Yale Peruvian expeditions, 1911-1915,
Publications, v. 47.

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YALE UNIVERSITY
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1922

^qjj|ReDrinted from the American Anthropologist, Vol. 21, No. i, Jan.-March, 1919.]

i ¦ THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO
By OSGOOD HARDY
IN no country of the world is the elevation of the earth's surface
a more dominating factor in the determination of the life and
characteristics of the inhabitants than in' Peru. Situated as
it is only a little south of the equator, altitude determines what
'drops shall be raised, what clothing the inhabitants shall wear, and
of what material their houses shall be built. As the country is
still relatively low in the scale of civilization, and there is little mod
ern industrial Jife, - the response to the importunities of nature is
very great; in fact it is so great and follows such regular rules, that
with' an accurate topographic map .at hand, one who has spent' a
few months traveling in the Department of Cuzco can describe
quite accurately the physical characteristics, the customs, and the
'economic life of the natives in any given locality of the department,
.wtether he has visited it or not; ' 't
¦ 'This section of Peru divides itself naturally into three zones
whose differentia is altitude. These are, first the highlands or belt
of puna, devoted to grazing and potato farming which is carried on
throughout the country from 12,000 feet above sea level upwards to
nearly 15,000 feet at times; -second the cereal belt, included between
12,600 and 7,006 feet; and third, below 7,000 feet, the belt of trop
ical agriculture.
The boundary lines, of, course, are not exact, and the three
belts shade into each, other, but the character of the Indian life in
each •section is so different that a discussion of Cuzco natives must,
'iHogically carried out, bear these natural divisions constantly in

2 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N- S., 21, 191°
mind. With these divisions in mind then, the various features of
Quichua Indian life will be dealt with as they impressed themselves
on the writer during the year and a half spent as Chief Assistant
and Interpreter of the Peruvian Expedition of 1914-19151 sent out
under the auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic
Society, and directed by Dr. Hiram Bingham.
The Indians of the Sierra have the least mixed blood and the
• mixture increases as one goes lower. Those of the towns have a
greater mixture than, those of the fincas or haciendas? the latter in
turn have a greater percentage than those who live in the outlying
districts. There are few towns or parishes of over 200 in which
the mestizoes do not outnumber the pure Indians; Chincheros —
three and a half leagues from Cuzco only, but off the main trails —
is the chief exception. With a population variously estimated at
from 500 to 1,000 it has not over 20 per cent, mixed blood. On the
other hand such places as Urubamba and Ollantaytambo probably
cannot boast of more than 25' per cent, pure blood. The figures are
only estimates as no data can be secured. On the plantations, the
percentage of pure-blooded Indians is probably still less.
In physique the Indians of the Sierras are much more attractive
than those of the lower regions. Bronze skinned, of medium height
but with huge chest expansion and wonderful leg development, some
of the men of the punas present a striking appearance. Those of
the lowlands, although lighter in color, are generally more ill favored
and lack the ruggedness of feature possessed by those of pure blood.
They are smaller, less healthy, and show more marks of dissipation.
The pure-blooded women are rarely attractive. In fact only in
Huaraconda did I ever see an Indian woman who was not either
too rotund or too emaciated in appearance. The two exceptions
were sisters, of a beautiful copper complexion, fine cut features, of
average height, with a good carriage, and exceedingly neat. The
chola women of the Urubamba section are more attractive than
their men, with more regular features, but very much inclined to-1
v wards obesity, a characteristic acquired with their Spanish blood
1 A finca, corresponding to our term, farm, is an estate in the cereal and puna
belts; an .hacienda is an estate corresponding, in the tropical belts, to our southern
plantations.

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST

N. &., VOL. 21, PL.

" In many of the glacial valleys the inhabitants are afflicted with huge goitres, which
naturally give them a most unprepossessing appearance. Goitres are equally common
among men and women."

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Residents of Huaracondo, twenty-five miles from Cuzco.

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 3
Practically all the natives have dark hair and eyes. The hair,
straight and unkempt, is usually short. The men have theirs cut
semi-occasionally, or perhaps it is better to say, haggled, off. The
women also cut theirs at times, but even when it is allowed to grow
it is rare that it comes below the shoulders. In many of the glacial
valleys the inhabitants are afflicted with huge goiters, which nat
urally give them a most unprepossessing appearance. Goiters seem
to be equally common among men and women. The ravages of
smallpox have also disfigured a great many.
For the most part the natives have poor health. All seem to be
troubled with catarrhal affections, these being more common in the
higher altitudes. Smallpox and fevers of various kinds are common
also. The inhabitants of the tropical belts are inclined to be pot
bellied, as a result of malnutrition I suppose. I could find no evi
dence of large families, four being the greatest number of children
to which any Indian would admit. This is probably due to a high
infant mortality rather than to a low birth rate. Eye troubles
seemed prevalent, for which kerosene was the favorite remedy: in
fact, in the higher altitudes it is used as a specific for almost any
disease. There is a great variation in the matter of dress. In the up
lands both men and women keep to their old style of clothes, but as
one goes down, modern styles appear, until in the tropical belt the
stiff, broad-brimmed hat and the hand-woven poncho have disap
peared entirely. The man of the uplands is clothed in rawhide
sandals, close-fitting knee breeches of brown homespun, held up by
a hand-woven, many-colored belt, a V-yoked, sleeveless, homespun
shirt, usually blue in color, gray woolen sleevelets, a variously-
colored poncho, a close-fitting woolen cap, and a broad-brimmed,
stiff, reversible hat, covered with red woolen cloth on one side and
black velvet on the other. The length of the breeches varies some
what: in Marcacchocha, above Ollantaytambo, they come halfway
between the knees and the ankles, are split up to the knee at the
sides, and much ornamented with pearl buttons. In most places
they are plain and come only to the knee, and quite often scarcely
to it. When at work the Indian protects his breeches by wearing

4 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N. s., 21, 1919
a sort of homespun apron, this often of untanned cow-hide. His
woolen poncho serves as raincoat, blanket, and knapsack, as the
need may be. It is usually of many-colored stripes. The coloring
and width of these vary in different localities, as does the coloration
of the hat, so that one who makes a study of it can, by the appear
ance of an Indian's poncho and hat, designate the neighborhood
from which he comes. As one goes lower, the men's breeches are
observed to be getting longer, until in the tropical belt they have
become trousers. Here homespun disappears and machine made
cloth is used. Cotton takes the place of wool, and a man's clothes
consist of a battered felt hat, cotton shirt, a cloth or leather belt,
and cotton trousers, usually homemade. Throughout all sections
the pouch for carrying coca is so necessary an appurtenance that
it may be considered as part of the dress. It is sometimes a woolen
bag, but more often it is made of untanned cowhide.
The same general differences may be noticed in the case of the
women. Skirts get higher along with the altitude, until at some
places, such as Marcaccocha, they scarcely reach the knee, and give
a decidedly fashionable effect. In the highlands the woman's hat
closely resembles the man's (usually a bit smaller in circumference),
but she never wears the woolen skull cap. To match the poncho
she has a lliclla or shawl, the upper corners fastened in front with a
silver pin or topo. The head of the topo usually has the shape of
the bowl of a soup spoon; its shaft is like an enlarged hat pin. It
is often decorated with several small emblems such as a fish, sun,
or star, hanging by means of small chains about two inches long.
The topos are quite apt to be rather old, and to have been handed
down for several generations. It is usually difficult to buy them,
but while I was in Ollantaytambo, one financially embarrassed old
woman parted with one for four soles ($2.00 gold). In Chincheros
all the women seemed to have a new and an old lliclla, the latter
worn around the shoulders all the time, and the former used as a
head covering at Mass. After the service this was carefully folded
up and put away until brought out again the next Sunday. The
short-sleeved waist is open at the neck. Like the waist, the skirts
are usually solid-colored, and among the highland women almost

