ministers of religion at hand.
Family lists (to be procured from any of the Govern
ment agents) should be filled in and returned before
sailing.

CHAPTER X.
Naturalisation, Constitutional and Commercial
Laws, and Education.

Synopsis of Naturalisation Law of May 14TH,
1908.
Art. I. The following persons are considered to be
Brazilian citizens : —
(.1) Those who are born in Brazil, although the
father be a foreigner, provided he is not employed in
the service of the nation to which he belongs.
(2) The children of Brazilian fathers, and illegitimate
children of Brazilian mothers, born in foreign countries,
if domiciled in Brazil.
(3) The children of Brazilian fathers employed in
the service of the Republic in foreign countries, although
not domiciled in Brazil.
(4) Foreigners who resided in Brazil on the 15th of
November, 1889, and who had not up to August 24th,
1891, declared their intention of retaining their original
nationality. (5) Foreigners owning real estate in Brazil, married
to Brazilian women, or having Brazilian issue, provided
they are resident in Brazil, and have not declared their
intention to adhere to their original nationality.
(6) Foreigners who apply for naturalisation under
the present law.

NATURALISATION, ETC. 103
Art. II. Naturalised foreigners shall enjoy all civil
and political rights, and may hold any public office,
except that of President or- Vice-President of the Re
public. The office of Senator may be held after six
years citizenship, and that of Deputy after four years.
Art. IV. Foreigners who desire Brazilian citizenship
must apply to the President of the Republic, through the
Ministry of Justice. Applications must be signed and
authenticated by a notary public, and must state nation
ality, ' parentage, domicile, profession, condition, and
legitimate issue must also be mentioned.
Applications must be accompanied by certificate of
personal identity, legal age, residence of not less than two
years in Brazil, good moral and civil conduct, and proof
that applicants have not been indicted in Brazil or else
where for the 'offences enumerated in Art. IX.
Art. V. Necessity of actual residence shall not be
obligatory in the cases of foreigners married to Brazilian
women, those with real estate in Brazil, those interested
in some industrial undertaking, or who are inventors or
introducers of some industry useful to the country, and
those recommended by their talents or literary attain
ments, or by their professional skill, and finally, sons of
naturalised foreigners born abroad before their father's
naturalisation. Art. VI. Certificates from public departments, or
given by judicial, municipal, or police authorities of
Brazil are sufficient proof of identity. Certification of
signatures by notaries, or in case of application through
the latter, power of attorney is sufficient, and birth or
baptism certificates, or passports, or other admitted
documents, will be proof of legal majority, and certificates
from the authorities of his place of domicile, from his
consul or diplomatic representative will be accepted as

104 BRAZIL.
proof that he has not been convicted of trie crimes
mentioned in Art. IX.
Art. VIII. Papers relating to naturalisation are exempt
from all costs, stamps or fees.
Art. IX. Foreigners who have been convicted of
homicide, theft, bankruptcy, perjury, smuggling, forgery,
counterfeiting, or immorality will not be permitted to
naturalise. Art. XVI. The titles of naturalisation must be claimed
within six months by persons living in the Federal
Capital. Art. XVII. Persons residing in the states must claim
their titles within one year.
Notes on the Constitution (24TH February, 1891),
and Form of Government of Brazil.
The Republic consists of the United States of Brazil,
and the internal affairs of each state rftay not be interfered
with by the Union, unless to repel foreign invasion, or in
the case of civil war between two states, or to re-establish
order within the territory of any state, by request of its
authorities. Each state must provide for its own necessities, unless
in the case of public calamity. It is the exclusive pre
rogative of the Union to decree duties and taxes on
imports and port dues, stamp duties, and postal and tele
graph charges, to maintain banks, and create custom
houses, and the laws of the Union shall be executed by
its officials, but they may be entrusted to State Govern
ment by consent. Interstate duties are prohibited, but
states may create export duties, taxes on real estate, and

NATURALISATION, ETC. 105
charges of a state nature in relation to postal and tele
graph services.
Interference with or aid of religion is prohibited.
Coasting traffic must be carried on in national bottoms
(i.e., under the Brazilian flag).
Legislative powers are vested in the National Congress,
with the sanction of the President. The elections for
Senators shall be carried on simultaneously throughout
the country. Legislature shall last for three years.
There shall not be less than four Deputies for each state.
The Senate shall be composed of citizens over 35 years of
age, and include three from each state, and three for the
Federal District of Rio de Janeiro.
The President and Vice-President of the Republic shall
be elected by direct suffrage of the nation, and the man
date of a Senator shall last for nine years. The Senate
alone shall have the power to try and sentence the Presi
dent of the Republic, and the other members of the
Government. The President must be a Brazilian born,
and be over 35 years of age. He may choose and dismiss
at will all Cabinet Ministers, and declare peace and make
war. Adult suffrage is the law, with certain exceptions.
The Cabinet consists of the Ministers of the Exterior
(foreign affairs), Interior and Justice, Finance, Marine,
War, and Industry, Railways, and Public Works, and
since 1907, Agriculture, although at the time of writing
this portfolio had not been offered to anyone.
The judicial power consists of a supreme court of 1 5
justices, who hold office during life, and ordinary Federal
Courts, scattered through the country.
Brazil forms part of the Postal Union, and is a party
to the international agreements with regard to telegraphs,

106 BRAZIL.
submarine cables, marine signals, and protection of in
dustrial property.
Foreigners enjoy the same civil rights as Brazilians,
including trade marks and patents privileges. The army
consisted of 40 battalions of infantry, 6 of siege artillery,
6 regiments of field artillery, and 14 regiments of cavalry,
but since 1902 has been reorganised and increased. Con
scription has also been adopted. No aliens are admitted
into the army or navy. The navy has been entirely
reformed, and will be quite the most powerful of the
South American marines. Ninth, and perhaps eigth,
place in the world's navies will be reached by 19 10.
With regard to marriages, the civil ceremony is obliga
tory, and the religious services are not officially recognised.
Both are the rule, however, amongst Brazilians of all
classes. The laws for the protection of single women
are very severe, and in the case of rape every possible
attempt is made to compel immediate marriage, thus
avoiding heavy punishment. Registration of births is
compulsory, but the law is frequently evaded, as is also
the new vaccination decree, although schools are obliged
to publish a notice refusing to take pupils who have not
been subjected to the operation.
Education is free, but not obligatory in all the states.
Elementary schools are of two grades. In the first
pupils remain from 7 to 13, and in the second until 15
years of age. Besides the ordinary subjects, moral and
civil instruction is given, and the elements of French,
and elementary algebra and trigonometry, and commer
cial natural history. Elementary principles of law and
political economy are also taught. Secondary schools
may be entered with a certificate from the primary ones.
The capital has two schools of this class. There are
others in all of the states, and faculties of law at Pernam-

NATURALISATION, ETC. 107
buco and Sao Paulo, as well as medical schools, the
polytechnic at Rio, and the school of fine arts, and the
mining school at Ouro Preto. Private colleges, with the
necessary equipment and professors, are permitted to
grant degrees of doctorate (Bacharel). The course in
the schools of law lasts five years, and that of the mining
school six years. The medical school at Rio is connected
with the splendid Misericordia Hospital, with 1,200 beds.
The polytechnics are training colleges for engineers and
bachelors of physical or mathematical science.
There are fine public libraries all over Brazil. The
National Library in Rio possesses more than 400,000
printed books and manuscripts. There is also a National
Museum and Academy of Fine Arts, and a splendid
world-famous Botanical Gardens. The Brazilian National
Academy of Letters has 40 members.
In Sao Paulo there is a very fine modern museum,
Ypiranga, on a site said to commemorate the declaration
of independence. There is also there the McKenzie
College, under Presbyterian control, with nearly 600
students. The pupils are mostly Brazilians, but there
are representatives of nearly all the nationalities to be
found in Brazil. The States of Sao Paulo and of Minas
Geraes are probably the best equipped with elementary
schools in the Union. The former has also a fine agri
cultural college. Patents and Trade Marks.
Patents taken out in foreign countries, and in Brazil,
expire at the same time as abroad. Inventors' rights
may be confirmed by law, without taking out a fresh
patent. Trade marks can only be transferred with a business,
and registration, deposit, and publication are essential

108 BRAZIL.
for protection. Duration of trade marks is 15 years, but
they may be renewed repeatedly. Infringement of trade
marks is punished by a fine of 500 to 5,000 milreis, or
by imprisonment for six months.
Coinage.
Bronze, 20, 40, reis  (100 reis equals ijd).
Nickel, 100, 200, 400 reis ... (1 milreis „ 1/3).
Silver, 500, 1,000, 2,000 reis ... (2,000 reis „ 2/6).
Paper 1 , 2 milreis and five hundred reis being withdrawn.
5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500 milreis (500 equals £"31 5s.)
One conto is 1,000 milreis (1,000 milreis ,, £"62 10s.)
(i,ooo$ooo).
£"i sterling, therefore, equals 16 milreis.
Many false notes are in circulation, and attention must
be paid to the series which is in current use, as designs
are withdrawn periodically to avoid forgery, and their
values consequently depreciate on a sliding scale.
Weights and Measures.
The metric aystem is in general use, but some of the
old Portuguese measures, etc., are still common.
Amongst these are :
Weights.
Oitava, 2 drams; onca,i,ooi ounces; marco, 8,008 ozs.
libra, i-oi lbs.; arroba, 32*32 lbs. (15 kilos); quintal
129-27 lbs.
Tonelada, 1-745 lbs. 12 oz.
Long Measure.
Braca, 7-218 ft.; vara, 3-609 ft.; pe, i-io ft.; palmo,
8-64 ins.; pollegada, 1-08 ins.; milha,' 1-37 miles;
legoa, 4-11 miles.

NATURALISATION, ETC. 109
Dry Measure.
Moio, (61-7 bushels); fanga, (4-1 bushels); algueire
1 quarta (1 peck) ; selamin (1 quart).
Liquid Measure.
Tonel, 887-6 qts.; pipa, 443-8 qts. ; almude, 31-75 qts. ;
Canada, 2-8 qts. ; quartilhos 1-4 pints.
Law Relating to Commercial Travellers.
Commercial agents are not required to take out any
special license, or to have passports or certificates, but
owing to the new regulation providing for deportation of
undesirable aliens, it is advisable for such travellers to
register. Without this precaution they cannot bring
a suit to enforce payment of a debt, and persons buying
off an unregistered agent can refuse to pay for the goods,
if they choose. Most firms who send out representatives,
establish relations with some local house, and the col
lections are taken over by the latter. In this way it may
be possible _ to avoid paying taxes in the larger cities.
Some states require a license. The states and munici
palities have the power to fix fees, which are apt to
change. Samples are subject to duty, and the latter is
not refunded, but such samples are not liable to a special
duty of 10 per cent, (vide No. 560 of Customs' Regula
tion). All merchandise must be accompanied by a
consular invoice, except in case of small samples, not
exceeding ^10 in value. To secure prompt and fair
treatment in the Customs, it is advisable to treat with
a friendly merchant of good local standing. A rebate has
been granted of 25 per cent, on the tickets of commercial
travellers on the Central Railroad, on production of a
voucher from the Commercial Association of Rio, that

no BRAZIL.
the bearer is a bona-fide commercial traveller. Agents'
trunks must pay duty, but it is intended to remedy that
abuse, as also the taxes on samples in each port. In the
future a certificate of charges will be obtained from the
first Custom House entered.
Food Laws of Brazil.
Article 40, Law 428 (December 10th, 1896), prescribes
as follows :
Wines, lard, and all other other food substances con
demned by the National Laboratory shall be destroyed,
and the importers fined 5oo$ooo, £"31 5 s. od.
There shall be condemned as injurious to health, all
food products containing boric or salicyllic acid, inferior
alcohol, free mineral acids (sulphuric, sulphurous, azotic,
chlorohydric), sulphite, alum fluorates, and alkaline
fluosilicates, saccharine, compounds of strontium, and
other minerals in the proportion of 15-4324 grains
(2 grams) per liter (or 1-0567 quarts) of wine. Hop
substitutes in beer, as quassia, absinthe, aloes, etc. Also
any essentials prepared with ethereal oils, colouring
matter prepared from coal tar, and of a lead base ; mer
cury, copper arsenic antimony, or any other substance
which science has recognised as injurious to health.
The importation of artificial wines is prohibited under all
circumstances. Wines with more than 20 per cent, of
alcohol may have four grams of sulphate of potassium
per liter.
In 1898 and 1905, additions were made to the list of
prohibitions, including adulteration, purposely so made,
of wines and spirits, and also naturally generated noxious
properties, due to chemical re-action on hops in transit, etc.
Immense quantities of beverages of all kinds have been
condemned, owing to their containing salicyllic acid,

NATURALISATION, ETC. in
excess of sulphates, colouring matters (aniline), and free
sulphurous acid.
Among other products destroyed, have been meats
(particularly hams), preserved vegetables, sweets, and fruit
preserves, butter (containing boric acid).
Analysis (fee 25/-) is obligatory of every kind of food
or beverage sold within the country. The fee is liable to
be increased, in case of extraordinary circumstances.
Subsides, etc.
Congress is asked (1908) to grant an annual subsidy to
individuals or syndicates who may put into wheat culti
vation at least 200 hectares (or 500 acres) of land for five
years. This subsidy is 15 contos, equals £"937 10s.
The President of the Republic is authorised to grant
a subsidy, at the rate of £"250 per kilometer (0-62 mile),
to companies or private individuals building roads, and
organising automobile services for passengers or goods
between two states or across one only. The roads shall
be made in accordance with Government regulations,
and the subsidy shall be paid when 120 kilometres have
been completed, inspected, and approved.
A Bill has been introduced in Congress, to grant four
per cent, interest to the first five iron works employing
national materials, to be increased to six per cent., if
Brazilian coal or other combustible is used. In con
nection with this it must be noticed that very encouraging
experiments have been carried on by Dr. Arthur Barbosa,
with an electric furnace at Ouro Preto. The expenses of
installation, amounting to £4,370 were authorised by the
late Minister of Industry:
Subsidies have also been granted by the State of Rio
Janeiro to a firm commencing the manufacture of paper
from the Piri-Piri (Papyrus Brasilensis), a reed growing

112 BRAZIL.
all over the swampy lands at the edge of the Bay of Rio
(north and west), also to producers of silk, cotton, etc.
A Bill has been introduced to exempt from payment of
taxes all machinery, etc., for rubber factories within the
next three years, also to grant a premium of 50 contos
(£"3,120) to anyone inventing an economical process for
curing rubber. Flour Milling.
The Legislature of the State of Rio de Janeiro has
passed an act granting- — to the first company establish
ing a flour mill — exemption from taxes on exporting
wheat-flour for ten years, and a free concession of public
lands for wheat cultivation.
Free entry for all machinery will be asked from the
Federal Government. Shipping Goods.
Weight of both goods and cases (or other covering)
should be given separately. Catalogues should be always
accompanied (where possible) by samples.
Public Tenders.
No tenders can be accepted from any European or
other firm not having an agent in the Republic, and not
being officially authorised to do business in Brazil.

The State of Parana is covered with immense forests of the Southern Pine (Araucaria Brasiliensis).

A Parana Railway Station — Loading Timber,

CHAPTER XI.
Finance, Commerce, and Communications.

1909. The Budget for the current year, as presented
to Congress, is: Revenue, £"28,992,135; Expenditure,
£"28,714,375. The Foreign Debt (1908) amounts to
£"72,000,000; and the total National Debt (1907),
£"156,965,194; the gold deposits in the Conversion Bank
(1907) amounting to £"10,120,000, as compared with
£5,240,000 in 1906.
This bank was organised in 1906, 6th December, to
issue convertible notes, at a fixed value of 1/3 per milreis.
The gold handed in to be kept in deposit, and not used
for any other purpose than in exchange for the above
notes, which, once received, shall be destroyed. When
the deposits reach £"20,000,000, and the notes issued
attain the value of 320.000, ooofooo, the further issue of
such cedulas" shall cease, and the rate of exchange shall
be fixed at a higher rate. In this case notes in circulation
will be recalled. The general effect of this measure
has been good, and during the last few years immense
quantities of the old ordinary notes of low value, have
been destroyed, and are being replaced by the new silver
coinage. This is a step towards the adoption of a gold
standard, and a decided advance in the financial position
of -the country, which (it may be stated in passing) has
never yet failed to pay the interest on its foreign debts,
and has long since begun to liquidate the principal.

u4 BRAZIL.
With regard to the Sao Paulo State loan of £"15,000,000,
so highly considered as to be guaranteed by the Federal
Government (Presidential Decree of the 10th of Decem
ber last), this has been subscribed for over 42 times,
and such financial wiseacres as Carnegie and Rockefeller
figure largely amongst the holders of stock.
These bonds must be redeemed at par on or before
the first of January, 1919. The issue was at 92^ per
cent., and the object of the loan is the redemption of the
balance of the exchequer bonds (1906), and the repay
ment of any advances against coffee purchased by the
State Government. The Sao Paulo and other Govern
ments agree not to enter into any further engagements to
purchase coffee, or to create any type of valorisation
scheme, whilst any of the bonds of this (1908) issue are
outstanding. The proceeds of the 5 francs surtax on
each bag of coffee exported, and of 7,000,000 sacks
belonging to the state, and now in bonded warehouses
at London, Havre, Hamburg, New York, etc., are cal
culated to easily cover the loan.
1906. 1907.
Imports, £"33,204,041. £"40,400,000.
Exports, £"53,059,480. £"54,000,000.
Imports first 3 months, 1907, £"9,082,543.
» ., ,, i9o8> £T9>8l2,907.
The bulk of the 1907 imports are as follows: Great
Britain, £"12,100,000; Germany, £"6,200,000; U.S.A.,
£"5,000,000; Argentina, £"3,600,000 (flour and wheat);
France, £"3,400,000 ; Portugal, £"2,200,000 (wines). Ex
ports to United States, £"17,000,000 (principally coffee) ;
Germany, £"9,400,000 ; Great Britain, £"8,600,000 ;
France, £"7,000,000; Belgium, £"2,800,000; Holland,
£*2 ,000,000.

FINANCE, ETC. 115
The most noteworthy thing with regard to the imports
is the gradual advance of Germany, and the great loss of
France, and the comparative decline of British trade with
Brazil. In another place will be found the reason of
this, so no comment is considered necessary here.
The leading articles of export were: Coffee,
£"28,400,000; rubber, £"14,000,000; cocoa, £"2,000,000;
cotton, £"1,700,000; yerba mate, £"1,600,000; tobacco,
£"1,200,000, and sugar, £"634,000. A decrease in rubber,
owing to decline in prices, as well as in cocoa, due to
same cause. Coffee Exports.
1906-07 — 20,190,000 sacks (record).
1907-08 — 11,133,000 „
Flour.
The tariff concession of 20 per cent, on United States
flour has been of little benefit to that country, as the
Argentine Republic dominates this market, her exports
to Brazil having increased from 37,000 tons in 1902 to
122,000 tons in 1906.
Imports of flour from the United States decreased
from 46,000 tons to 24,000 tons, in the same period.
Ninety per cent, of the wheat imported is of Argentine
origin. Rubber.
Exports in 1906 were 37,000 tons, and 1907,.
40,000 tons. Cocoa.
Total crop (1907), 60,000,000 pounds, thus leading
amongst the world's producing countries.

116 BRAZIL.
Production — Herva Mate.
1902 — 41,928,586 kilogrammes.
J903 — 36>I29>555 »»
1904 — 44,162,052 „
1905 — 41,119,930 „
1906 — 57,716,503 „
Mate is worth about gd. per lb. (wholesale) in Eng
land. This includes freight and dock dues, and there is
no customs duty on it in England.
The principal consumers are Argentina, Uruguay,
Chile, Italy, France, Portugal, Germany, and Belgium.
Industries.
In the Republic there are (1908) 2,378 industrial
establishments in Brazil, with 123,931 employees. A
capital of some £"37,000,000. Of these, 584 are in Rio
State, and 551 in Minas Geraes, and in Sao Paulo 323.
The principal industry is cotton manufacture, and
there are 137 mills in this business, with 41,018 work
people. All of these are paying large dividends, and
increasing their output. All the raw material used is
Brazilian. Foreign Banks in the Republic
London and River Plate Bank ... capital £"2,000,000
London and Brazilian Bank ... „ £"2,000.000
British Bank of South America ... ,, £"1,300,000
Brasilianische Bank fiir Deutschland ,, £"500,000
Banco Commerciale Italo Brasiliano „ £"300,000

FINANCE, ETC. 117
Paper Mills.
Two or three only in Rio and Sao Paulo, making
coarse wrapping paper and cardboard from refuse of
sugar cane, grasses, reeds, etc., the most useful plant
being the piri-piri, or papyrus Brasiliensis.
India-rubber Goods.
There are no works of any kind engaged in making
waterproof coats, boots, or goloshes, or any other
description of India-rubber articles. 15 per cent, export
duty is charged on raw rubber, and at least 50 or 60 per
cent, on manufactured goods entering the country, of
which a very large quantity, indeed, are used.
There are openings for biscuit, fancy soap, starch, and
chemical works, box makers, canneries, steam laundries,
and saw mills.
There are no steam fishing boats* no piano manu-
facturies, or factories where jams, jellies .and marmalade
are made on English lines, although the consumption of
the best European brands is large and increasing.
There are, in fact,, openings for all kinds of factories,
works, and mills, and inducements are offered by various
municipalities, such as free sites, lighting, and power for
a period, and exemption from local taxes. A nominal
duty is charged on machinery for manufacturies, and in
many cases it is admitted entirely free.
Public Works.
The port works of Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and Bahia
are being carried out with despatch, and those of Para are
begun, and the works at Rio Grande do Sui and Victoria
will speedily be inaugurated, as well as those at Pernam
buco. The latter will, without a doubt, prove of the

118 BRAZIL.
greatest benefit to the commerce of that port. Those of
Santos, when finished, will include i\ miles of quay,
with rail alongside, and deep water at any state of the
tide. The new market, opened December 14th, 1907, at
Rio, covers an area of about 24,000 square yards.
With regard to iron products, cotton piece goods, and
food stuffs, it is probable that the imports will decline, as
the natural tendency of the country is to supply itself.
The greatest field for European energy is in the employ
ment of capital, in the Republic. The return on his
outlay insured to a judicious investor, is most decidedly
far greater than he can expect to-day in England, France,
Germany, or elsewhere. Brazil urgently needs men and
money. See the Financial Review of Reviews, for March,
1909. Business Pars.
In order to do business successfully in Brazil, several
things are necessary. First, the goods sold must be of
a high grade, and before exporting, a visit should, if
possible, be made to the country, or the consular reports
(both British and North American) carefully studied.
Catalogues must be in Portuguese, and a clerk employed
who writes and translates that language correctly.
Representation on the spot, by a good traveller know
ing the country, is essential, and the short-sighted
meanness of the common exporting houses is strongly
condemned. First class German houses pay their men
equal to ^60 monthly, with commission and travelling
expenses, as incurred. This may amount to £"2 or £"3
daily. Hotel charges are not less than 12/6, and porters
and baggage charges are proportionally high. Every
pound of luggage put in the brake van pays. Credit is
also necessary for at least three months. Packing requires

FINANCE, ETC. 119
the greatest care and attention, and, as suggested by the
results of experiments made in the sewing machine and
phonograph trade, a stock may be advantageously carried
at a central dep6t (Rio de Janeiro), and goods sold on
monthly payments. Singer's charge 5$ooo a week (6/3)
for hire of machines. Almost any goods can be sold
in this way, such as musical instruments, furniture,
ornaments, etc. A common way of doing business
locally, is to form a club of 60, 80, or 100 members, and
draw weekly chances for clothing, jewellery, etc. Pro
bably the best way of doing a large and profitade trade
in Brazil is to open locally with the latest novelties, and
employ Brazilian salesmen, under European supervision.
If travellers are sent from England they must be good
men, tactful, sympathetic, well read, gentlemanly above
all, and possessed of tenacity and patience, and should
be well paid, and properly supported.
Transatlantic, Coastal, and Fluvial
Navigation.
Steamers leave weekly from Southampton or Liverpool
to Rio de Janeiro, Santos, etc. The Royal Mail Com
pany leaves Southampton (Fridays) most weeks, at 12
noon, reaching Pernambuco (via Lisbon and Madeira) in
13 days (10 days from Lisbon), Bahia 14$ days, Rio in
16 or 17 days, and Santos 18 days. The Pacific takes
the same time from Lisbon. The Messageries Maritimes
steamers leave Bordeaux alternate Thursdays, and reach
Rio on the same day, or before, as the Pacific steamer.
The Lamport and Holt Company runs cargo steamers
from Liverpool and London, the Holland Lloyd from
Dover (monthly), and the North German Lloyd from
Antwerp, and the Hamburg South American Line from

120 BRAZIL*
Southampton (with some fine steamers), i-8 or 19 days
passage to Rio. There are four Italian lines from-
Naples and Genoa, and a French line from Marseilles.
Some of the Italian steamers are quite modern, and
make the voyage from Italy in 14 or 15 days. The Lloyd
Sabaudo has some 14,000 ton ships running 19 knots
per hour, and making the journey from Genoa to Santos
in 13 days. There is also the Booth Line, Liverpool to
north of Brazil (Para and the Amazon), and three lines
from New York and two lines homewards (New Zealand
Shipping Company and Shaw Savill), except in winter,
and a line of French steamers (very small boats) from
Havre (Chargeurs, Reunis), and a large steamer or two
of the same company (homeward). There are many lines
whose steamers call casually, or outward bound, but the
above are the only regular passenger-carrying steamers*
The Royal Mail and Pacific Companies have now fine
boats, 10,000 to 12,000 tons, fitted in the most luxuriant
style, and having accommodation for 200 or 300 first class,
100 second class, and 1,000 third, many of the latter being
berthed in cabins, with two to eight bunks. Of the
foreign lines, the Italian steamers are best fitted for
steerage passengers, as the Italian laws are most severe
as far as regulations for emigrant ships are concerned.
Coasting and other Vessels.
As we have seen the whole of the Brazilian coasting
steamers sail under the national flag. In 1904 there were
336 steam vessels, of 296,000 tons, and 541 sailing craft,
displacing 300,000 tons. Since then progress has been
rapid. The principal line is the Lloyd Brasileiro, with
nearly 60 steamers, some of which are 4,000 to 6,000
tons. This company has services to New York in one
direction, and to Chili in the other, goes direct to Cuyaba

FINANCE, ETC. 121
(Matto Grosso), and calls at all the ports of any size from
Para, southward.
There is the Amazon Steamship Company operating
40 small vessels on the great river ahd its tributaries.
Other companies are the Companhia Costeira, Cruzeiro
do Sui, Freitas, Companhia Pernambucano, Companhia
Grao Para, Esperanca Maritima, Companhia Bahiano, and
the Via5a.o, Central do Brasil, besides other smaller lines.
In 1905 there were in all 26,115 vessels flying the
Brazilian flag. In this year more than 10,000,000 tons
of shipping entered national ports, all belonging to the
country. Further developments may be expected with regard to
transatlantic voyages by the Brazilian Lloyd. An
increase in the speed of the British, French and German
vessels, now making this voyage, is likely to be called for
in the near future, as the present mileage (some 320 to
350 daily) is far from being adequate. It is proposed
to call for tenders for a contract speed of some 17 knots
per hour, thus shortening the journey from Lisbon to
Pernambuco to 8 days, to Rio Janeiro iof days, or from
Southampton to Rio, a distance of 5,034 nautical miles,
to 12 days 7 hours steaming, or with stoppages at Cher
bourg, Vigo, Lisbon, Madeira, Pernambuco, and Bahia,
to about 14 days. Railways.
The total length of Brazilian lines in 1889, the year of
the advent of the Republic, was 8,930 kilometres, equals
5,358 miles. On the 31st of December, 1908, the length
was 19,054 kilometres, or about 11,432 miles; 1,020 kilo
metres, or 612 miles, having been added during the past
year. The following are the principal lines in Brazil at.
the time of writing : —

122

BRAZIL.

