WYALE UNIVERSITYfR

>SCHOOL OF THE PINE ARTS <

THE

BEAUTIES

OF

MODERN ARCHITECTURE.

ILLUSTRATED BV

FOETY-EIGHT ORIGINAL PLATES,

DESIGNED EXPRESSLY FOR THIS WORK.

BY
MINARD LAFEVER, ARCHITECT.

A NEW EDITION.

NEW-YORK:
D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY.
PHILADELPHIA:
GEO. S. APPLETON, 148 CHEgNUT-STREET.
1849.

Entered, according to the Act of Congress, by
D. APPLETON & CO.
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New- York.
 :  / 

PREFACE.

Notwithstanding the many works which have heretofore been pub
lished on the subject of Architecture, there has none yet appeared intended
exclusively for the operative workman-. It is therefore thought proper, to
present to the industrious and ingenious a book of original designs with
plans, elevations, sections, and technical terms associated therewith, which
will enable him to become a complete master of his business, mpre^sys-
tematically than by any other'plan yet adopted, and more particularly so
when studied in connection with his practical pursuits.
It has, on all occasions, been admitted that experience enables the ge
nius of man to advance and improve the subjects of his pursuits. And if
such favour these efforts, the patrons of former late works may, with pro
priety, expect to be perfected by the perusal of this, which is the result of
experience and study in the various departments of the science, the prac
tice of building, and Architecture in generalv
At this era it would be an insurmountable task to enter into all the
particulars necessary to gratify many who may have occasion to peruse
this work. Yet it is due to the labour bestowed in designing a work which
requires all the intellectual powers possible, not to prejudice the public
mirid previous to examining the whole matter " fairly and justly."
Believing those into whose hands this work may fall, to be that part of
the community that will discreetly examine, and give credit where it is
due, I with satisfaction submit to them the result of my labour, for their
prudent and careful examination. And after which, if their approval be
the result, it will follow that their patronage will be enlisted in behalf of
The Beauties of Modern Architecture.
MINARD LAFEVER.

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.

EXTRACT FROM ELME'S DICTIONARY.
At the commencement of this publication, historical matter was
deemed unimportant ; but, after a more mature consideration, it is esti
mated as being of utility to the practical workmaH, in giving him more
magnified and pleasing ideas of his profession, as well as to discover that
architecture is more than a mere mechanical art or profession, and to
prove to him that the art of design requires an exclusive and thorough
study. And for the use and benefit ofthe patrons, the following admira
ble historical account and description is selected :
"Architecture [aQxiTExron'u, Greek ; architectura, Latin]. The art
or science of devising or drawing designs for buildings. The name of this
branch of the" fine arts is derived from uo%og, chief, and^sxtona, and is the
art of building according to rules and proportions. 'Among ajl the arts, the
progeny of pleasure and necessity, which men have invented to alleviate
the pains of lifo, and to transmit their names to posterity^ a very high and
distinguished situation must be assigned to architecture, whether for its
antiquity, utility, or beauty. It is both a fine art and a science, and will
be considered as such in this dictionary; referring to distinct treatises for
details of its mechanical and scientific parts of building and construction.
The distinguishing characteristics of a good style are, order, convenience
of interior distribution, beauty of form, regularity, and a good taste Jn
the intention, selection, or application of ornaments. Architecture is
again divisible into three branches, civil, military t and naval ; the former
of which only will be treated of in this work. The style of civil archi
tecture differs among different people, and among the same people of a dif
ferent era. Among the people who have given names to styles in archi
tecture, are the Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian', Indian, Phcenician,

6 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
Hebraic or Jewish, Greek, Roman, Etruscan, Moorish, Arabian, Saxon,
English, Gothic, Chinese, Saracenic, Turkish. And among the charac
teristics resulting from different eras are the best ages of the antique, of
the lower empire, and modern architecture.
" Architecture is both a science and an art, and has been cultivated/
in either way with great but doubtful success ; the aimer at mere science
often degenerating into a skillful artisan, and the boaster of picturesque
skill into a pictorial theorist.
" Without science, architecture is an effeminate and useless pastime ;
and without the higher feelings of art, a mere constructor of huts and
cabins. "The scientific part ofthe art embraces and requires geometry, arith
metic, and every branch of mathematics, mechanics, chemistry, miner
alogy, practical philosophy in general ; which are to be applied with judg
ment to composition, construction, design, and execution.
" The artist-like part of architecture soars to the sublimest heaven of
human invention. To the skill of the practical mathematician, mechanic,
chemist, philosopher, must be added the genius and feelings of the arts,
to go towards the composition of a Palladio or a Wren.
"Architecture, as an art, stands entirely alone and distinctive from
every other art, and is essentially the most original of them all. It is not
imitative of originality; like painting and sculpture, nor imitative of imi
tations, like engraving ; but if it resembles either in its mechanical part,
it is in its theoretical resemblance to music. Architecture is fundamen
tally original, and shows the power of man's invention more than any
art, and equally with any science. It calls in the aid of all the other arts,
uses and rejects them by turns, and has been in every age the fosterer,
protector, and promulgator of them all.
" Architecture will, therefore, be considered both as an art and as a
science in this work, which is addressed more immediately to the amateur
and student than to the professor, and also to the inquiring cognoscenti
and persons of taste, whose prospects or situations in life may render
them patrons of the arts.
"Architecture, being the first and earliest of the arts, embraces of ne
cessity in itself a general knowledge of the critical or philosophical part of
fine art in general, which, thus forming the taste on the purest models, is best
fitted to enlarge the mind and prepare it for the reception of the laws and
governing principles ofthe whole circle of the fine arts. It is an art which
has ' undoubtedly a dignity that no other art possesses, whether we con
sider it in its rude state, occupied in raising a hut, or as practised in a cul
tivated nation, in the erection of a magnificent and ornamental temple.'

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 7
"A recent critic* beautifully says, that 'nothing, certainly, can be more
destructive to the hopes of an enlightened age of fame among remote pos
terity, than the decay of an art whose monuments are so lasting, and whose
triumphs are so sure of continuance. Its venerable relics convey to us all
we know of the mighty nations long sunk into oblivion. Among piles which
seem only to have partaken of the decay and shared in the revolutions of
nature, we feel transported through long vistas ofthe short-lived generations
of man, into the glories of the earliest nations of the world ; we catch the
mysterious spirit of patriarchal times, and image to ourselves among these
romantic solitudes shepherd-kings propounding their pure ordinances, sim
ple tribes adoring the God of heaven, and untutored bards catching inspi
ration in all its wildness from the skies, We must leaye such memorials
of our glory behind us, as can be shaken only by the pyramids of Egypt
and the pillars of the universe.' But what a contrast do the frail memo
rials of our times present to those immortal structures! and how is the
art patronized now in comparison with those of our Charleses and Annes,
which produced a Jones and a Wren, a Whitehall, a St. Paul's, and the
solid churches of London after tlie fire !
" 'All who feel interested by the substantial progress ofthe fine arts, all
who have feelings to admire the sacred solemnity and the awful grandeur
of those venerable piles which the genius of Egypt, of Greece, of Rome, and
ofthe middle ages, have left us, must be deeply interested by a discussion of
the means by which that spirit may be revived, which raised these works of
unfading enchantment, and which now seems slumbering beneath them-'
The season is most apt for a. proper awakening ; and we may indulge the
hope that both our patrons and our architects may exert themselves
with effect to give dignity and stability to our national structures.
"Architecture, considered as the art of building or construction, has
three principal characters or primary divisions, namely : civil, military,
and naval. ' The former, civil architecture, is the subject of the present
article* and may be. subdivided into three principal classes or orders, as
monumental, sacred, and domestic.
" I. Monumental Architecture may be almost called the primitive
branch of the art, for the rude stone erected in the simplest manner is a
primitive monument.
" In making a sketch of the history of architecture among the most ancient
nations of the world, we fincUhem almost invariably alike., The primitive
town, or incipient city, was a number of lowsstraggling huts, scattered about
irregularly according to the caprice of each proprietor, built with turf and
* In Valpy's new Review.

8 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
rude stones,, and thatched with straw or reeds, without any light but what
they received, by a door so low that it could not be entered upright. The
suburban architecture of the best towns in our unhappy sister country,
Ireland, is a type ofthe origin ofthe art in the most ancient times.
" Monumental architecture, in its most ancient practice, is scarcely sepa
rated from sacred ; the monumental stone became an altar, and it is easy to
conceive the rapid progress from this rude and simple place of adoration to
the deity to the more solemn temple. First we find the single monumental
stone, reared on end, commemorative of some event, or testimonial of a
treaty or boundary of property, used also as an altar of sacrifice or offering
to the deity. This becomes surrounded by a pavement, to prevent the earth
from being sodden by the blood ofthe animals and the moisture from the wet
offerings trodden about by the feet ofthe primeval priests. The next step
is to surround the sacred precinct with a row of rude upright stones, such
as are seen at the present day in various parts of Ireland, which, being
•covered over to protect the sacrifices, priests, and offerings, from the sun
and rain, becomes a primeval temple with its roof, its cell, and its altar.
" Such examples of monumental architecture have been found in all coun
tries, have been consecrated to every religious creed, and are used to com
memorate all sorts of actions ; and to this day, in Ireland, the memory of a
murder is always preserved by a rude heap of stones, every passer-by con
tributing one. These monuments, such as altar-stones, cromlechs, druidical
circles, cairns, &c, bear the genuine characters of simplicity which infant
societies and primitive religion impress at their origin on every thing con
nected with them. An able French antiquary, M. Mazois, says, 'a few
stones, either naturally rising above the soil, or placed without art in sol
itary spots in the depth of forests or on the summits of hills, were the first
altars.' Such are common in every part of our island, except where the
demon innovation has swept them away. These primitive monuments
soon became sanctified by the veneration of the people, and were received
as emblems of the divinity. Such rustic monuments are found in every
country in the world. The Arabs and other nations of the East repre
sented their gods by rough unhewn stones. It was even considered as
sacrilegious by the Persians to give them the human form.
" The Greeks themselves, who were so well acquainted with the art of
embellishing every thing, originally represented their divinities under the
form of simple stones. In the time of Pausanias, there *vere still to be
seen, near Pherae, thirty blocks of stone consecrated to the thirty gods
who were the earliest objects of Grecian adoration. Even Love and the
Graces had at first no other images. In the time of Titus, Venus was
still at Paphos but a simple pyramidal stone.