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 5
always of a dark blue. As one goes lower, there is noticed a grad
ual lengthening of the skirts (likewise an increase in number). A
felt hat takes the place of the broad-brimmed, stiff hat, and machine-
woven cloth that of homespun. The lliclla becomes smaller and
the solid colors more striking, usually pink or blue. The waist is
commonly a nondescript color, possibly at one time white. The
skirts are much more vivid ; light blues, pinks, and greens predom
inate. It is said that the wealth of a valley woman can be told by
the number of skirts she has, as each new one is put on over the'rest,
and the old ones kept till they drop off.
The home of the highland Indian is a crude affair, about ten
feet square. The walls are of stone and mud, and the roof is
thatched with ichu grass. There is no chimney and the smoke from
the cow and llama-dung fire, built for cooking, never for heating
purposes, makes its escape through the interstices of the roof and
walls, and oftentimes through the upper part of the low doorway.
There are no windows, for "fresh air is considered man's greatest
enemy. The hard ground serves for a floor. Household furniture
is extremely simple, consisting of several earthenware plates, and
cooking ollas (occasionally an iron kettle), a few wooden spoons,
sheep skins, and woolen blankets. Oftentimes an old muzzle-.
loading 16-20 gauge shotgun will be seen standing in one corner.
A rude native axe, hoe, spade, and hunting knife usually make up
the stock of tools.
In the cereal belt the houses are more apt to be built of sun-
dried bricks (adobes), made of clay and straw. Quite often the
adobes are only blocks of turf 10 x 4 x 24 inches, cut out and dried.
Furnishings are the same, excepting that the long, curved-handled,
narrow-bladed spade will probably be missing, as it is used chiefly
in connection with potato culture. Its place will then be taken by
a sickle used in harvesting grain.
In the tropical belt the roofs are still of thatch, but small poles
and bamboo canes are used for walls. In the upper part of this
belt, the sides of the houses are more often plastered, while in the
lower regions there are sometimes no walls, a roof which will keep
off the rain and sun being all that is necessary. The sickle is re-

6 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N- =»- 2I; I9I9
placed here by a machete, or long knife, used for cutting sugar-cane,
and sometimes there will be a brush hook. In these huts one quite
often finds a table of bamboo canes lashed together; beds are some
times made in the same way. As the huts are more open and wood
is plentiful, the interiors are not so dingy and smoke-ridden as the
houses, in the higher altitudes. In all sections one meets Indians
who own a horse or two and in such cases crude paraphernalia for
packing will be found. In the highlands the rope is more apt to
be woolen, while in the lowlands it will probably be of some fiber.
Food varies of course, but maize is the staple diet everywhere,
although used only in small quantities in the tropical belt. In the
highlands the menu consists chiefly of corn, parched or boiled, and
stews. These are made of potatoes, either in their ordinary state
or treated so as to make chufia or moraya,1 occas, and anos (two edible
roots like nothing we have in this country), corn, various flavoring
herbs, peppers, habas beans, and meat. The latter may be either
mutton, pork, or beef. Beef is rare, as" few of the Indians own cat
tle, and if they do, they cannot afford to kill them for their own use.
Sometimes they can buy beef, but not often. Occasionally a llama
dies, and in that case llama meat will be on the bill of fare for some
time. Once of twice a year a skilled hunter may succeed in get
ting a deer so that occasionally they have venison. Probably no
section of the world, seemingly so wild, has so little game; in fact
there is so little that it is a negligible factor in the discussion of the
Indian's food supply. As the temperature rarely goes above 400 F.
even at midday when the sun is shining brightly, meat will keep
indefinitely in the highlands. There is then no danger of loss when
a creature as large as a good-sized bull is slaughtered for the use of
a single family. Only the horns and hoofs of an animal are wasted.
The intestines are a great delicacy, and I saw one case where the
blood of a sheep was saved, allowed 'to coagulate, and then boiled.
During the potato harvest it is quite common to see a group gath
ered around a small fire in which some new. potatoes have been
roasted. This is called having a huati'a.
1 This treatment consists in alternately soaking and drying the potatoes, several
times until they lose all their moisture and can be crushed into a flour which will
keep indefinitely. This is called chufia. When the potatoes are also allowed to freeze
during the process, they give a black flour which is called moraya.

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST

N. S. , VOL. 21, PL. II

Residents of Santa Rosa, fifty miles from Cuzco. A comparison cf these Indians with
those of Huaracondo will show some of the differences in the styles of clothing between
different localities.

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Typically dressed women of the cereal belt. They are engaged in setting up, for the
benefit of the gringo onlookers, a curious cradle in which the baby is to be placed upright.
Their clothing shows that they live midway between the highlands and the lowlands for
the lliclla of the woman with the baby is that of the puna dwellers, while the other two
have shawls made of machine woven cloth.

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 7
In the cereal belt the diet is vegetarian. Stews still are the fav
orite form of hot food, but there is less fresh meat here. Guinea
pigs are to be found in most of the houses and are esteemed a great
delicacy, especially baked or roasted on a spit. In towns such as
Ollantaytambo, beef can always be bought on Sundays, and mutton
is for sale the rest of the week, but the Indians are not the heaviest
purchasers. Onions, squashes, peas, red peppers, habas (a large
bean something like our lima beans), and various vegetables used
for flavoring purposes are eaten. A little tropical fruit in the shape
of bananas and oranges is enjoyed, but not often, for it has to be
brought up from the valleys and is relatively expensive. Temper
ate fruits, such as peaches, pears, plums, cherries, and strawberries,
are plentiful in season and form a very pleasing diversion to the
monotony of the diet. Chuna and potatoes do not form as great a
percentage of the diet, while corn takes a relatively greater place.
In this belt it is very commonly eaten as mote or hulled corn. Bread
is more common in this belt than in the others, but it is not eaten
in any very great quantities by the Indians.
In the tropical region the diet is quite different. Dried mutton
(chhagui) and an occasional chicken or guinea pig, with a little
pork, is about all the meat the Indian has. There is very little
livestock in this section and when a creature is killed it has to be
eaten almost immediately, for meat will spoil over night. Potatoes
are also but little eaten as they have to be transported quite a dis
tance. Their place is taken by several very edible roots. Probably ¦
the best from our standpoint is the camote, a most luscious sweet
potato or yam. Yuccas, casava, and racachas are also delightful
features of their vegetarian diet. Onions are brought in from the
cereal belt, but most of the condimentary vegetables, such as red
peppers, are grown in great abundance. Oranges and bananas form
a very important item in the native diet, while other kinds of trop
ical fruits such as pineapples, alligator pears, chirimoyas, and bread
fruit are often enjoyed. Although coffee is grown at altitudes of
about 8,000 feet, I never knew of the Indians using it. Bread is
scarce, and expensive; it is eaten only by the whites.
Coca (the leaves of the plant from which is obtained cocaine)