RAILWAY.

Working.

In Con
struction.

Surveyed and
Projected.

Leopoldina (British) in Rio
Janeiro, Espirito Santo,
Minas Geraes 

kilo
metre.'
2351 139
910 170

metres 835

kilo.
metres

metres

kilo
metres 413

metres

Sao Paulo Ry. (British) ...
Oeste de Minas 
Minas e Rio 

215
346 32

Mogyana Soracabana ...
Itauna, etc 

550963

375252 95
219
Rio Claro 
Central Rio Grande do Norte
Baturite 
Sobral 
271 45
298
217 538788 92
416 J53
II

Sapucahy 
Paulista 
74
N.W. of Brazil 
Itare and S. Francisco
Victoria - Diamantina
852 700
144
490 93
300
245 261 183 96
242 194
305
27O
Jaguara - Araguary 
282 194
376
472 270
State of Para Railways ...
Bahia - Minas 
70
Botafogo - Angra dos Reis
Central da Bahia 
3i6200 172
550
452410
1300
600
Bahia - S. Francisco...
Natal, etc 
G.Western Railway (British)
in Pernambuco, etc. ...
S. Francisco 
310
100
117
281
State of Parana 
State of Rio Grande do Sui
500 1
FINANCE, ETC. 123
The above represent the principal lines only, and do
not take into account those merely in consideration.
The Madeira-Marmore Railway has now a section
some 30 miles long completed, and 1,300 men are working
on the concession. The line from Piedade (across the
Bay of Rio) to Theresopolis is now completed, and this
summer resort is within i\ hours of the capital. The
altitude, from 900 to 1,000 metres, equals 2,930 to
3,260 feet above sea level, with a European climate.
During 1907, 422 miles were added to the railway system
of the Republic.
It is now possible to go by train from Rio Grande do
Sui to Montevideo (Uruguay), and connections are under
way from Sta. Catherina, reaching as far as Colonia (in
front of Buenos Aires) in Uruguay, and in a short time the
great Sao Francisco River will be tapped at Pirapora,
thus ensuring rait and river connection with the north.
Goyaz will be reached by direct rail, probably from either
Sao Paulo city or Rio de Janeiro, and fhe line will
be continued westward. Via Sao Paulo, the North
Western Railway will extend to Corumba, Matto Grosso,
and the Bolivian frontier, and the city of Diamantina,
and all northern Minas, via either Rio Janeiro or Victoria
(Espirito Santo). In a couple of years the whole of the
coast lines will be linked up, from Para to Rio Grande do
Sui, and connections prepared with the Pan American
Railway. We may expect in less than 15 years' time to
be able to take the train from Rio to Argentina, Uruguay,
Paraguay, Chili, Bolivia, etc., and to almost any part of
the Brazilian Republic. The development of the mining
districts depending on modern systemsof communications,
many new roads are in course of construction, for the
purpose of motor traffic, as well as light railways. In
Brazil it is the reverse to Europe, or at least to England,
it is (as it should be) the railways that create centres of
population and industry.

CHAPTER XII.
Natural History — Fauna.
Fish.
In this chapter I have followed the order in the section
"Animal Kingdom" of the great work in Portuguese,
O Brazil, and commence by studying the ichthyology of
the country. It is necessary at this juncture to refer the
reader to the wonderful researches made by Agassiz (see
appendix). The food fish of greatest value in Brazil is the
pirarucu, inhabiting the rivers and great lakes of the
Amazon region. It measures some seven feet in length,
and weighs up to 220 lbs. in rare cases, the average being
about 120 to 140 lbs. It has an elongated snout covered
with large b'ony plates or scales, the body being cylin
drical, with a somewhat flat form laterally. The tongue
is large and osseous. This valuable animal takes the
place of meat to a great extent, and is eaten dried very
frequently, and is seen now and then in the markets of
the far south of Brazil. It is caught with a harpoon, in
clear water, usually in September and October, and is
then salted. The price per kilogramme locally, dried, is
from 1/- to 2/-, according to the district. When visible
in Rio, it fetches as much as 3/6 a kilogramme.
The tainha (a kind of trench) is found in many parts
of Brazil, both north and: south, and is caught in vast
numbers by means of nets.
The capital (Rio Janeiro), is the principal market for
fish, and the greatest variety are offered for sale, some
times, however, the quantity is exceedingly small, as the

NATURAL HISTORY. 125
vessels engaged in the trade from Cabo Frio, St. Joao da
Barra, Angra dos Reis, and Paraty, are so small that
they are unable to go out in rough weather, or to remain
at sea for any length of time.
The principal fishes of the Rio market are robalos, a
variety of sturgeon, from 6/- to 18/- each; douradas
(dorados), garaupas 3/6 to 6/- a kilogramme ; corvinas,
linguadas (soles), sardines, badejos (cod), bijupiras,
meros, 3/6 to 6/- a kilogramme ; mullet (fresh water),
pescadas (whiting), xernes 2/6 to 5/- a kilogramme.
Beside these there are multitudes of lesser value, and
prawns, lobsters, several sorts, various kinds of crabs,
¦oysters, clams, mussels, etc., etc. On the rivers one
also finds the surubim, up to six feet long. This is sold
dried as a rule, and the price varies from 1/6 to 3/- a
kilogramme. There are also bagres, piranhas, trahiras,
jundias, piabas and, to quote Agassiz, thousands of finny
creatures entirely unknown in Europe. This savant
calculated that there were more classes of fish in the
Amazon alone, than in the whole of the Atlantic Ocean.
The method of taking fresh water fish in Brazil is not
regulated in any way by the appointment of fishery
commissoners or other officers. The splendid natural
preserves for trout are entirely without inhabitants.
Most of the mountain streams are quite Ashless, or
inhabited by such kinds as lurk in the more sluggish
and muddier parts. Where there are good fishing
stations, the stocks are decimated by means of dynamite
bombs, or several Brazilian substitutes for cocculus
indicus, or fishers' berries. By this latter means, some
times the whole of a stretch of river is devastated.
Considering the extremely high prices quoted for non-
game fish, it stands to reason that scientific stocking of
rivers with the hardier kinds of trout, such as S. Fario,

126 BRAZIL.
would pay well, experiments have been made with carp,
in the State of Sao Paulo, and have met with success.
Referring to the salmonidae, some encouragement for
prospective introduction may be found, in the fact that
many sorts of fly are to be found on the rivers. I have
myself encountered various kinds of caddis, in the usual
type of case, and undoubtedly the temperature of the
water is quite low enough, and all other conditions
highly favourable. Game, other Animals and Birds.
The supplies of the capital, in the way of game, come
from the Serras of Tingua, Estrella and the Organ
Range principally, as well as from Barra Mansa, Merity,
and as far as Novo Friburgo. Besides rabbits, hares,
2/6 to 2/9 each, deer, pigeons, pacas, and wild boars are
occasionally seen. The best game birds are the mucuco,
the jacu (penelope), and mutun (cassowary). Many
smaller birds are sold in bunches of 20 to 30 different
kinds and colours. Amongst these are found toucans,
of various sorts, and such others as arapongas, tiribar,
guaxes, and bem-ti-vis (I saw you well), the latter so
named from its peculiar call.
The forests of all the states, especially far from human
haunts, as in Amazonas, Matto Grosso, and Goyaz, are
filled with parrots, fetching up to £1, macaws, £"1 to
£"3 1 os., sabias, one variety, mimus lividus, worth £"5 to
£"7, bicudos, up to £"2, canaries, cardinals, love birds,
woodpeckers, avinhados (wine coloured), and, of course,
the humble swallow and sparrow, owls, various kinds of
hawks, urubus (a kind of gigantic raven), the common
scavengers more like a vulture than anything else. In
Rio Grande do Sui, both black and white swans are

NATURAL HISTORY. 127
found, as well as herons, storks, ernus, wild ducks and
geese, water hens, flamingoes, partridges, quails, etc.
In the sea there are a hundred sorts of fowl, common
to other oceans, and some peculiarly local. Pigeons are
extraordinarily plentiful in some of the states where
leguminous plants abound. In Ceara thousands have
been killed in a day or two's sport. Amongst the quad
rupeds not mentioned, those especially noteworthy are
the tapir, living in the reedy lakes on the top of the coast
and other ranges. Sometimes he is hidden in a dense
forest of grasses six or seven feet high, and growing, in
tufts with deep holes between. This unweildy animal is
found within four or five hours of Petropolis, or two of
Theresopolis, and a couple, or leash of good dogs are
necessary to make him move out of his retreat. His
flesh is eaten readily (as is that of several kinds of
monkeys), and the hide makes excellent harness. When
pursued by a jaguar, he rushes with tremendous force
through the undergrowth, and in many cases where the
great cat has succeeded in lodging on his back, the shock
of the encounter with saplings and cane brakes, has not
only torn the attacker from his hold but smashed his
skull. The great and little anteater are pursued for their
skins, as are also the numerous family of felines, com
prising felis onca, felis onca nigra, felis concolor (puma),
the ocelot, wild cat, etc. The greater jaguar is hunted in
the most courageous manner in Brazil. After being located
in a cave or hole, he is pursued into the darkest recesses
by his human foe, who is armed only with a long knife,
and has his arms swathed with thick cloth. Amongst
other quadrupeds we may notice the wolf, fox, marten,
otter, ratao (beaver), kinkajou, gamba, and sloth. In 1905
about eight tons of skins of various soats, including those

128 BRAZIL.
some half dozen species of monkeys, were exported, of a
total value of £"11,000. The simians, by the way, are
well represented in Brazil, but none of them are com
parable to those of Africa, as far as size is concerned.
Of the domestic animals it is not necessary to treat here,
except to say that races of bovines accustomed to hilly
districts do well in Brazil, as also goats. Horses are
of a small wiry breed, but mules prove best adapted to
the northern and central states. Pigs do well in the
south, and in Minas, etc., whilst sheep are only suited to
some parts of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catherina, and
Rio Grande do Sui. Domestic poultry, including guinea
fowls and Indian game fowls thrive in most places. The
guinea fowls are stated to be very useful to keep down
the reptiles.
Of the ophidians, the cascavel (rattlesnake), coral,
python, boa-constrictor, jararaca, and surucucu, are the
better known. The sucury is the water serpent, attain
ing 50 to 60 feet, and is a terrible plague in the north.
There are innumerable myriads of alligators all over the
Republic, especially in Para and Amazonas, a stock
breeder killing 2,000 in one season, on the Island of
Maraja. Turtles are not so common on the Amazon as fifty
years ago, owing to the wanton destruction in taking
them, and thinning out their eggs for the purpose of
extracting oil. The turtle is largely used for food, and in
Para at the present time the meat costs some 6/- to 25/-
a kilogramme, according to season. There are also six
kinds ol tortoises which form important additions to the
diet of this region. The municipalities of the State of
Para obtain large sums from the taxes imposed on those
engaged in the above trade. Oil is extracted from
various kinds of lizards, tapirs, and capivarys, but the

'''^''Jlr**'*^

Panorama of the City, of Parahybuna, Sao Paulo.

Central Avenue, Rio de Janeiro.

Tlie New Quays, Rio de Janeiro.

NATURAL HISTORY. 129
principal fount of this product is the whale. This
mammal is found dll along the coast of Bahia, especially
near Caravellas, and is sought for in small single-masted
sailing vessels, from 40 to 60 feet long, and equipped
with muffled oars in addition. These boats are the same
shape fore and aft, and with a good wind make from 10
to 12 knots. The crew of each vessel consists of about
n men. Salaries paid are very small, but for each
whale caught, the harpooner gets £"6 10s., the steerer
£3 5s., and each of the others 12/6. The total number
of men engaged in this work is about 900 afloat and
ashore. There are from 40 to 50 whaling vessels; those
belonging to Caravellas being launches of 15 tons each.
The proceeds of 1903 were £"30,000, 306 whales being
killed. The manatee dugong is also caught for the blubber,
but the resultant production of oil is comparatively
insignificant.
Fish Glue.
The silurus (catfish) is the one which supplies most of
the above, and the price obtained for it in the market at
Para is 3/- per kilogramme, in comparison with 1/6 from
other sources.
The exportation of fish glue trom Para and other
places in 1905 was 72,429 kilogrammes, worth £"15,508.
Feathers, Scales, Etc.
The following are the principal birds furnishing
feathers for export :
Emu, parrot, macaw, toucans, humming bird. The
most valuable are those from a peculiar sort of heron,
and are taken from the head of the male, they are known
in England as ospreys, and are worth £"62 10s. a
kilogramme (one conto of reis), locally. Most of these
1

130 BRAZIL.
feathers (few in number in each bird) come from the
northern states. In 1905, 158 kilos 627 grams were
exported. The feathers of the emu are from three to eight inches
long, and the best are used in the manufacture of boas.
Exportation (1905) 1,983 kilogrammes, value £"1,600. Of
the feathers from the immense variety of multi-coloured
birds, a great many are taken from those bred in the
convents, and stripped regularly by the nuns. Exporta
tion 25 kilos, worth £"65 only, a great many being used
in the country, made up into ornaments, flowers, etc.
The scales exported are from the sturgeon, gropers, etc.
These are nearly all made up in Santa Catherina and
Parahyba do Norte. Flowers are also made of shells,
leather, etc. In Rio de Janeiro there are two or three
houses , making a speciality of ornamental work of all
kinds, including butterflies' wings, beetles' wing sheaths,
etc., made up into an infinite variety of designs, and
costing absurd prices, considering the mite given to the
countryman who brings them in. Profits of 200 to 300
per cent, are very frequently made in this sort of business.
Animals for Collections.
The bulk of the stuffed or simply dissected birds, such
as toucans and humming birds seem, according to official
data, to be exported to the United States and Argentina,
at least as far as those are concerned which are not set up
and mounted. There are always better prices obtainable
locally for natural history specimens, but the demand is
very small for the more expensive kinds.
For export : (dead) stuffed and prepared. Alligators
two feet six inches fetch up to £"i 10s., lizards same
length £"1 5s., monkeys of various sorts £"i to £"1 10s.,
serpents (three feet and longer) £"i 5s. to £"2, falcons

NATURAL HISTORY. 131
£"i 2s. 6d., water hens, woodpeckers, humming birds,
assorted kinds, £"1 2s. 6d. to £"1 5s. a dozen, penelopes
(jacus) £1 ios., crabs and lobsters, mounted and
varnished £"i 16s. a pair. Armadillo coverings or
shells made into work baskets, etc., etc., up to £"2 ios.
Myriads of beetles and butterflies and other curious
insects are also caught, of which the semiramis up to £"7
and £"10 for a single specimen is most noteworthy.
More ordinary coleoptera and lepidoptera cost 12s. 6d.
to £^15, according to the number in a case, and their
relative rarity. Amongst the better class of butter
flies one may mention numbers of the argante, morphos
(four kinds), caligos, heliconidae, danaedae, papilionidae,
T. agrippina, darius, codomanus, etc., etc. A class of
ants (tanajuras) from S. Paulo are also exported, these
are dressed in various costumes and put up in little
boxes with a landscape painted in the background. Thus
arranged, they sell for 12s. 6d. to £"1 a box. These same
ants are cooked and sold in large quantities in the
interior of the state, and are considered a great delicacy-
There are also various bizarre tinted fishes varnished and
exported, or sold locally at high prices. Apropos of this,
a man came into a shop in Rio in my presence and sold a
toucan for 200 reis (3d.) I asked the owner of the store
(a personal friend) how much he would sell the bird for
when stuffed and prepared ? The answer was — io$ooo
(12s. 6d.) — verb sap.
There is yet room in the capital for a clever naturalist,
who is at the same time a linguist (French and German
being essential). The proprietors of the small business
already exhisting have very little scientific knowledge,
and their abilities as taxidermists are rather mediocre.

CHAPTER XIII.
Flora.
Rubber Producing Plants.
According to the great text book " Flora Brasiliensis of
Martius," there are 10 species of hevea, besides a similar
plant, micranda siphonides ; and in Minas, micranda
etata, and in Bahia, micranda bracteosa.
In Amazonas exists also the tapuru, the castilloa
elastica, and the hancornia speciosa, of some six kinds.
The heveas are true forest trees, reaching at times
nearly ioo feet high, with a diameter of 15 to 39 inches.
They are without branches for some three-fourths of their
altitude. Most of the varieties producing the best and
most abundant supplies of rubber are found growing in
a humid situation, very frequently in alluvial soil period
ically covered by the floods. They are, with the latter
mentioned plants, found over an area of a million square
miles. Some of them are capable of economic production
up to an altitude of 950 feet. The rubber gatherers are
hardly in the habit of discriminating between the various
sorts, mixing the produce of many trees together, regard
less of the quality of the gum. The riches of the valley
of the Amazon are scarcely touched. It is sufficient to
journey a few miles from the river banks to find virgin
forests, and this over a distance of at least 1,000 leagues.
The De Mello Brazilian Rubber Company, formed in
London recently, has a capital of almost ^.500,000. It
is estimated that there are 52 companies in operation,
with a total capital of £"2,000,000. These have been

FLORA. 133
organised in the two years, 1906-07. A French traveller,
Auguste Plane, who made serious studies of the Amazon
basin, says that the production of rubber can be doubled
whenever necessary, and as soon as the cost of living is
decreased, prices of even 1/3 or 1/6 a lb. for rubber will
prove sufficiently remunerative.
The tax on exported rubber, in Para, varies from 15 to
25 per cent., according to the quality. The freights are
proportionally high for river transport, never being less
than 7^-d. a kilogramme. In Manaos the various local
taxes amount to 28 per cent, of the value when put on
board, in addition to the Para tax. Undoubtedly the
result of such abominable fiscal measures is to encourage
all kinds of abuses, and attempts at evasion. As the
author of the monograph in O Brasil says, such a
state of affairs must not, and cannot continue. It means
ruination to an exceedingly profitable and great industry.
Referring to the other rubber producing plants, we find
the tapuru, reaching 80 feet, and having an average
diameter of three feet, with a feathery palm like top.
The castilloa elastica is' a much smaller tree, not exceed
ing 65 feet high, and 2 feet in diameter. The varieties of
hancornia are relatively diminutive, about 10 feet high,
and 2 to 3 feet in circumference. In Sao Paulo the
plantations or forests are worked on the share system, the
employee receiving usually a third part. The system
employed is destructive, as both owner and worker con
cur in taking from the plant its entire store, not econom
ising the sap in any way.
In Ceara, Piauhy, and somewhat to the north and
south, another variety is found, known as manir^oba.
Contrary to the habit of the heveas, it is a native of the
higher lands of the interior. The leaves are used to feed
cattle. Tapioca is extracted from the roots, and the seeds

*34

BRAZIL.

are in the form of almonds, and either in their natural
state, or after the oil has been extracted, are a valuable
food for cattle, pigs, and fowls. This tree is fouud as
high as 1,000 metres above sea level, butUts usual habitat
is from 200 to 300 feet in altitude.
Many other entirely different classes of plants are
rubber producing, including the wild fig. Plumeria,
sorveira, lucuma-laurifolia, platonia-insignis, symphonia-
globuluris, and massaranduba (mimusops-elata), a gigantic
forest tree, whose timber is very valuable for constructive
purposes. Plants Producing Tannin.
The following are the principal sources
used for tannin purposes in Brazil :
Striphnodendron barbatimao 
Acacia angico (bark and fruit) 
Phyzophora mangle (bark and leaves) ...
Buranhem ... 
Murici guassu 
Quebracho vermelha (red) 
Inga sapida, edulis, vera, dulcis 
Acacia jurema  -. 
Quebracho branco (white) 
Carapa vermelha 
Compared with oak (in Europe) 
Many plants used in Europe do not possess more than
8 per cent, of tannin.
The barbatimao is the most generally used in Brazil,
and furnishes also fine woods for the cabinet maker. In
the States of Minas, Sao Paulo, and Rio Janeiro this
bark is extensively employed ; but in Sao Paulo, where

of extractives

Percentage
of Tannin.

... 25

to

48

... 40

... 20

to

30

... 30

... 15
to
20
... 4
to
16
... 10
to
J5
... 8
to
15
... 12
... 4
... 30
to
45
FLORA. 135
there are more than 50 tanneries, the local supply is
insufficient, owing to the devastation of the forest. This
applies, more or less, to the other two states, but
especially to Rio de Janeiro, where the extraordinary
clearances have made a great difference in the wet
seasons, the rainy weather coming now, quite out of the
usual time, and in volume generally less than heretofore.
Many tanneries have had to close down in different parts
of Brazil, owing to lack both of hides and tanning
material. With improved methods, and great increase
in stock of store cattle, this is not likely to occur in the
future. With the barbatimao, some seven to nine months
treatment are necessary. The usual price in the State
of Minas Geraes is about 1/6 per arroba (15 kilos), or
about 32 lbs. There are also five other species of stry-
phnodendron used in Brazil. Exportation has com
menced of various barks to Europe (Germany and
Portugal), from Parana, Rio Grande do Sui, and Sao
Paulo. The embauba (cecropiarpalmata), etc., whose
tender leaves are the favourite food of the sloth, furnishes
also a large percentage of tannin, as well as being very
useful in the manufacture of cordage. The number of
plants used in Brazil for tanning is so great that it has
been found impossible to quote more than the principal,
and most widely used ones.
Fibre Producing Plants.
Undoubtedly one of the greatest sources of wealth in
the Republic, it is as yet, perhaps, the least exploited.
Everywhere there are myriads of malvaceas, and, doubt
less, Brazil is the country richest in the branches of
this family.