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 9
" Thus Greece, the country of the fine arts, presents us, even in the
epoch of her splendour, with a number of these primitive monuments.
We find that they were equally venerated by almost every other peo
ple. The Romans, in the time of Numa, entertained the same notions
as the Persians with regard to the manner of representing the deity.
It was by them also deemed an impiejy to impart to their 'gods a mortal
shape ; simple boundary stones were their images, and the name of
Jupiter Terminus is a proof of the existence of that ancient usage.
Egypt was formerly covered with those sacred stones, the original type
of which is still manifest in the pyramids ; those haughty and too silent
depositories of Egyptian mythology are only — so to speak — the ennobled
descendants of primitive monuments. In short, those symbolical stones
are to be seen in the heart of Asia, as shall be hereafter shown. Kemp-
fer declares that at Japan, they are even yet the objects of the veneration
of the multitude.
" Among the most ancient people whose history has reached our times,
are those inhabitants of the globe who lived before the flood, and whose
deeds and occupations are recorded in the books of Moses. The history
of architecture, considered philosophically and as connected with the
other arts of design, with science, and with legislation, is a history of the
human mind. It bears so strong an impression of the character of the
people by whom it has been cultivated, that an attentive examination of
its origin and progress is the most effectual way to discover the genius,
and manners, and the mental characteristics of the various nations of the
world. 'Art,' says Wieland, ' is the half of our nature ; and without art
man is the most miserable of animals.'
" Among the .antediluvians, architecture could not have made much
progress as a fine art. The principal objects of these ancient heroes were
the chase and- other modes of providing food and clothing without the
labour of cultivating the soil. Sanconiatho says, (apud Euseb. Prsep.
Evang. 1. i., c. 9., p. 35,) that ' fishing was one of the earliest inventions
which the ancients attributed to their heroes.' The Bible and Homer
are full of the manners of our earliest ancestors. Fishing, hunting, the
care of their flocks, and, in later times, agriculture, were the employments
of their monarchs . and heroes, their shepherd-kings. Cookery, washing,
making garments, and other domestic business, were those of their women
of rank, their princesses, and their queens.
" The history of architecture before the flood, although it forms a
large portion in the history -of the art by a French author, (Milan,) fur
nishes but few authentic facts. The great historian and legislator of the
Jews, Moses, has only related those leading events which were necessary

10 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
to his history, and omitted those details which are only requisite for the
gratification of curiosity.
" Our great philosopher, Sir William Jones, in discoursing of this great
event, the deluge, says, ' the sketch of antediluvian history, as given by
most ancient historians of the race of Adam, in which we find many dark
passages, is followed by the narrative of a deluge which destroyed the
whole race of man except four pairs ; an historical fact, admitted as true
by every nation to whose literature we have access, and particularly by
the ancient Hindus, who have allotted a whole purana to the detail of
that event, which they relate 'as usual in symbols or allegories. I concur
most heartily, says this learned philosopher, ' with those who insist that
in proportion as any fact mentioned in history seems repugnant to the
course of nature, or, in one word, miraculous, the stronger evidence is
required to induce a rational belief of it; but we hear that cities have been
overwhelmed by eruptions from burning mountains, territories laid waste
by hurricanes, and whole islands depopulated by earthquakes : if then we
look at the firmament sprinkled with innumerable stars, we conclude by
a fair analogy that every star is a sun, attracting 'like ours a system of
inhabited planets ; and if our ardent fancy, soaring, hand in hand with
sound reason, waft us beyond our visible diurnal sphere into regions of
immensity, disclosing other celestial expanses, and other systems of suns
and worlds on all sides without number or end, we cannot but consider
the submersion of our little spheriod as an infinitely less event in respect
of the immeasurable universe, than the destruction of a city or an isle, in
respect of this habitable globe. Let a general flood, however, be sup
posed improbable, in proportion to the magnitude of so ruinous an
event, yet the concurrent evidences of it are completely adequate to the
supposed improbability.'
" The state of mankind immediately after this general deluge, is shown
in the Mosaic history. The families of Noah which emerged from the
ark, after paying their grateful adoration to the Deity who had preserved
them, in order to perpetuate their race, erected an altar of unhewn stones,
and offered sacrifice thereon. This is one of the most ancient examples
of post-diluvian monumental architecture on record.
" The descendants of Noah remained no longer united in one society
than was necessary for their increase and security. As soon as they
were sufficiently numerous, they dispersed themselves into the different
regions of the earth, about a century and a half after the flood. It does
not, however, appear that it was their intention at first to separate per
manently, though they were often obliged to separate in search of subsist
ence. ' With this view they formed the design of building a city, and of

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. H
raising a tower of a great -height in the centre of it, as a signal and as a
point of union.' It was for this purpose that the French antiquary, De-
Goguet, in his Origine des Loix, attributes the erection of that vast struc
ture, called the tower of Babel ; while the best translators ofthe Hebrew.
Bible render the fourth verse of the eleventh chapter of Genesis, ' let us
build us a city and a tower whose top may reach unto heaven ; and let
us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad ;' giving the desire of
perpetuating their fame by an indestructible monument, as their motive
for this undertaking.
" We learn the simple manners and customs of the ancient Israelites
and the nations in their immediate vicinity, from their ancient writers.
And Homer, in describing the manners of the Cyclops, gives a cor
roborating idea of the uncultivated state of many of the ancient nations.
?The Cyclops,' says the poet,* 'know no laws.; each governs his family,
and rules over his wife and children. They trouble not themselves
with the affairs of their neighbours, and think not. themselves inter
ested in them. Accordingly, they have no assemblies to deliberate on
public affairs. They are governed by no general laws to regulate
their manners and their actions. They neither plant nor sow. They
are fed by the fruit which the earth produces spontaneously. Their
Shad© is on the summits of mountains, and caverns serve them for
retreats. " This unsocial, uncultivated mode of living could not be of long con
tinuance with regard to a great part of mankind. So many motived
must have concurred to induce families to associate and mingle with each
other, that several must have united early.
"The connexion of architecture and the rest of the arts and sciences,
with the laws, government, and manners of a people, are curious, and
useful subjects of inquiry.- Their relation with the history of the human
mind is clear and indisputable.
^"•Architecture takes its style, its varieties, its. colouring, if it may be so
called, from the people who successively invented or introduced it ; and
their moral characters as a people may be deduced from their national
styles of architecture, as will be hereafter shown.
"Among, the. earliest specimens of monumental architecture of which
.we read, Josephus acquaints us that the children of Seth erected two pil
lars, one of brick and the other of stone, on which they engraved the
principles of astronomy. The making of bricks, the building with hewn
stone, and the art of sculpture here ,<shown, are proofs of a high-degree
* Odyssey, 1. ix. v. 106, et seq.

J2 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
of civilization and a knowledge of the arts and sciences by no means
contemptible. " In the second age of the world, which is calculated from the build
ing of the tower of Babel by the posterity of Noah to the foundation of
Athens by Cecrops in the year before Christ 1556, many large cities were
founded. Early in this period, Nimrod laid the foundation of the Assyrian
empire, and built Nineveh, the celebrated metropolis of Assyria. Nearly
at the same time Troy was founded by Scamander ; Mizraim, the son of
Ham, led a colony into Egypt, and laid the foundation of a kingdom ; and
Cadmus, the reputed inventor of .letters, with Moses, the Jewish legisla
tor, and Aaron, his brother, flourished.
" In this early period of history, the Assyrians cultivated the arts, and
excelled in that of architecture. This second epoch, or age, is distin
guished by the building of the tower of Babel, and by the designs formed
by the ,posterity of Noah, and in part executed, of building a city in the
plains of Shinar.* According to some historians, Belus, known in the
Scriptures by the name of Nimrod, the first king of Assyria, was the re
puted projector of this structure. He built, afterwards, in the same place,
the celebrated city of Babylon, where he arrogated to himself the honours
of divinity. Ninus, his son, erected 'to him the first known temple, con
secrated a statue to his memory, and ordered it to be worshipped, which
is the first recorded instance of idolatry.
"Babylon was a large and beautiful city. Pliny relates (lib. vi., c. 26,)
that it was sixty miles in circumference, that its walls were two hundred
feet high and fifty thick, and that the magnificent temple of Jupiter Belus
was standing there in his time. Herodotus says it was four hundred
and eighty furlongs in circumference ; that it was full of magnificent
structures, and celebrated for the temple of Belus ; that it had a hun
dred gates of brass, which proves that the fusion and mixture of metals were
known ; and that other arts dependent on design were then practised.
" In less than two centuries after the flood, architecture was culti*
vated in Chaldea, China, Egypt, and Phcenicia. Mosesf has preserved
the names of several cities which Nimrod built in Chaldea. The Chinese,
says the Fohi, enclosed cities and towns with walls, (Martini, 1. i., p. 28;)
and Semiramis, the wife of Ninus, finished the stupendous walls of Baby
lon, which were reckoned among the seven wonders of the world, and
her palace, which is celebrated by historians for the historical and em
blematical sculptures with which the walls were covered, and for the
colossal statues of bronze and gold of Jupiter Belus, Ninus, Semiramis.
and of her principal warriors and officers of state.
* "Genesis, xi. 4. t Genesis, &. 10.

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 13
"Architecture, having thus been successfully practised among the
Assyrians, was carried by them into Egypt, the most ancient country of
which we have any authentic monuments existing, and also into other
countries, the people of which they subjugated. The Egyptian style of
architecture is characterized by a, solidity of construction, by an origin
ality of conception, and by a boldness of form. The civilization of this
people and the consequent cultivation of the arts, commenced in Upper
Egypt The architectural monuments of this portion of Egypt are more
numerous, more characteristic, and more ancient, than those of Lower
Egypt, whose inhabitants for a long period after the knowledge of archi
tecture in Upper Egypt lived in natural caves and excavations in the
mountains. The excavations now remaining and mentioned by travel
lers, are possibly of this period ; but the hieroglyphics and other figures
with which they are sculptured are of a later period than that of their
first reputed inhabitants.
" Before entering on the details of the Egyptian monuments, I will
first briefly analyze and describe the character of their architecture. The
characteristics or elementary principles of Egyptian architecture are,
walls of great thickness, roofs generally of a single block of stone which
reached from wall to wall, a multitude of columns of various forms, pro
portions, and prnaments, seldom with bases, and when with that addition
they are mostly simple plinths. The capitals vary considerably, as may
be seen in. the works of Denon, Dr. Pococke, Belzoni, and other travel
lers. In some instances they are ornamented with foliage, in others they
resemble a vase, and again in others a bell reversed. In Egyptian archi
tecture there is no frieze, nor, correctly speaking, any cornice or archi
trave, and their substitutes may be called by either name ; for something
resembling them may be traced in the epistylia, or beams of Stone, which
reach from column to column.
"Another characteristic of Egyptian architecture is a peculiar narrcfw-
ness of intercolumniation, being often not more than three feet and a half
in width. The absence of arches, which are supplied by epistylia, or
stone beams, or lintels, is also another and peculiar characteristic of this
original arid singular style.
" Dr. Pococke thinks that the ancient Egyptians were not ignorant of
the construction of the arch, but does not give satisfactory proofs of the
cause of his conviction. And the president De Goguet, in his learned
dissertation on the origin of laws, arts, and sciences, assumes from their
not using it, that they did not understand it. The proofs which he gives
of this ignoronce might with as great propriety be adduced of their con
tempt of this mechanical means of covering apertures. The nearest ap-