8 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. S., 21, 1919
is in common use at all altitudes. With the native beer, chicha, it
can almost be classed as an article of food, so extensively is it used.
It is one of the best paying products of the valleys and pack trains
laden with it are constantly met on the trail. It is for sale at all
the. little stores along the way. With it, the traveling Indian is
practically independent of other food supplies. Chicha can also be
secured at almost any hut by the roadside, a bunch of flowers tied
to the end of a stick projecting several feet out from the hut being
the sign of its presence. A new bunch of flowers is always put out
when a new brew is put on sale, and from the condition of the bou
quet can be judged the age of the beverage. The chicha of the high
lands is more often made of potatoes, but occasionally the corn
chicha is imported. Rum is usually kept at hand; but the regular
use of alcoholic beverages is not as common in the upper regions as
in the other two sections. In the corn belt, chicha is a part of the
daily diet, and about one fourth of a man's income is spent for this.
In the tropical belt the fermented but undistilled cane juice is drunk,
together with a great deal of rum. Chicha and rum constitute the
drinks of the Indian, for while lager beer is made at two breweries
in Cuzco, and can be secured everywhere, the Indian cannot afford
to buy it.
The occupations of the highland Indian are stockherding and
potato raising. Most of the stock belongs to the owner of the
finca but the Indian is allowed to pasture his own sheep and cattle
With the rest. These are not many, although I found one Indian
who claimed to own forty sheep, fifteen cows, and two pigs. He
paid ten soles ($5.00 gold) a year rental and had to work one week'
each year for the finca owner. Potatoes are grown on the hillsides.
The turf is turned up by the Indian with his narrow-bladed shovel
or spade. His wife or some of his children accompany him, turn
ing the clods and breaking them up. The stock are usually herded
by the smaller children who become shepherds almost as soon as
they can walk. Nondescript sheep dogs help them and the ancient
sling is still in active service. Some of the miniature shepherds are
quite adept in its use. The women of the family, in addition to
working in the fields, do the cooking and weaving, although they

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST

N. S., VOL. 21 , PL. Ill

A typical hut on the lower edge of the cereal belt. On the thatch roof are seen stalks
of quinua, a cereal-belt grain, which have been brought down to the lower altitude to dry.

" Coca (the leaves of the plant from which is obtained cocaine) is commonly used in all
altitudes. It is one of the best paying products of the valleys and pack trains laden with
it are constantly met on the trail."

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 9
are often helped in the latter by the men. The life of these high
land Indians is wild and untrammeled. Only when they go to the
fincas to perform the few days labor which they owe as rental, or
when perhaps they go to one of the smaller towns to celebrate a
feast or barter someof their mountain produce, such as potatoes,
hides, or wool, for some of their meager necessities like chancaca
(brown sugar) or salt, do they see very much of their fellow men.
They move as lack of pasture may demand, but always to some spot
as wild and desolate as that from which they came.
From the standpoint of occupations we can distinguish two di
visions in the cereal belt. In the. upper, some potatoes are grown,
but the chief products are wheat and barley. For the most part
the Incas live on the fincas and are employed on them the year
round. These, together with those highland renters who come
down only at harvest and planting time, and some few renters who
live in the villages nearby, perform the labor. In some towns, as
Chincheros, and Pucyura-in-Vilcabamba, there are a number of in
dependent farmers who cultivate their own little plots of ground.
Oxen and wooden plows prepare the land ; sickles reap the ripened
grain; wooden flails thresh it; forked sticks and wooden shovels
fan it; and burros and llamas carry it to the finca, and then to the
market. In the lower division of this belt, corn is the chief product with
a little barley and alfalfa grown for fodder. The Indians are com
pelled to work for the owners of the finca during the planting period
and the harvest, for in this region practically all the land belongs
to large estates. In the intervals between.the sowing and reaping,
the Indians are privileged to grow a little stuff on the small plots
of land which are given them along with their huts. Pay varies
according to the privileges given and the amount of work required
of the individual, but in the cereal belt it is rarely more than fifteen
cents gold a day. Between the periods of heavy labor, many of the
natives who live in or near towns often engage at day labor as
masons, hod carriers, etc. Some of them go as arrieros or mule
teers, carrying goods to and from the valleys. Some towns, such
as Maras, are noted for having the majority of their inhabitants

IO AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N. s., 21, 1919
engaged in this trade. In the case of the Marenos, the women are
usually found accompanying their men. Other towns have the
commercial spirit, developed more among the women than the
men, and the road between Cuzco and Urubamba, especially in
strawberry season, is constantly dotted with small caravans of
cholas, Indian women, who are going to or from the market at
Cuzco. In the tropical .belt, the Indians are employed in the various
sugar and coca plantations. In the latter both men and women
are employed, for the women are faster at picking the leaves than
the men and do rtot have to be given as much pay for an equal
amount of labor. The men have steady employment, receiving a
minimum wage of fifteen cents gold a day. In addition, they re
ceive, rent free, a small hut with a patch of ground on which to
cultivate their sweet potatoes, yucca, and bananas, which form the
main articles of their diet. Those who live a few miles distant from
the plantation have more land for these purposes. As a very little
labor will produce most of their food, the Indians of the tropical
belt have no trouble in avoiding starvation. As actual money is
received in exchange for their daily labor, and food costs only a
little time and energy, the lowland Indian has more capital to in
vest on clothes than has the highland Indian. Consequently the
lower valleys provide a better market for "store clothes" than do
the punas.
The hours of labor on the plantations are usually from 7 :oo a.m.
to 6:00 p.m., although in some of the places they start as early as
six o'clock in the morning. At times in the cereal belt when the
harvest is at its height, work will continue later than six in the
evening. But as this section of Peru is only about 13 degrees
south, it does not get light much before 5:00 a.m., even in the sum
mer time, nor stay light later than 7:00 p.m., so that is is not pos
sible to have the long hours which characterize the North American
harvest day. The Indian usually starts work without having eaten
anything since supper the night before, so that at nine o'clock or
thereabouts he is given an hour for breakfast. Ordinarily the meal
is brought to him by his wife or some other member of his family.