136 BRAZIL.
In comparison with the canhamo (hemp) it is con
sidered that the guaxima vermelha would rival the
former, if properly prepared. Many of these latter
plants have been used in making ship's cables in Brazil,
since colonial days. The urena and the triumpheta are
used under the name of aramina.
These plants, in favourable situations, not too dry,
produce fibres of eight to nine feet in length. In Sao
Paulo some 12,500 acres are under cultivation, and pro
duce about 800 tons of fibre annually. Nearly the
whole is consumed by one factory in the capital of the
state. The usual price paid is, roughly, 2d. per lb., and
prepared, 6d. to 8d. a lb. The cultivation is carried on
near the coast, and some 60 quarts of seed are used to the
hectare (2\ acres). The harvest commences in February,
and ends in June or July. The principal use of the fibre
is in the production of sacking for coffee, 60,000 to 70,000
bags being made monthly.
A group of the malvaceas, known as vassouras, is so
persistent and universal in its growth that, if Brazil
possessed a department similar to that in the Australian
Colonies, they would become proclaimed plants. They
are, however, very useful, the more delicate fibres making
good paper, and the others furnishing material for brushes,
ropes, and twines. This family is allied to that of the
jute. The one kind that is likely to prove of most value
is known as Canhamo Brasiliensis (Brazilian hemp).
Very similar to our own flax, it is now known locally by
the name of linho Perini, from the name of its supposed
discoverer. It grows in the valley of the river Sao
Francisco principally, in some places in great profusion,
and also in the States of Minas and Sao Paulo. It
appears to be a variety of hibiscus. The stalk grows to
the length of 10. to 13 feet, without branches. The

FLORA. 137
strength of the fibre, as compared to hemp, is about four
to three. Cultivation on a large scale has been com
menced at Rodeio, in the State of Rio. Production of
1,000,000 square metres of land, three crops yearly,
380 tons of best quality, and 2,214 f°ns °f second quality
fibre. Prices offered in Europe ,£40 and £ 12 respectively,
per ton. The family of bromeliaceas present also
varieties of pineapples, suitable for textile fibres. The
north of the State of Rio, along the coast, is covered
with this (bromelia lagenaria) type for 60 square
kilometres. The exploitation of this plant is purely
local, in spite of the great opening in Europe for the
fibre. A London house offered £"30 a ton, and asked for an
immediate lot of four tons for experimental purposes.
Price offered at Hamburg was £"15 a ton.
In the family of amaryllidaceas we must note the
fourcroya gigantea and fourcroya cubensis (pita).
Both these plants are common in Brazil, and may be
found at all altitudes. Length of leaves, 10 to 12 feet.
Compared with sisal, the following figures demonstrate
the value of this plant : —

Dimensions of leaf.

Weight.

Sisal, 4 to 6 ft. x 4 or 5 in.

ii to 2 lbs.

Piteira, 8 ft. x 7 to 9 in.

3 lbs.

Weight, 1,000 leaves.

Fibre, 1,000 leaves.

Sisal, 1,500 to 2,000 lbs.

50 lbs.

Piteira, 2,500 lbs.

50 lbs.

The sisal lives 10 to 12 years, the piteira, 12 to 16
years. Pita requires three years to mature. The minimum
yield per acre is 1,500 lbs. of fibre, worth £"13. An
estate of 1,000 acres (400 hectares) would produce

138 BRAZIL.
£"13,000 after three years. Expenses calculated in plant
ing 5,000 acres, machinery, freight, etc. £"1,200
Wages, etc. (4 years)  10,000
Instalment, etc  i,8oo
Depreciation, etc  100
Freight, etc  6,000
£"20,000
Expenses, first 4 years  £"20,000
Result (one crop)  60,000

Profit £"40,000
If we add £"5,000 to expenses, and allow no crop in
the fourth year, we have then —
Five years' expenses  £"27,500
One crop, result  60,006

Profit £"32,500
Calculating £"20 per ton, and a minimum crop of
3,000 tons per 5,000 acres.
Experts calculate the crop, after three years, at £"13
per acre, thus 5,000 acres = £"65,000.
An ample margin is thus shown, and land is not want
ing for planting. If we reckon value of land at 5/- an
acre it will be an outside estimate.
In 1904. the price of pita (mauritius hemp) was from
£"25 to £"35 a ton (London). The exportation of cocoa
fibre, piassava, etc., is very far from being equal to the
demand. The total amount in vegetable fibres, in 1905,
coming to 7,377 kilos (less than 7^ tons), valued at
about £"300.
Kapok (paina) is another vegetable substance which is
produced in Brazil, from the fruit of the various families

FLORA. 139
of paineras. The best quality paina-branca (white) is
capable when used in life-belts, of supporting 30 to 31
times its weight, as compared with the kapok from Java,
26 to 28 times its weight. The painera is abundant in
the States of Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas, Sao
Paulo, etc. In spite of the excellence of the production
of this class of tree, the exportation is infinitesimal.
Most of the paina is used in Brazil in stuffing mattresses,
pillows, cushions, etc.
The above are only a few of the plants which occur in
profusion all over the Republic, and offer a hundred
different kinds of utilities to the world of commerce.
The thing which is most astounding is not the extra
ordinary richness of the vegetable kingdom in Brazil, but
the meagre way in which these sources of wealth are
utilised. Fortune awaits any capitalist who will venture
to take up the study of any one of a thousand different
kinds of cultivation, or even the commercial exploitation
of those multitudinous species growing wild in every
state, from one end of the Republic to the other. The
very cursory glance given in the previous pages to this
subject is entirely inadequate to give the reader any idea
of the wealth nature has so bounteously bestowed upon
this fair land, only now beginning to take its proper place
amongst the productive countries of the world.
Mate (Ilex Paraguayensis).
Mate is to the Southern Republics, Chili, Paraguay,
Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentine, what tea is to the
European. It is even more drunk in many places than
its rival, coffee. Here we find a plant which has its
habitat exclusively in the temperate regions, at an altitude
of from 1,500 to 3,000 feet above sea level. Its Latin
name is, of course, due to its being found, probably, in

140 BRAZIL.
the first instance, in Paraguay, but the State of Parana
is the great seat of its exportation.
The tree, or rather bush, is some 12 to 20 feet in height,
and it rarely reaches 30 feet. It belongs to the hollies,
but is without spinous leaves. The area over which it is
distributed in Parana alone is some 140,000 square kilo
metres, but it is found in six other states, as well as in
a small part of Argentina and Uruguay, near the Brazilian
frontier. The leaves are prepared in two distinct ways.
(1) Ground up into powder to be used in the cuia (or
gourd), and the decoction, made with boiling water, is
sucked up through a perforated tube. (2) Prepared as
a sort of tea in flakes, with some fine stalks, and taken in
cups, like the Chinese or Japanese liquor. The infusion
is of a green colour, and when brewed in a pot, the
Brazilian custom is to put a piece of glowing charcoal
into it. The effect is to turn the liquor into a dark
brownish green, and undoubtedly much stronger. It
improves also by boiling. Mat6 has one great advantage
over tea, and that is, that two brewings may be made
with the same handful of herva, and sometimes the
second is stronger than the first. Its greatest quality is
in its effect on the human system. Take a good bowl
with a crust of bread at 4 a.m., and you may work in the
, harvest field till noon. It has no aftermath, no injurious
influence on the digestive organs, and its action is
stomachic and laxative. During the war with Paraguay
the soldiers marched and fought day after day without
any food but mate.
I have noticed a remarkable fact with relation to its
medicinal properties. In the Argentine cattle lands, an
enormous quantity of meat is consumed, indeed, the
staple diet of the people is flesh. I have myself break
fasted on huge beefsteaks for months together, seven days

FLORA.

141

a week. The beef, however, goes together with the
mate, usually a bombilla (in the cuia or gourd). The
bombilla is the tube, spoon-shaped at base, and com
monly of silver, through which the mate is drawn.
The cowboys are great beef eaters, but rarely suffer
from the effects of the diet. Certainly the mate is
a blood purifier, at least taken in native fashion, and
without sugar. This beneficent herb can be placed on
the market here in England for 6d. a pound, freight from
Antonina (Parana) comprised.
Compared with tea or coffee the analysis is calculated
as follows:

Component Parts
1,000.
Essential Oil 
Chlorophylla 
Resin 
Tannin 
Alcaloids, theine, caffein
Extractives 
Cellulose and fibres
Ashes 

Green

Black

Tea.

Tea.

Coffee.

790
600
041
22 20
18-14
1366
2220
3640
1366
17800
12880
i6'39
4'5°
4'3°
266
464 OO
39000
27067
17580
283-20
178-83
8560
2561
2561
Mate. 001
6200
20-69 12-28 250
23883 18000 38-11
Mate is a tonic, a nutrient, stimulant, and diuretic.
Its influence is almost magical on soldiers on the march,
and in all cases of prolonged physical or mental work.
Not a single authoritative voice has been raised against
its use. A chorus of scientists has extolled its virtues to
the skies, yet in England to-day it is almost unknown,
being found only in herbalists shops, or amongst the
drugs and nostrums in the chemists stores, and sold at an
extortionate price, usually 3/- per lb.
142 BRAZIL.
Each bush produces some 200 lbs. of- leaf and fine
stalk, which is reduced in the factory to about 90 lbs. of
herb. In its natural state the maX6 is found in company
with the monarch of the temperate zone of Brazil, the
magestic and graceful araucaria (the southern pine).
The only cultivation the bush receives, under these cir
cumstances, is periodical clearing the obstructing growths
from its vicinity. This is done every two or three years,
under favourable circumstances. The harvest is collected
from May until August. The branches measuring less
than half inch in diameter are nearly all cut down, and
then the finer twigs and leaves separated from the mass.
The leaves are then submitted to the action of a quick
fire for a moment, and afterwards prepared in the factories,
and packed in barrels for export. The tea is also sent
"out in packets and tins, principally to Montevideo,
Buenos Aires, and to Chili. Exportation during the last
quarter of a century has increased at least 300 per cent.
The most encouraging thing about this trade is its
development without artificial aid, solely through the
excellence of the article. The annual consumption in
the State of Parana, per head of the population, is about
10 lbs. The exterior trade is carried on through 14 ports,
in six different states, but of the total, Paranagua and
Antonina between them account for more than one half.
It is calculated that the bush requires three years before
being fit for harvest again, if the precaution is taken of
leaving a few branches, covered with leaves at the top,
to protect the rest from the elements. The price of the
tea put on board transatlantic steamers, works out at
about 3d. a pound, and some allowance must be made for
trans-shipment, for the German liners calling at the
Parana ports do not touch at a British one en route to
Hamburg. The price stated previously, 6d. a pound,

FLORA. 143
amply covers all costs of freight, etc., and no duty is
levied on this herb in British custom houses.
Vegetables, Oils, and Wax.
The castor oil plant, although not indigenous to Brazil,
has adapted itself locally with great success. In spiter of
the most rigorous methods taken to extirpate it, includ
ing fire, once introduced into a district it is never
destroyed, and is considered as a plague. Largely used
for many years as an illuminant, it is employed more and
more as a machine oil, mixed with other oleos, or alone.
The Leopoldina Railway Campany has established a
factory for the purpose of extracting the oil as a lubri
cant. There are some 12 or 13 more mills distributed
over the different Brazilian States. Several other plants
of the same family are common in the country.
Copaifera officinalis (copaiba). There are 20 species
of this family of leguminosas, of which some seven are
found in Brazil. The oil is extracted from the trunks by
means of an incision, and in Bahia a suction pump is
employed. The limitation of the tree is about 20 quarts.
The principal places of export are Bahia, Maranhao,
Para, and Manaos, and the largest importing countries
are the United States, Great Britain and Germany.
Brazil nut oil, furnished by the Brazil nut of com
merce, and kindred seeds. Contrary to many of the
trees of the Amazonian region, the chestnut (as it is
called in Brazil) grows best on high and dry lands, and
forms extensive woods of lofty trees of great girth.
The nuts are contained in a shell about the size of a
coeoanut. Those called sapucaias, produce a fruit
excelling the Brazil nut in quality, and worth two or
three times the former. The State of Para has
almost a monopoly in the exportation of the Brazil

144 BRAZIL.
nut. The extraction of the oil is generally performed
locally, for use in the country. The whole of the woods
are uncultivated, and the collection of the nuts is fraught
with great difficulty, owing to the altitude of the trees.
Carnaubeira (copernica-cerifera) is found as far south
as ,Bahia, and grows sparsely in the more temperate
parts of Brazil.
Of this palm Humboldt speaks as the tree of life, and
its wonderful utility may well entitle it to lay claim to
that designation. The roots are useful in skin diseases
as depuratives, the leaves make excellent cordage and
twine, and are commonly employed to stuff mattresses
and pillows ; the fruit is agreeable and nutritious, the
timber makes fine furniture, taking a high polish, and
resists putrefaction so well that it is in use in a hundred
different ways in salt and fresh water. The young shoots
are the palmito or cabbage palm, the sap of the adult,
palm contains a very wholesame kind of tapioca, and
makes a pleasant fermented drink, whilst even the stalks
and other residues furnish food for cattle. The principal
product of the tree is, however, the vegetable wax,
which is found in the young leaves. 100 leaves from one
tree give about 4 lbs. of wax on an average, but under
good conditions, as much as 13 lbs. has been obtained.
The value, per kilogramme, is about 2/- (1905). The
exportation of this wax, the same year, was valued at
less than £"200.
Coeoanut palm. In its green state the nut contains
more than a pint of liquid. The substance, in a gelatin
ous state, is highly considered in Bahia, and should be
much better known in Europe than it is. The nuts,
which are so common and cheap in the English markets,
are in comparison with the green ones, not at all palatable.
The production on the spot of coeoanut butter, fibre and

FLORA. 145
oil seems to be needed, and the enormous quantity of
plantations existing might find a ready market for their
nuts. As it is, freights are so high, and consumption so
small, that a coeoanut costs twice as much in Rio de
Janeiro as it does in London. The value of each nut on
the spot (Pernambuco or Bahia) is about 1 Jd.
Timber.
Brazil is undoubtedly the country possessing the richest
store of valuable woods. The majority are so hard that
furniture made from them resists the worm. Many
possess perfumes as aromatic as any invented by modern
science. In spite of the wonderful exuberance of nature,
especially in the north, and the unequalled fluvial system
of those most favoured states, the melancholy fact must
be confessed that it does not pay to export any but the
finest timber. Not only this, but as yet an enormous
quantity of pine is introduced into the country for the
purpose of box and case making, general carpentry work
and building construction. This is the case even at
Belem (Para), where the forest is at the gate of the city.
The explanation of this lies in the fact that freights are
prohibitive, a cargo sent to Liverpool hardly paying cost
of transit, and that the more beautiful forest trees are
growing isolated. One finds, in a great wood, a hundred
different kinds of huge and stately trunks, hardly two
alike in proximity. The all pervading quest of rubber
renders labour unavailable, and again some of the
timber is so hard that it resembles iron rather than wood.
The future of such trees as the massaranduba is in the
hands of the railway constructor, the enduring qualities
of the wood making it very useful indeed for sleepers.
The so-called cedar of Brazil (cedrela odorata) is found
throughout the Amazon region, and is principally used in

146 BRAZIL.
cabinet work, and internal fittings of houses. The only
exportation in 1906, worth mentioning, was to Portugal.
From Manaos, £"5,800, and from Para, £"9,900, this
latter paying in exportation taxes £"567. The two woods
predominating were the acapu and pau amarella (yellow
wood), for flooring purposes, as the dark and light colours
alternating are very pleasing to the eye. Many of the
finest houses in Lisbon are floored with these woods.
The monopoly created at the great European market
(Hamburg) is considered to be one of the principal causes
of the failure to develop the timber trade. It is stated
that a closed ring of buyers fix the prices paid to the
exporting firms, and then deal for whatever is needed
amongst themselves. The greatest consumers of timber
are the Brazilian railway companies and the sugar
mills. Two lines in Sao Paulo alone, burnt wood to
the value (locally) of nearly £"100,000, in the year 1904.
Some idea of the extraordinary state of affairs in Brazil
may be gathered from the fact that in the capital of the
Republic it is sometimes cheaper to buy coal imported
from England than wood, which is to be found within a
couple of leagues of the metropolis. In the vicinity of
the city it has been found necessary, not only to prohibit
the destruction of the forests, but also to form reserves,
and plant some of the most useful sorts of the nearly two
thousand varieties of trees indigenous to Brazil.
Medicinal Plants.
Quinas, furnishing cinceona, or Peruvian bark. There
are no less than 14 or 15 kinds, native kinds, and the
true Peruvian cinchora has been introduced with great
success. Angelica, quassia, gentian, centaury, rue,
and many purely Brazilian species of bitter tonical plants
abound in all the states.

FLORA. 147
Tonic stimulants. The principal one (mate) has
already been described.
Depuratives. Salsaparrilla is the best known and
widest distributed, many rivers having their water im
pregnated with it. Amongst others of the 30,000 Brazilian
plants may be mentioned the capsicum, mimosa, cashew,
ipecacuanha, many violaceas, convolvuli, jalapa, lyrios,
sorghum, urtigas, jaborandi, etc.
Ornamental Plants.
Orchids naturally take pride of place amongst the
above, Brazil occupying the chief position in the world
with 1,059 varieties, most having large and beautiful
flowers. The cattleyas and lcelias are found principally from
Bahia southwards, in the coastal ranges.
Para exports mostly the C. eldorada, C. superba and
oncidium lanceanum.
Bahia — C. aclandii, C. ameythst oglobossa.
Pernambuco — C. labiata, C. graniclosa, miltonias.
Espirito Santo — C. labiata, C. harrissonia, C. scho-
fieldiana, C. schileriana, C. crispa, lcelia-xantina, L.
tenebrosa. Rio de Janeiro — Lcelia perrinii, C. harrissonia, C.
crispa, C. lobata, C. guttata and miltonias.
Minas and Sao Paulo — The same classes.
Santa Catherina — Lcelia-purpurata, loelia-elegans,
C. intermedia, C. leolpoldu.
Espirito Santo and Santa Catherina boast of the
rarest varieties of these beautiful plants, some, as the
cattleya autumnalis alba, being worth £"50, or the C.
warnerii £"200. Amongst the other noteworthy plants
are the begonias, cannas, almonds, cardamum lilies, hor-
tensias magnolias, verbenas, jasmines, lycopodiums,

148 BRAZIL.
bougainvilleas, camelias, victoria regia, waterlily, heli-
conias, amaranths, and all flowers common to Europe,
besides others without number. The plateaux at an
altitude of some 6,000, 7,000 feet which are- found in
several places in the States of Minas and Rio de Janeiro,
are remarkable for a flora of a distinct nature, -amongst
which bulbous plants predominate, growing very fre
quently with the roots almost entirely exposed. In these
elevated regions, the climate is truly temperate, and
most of the flowers are found blooming in the spring or
early summer. The fuchsia, which is a sort of climbing
semi-parasite in southern Brazil, is not found much
above 3,000 feet, but between 2,600 and 2,900 feet is
abundant in most places.
Dyes, Resins and Essences.
The quebracho Colorado' of Argentina is replaced in
Brazil by several trees of the Brazil wood type. Some
dozen or more producing a red dye, including three kinds
of dragons blood trees.
Two anils with fine blue colours, both creepers (cissus
tinctarea and cissus sicyoides) also the indigo plant itself.
Some of the fuchsias give a black, and other trees, as
the ludwigia - caparosa and various bromeliaceas, a
brilliant yellow. Gum arabic is obtained from acacias,
cashews, etc., and copal from hymenaeas. Resins are
produced from the amyris-clemifera and the hedwigia
balsamifera. Of the essences the vanilla plant is found
nearly all over Brazil, especially in Minas Geraes. Cin
namon grows exceedingly well in Para and Maranhao,
and the famous tonkin beans are common in the northern
forests. Neither of these two latter plants have been
cultivated to any extent, although the States of Sao
Paulo and Parana have made attempts, under Govern-

FLORA. 149
ment supervision, to produce vanilla on a commercial
scale ; and the latter state has published directions for
its successful culture. It may safely be asserted that
there are many plants producing extremely valuable
essential oils and extracts, that would repay a hundred
fold the man who took up their cultivation in a scientific
way. It is just the things which are neglected that offer
the best openings in Brazil. Undoubtedly the state
most advanced in agronomical studies is Sao Paulo, pos
sessing as it does at least two finely equipped and
managed experimental stations. Here also meteorologi
cal phenomena are adequately registered, and the results
profited by. The Paulistas term themselves, perhaps with
some justice, the Yankees of Brazil.

CHAPTER XIV.
Agriculture — Part I.
Coffee, Sugar, Cotton, Cocoa, Tobacco.
Coffee.
Coffee is grown in Brazil, principally in Sao Paulo,
Minas, Geraes, Rio de Janeiro and Espirito Santo. The
plants flower from September to December; earlier in
the north and later in the south. The crops are gathered
from April to July or August, or during the dry season.
Although many parts of the more central states
(coastal) are adapted by nature to the growth of this
plant, the fazendas have been reduced to less than half
their previous extent, owing to the state of the European
market. The soil of the coffee producing zone is of a
red colour, and is presumed to be similar to the Devonian
in England. Sember says that it is formed of decom
posed lavas mixed with decayed vegetable growths. The
element that seems lacking in most of the soil appears to
be the oxide of cal (or lime, this, however, does not
appear to prejudice the coffee plant, as it requires but a
fourth part of this chemical constituent as compared with
wheat. Experiments carried out with samples of .earth
from Minas, Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, demonstrate
that the composition shown by analysis does not agree by
any means with the result obtained by harvest ; after all
the most exact method of proving the suitability ot the
soil. The data that one finds infallible in cold ground in

AGRICULTURE. 151
Europe, are hopelessly at fault in the cultivated zones of
Brazil. Whilst in England one finds a maximum depth
of soil of some 24 inches, in relation to efficacious agri
culture, in Sao Paulo there is from three to five times as
great a profundity. I have myself seen a solid wall of
earth at least 150 feet high, and decomposition is said to
have been effected in many localities to the depth of
1,000 feet. All scientific travellers in Brazil remark this
extraordinary phenomena.
With regard to the selection of seeds for the propaga
tion of coffee, the greatest care is taken now-a-days.
From 75 to 90 per cent, of those planted survive. The
sites selected are generally cleared as soon as the summer
rains have diminished, or ceased, at about the end of
March. The fallen trunks and branches are left to dry
until August, when the whole is set on fire. At the
beginning of the wet season the young plants (previously
brought up from seed) are selected and put in. The
planting continues from November to February. The
first crop is produced in the third year, and the system
employed in Sao Paulo for the new plantations is suffi
ciently favourable to the colonist. By Decree No. 1,090
of 9th of January, 1903, the situation of the planter
became more untenable, and the Valorisation Scheme
was proposed as a remedy. This as we have seen is
superseded, 1908. Generally speaking, the new arrival
(immigrant) has a definite contract with his employer,
and his salary or share of profits is the first charge on an
estate. He finds a house built, and a lot for his own use,
already cleared. Between May and September he can
earn 5d. to 7d. a half sack (or one and a half bushels),
picking the berries, and in the case of a large family, the
earnings are quite substantial. Many Italians being able
to return home for three or four months each year.

152 BRAZIL.
Another method is to pay for each 1,000 plants tended,
or hoed round, from £"i to £"i 5s. This operation is
performed some five times in the year. Ample time is
left to the colonist to cultivate his own lot, for which he
pays no rent whatever, neither does he for the house.
Some of the planters adopt a different system, paying a
third of the production to the colonist, and advancing
him means for his subsistence until after harvest. The
cost of marketing fifty kilos of coffee works out at
about the same number of francs, or with interest on
capital and depreciation reaching 66 francs for a fair
grade of berry. This amounts to 6d. per pound in round
figures. From 1890 to 1895 coffee reached the high water
mark of 97 francs, and once or twice even 130 francs.
The lowest point touched (1900-1905) was 40 francs.
Whilst the present state of affairs continues the virgin
lands in the State of Sao Paulo alone (some 2,500,000
acres) must be reserved for other kinds of cultivation.
Various measures have been taken by the planters them
selves, including the burning Of immense stocks of coffee.
One great grievance the planter has is the fact that his
best efforts to produce a high grade of berry bring profit,
now and then, not to him,' but to the (fortunately rare)
dishonest European merchant, who buys at the lowest
figure, and sells the Brazilian production at the price,
and under the name of Mocha or finest Java. I asked
recently the manager of a large wholesale house, what
stock of Brazilian coffee he carried, and the reply was —
none. One can only judge that he was either an awful
liar, or didn't know what he was selling. The diagram
below represents the estimated world's crop 1907-8, and
speaks for itself. That of 1906-7 was the greatest on
record, totalling 15,392,000 bags from Santos alone, and
4,234,000 from Rio de Janeiro.