14 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
proach to the principle is to be seen in the entrance of the great pyramid
at Memphis, of which an engraving is given in that work.
" Belzbni agrees in opinion of their knowledge of the arch, and found
specimens at Thebes and at Gournon, under the rocks which separate
that place from the valley Babel el Malook.
" However conjectural the origin of the Egyptian style may be, thus
far at least is certain, that it is the fountain whence all succeeding people
have drawn their most copious draughts, and is deserving of minute in
vestigation. This style bears all the marks of freshness of invention
drawn from native materials and national symbols. It is in the country of
its' origin that those colossal wonders, those architectural monsters? the
pyramids, are situated. It is needless to dwell upon a long- description of
these structures. They have been the theme of literati and travellers for
centuries, and bear authentic testimony to the truth of history/
" The largest of the three pyramids said to have been built by Cheops,
or Chemnis, forms a square whose base is six hundred* feet and its height
nearly five hundred feet, or an area the size of Lincoln's Inn Fields, which
have been said to have been constructed of this specific size by Inigo
Jones for the purpose of illustration, and its apex nearly a third higher
than the summit ofthe cross of St. Paul's.
" This mountain of masonry is constructed with stones of an extraordi
nary size, riiany of them being thirty feet long, four in height, and three in
thickness. Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Pliny, say, that the stones
employed in building the pyramids were brought from Ethiopia and Arabia/
This fact De Goguet affects to doubt, for he says it is not likely that the
kings of Egypt, having excellent materials at hand, would have unnecessa-'
rily expended immense sums to have fetched them from afar. And that
the stones of the pyramids bear too great a resemblance to those which are
found in the neighbourhood, for him to imagine that they were not taken
thence. Yet it is no less probable that the stones referred to by these
ancient historians, may have been the marble with which ¦¦ they were
coated, and may have been fetched from the neighbourhood of the Red
Sea and from Upper Egypt.
" The origin of the pyramids, the causes of their erection, and by
whom, are differently related ; but Belzoni has in some measure set the
question at rest by his recent discoveries, and proved that they were the
tombs of their founders.
" Herodotus, the father of pagan history, records with an interesting
accuracy the methods used in constructing the greater pyramid, that
leaves nothing to doubt. He relates that a hundred thousand workmen
were employed at the same time in the construction of this pyramid.

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 15
They were relieved by an equal number every three months. Ten years,
he reports, on the authority of the Egyptian priests, were employed in
hewing and conveying the stones, and twenty more in finishing this enor
mous structure, which contained galleries, chambers, and a well.
" An eminent writer in the Asiatic Researches (Captain Wilford,) in
a very curious dissertation on this subject, translated from the ancient
books of the Hindus, says, the pyramids are there called three stupendous
mountains, of gold, silver, and of precious stones. They might be so
named in the hyperbolical style of the eastern nations, but he conjectured
they were so used from the coating with which, they were covered, and
that the first was said to be of gold, -because it was covered with yellow
marble ; the second of silver, being coated with white marble ; and the.
third of jewels and precious stones, because it excelled the others in mag-!
nificence, being coated with beautiful .variegated marbles of a fine grain
and exquisite lustre.
" If these pyramids were entirely faced with marble and ornamented
by sculpture, if theSe tremendous masses of eternal masonry were but
cores to ornamental structures, such as have been described, they may,
nay, they must have been, particularly if their summits were surrounded
by the sky-piercing obelisk, the. grandest architectural monuments ever
produced by the little builder, man.
"Near to these pyramids is the colossal head called the Sphinx of
Ghiza, the face of which resembles a woman, and the body that of a lion.
This extraordinary figure is said to have been the sepulchre of the Egyp
tian king Amasis, and is one entire stone, being sculptured out of a solid
rock. "Count Cabillia, who investigated this spot a short time previous to the
enterprising Belzoni, succeeded, after much labour and difficulty, in un
covering the front of this colossus, and found a small temple between its
front paws, and a large tablet of granite on its breast inscribed with
figures and hieroglyphics.
"Among other celebrated examples of monumental architecture among
the Egyptians, are their Obelisks, which have been considered not only
purely Egyptian in use, but also in origin. But if what Herodotus says
be true, it must have, been in, Asia, and not in Egypt, that they had their
origin. " This ancient author speaks of a pyramidal spire erected by command
of Semiramis on the road to Babylon, which was a single stone, one hun
dred and thirty feet in height, and twenty-five broad at its base. Pliny,
however^ insists oil their Egyptian origin, and that a king of Heliopolis,
called Mestres, was. the first who caused one to be raised. Be. this as it

16 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
may, the monarchs and people of Egypt appear always to have had a
great taste for obelisks, and the names of those who erected such may be
found in the works of the elder Pliny. -
" Two of the principal of these grand monuments of art were erected
by Sesostris, with the design of informing posterity of the extent of his
power and the number of the nations which he had conquered. They
are each of a single piece of granite one hundred and eighty feet high.
• "Augustus, according to Pliny, transported one of these obelisks to
Rome, and raised it in the Campus Martius. Of the three now in Rome,
doubts have been raised whether either of them are of those raised by
Sesostris, on account of their want of height. That now by the fountain
of the Piazza del Popolo, is seventy-four feet without its modern pedestal ;
that of the Vatican, in front of St. Peter's, seventy-eight feet ; and that
on Trinita de Monte, forty-five feet without their pedestals ; while those
of Sesostris were of the enormous height of one hundred and eighty feet.
" The obelisk of the Piazza del Popolo is that which was brought to
Rome by Augustus, after being spared from the ravages of Cambyses,
from respect to its origin, when that furious conqueror put all to fire and
sword in Egypt, sparing neither palaces nor temples, nor those superb
monuments which, ruined as they are, are still the admiration of travellers.
" From the place where it was originally elevated by Augustus, it was
removed to its present situation by Pope Sextus V., in 1589, under the
direction of the Cavalier Fontana, who also designed its pedestal and the
contiguous fountain. The one now so great an ornament in the front of
St. Peter's, is also said to have been one of those erected by Sesostris at
Heliopolis, the city of the sun, and was brought to Rome, by Caligula, in
a vessel then the largest that had ever been seen at sea, and was after
wards sunk to form the port of Ostia. Caligula erected it in his circus
at the Vatican, which was destroyed by Constantine the Great, to build
the first basilica of St. Peter ; but he left the obelisk standing on the spot
now occupied by the sacristy. It was removed at an expense of nearly
£10,000 sterling, in 1586, by Sextus V., to its present situation, nearly a
century before the construction of the fine colonnade which now sur>.
rounds it.
" Of the great and beautiful temple of Dendera, or Tentyra, it is diffi
cult to say whether it be monumental or sacred, but it may class with
the former. The inhabitants of this place were great worshippers of Isis
and Venus. From the ruins, it appears that the temples of this city were
more beautiful and splendid and in a better styl%>f art and workmanship
than any other now remaining in Egypt. Dr. Pococke, Captain Norden,
Paul Lucas, Granger, Maillett, Cassas, and Denon, have been diffuse and

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 17
enthusiastic in their descriptions of Tentyra. Denon was so enraptured
when he st#od beneath the portico of the great temple at Tentyra, that
he exclaimed, ' I thought myself, nay, I really was, in the sanctuary of
the arts and sciences. I was agitated by the multiplicity of objects,
amazed by their novelty, and tormented by the fear that I should never
behold them again.' The extent of this temple was such, that the Arabs
had formerly a village on its roof, the ruins of which are still to be seen.
" Belzoni, in his Travels in Egypt, speaking of this temple, says, ' on the
19th, early in the morning, my curiosity was at a high pitch, the noted
temple of Tentyra being the only thought I had in my head. On arriving
before it, I was for some time at a loss where I should begin my examina
tion. The numerous objects before me, all equally attractive, left me for
a while in a state of suspense and astonishment.' The enormous masses
of stone employed in the edifice are so well disposed, that the eye discor
vers the most just proportion every where. The majestic appearance of
its construction, the variety of its ornaments, and, above all, the singular
ity of its preservation, had such an effect on Belzoni, that he seated
himself on the ground, and was for a considerable time lost in admiration.
It is the first Egyptian temple the traveller sees on ascending the Nile, and
is certainly the most magnificent. It has an advantage over most others,
from the good state of preservation it is in. It is the cabinet of Egyptian
art; the product of study for many centuries, and deserves all the praise
that has been given to it. It was iii this grand monument of the art that
the celebrated Zodiac of Tentyra was found, which MM. Saulnier and
Leloraine have recently carried away to Paris.
;; "There are few subjects- on which men of learning and taste have dif
fered more than upon the art of the Egyptians. Some raising it to the
skies, others scouting it as the barbarous of barbarism. De Goguet and
his followers treated it with the utmost contempt. Denon and Belzoni
overflow with praises of its beauties, and find no defects. Sonnini- de
scribes his sensations at the sight of their temples as difficult to define, so
grand, so majestic, did he find them. It was not a simple admiration
merely, but an ecstasy which suspended the use of all his faculties. He
remained for some time immovable with rapture, and felt himself more
than once inclined to prostrate himself in token of veneratipn before
monuments, the rearing of which appeared to transcend the strength and
genius of man.
" Yet after all, the Egyptian style is monotonous, sombre, heavy, and
unfit for our use ; and, if studied exclusively, till regard for antiquity en
genders love . for ugliness, is destructive of a pure taste. What made
probably a delightful parlour in Egypt, would make an excellent coal eel
2

18 ' ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
Iar in England. Yet, from its antiquity and excellence of construction,
there are few styles more interesting to the antiquary, more delightful to
the traveller, or bearing greater testimony to the truth of ancient history.
" Although the lively Frenchman, Sonnini, says, that before it the so
much boasted fabrics of Greece and Rome must come and bow down ;
yet when it is calmly investigated and brought to the standard of judg
ment, it will not bear a momentary comparison with either for chaste-
ness, real beauty, and true sublimity.
" Architecture among the ancient Jews, is a much darker and more
inexplicable subject. . The Hebrews, Israelites, or Jews, by a residence
in Egypt of nearly four hundred years, had attained a considerable degree
of civilization. After their deliverance from captivity in that country,
they led a wandering life for forty years. The temples which they had
seen in Egypt dedicated to Egyptian idols, led them to consecrate a tem
ple where they might assemble in public worship of the true God. ¦ As it
was necessary, from their mode of life during their sojournment in the
wilderness, that it should be portable, they constructed it in the form of
a spacious tent. In the plan and arrangement of this temporary erection,
known by the name of the tabernacle, they took the form, it has been
conjectured, of the Egyptian temples for their guide ; they adopted in the
details and ornaments a peculiar and national style. Conjecture and
written description is all that is left us of the architecture of the Hebrews.
"The architectural ruins of the monuments ofthe old inhabitants of that
great empire improperly called by Europeans Persia — the name of a single
province being applied to the whole empire of Iran, as it is correctly de
nominated by the natives and by the learned Mussulmans who resided in
British India — are conclusive proofs of the grandeur of this ancient people.
They differ in style both from the Egyptian and the Hindu, yet possess
a general affinity. Sir William Jones, after due investigation, — and who
was ever a more ardent and laborious investigator than he ? — concludes,
from the most unexceptionable evidence, that the Iranian or Persian mon
archy must have been the most ancient in the world ; but he was doubt
ful to which of the three stocks, Hindu, Arabian, or Tartarian, the. first
kings of Iran belonged. He also, after a most learned and interesting dis-
quisition, holds this proposition firmly established : that Iran, or Persia,
was the true centre of population, of knowledge, of language, and of arts.
Of such a people, an account of their architecture cannot but be of con
sequence ; and it is therefore lamentable that so few faithful delineations
of their monuments have been taken.
" The ruins of Persepolis are the principal existing remains of Persian
architecture. This city was taken by Alexander, misnamed the Great,