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST

"The pureblooded Indian woman is rarely attractive.
The women cut theii hair at times, but even when it is allowed
to grow, it seldom comes below the shouldersJ The ravages
of small-pox have also disfigured a great many."

n. s., VOL. 21, PL, IV

One of the chief occupations of the highland Indian is
potato raising. This shows one of them engaged in turning
up the sod with his long-handled, narrow-bladed spade.

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO II
The children accompany her and all eat together, the man being
served &st. At twelve o'clock, a half hour is given for drinking
chicha and chewing coca. Sometimes the chicha is brought by the
women, often however as was the case when the work was going on
at Yankihuasi,1 one of the men will collect ten cents in advance for
all of them and bring back a huge olla containing several gallons of
it. At four comes another rest of an hour, this time for supper. I
found the Indians rather afraid that I would'try to deprive them of
several minutes of rest, but after they learned that I played fair
there was little trouble in getting them started again. They keep
at their work as steadily as the average unskilled labor in this
country. They are accustomed to a certain, amount of abusive
language and expect it, but I found at Yankihuasi that the majority
could be depended upon to work along as best they could even when
I was not around. Some of them actually came to take an interest
and pride in their work.
As might be expected, the methods of work are everywhere
rather antiquated in almost every line of endeavor, although it is
quite true that some of the larger establishments are taking on more
modern ways. This often leads to a very interesting mingling of
the old and the new: as when on a sugar plantation equipped with
electric lights and modern stills, cultivation is done by oxen and.
wooden plows.
Old and sometimes unique methods are particularly exemplified
in building operations as I found out at Ollantaytambo. During
the reconstruction of Yankihuasi, I attempted to apply some North
American labor methods. I purchased two modern wheelbarrows,
only to have them lie idle for the first three weeks, until I succeeded
in partially educating several Indians to their use. I decided that
a longhandled shovel would save the;r backs — but in ten minutes
after they had received them they had thrown them aside and were
doubled up with their shorthandled, acute-angled, hoe-like spades.
1 Yankihuasi (house of the Yankee) was the headquarters of the Peruvian Expe
dition during 1915. As no suitable place existed in Ollantaytambo, a small dilapi
dated establishment was rented and five weeks of strenuous labor on the part of some
thirty-five Indians and mestizoes under the direction of the writer, was necessary to
make it ready for occupancy.

12 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N. s., 21, 1919
I made four ladders on an American pattern, but the Indians never
ceased to complain because the treads hurt their bare feet. I
wanted them to carry mortar in a trough-like receptacle such as
is used by our hod-carriers, — but no, skins had always been used,
since Ollantay hi mself had lived there.
, Earth for mortar was dug with a hoe. Much treading served
to mix the straw with the mud, and give it the right consistency.
Both mortar and stones were carried to the wall in goat skins, and
were there put in place by our scantily-utensiled mason. Two
Indians mixed the mortar, three carried it to the wall, and two
brought stones :j thus seven men in all were required to tend one
mason. Walls are commonly whitewashed with chalk. After the chalk
has been ground ,and strained, it is mixed with a thin gelatinous
liquid made from the juice of cactus and water, containing as much
salt as can be taken up in solution. This fluid is supposed to make
the whitewash less likely to rub off and it serves its purpose well. It
is applied with brushes made by the Indians from ichu grass which
is brought down from the highlands above, and also serves as straw
for the mortar.
Quichua, the language which the Inca forced upon all the con
quered tribes of the Andean plateau, is rarely used in the coastal
districts and most of the upper class in the large cities such as Lima
and Arequipa have, or affect, an ignorance of their native tongue.
However, in the highlands of Cuzco, it is almost entirely spoken
even by the mestizoes, and a great many of the pure-blooded whites
not only never tire of praising its beauties, but rather despise the
other Peruvians who are not acquainted with it. In its several dia
lects it is in use throughout the greater part of Peru, but the idiom
of the vicinity of Cuzco is recognized as most like the language of
the ill-fated Atahualpa.
A study of the language by a foreigner is made difficult by the
fact that while there are grammars to be obtained, they are for the
most. part either identical with, or based on those made by the
early Spaniards. Since the sixteenth century many words have
dropped out of the language, syntax has changed, and various Span-

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST

N. S., VOL. 21, PL. V

"The women of the family, in addition to working in the fields, do the cooking and
weaving although they are often helped in the latter by the men.'' This resident of the
upper cereal belt is very typically dressed excepting that his leggings are of untanned
cowhide rather than of homespun.

W^Wu^. I

"Between the periods of heavy labor on the plantations and farms, many of the natives
who live in or near towns often engage at day labor as masons, hod carriers, etc."

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 13
ish words have been Quichuanized. In addition, early writers were
very careless in their orthography and no clear distinction was made
in the spelling of certain sounds which to the untrained ear are very
similar. For example, the differentiation into its six different sounds
of the Quichua guttural e or k is difficult when we have only the
two characters, but it must be done to avoid serious mistakes. The
absence of a slight click turns a ' ' gentleman " into " a lake of grease ' '
or a "gate of the rainbow" into "the door of a pig-pen."
To one with purely linguistic interests, the language should pro
vide many attractions. Like all primitive idioms, it contains a
great many compound words, some of which are quite ingenious.
The adjective "imperceptible" is made up of three words, acco-
sayay-huchaylla, meaning "the size of little sand." An "incor
ruptible" man is one who "does not turn to one side," mana-huak-
llik. "To inherit" is literally "to take the place of the dead one,"
huanukpa-rantin-yaycuy, while a "grave" is "the heart of the
earth," allpak-soncco. "Experience" is a "ripe heart," pocuscca-
soncoy, and "to experiment" is "to take hold on memory," yayay-
happiy. A "fervent" man is one "having a beautifully burning
heart," sumak-raurak-soncco ; an "inconstant" man has his "heart
on one side," huaklli-soncco. "Foreigners" are "those belonging
to a city a great distance off," caru-caru-llaktayoc, and a "window"
is a "hole that sees," ccahuana-ttocco.
A study of the language is of interest to the ethnologist as well-
as the linguist, for the flashlike glimpses which it gives of old Inca
characteristics should be useful in understanding their descendants.
For example, the Quichua tongue has no words for key or lock,
which might indicate an abundance of trust in their fellowmen or an
absence of valuable personal property, but the presence of words
for lying, stealing, and all forms of drunkenness shows that there was
room for moral improvement. This holds true today. The ab
sence of words for buying and selling shows the simplicity of their
economic life, while the importance of agriculture is demonstrated
by their having one word, llank'ay, for our words "work" and "cul
tivate." That they had not gone far in philosophy is shown by a
lack of words denoting abstract qualities, and where they do exist