AGRICULTURE. 153
Exports of Coffee for year 1907- 1908.
In bags of 140 lbs. '

BRAZIL.
SANTOs-^7,203,000 bags.
Rio — 3,240,000 bags.
Bahia & Victoria — 690,000 bags.

All other Coffee producing Countries:
Central America, Mexico,
Guatemala, Honduras,
¦—«»¦¦ »<^< -{ San Salvador, Nicaragua,
Costa Rica, etc. —
V 2,025,000 bags.
{Venezuela, Colombia,
Ecuador, and Peru —
725,000 bags.
Dutch Indies, Java, etc.,
British India and Manilla —
430,000 bags.
— Haiti — 405,000 bags.
( Cuba, Porto Rico, and British
•I West Indies ; Africa, Arabia,
( Mocha, etc. — 275,000 bags.

In addition to the three francs surtax on each bag of
coffee imposed for a period of six years by the Conven
tion of Taubate' (Sao Paulo), signed by the Presidents

154 BRAZIL.
of Sao Paulo, Minas, and Rio in 1906, the Govern
ment endeavours to prevent the exportation of inferior
grades of coffee, and has entered into contracts with
companies in England and elsewhere to further the con
sumption. Sao Paulo has some six hundred million
coffee plants, representing four francs or 3$d. per plant.
Each 50 kilos requires some 70 plants. Thus to produce
1,000,000 sacks of 60 kilos each, a capital is necessary of
no less that £"13,430,000. The total sum invested in the
business in this one state must amount to £"100,000,000
at the present time. The probability is that Sao Paulo
will follow the example presented in England by the hop
growing countries, indeed polyculture has been the care.
of the agricultural department for some years past, and
the tendency is to supplant coffee with more profitable
growths. A remarkable fact is presented to the student
of economics. In spite of the high prices ruling in the
nineties, Brazil was the only country to materially in
crease its production, rising from five millions sacks in
1880, to 8f million sacks in 1900, and 12 millions in 1905,
whilst the total output of the rest of the world decreased
from 4^ millions to 3^ millions, 1905. Prohibitive
taxes now rule in Sao Paulo with regard to the laying
out of fresh plantations, this measure undoubtedly has
proved very beneficial to those planters farthest from the
exporting centres, and it is a curious property of the
business, that plantations recede further and further into
the interior, being found over 460 miles from the sea,
whilst formerly they were mostly situated near the coast.
Sugar and By-Products.
Another important industry which has suffered greatly
from a number of causes, is sugar planting.

AGRICULTURE. 155
The sugar cane was introduced into Brazil shortly
after the discovery of the country, and cultivation was
commenced simultaneously in Pernambuco and Sao
Paulo. It is stated that the soil and climate of Brazil
are better adapted to the production of sugar than that of
any other country in the world. The planters have (as is
the custom of their kind everywhere) taken advantage of
the fertility of. the soil to such an extent, that, extracting
its vital elements without replenishing them, the yield per
acre is now only about 20 tons. Instances are not un
common where the same lands have been under sugar
cane for two centuries, and the methods"«mployed in the
majority of the mills obtain not more than 6 per cent.
out of 15 per cent, of saccharine matter. Owing to the
system of milling, and the small yield, the cost of sugar
per pound placed on the market, is not less than a id.
Under such circumstances Brazilian sugar cannot com
pete with that from Cuba, Demerara, etc., where the cost
of labour is less, and the methods in vague so superior.
The principal sugar producing states are Pernambuco,
Ceara, Parahyba and Rio Grande de Norte. The cane
grows well in most parts of the Republic, and a large
industry has sprung up in the States of Rio de Janeiro
and Sao Paulo. The quantity of sugar consumed locally
in 1902 was about two-thirds of that exported, and a
huge quantity of cacha^a, or aguardiente, is produced
(806,497 gallons in 1904-5), a notable diminuition from
the yield in 1 901-2. Alcohol for illuminating purposes is
increasing in consumption,. as is also that of treacle. A
mill has been started at Campos to make paper out of the
refuse of the cane, and others are likely to follow.
If we take the figures presented by the State of Sao
Paulo, we find that the percentage of sugar as compared
with other countries to be as follows: —

156 BRAZIL.

Tons of Cane per hectare

Proportion of Sugar

(2 J acres).

per cent.

Egypt with irrigation

38-5

... II

to 13

Argentina ' „

40

II

to 12

Java intense culture

80

... 14

to I5"5

Hawii „ „

82

... 15

to I5'5

Demerara

62

... —

—

Louisiana

50

... II

to 13

Cuba

50

... 13

to 15

Queensland

46

... —

—

Sao Paulo

50

... 13

to 14-5

Campos (Rio de Janeiro)

'5<>

... 14-5

to 15-5

The above calculation are sufficiently telling, and one
can only marvel, and •¦ wonder what the result would be
after the introduction of up-to-date methods. With
sugar cane growing, at its portals so to speak, the price
of ordinary cubes works out at more than 6d. a lb. in
Rio de Janeiro. In the north the cane ripens within
14 or 15 months, and in Sao Paulo in 18 or 20 months.
One must insist here, as everywhere in this work, on the
necessity, imperative and increasing, of scientific cultiva
tion in Brazil. It is useless men- embarking in enter
prises in that country who are not prepared to work on
the most approved lines, those who think they can repro
duce in Brazil the rule of thumb methods by which they
have impoverished their farms in Europe> are- prospective
enemies to the Republic. On the other hand, bright,
brainy farmers and planters, with sufficient capital, can
reap rewards such as they never imagined in the old
world. Sugar will pay in Brazil, and pay well if all is
not taken out of the land and nothing put in, and if the
by-products are properly disposed of.

AGRICULTURE. 157
Cotton.
During the American civil war, the cotton industry
was at its height in Brazil, and it is only the last two or
three years that it is beginning to forge ahead again. In
1904, 165,000 bales were produced. The price in the
Rio market in 1907 varied between 13s. and 14s. per
10 kilogrammes (22 lbs.) Exportation duties are highest
in Piauhy 12 per cent, ad vatorem. Freight is high.
The Leopoldina Railway (south) and Great Western
Railway (north) both having a scale which begins at
something over £"2 per ton for 150 miles. The lesser
distances pay more in proportion, up to double, and the
lowest rate is for distances exceeding 200 miles (Leo
poldina Railway). Both .these lines are English. The
Natal and Ceara-Mirim Railway charges per kilometre,
exceeding 300, 30 reis per ton. The Central Railway
(national) charging something less. Ceara is one of
the states most adapted to cotton owing to its dryness,
and peculiar climate, but the plant thrives in all Brazil.
The most up-to-date states as far as local industry is
concerned, are Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. In
1903, there were in Minas some 37 spinning and comb
ing mills (mostly small), in Rio de Janeiro 29, but
with an output vastly greater than Minas, and in Sao
Paulo 18. In this state in 1903, there were some
37,000,000 yards of cotton manufactured in calicoes,
prints, etc., the largest mill with 10,000 spindles and 600
hands, using up 2,000 tons of cotton. In the vicinity of
Rio city there are several very large mills, one at Petro
polis (Cascatinha) employing about 1,500 persons all told.
The overseers of many of the Brazilian mills are English,
or of English extraction. Without a question this is a
flourishing business. Dividends are being paid of 20 and

158 BRAZIL.
30 per cent., and even 40 per cent, at times, and it may
safely be stated that every mill is making a substantial
profit. Cocoa.
The theobroma is native to Brazil, in the regions of
the Amazon valley, but to-day it is cultivated as far
south as Sao Paulo ; but the coast of south Bahia,
and northern Espirito Santo, and Rio de Janeiro is
admirably adapted to its growth when the swamps are
drained. At a distance of six or more kilometres from
the sea it begins to produce well, and thrives until the
colder elevated regions are reached, doing best at an
average day temperature of some So degrees' Fahr.
The soil most suitable is an alluvium, light and porous.
In some parts of Espirito Santo the climate is so
favourable to its growth, that it forsakes its usual
habitat, and climbs high up into the serras. Here
it produces fruit in the second year, instead of the third.
Contrary to cotton, cocoa requires a somewhat humid
climate. The number of acres under cultivation in
Brazil is continually on the increase, and there are
immense territories yet available. Shade is necessary
for its best development, but the trees should not be
planted too closely together, 12 to 24 feet apart allows of
some 300 to the acre. The second crop is larger than the
first, and the yield increases until maturity at about ten
years. The tree continues in full bearing for 20 to 30
years at least. Frequently flowers and fruit are seen on
the trees at the same time. One variety in Bahia is a
veritable giant in relation to its fellows, reaching nearly
35 feet in height, and with a trunk 9 inches in diameter.
Frequently two crops are gathered in the year in Brazil,
each fruit being cut from the stalk without injury to

AGRICULTURE.

159

either. About two lbs. of beans are averaged per plant.
Each kilogramme fetches is. 3d., and one alqueire of
10,000 square bracas (equal 8*6075 acres), planted with
4,000 cocoa trees, 15 palmas or about 3*6450 yards apart,
at a kilo per plant, produces some £"250. Expenses of
cocoa planting are not more than 60 per cent, those of
coffee. The most encouraging feature in this cultivation
is the fact that the supply continues to be less than the
demand. In 1907 the consumption was 156,000,000 kilos
and the production 148,000,000 or a difference of some
7,600 tons. In 1906 the figures were somewhat less
favourable, and in 1905 the balance was on the other
side. The best districts commence from the State of Espirito
Santo northwards. Probably no other tree so productive
as this occupies less area of land, and requires so little
labour or attention. Tobacco.
The cultivation of tobacco in Brazil, dates certainly to
pre-discovery of the country, for the first voyagers ob
served the Indians using the fragrant weed. In 1500 the'
European conquerors commenced its planting, the first
experiences being in Bahia. In the latter part of the
eighteenth century a large quantity was exported to the
mother country (Portugal), and from thence, until the
year 1808, to Italy, Germany, Holland and England.
In 1845 seeds were introduced from Maryland, through
the Government, in order to improve the local culture.
Bahia is to-day the great centre of the trade, and a great
deal is manufactured there by the firms of Poock, Danne-
mann, Stender and others. Some really excellent cigars
being now on the market. The City of Sao Felix a short-
distance from Sao Salvador (Bahia), is the principal

160 BRAZIL.
manufacturing centre. 1,000 plants produce in this state
some 300 lbs. of tobacco. The cultivation requires much
labour and care, and it is especially sensible to changes
in the temperature or modifications of the seasons.
Adopting the system employed in Sumatra, 150,000
square metres (equal 179,400 square yards) requires an
outlay of some £"1,580. The crop should be 10,000 kilos,
worth £"2,120. This is the result of one year's working,
but of course is considering the plant to be cultivated and
dried by really practical men.
The tobacco trade, like a good many more, suffers
from the existence of parasites and traders up to all kinds
of sharp practices. It is very common to find in Bahia
that the plant is adulterated with various materials to add
to its weight. In addition, many of the planters strip
the leaves in a very careless manner, and send to market
a product that is calculated to prejudice, not only their
own interests, but those of the industry at large. Prices
have been rising of late, owing to the improvements of
the last few years in the growing and preparation of the
leaf. In 1903 the municipality of Caravellas (south
Bahia), instituted four annual premiums of £"50, £"37,
£"25 and £"12 ios. (at present exchange) to the agri
culturists who put in 50,000, 30,000, 20,000 and 10,000
plants of the first class. From 1901 to 1907 the exports
of tobacco were 199,645,784 kilos, of snuff 106,281 kilos,
of cigars 12,095,936 kilos, and of cigarettes 33,482 kilos.
The smaller planters in Bahia employ all the members
of their family in the work, and hire their neighbours by
granting them lots on condition of one day's service per
week, others working on salary, but as a rule rio one
being amendable to discipline, or caring for their labour,
the cultivation is very desultory. Here, as in other
classes of agricultural work, the need of hands is

AGRICULTURE. 161
severely felt. The native Brazilian usually despises
such toil, especially for another's benefit. One great evil
is the horde of speculators who advance money on the
crops, exhorbitant interest is charged, and all too fre
quently the price paid is fixed at the pleasure of the
usurer. Hardly any of the planters are able to deal
directly with the exporting houses, and moreover are
cheated abominably in the weight of the packages they
hand over to the middlemen. The consumption of cigars
and cigarettes in Brazil itself is very heavy, and the
well-to-do still smoke those from Havana, Turkey, etc.
The tobacco producing states are — Bahia, Minas, Sao
Paulo, Santa Catherina, Goyaz, Pernambuco, Piauhy,
Sergipe, Ceara, etc.

CHAPTER XV.
Cereals :
Wheat, Rice, Oats and Barley, Maize.
Beans and Tubers.
Wheat.
In Colonial times wheat was grown in the States of Rio
Grande do Sui, Santa Catherina, Sao Paulo, Minas
Geraes, and Rio de Janeiro. The cultivation, however,
decreased, and was abandoned in the early part of the
nineteenth century. The real cause of this cessation of
planting in the south was various diseases, such as rust,
carbuncle, and caries. In spite of the want of success
hitherto, the Government offered premiums in 1857 to
farmers who produced a certain quantity of wheat of
their own growing. In the north, on the table lands of
Ceara and Parahyba, and in Minas Geraes, various
attempts were made with more or less success, but with
final result nil. To-day the great English flour mills
(the largest in the southern hemisphere) at Rio Janeiro
is fed almost entirely with Argentine wheat. It is con
sidered' that, with more modern methods, such States as
Sao Paulo, Minas, Goyaz, Parana, etc., can produce
immense quantities of this cereal, and experiments now
being made are decidedly encouraging. The quantity
imported 1902-7 was 1,244,460,259 kilos, valued at over
£"8,000,000. The flour imported was worth nearly
£"9,000,000. Of this the Capital of the Republic received

CEREALS, ETC. 163
almost seven-twelfths, Santos nearly one-third, and Rio
Grande do Sui the bulk of the rest, very little being
directly imported by the other states, although, doubt
less, a large quantity was re-shipped in national bottoms.
The importation of wheat from the United States has-
fallen to a value of some £"10 in 1906, in spite of a pre
ference customs tariff of 20 per cent., in return for the
most favoured nation treatment, which Brazil receives as
regards her produce. Rice.
Brazilian farmers are not yet up-to-date in rice culti
vation, and the recent arrival of Japanese coolies is
presumed to be with the view to adopt more intense
methods. As with the coffee, the forests are destroyed
and burnt. No selection is made of the seed, and it is
either dropped into holes, made with a pointed stick, or
scattered by hand, and stamped in with the feet. In
the north, planting is carried on between January and
April, and preferably after a shower. Usually the rice
is left to take its own course after planting. That sown
in September generally produces two harvests, the grain
of the first being cut away at the top of the stalk. At
Iguape (Sao Paulo) the cost of planting 7.\ acres of land
is as follows : Clearing, burning, and planting 50 quarts
(litres) of rice, 55 milreis, cost of seed 5 milreis, harvest
ing 50 milreis, transport to farmhouse 8 milreis, thrash
ing and winnowing 12 milreis, a total of i30$ooo, equal
to £"8 2s. 6d., at fixed exchange of 1/3. The harvest
amounts to 2,000 litres, costing 3/3 per 40 litres, thus
65 reis, or about id. a litre. Each 100 kilogrammes of
rice, in husk, produces 60 kilos of grain, and 30 kilos
of bran, when treated by a proper cleaning machine, of
which there are some 30 in the State of Rio de Janeiro
alone. Excluding wild rice, found along the rivers of

164 BRAZIL.
the north, there are some 15 kinds known in Brazil, one
of which is native, and is responsible with crossing for
other varieties. The most common is a Carolina type,
and the place mentioned above (Iguape) gives its name
to a kind grown principally in that district. Importation
has fallen off considerably. In 1902 over 100 million
kilos reached Rio, mostly from Burmah (50 to 60 days
by steamer). In 1907 only n-J- million kilos arrived,
and it is safe to say that the next decade will see the
entire disappearance of this importation. The State of
Rio Janeiro has become one of the most important pro
ductive zones, increasing its output tremendously the
last three years, under the Presidency of Dr. Nilo
Pecanha. The enemies of rice are numerous, and one of them is
the little tico-tico, which answers to our sparrow.
When planted near rivers the capivary is an extremely
destructive beast. As yet there is no exportation, but
being largely a staple diet, the home consumption is
very great. In the State of Rio, sowing is performed
from August to October, and the harvest is in April,
May, and June. Rice is grown in almost all the states,
but the principal productive ones are Santa Catherina,
Parana, Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, and Rio de Janeiro.
Oats and Barley, etc
The remarks, with regard to wheat, may be applied
with some reservations as regards climate, to the above
mentioned cereals, which have every prospect of success
in such localities as the central plateaux, extending from
Amazonas to Matto Grosso. Very few attempts have
been made as yet to cultivate these grains, but results
have proved satisfactory wherever experiments have
been made, under reasonable conditions.

CEREALS, ETC. 165
Maize.
The maize was found growing in Brazil by the first
navigators, and was known by the name of abati or
avati, by the Indians. The savages had discovered
also its utility in the manufacture of fermented beverages,
as well as flour. The whole of the planting, harvesting,
and preparation of its products was performed by the
women of the tribe. In Brazil it is considered that the
soil, which is unfitted for any other growth, will serve
perfectly for maize. It is the practice of planting this
graminea anywhere, which is responsible for the pro
duction of so many varieties, and incidentally the
survival of the unfit. The kind which is most generally
known, however, is the common yellow maize, popular
not only by reason of its abundant production, but also
for its resistence to the disease called calandra-granaria.
No less than 19 other kinds are found growing in the
different zones, and no proper classification has yet been
made, nor any determination of which species is best
adapted to this or that climate, beyond the commonly
known fact that white maize resists the drought better
than any other kind. There is no scientific treatment of
this subject of this culture as yet, and the result is, that
the yield is entirely out of proportion to the fertility of the
soil, and favourableness of the climate. The localities
principally favoured by Brazilian farmers are those with
a western aspect, avoiding the south and south-east.
With the exception of cold clays, or sandy ground, the
plant is suited to most soils, especially admixtures of
sand and clay, and the red earths derived from diabase
(Devonian type). Sloping lands are deprived of their
woods, and burnt after the timber is dry (July to Sep
tember). Furrows are made with hoes, some four feet

166 BRAZIL.
apart, and five or six grains are planted together. This
work is done either from March to May, or August to
October. As soon as the maize attains about four feet in
height, the earth is worked up round it with the hoe.
Sometimes this is done twice, at three and four feet high.
Between the lines of maize it is customary to plant
beans, pumpkins, melons, etc. Harvest takes place some
three or four months after planting, and the cobs are
taken one at a time, and carried in baskets to be spread
out and dried. It is rare to find a planter who takes the
trouble to manure the land in any way, they prefer to
destroy the forests, and plant fresh fields. The cost of
planting and harvesting an alqueire of land is reckoned
as follows, in virgin forest zones :
Clearing and preparing land i8o$ooo
40 litres of seed  ... 4$ooo
Planting and hoeing  ngfooo
Harvesting  ' 48^000

35i$ooo = £"21 18 9
In second growth lands £"16 11 3
Using modern agricultural
implements  8J5 o

>To

acres

An alqueire is so-called, because it is just the area of
.land required to plant 40 litres of seed, and according to
the metrical system, it equals in Sao Paulo and Parana
2 hectares and 42 ares, or 4^ acres. In Rio, Minas,
Espirito Santo, 4 hectares, 84 ares, or 8T"„ acres. In
Bahia the measure is tarefa, i\ tarefas equals one hectare,
and further north, the quadia-alqueire, or 100 bracas
square, is the land measure. Maize suffers from rust,

CEREALS, ETC. 167
and from various roedors, as the agouti and cavy, and
also from the armadillo (tatu), and above everything else,
from the all devouring locust and a variety of other
enemies. Pernambuco and Maranhao export large quantities to
Para and Amazonas, and to Peru and Bolivia. The
state which produces the largest quantity of maize is
Sao Paulo, and next in order of importance come Minas
Geraes and Alagoas, little being cultivated in Rio Grande
do Sui, Rio de Janeiro, etc. Beans.
These legumes form, with rice and dried salted beef,
the staple food of the majority of the lower classes in
Brazil. The greater part cultivated are of a black colour
(phaseolus niger, nanus, etc.)
In a plantation made in September, using 42 litres of
seed per hectare, in land previously manured, the result
was 1,249 litres of beans. Many kinds of red and yellow
beans are grown in addition to the above, and they are
subject to the same attacks of rust as the other plants
mentioned hitherto. The bean being a very gross feeder,
it is necessary to enrich the soil before planting, except
in rare cases with the first crop. The harvest is over in
four or five months after planting, at which time three
seeds are placed in a small hole, at a distance of an inch
apart. Very frequently beans are planted together with
maize, permitting the former to utilize the stalk of its
sturdier neighbour for climbing purposes.
In addition to beans, peas (of a variety whose pod is
eaten) and lentils are planted, but on a very small scale,
and obtaining high prices in the market. As with maize,
beans are grown more in the central and southern
states.

168 BRAZIL.
TUBERS. Mandioca.
The credit of the discovery and utilisation of this root
is entirely due to the aborigines, who also found out the
secret of destroying its venemous properties. In Brazil
it may well be asserted that it . constitutes a veritable
underground storehouse of food. The dish of beans,
rice, and fat pork is always thickened by a handful of the
coarse flour meal, and it takes the place of bread in
many places. Found as far as 300 south, it is peculiarly
a tropical and semi-tropical plant. There are three
principal varieties, two of which are somewhat bitter,
and the third sweet. There are, however, many minor
sorts (twenty or thirty). The most prized (called aypim)
has a root which weighs about 2 lbs., and is used for a
variety of purposes, making many delicious preserves.
The bitter sort (brava or venemous) is used only to
manufacture flour. This kind sometimes weighs 15 to
20 lbs., and is full grown in 8 or 10 months., Before this
root is fit for consumption, it must be pressed well and
washed, and the water and residue must be thrown away
out of the reach of animals, as it is distinctly poisonous.
The largest roots produce some two gallons of prepared
meal. Some kinds contains. 23 per cent, of starch. It
is planted usually in August or September, in any part
of the country, from the coast up to 3,000 feet above the
sea level. The plant crushed and well washed is pressed
into a dry mealy mass, and roasted on hot plates, being
continually turned until done. A good hand can prepare
two or more sacks per day.
The finest qualities are worth from 12/6 to 15/- a sack,
and the coarser, up to 7/6. One disadvantage is that the
roasting must be done the same day as the plant is
washed and crushed, otherwise it will turn sour. The

CEREALS, ETC. 169
water, which has escaped from the mass in pressing,
contains a large quantity of very fine starch, and the
deposit is washed several times, and strained off. Tapioca
is a product of the residue.
Arrowroot (Araruta).
This plant is native to Brazil, and gets its name from
the fact that the Indians used it to cure the wounds
made by poisoned arrows. To grow to the best ad
vantage, the root .demands a porous, well drained,
alluvial soil. Planting is done by means of small slips,
and as soon as the new growth makes its appearance, it
is earthed up in a similar way to celery. Planted in
March, it comes to maturity in from 8 to 11 months.
The smallest fragments of root will soon strike, and
throw out leaves. The root must be well washed to get
rid of its impurities, it is then crushed, or ground, and
mixed with plenty of clean water, and passed through
a bolting-cloth or sieve tq separate the fibrous parts from
the powder. The latter is dried in the sun, on perforated
tables, and is ready for packing in four days. The price,
locally, ranges from 6d. to 1/- a lb. The production is
not nearly sufficient for home consumption. The state
which is best adapted to the cultivation of this plant is
Espirito Santo. Mangarito (Caledium sagettofolium).
A plant of the family of araceas, little grown, but
more nutritive, and easier to prepare and pleasanter to
the palate than any of the other tubers.
Potatoes.
The sweet potato is the most common in Brazil, the
English potato, as it is called, being largely imported.
Such as are grown in Brazil at present, usually represent
the kind which is given to pigs in Ireland. The anomaly

170 BRAZIL.
is seen in the maritime cities of the -Republic, of large
consignments of the tuber from England, and latterly
from New Zealand, although those grown in. Bolivia and
Peru, at an altitude of 9,000 to 12,000 feet, are considered
far superior to ours. In spite of the fact that the high
lands, within a few hours of Rio de Janeiro, ate admir
ably adapted to the cultivation of what is termed the
English sort, and that two crops may be gathered
annually, the cultivation is very small, and no pains
are taken to select the right sort of soil. Planted in
March the tubers are fit to be pulled up in June, and sown
again in August the harvest is ready in November.
The yield of the sweet potato is, however, vastly superior,
being 20 times the amount sowed. The latter thrives in
a different location, preferring the lowlands, and depres
sions between the hills. Some of the kinds are ripe in
three or four months, and they frequently take a disagree
able taste if grown in manured lands. The red variety
is most esteemed, and is the most suitable for the table,
the white serving better for animals. To fatten pigs, the
country custom, is to let them loose in a sweet potato
patch, thus saving the troube of digging the land, and at
the same time enriching it. The sweet potato is con
sidered more nutritive than the European, as it contains
more sugar. Yam.
The Brazilian valleys are covered with this plant,
which is considered as a dernier ressort, when all other
cultures fail. At ordinary times it serves the same pur
pose as the commoner kinds of sweet potato. In virgin
and fertile soil it develops fully in from six to twelve
months, the roots weighing from 15 to 22 lbs. Boiled, it
is an excellent food for pigs, fattening them extra
ordinarily.