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. ; 19
who was persuaded by Thais, a shameless courtesan, during a drunken
revel, to set it on fire, at the place now called by the natives Kilmanac or
Ischilmanar, the forty columns, from the circumstance of there having
been that number standing when the Mahometans invaded that part of
Iran ; but at present there are not above nineteen left. The splendid
edifice of which these ruins are the remains, is supposed to have been
erected by their king Huished, or Schemscheddin.
" The style of the architecture and sculpture proves their antiquity.
From the fact of every column being surmounted by a figure of some ani
mal, and the well known circumstance of the ancient Persians performing
their religious duties in the open air, proves, in opposition to Millin,*-for
the building could never have had architraves or a roof, — that it was a
temple. These singular columnar ruins are formed of a beautiful white
marble, which is found in the mountain Rachmed near the spot.
" Count Caylus thought he perceived, and endeavored to draw, an
analogy between the Persepolitan and the Egyptian styles ; but we have
not sufficient authority of the former to examine these claims*
" The Hindu style of architecture, as exemplified in their monuments,
appears to have been drawn from their original dwellings, caves and ex
cavations. Man is by nature a burrowing animal, and mostly carries his
original propensities , into states of refinement.
"The period of authentic history in India, as in other countries, is
comparatively of recent date. It is scarcely more than three thousand
years since the most ancient and only genuine historical records of the
ancient world, ascribed to Musah, or, as we call him after the Greeks and
Romans, Moses, were composed. Herodotus, the most ancient heathen
historian whose works have reached our times, flourished a thousand
years later ; and Homer, the third ancient author who speaks of our art,
is of too doubtful a period to establish dates.
" The remains of architectural monuments in India, from style and
construction, seem to prove an early connexion between that country and
Egypt. The pyramids, the colossal statues, the obelisks, the sphinx, the
mummy pits and subterranean temples with colossal figures, and the lion-
headed sphinxes, recently, discovered by Belzoni in Egypt, indicate the
style and system of mythology to be akin to those of the indefatigable
workmen who formed the vast excavations of Canarah, Elephanta, and
Ellora, as well as the various immense pagodas, pillars, and colossal im
ages of Buddha and other Indian idols. These subjects will be farther
discussed in the article Sacred Architecture.
"Another proof of a similarity of style between the ancient Egyptians
and Hindus, is their mutually using lofty spires, or obelisks, like the pillar

20

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.

of Allahabad; a Striking resemblance to which is seen in the ancient-:
round towers of Ireland ; and also between the pyramids of Egypt and
the colossal brick building in the Hadjipore district, near the Gunduc
river. This immense pile of brick is about two days' journey up the Gun
duc, one of the tributary streams of the Ganges near Kessereah.
"Mr. Burrows, who visited it about the year 1785, and took its dimen
sions, conceives it to be evidently intended for the well-known image of
the- god Maha Deo ; having originally been a cylinder placed upon the
frustrum of a cone, for the purpose of being seen at a distance. It is at
present very much decayed, and it is not very easy to tell whether the
upper part of the cylinder has been circular or conical. A considerable
quantity of the outside has fallen down, but it is still seen at a great dis
tance up and down the river.
" The dimensions of this colossal edifice, as given by Mr. Burrows, in
the Asiatic Researches, are the diameter of the column at the base, three
hundred and sixty- three feet; height of the conic frustrum on which the
cylinder is.placed, ninety-three feet ; diameter of the cylinder, sixty-four*
feet, which is nearly two- thirds ofthe size of the diameter of the base of
the cupola of St. Paul's cathedral ; height of the present remains of the
cylinder or round tower, sixty-five feet ; entire height, one hundred and
fifty-eight feet, or nearly the height of the monument near London Bridge
without its pedestal. Both the cylinder and the cone are constructed of
well-burnt bricks, many of them two spans long and one broad, andothexs-
of the common size, but thinner.
" The pillar of Allahabad, as described by the late Captain Hoare, is a
lofty conical structure, covered with inscriptions, which are given in the
second volume ofthe Transactions of the' Asiatic Society, with an engrav
ing of its elevation ; but neither Captain Hoare, Mr. Colebrooke, nor
Moonshee Mohammed Morad, who accompanied the Captain to Allaha
bad, could obtain any information respecting it.
" Architecture is of too much importance in the affairs of nations, to
be neglected or despised by the political economist ; being the art by
which we can best distinguish man in a civilized state from that of sim
ple barbarity, and forms a scale of comparative cultivation and of the pro
gress of intellect between nation and nation.
" Plato acknowledges that the science of politics and legislation began
with the building of cities (Plat, de Leg., 1. 3 et 6) : thus has architecture
its political use, public buildings being the' most distinguished and most
durable ornaments of a country. It establishes a nation, draws people,'
creates commerce, makes the people love and respect their native coun
try, which passion is the origin of all great actions in a commonwealth.

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 21
"The emulation of the cities of Greece,' says Wren, 'was the true, cause
of their greatness; the obstinate valor of the Jews, occasioned by the
love of their magnificent temple, was a cement that held together that
people for many ages, through infinite changes.'
" The care of public decency and convenience was a great cause of
the establishment of the Low Countries, and of many cities in the world.
Modern Rome subsists still by the ruins and imitation of its glorious an
cestor ; as does Jerusalem by the temple of the sepulchre and other re
mains of Helena's zeaL
" Architecture aims at eternity ; and is, therefore, the only art incapa
ble of modes and fashions in its principles, the orders. It is also the
most faithful record of the great and noble deeds of nations long since
passed away; and its works are speaking witnesses of the truth of
history. " By the gigantic pyramids, by the lofty obelisks, by the stupendous
temples, and other architectural monuments of Egypt, we have authentic
documents and ocular demonstration of the veracity of the historic pen
which records the numbers and the power of the mighty people that once
inhabited the extensive shores of the prolific Nile-
" The Parthenon, the Erectheum, and the other brilliant gems of Attic
taste which embellish the solitary wastes of ancient Athens, bear similar
testimony to that refined taste which the ancient historians and critics of
antiquity attribute to the people of Greece. The Acropolis and its lovely
structures vouch for Pausanias ; the pyramids and obelisks of Egypt, for
the venerable father of pagan -history, Herodotus ; and Rome, the eter
nal city, owes its most lasting celebrity to architecture.
" By architecture, too, we are informed how painting and how sculp
ture flourished among the ancients. For it has not only preserved upon its
walls, as in the temple of Tentyra, in the magnificent baths ofthe Roman
emperors, and on the "walls of Hereulaneum and Pompeii, positive ves
tiges of their pencils ; but by ratifying, as it were, tne truth of the histo
rians' account of their architecture, gives us a point whereon we may
fix our belief in their descriptions of the powers of their ancient painters.
Thus the existing works of Phidias, Ictinus, Callicrates, and Mnesicles,
prove the reality and the power of the highly and justly lauded produc
tions of Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Apelles, of which we have only written
testimony. " Much may be said of the political utility and moral advantages of a
cultivation of architecture; but a few words on an enlightened patron
age of it may not be deemed extraneous from the subject.
" This proper and judicious mode of administering patronage, or in

22 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
other words, justice, to a national art, of necessity includes a patronage
of all the arts, and embellishes the names of monarchs and princes with
unfading lustre, equal to any and superior to most. A great and good
prince is rendered yet more illustrious by such encouragement ; and the
infamy of a bad one is even gilded over to his_contemp6raries, and over
powered to posterity, by the brilliancy of its lustre. The bloody and
drunken insanities of Alexander, by some called the Great, are shaded by
hisrpatronage and love of art; and the nameless atrocities of Hadrian are
softened by his deeds in art almost to a name of repute; while the mild.
lustre of a Titus receives a brilliant accession from the same causes. So
is the tyranny of Pericles adorned and neutralized by his enlightened pa
tronage of Phidias. The Parthenon has remitted his sins ; and Hadria-
nopolis, with its tasteful structures, sheds rays of glory around the head
of the otherwise contemptible and infamous patron and associate of An-
tinous. "This art was held in such esteem by the Greeks that none but the
well-born were allowed to study it, and princes gloried in its practice.;
If, as Sir Joshua Reynolds asserts, the value and rank of every art be in
proportion to the mental labour employed in it, then should architecture
rank very high. As this principle is observed or neglected, architecture
becomes either a liberal art or a mechanical trade. In the hands of one
man it makes the highest pretensions, as it is addressed to the noblest fa
culties, and becomes a matter of philosophy; while in those of another it
is reduced to a mere matter of ornament, and the architect has but the
humble province of building elegant" trifles.
"In a preceding section an assertion was made that architecture was
a less imitative art than either painting, sculpture or engraving ; that its
elements are more purely original than those of the other arts ; yet it is
in a certain degree imitative of its own^ojdnal types or prefigurationsi,
which are first the cavern, as exemplified ^jfhe Egyptian and the Indian
styles, which has been imitated also in our ancient British achitecture, as
may be seen in many examples, such as the ancient crypt of St. Peter's,
Oxford, at Lastingham Priory, &c, where the resemblance is~ abundantly
striking ; the tent, as in the Chinese, and its species ; and the cabin, or
wooden hut, as displayed in the Greek and its imitators : that is to say,
that the Egyptians, the Indians, and their like, imitated in their buildings
their ancient excavations, their primeval dwellings ; that the Chinese, in
their pagodas and other public buildings, imitated their tent; that the
Greeks imitated and refined carpentry in their marble temples ; that the
Romans followed the Greeks ; that the early architects of Britain follow
ed the Romans ; that many architects of the present day follow the

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 23
Greeks to a servile pedantry; and that the architects erroneously
called Gothic imitated their primitive places of worship, their sacred
groves. " Our great architect, Sir Christopher Wren, whose merits as a writer
are scarcely sufficiently acknowledged, carries this hypothesis still farther,
and in a most beautiful manner. He says, 'Vitruvius hath led us
the true way to find out the originals ofthe orders. When men first co
habited in civil commerce, there was a necessity of forums and public
places of meeting. In cold countries, people were obliged to shut out the
air, the cold, and the rain ; but in the hot, countries, where civility first
began, they desired to exclude the sun only, and admit all possible air for
coolness and health. This brought in naturally the rase of porticoes, or
roofs for shade, set upon columns. A walk of trees is more beautiful, than
the most artificial portico ; but these not being easily preserved in market
places, they made the more durable shades of porticoes, in which we see
they imitated nature. Most trees that are in their prime, that are not
saplings or dotards, observe nearly the proportion of Doric columns in the
length of their boll before they part into branches. This I think a more
natural comparison than that to the body of a man, in which there is little
resemblance of a cylindrical body. The first columns were the very bolls
of trees turned or. cut in prisms of many sides. A little curiosity would
induce to lay the torus at the top : and the conjecture is not amiss, to say
it was first a band of iron to keep the clefts occasioned by the sun from
opening with the weight above ; and to keep the. weather from piercing
these clefts, it was necessary to cover it with the plinth, or square, board ;
and the architrave conjoined all the columns in length,' as may be seen
in the drawing of the flank of the Grecian temple.
" Of these primitive styles, that of the Egyptian, or cavern style, is
dark, heavy and monotonous ; the Chinese, or tent style, light, feeble, and
fragile ; and the Greek, or cabin style, is at once solid, and light, is susT
ceptible of being made more or less solid or light, according to necessity
or required character, is the highest in its combinations, and that which
unites in itself in the highest degree the advantages of solidity and an in
finite agreeableness-of variety. Of the elements of the cabin, or Greek
style, the elegant critic Algarotti says, in his Saggis sopra V Architettura,
that it is the material the most capable of furnishing the art with the
greatest number of profiles, modifications, and varied ornaments, which
said profiles, modifications, and varied ornaments, so highly prized by the-
Italian critic, the Greeks have indurated, sublimed, and immortalized ;
while the Romans have debased them, and, in. many instances, lowered
them below even their original types. : .