14 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N. s., 21, 1919
they are evidently made words, i. e., "hypocrisy" is iscay-sonccoy-
cay, literally, " to be of two hearts." Pacifism was evidently known
to them, for the same word, auccay, is used for "soldier" and en
emy." The religion of the Indians is called the Roman Catholic, but
the mixture of superstition and immorality which masquerades
under that name in the Andes would not be tolerated by good Cath
olics in the United States. Although' its influence varies in impor
tance, it may be said to dominate the life of the Indians. It is
strongest in the highland districts and the upper part of the cereal
belt. At Chincheros practically all the residents of the parish were
regular attendants at Sunday morning mass, men as well as women.
In Ollantaytambo the hostile attitude of. all the landowners seemed
to have an effect, and although perhaps half of the Indians were
intermittent church-goers, the excommunication pronounced by
the local cura on all those who worked for us, had no effect in dimin
ishing our labor supply. On the sugar plantations the influence of
the church is maintained by a yearly visit of a priest at which time
marriages, baptisms, and funeral services are celebrated for the
past year. The fees in connection with these celebrations seem
exorbitant when compared with the wages of the Indian, which are
only fifteen cents per diem. Masses cost $2.00 up; marriages $3.50
up; funerals $4.00; but baptisms are relatively cheap, as low as
fifteen cents. As a result baptisms are relatively frequent, but a
great many Indians die unshriven and even more pass their lives
in unlawful wedlock. However, as far as I could find out, the lack
of a marriage ceremony does not tend towards instability in the
marriage relation, and it certainly carries no moral obloquy.
The greater hold of the church in the highlands is demonstrated
in several ways. Even the common Indian greeting in the Sierras
consists of the religious phrase "Ave Mari'a puri'sima!" while in the
lowlands the Virgin birth of Christ does not seem to be of so much
importance, and they say "Buenos Dias!" The highland houses
are much more apt to have small crosses fixed in the roof; in the
highlands one finds more wayside shrines; all passes of course have
their piles of stone surmounted by a cross — an adaptation no doubt

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 15
of the apacheteas of the Inca worship, but now possessing a Christian
significance. With this exception I could find no evidence of the
survival today of any features of the old Inca religion. The work
of the early padres in substituting church feasts for those of the sun
worship seems to have been complete and the mixture of religious
ceremony and heathen superstition is . absolute. Chincheros was
the only locality which could boast of an equal percentage of male
and female attendants at church services. Women usually pre- ..
dominate. The churches in all the towns are in a poor state of
repair, they are typical of the general filth of the country, and the
pictures and statues of the various saints are extremely revolting.
At Chincheros I came* into closer touch with the actual Indian
life than anywhere else and I was enabled to observe very well
several of the more important feasts which took place. Life there
was the more interesting because there is less mixture of the old
and new in that locality than in any other place of its size in the
department. Also, the relations between the church and the peo
ple are more untouched by the modern wave of doubt which is
sweeping over even such a conservative country as Peru.
The people here are divided into twelve clans or ayllus and as the
majority do not belong to any finca, they exercise quite a bit of
self-government under the direction of the gobernador1 appointed
from Urubamba. The Pongos, Yanacuna, and Ccupers are the
three leading clans and their representatives dominate affairs. At
the head of each ayllu is an alcalde, elected annually. He is as
sisted by a young man called a regidor, who is. also elected yearly.
Both carry canes as badges of office. That of the alcalde is a large
silver- topped and silver-banded affair, about four feet long; the
regidor's is a slender piece of black palm wood, about three feet
long with a cross carved at the top. Both are shod with points of
iron several inches long. These are not the personal property of
the users in most cases, but belong to some family which has had

1 The Gobernador who holds the ruling office in all small towns is the representa
tive of the Federal Government and is responsible only to the sub-prefect of his prov
ince, who in turn is responsible to the prefect of the department and the latter in turn
to the President of the Republic.

16 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. =., 21, 1919
one in its possession through a number of years, and rents it out
annually to the alcalde.
The New Year's feast when the. new alcalde takes office is the
most important of the ten feasts in which every man who has a
well-rounded life has to take part before he dies. These feasts are
both civil and religious. The five civil feasts take place when a
young man becomes of age, on his marriage, when his first child is
born, at his appointment as regidor, and at. his election as alcalde.
Custom demands that on these occasions he invite his friends to
celebrate. Part of this celebration is the performance of a mass
by the cura, who receives no less than four soles ($2.00) in money
and an additional present of some livestock, usually a sheep.
Chicha must be provided for all those attending. In addition there
must be a group of professional dancers, and a band. Naturally
this costs quite a bit of money, but the price is cheerfully paid, as
it shows that a man is able to fulfill his duties. It is rightly named
a cargo. For the proper execution of the five more' important religious
feasts certain committees are elected each year and care is taken
that no one shall have to serve twice on the same committee.
This committee has to carry out a cargo as above outlined and if
there is any failure to do what is considered the proper thing, such
a person is sure to lose caste.
As these feasts are the most important events in the lives of the
Indians, and as the way in which they are observed indicates clearly
the state of their civilization, I will describe three of them.
The New Year's feast at Chincheros was the most interesting
affair I saw in Peru. Since the previous Sunday the town had been
quiet as a grave. The tumbledown houses showed no more life
than the beautiful Inca wall which takes up one side of the plaza.
But Thursday morning, the last day of the old year, brought with
it an unaccustomed feeling as though something were going to
happen. Perhaps it was the long-drawn-out wail of the conch
shells which sounded at intervals summoning the people from far
and near to get ready for the celebration, or possibly it was because
the sun was shining brightly after many days of cloud and rain.

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST

N. S., VOL. 21, PL. VI

. - xX V •

'- :•' ¦¦¦¦,y^

"In the tropical belts the Indians are employed in the various sugar and coca plan
tations." On the better regulated plantations, they receive their pay every Saturday
night, and this shows the laborers waiting for their wages at the Hacienda of Huadquifia.
This is one of the most famous plantations in the Department of Cuzco, and its owner
is the proprietress of an estate nearly thirty-five miles square.