CHAPTER XVI.
Tropical Fruits.
Brazil possesses climates suitable for the growth of
every kind of fruit known.
In what corresponds to the European winter in the
southern states, all fruit bearing plants common to the
northern parts of the world, flourish and give abundantly
of their substance. Amongst the better known belong
ing to the tropical zone is the abacati, produced from
California to Rio Grande do Sui. The part eaten is the
inner pulp, surrounding the central mass of seeds. The
fruit varies from the size of a pear to that of a very
large lemon. In Mexico a delicious salad is prepared
from this pulp. Eaten alone, it requires sugar or lemort
juice or both, as it has no acid or sub-acid flavour. It is
planted by seed, hardly buried in the earth, but success
has been obtained by experiments with shoots and seed
lings. Fruiting only in the fourth or fifth year it
becomes ripe after January. No diseases are known,
and it is a very profitable growth, being worth from 6d.
per fruit up to is. 6d. in the European markets.
Pineapple.
The abacaxi is the Brazilian name for the finest
quality of pineapple (anan'az). It is planted by shoots,
after September in the south, and from March to May in
the north. It comes into flower in the spring (August to
September) and ripens by January. Sometimes fine
fruits are sold in Rio de Janeiro as low as i^d. each
(retail). Pernambuco is a great seat of the trade,

172 BRAZIL.
mounds being piled up in the covered market, and at a
hundred stores. The price asked to passengers in
transit is usually 3d. to 6d., according to size. In 1907,
270,572 kilos were exported, of a value of about £"5,000.
Abieiro (Lucenha-Caimito).
A plant only found in the more tropical states, and
never below Santos. The fruit is oval, of a clear yellow,
and has two to four seeds ; only recently placed on the
market at Rio de Janeiro. ParA Apricot.
The tree grows to 30 feet high and over, and bears a
spherical fruit the size of a large orange. It has one
large seed only. Eaten raw or used in all kinds of tarts,
etc. It has been reproduced hitherto by seed only, but
it is considered that slips or cuttings would produce a
fruit of much better quality. Araca.
Araca, a plant belonging to the myrtaceas, the fruit of
which is used principally for making a kind of preserve.
Banana.
Grows from Amazonas to Rio Grande do Sui, but is
hardly found above 3,000 feet in the southern and
central states. There are many kinds cultivated, and
we may enumerate pacora (in Para) a very large kind,
usually eaten fried or boiled. The outside is red. Musa
cavendishii (ana), has a short trunk, dark leaves, and
produces huge bunches of fruit of a long, curved and
cylindrical form, light yellow coloured. Musa sapientum
— trees high and rounded fruit. Exportation of bananas
in 1907, 1,878,904 bunches, worth £"6,000. Each bunch
weighs on an average 45 lbs., and the heaviest attain
125 lbs., or up to 300 bananas. Freights from the planta-

TROPICAL FRUITS. 173
tions in Sao Paulo (near Santos) to Buenos Aires (Argen
tina) total about 12s. 6d. per dozen bunches. In Santos
there are some 200 planters who only cultivate one class
(the ana), most of them occupying the lands without any
right of ownership, as they are the property of the state,
and have never been considered worth selling. Each
kilo of bananas exported pays 1 real of duty, equalling
i^d. per 100 kilos.
In Cubatao (near Santos) one planter has 500 alqueires
under bananas, and the whole of the district is devoted
to this culture. The whole of the banana traffic is
limited to the coast line from Rio de Janeiro south
wards. Para and Pernambuco are so well situated,
however, with regard to exportation to Europe, that
doubtless when their port works are completed, they
will prove the shipping centres of an immense trade.
A plantation of 500 trees properly treated yield 10
dozen bunches a month, and a grove of the second
year only, will produce 15 dozen bunches per 1,000
trees. Some plantations more than 30 years old are
still producing, the only attention given being the
clearance of extraneous matter from the vicinity of the
plants, and the bunches average 70 bananas, even after
such an extension of time. There are reckoned to be
2,000,000 trees within the district above mentioned.
Labourers employed in cutting the bunches (still green)
are paid at the rate of 4s. 6d. to 5s. daily.
Caju (Cashew).
There are several kinds of this tree, of the family of
terebinthaceas, and all are indigenous to Brazil from
north to south. It is found everywhere, high up on the
table lands or down in the forests or near the sea shore.
In the Brazilian cities the fruit is used to make a very

174 BRAZIL.
refreshing drink (cajuada) or prepared as a preserve,
similar in form to ginger. It is exceedingly agreeable in
this latter manner, but the packing leaves much to be
desired. The syrup makes a delicious wine, and the
curiously formed nut (outside the fruit) is the portion
which is well known in Europe. Curiously enough, this
plant disdains fertile and rich soil, prospering in an arid
waste. The fruits are ripe in November. One type of
tree (found only in the woods) attains 50 feet, but the
fruit is very small.
Many kinds of cacti produce agreeable fruit in the
warmer parts of the country. One of the best known is
the Barbary fig, introduced from Mexico. It is more
procured, however, for the purpose of cochineal, than
for anything else, the fruit being insipid and somewhat
acid. Another, the cereus triangularis, bears a fruit
equal in size to an orange. There is no exportation of
these products, and they are little considered locally.
Cidreira (citrus medica), the largest of the citrus
family, the tree being small, and its branches borne
down to the ground by the weight of the great fruits,
some of which are a foot or more long. It is cultivated
largely for the purpose of making preserves, and requires
a fertile soil, and is reproduced from either slips, seeds
or by grafting. In spite of its not being native to Brazil
it is perfectly acclimatised, being found in all parts of
the country, and in all sorts of climate, doing equally
well to all appearance everywhere.
Bread-fruit.
This tree is from 20 to 35 feet in height, and demands
moist heat for its most perfect development. The colour
of the leaves and fruit is of a light green, and the latter
is usually of the size of a large orange. The part eaten

TROPICAL FRUITS. 175
is the central pulp, either roasted or boiled. Brazil pos
sesses varieties entirely without seeds. The tree is only
found along the coast line, being entirely unknown in
the higher lands of the interior. It flowers and bears
fruit nearly the whole year round.
Fructa de Conde (Anona squamosa).
The fruit is about the size of an apple, with a very
rough scaly exterior. The interior is composed of a
delicious soft mass, eaten with a spoon. The plant is
reproduced from seeds, slips, etc., and requires a dry
fertile soil. Like the bread-fruit tree, it is only found in
warm places. It is very much esteemed in Brazil.
Cherimolia (Anona cherimolia).
Derived from Peru, the plant is relatively small (6 to
13 feet high). The fruit, equal to an orange in size, is
scaly outside, and formed of a number of sections, The
colour when ripe is of a dirty yellow. Sweet to the
taste, it has a very agreeable perfume, and is considered
the finest fruit of the anonaceas. It is known in Brazil
by the name of condessa (countess), to distinguish it from
the foregoing, conde (count).
Sour Sop (O. Carossol).
Brought originally from the West Indies. The fruit is
equal in size to the citron. It is not esteemed much in
Brazil, and requires a very hot climate to grow to
advantage. Guava (Goiabeira).
Previously exclusive to tropical Brazil, it has spread
all over the country, and is one of the plants most com
mercially exploited. In the vicinity of Campos (State of
Rio de Janeiro) it grows in profusion in the woods, and
at least 20 per cent, of the preserves manufactured in

176 BRAZIL.
Brazil are derived from this fruit. The locality named
produces some 600 tons annually of jelly, consuming in
the factories 120 tons of the fruit. The average price,
1905-1906, was gd. per 32 lbs. There are two crops
yearly, January to March, and September to November.
The preserve (named goiabada) is frequently badly
made, but one or two marks are excellently turned out.
In 1905 some 4,517 packages were sent from Campos
district to Rio de Janeiro. Each packet represents 4*110
days wages, and the total cost per package placed on the
market works out at £"5. Each tin (about a pound) is
sold at from ts. upwards. Attempts at exportation to
Montevideo and Buenos Aires have*not proved remunera
tive up to the present, in spite of the freights being less
to the River Plate from Rio de Janeiro (1,200 miles) than
from Campos to Rio, a distance of not more than one-
seventh part at most. The exact rates are, per 100 kilos
(roughly 2 cwt.), Campos to Rio 5s. 7^d. ; Rio to River
Plate 4s. io^d. 1
Jaboticabeira (Eugenia Cauliflora).
The handsome tree which produces the jaboticaba
grows abundantly in the forests of Minas, Goyaz, Sao
Paulo and Matto Grosso, and is frequently found near
the coast. The trunk is extremely smooth, and reaches
a height of 30 to 40 feet at times, with an abundance of
foliage. The flowers grow, not on the branches, but on
the trunk itself, from the ground to the top of the tree.
The fruit is about the size of a plum, but rounded, and
contains delicious white pulp and one large seed. The
skin contains a large amount of tannin, and much colour
ing matter. This fruit makes a fine wine, and may be
eaten as dessert, or used as a preserve. The tree takes
six to eight years to come to maturity sufficient to pro-

Tapping the Rubber, Amazonas.

Smoking the Rubber, Amazonas.

Transporting Mate to the Factory, Parana.

TROPICAL FRUITS. 177
duce crops, but has an exceedingly long life, and con
tinues to bear till an advanced age. No attempts at
improvement of the stock have been made, although it
is considered that the fruit would be greatly increased by
propagation through slips or grafting. Exportation of
this fruit is very difficult, owing to the softness of the
interior rendering it liable to smash.
Jambeiro (Eugenia Jambas).
This myrtacea is found on the sea level, and high up
on the table lands, and bears fruit at almost any altitude.
The tree is small, hardly ever exceeding 20 feet. The
flowers are beautiful, and are succeeded by fine fruits,
the size of a plum, and of a rose colour. The perfume
emitted by this plant is very sweet, reminding one of the
queen of flowers itself, and thus it obtain its name of
jambo-rosa. It is produced from seed, and the kernel is
loose. The above is the most highlj' prized variety of
the jambos, but there are several others grown, some of
which are more ornamental than useful.
The Orange, Lime and Lemon.
The bitter orange is common in many parts of Brazil,
and from it is supposed to be derived all the other varie
ties. Grafted, it produces the finest kinds of the sweet
orange. The fruit of the first' has a loose rind, and it is
somewhat flattened at top and bottom. The outside rind
is frequently of a much darker colour than that of its
sweet relative. The leaves are used as an infusion for
various purposes, and frequently take the place of tea.
The rind is used for making preserves. The citrus
aurantium is the better known, and the king of them all
is the kind grown in Bahia, and called navel oranges in
England. This is the famous orange that has rendered
the California groves noteworthy, although in its Pacific
\ M

178 BRAZIL.
domicile the fruit has deteriorated. In 1907, the expor
tation of oranges of the above type was some half a
million, worth £"2,000, a mere bagatelle when one con
siders the possibilities of this trade, and the annual
consumption of England alone, amounting in 1904 to
£"2,500,000 for oranges and lemons. The mandarin or
tangerine orange, brought from China, is much grown in
Brazil, but the fruit is almost twice the size of that seen
in the London market. In 1907, 63^ tons were exported,
worth £"1,150.
The lime is grown in most of the states, and in favour
able situations attains a large size. I have eaten some
that were as large as the navel oranges, and were most
delicious. The Brazilian lemon is usually quite small, but very
juicy when in perfection. Its rind is thick and of a beau
tiful dark green colour when it is usually plucked for
maket. There are two other kinds of lemons besides the
citrus of commerce, one growing in a state of nature in
the woods. The other is called the sweet lemon, and is
obtained by grafting. Neither oranges, limes or lemons
are at all cheap in the more populous cities, if one con
siders the abundance produced. Like the quince in the
Republic of Uruguay, the fruit is often left on the trees
to spoil. Mamoeiro (Mamona).
The mamoeiro is a plant of 10 to 20 feet in height,
with a straight trunk. The fruit is large, oval, somewhat
pointed, and of a dark yellow colour when ripe. It is
much esteemed in Rio de Janeiro. In Para it attains an
immense size, weighing from 4 to 8£ lbs. This plant
cannot exist where frosts occur in the winter.
Mango. Grows luxuriantly in all the hotter parts of
Brazil, especially in Bahia and Pernambuco.

TROPICAL FRUITS. 179
Mangostao. Better suited to the West Indies than to
Brazil. It is stated that the State of Para is the only
one where this famous fruit can be grown.
Maracuja. Principally used for the purpose of making
refreshing drinks. It belongs to the passifloras, and is
distinctly a tropical fruit.
Sapoti. The fruit is of an earthy colour, oval shaped
and rather sweet.
Pitangueira. There are several of these belonging to
the myrtaceas, all bearing fruits of purple and yellow
hues. They are common to Brazil.
Toranjeira (citrus decumana). Used for the manufac
ture of preserves. Of less importance than it deserves,
and has had no attention paid to it.
The above represent a few of the numerous fruits
which have so many forms, colours and tastes. Most of
the purely Brazilian ones, it is safe to say, are entirely
unknown in England, and it is very difficult to persuade
a farmer to make any attempt to grow on a large scale,
much less get him to run the risk of sending a consign
ment to Europe at his own cost. His system of business
is exceedingly simple, i.e., to sell on the spot for cash,
and chance losing half the profit. Again, apart from
such staples as oranges, guavas, bananas and pineapples,
there are hardly any merchants or exporters who trouble
themselves about fruit. If they do, it is to supply the
markets of Monte Video, Buenos Aires, Rosario and
perhaps Chili. Acclimatised Fruits.
The European and Japanese plums have both been
tried in Brazil, and the latter adapts itself perfectly. Of
the varieties cultivated, and which produce magnificent
crops, we may cite —

180 BRAZIL.
Abundance (Douglas Babcock), burbank, and yellow
Japanese plums.
Damson. Like the oriental plum, this fruit does well
in Minas, Sao Paulo, Parana, etc.
Mulberry. Acclimatised perfectly, withstanding both
heat and cold. Not cultivated for the fruit, but for feed
ing silkworms.
Cherry (bigarreau), etc. Experimented with recently
in the southern states.
Fig. Universal and highly successful.
Raspberry. Does very well in the south.
Apple. Produced to perfection in selected soils in the
more temperate parts of Brazil.
Quince. Yields splendid crops. Is principally used
for the manufacture of jelly. A large quantity of the
preserve comes to Rio de Janeiro from the small towns,
high up in the Organ and Estrella Ranges in the same
state. Theresopolis, for example. No proper attention
is given to the cultivation of this fruit.
Strawberry. Fruits perfectly from Rio de Janeiro
south, but is quite inferior at present to the berry we
know and appreciate so well in England.
Nespereira (photinia japonica). This tree is im
properly termed the yellow plum in Brazil. An old
fashioned fruit, and rarely seen at home now, the medlar
is extremely common (or the Japanese variety is) in the
south, but usually does not bear very well owing to want
of proper cultivation.
Peach. Of the fruits introduced from abroad, the
peach has made itself more at home than any. Most of
the European varieties are grown with some success, but
the oriental fruit is not yet seen, except in the catalogue
of a professional grower of Pelotas (Rio Grande So Sui).

TROPICAL FRUITS. 181
Pear. Not very well adapted to Brazil, unless it is
the sand or Chinese pear.
Gooseberries and currants are, I believe, quite unknown
as yet in the country. Viticulture.
Grapes have been known in Brazil since early colonial
days, and the kind mostly grown are white muscatel,
lady's finger and ferrar. Amongst others introduced
more recently, the uva americana or isabella dates back
some 50 years.
In the States of Rio, S. Paulo, Parana, etc., from
October to April, the vine suffers from diseases en
gendered by the humidity, such as fungi. In spite of
this, here are found the finest sorts. An expert grape
cultivator (Dr. Fialho) near Petropolis has some hun
dreds of varieties growing, and exhibits the most magni
ficent bunches in the capital (3^ hours by rail and water).
Even in the City of Belem (Para) a vine exists which
produces -three crops annually, this is under adverse con
ditions, as it rains daily in that place.
In the valley of the River Sao Francisco the climate
is best adapted to grape culture, and particulars are given
in a Government report by Dr. Joao Silveira in 1906, of
the results obtained from 175 acres of alluvium. To a
depth of nearly 20 feet the soil is composed of sand,
mixed with clay and black earth, without stones or
foreign matter of any kind. The low lands of this area
are flooded from December to January for a distance of
1,300 yards. The climate is dry with not more than
12 or 14 heavy rains in the year (October to May). The
highest summer temperature is about 100 F., but the
nights are always agreeable. In the winter the highest
point reached by the mercury is 850 to 900 F., and the

1 82 BRAZIL.
lowest 45° to 50° F. Irrigation is carried out throughout
the dry season. The area is divided into two parts. The
first has 640 vines remaining from 1,000 originally
planted, and there are 150 varieties from the four conti
nents. The most delicate and finest European sorts give
three harvests annually, with a supply of 70 to 80 quarts
of water daily, and the ground is well manured. The
quantity of grapes produced under such conditions is
enormous. In the city (Joazeiro) one vine of three years
of age had 542 bunches. At the trial grounds, white
muscatels have weighed over 4 lbs. the bunch.
This experience has proved one of the most successful,
and has encouraged the Department of Agriculture
(Bahia) to further outlay. From this trial ground, slips
have been distributed all over the country (more than
34,000). The Agronomical Institute of Campinas (Sao
Paulo) has also sent out some 30 to 40,000 per year.
The state most occupied with the vine for wine making
is Rio Grande do Sui. Between 27° and 34° south the
climate is entirely suited to the vine, and corresponds
with southern Italy, except as far as the topography is
concerned. In this Brazilian state, the vine is not
attacked by its terrible enemy, phyloxera. Already
native wines have received high recognition (Milan exhi
bition) in spite of the competition of European growers
with long experience and great reputation. Most of the
vineyards belong to Italian colonists, and the harvests
are usually exceedingly good. The following are typical
results:— 1. t\ acres equal 7$ tons of grapes. 2. 2^ acres
equal 17^ tons of grapes. 3. (Caxias) 18 tons per hec
tare (-z\ acres), and Guapore and Bento Goncalves 25 tons
per i\ acres, average 11,480 litres of wine. In Portugal
the average yield is 1,870 litres; France 3,300 litres and
Chili 5,000 litre^. In Nova Trento a vine exists 17 years

TROPICAL FRUITS. 183
old, from which has been taken if tons of grapes, pro
ducing 792 litres of wine.
In Rio Grande grapes sometimes sell at 1 |d. per 1 1 lbs.,
and the wine is worth the same price for one-third dozen
bottles, retailing in Rio de Janeiro for 7^d. to is. a bottle
perhaps. In 1902, the entire export was 288,000 litres,
and in 1906, it rose to to 2,700,000 litres. It is stated
that the production, including local consumption totalled
10,000,000 litres the same year. The average per
centage of alcohol in these national wines is 7 to 13.
The proportion of acid o*866 to 0*1050. Those of
France are 0*28 per cent, to 39 per cent. The above
figures relate only to wine made from the grape. As
already mentioned, the pineapple, jaboticaba, cashew
and other fruits are extensively used for the purpose of
making wines.

BEE CULTURE.
The honey bee, as known to Europe, is not native to
any part of America. There are, however, some honey
producing bees, common to Brazil, and in particular one
stingless variety. The only apiculture practised in
Brazil is with the bees introduced from Europe. Most
of the states produce a good quantity of honey, especially
Rio de Janeiro. The largest colony is at Campos, and
consists of some 160 primitive hives composed of wooden
boxes measuring 24 by 12 inches, by 16 inches high.
The bees are of Italian origin, and are derived from some
imported in 1904. The honey is of excellent quality. In
1905, the exportation of this state was some 34f tons.
This culture is also carried on on a small scale in many
parts of Sao Paulo, and planters of vanilla are advised
to keep bees in order to artificially fertilise the female

1 84 BRAZIL.
flowers. Sao Paulo produced in 1903 some 31 tons of
honey, worth £"1,400, and 22^ tons of wax, valued at
£"2,400. The average price per kilogramme being —
honey 9d., and wax 2s. 6d. Prices in Minas Geraes are
somewhat higher, owing to limited output. Using the
most modern apparatus, in Parana, each hive yields
25 to 30 kilogrammes of honey, and from 1 to two kilo
grammes of wax per annum. In Rio Grande do Sui in
1905, 69 tons of honey were produced, worth nearly
£"7,000. The amount of wax totalled 41 tons. Most of
the honey sold is in a semi-liquid form and is retailed in
bottles and very frequently has an exceedingly suspicious
colour, as if treacle had been mixed with it. The princi
pal use of the wax is for church candles, and the amount
exported to Europe bears no comparison to that con
sumed in the country. Most of these products go to
Germany, and the figures for 1907 are —
Honey 7,124 kilogrammes value 6,357^000 paper
Wax 148,818 „ ,, 272,451 $000 ,,

SERICULTURE.
In spite of the climate of most parts of Brazil being
remarkably suitable to the silkworm, the above industry
is as yet in its infancy. As we have already seen, the
mulberry thrives splendidly, and neither it nor the silk
worm suffer in any degree worth noting from the diseases
so common in Europe. One of the principal reasons for
the non-development of sericulture, has been the great
cost of mounting factories capable of dealing with the
raw silk. In Petropolis, however, there are two mills;
one Italian and the other German. The climate of this
delightful little city (justly termed for its beauty A
Reina do Brasil) is so well suited tb the growth of the

TROPICAL FRUITS. 185
mulberry tree, that cocoons produced locally prove
superior to many foreign ones, not only in brilliant colour,
but also in elasticity of thread. The two Petropolis mills
consume 45 tons annually between them, but most of the
thread is imported. In Nova-Trento (Santa Catherina)
the whole municipality is inhabited by colonists from
Trent, in Austrian Italy, and most of the inhabitants are
engaged in silkworm culture, the proceeds being used by
two small factories belonging to a religious order
(Brazilian), where the nuns themselves are the actual
work-people. The first factory was started in 1900, and
the products obtained three gold medals at the St. Louis
exhibition. The annual output is now 3,000 yards of
silk, 216 scarves, and over 100 pairs of stockings. The
other factory is somewhat smaller, the production amount
ing to about £"i,8oo in value last year. Besides the above,
there are many hand looms scattered throughout the
country. In Rio Grande do Sui the industry is further
developed, two large and various small factories being
established, and in Minas Geraes, Barbacena is the seat
of this culture, already well advanced. The colony of
Rodrigo Silva, in the above municipality, produced
2,460 kilos of cocoons in 1905, and distributed no less
than 38,600 mulberry slips. The cocoons are generally
collected from August to September, September, October,
and November to December. 30 grammes of eggs pro
duce an average of 36,000 caterpillars, which consume
800 to 850 kilogrammes of fresh mulberry leaves to
produce from 50 to 70 kilos of cocoons, the silk being of
excellent quality, but somewhat coarse in thread. Bar
bacena is, it is worthy of note, some 3,400 feet above sea
level, and slight frosts are not at all uncommon in the
winter. Many other districts in this state are taking up
silkworm culture with success. In Sao Paulo a factory

1 86 BRAZIL.
has been started, and the silk produced took the first
prize at St. Louis, three medals at Rome, and one at
Milan, besides others at Campinas and Sao Paulo city.
The following figures illustrate the profits to be obtained
from this industry in Brazil, even under present condi
tions. expenses.
30 grammes of eggs  9$>5oo
Mulberry leaves  20$ooo
Labour, etc  65$ooo
Result, say 60 kilos of cocoons, worth 240^000.
16 milreis equals £"1.
Profit i45$5oo. This is the result of 30 days' work
only, utilizing the services of women and children.
From these figures one may easily calculate the profit to
be obtained from an outlay of, say £"1,000. It must be
remembered that the duty on imported manufactured
material is enormous. Notes just to hand from Minas
Geraes inform me that the Government of this state has
decided to open the following credit for three prizes :
(1) 10 contos of reis (£^625) being 1/3 per kilo to those
producing 10,000 kilogrammes of cocoons. (2) £"312 ios.
to the planter with at least 2,000 mulberry trees properly
cultivated ; and (3) 45 contos of reis, equals £"2,722 10s.,
to the two first factories possessing modern machinery,
employed in the weaving of silk, produced from national
cocoons. Enough has been said to show the prospects
open to any intelligent capitalist in Brazil.