24 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
" While upon the subject of that imitation which is essential to a pure
style in architecture, an imitation by no means destructive of legitimate
invention, a few words may be allowed by way of elucidation.
" By imitation is not meant that servile counterfeiting of an original
which is so much the practice of some of our modern Greeks, who copy
the very fractions of .lines and profiles, instead of composing in the same
spirit, but that bold pursuit of a sublime original by parallel images and
examples, sometimes more refined, but never below their type, which dis
tinguishes true genius, cultivated and improved by practice and study,
from the common herd of lineal copyists' modules of minutes and of lines.
Such a free imitation as the iEneid is of the Iliad ; such a bold and origi
nal imitation as Milton is of Homer and of Virgil : such imitations . in
short as bear the marks of real genius — ' that quality without which judg
ment is cold, and knowledge is inert — that energy which collects, com
bines, amplifies, and animates.'
" There are two ways by which a people can imitate the style of archi
tecture of another country ; the one true, and the other false. The true
mode is less an imitation than an adoption, and consists in receiving as
an alphabet in their entire shape the system, the rules, and the taste of a
style of architecture. It was thus that the Romans adopted the architec
ture of the Greeks, or perhaps I should say of the Etrusians, which was
incontestably the same. It was thus also with the nations of modern
Europe, who, abandoning the Gothic and the incongruities of the middle
ages, have appropriated the Greek and Roman styles by legitimate
adoption. " It was after this true mode that Palladio, in his imitations and inven
tive restorations of Roman magnificence, has founded a legitimate school.
It was thus that Michel Angiolo fairly imitated the Pantheon of Agrippa
in his tremendous cupola of the Vatican. And it was thus that our illus
trious countryman Wren, whose transcendent talents I have recently
endeavoured to display to the public, rivalled in design, and surpassed in
purity of taste and scientific construction, the Basilica of St. Peter's at
Rome, the work of more than twenty architects, supported by the trea
sure of the Christian world, and by the protection and under the reigns
of twenty successive popes ; in his unrivalled and splendid work of St.
Paul's, London, that glorious, though unfinished monument of the piety
and magnificence of our ancestors.
" Such imitations are far from plagiarisms, being, on the contrary, skil
ful adoptions or adaptations, bearing proofs of legitimate and inventive
talents. 'Genius,' says Reynolds, " at least what is generally so called,
is the child of imitation ; it is in vain to endeavour to invent without

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 25
materials on which the mind may work, and from which invention must
originate. Nothing can come of nothing.' (Disc, i.)
" The other or false mode of imitation is plain plagiarism, and nothing
better than downright theft, without even that ingenuity to conceal
the theft which, among the Lacedremonians, always procured pardon for
the thief. This mode consists, as it were, in importing by wholesale
such portions of a foreign or ancient style as appear suited to the pur
poses of its importers, and converting them to their own use, not as their
original inventors would have done in their time and place, but forcibly
torturing ancient art to modern uses ; like as the gipsies are. said to do
when they steal children, to disfigure them that they may not be known.
These are mean copiers and importers of architecture, common, bor
rowers ; the others, liberal adopters of the great works of the great mas
ters of our art, from whom 'the modern arts .were revived, and by whose
means they must be restored a second time.' ' However it' may mortify
our vanity,' said Reynolds, ' we must be forced to allow them to be our
masters ; and we may venture to prophesy, that when they cease to be
studied, arts will no longer flourish, and we shall again relapse into bar
barism.' (Disc, vi.)
" It was not in this way that the Greeks borrowed the idea of the Co
rinthian capital from the Egyptians. They boldly adopted and natural
ized it, as well as other types of their orders, which may be seen by
comparing them ; and concealed it with Spartan skill, gratifying their
national vanity in giving currency to the poetical hypothesis of Callima-
chus and the votive vase. The primitive types of the two capitals are
the same, as may be seen by comparison ; the original of each is a vase
surrounded by foliage and covered by an abacus, and a verbaldescription
of the two would very nearly assimilate: The other orders, namely, the
Doric and the Ionic, are as evidently drawn from the same sources : yet
in the essentials of a national style they widely differ. The Egyptians
properly used the plants and flowers of Egypt, and the Greeks those of
Greece. " If, however, the architecture of Greece be, as is often and perhaps
truly asserted, borrowed, adopted, or stolen from that of the Egyptians,
the Greeks have certainly most gorgeously embellished their robbery ;
and if from their own primeval huts and cabins, the metamorphosis of
the cabin into the temple is as rapid and complete as that of the cottatge
of Baucis and Philemon, in the Metamorphoses of Ovid :
' Ilia vetus, dominis etiam casa parva duobus,
Vertitur in templura : furcas subiere coluraniB. — Ovid. lib. viii.

26

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.

" The principal remains of the most ancient examples of the Indian or
Hindu style which have been recently discovered, are of a singular and
extraordinary kind, being mostly excavations in the solid rock. They
are supposed by some antiquaries to have been subterranean temples ;
but many portions of them are undoubtedly monumental or commemora
tive. Immense sculptured caverns of this description have been disco,-
vered in various parts of the Indies, which are wonderful monuments of
the skill and industry of the people who achieved them. These subterra
neous caverns are apparently as ancient as the oldest Egyptian temples,;
and M. D'Ancarville, in his Recherches sur l'Origine, l'Esprit, et les
Progres des Arts de la Grece, thinks them anterior to the time of about
two thousand years before Christ.
" Some archaioldgists have supposed these wonderful sculptured cav
erns to be no older than the first ages of Christianity, after the natives of
India had received the knowledge of the liberal arts and sciences from the
Greeks. The improbability of this hypothesis is apparent at the first
glance ; for, in the first place, the Greeks did not practise excavations ;
and secondly, the style, character, and execution, are as different as light
and darkness from the style, character, and execution ofthe architecture
of the Greeks. -
" Dr. Robertson, on the contrary, thinks them monuments of very re
mote antiquity, as the natives cannot, either from history or tradition,
give any information concerning the time in which they were excavated,
but universally ascribe them to the power of a superior race of beings.
Thus Stonehenge has been attributed to the magical power of Merlin- the
enchanter ; and the devil is often celebrated as an architect of first-rate
skill, and has given his name to many a monument of human power.
" The columns found in„these caverns are rudely formed ; and although
much inferior to Grecian beauty, are, in many instances, more agreeable to
the eye of taste than those of Egypt. Their capitals represent round cush-r
ions pressed down by the superincumbent weight. The elegance of
some of these columns is confirmed by Col. Call, formerly chief- engineer
at Madras, who urges this circumstance as a proof of the early and high
civilization of the Hindus. ' It may safely be remarked,' says he, ' that
no part of the world has more marks of antiquity for arts, sciences and
civilization, than the peninsula of India, from the Ganges to Cape Como-
rin. I think the carvings on some of the Pagodas and choultries, as well
as the grandeur of the work, exceed any thing of the present day, not
only for the delicacy of the chisel, but the expense of construction ; con
sidering, in many instances, to what distances the component parts were
carried, and to what heights raised.'

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY, 27
" The column from a building near Muddumpore, as engraved in
Daniels' Views, although of great antiquity, has the elements of a beauti
ful style. The gradation from the octangular base to the multangular
shaft, setting off to the circular upper shaft, is at once elegant, and pos
sessed of the greatest constructive strength. The masculine style of the
recking, under the quadrifrontal capital, is bold and characteristic.
"Another fine example of a monumental column worthy of notice -is
from an ancient Indian temple near to Benares, a splendid, rich, and po
pulous city, on the north side of the Ganges, which is here very broad,
and the banks very high. The appearance of Benares from the water is
represented by travellers as being very beautiful. Several Hindu temples
embellish the banks of the river, and many other buildings, public and pri
vate, ancient and modern, of a style and execution truly magnificent.
" This singular and most beautiful column, which to the variety of
India adds many of the ornamental graces of the Grecian style, is thought
by Mr. Hodges, who made a drawing whence the plate in his work was
engraven, to have been of the age of Alexander. This eminent artist
and indefatigable traveller conceived, from the striking resemblance
which many of its parts bear to the Greek style, that it must have been
executed by Grecian artists shortly after Alexander's expedition into In
dia; which, according to Dr. Robertson,\was about one hundred and
sixty years after the reigff of Darius Hystaspes. The biographer of
Apollonius Tyraneus (ibid.) relates, that when he visited India, three hun
dred and seventy-three years after Alexander's expedition, twelve stu
pendous altars or monumental stones, which he erected in commemora->
tion of his exploits, were still remaining with legible inscriptions. Be
this as it may, thetelements and style of this beautiful monument of anti
quity completely bear out the hypothesis of Mr. Hodges. Its elements,
perhaps from compliment to the .country, are in every respect Indian; its
ornaments are purely Greek ; its base, its shaft, its capital, are all, in
shape, situation, and distribution, completely Hindu ; with its multangu
lar and mixed circular shaft, its quadrifrontal capital, and tress-shaped
abacus. Its decorative sculptures are essentially and finely Greek. In
its pedestals is found the Grecian honeysuckle in its. greatest purity; the
angles of the shaft are embellished with the sacred water-leaves of the
Hindu mythology; above these are Doric flutes; and in the capital are
found the leaves of the Greek acanthus*
;-,$$?" For beauty of outline, graceful setting off from a square to an octa
gon, and thence to a circle, for richness and purity of style, the column
of Benares stands unrivalled in Eastern art.
" A few more specimens of Indian monurnental art are the series ot