C*' "*& •¦-J' ¦

ZriSie

1AJ\

im^

"The Indian usually starts work without having eaten anything since supper the
night before, so that at 9:00 or thereabouts, he is given an hour for breakfast. Ordinarily
the meal is brought him by his wife or some other member of the family. The children
accompany her and all eat together, the men being served first."

hardy] v THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 17
But whatever it was, I had that uncomfortably happy feeling of the
small boy waiting for the circus parade. I tried to work at Quichua,
but finally gave it up and devoted the next two days to being a part
of Chincheros' biggest festival.
All day long from my vantage point on the adobe wall overlook
ing the gobernador' s patio, I watched the Indians come trooping in,
each party bringing its own wherewithal for a good time. In the
lead were always both the old and the newly elected alcalde, clothed
in picturesque festal garb. Gone was the customary reversible
black and red hat, and in its place a new felt one. The poncho was
longer, wider, and newer than usual, gaudy-colored and befringed.
On their feet, usually sandalled or bare, were stiff black shoes —
with no stockings — which plainly caused the wearer much suffering
in return for the honor they conferred. Following them came a
band, consisting generally of a fife or flute, snare drum, bass drum,
and a conch shell or two. In one instance, there were several ear-
splitting bugles. In the rear came the women and other members
of the clan. On arrival obeisance was made to the gobernador and
then chicha was dispensed to all. Several times it was offered to
me, but I declined with thanks. The favorite receptacle for this
dispensation was a shallow saucer. The advantage accruing to its
use lay in the persistent tendency upon the part of the liquid to
distribute itself over the face, hands, and clothes of the drinker.
After everyone had indulged, the party left to pay a similar visit
to other sections of the town. At first I thought there were a great
many of these little groups, but soon I came to recognize the leading
characters and discovered that there were only five or six who kept
"repeating." In the evening occurred the ceremony of the despedidia or leave-
taking. In former years the new alcaldes had had to go to receive
their varas or staffs of office, at Calca, some five or six leagues away,
and it had been the custom to have a gathering the night before to
wish them godspeed. Although now there is no longer any neces
sity for the custom, the ceremony has continued — probably be
cause it furnished another opportunity for a convivial and "wet"
gathering. At dusk- that evening I joined the gobernador' s party,

18 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. S.,'21, 1919
when escorted by four alcaldes he went to the main plaza. Here
we found about a hundred natives drawn up in three groups repre
senting the three main ayllus. In each group the men were separ
ated from the women, and all were seated in a semi-circle. We
climbed a dark, rickety flight of stairs to the town hall, or saldn
¦ municipal, from whose balcony we could look down on the crowd.
For several hours I stood there in the dark and watched the people
below quietly and very decorously passing the jars of chicha from
one to another. Although most of them were more or less intoxi
cated there was no loud talking, only the steady hum of low-pitched
voices like that of a hive of bees. Every little while, the three lead
ing alcaldes, assisted' by their regidores, ascended, bringing chicha
with them which they insisted on our drinking.
Although the celebration soon palled on me, the Indians spent
the night in drinking chicha and marching around the town, stop
ping at different places for short dancing and drinking bouts. I
went to sleep with drums and conch shells still sounding in my ears,
and they were at it again the next morning when I awoke.
About nine o'clock, the morning of the New Year, the crowd
began to assemble in the gobernador' s patio. The alcaldes, both the
newly elected and the previous incumbents, were attired in felt
hats, long fur-lined military capes, some of which looked as if they
had been handed down through the four centuries since the arrival
of the conquistador es, gaudily trimmed ponchos, new homespun
trousers, and stiff ill-fitting shoes. With so much more clothing
on than usual, they were perspiring very freely, and their new shoes
had already caused most of them to acquire a slight limp which was
accentuated as the day went on. The women were there too, in
all, their best dresses, their hats garlanded with flowers and their
clothes decked out in various ways with colored paper streamers.
Although the dancing had not yet begun, several groups of fantas
tically clad clowns were in the crowd. Music was dispensed by a
band of two snare drums, three bass drums, four conch shells, and
one horn. The crowd was very good natured and only one fight
occurred, caused by rival claims to a regidor' s vara. At ten 'oclock
the signal was given for the alcaldes to gather in the gobernador 's

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT- OF CUZCO 1 9
salon to take the oath of office, and to officially receive the vara.
The room was on the second floor, reached by a narrow staircase,
up which only two people at a time could possibly ascend. But
there were twelve old and twelve new alcdldes with as many more
regidores, each one of which seemed to feel that the celebration would
be a failure unless he arrived first. As a result, my memory of a six
o'clock rush in the New York subway, or of a crowd leaving the
Yale Bowl after the Harvard game, faded into insignificance before
the confusion of this Chincheros drive. To add to the mix-up,
when halfway up the stairs, several alcaldes decided that they did
not need their hats or overcoats. They tried to descend, but find
ing that impossible, they contented themselves with throwing said
unnecessary articles of clothing into the arms of their friends who
were down below. Eventually all whose presence was desirable
arrived, the oaths were administered, and the crowd started for
church to celebrate mass.
On arrival we, found it filled to the doors with kneeling Indians.
' I followed the gobernador to the front, where we dispossessed sev
eral Indians, who, arriving early, had taken the best seats in the
synagogue only to be asked to move down. Not that they were
worth much as seats, for most of the time we were either kneeling
or standing, but we took them as a matter of principle; i. e., to
show the superiority of the whites. In our desire to secure the high
places we neglected to, do the first series of bowings and scrapings
which were being carried on as we threaded our way through the
kneeling crowd, but during the rest of the service we more than
atoned for this neglect. I had attended mass before so by keeping
close watch on the gobernador I managed to hold my own during
the proceedings. However, I nearly beat a retreat towards the
close of the mass when two sacristans in dirty white shirts and ragged
red skirts picked up two silver implements, one a shield and the.
other a cross, took them to the priest who blessed them, and then
carried them to the worshippers who kissed them. I tried to escape,
but the wily church attendant was too much for me, and my only
consolation was that I was among the first to have them shoved in
my face,

2Q AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [N. S., 21, 1919
After the service we all went to the plaza, stopping in front of
the town hall where the gobernador announced that all young men
who had come of age during the past year were called to military
service. The priest who had, at the last election been made Al
calde Municipal (an officer corresponding more or less to that of
Chief Selectman in a New England town) , then read in both Span
ish and Quichua the law in regard to military service. After this
ceremony, we all went to the priest's house, escorted by quite a
party which showed its affection for the cura by showering him with
rose petals, while he reciprocated by allowing some of the women to
kiss his hand. At his house lunch was served to the visiting celeb
rities. After the meal was over, the priest dispensed liquor to all
those who had followed him from the church, giving a second round
to the municipal band which had dispensed music to us during
lunch. By this time the center of activities had shifted to the patio of
the gobernador, who on account of a bitter rivalry with the cura as
to who should get the most graft from the Indians, was persona non
grata, and so had not attended the luncheon. Here had assembled
most of the alcaldes and during the afternoon the festivities were
fast and furious. Each of the three more important ayttus had pro
vided a set of dancers which took turns in performing. These men
were dressed up in the garb of women, wearing weird, and outland
ish masks. The dance itself consisted of little' more than a series
of feet shufflings, while the dancers kept time to the music by wav
ing a piece of white cloth about two feet square attached to a short
stick. They danced a pair at a time, but once one pair, which
seemed to be the prime favorites, repeated a dance while another
pair was supposed to have the center of the stage — much to the
disgust of the latter. Between dances the gobernador dispensed
aguardiente (rum), while chicha flowed freely all the time. The
band was allowed to imbibe occasionally, but they were supposed
to keep the music going. pretty steadily. The dancers made no
noise with their mouths and even in their festivities, the Indians
did not seem to get very far away from their natural taciturnity.
About three o'clock the crowd left the gobernador' s, but the fest-iv-