CHAPTER XVII.
The Pastoral Industry.
With regard to pastoral conditions, Brazil must be
divided into three zones, i.e., tropical, semi-tropical, and
temperate. The first is naturally the north ; the second
the central territory; and the third, the whole of the
south. Before dealing with the stock it will be necessary
for the benefit of practical farmers to consider the grasses.
Root grass. Not exceeding 10 to 12 inches in height,
always green, and springing up as if by enchantment,
after being cropped quite close by thousands of beasts.
The local cowboys say that it contains sufficient salt,
impelling the cattle to drink. The grass is found from
Goyaz to the Araguaza and Tocantins. '
Capim branco (white grass), considered to be andro-
pogon glausens. There are two or three kinds of this
graminea, and they are found in patches amongst the
first named grass, but are not so resistent.
Mimoso. Grows along the central part of the Sao
Franciso River.
Marmelade grass. A giant reaching 16 to 17 feet high,
peculiar to the lower parts of the Araguaya.
Rice grass. On the margin of the rivers generally.
Beach grass (panicum fistolarum). The principal
green food of stock in Matto Grosso.
Capim gordura (tristegis glutinosa). The commonest
in Brazil, growing wild everywhere.
M. L. Glaziou collected, in a short time, no less
than 155 new varieties of gramineas on the central

1 88 BRAZIL.
plateaux of Brazil. It is impossible 'to enumerate the
names of a tenth part of the plants suitable for forage,
and, if it were, undoubtedly their names would be
entirely unknown to the general reader. Suffice it to say
that there is no lack anywhere, neither of food nor water,
and the latter is abounding, and as pure as virgin snow.
Stock.
In Rio Grande do Sui there are reckoned to be, at the
time of writing, 4,300,000 oxen, besides 2,000,000 just
over the boundary line in Uruguay, but belonging to
Rio Grande stock raisers. Calculating the population of
Brazil as 20,000,000, the consumption, per annum, should
be about 12,000,000 bovines, and in live stock in all, some
30,000,000. In Rio de Janeiro the average amount of
beef eaten, per inhabitant, is 22 kilos. In the State of
Minas there are more than 100 butter and cheese factories,
producing merchandise to the value of 6,000 contos,
equal to £"370,000. The exportation of butter from Santa
Catherina, in 1907, was 667f tons. The Brazilian oxen,
derived from the primitive and isolated herds, probably
natural to the country, are quite small, weighing on an
average not more than 400 lbs. when dressed. These
animals are noteworthy for their immense horns, one pre
served having a capacity of five or six quarts. In Goyaz,
and adjoining states, a variety of cows called mocha, is
much esteemed, and is considered, locall}-, equal or
superior to any of the imported stock. The zebu has
been introduced with great success, and in the north the
Malabar is found widely spread. Recently Durham,
Jersey, and Herefords have been brought over, as well as
various specimens of the simmonthal (a Swiss type).
Apart from Rio Grande do Sui, the Brazilian states
employ the most primitive methods of stock raising, the

THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 189
herdsmen limiting themselves to visiting the pastures
now and then, and somewhat more frequently at breeding
time, when the calves are immediately separated from
the cows, and shut up in corrals, where they are allowed
to feed twice daily, morning and evening, when the cows
return voluntarily to the enclosures. The cowboys of
the great plains of Goyaz, Matto Grosso, and other
central states, are dressed entirely in leather from head
to feet. They are usually paid by a fourth or fifth part
of the production. Each stock-raising district of Brazil
has its own dress and customs, and technical language.
In the north the oxen are either seized by the tail or
lassoed. In Rio Grande the cowboys use the bolas. In
the same state the Argentine-Uruguayan term of estancia
is employed, instead of the Portuguese word fazenda, used
in the other parts of Brazil. The animals are usually
marked by cutting their ears in a distinctive form.
Where it is necessary to give salt this is done in January,
May, and September, in the proportion of one sack to
70 oxen. The drover, who is accustomed to complain of
travelling 10 or 15 miles, with a few beasts over good
roads in England, would, doubtless, open his mouth at
the thought of a hard journey, varying from 450 to 600
or more miles, with hundreds of wild oxen, many of
them laden with stores. From Matto Grosso to the
south of Minas Geraes is 1,050 miles, and the whole of
this distance is annually travelled by many indefatigable
horsemen. Of the most noteworthy drovers in the cattle
zone is a priest, and the good father shuts up his church
regularly at the proper season, to go to market with a
goodly number of long-horned quadrupeds. A case of
a shepherd who pays more attention to oxen than to
sheep. It may not be irreverent to mention here another
reverend (an Italian) who was glad to sell matches in the

190 BRAZIL.
Rio streets for a living, and who declared it was better
than preaching, from a financial point of view. It is not
only the vast distances traversed that render the drover's
life an onerous one. Sometimes at dead of night the cry
of a panther in the woods will suffice to stampede a
thousand head. The noise en route of the clashing horns
of the beasts can be heard for leagues, and resembles
a distant clap of thunder. As the only time possible to
drive the stock is the rainy season, the camping grounds
become quagmires, with the animals breast deep in mud.
The average number of oxen in a drove is from one to
two thousand, and this frequently represents the whole
capital and credit of the drover.
Sometimes the owner loses the whole herd before
reaching his destination. The animals are emaciated
living skeletons, on arriving at the resting and fattening
place, where they remain 8 to 12 months. From Barreto
(Minas) they are sent to Sao Paulo on foot, or by water
if destined for the Federal Capital (Rio Janeiro). In
Matto Grosso an animal two years old is worth from £"1
to £*2, four years old, £"2 ios. to £"3. For a saddle or
draught ox, from £"3 to £"5 ios. In Goyaz an ox, more
than five years old, is valued at £"2 to £"6 5s., according
to the number of heads available. In Piauhy the top
price is £"1 5s. The cost of a journey of some two or
three months is about £"1 per head. The most important
cattle fairs are, Tres Coracoes (Rio Verde), Bemfica,
near Juiz de Fora (Minas), Sitio (Minas). The whole of
the stock sold at these fairs is destined for the municipal
slaughter-house of Rio de Janeiro, at Santa Cruz, where,
in spite of the immense population it has to supply, not
more than 400 beasts are killed daily. The reason of
this is the entire want of cold storage. In Rio Grande
do Sui there are 21 factories for the preparation of

THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 191
xarque (charque) or pemmican, or jerked beef, known
in Brazilian shops as carne secca (dried beef). Brazil
consumes 80 per cent, of the world's production of this
meat. Fortunately the importation is decreasing, and no
doubt the consumption of this frequently unpalatable
article will be gradually reduced to a very low amount.
Each ox gives 75 kilos of meat, worth 380 reis a kilo,
25 to 30 kilos of hide, at 660 reis a kilo, 22 kilos of fat
at 300 reis. 40 quarts of salt are used in the preparation
of each lot of flesh. In Matto Grosso there is a large
extract of meat factory, owned by a Belgian company,
and 60,000 oxen are slaughtered annually. In Rio
Grande there are also several small preserved meat
factories, and one large cannery, which is also the most
important biscuit factory in Brazil (Leal Santos and Co.),
in Rio Grande.
Horses.
The principal credit for scientific study of the pastoral
industry belongs certainly to the State of Sao Paulo.
This state has now taken in hand the improvement of
the national race of horses (which is undoubtedly Arab,
or a degenerated variety of this famous breed). In some
parts there are Russians and Anglo-Normans, some
worth £"62 ios., when broken in. In Minas there exists
a good stock, derived from Arab stallions and national
mares. In the northern pastoral zones there is a race
of horses capable of covering 60 miles daily. The
Brazilian horses are not, as a rule, large, but they are
very wiry. By the initiative of the present Minister of
War, the Brazilian cavalry is being remounted with
national equines, the regulation demanding 1 metre, 48
centimetres in height (about 14$ hands), and no difficulty
is experienced in getting animals over this size.

192 BRAZIL.
Mules and Asses-.
The bulk of the carrying trade in Brazil rests on the
backs of the former of those two useful animals, and no
others have been so despised and ill-cared for. They are
distorted in the legs, and this is attributed by the breeders,
to the insufficiency of lime in the pastures. The only
states that have devoted any attention to the raising of
this kind of stock are Grande do Sui, Parana, Sao Paulo,
Minas Geraes, Goyaz, and Bahia, the penultimate state
exporting mules to Bolivia. The greater proportion of
the animals in use in the Republic, are, however,
imported from the Argentine Republic. Whatever pro
gress has been made in recent years is principally due,
not to the breeders themselves, but to the efforts made
by the Governments of such up-to-date states as Sao
Paulo, Parana, Minas Geraes, etc.
Sheep.
We must turn again to the Paulistas, if we wish to
see what has been accomplished in the way of sheep
breeding. Amongst these enlightened farmers one may
come across splendid specimens of the Oxford, South
down, Hampshire, and Rambouillet sheep. In Rio
Grande the Southdown, known locally as black face
(cara negra) is preferred, and the wool produced is abun
dant and fine. Not only the south, but as an illustrious
Brazilian, Dr. Assis Brasil, says, the plateau of Parana,
Santa Catherina, and Rio Grande, with an average of
2,000 feet elevation, is well suited to the sheep, more,
perhaps, than even Argentina or Australia. How much
more, then, central Brazil, with 3,300 to 4,000 feet of
altitude, and the most delicious climate in the world. In
Goyaz experiments have proved that the sheep is entirely
adapted to this zone.

A Male deposit, Parana.

A Coffee Plantation, Sao Paulo.

The Docks, Santos — Loading Coffee.
(Each bag weighs about 130 lbs.)

Morro Velho Gold Mine, Minas Geraes.

THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. 193
Goats.
Here we find the beast who (as in Europe) will get
a living where any other will starve. Where the
Cearense has to emigrate, sometimes owing to the
drought, his goat finds ample subsistence, and this state
(Ceara) exported in 1906 more than 400 tons of skins,
worth 1,500 contos of reis. In Piauhy a splendid milch
goat is found, of a remarkable size, and all over the
northern hills, from Maranhao to Bahia, hardly a
family exists without possessing a herd. The cost of
their keep is less than that of any other kind of stock,
and the pecuniary results are almost immediate. One
may say that this animal is found everywhere in Brazil,
especially where others cannot be profitably raised,
amongst a vegetation composed of cacti and agaves of
of every kind, the most spinous sorts naturally predomi
nating. It is said that the goat can pass months without
needing water, and furnishing milk all the time.
Swine.
Introduced soon after the discovery of Brazil, the
Portuguese types still preserve their distinguishing
marks. One kind is an enormous beast, nearly 6 feet in
length, thick-skinned, short legged and snouted. It is
known by the name canastiao (big basket). Most
English pigs are now found, as the Yorkshire, Berkshire,
Hampshire, and Leicester, as well as others from Italy,
Poland, etc. The food given to these animals, all over
Brazil, consists of maize, mandioca, pumpkins, skimmed
milk, etc., and as our hogs are let loose in the woods to
eat the acorns, so their Brazilian brothers fatten on the
fruit of the native pine, Araucaria Brasiliensis. The
State of Rio Grande do Sui is the centre of the lard
trade, having 1 1 factories, supplied with some 8,500 tons

194 BRAZIL.
of fat. Minas, Santa Catherina, Goyaz, and Rio Janeiro
are other pig breeding states. Bacon, such as we know,
is not cured, and a Portuguese once asked me what was
that meat, with a piece of lean and a piece Of fat,
alternately, that they gave' him for breakfast on the Royal
Mail steamer. Brazilian bacon (toucinho) is nothing.
but a great mass of fat, three or four inches thick, with
quite an unappetising look. To sum up, Amazonas is
suited to oxen, but not to goats or pigs. Para is, more
or less, in the same conditions, and all the other states .
are well adapted to the introduction of almost any stock.
Rio produced, in 1906, no less than 3,707 tons of milk,
and 61 tons of cheese. Petropolis district being one of
the richest. Santa Catherina, in 1905, already made
419 tons of butter, and Minas Geraes exported (princi
pally to Rio) in 1907, 5,100 tons of milk, 4,635 tons of
cheese, and 1,420 tons of butter, nearly all of this passing
over one line of rails (The Central). All the milk was
used in the Capital of the Republic. The total value of
products of the pastoral industry, in this state, amounted
to £"2,891,599 in 1904, and has, undoubtedly, very much
increased since then.
A great feature of Rio now is the dairies, where one
may sit (as in a cafe), and drink milk, hot or cold, at
about i£d. a glass.

CHAPTER XVIII.
Geology and Mineralogy.
This section has been left almost to the last, the writer
sacrificing his predilections to a sense of the relative im
portance of the subject. It is, however, a very fascinat
ing one, and pity it is that it cannot be dealt with here in
a more adequate manner. If we glance at the map of
Brazil we find the whole country cut up as it were by
great rivers, their basins being divided by long ranges of
mountains, from 4 to 7,000 feet in altitude, and with a
general trend north and south, except in what is known
as the central plateau, where the serras run in all direc
tions, having their meeting point where the head waters
of the Parana and the great affluents of the Amazon, the
Tocantins and Araguaya, and the Sao Francisco are not
far distant from each other (as distance goes in Brazil).
This latter river flows through a broad valley, with table
land bluffs frequently 20 to 30 miles distant from its
banks. It forms for three-quarters of its course the
western boundary of the high lands, extending almost
from the coast in two or three distinct ranges. In study
ing the geology of Brazil, we shall find, as far as its
economic aspect is concerned, that this river plays (and
will more) a very distinct part. The Guianas are entirely
separated from the main ranges of Brazilian mountains,
and this latter constitutes almost the whole of the con
tinental highlands east of the Andean system. The mean
elevation of the Brazilian massif is some 3,000 feet, and
Itatiaia reaches over 9,000 feet. The range that is
visible all along the coast from Pernambuco to Rio

196 BRAZIL.
Grande do Sui is of composite character, mainly being
constituted of gneiss, and other forms of granitic rocks.
Itatiaia being largely hornblende, and Tingua (near Rio)
said to possess rock formations peculiar to itself, includ
ing crystalline nodules called tinguaote, or tinquaite, to
adopt an orthodox mineralogical termination.
Although this broken range contains some minerals,
south of the Parahyba river, where it begins to pile up
its highest masses ; there is probably little of value, as
we generally find that rocks of a distinct character such
as granite undecomposed, are not productive of much
mineral riches, unless quartz is a predominant factor. In
reality this lower section of the coastal range, and known
as the Serra do Mar, Organs, Estrella, etc., with a
south-westerly tendency to the frontier of Sao Paulo, is
a distinct mass or series of masses. Seen from the
highest point of the spur near Petropolis, at over 7,000
feet, one has a clear view of hundreds of peaks all over
the state, and can form a faint idea of the immensity of
the mountain system of the country. Speaking broadly
then, we will say that the geological formation of the
whole of the State of Rio is more or less the same.
Once across the Parahyba (or upper Tiete, in Sao Paulo
State) we, after descending to 1,500 or 1,800 feet, rise
again at the Serra da Mantiqueira, reaching a culmina-
tory point (by rail) close to the City of Barbacena.
Beyond the limit of the valleys of these two rivers, the
coastal range comes in close contact with the Serra da
Mantiqueira, and with other and less well defined ridges.
In the section confronting the Parahyba river, this Serra
attains its highest mean level of some 6,500 feet, and
where the coast range approximates closely to it, we
find Italiaia or at the bottom of an elongated V. This
mountain contains besides granite, gneiss hornblende,

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 197
syenites, tuffs and phonolites, characterising ancient
volcanic centres.
The third principal range of mountains, known as the
Espinhaco (backbone), becomes detached from the Serra
da Mantiquiera in eastern Minas Geraes, and taking a
northerly course, forms the eastern rim of the Sao
Francisco basin. We have noted the course of the first
two ranges, i.e., south-west and south-west, terminating
with easterly and westerly spurs, the former marking the
culminating point of Brazil.
The Espinhaco is noteworthy for the fact that the
older crystalline rocks, gneiss and granite, are subordin
ate to a series of ancient metamorphic schists, quartzites
and limestones, and to a newer series of sandstones, and
conglomerates. The older crystalline and metamorphic
rocks are sharply folded, and the newer series rests un-
conformably in gentler folds on their upturned edges,
forming the peaks most predominant in the Espinhaijo,
reaching 6,000 to 7,000 feet. The metamorphic schists
are rich in iron, manganese and gold ores, whilst the
sandstone series is frequently diamondiferous. This
itacolumite (or flexible sandstone) is characteristic of
the districts of Diamantina, Grao Mogul and Minas
Novas in the State of Minas Geraes, and of the districts
of Sincora and Lenijoes in Bahia. In the south, in
Santa Catherina and some part of the Rio Grande, we
find the carboniferous beds, and in Parana, high sedi
mentary plains. The central massif is not as yet pro
perly surveyed, whatever knowledge of it possessed,
being limited to the immediate vicinity of the great
rivers. The coffee zones of S. Paulo, Minas and Rio de
Janeiro are characterised by a red earth derived from
diabase types of rocks of eruptive origin. The plains in
the region of the upper Sao Francisco consist principally

198 BRAZIL.
of sandstones and shales. From the Doce river (Espirito
Santo) north, with occasional interruptions of the older
rocks at Ilheos (Bahia), etc., we find a narrow strip of
elevated sedimentary beds, as far as the mouth of the
Amazon. The mean elevation of these hills is about
300 feet, and their highest point may attain 900 feet.
For economical purposes we must limit ourselves as far
as the present work is concerned to certain more or less
well defined areas in the states of Minas, Goyaz, Matto
Grosso and Bahia, and to the known occurrence of
minerals in other states in isolated localities. The pro
fitable working of such deposits (probably the richest in
Brazil) as lie outside this region, is a question of the
future, when means of communication are better than
they are at present.
Mineral Deposits and Minerals.
In place of writing a long detailed description of the
mineral resources of each state, an index of minerals
with their mode of occurrence where possible, and
localities is found below, and it will be found of far
more practical use than generalising.
Agates. The best are found in Rio Grande do Sui, as
rounded pebbles in the rivers. Every variety is en
countered, including beautiful crocidolite (tiger eye),
carnelians of the deepest hues, and onyx and sardonyx
in abundance.
Amethysts. Found in many states, even within a few
miles of Rio de Janeiro, in the decomposed rocks of
granite base. Principally found in Bahia, Minas, Minas
Novas and Rio Grande do Sui, where the great Drusy
cavity was found by German agate seekers, 15 tons were
taken out and exhibited at Dusseldorff in 1902, the
crystals were an inch long, and of the finest violet

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 199
colour. This mass was found in 'the coastal range, at
2,000 feet above sea level. Amethysts are sometimes
picked up at the mouth of rivers in Rio and Sao Paulo
States, and a block was sent from Brazil to Calcutta
which weighed 98 lbs. Amethysts have been found half
violet half yellow.
Aquamarine (or blue beryl). Found in veins of
coarse grained granite, penetrating gneiss at Vallongo
near Rio de Janeiro. Abundant in some parts of the
Arassuahy river and tributaries (N.E. Minas), where
green specimens are found, rivalling the finest emeralds.
The great centre is Minas Novas.
Asbestos. Very fine qualities found in many states.
The best known locality is Taquaral (Ouro Preto) Minas
Geraes. Beryl {see Aquamarine). The best are found in the
river beds in Minas, especially in the Arassuahy district.
A blue one was found weighing 2 lbs., and a greenish-
blue acquamarine of 15 lbs., and another of 13 lbs.
Beryls are found of all possible colours, some perfectly
colourless. ,.
Chrysoberyl. Yellow-green to golden-yellow ; princi
pally in the Minas Novas district. Found in pebbles
not larger than a bean, in auriferous clay or gravel,
derived from weathered rocks, mostly in the Rivers
Piauhy and Calhao.
Copper. In Rio Grande do Sui (Camaquam). Bahia
(vicinity of Sao Francisco river) Maranhao, Ceara (in
Minas de Pedra Verde), Santa Catherina, etc.
Chrome. Found in micaceous rocks at Congonhas do
Campo, Ouro Preto (Minas).
Diamonds. Usually found in the river gravels in
Minas Geraes (Abaete, Bagagem, Cocaes, Diamantina
and Grao Mogul), and in Bahia in the Sincora and

200 BRAZIL.
Lencoes district, and at Salobro (46 kilometres from
Cannaveiras in a low-lying land) two feet below a white
clay decomposing soil, also in the Itapicuru river. In
Sao Paulo in the rivers flowing into the Parana, and in
the State of Parana associated with gold in the Yapo
and Pitangru rivers (tributaries of the River Tibagy) in
the Campos de Guarapuavas.
Also in Goyaz and Matto.Grosso, nearly always with
gold and other valuable minerals.
The most famous Brazilian diamonds are —
The Estrella do Sui (Bagagem) 254 carats.
The Dresden ... ... ... 177 ,,
. Coroa de Portugal  120 „
One found last year (1908), at Dos Dourados (Minas),
weighed nearly 18 ounces, and was of the first water.
Boart and carbonates are principally from the Para-
guassu river and tributaries, Joao Amaro to source, in the
Chapada Diamantina (Lencoes and Sincora district of
Bahia). Emery. In Sao Paulo, not more than 35 miles from
the city of that name. The locality is called Matto do
Paiol, and is reached by the Sorocabana railway. The
matrix is a micaeous clayey schist iu advanced decom
position, and surrounded by granitic and calcareous
rocks. The mass contains at least 70 per cent, of grey-
blue mineral, in lenticular blocks, some of which are
more than two yards cubical.
Euclase. This rare gem is found at Boa Vista (near
Ouro Preto), and at Minas Novas (Minas Geraes).
Coal. The total thickness of the narrow veins of coal
found at Tubera in Santa Catherina is about 10 feet.
Its character is midway between lignite and ordinary
bituminous coal.
In Parana there are small deposits, but of little com-

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 201
mercial value. The Santa Catherina coal is suitable for
making briquettes and in part (perhaps more than half),
may be used in the ordinary way, containing as it does
less than 10 per cent, of ashes. This applies also to that
from Rio Grande do Sui, a continuation in reality of the
same seams.
Bismuth and Antimony. Bismuth is found in contact
with gold at Forquim, and in Passagem de Marianna
(Minas). Antimony in native state has been discovered
in the valley of Itapirapuam in Sao Paulo. Stibnite is
found in the auriferous deposits at Caethe and near the
peak of Itabira do Campa.
Nickel.
Found in Santa Catherina. Gold.
Until the nineteeth century gold was the principal and
almost the only mineral mined in Brazil. Minas Geraes
is the most important centre of the industry, although
this state has been pretty well exploited. The principal
mines in operation are those of Morro Velho (the deepest
in South America, 4,250 feet), and Passagem (Marianna).
The Morro Velho mine yields £"25,000 of gold monthly,
and the expenses are some £"12,000. It is difficult to
point to any particular locality as being worth prospect
ing, as the whole of the Espinhaco and its off-shoots
•is auriferous. Possibly the most promising speculation
being placer mining by means of dredgers, and hydraulic
sluicing of the high banks of gravel left by the
old miners in many places. The River Doce (upper por
tion), Rio de Contas, Pardo, Paraguassu and Itapicuru,
all falling into the sea between Espirito Santo and the
Sao Francisco, are undoubtedly worth trying, as well as
many of their tributaries. This applies to many rivers

2oa BRAZIL.
in Goyaz and Matto Grosso, and to diamonds as well as
gold. The minerals usually associated with gold and
diamonds in the deeper gravels, as yet entirely untouched,
are porphryies, chalcedony pebbles, black tourmalins,
rutile, hoematite, magnetite, emery, etc.
In spite of nearly 350 years of mining, hardly a month
passes without some new find. At Montes Claros quite
recently some nuggets were discovered weighing from
1 oz. to i£ lbs. The latter was sold locally for £"80 15s.
Garnet. Found in quartzose rocks, and in gneiss in
Brazil, in almost all the states. Was formerly to be dis
covered on the beach quite close to Rio de Janeiro.
Minas is the richest state in this crystal. At Minas
Novas it is found in company with andalusite, cordierite,
pink quartz and blue and white topaz, aquamarine
amethysts and spinels (red and blue).
Hyacinth. (Really rubicelle), found at Minas Novas
of a reddish-yellow tint.
Graphite. Abundant in Minas (near Ouro Preto)
Marianna, Santa Barbara, etc. Found near the Jequi-
tinhona river in veins varying from 19 to 40 inches thick,
some masses weighing several hundred pounds. The
percentage of carbon in this deposit varies from 50 per
cent, to 85 per cent. Not worked at time of writing
(December, 1908). Palladium.
Encountered in the celebrated Gongo Socco mine, in
oligiste (iron ore) rocks.
Iron and Manganese.
Iron is everywhere in Brazil. Near Itabira, in Minas,
it forms veritable mountains of oligiste and hoematite.
Not worth while considering here, as it would take many
pages merely to enumerate the localities where it exists

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 203
in workable quantities. Samples before me as I write
present the appearance of pure metal, and contain not
less than 90 per cent, of oxide. Manganese ores in
Brazil average 45 per cent, of mineral of commercial
value, but they are remarkably free from sulphur and
phosphorous. Exportation reached the amount of
220,021 tons in 1907. There are two important mines
now being worked, one near Queluz having a reserve of
at least five million tons.
As freights are now, the expense of putting a ton on
the European market amounts to about £"2, and strong
efforts are being made to induce the Central railway to
lower its tariff 2s. 6d. per ton. An electric furnace has
now been established at Government expense in Minas,
for the purpose of treating the itabirites (iron ores).
The cost was nearly £"4,000.
Monazitic Sands.
These extend from the south of Bahia to Espirito
Santo, and the whole of the ¦ exportation is in the hands
of two contractors Mr. John Gordon, working the Prado
deposit, and Herr Jsraelson (representative of a German
house) with -locations near by. Between these two con
cessions there are, however, other deposits as yet un-
worked. In 1907, the first shipped to Hamburg 7,515
tons, and the second 9,075 tons. There is a working
agreement between the two, to fix the price at £"5 15s.
per cent, of oxide of thorium, and to divide sales.
Thus the value per ton of sand is ^,28 15s. The stock
in hand is, however, in excess of the present annual
requirements. Marble. Splended variegated and pure white marbles
are found in many places in western Minas Geraes, and in
Rio, Sao Paulo and other states small deposits are found.