28 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
examples from the early periods of the Mogul empire, which exhibit their
modes of construction both square and circular, and prove their early
knowledge of the arch, the cupola,-and other difficult and scientific modes
of construction ; and to which the preceding observations are equally.*
applicable. " Another proof of a similarity of style between the architecture of
the ancient Egyptians and Hindus, is their mutually using lofty spires -
like the obelisks of the former, and the monumental towers of the latter,
as in the towef of Allahabad, and the lofty conical obelisk on the Shi-
kargah, or hunting-place of Feeroz Shah, the Pyramids of Egypt, and
the conical brick monument in the Hadjepore district, referred to and
described in the last section.
" The monumental style of architecture among the Greeks comes into
a smaller compass than most other nations. The observations on their
pure and fine style will, therefore, be reserved to another section, when
descanting on their sacred buildings. Their principal monuments are the
tower of the winds, which was also a clepsydra, or water clock, and' the
beautiful little choragic monument of Lysi crates, so celebrated for its
elegant variation upon the theme of the Doric order. Another no less
beautiful is the choragic monument of Thrasyllus, sometimes called the
Lantern of Demosthenes, so well known to every student' of Athenian
antiquities. " The triumphal arches of the Romans are among the grandest archi
tectural monuments or luxuries of this magnificent people. Nothing
which could tend to perpetuate the fame of the conquerors was omitted
in the design. Some were constructed with two and others with three
openings, and the most magnificent were erected on the public road call
ed the Triumphal Way.
" On a triumph being decreed, the Roman senate received the con
queror at the Porta Capena, near the Tiber, which was at the entrance -<
to the city from the Appian Way. A brief description of them, for they
very nearly resemble each other, is all that the limits of this work will
allow. &
"The arch of Augustus at Rimini has but a single opening, about
thirty feet in width, crowned with a pediment, contrary to the usual
practice, which was to leave them flat for a triumphal car. It is a beau
tiful specimen of construction, but much mutilated.
"The arches of Titus at Rome and of Trajan at Beneventi, bear a
great resemblance to each other. The former is composed of that beau
tiful composite order, which is said to have been the earliest use of this
order. '

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 29
" The arch called, the Arch of the Goldsmiths at Rome is a curious
example. It is small in size, has but a single opening, is covered by a flat
lintel, and is much embellished by sculpture.
" The arches of Septimus Sevefus and of Constantine, are of three
openings. The latter is embellished with ornaments shamelessly stripped
from the arch of Trajan ; and from their absurd application, we are the
more disgusted with the barbarism ofthe despoilers. The arch of Seve-
rus, the ruins of which are represented in Piranesi, is in fine preserva
tion, and serves as a portico to the church of St. George, in Vellario.
" The Roman style of architecture possesses more variety of style
and buildings than that of Greece. The Roman people had also a more
extended dominion, more personal and natural pride, and were more par
tial to show and magnificence, than the graver and more philosophical
Greeks. Hence arose the greater number and more splendid embellish
ments of their architectural achievements.
" They also erected edifices to commemorate every great event ; and
much of their architecture may be classed under the monumental style.
'When the Romans wished to commemorate and perpetuate,' says Taci
tus, ' the remembrance of any remarkable event, they raised an altar-
stone, and engraved thereon the particulars ofthe transaction.'
" This|freat historian relates, in his account of the public discussions
which ensued in Rome on the death of Augustus, that the objectors to
the honours paid to that emperor complained that the honours due to the
gods, were no longer sacred. Temples were built and edifices erected, to
him. A mortal man was adored, and priests and pontiffs were appointed
to pay him impious homage. This species of homage Augustus was
wise enough to decline when alive ; and Suetonius says; ' although Au
gustus knew that temples were often raised in the provinces in honour of
the proconsuls, he allowed none to be raised to himself, unless they were
at the same time dedicated to the Roman people. In the city he abso
lutely refused all honours of the kind.' These facts prove that the raising
and dedicating a temple was a common, nay, almost an every-day trans
action. *
" Tacitus is perpetually adverting to the numerous architectural mo
numents of his public- spirited countrymen. But unfortunately their
character in taste was inferior both to their wealth and their, vanity.
:;They cultivated few things supremely but eloquence and the art of war ;
and oratory and the sword were the only steps to power and greatness
in Rome„ Greece was, fallen into a state of degeneracy. Point, anti
thesis, and conceit, were the delight of vain preceptors who filled the
streets of Rome, and held schools of declamation, — which Cicero properly

30 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
called ludus impudentice ,-^-and novelty, ornament, and bad taste, crowd
ed their public monuments."
" With such a people architecture could not but flourish ; and had
they, like the Greeks, ennobled the profession of architecture as they did
that of the orator, as fine a taste would* doubtlessly have prevailed in the
one country as in the other. Their very wars encouragednhe arts.
Statues^ and triumphal arches followed victory like a shadow; and the
spoils of the conquered, prisoners of war, with various pictures of battleSj;
mountains, and rivers, were displayed with great pomp.
" Another instance of the architectural grandeur of the Romans, on
the authority of Suetonius, is worth reciting. Augustus, to perpetuate
the memory of his glorious victory at Actium, built- the city of Nicopolis,
near the bay where he obtained the victory, establishing quinquel$rial
games; and, having enlarged an ancient temple of Apollo, adorned it
with naval spoils, and dedicated it to Neptune and to Mars.
"On the death of Germanicus, triumphal arches were ordered to be
erected at Rome, on the Rhine, and Mount Amanus in Syria, with in
scriptions setting forth the splendour of his actions, and' in direct terms
declaring that he died in the service of his country. At Antioch, where
his remains were burned, a mausoleum was erected ; and at Epidaphne,
where he died, a cenotaph was constructed to his memory. Of the se
veral statues and the places where they were to be worshipped, ' it would
be difficult,' says Tacitus, ' to give a regular catalogue. It was further
proposed that a shield of pure gold, exceeding the ordinary size, should
be dedicated to him in the place allotted to orators of distinguished
eloquence.' " These marks of respect are of less value to the dead than to the liv
ing ; and those who witness such grateful remembrances acquire thereby
an additional stimulus towards rivalling them.
" 'Victory and'Westminster Abbey,' was a sentiment uppermost in the
mind of Nelson; and they who are benefited by the services of statesmen
and by the victories of warriors, should not be sparing of durable monu
ments of gratitude, even if it be only with the view of exciting the aspi
ration of contemporaries.'
"Of Roman architecture, the concealed author of Guy Mannering says,
' their fortifications, their aqueducts, their theatres; their fountains, all
their public works, bear the grave, solid, and majestic character of their
language ; and our modern labours, like our modern tongues, seem but
constructed out of their fragments.' Yet, with all this grandeur of con
ception and solidity of execution, their works surprise more from their
immensity of size than the beauty of their detail. This produced an un-

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 31
natural exaggeration of style in all their arts. Their architecture has
given us the swollen composite order ; their sculpture, the exaggerated
style of the gladiator ; and their latter poetry, the hyperboles of Lucan
and of Statius. The Colosseum alone consumed more materials, and
cost more money, than perhaps all the temples of Athens put together ;
and the Roman forum would possibly have contained them all. Imperial
Rome vied with the republic in architectural splendour, and Julius Caesar
commenced a career of magnificence in the provinces, and his nephew
Augustus led the way among the emperors, justly boasting that he found
Rome of birch and left it of marble. It would be well if a British Mi
nerva could arise in imitation of the Athenian goddess, and by her magic
lance convert the half burnt bricks and compo and mastic of modern
London into even decent stone ! „
" One more species of monumental structures used by the ancient Ro
mans alone remains to be mentioned, their commemorative columns.
" They have several still remaining ; one, dedicated to the Emperor
Phocas, stands near the temple of Concord. It is of Greek marble, fluted,
and of the Corinthian order, four feet diameter, and fifty-four high inclu
ding the pedestal. Another worthy of notice is that of Marcus Aurelius,
erected by the Roman senate and people in honour of that emperor for
his victories over the Marcomanni. Aurelius afterwards dedicated it to
his father-in-law, Antoninus Pius, as is expressed on the pedestal ; hence
it is mostly called the column of Antoninus. It is Of the Doric order,
eleven feet six inches in diameter, and one hundred and forty-eight feet
high. " The loftiest, however, in Rome, is
* Trajan's column tall,
From whose low base the sculptures wind aloft,
And lead, through various toils, up the rough steep,
Its hero to the skies.' Dyer-
" This columnjs one of the most celebrated monuments of antiquity,
and has endured the stormy waste of time upwards of seventeen hundred
years. The column of Alexandria, commonly called Pompey's Pillar, is
about ninety-five feet in height ; Trajan's, including the pedestal and
statue, one hundred and thirty-two feet ; and Wren's fine monumental
column near London Bridge, commemorative of, the destruction and re
building of the British metropolis, including, the pedestal and vase of
flames, two hundred and two feet. The latter is quoted to show its su
periority in point of height and size over those of ancient Rome,

32

ARCHITECTURAL- HISTORY.

" British monumental architecture. The next section of my subject
leads us to the obscure days ofthe ancient British monumental style; and
I confess the more I search, the more I am bewildered in fiction, fable,
and hypothesis.
" The commencement of the art in England was similar to its com
mencement in every other country. The caverns and huts of the abo
rigines of these islands were gradually improved from mere necessaries
of life to comforts and luxuries.
" There exist in .this country the most indisputable proofs of a primi
tive or aboriginal style of architecture and successive introductions of
foreign styles at various periods of our history; and here again, it maybe
observed, does architecture prove the truth of history.
" Egypt may boast of its pyramids, India of its excavated temples*
Italy of its Paestum, and Greece of its Cyclopean works, alike defying
history and conjecture : yet England and Ireland possess antiquities as
primitive, as aboriginal, and as remote from accurate date.rin the Ave-
bury, the cromlechs, the Stonehenge of England ; the round towers, the
excavations, the ruins of the seven churches, and, the bed of St. Kieven
in Ireland. " The origin of the architecture of a nation is so intimately connected
with that of the nation itself, that an inquiry into the one necessarily in
volves the other ; therefore, rejecting, the fables of our earlier chroniclers,
we must search for the truth in the monuments themselves.
" Sir William Jones, .in his luminous discourse on the origin and fam-,
ilies of nations, says, with our great Newton, ' We must not admit more
causes of natural things than those which are true, and sufficiently ac
count for natural phenomena; ' and that one pair at least of every livings
species must at first have been created, and that one human pair was
sufficient for the population of our globe, in a period of no considerable
length— on the very moderate supposition of lawyers and political arith
meticians, that one pair of individuals left on an average two children,
and each of them two more. — is evident from the rapid increase of num
bers in geometrical progression, so well known to those who have ever
taken the trouble to sum a series of as many terms as they suppose gen
erations of men in two or three thousand years.
"This profound philosopher then proceeds, with all the learning and
skepticism of a genuine searcher after truth, to compare the Mosaic ac
count of the peopling of our globe with probability and with history ; and
comes, after a series of incontrovertible arguments, to the supposition
that the children of Japhet seem from the traces of Sclavonian names,
and the mention of their having been enlarged, to have spread themselves