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 21
ities were kept up the rest of the day and far into the night in other
localities. Although the feast officially terminates on New Year's evening,
it is kept up intermittently into the Feast of the Kings, which comes
the 5th, 6th, and 7th of January. On the 6th occurs another big
day similar to the one just described. It had two added features.
At the church, the alcalde in charge of ecclesiastical affairs had his
staff blessed for him, and a small image of the Christ child was
taken in solemn procession from the gobernador' s house to mass and
back again. Most of the alcaldes took part in this procession, which
was carried out with all the pomp the little village could bring about.
On Compadres' Day, February 4, I attended a feast at Mar-
caccocha, about three leagues noitheast of Ollantaytambo. The
name is applied to a small valley in which is a deserted chapel. The
region around here was formerly thickly settled, but the inhabit
ants left and now only the chapel remains. This is famous as the
residence of a small image of the Christ child which tradition states
left the altar one day to play with a young girl who had entered
the chapel, and who later as result of- this indiscretion on the part
• of the chalk image gave birth to a child. The celebration on Com
padres' Day is in commemoration of this remarkable event. (It
might be added here that it is not at all uncommon to find a lonely,
deserted chapel used only once a year for the celebration of some
feast when large numbers of people gather from all sections. One of
these, held in July at a large church in the vicinity of Maras, is the
occasion of the most celebrated horse fair in the department.)
Merchants and vendors of knickknacks, cooked foods, and alco
holic beverages had arrived at Marcaccocha the day before and had
set up temporary booths on a little flat not far from the church.
On the feast day, some two hundred of the residents of nearby towns
and villages came to enjoy the festivities, a number coming from as
far as Urubamba. During the morning the time was spent in re
newing old acquaintances and getting drunk. At noon a free lunch
was dispensed to visiting celebrities. At two o'clock mass was held
by the priest from Ollantaytambo, after which the "infant" was
given his yearly promenade. Placed on a gaudily-decorated

22 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s„ 21, 1919
throne, it was carried several yards along the mountain trail, which
happens to be level just here, on the shoulders of religious volun
teers, desirous of performing a pious act. In several instances
women became so enthused that they offered their shoulders to the
burden for brief intervals. Every few rods the assemblage stopped
and the cura went through a brief service. Eventually the image
was returned in safety to the altar where it was to rest quietly an
other year.
Dancers performed at intervals during the day, and held the
scene while the small plaza was being prepared for a mock bullfight.
No killing was to take place, for bulls were too valuable, but those
desirous of becoming famous as bull-baiters were to be given their
chance. It took quite a while to build a pen in which the bull was
to be baited before being turned loose into the plaza , and still longer
to get the animal aroused. Even so, when the bull was finally forced
into the ring it calmly looked the crowd over and withdrew. The
same thing happened with the second and also with the third bull.
Accordingly as prospects of excitement along that line did not seem
good, and as the master of ceremonies could offer none other than
licentious inducements for a further stay we left the scene of oper
ations early in the afternoon.
The only important feast which I saw in Ollantaytambo was
the Feast of the Trinity, which came on Sunday, May 25. The
festivities of the day were in charge of three separate patrones who
had to provide dancers, costumes, and intoxicants. These patrones
in each case were mestizos of mixed Spanish and Indian blood, and
seemingly a step above the ordinary Indian. The first group I met
was composed of six Indian men, dressed as usual, excepting for
having black shoes, white stockings, colored paper streamers at
tached to various parts of their clothing, and hideous masks on
their faces. Their dance, performed to music furnished by a flute and
bass and snare drum, although for the most part consisting of the
same sort of shuffle which characterized all the dancing, had one
unique feature. Towards the end, one of the performers pretended
to be, dead. The others then picked him up and carried him by
means of -the decorated slings, which were appurtenances of their

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST

N. S., VOL. 21, PL. VII

'The first group I met was composd of six Indian men dressed as usual, excepting for having black shoes, white stockings, colored
paper streamers attached to various parts of their clothing, and hideous masks on their faces."

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 23
dress, to a little distance, and then dropped him rather forcibly on
the ground. The corpse immediately came to life and seemed to be
desirous of getting revenge for his untimely decease for he pursued
the others, lashing at them furiously with his sling. As was to be
expected, between dances chicha was dispensed to the dancers and
orchestra by the patron.
The second group was composed of one boy and six little girls
from eight to fourteen years old. The boy, who led the dancing,
was dressed like a girl and wore a wig of yellow horse hair. His
face was covered with a mask, and, wearing a grandee's cape and
carrying a tin foil sword, he cut a most dashing figure. The girls
were dressed in white. . Colored bands, ' from which hung silver
coins, were wound around their foreheads and in these were stuck
colored feathers. Around their chins were draped white cloths, so
that they were rather effectually masked. Their dance was some
thing of the "Virginia Reel" type and the little girls showed quite
a bit of ease and grace in their movements. The third group was
dressed in typical Indian costume, with many strings of beads and
colored decorations. Their band was similar to that of the first
group, but the second group had an "orchestra"; a one-string fiddle
taking the place of the flute. Their dance was also rather civilized
in character ; in fact these two groups of dancers seemed to be very
far from the aboriginal and much less "Indian."
Mass was celebrated both Sunday and Monday. All three
groups attended, but not many others were present. The feast
continued through Tuesday. An arranco de g'allos was supposed
to take place that day, but unfortunately we could not remain in
town to see it. This consists, so I was told, of tying several fowls
to a high branch and then having riders go full tilt under the tree
and attempt to grab them, the successful grabber keeping as a prize
the fowl he is able to carry off.
These constitute the leading feasts in which the participants
are Indians and mestizoes. Each finca or hacienda has its own feast
during the year in honor of the patron saint of the proprietor; these
vary in importance according to the religious tendencies of the
owner. Religion and superstition are so thoroughly mixed that it