204 BRAZIL.
Ochre. Red and yellow ochre is found abundantly
near Ouro Preto, St. Joao de El'Rey, St. Jose de El'Rey
and Prados, and most of the material extracted is used
in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo by local paint works.
Spinel and Balas Rubies. In the sands of the River
Piuna (in Espirito Santo) many beautiful stones are
found, frequently of a large size and perfect crystals.
They are found also in the Paragussu river near
Machado Portella, accompanied by monazite and other
minerals. Sapphires.
In the sands of the River Doce, and in those of the
Sapucahy-Mirim sapphires are found, and also in the
diamondiferous sands of Salobro (Bahia), and in other
rivers in the same vicinity. Platinium.
Found in small quantities in many rivers of Matto
Gross, Pernambuco, Minas, and Parahyba do Norte.
In Minas Geraes it has been noted in the Abaete, and its
affluents, and in the district of Marianna.
Lead.
In Minas, galena is found in calcareos, or in quartz
veins, and is almost always argentiferous. It occurs
near Diamantina, Caeth6, and Sete Lag6as, and Montes
Claros, and in Abaete. This latter deposit has been
tested, and gave 40*25 per cent, of lead, with about 6 ozs.
of silver, to 200 lbs. of metal. The richest sample yield
ing 8 \ ozs. of silver, per 100 kilogrammes. It is also
found in the State of Sao Paulo, in small quantities.
Mercury. Cinnabar is found near Ouro Preto, at
Tripuhy, in masses, more or less crystalised.
Tin. Cassiterite is common in rolled fragments, in

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 205
many rivers in Minas, in company with tourmalines,
especially in the district of Salinas.
Zinc. Sulphuret (or blende) in the granitic rocks of
Parahybuna, and also with argentiferous galena in
Abaete.
Wolfram.
Encountered in Rio Grande do Sui, in the municipality
of Encrusilhada. The veins are of quartz, from 12 to
20 inches thick. In the same veins are found copper
sulphide, and monazite in the streams. The proportion
of acid is 40 per cent. Tourmalines.
Green tourmalines have been found in the Riberirao
da Tolha, near the Chapada Diamantina, and fine blue,
yellow, white, and pink gems are found at Minas Novas.
All the north-east of Minas is noteworthy for the
abundance of this crystal. A green one found at Laran
geiras weighed almost a pound. ' Some are picked up with
green ends and pink centres. Topaz.
The yellow topaz is principally discovered in a short
range of hills close to Ouro Preto, in itacolumite and
clay-slate (killas), penetrated by decomposed schists
and quartz veins. It is also to be found in Rio Grande
do Sui. The pink and yellow variety is rare, and at
Minas Novas the white kind, called by the name of the
locality, or when rolled, pingos d' agua (drops of water).
This stone is called, in Ceylon, matura roses, when cut
rose fashion. At this place is also found the valuable
indigo coloured topaz. Rock Crystal.
Common in most of the states. In Minas it is abun-

206 BRAZIL.
dant in Congonhas do Campo. The finest and clearest
is found, however, in the Serra dos Crystaes, close to the
Goyaz boundary. Most of the exportation is by the
city of Uberaba. Sete Lagoas and other places send
small quantities to Rio de Janeiro.
Sulphur. Rio Grande do Norte (at Curraes Novos)
is the only state where this mineral is found in any pro
fusion. Peat and brown coal (lignite). The first is abundant
at Camamu, on the Marahu river (116 miles S.S.E. of
Bahia). It is calculated that 400 kilos of combustible
oil can be obtained from each ton of this deposit. There
are two great fields of lignite in Minas, one at Gandarella,
and the other in the basin of Fonseca.
The basin of Gandarella is ten leagues from Ouro
Preto, and six from the station of Raposas (Central rail
way). The thickness of the mineral is about 18 feet,
and it contains 40 per cent, of volatile matter, and 48 per
cent, of fixed carbon. 100 kilos produce 22 cubic metres
of gas. The second deposit named has never been pro
perly examined, but its richness is somewhat less, having
almost 18 per cent, of ashes.
Talc (or soap stone). Common in Ouro Preto, Santa
Barbara, Marianna, etc. Many Brazilian churches have
fonts and other ornamental vessels, and parts of their
structure made of this stone, which is of an excellent
variety. Mica. Found all over Brazil. Goyaz produces the
best quality, but mines exist in the State of Rio de
Janeiro. The main difficulty in Brazil is the decomposi
tion of the rocks, entailing cutting out to immense
depths. Amongst the precious stones, not as yet encountered
in Brazil, must be enumerated the emerald, ruby,

GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 207
alexandrite, moonstones, opals, torquoises, demantoid
(green garnets), and some varieties ofthe sapphire.
Advices to hand from Bello Horizonte claim that a
new and rich gold field has been found at' Olho d6 Agua,
eight kilometres from Montes Claros (in Minas), and that
the precious metal has been discovered to the value of
£"30,000. No fewer than 3,000 prospectors have left for
the locality. Many recent finds of fine diamonds have
been made, including one close to the habitation of a
poor woman, who had no conception of its value.
Bismuth has been found at Campo Alegre, in Minas
also.
General Remarks.
Enough has been said to show that there is a good
opening for Brazil in the diamond mining districts.
Only a very small portion of the alluvium has been
explored. Most of the river gravels (untouched at 20 to
50 feet below the surface of the water) contain enough
gold to pay for dredging. One dredge, started in the
Diamantina district, digs to a depth of 50 feet, and the
buckets are able to cut into the bed rock (a soft sand
stone) to four or five feet. The expense of running is
£b daily, handing 1,000 yards of gravel. Quoting from
the statement of the operators, the affair is a great
success. With regard to the new law of Bahia, the
proprietor of mineral lands is obliged to work them, or
submit to Government arbitration, with regard to their
sale. No license is required to prospect with movable
plant, and concessions may be readily obtained of reaches
of public rivers, up to 50 kilometres. All diamondi
ferous soil being state property, no litigation can arise
through the question of ownership. A license for placer
work costs a few milreis only. To quote the British
Consul at Bahia, the new regulations are well calculated

208 BRAZIL.
to encourage exploitation of this, the richest zone in
Brazil. The laws seem to have been based on the best
features of those elsewhere. The taxes payable are from
\% to 100/0. In the case of monazitic sands they are
very heavy, but the profits afford sufficient recompense
for this impost. To sum up, most of the abandoned
properties were discarded for want of sufficient capital,
or were failures through bad management. Legislation
has been effected to protect prospectors, and to guarantee
to them the result of their labour. The climate is excel
lent, and quite suited to northern Europeans. Registra
tion and survey is obligatory, and no one can now pretend
to ownership of a claim who is not possessed of properly
stamped documents.
There are (1909) some 66 British Mining Companies
owning properties in Brazil, and the capital involved
amounts to over £"8,000,000.

CHAPTER XIX

Thermal Springs and Tourist Resorts.

Para. Near the City of Monte Algere there are hot
sulphur springs that have never been analysed or tapped.
Parahyba do Norte. At St. Joao do Rio do Peixe
analysis has been taken of some waters lightly sulphurous,
and with a temperature varying from 21*5 to 32*2 centi
grade. Ceara. Close to Tamboril there are acidified crystal
line springs entirely unused. Another in the vicinity of
Santa Quiteria has a temperature of 35° cent. The most
important springs are at Coldas.
Pernambuco. Mineral waters are found at Pajehii de
Flores. Bahia. Close to Itapicurii, 220 kilometres from the
capital of the state, there are thermal springs, with a
temperature of 39° centigrade. They contain chloride
of sodium, lime and magnesia, sulphate of soda and
bicarbonate of soda, carbonate of lime and magnesia.
Four parts out of five are of the first named. There are
seven other hot springs of a similar nature in the vicinity
of the above.
Rio de Janeiro. In Parahyba do Sui there is a mineral
spring, classified between bicarbonates and ferruginous
effervescent types. It is a proto-thermal fountain. It is
under the name of Salutaris, and is prescribed by . the
local doctors for anaemia, dyspepsia, and female irregulari-

210 BRAZIL.
ties. In six years 49,307 boxes, of 48 small bottles, were
sold in different parts of Brazil. In Santa Rita (Mage)
there is a spring of water, very good indeed for affections
of the liver and stomach. Of this, in the first three
months of 1907, 43,930 bottles were sold.
Federal district (municipality, etc, of the capital of
the Republic). Formerly there were many ferruginous.
springs (chalybites) in Cosme Velho, Theresa, Tijuca
and Boa Vista da Gavea, but the growth of the city has,
so to speak, swallowed them up.
Sao Paulo. In Tatuhy a spring furnishes 3,000 quarts
in 24 hours. It is largely impregnated with carbonic
acid and gas. In Santos there are several mineral
springs, and in Campinas six of gaseous nature, as well
as others in different parts of the state, as Leme, Rocinha,
Mogy-Guassu. Parana. The hot springs of Xapeco are of sulphurous
nature, and are mostly used for affections of the skin.
Santa Catherina. In this state at Pedras Grandes
(Tubarao) there are waters with a temperature of 410
centigrade, and very valuable in cases of rheumatics, and
contagious skin complaints. There are three other
springs of a similar nature in the same state.
Rio Grande do Sui. The principal spring is at S.
Gabriel, and consist of carbonates and ioduretes of iron.
Four parts out of seven are ferruginous.
Matto Grosso. From the granite, at a place called
Frade, water gushes at 42° of heat, of a ferro-manganese
nature, employed in cutaneous diseases.
Goyaz. In the Serra das Caldas there are three
thermal springs, varying from 22° to 42° centigrade, of
the same nature as the above. Experiments prove them
to be minus acids or alkalis. They are frequented by
persons suffering from rheumatics and skin complaints.

THERMAL SPRINGS. 211

Minas Geraes.

Aguas Virtuosas de Caxambu. Caxambu is in the
municipality of Baependy, situated about 2,800 feet
above sea level. The mineral springs have been rioted
for a long time, and their reputation has increased so
much that there is now quite a small town in the locality,
with hotels, electric light, baths, etc. Nearly 100 per
sons are engaged in the bottling of water from five or
six springs, others being used locally Only for medical
purposes. The use of these waters cures indigestion and consti
pation, diabetes, etc. Character of fountains D. Pedro
and Viotti. Gaseous acidulted waters like seltzer.
Fountain D. Isabel more gaseous, and contains a large
percentage of iron. Tonical Fonte D. Leopoldina.
More alcaline and gaseous than the two first named.
Fonte Intermittente, similar to D. Isabel, but more
alcaline, and with less iron. Exportation, 1906, 20,917
boxes of 48 bottles. Aguas de S. Lourenco, altitude
2,800 feet, average temperature 12° to 16° centigrade.
Gravel soil. There are two hotels. The springs are
seven in number, very suitable for stomach complaints
and dyspepsia. The exportation is not so great as that
from Caxambu.
Lambary, 3^ leagues from Campanha. There are
three springs. The most important one is gaseous, of
carbonic acid type. Its temperature is 23° centigrade.
There are 43 men employed at the place, which possesses
an hydropathic establishment. Cambuquira, waters
similar to those of Caxambu. The exportation from
these two districts, in 1905, was 5,926 boxes, containing
48 bottles.
Aguas de Fervedouro (Carangola), nearly 2,000 feet

212 BRAZIL.
above sea level. There are four fountains, furnishing
more than 600,000 litres in 24 hours. The water is
reputed valuable in cases of paralysis, rheumatism,
anaemia, scrofula, and other cutaneous and deeper seated
diseases. The most important bathing station is P090S de Caldas.
These latter have been known since 1786, so they are in
all probability the oldest frequented thermal springs in
Brazil. There are two hydropathic establishments with
four springs. Two are tapped with 420 cent., and one
has a temperature of 45° cent., and the other 36° cent.
The discharge of the four springs amounts to 416,372
litres daily. They are distinctly sulphurous. The con
cern is a large one, the loan raised to form the establish
ment amounting to no less than about £"100,000. There
is an hotel with 400 rooms, a casino, park, and athletic
grounds. The whole is under the control of the State
Government. The climate is splendid, as the place is
situated at nearly 4,000 feet above sea level, on dry
ground. In 1905, 28,502 baths were taken.
Po9inhos do Rio Verde (Caldas). Waters suitable for
diseases of the liver, kidneys, etc.
Aguas Santas (near Mattosinhos) 2,700 feet altitude.
Cold waters, arsenical and sulphurous.
Aguas sulfurosas alcalinas do Araxa. (The title
describes fully the type of these warm springs, 26° to 270
centigrade). The waters are so strongly impregnated
with alcaline properties that the rough loose skin of
the hands peels off immediately on contact with the
spring. The smell denotes their vicinity if out of sight.
Araxa is delightfully situated, 2,800 feet above sea level,
and the climate is perfection itself. Pulmonary diseases
are absolutely unknown to the natives of the district.
The colour of the water is violet, turning to green. The

TOURIST RESORTS. 213
springs are seven in number, and yield 3,600 litres of
water daily. Dyspepsias and ordinary derangements of
the digestive system disappear, as if by magic, after a
few days use of these waters, which are equally suitable
for bathing in and drinking. They are situated some
little distance from the town. Medical researches lead
to the opinion that these springs are superior to the most
famous European ones, such as Carlsbad, Baden, Aix la
Chap'elle, etc.

TOURIST RESORTS.
To the healthy, Brazil offers as many (or more) induce
ments as to the ailing. No need for the idle tourist to
spend a single night away from his hotel in Rio de
Janeiro. Supposing he is domiciled at the Hotel dos
Extrangeiros, or that of Miss Lenz, in Larangeiras (The
Alexandra). From either, he can go by car, changing
once or twice, to the Tijuca Mountain, and proceed in
a comfortable carriage, or on a sturdy mule or horse, to
the very peak, over 3,000 feet above the city. Here,
hardly an hour from the very centre of Rio, he is in the
midst of nature's mysteries. There is the Vista Chineza,
and the furnas (ovens), a great pile of eroded boulders.
There is the distant flat topped Gavea Mountains. Across
yon blue bay, with its hundred wooded islands, chief of
which are Governador, and lovely Paqueta, a green fringe
comes out to meet the water, and behind, the sombre
cloud capped ranges of the Estreila (left), and the Organs
(right), north and north-east. Behind the Estrella is the
lovely Tingua, a mysterious solitary peak, evidently of
different origin to its fellows, judging by its suspiciously
volcanic like cone. Nearer the open sea, and somewhat

214 BRAZIL.
below, the Corcovado (hunchback) rears a mighty tower
of rock. This mountain may be ascended by rack rail,
to almost the last step, and is crowned by a band stand,
looking curiously like a gigantic cap or umbrella. From
the Alexandra Hotel we can gain the shelter of this
covering in about three quarters of an hour at most.
Cars pass our door, or we may walk a stone's throw to
the railway station, presided over by an Englishman
(or Anglo-Brazilian), who is stationmaster, etc., all in
one. If we want sea-bathing, the Jardim Botanica
electric cars again are at our service, running us out to
Ipanema in 30 minutes, or to Leme in less time. We
shall find clean smooth sands, or if we prefer a rocky
basin, a few minutes climb from the latter, and 20
minutes' walk from the latter, will bring us all the
seclusion desirable.
The botanist and entomologist, or the geologist can
revel in a feast of riches anywhere outside the city.
Across to Nictheroy (the state capital), and a little beyond
S. Dominqos or Icarahy we are in the wilds.
The best time to reach Brazil is in the winter, from
June to September. Let us take our baggage and turn
our attention towards the Queen of the Serras (Petro
polis). Supposing we arrive by steamer, at Rio de
Janeiro, in the early morning, and we are prudent enough
not to be burdened with heavy luggage. We may get
our goods and chattels cleared, and have done with
customs' formalities before noon, if we elect to have late
breakfast on board. I must go with you to be your
guide, counsellor, and friend, for, of course, you are
ignorant of the romantic and expressive language of
Camoes. Call a carregador (porter) and trundle our
traps at about 3-30 p.m. to Prainha, where we take the
boat. The construction of the electric railway is only

TOURIST RESORTS. 215
just started, so we cannot travel by that. We find our
selves on board the " Leopoldina" or " Petropolis," and
encounter every creature comfort, including the evening
newspapers (at double the shore price, by the way).
Sharp to the minute, at 4 o'clock, we cast off, and once
clear of the wharf, have time to notice the faces around
us. Taken all in all, a hundred or two of distinctly
superior people. Prosperous merchants, stockbrokers,
officials, contractors, arid engineers, with a sprinkling of
the fair sex. The large man behind us is evidently a
personage, and his importance may be judged by the
most casual observer. There is a fat stolid ticket-
puncher coming our way, invite him to mata bicho (kill
the worm)* and perhaps his tongue will loosen. There
is the quiet grey little sad eyed Ambassador of Brazil at
the Hague. Towering over him the impressive, looking
Foreign Minister, and yonder his son, like an English life
guard in stature, and an excellent counterfoil to the
Japanese Minister, who is talking to the Italian Secre
tary, and the German Plenipotenciary (quite un-Teutonic
in aspect) in most excellent English. About the political
outlook  ? no, lawn tennis.
Yonder group. ' Well of all things they are European
Diplomats also, but their subject is the weather, and how
cold it is. Quite fresh enough indeed, on the water, and
an overcoat is not an encumbrance. Hark ! A bell
rings. Look ahead. The green fringe we saw in
imagination from the steep slopes of Tijuca, is close to us
in reality, and we speedily bring up alongside a jetty
where a train is waiting. Take care of those white
tickets with letters of the alphabet largely delieneated on
them. They represent, if you please a reserved seat in
a special car. A, B, C, D, etc., number so and so.
There is hardly time given for everyone to take their

216 BRAZIL.
seats when we start off, gathering speed in the declining
light, and by the time 5-35 p.m. is reached, we are at
Raiz da Serra (foot of the range), and another engine
takes us in hand, this time pushing up behind. If there
happens to be a fair muster of passengers, the train goes
up in sections of two or three cars each, and travellers in
the hindmost one can see the others winding in and out,
and finally taking the great curve which brings them out
at the crest of the mountains. Some half-way up there
is a little ramshackle station, a standing disgrace to the
English Company owning the line. Here there is a large
cotton mill, and quite a small village has sprung up
around it. We are now at about 400 metres above our
starting point (1,250 feet), and on our left a sheer wall of
rock goes up more than 3,100 feet. Through the right
hand window the Cabega do Frade (Friar's head), a
camel's hump, like a boss, seems really close to the top
of the garge. It is a point presumed to have been
triangulated, and it is quite 3,800 feet higher than our
present station. At the summit of the line we are 2,600
feet above the sea, and at the beginning of civilisation
again evidently, for here we see electric light, rows of
chalets each side of the line, and at the station a few
cabs and carriages. The engine is replaced by one of the
ordinary type, and very few minutes suffice to bring us
to Petropolis itself, between two and three miles further
on. In the gathering darkness we see the station full of
people, and a crowd of vehicles, amongst which are two
small open trams or 'buses, running without rails. The
Pensao Central, our objective, is just across the road, and
in this cosmopolitan caravanserai we can speak almost
any European tongue and be understood. Unfortunately
there is no longer an English hotel, but we can take our

TOURIST RESORTS. 217
choice of Italian, Brazilian or German, if. we prefer
another and cheaper one to that over the way. To our
disgust, we must dress for dinner, if we choose the latter,
or find ourselves out in the cold. The city has about
25,000 inhabitants, and it has developed from a summer
resort to an industrial centre, as there are in its midst two
silk mills, cotton and woollen mills, breweries, nail and
cardboard works, an ice factory, and envelope and
stocking factories. Hardly two hours from Rio, and
when the electric line is finished it will be only 70 min
utes' journey. The climate, however, is quite different,
and we shall be glad of two or three blankets on our bed.
There are many delightful excursions, one to Fazenda do
Campos, two hours on horseback, where one can look
down and see the great capital almost at our feet, as we
can also at Alto da Serra, just beyond the railway by
which we came up. Here we may see, in the early
morning, the famous mer de nuages, with its snowy billows
far below, breaking like waves against the serried cliffs,
and passing between their broken walls like spindrift.
Yonder in the middle distance, there are islands rising
out of this sea of clouds. Queer pointed peaks lifting
themselves above the reek. By mid-day all is gone,
and only remains the dull leaden shroud, half hiding
Rio in the background. Another time we can go by the
Caminho dos Mineiros (the miner's road), to Caxambu,
and leaving the dark depths of the reservoir away on our
left, ascend by a mountain road to the summit of the
pass (5,300 feet), and look down on the northern side of
the bay, and at Mage and Piedad beyond, where starts
the tiny line that creeps up the Serra to Theresopolis, the
coming rival to Petropolis. Look across yon awe
inspiring valley, there looms in front a tremendous
mountain mass, with an assemblage of huge boulders at

218 BRAZIL.
its highest point. From where we stand it is inaccessible,
but we shall succeed in reaching it another day. There
is also the Fazenda Inglez, a famous picnic place, the
Cermerie Boisson, the Presidencia, the Cortifo, the top
of that towering wall of rock, seen at Meio da Serra, and
then there is Cascatinha (the little cascade), and Correias
further along the line towards the interior. In short,
there are enough excursions for a month, but whatever
is missed, Itaiassu Pedra Assu, as it is called wrongly
with its bi-lingual name, half Portuguese, half Guarani,
certainly the Indian is more euphonious. We must leave
our hotel well provided with blankets and creature
comforts at 4 p.m., and take horse, or tramp to Pereira's,
the last house, the veritable Ultima Thule. Here under
the hospitable roof of this rosy, cheery old chap, we may
sleep after our two to two-and-half hours' journey, as the
morn must see us under way as soon as daylight permits,
at 6 to 6-30 a.m. anyhow. At Pereira's we are about
1,100 metres above the sea, or 300 higher than the station
at Petropolis. From this, if we are wise, we shall not
attempt more than 100 metres rise per half hour,
including rests, and so we shall come out at Isabeloca,
(hollow or basin of Isabel), the daughter of Dom Pedro 1 1.,
the last Emperor, in about four hours, and here we can
rest, as we are suddenly free of the eternal forests, and
find ourselves on a small wind swept ridge, or rim, with
a drop away to nothing as it were before us, and a swamp
to the left, and beyond it, the last and highest green
slopes. Look down, where we stand, and see a tiny
white cluster of houses representing Petropolis, and
nearer still the winding road leading from the city to the
sombre way by which we have ascended.
Everything is different here. That great sheet of water
with its countless isles that frames Rio de.Janeiro, is di-

TOURIST RESORTS. 219
minished, as if we had been looking through the wrong end
of the telescope. The ocean looms large before us. We
stand where man is made to feel his littleness. Sea, sky,
and mountains combine here to exert a dominating in
fluence over the human soul. Consider now the herbage
at our feet. We left in the town a hundred forms of
familiar flowers, roses, dahlias, magnolias, camellias,
heliotrope, jasmine, cannas, hortensias, and the flaming
branches of the bougainvillea, never to be forgotten. Ere
we reached Pereira's, the last climbing fuchsias had been
left behind, and the orchids, those mimics ofthe butterflies,
have long since gone, or at any rate nearly all of them.
In the dark depths of the forest we had hardly noticed
the change, but now the ground is covered with a pro
fusion of flowers we fail to find in the sub-tropical zone
below. There are bulbs scattered here and there, hardly
attached to the soil, and besides the amaryllides, many
sorts of plants of an alpine character, and which, alas,
would not live even if we were successful in transplanting
their seed or roots to Petropolis. Breakfast despatched,
we step out manfully, in Indian file, along a tiny path
that has been worn by the tapirs on their way to the pool.
Shortly we seem to be lost in a labyrinth of sword-grass
tufts, reaching six and seven feet in height, and so toiling
for an hour, we cross the little stream trickling through
the further side of the swamp (a lake in February), and
climb up the other side to the shelter of those boulders
that form the Castello, or the Itaiassu (great stone) itself.
Here we are 2,250 metres above Rio, or approximately
7,500 feet, and the height of the boulders may be 35 to
40 feet. One I measured, after a very dangerous and
difficult climb, is 33 feet.
The altitude given is that taken by two compensated
aneroid barometers, afterwards corrected. If possible to

220 BRAZIL.
climb up one of the higher boulders the pains are well
repayed. Probably there is no such comprehensive view
in Brazil, assuredly there is none so near the sea. Far
as the eye can reach there are tumbled masses of hills,
falling away to the distant valley of the Parahyba. To
the northward there are isolated peaks and serras, mark
ing here Novo Friburgo, and at the limit of vision, the
vicinity of Cantagallo, where the gold mines formerly
existed. We cannot catch a glimpse of Itatiaia, for this
monarch of all Brazilian mountains hides himself in the
south-west, behind a tremendous massif. Here we must
sleep, and the first thing to do is to collect fuel, a very
scanty thing indeed, perhaps we shall find nothing but
the feathery tops of the taquaril, a small cane, hardly as
long as a walking stick. Then a pile of these same tops
must go towards making our bed, and a wind screen of
some sort thrown up, for the great boulders form a sort
of funnel here. If we have completed our preparations
to brave the elements, we may perhaps make a tour of
our fortress, finding that it takes at least half an hour.
Night comes on apace, and we boil our billy, and sit
under the dark rock watching the moon rise, surely twice
the size of the northern sphere, and as bright again.
Now with the disappearance of the sun, rude boreas
comes sweeping, and whistling through the crevices all
around, blowing the ashes of our dying fire in every
direction. Cover up well, and creep in close together as
we may, one or other must need jump up now and then
to replenish the blaze. Towards morning there is a thin
film of ice over the pool which lies amidst the rocks. It
is not, however, the temperature marked by the mercury
that chills us. It is that bitter, piercing blast that comes
sweeping across this exposed site, all the way from the
Antarctic regions.