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 33
ar and wide, and to have produced the race which for want of a correct
appellation we call Tartarian : the colonies formed by the sons of Ham
and Shem appear to have been nearly simultaneous ; and among those of
the latter branch he found so many names preserved to this day in Arabia,
that he hesitated not to pronounce them to be the same people, whom
hitherto we have denominated Arabs ; while the former branch, the most
powerful and adventurous of whom were the progeny of Cush, Misr,
and Rama, names remaining unchanged to this hour in Sanscrit, and
highly revered by the Hindus, were, in all probability, the race denomina
ted Indian.
"From several tours recently made in the most interesting parts of
Ireland for architectural antiquities, and from considerable investigation
into its history, the author is of opinion that that country was originally
peopled from the East. The ancient architecture, the ancient religion,
the ancient language of Ireland, and those of the inhabitants of Hindustan
and other oriental countries, coinciding in a wonderful manner.
" Equal coincidences in their architecture occasionally recur ; the
pyramids of Egypt have narrow passages leading to dark chambers or
temples under ground. At Benares, the most ancient seat of Braminical
learning, there are also pyramids on a small scale with subterraneous
passages, which are said to extend many miles. These narrow passages
leading to the cell or adytum of the temple appear to render the only
apartment less accessible, and to inspire fhe votaries with rnore awe.
There we find a perfect resemblance between the worship of the ancient
Egyptians and the ancient inhabitants of Hindustan. The caves of the
oracle at Delphos, of Trdphonius, and of New Grange in Ireland, had
narrow passages answering the purposes of those in Egypt and India ;
' nor is it unreasonable to suppose,' says Captain Wilford, in his learned
, dissertations on Egypt from the ancient books of the Hindus, ' that the
fabulous relations of the Grot in Italy, and of the purgatory of St. Patrick
in Ireland, were derived from a similar practice and motive, which seem
to have prevailed over the whole pagan world, and are often alluded
to in Scripture.'
"New Grange is one among many caverns in Ireland, which the au
thor of this work has visited. It is a large mound or pyramid, surround
ed by a circle of stones, near the county town of Drogheda, about twenty-
five miles north of Dublin. The gallery is sixty-two feet long, and the
arms of the cross or transepts twenty feet each. The cupola over the
centre of the, temple at the intersection ofthe cross is formed of long flat
stories projecting one over the other, till they meet in the centre like one
of the openings in the great Egyptian pyramid.
3

34

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.

"The cavern is, he doubts not, of as great antiquity as any in Europe,
and was a burying-place of the ancient Irish, although its cross-^ke form
has induced some to think ofthe time of Christianity ; on its first open
ing, a gold coin of the Emperor Valentinian was found in it, which Dr.
Llhwyd observes might bespeak it Roman, but that a rude carving at the
entry of the cave seems to denote it to be of a barbarous origin.
"Nothing is here said of the similarity between the names of Erin,
(Ireland,) and Iran, (Persia,) conjectural etymologies being too vague
for historical research.
"The round towers of Ireland, (of which he has a list of nearly
seventy now remaining in various parts of the island, frorh Cork to the
Causeway, and from Wexford to Limerick, the greater part of which
he visited and investigated,) their large and singular cromlechs, and
innumerable other antiquities, deserve a course of investigation to
themselves. "II. Sacred Architecture. To trace fully the origin and progress
of sacred architecture among the antediluvians, after what has been said
of the monumental architecture of that ancient period, would be to go
over almost the same ground, which was reviewed in the early part of
the first section ; therefore a brief survey of these ancient and problema
tical times, with an account of the principal works in this. class of archi
tecture, and an analysis of principles, will be all that is necessary for this
portion of our work.
"Among uncultivated nations, such as modern refinement is pleased
to term savage, architecture as a fine art is scarcely known, and their
painting and sculpture are as rude as their manners. We find those
arts, with music, dancing, eloquence, and poetry, in every country and
among every people which have arrived at the first degree of civilization ;
and mankind was certainly in this state in the earliest antediluvian times,
after the families of Adam's immediate progeny settled themselves.
" The connexion between architecture, and the rest of the arts and
sciences, with the laws, government, and manners of the people, are cu
rious and useful subjects of inquiry. Their relations with the history of
the human mind are clear and indisputable ; although some shallow rea-
soners have affected to think them beneath the notice of statesmen and
philosophers, and that the fine arts are to be considered only as mere
amusements and relaxations to superior minds.
" Sacred architecture commenced with the first adoration of man to
his Creator. The first altar of a single stone, surrounded by our grateful
forefathers offering the first fruits of their flock, and corn, and fruit, was
the first temple. Such were the cromlechs of Ireland and Britain, which

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 35
soon increased from the circle of stones to the beauty of the rotunda,
and from the wood-covered temple of ancient Attica to the full-blown
perfection and splendour of the Parthenon.
" Idolatry added to the splendour of ancient temples ; and Ninus, the
first recorded idolater, the son of Belus or Nimrod, erected the earliest
temple to the human gods of antiquity, in commemoration of his father,
whom he ordered to be worshipped, and dedicated a temple to him as
Jupiter Belus. This temple, which Herodotus describes as of splendid
dimensions and design, contained the celebrated brazen statue of Jupiter
Belus, which was cast about two hundred years after the flood, and is
the same idol mentioned in the Scriptures, under the name of Baal 'and
Baal Peor.
"In less than two hundred years after the flood, architecture was
: cultivated in Chaldea, China, Egypt, and Phoenicia. Sacred edifices were
among the most splendid and costly of their productions. Among
the sovereigns recorded in these ancient days is Semiramis, the wife of
Ninus, who finished in this age the stupendous walls of Babylon, which
were reckoned among the seven wonders of the world. This illustrious
princess, to whom the administration of the government was left by her
husband, ascended the throne about one thousand seven hundred years
before the Christian era, and is one of the earliest examples in history
of a throne being filled by a female.
" Diodorus and other ancient writers relate, that among the splendid
works of this princess were the statues of Jupiter Belus, Ninus, herself,
her son JVinias, and the chief men of her kingdom, both warriors and
statesmen. She also erected a magnificent temple to Jupiter Belus, on
the summit of which she erected three statues of gold, representing
Jupiter, Juno, and Rhea.
" Many other similar works of grandeur and idolatry are mentioned
in history as having been erected by this princess, of which, the
necessary limits of this work will not find room even for enumeration.
But it is well known that there were several queens of Assyria of this
name ; and these authors may have attributed to the great Semiramis;
the spouse of Ninus, the works that were probably of another age, and
by another princess of the same name. ' '¦
" From these ancient examples, founded on the authority of the most
ancient historians, we find that sacred architecture flourished in a splendid
manner even in these remote ages. None of these relations, magnifi
cent and splendid as they now are, (not even the walls of Babylon;
the tower of Babel, nor the extent of ancient Nineveh, which is said to
have included a circuit of nearly sixty miles,) should surprise us into an

36 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
unbelief of their authority from their stupendous dimensions alone ; for
if we reflect upon the existing pyramids of Egypt, and know that the
great wall of China, also a work of high antiquity, is fifteen hundred miles
in length, forty-five feet in height, and eighteen feet in thickness, with
towers of corresponding proportions and reasonable distances, we need
not doubt . on these grounds. Here again we find architecture bearing
testimony to the truth of history.
" Architecture,, having been thus successfully cultivated among the
Assyrians, was carried by them into Egypt and other countries which
they conquered.
" ' The first temples,' says Wren, ' were, in all probability, in the
ruder times, only little cellae (cells) to inclose the idol within, with no
other. light than a large door to discover it to the people when the priest
saw proper ; and when he went in alone to offer incense, the people
paying adoration without doors ; for all sacrifices were performed in the
open air, before the front of the temple : but in the southern climates
a grove was necessary, not only to shade the devout, but, frorii the
darkness of the place, to strike some terror and recollection in their
approaches ; therefore, trees being always an adjunct to the cellse, the
Israelites were commanded to destroy not only the idols, but also to cut
down the groves which surrounded them : but — trees decaying with
time, or not equally growing,- though planted at first in good order, or
possibly not having room — when the temples were brought into cities, the
like walks were represented with stone columns, supporting the more
durable shade of a roof instead of the arbour of spreading boughs ; and
still in the ornaments of stone work was imitated, as well as the
materials would admit, both in the capitals, friezes, and mouldings, a
foliage, or sort of work composed of leaves, which remains to this
age.' " This was, in our ingenious countryman Sir Christopher Wren's
opinion, the true origin of colonnades environing the temples in double
and single aisles ; and there is no doubt but it was equally the origin of
the orders, instead of being derived from the proportions of the human
body, as have been assigned to them by imaginations more fanciful than
correct, and to which they bear no reasonable analogy. What resem
blance is there between a Doric column and a man of Herculean pro
portions, an Ionic column and a matron, or a Corinthian column and a
beauteous virgin ? who, by the way, is more overloaded with entablature'
and has more to sustain than either of the other orders.
" In looking at a Grecian Doric column, it is asked, referring at the
same time to the historical origin of the order, does it more resemble a

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 37
trunk of a tree cut off immediately above the root and at the beginning
of the spreading of the branches, or the proportion of a man ? or at the
Ionic, which the Vitruvians called a decent matron with her locks
parted over the forehead, does it not more resemble a slimmer trunk
ornamented with an abacus, and the spirals formed of the ornamented
back ? The Corinthian certainly more resembles, in sober practice, the
foliage of a tree than the braided locks of a youthful female.
" Few nations of antiquity cultivated sacred architecture with greater
devotion or with more splendour than did the ancient Egyptians, par
ticularly in that part of their country called Thebais, or Upper Egypt.
The chief pride of this country was its principal city, Thebes. The
Thebais is the most southerly part of Egypt, nearest to- Ethiopia, and
was nearly as large as the other two parts of Egypt together, including
in its boundaries all the country on both sides of the Nile down to
Heptanomis. " At the time of the Trojan war, Thebes was reckoned the most
opulent and the best peopled city in the world. Among the principal
edifices of the Thebais was the magnificent palace and temple of
Memnon, which, according to Strabo, stood in the city of Abydos, the
second city to Thebes, about seven miles and a half to the west of the
Nile ; that a celebrated temple of Osiris was near to it, that it was also
famed for a deep well or pool of water, with winding steps all round it ;
that the stones used in it were of an astonishing magnitude, and the
sculpture on them excellent.
" Among other principal structures which embellished this portion
of Egypt . was the palace of Ptolemy, at Ptolemais, a city which he
decorated with many costly sacred buildings. Under the Ptolemies the
style of architecture in Egypt sustained a complete revolution, and
their buildings approached the style which was afterwards so beautifully
refined by the Greeks, who brought it to complete perfection ; yet they
never reached that pure and noble style which distinguished the tasteful
inhabitants of Attica.
" These works were probably executed by Greek architects, called
into Egypt by the Ptolemies and their successors? This conjecture
appears the better founded, since a modern traveller, Granger, describes
a temple which he had seen of the Corinthian order ; and farther
observes, in speaking of a .palace which he believes made part of ancient
Thebes, that the capitals of the columns were of the composite order,
highly finished.
" The Thebes just alluded to was distinguished from Thebes in
Bceotia by the epithet Hecatompylos; the hundred-gated Thebes. It was