24 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 21, 1919
is almost impossible to distinguish the features which, may have
come down from the feasts of the old Inca times. Drunkenness is
invariably a leading part of the festivity, as necessary for its suc
cess as the celebration of the mass itself.
It is difficult, then, to get hold of things, apart from religious
customs, which might be classed as superstition. The custom of
placing crosses on the houses is a religious superstition, and yet it
is a practice closely connected with placing skulls of animals there
to ward off ill luck. The highland Indians prefer not to sell sheep
except early in the morning before they have left the fold, for they
believe that selling sheep at any other time is liable to hurt the
breed. Many of them when they receive a coin kiss it. The reason
for this I could never find out. The mountain Indians are intensely
afraid of fresh air. They bundle up around the throat and mouth
even when walking barefooted in the snow, and their huts have no
openings but a door. Kerosene is the great cure-all, especially for
eye troubles. Rheumatism is "cured" arid "prevented" by tying
a string around the ankles. In Ollantaytambo one day an Indian
seeing us carrying a camera fastened to a tripod, thought we were
diviners and asked us to please find out where his sweetheart was.
As a general rule the Indians, especially the women, did not like to
pose for portraits, for they believe that the picture as taken is an X-
ray affair, and shows them in a nude condition. Their explanation
Of our desire to carry away skulls is that on getting them to the
United states we can make them talk and thus acquire information
about buried treasure.
Most of the Indians are very poor. A few of the more prosper
ous in the highlands have a few head of stock but that is about all.
A sheep is worth only a dollar, a llama, two dollars and a half, burros,
two dollars and a half to five, and a horse, such as an Indian might
have, is not worth more than ten or fifteen dollars. The Indian
whose total wealth would reach fifty dollars is probably an excep
tion. This however is not the case with the mestizoes or cholos1 of
Urubamba who are often reputed to be worth several thousand
1 A mestizo is one of mixed Spanish and Indian blood. A cholo is either a mestizo
or an Indian Servant, the term being used to designate a social rather than a racial
status.

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST

N. S,, VOL. 21, PL. VIII

"The second group was composed of one boy and six little girls from eight to fourteen vears old. The boy, who led the dancing
was dressed like a girl and wore a wig of yellow horse hair. His face was covered with a mask; and wearing a grandee's cape and
carrying a tin-foil sword, he cut a most dashing figure. The girls were dressed in white. Colored bands from which hung silver coins
were wound around their foreheads and in these were stuck colored feathers. Around their chins were draped white cloths so that
they were rather effectually masked."

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 25
dollars. These have the trading instinct very well developed. But
the pure-blooded Indian has little or no personal property. The
Incan governmental system was not calculated to encourage the
growth of a spirit of acquisitiveness and the long period of dom
ination by Spanish conquerors and hacendados (landed proprietors)
has not tended to the promotion of a feeling of or desire for owner
ship. The highland native seems to be satisfied with merely keep
ing alive. He has no ambition to better himself, and an increase
in pay means to him merely the necessity for less work.
A number of things may have contributed to this present low
condition: cocaine, ignorance, and alcohol. The deleterious effects
of the constant chewing of coca leaves has without doubt played a
very large part. There has been little effort on the part of the gov
ernment or church to provide education for the average Indian;
one who can so much as write his name being the exception. The
most important cause of their decline, however, is probably the
great amount of alcohol drunk. With the Indian, drinking always
leads to intoxication if he can afford it. The habit of inebriation
has such a strong hold on these unfortunate people that the Indian's
one ambition has come to be to secure enough liquor to get himself
drunk. In the routine of his daily life, the Indian is rather capable and
shows quite an ability to adapt himself to conditions at hand. On
our trip over the old Inca trail from Huayllabamba to Machu
Picchu,1 the laborers who accompanied us showed no small amount
of skill at making rude shelters quickly of boughs and grass. When
we had to replace bridges there was no hesitation as to how it should
be done — making rude bridges over country streams had always
been part of their daily life. Although the use of a wheelbarrow
was beyond them in building operations, in certain things such as
whitewashing, plastering, or making adobes they showed consider
able skill and carefulness.
On the whole, the Indian's life is very dreary. Practically his
only pleasures are bestial carousals. The children have no toys,
are almost never seen engaged in play. As soon as they are able
1See The'Natipnal Geographic Magazine, May, 1916.

26 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [n. s., 21, 1919
to walk they are set to work. In the highlands, sheep are herded
by boys and girls scarcely as tall as the animals themselves. As
there is always a new baby in the family, there is always nursery
work for the "little mothers," and one often sees a child of four
staggering under the weight of a "baby-bundle" nearly as large as
itself. Only in two instances did I ever see any signs of affection
towards infants. At Pucyura while I was talking with an Indian
woman who had a baby a year old, her daughter, a girl of perhaps
twelve, came home. She immediately grabbed up the baby, kissed
it several times, and for a few moments acted as though she really
cared for the little tot. In Ollantaytambo the head mason who
worked on our house showed a great deal of pride in his male off
spring, and used to try to amuse it during the breakfast and supper
hour. Even in the towns the children seem to have no games,
and are early taught to spend their spare time in such utilitarian
pursuits as collecting firewood and forage. Several times in Ollan
taytambo I saw a little girl who could not have been over three
years old driving home a sheep loaded with small branches which
the child had collected for firewood.
As a race they are very taciturn. The struggle for existence
is so keen that they have no strength left for the pursuit of pleasure.
The highlanders seldom smile or laugh. Their talk is always sub
dued and almost monotonous in sound. In the valleys life is a
little easier and existence not quite so drab. Here one does occa
sionally see a smile, and the chola women of Urubamba are usually
laughing and joking as they pass along the trail. They are, how
ever, of mixed blood and their actions are not typical of the pure-
blooded Indian.
They are essentially a kindly people and are generous with one
another. I had a good chance to observe them during their break
fast and supper hours while they were working at Yankihuasi. If
one man's wife arrived a little late, the others would start him on
something of theirs and this would always be paid back when the
first's supply had arrived. The laborers of Ollantaytambo showed
a kindly spirit towards those of Huarocondo and in many cases
where these, having come without their women, had little to eat

AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST

N. S., VOL. 21, PL. IX

"The third group was dressed in typical Indian costume with many strings of beads and colored paper decorations

hardy] THE INDIANS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CUZCO 27
but parched corn and habas beans, the local Indians offered them
some of their own warm stews. r
Both towards each other and towards the white people, they are
very, polite. But it is hard to tell how much their courtesy towards
the upper class is really subserviency and fear. After seeing the
bowing and scraping which was performed by some of the Indians
before the Gobernador of Chincheros, the humble way in which
others kissed the hands of the curas, the way the women shrunk
into the brush at the approach along the trail of a white man, and
care used in addressing each one of us personally, I am inclined to
believe that in their relations with the upper classes, it is fear rather
than courtesy which actuates them to a large extent. And yet,
they are almost as courteous with one another. When a newcomer
joins the group, he always speaks to each member of it, taking off
his hat. If chicha is being drunk the newcomer is invited to share,
and a place is always made for him in the circle. They embrace
each other when leaving, although I never saw any kissing.
In my personal relations with the Indians I always met with the
greatest courtesy. Whenever I went into a hut the owner always
saw to it that I had a sheepskin or blanket to sit on, after which he or
she usually resumed their occupations. My efforts to talk Quichua
with them always met with a good reception and they would try in
every way to understand me and make themselves understood.
The women, while of course not considered of as much importance
as the men, are really treated in a manner better than the example
set by the upper classes would lead one to expect. In the case of
the pure-blooded Indians it is rare to see the man riding and the
woman walking, although it is often so in the case of mestizoes.
Yale University,
New Haven, Conn.