TOURIST RESORTS. 221
Sunrise sees a pair of shivering pilgrims, struggling to
get up their circulation, and to stimulate the flagging
energies of the fire. 9 a.m. soon arrives, and the home
ward march must be begun. We go down naturally much
quicker than we came up, and arrive at Pereira's by
2 p.m., where we lunch and rest, and take horse back to
Petropolis. Unfortunately, although the Piabanha River
winds through the town, and the Itamarity joins it ere it
reaches Cascatinha, there is no fishing. The dyes from
the factories have poisoned all the large fish that have
not been destroyed by dynamite cartridges; so if we
want any angling it will be necessary to travel some
three or four leagues at least. There are, however,
many rivers which contain abundance of finny life, and
some, as the dourado, pirarucu, afford good sport. The
seas swarm with a hundred different types of scaly
monsters, and some amusement may be had, with rod and
line, from the rocks near the Gavea (Rio de Janeiro).
We can take the train, when tired of Petropolis, to
Itaipava, and from there amble gently into Theresopolis
the same afternoon. Here there is less distraction. Only
one hotel worth stopping at (" Hygeine,") and hardly any
thing to do but amuse ourselves by excursions amongst
the mountains and woods. From here we join the iron
road again, and afterwards the boat to Rio de Janeiro.
If limited in time, we can come out to Rio by the Royal
Mail steamer, leave her on the Monday morning, or
Sunday night, go straight up to Petropolis, visit Itaiassu,
etc., and leave for Theresopolis the following Monday,
and remain there until Friday, arriving at Rio on that
day. We have then 4^ days left to make the acquaint
ance of the capital, as the steamer leaves on the follow
ing Wednesday afternoon. Otherwise inclined, a journey
to Ouro Preto and Morro Velho to see the gold mines,

222 BRAZIL.
Bello Horizonte, and thence to Sao Paulo, and, if time
permits, from Paranagua to Curytyba and back, may
fill up our time. To do justice to Brazil a month should
be spent in Rio alone, adding at least from May to
the beginning of October in the provinces, not forgetting
the Iguassu falls (Parana).

CHAPTER XX. /
Science, Art, Literature, and Conclusion.

Science.
Santos Dumont needs no introduction to the readers of
this work. Suffice it to say that he is a Mineiro, being
born at Rio das Velhas (July, 1873). He is of French
extraction, his father formerly owned the Dumont Coffee
Plantations, the largest in the world.
Mello Marques, a naval officer, invented a submarine.
Rear-Admiral Huet Bacejlar. Improvements in tor
pedo tubes, adopted by the Brazilian navy.
Landell de Moura. First inventor of the wireless
telephone, and discoverer of improvements in the ordinary
telephone. Lieut, Radler de Aquino. New method of calculating
speed of vessels by the pressure of water.
Ribeiro da Costa. Unsinkable boats, hydraulic tur
bine, and entirely new forms of steam engines.
Dr. Edwardo Claudio. A new propeller called Tro-
choide. /
Oswaldo Faria. Transformer of alternative currents
into positive ones, and a power regulator.
Dr. Vidal Brasil. Discovered the antidote for ophidic
poisons, also anti-crotalic serum.
Barbosa Rodrigues (Diretor of Rio Botanical Gardens).
Great works on Brazilian flora, and studies on the curare
poison. (A list /of his writings occupies a full crown
octavo page). /

224 BRAZIL.
Barao de Capanema. Inventor of formicides, wet
carbonising process, explosives, etc.
Paulo de Frontin. Engineer of the Rio improvements,
water supply, etc.
Chapot-Prevost, Barao Pedro Alfonso, Baptista Sacerdo,
Paes Leme are celebrated doctors of medicine.
Carlos Moreira. A prominent zoologist and icthyolo-
gist. The above are only a few names, taken off hand from
a great number of eminent Brazilian scientists. Their
technical capacity is very largely evinced, almost every
branch of science having a numerous and capable body
of votaries and successful exponents. The School of
Mines, at Ouro Preto, is responsible for the training of
many clever engineers.

LITERATURE AND ART.
Ruy Barbosa must be given pride of place as a thinker
and idealistic writer, and the author of literary works of
uniform excellence. He has been a journalist, working
on several Rio papers. His literary life began in 1874,
with a monograph entitled, " Crime against industrial
property," and a long series of important treatises,
written at home and in exile. (Letters from England,
1896). Amaro Cavalcanti. Was a professor of languages at
20 years of age. Is a famous political economist.
Jose Maria Da Silva Paranhos (Barao do Rio Branco),
Foreign Minister. Of this master mind we have already
written, in men of affairs, otherwise he would have
undoubtedly headed this page. He is an Admirable
Crichton, and that is all that need be said of him here.

LITERATURE AND ART. 225
Joaquim Nabuco. The polished classical scholar and
brilliant orator. Another of the old school, graduating,
like the Barao do Rio Branco, under the Empire, formerly
Minister to England, and now Ambassador at Washing
ton. Nabuco is not a very popular man, he is at times
haughty and uncompromising, and such qualities do not
commend themselves to the young Republicans. His
books are full of that spirit of romantic melancholy which
seems engendered by the atmosphere and vast brooding
silences of Brazil ; this minor key, that is sounded by
the soft summer winds in the palm groves of the north,
and the pine woods of the south. Nabuco is well inter
preted in the phrase — " Defiance and contempt of the
littleness and meanness of man." He has written, " The
judgment of the Masses," which elevates us to-day and
lowers us to-morrow, represents only the dust of the
roads, "and tyranny had been revived in Brazil at the
point of the same bayonets that had put it down."
' Machado de Assis (1839-1908). Graduated from the
printing form, and attained the first prize in the Academy,
by sheer force of merit. He is called the prince of
Brazilian literature. ; First a psychologist, the master of
comedy, his literary luggage is great. Verses (1869)
being succeeded by an olla podrida oi material. His best
known work is " Braz Cubas," a novel. His epitaph is
best expressed by saying — He was a child of his own
work, he owed what he was to his constant labour.
Mello Moraes (a Bahiano). One of the sweetest lyrical
poets is, like most Brazilian writers of repute, many sided.
The historian of the gypsies, the student of folk-lore, and
the voice that cries out as a soul in the wilderness.
Assiz Brazil. Diplomat, agriculturalist, and economist.
He has written on law, politics, and poetry, and excels in

226 BRAZIL.
all he attempts. He is a Mineiro, and one of the most
brilliant sons of that state.
Graca. Aranha (Dr.) Maranhao has the honour of
being the birthplace of this gifted writer. He is a
jurist, and has been charged with many most important
international questions, but above all, he is a romancist
and idealist. So far, the most important work from his>
pen is " Canaan," a sad yet fascinating story, breathing
forth the subtile essence of the national character ; a
romance, yet a broken melody, a figure without an end.
Translated into Spanish, German, and French, and ex
isting in M.S. in English, although no British publisher
has yet been found who has the courage to issue this
great book. I say great, because it succeeds in enthral
ling the reader, of holding his attention captive, and thus
fulfilling the mission of a true work of genius. This
romance was written in London in 1902, whilst the author
was first secretary of the special mission to England.
Medeiros e Albuquerque. He is the Didot of the
Brazilian Academy ; an encyclopedia in himself. Journa
list, poet, and tale-teller. He was born in Recife, and it
is no discredit to the south to say that the north is the
cradle of Brazilian literature.
Affonso Celso — " The Catholic," A count of the Holy
Roman Empire ; meriting a title, if only by his literary
work. He has translated, in verse, the masterpiece of
Thomas a Kempis. A member of the Historical Insti
tute and the Acadamy.
Coelho Nelto (Maranhense, like Dr. Gra9a Aranha).
Suffice it to say that any one of his books would have
made an author's reputation. Comedies, tragedies,
librettos, criticisms, historical chronicles have poured
forth from his pen since 1883, when his first work saw
the light. •

LITERATURE AND ART. 227
Joao Ribeiro. Is best known as a grammarian, having
been responsible for several philological works. He has
been editor of various newspapers in Sao Paulo and Rio
de Janeiro.
Rocha Pombo. The leading historian of the younger
generation. A journalist and novelist.
Jos6 Carlos Rodrigues. The Gordon-Bennet of South
America. A self-made man. He is managing editor of
0 Jornal do Commercio, undoubtedly the greatest news
paper printed in the Portuguese language. Added to
literary and linguistic ability, he possesses great business
capacity, and has rendered the Republic enormous
services. The Journal of Commerce is the doyen of the
South American press. During the presence of the
American fleet in January, and the British squadron in
December, 1908, a large section ofthe paper was printed
in English for the benefit of the visitors.
Alcindo Guanabara. Chief editor of 0 Paiz, a journal
of marked intellectual force.
No list of literary giants would be complete without
the name of Capistrano de Abreu. The greatest eulogy
possible, is to say that this historian would have been
famous in any land, and at any epoch. He is a native of
the State of Ceara, born 1853, and his works include
most exhaustive and minute studies of the colonial times,
as well as translations from English, French, etc.
Jose Verissimo. Para, 1857. The leading critic, justly
feared and admired. An anthropologist, college pro
fessor and educational writer.
Amongst other romance writers, we may mention
Nestor Victor, Aluizo Azevedo, Xavier Marques, Pires
de Almeida, Inglez de Souza, ad infinitum. We must
not, however, forget Madame Julia Lopes de Almeida,
perhaps the leading woman writer in Brazil. She has

228 BRAZIL.
published " O livro das Noivas" (the brides book), "A
Fallencia," and "A familia Medeir6s," amongst other
works. The greatest playwright is Arthur Azevedo (Maranhao).
Has written more than 40 plays, operas, and sketches,
besides short stories.
- Poets are well represented by Olavo Bilac, and the
following will sufficiently express his style :
" Maldita Sejas."
Se por vinte annos, nesta furna escura
Deixei dormir a minha maldiQao,
— Hoje, velha e cangada de amargura
Minh alma se abrira como um vulcao.
E em torrentes de colera e loucura
Sobre a tua cabe9a ferverao
Vinte annos de agonia e tortura
Vinte annos de silencio e solidao.
Translation.
"Be thou Accursed."
If twenty years in this cavernous dark
I have left my curses to lay asleep ;
Now old and tired of bitterness sad,
My soul like a volcano bursts forth from the deep ;
And in torrents of anger, and madness the fire
Pours forth scalding streams on thy head ;
Twenty years of torture and agonised ire —
Twenty years of silence and solitude.
Magalhaes de Azeredo, Augusto de Lima, Fontoura
Xavier Lucio de Mendoza, Luiz Edmundo, Luiz

LITERATURE AND ART. 229
Guimares (has had his verses translated- into Spanish,
French, and Swedish), Raymundo Correa and Mucio
Teixeira are other noteworthy poets.
Musicians.
Alberto Nepomuceno (Ceara). His magnum opus is
" Artemis," an opera. Henrique Oswaldo, winner of the
great international contest, organised by Le Figaro.
His piece, " II neige," taking the palm from 600 com
petitors. Meneleu Campos, Francisco Braga, and Dr.
Abdon Milanez (a very popular composer), and Carlos
de Mesquita head the list of musicians.
The Brazilian sculptor, par excellence, is Rudolpho
Bernadelli. He has peopled the gardens and groves of
his native land with beautiful marble forms. Correia
Lima is a young and gifted pupil of Bernadelli, a fine
group (Mater Dolorosa) coming from his hand.
The principal painters are Aurelio de Figueiredo
(Paulo e Francesca), Rodolpho Amvedo (a Narra9ao de
Philetas), Antonio de Parreiras (a Derrubada), Rodolpho
Chambelland, a Sahida do Baile (leaving the ball),
Elyseu Visconte. J. Baptista and Henrique Bernadelli
(Tarantella, Casas Brancas, Meditando, Syria).
Glancing at an " Anthologia Brasileira," of prose and
verse, I find extracts from 155 writers, and it is safe to
say that this number hardly represents the leading literary
Brazilians. For a country, whose literary life hardly
amounts to a couple of hundred years, the record, both
of amount of work and quality of output, is a magnifi
cent one. A most impressive feature of the history of
literature in Brazil, is the fact that so many authors
have suffered (even to death) for their principles, and
that in nearly every case the work has been considered

230 BRAZIL.
before the workman. Power and preference has been
sacrificed to the ideal, and the result is glorious tradi
tions, and bright promise for the future.
Conclusion.
" Ordem e Progresso," the Brazilian motto, typifies the
policy of the nation to-day. Her conquests have .been
won by arbitration, in place of war. She has settled
almost all her frontier questions, and is able to turn her
attention to internal development, and this is proceeding
at a pace almost inconceivable. The iron horse is stalk
ing over the land. There is not a state that does not
feel the breath of life stirring its pulses, awakening it,
from slumber, and impelling it forward. Avante ! (for
ward) is the word everywhere. Where Burton, St..
Hilaire, and other voyageurs disturbed the silence of the
virgin forests, the screech of the locomotive is heard.
The advance guards of civilisation are even now passing
the frontiers of Goyaz and Matto Grosso, and soon the
railroad will reach the most distant and isolated parts of
the Republic. Rio has arisen like a Phoenix from the
ruins created, not by disaster, but by the house breaker.
To quote Admiral Sir Percy Scott, in his farewell mes
sage to the Brazilians. In the near future Rio de Janeiro
will be the most beautiful city in the world. Space will
not permit me to tell of its marvels. It is not " see
Naples and die," but see Rio and wish never to leave it.
And the capital is only a gem in the most exquisite
setting, surrounded by clusters of others, if less radiant
and glorious, still entirely worthy of being satellites to
the " Queen of Brazil," " A Carioca, na bahia da Guana
bara." I cannot tell which I prefer, Brazil or the
Brazilians, at least those who belong to the only aristo-

LITERATURE AND ART. 231
cracy worth anything, that of intellect. I regret only the
paucity of detail and incompleteness of the information,
which I have compiled. This is due more to lack of
space than failure of material.

J. C. OAKENFULL.
Plymouth, England, April, 1909.

APPENDIX.

Bibliography.

Agassiz, Louis. "A Journey in Brazil." Boston —
Tickner and Fields (1868), xix., 540 pp., 8vo.
Andrews, C. C. "Brazil; its conditions and pros
pects." New York— D. Appleton & Co. (1889),
352 pp., 8vo.
Bates, Henry Walter. " The Naturalist on the River
Amazon." A record of adventures, habits of animals,
sketches of Brazilian and Indian life, and aspects of
nature under the equator, during eleven years of travel,
2nd. ed. London — J. Murray (1864), xii., 466 pp., front
illus., plates, fold, map, 8vo.
" Commission to Exposition of New Orleans " (1885).
The empire of Brazil at the world's industrial and cotton
centennial exposition of New Orleans. New York —
E. P. Coby & Co. (1887), 71 pp., 1 vol., tables, sq. 410.
" Commission to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition."
Brief notice on the State of Matto Grosso, Rio de
Janeiro. Typ. — Leuzinger (1904), 40 pp., i2mo.
Brown, C. Barrington. " Fifteen thousand miles on
the Amazon, and its tributaries." London — E. Stanford
(1878), xiii., 520 pp., front illus., map, 8ov.
Burton, Richard F. " Explorations of the highlands of
the Brazil." With a full account of the gold and diamond

APPENDIX. 233
mines, also canoeing, down 1,500 miles of the great river
Sao Francisco, from Sabara to the sea. London —
Tinsley Brothers (1869), 2 vols., illus., 8ov.
Ewbank, Thomas. " Life in Brazil ; or a journal of
a visit to the land of the cocoa and the palm." With an
appendix, containing illustrations of ancient South
American arts. New York — Harper & Brothers (1856),
xvi., (7) 469 pp., illus., 8ov.
" The Valley of the Amazon." Brazilian Government
pamphlet. Hutchinson, Lincoln. "Report on trade conditions
in Brazil." Washington — Government printing office
(1906), 116 pp., 8vo.
" International Bureau of the American Republics . . .
Brazil." A handbook. Washington — Government
printing office (1891), 2, 336 pp., illus. plates, map, 8vo.
(its bulletin No. 7).
"United States of Brazil." A geographical sketch,
with special reference to economic conditions and pros-''
pects of future development. Washington — Govern
ment printing office (1901), 233 pp., Svo.
Kerby, G. Arton. "The land of to-morrow." A
newspaper exploration up the Amazon and over the
Andes to the California of South America. New York —
W. F. Brainard (1906), ix., 405 pp., front illus., 8vo.
Kidder, D. P. " Brazil and the Brazilians." Portrayed
in historical and descriptive sketches. 6th ed., rev. and
enl. Boston — Little, Brown & Co. (1866), viii. (3), 640
pp., front, (port.), illus. plates, maps, 8vo.
"Sketches of residence and travel in Brazil." . Em
bracing historical and geographical notices of the Empire

234 BRAZIL.
and its several provinces. Philadelphia — Sorin & Ball;
-London — Wiley & Putnam (1845), 2 vols., front., illus.
plates, port., 8vo.
Koster, Henry. " Travels in Brazil." 2nd ed.
London — Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and
Brown (1817), plates, 2 vols.
Mawe, John. "Travels in the Interior of Brazil."
Particularly in the gold and diamond districts, by author
ity of the Prince Regent of Portngal, including a voyage
to the Rio de la Plata, and a historical sketch on the
revolution of Buenos Aires. Illustrated with engravings.
London— -Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and
Brown, (1812), vii., 366 (1) pp., 4to.
Santa Anna Nery (Frederico Jose de). " The land of
the Amazons." Translated from the French, by George
Humphrey. London — Sands & Co. (1901), xliii, 405 pp>,
font, illus., plates, map, 8vo.
Diplomatic and Consular Reports (British).
" Mining Industry in Minas." April, 1908 (No. 667).
"Climate and Diseases of Brazil." English Press (Rio).
" Sao Paulo; Department of agriculture, commerce,
and public works." The State of Sao Paulo, statistics
and general information, 1903. Sao Paulo — Carlos
Gerke, 1904, 107 pp., illus., maps, i2mo.
Scully, William. " Brazil ; its provinces and chief
cities." The manners and customs of the people; agri
cultural, commercial and other statistics, taken from the
latest official documents, with a variety of useful and
entertaining knowledge, both for the merchant and
emigrant. London — Murray & Co., 1866, xv., 398 pp.,
(1), map, 8vo.

APPENDIX. 235
" History of Brazil." London — Longman, Hurst,
Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1817-22, 3 vols., map, 410.
Wells, James W. " Exploring and travelling three
thousand miles through Brazil, from Rio de Janeiro to
Maranhao." With an appendix, containing statistics and
observations on climate railways, central sugar factories,
mining, commerce, and finance. London — S. Lone,
Marston, Searle, and Rivington, 1886, 2 vols,, front illus.,
2 fold, maps, 8vo.
Wright, Marie Robinson. " The new Brazil ; its re
sources and attractions." Historical, descriptive, and
industrial. Philadelphia-^George Barrie & Son, 1908,
450 pp., illus., 4to.
Brazilian Year Book, 1908, published by the Brazilian
Review of Rio de Janeiro. London — Street & Co.,
Corn hill, 2 guineas.
Dias, Arthur. " Brazil of to-day." Brazilian Govern
ment publication.
" Brazil, its states, etc." Map and letterpress. Bra
zilian Government publication.

OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION.
" Almanac Laemmert." " Laemmert Rio do Ouvidor."
Rio de Janeiro, annual guide to Brazil.
" Annuario Brasilero Commercial." A Henault (Paris),
any Rio bookseller.

236 BRAZIL.
SOME ORGANS OF THE PRESS.
Dailies (Morning). Jornal do Commercio, 0 Paiz,
Correio de Manka, Diario do Commercio, Jornal do Brasil,
Gazetta de Noticias, A Imprensa, L'Echo du Bresil (French),
Evening Papers. A Tribuna, A Noticia, and 0 Seculo.
Weekly. Brazilian Review (English). A commercial
and industrial journal.
In French. L'Etoile du Sui (Rio) and The Messager de
S. Paul (Sao Paulo).
Many German papers, especially in the south, and
Fanfulla (Italian) in Sao Paulo. Also papers in Syrian,
Spanish, etc.
In the Provinces there are many important papers,
but space will not permit me to mention more than
O Estado de Sao Paulo.
In Paris there are France-Bresil (monthly) and Le Cour-
rier du Bresil (weekly). In London the South American
Journal (weekly) has a page or two, regularly, on
Brazilian affairs.
The Government organ, printed by the Imprensa
National, is the Diario Oficial (Official Daily, Rio).
There ought to be scope for a newspaper, exclusively
devoted to Brazilian affairs, to be published in London,
and as yet there is no Brazilian daily printed in English.
The British Foreign Office publishes annual and
special reports from its consuls in Brazil. These may be
had through Wyman & Son, and cost from i-Jd. each.
The United States Government issues a far greater
number. The subscription is annual — Office, Depart
ment of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Manufacturers,
Washington, D.C, U.S.A.

APPENDIX. 237
Propaganda in Europe.
The Sao Paulo Government has an office at 99, Place
de Meir, Antwerp.
The Federal Government's Head Office is at 28,
Boulevard des Italiens, Paris (first floor), and there are
delegations and official agents at : —
Berne. Dr. Abdon Milavez.
Berlin. Meinekerstrasse 18, Dr. H. Heilborn.
Vienna. Baumannstrasse 8, Dr. J. B. da Cunha.
Rome. Modern Hotel, Dr. Francisco Canella.
Antwerp. Rue Leys 12, Dr. B. Dinard de Araujo.
Barcelona. Plaza Urquinaona 1, Senhor D. Carlos
B. da Silva.
Marseilles. Rue du Paradis 87, Senhor Francisco
Guimaraes Oporto. Brazilian Consulate, Senhor Francisco Jacob.
London. H. Hermes de Vasconcellos.
Havre. Rue St. Quentin 82, Senhor Symphronio
Magalhaes. Plymouth. 31, Chestnut Road, Peverell (The writer).
The High Commissioner at Paris is Dr. Luiz Raphael
Vieira Souto. Forthcoming Events.
Fourth Latin American Medical Congress, Rio,
August-September, 1909. In connection an International
Exhibition will be held.
International Exhibition of Agricultural Machinery at
Para (permanent), opening in June, 1909.

PLYMOUTH :
R. W. STEVENS, PRINTEU, PARADE.

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