38 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
not Only the most beautiful city in all Egypt, but it is supposed by
Diodorus and other ancient writers to have surpassed all others of its
time in the known world, as well for the splendour of its buildings as for
extent and the number of its inhabitants.
" Homer says that Thebes was able to furnish twenty thousand
chariots of war. By this we may judge of the number of inhabitants
which it contained. Tacitus relates, that when Germanicus visited its
magnificent ruins, there were still to be seen, on ancient obelisks, a
pompous description, in Egyptian characters, of the3 wealth and grandeur
of the place. From the account of an elderly priest, who interpreted
to him the meaning of the hieroglyphics, it appeared that Thebes at one
time contained within her walls no less than seven hundred thousand
men capable of bearing arms. The objects, however, which most con
cern the present work, are its sacred edifices. Its four principal temples
were of an immense size and of a singular beauty of workmanship.
The gold, ivory, precious stones, and other costly and valuable ornaments
with which they were decorated, were stripped off and carried away by
the Persians, when Cambyses conquered and ravaged Egypt. -
"At Ciiuphis, a city of the Thebais, so called from the god of that
name, was a magnificent temple dedicated to that idol. At Carnac,
another large city near Thebes, there are still. the remains of a superb
temple of Jupiter, now the most perfect in that part of Egypt. The
magnificent temple of Apollo, at Apollinopolis, was one hundred and
seventy feet long, one hundred and eighty feet broad, and seventy feet
high,- as appears by the ruins which still remain. The characters of all
these buildings bear a close resemblance to each other, and are standard
characteristics of Egyptian architecture. The inhabitants of Tentyra,
or Dendera, were great worshippers of Iris and Venus. From the
splendid ruins of this city it appears that their temples were more
beautiful and splendid, and in a better style of art, than any others -ha
Egypt.. "The resemblance between many ancient and distant nations, in
their language, manners, customs, architecture, and sculpture, are very
great, but, when first causes are investigated, by no means surprising;
Sir William Jones, in his invaluable discourses which are. the concrete
of many volumes, observing on the language, manners, and antiquities
of the ancient inhabitants of India, comes to, the indisputable result that
they had an immemorial affinity with the ancient Persians, Ethiopians,
and Egyptians ;' the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Tuscans ; the Scythian^
or Goths, and Celts ; the Chinese, Japanese, and Peruvians : and it will
be our endeavour to show in the course of this article, in which the

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 39
architecture of these various countries are respectively discussed, that
their ancient buildings all corroborate and prove this important fact in
the history of mankind.
" The singular and extraordinary subterraneous temples at Elephanta,
Ellora, and other parts of India, are curious objects of investigation, and
are alluded to in the first section of this article. Mr. Goldingham, one of
the honourable the East India Company's astronomers at Fort St. George,
who had applied himself with great assiduity to the study of the antiqui
ties of Hindustani, visited the Elephanta Cave in 1795, and published an
interesting and faithful account of this wonderful effort of human skill in
the fourth volume of the Asiatic Researches. This gentleman argues
with great ability in favour of its having been a Hindu temple ; but Ge
neral Carnac of Calcutta, who introduced and prefaced Mr. Golding
ham 's paper, and understood the antiquities of India in no common way,
does not assent to this opinion. These immense excavations, cut out
of the solid rock, appeared to the general to be operations of too great
labour to have been executed by the hands of so feeble and effeminate a
race of beings as the aborigines of India have generally been held, and
still continue to this day ; and that the few figures which remain en
tire, represent persons totally distinct in exterior from the present Hin
dus, being of.a.gigantic size, having large prominent faces, and bearing
much resemblance to the Abyssinians, who inhabit the country on the
west side of the Red Sea opposite to Arabia.
" There is no tradition, says the general, of these caverns having ever
been frequented by the Hindus as places of worship ; and at this period,
he adds, on his own authority, that no poojah, or sacred adoration, is
ever performed in any of them, and that they are scarcely ever visited
by the natives.. He says he recollects particularly that the Ragonath
Row, a Bramin versed in the archaiology of the East, when at Bombay,
did not hold them in any degree of veneration; and yet an intelligent
writer in the Archaiologia (vol. vii. p. 286, &c.) who visited the Cave of
Elephanta in 1782, states that he was accompanied by a sagacious Bra
min, a native of Benares, who, though he had never been in it before
that time, recognized at once all the figures, was well acquainted with
the parentage, education, and life of every deity or human personage
there represented, and explained with fluency the meaning of the various
symbols by which the images were distinguished. This is "undoubtedly
a clear proof that their mythology of the present day is not materially
different from that delineated on the walls of these excavations; the
most remarkable of which is at Elephanta, a small island in the harbour
of Bombay. An elephant of black stone, large as the life, is seen near

40 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
the landing-place, and probably gave its name to the island. The cavern
is about three quarters of a mile from the beach ; the path leading to it
passes through a valley ; the hills on either side are beautifully clothed,
and, except when interrupted by the tuneful notes of the birds which
dwell upon the island, a solemn stillness prevails, which admirably pre
pares the mind for contemplating the approaching scene.-
" The cave is formed in a hill of stone, is about one hundred and
thirty-five feet square, and nearly fifteen feet high. Its massy roof is
supported by rows of columns, which are disposed with great regularity.
Gigantic figures, in relief, are sculptured on the walls ; which, as well as
the columns, are shaped out of the solid rock by artists of some ability,
and of unquestionable and astonishing perseverance.
" The excavations of Salsette, which is about ten miles north of Bom
bay, are other astonishing specimens of the sacred architecture of an
cient India. The artist employed by Governor Boon to make drawings
of them, asserted that it would require the labour of forty thousand men
for forty years to excavate and carve them. They are situate near to
Ambola, a village about seven English miles distant from Tanna.
" This excavation resembles that of Elephanta both in style, design,
and execution ; but being wrought in a softer rock, the sculptures are
not so perfect as that, nor of another at Canara, which is situate about
ten English leagues from Tanna on the north of the excavations at Am
bola, a similar example of subterraneous sacred architecture. There are
others in the country, but none equal in beauty to those just mentioned.
Some of tbem are very lofty, and appear, from apertures in the sides as
if for doors, to have been used for dwellings, which surmise is strength
ened by the entire absence of sculpture in them.
" The excavated pagoda of Indur Subha, or Sabha, is also a fine spe
cimen of the sacred architecture of this ancient people. It is situated
near Dowlatabad ; in which neighbourhood is also another, called the pa
goda of Raraswa Rama Saba. Dowlatabad is a fortified town in the
Deccan of Hindustan, fifteen miles from Aurungabad, the capital of Dow
latabad or Amednagur. They are also cut out of the natural rock, and
for the space of nearly two leagues there is little else to be seen than a
succession of those subterraneous pagodas, in which there are thousands
of figures, appearing from the style of their sculpture to have been of an
cient Hindu origin.
" The height of the excavated pagoda of Indur Subha is forty feet, its.
depth fifty-four feet, and its breadth forty-four. The height of the obe
lisk by the side of the pagoda is twenty-nine feet, including its pedestal
and a group of human figures which is on the top. The obelisk is fluted

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 41
and ornamented with some taste, and has a light appearance. On the
other side is the representation of ^an elephant, whose back just rises
above the front wall, but is without rider or howda. The plans of these
excavated temples are as regular as if they were built ; and the piers,
pilasters, or square columns, are equidistant and sculptured in a bold and
original style. Compare the excavated temples of India with the con
structed ones of Egypt, and their resemblance will be found most strik
ing. Both these styles are evidently derived from excavations, and in
both are found close intercolumniations, low and short architraves, and
columns of short stature rudely sculptured. Nor is there any very ap
parent difference to show whether the construction be not an excava
tion, or the excavation a construction.
" Before leaving the sacred architecture of Hindustan, the beautiful
and picturesque ruins of the ancient mosque of Dacca should not be
omitted. This metropolis is a city of Bengal lying on the banks of the
Ganges, is the third city in the province for extent and population, and
has large manufactories of the finest muslins and silks. This interesting
part of India was not visited by the Messrs. Daniells, nor till recently by
any European artist. The striking peculiarities of this fine specimen of
sacred architecture, to which my attention was first called by the beau-
ful engravings of the antiquities of Dacca, by Mr. Landseer, are their
lightness and elegance : their square rectangular panellings, which are
peculiar to these structures, their arched perforations somewhat resem
bling the Gothic, their lofty light octangular minarets, the beautiful play
of light and shade over the elevation, and the elegantly proportioned
cupola which crowns and finishes the whole, render it a valuable
study for the young architect, and equally interesting to the amateur
and antiquary.
"During the early period of the chronology of this section, that is,
about one thousand five hundred and eighty-two years before the Chris
tian era, Cecrops left Egypt, to colonize ancient Greece, where some
authors assert that he built twelve cities. He taught the Greeks the art
of building, and founded a city, which he named after himself, Cecropia ;
and to put his new colony into a state of perfect security, erected a for
tress on rising ground, where they afterwards built the temple ; and to
about the same period is attributed the founding of Troy by Scamander.
" Athens, Sparta, Cranaus, and Grecian Thebes, also owe their Origin
to this period. Egypt was overcome by the ^Ethiopians, but its inde
structible edifices bade defiance to the flames.
"Tyre was built about the year 1060 before Christ, and a curious
example of their sacred architecture is the temple of Dagon, which

42 ARCHITECTURAL HJSTORY.
the Bible represents to have been destroyed by Samson, who pulled it
down,, and destroyed himself and all the people who were assembled to
worship the idol and to make -sport with their captive. The temple is
described to have had two main pillars or columns on which it stood, *
and that Samson standing between the two pulled them down, and hurled
the temple into inevitable destruction.
" The structure of such a building has puzzled many a commentator
and critic; but Sir Christopher Wren, whose learning and reading were
equal to his skill in architecture and mathematics, has given so clear an
elucidation as to render its mode of construction perfectly intelligible. In
considering what this fabric must be, that could at one pull be demolish
ed, he conceived it to be an oval amphitheatre, the scene in the middle,
where a vast roof of cedar beams resting round upon the walls, centered.
all upon one short architrave, that united two cedar pillars in the middle;
one pillar would not be sufficient to unite the ends of at least one hur>
dred beams that tended to the centre ; therefore he says there must be a
short architrave resting upon two pillars, upon which all the beams tend
ing to the centre of the amphitheatre might be supported. Now if Sam
son, by his miraculous strength pressing upon one of these pillars, moved
it from its basis, the whole roof must of necessity fall.
" Before leaving this portion of the work a few lines must be devoted
to the mausoleum or temple of Teshoo Lama at Thibet, and the temple
or pagoda of Shoomadoo at Pegu, both sacred buildings of high antiquity.
" The mausoleum requires no particular description : its characteris
tics are the most ancient and simplest Chinese, its,, proportions in good
taste, and its mode of execution excellent.
" The other, which is a large and splendid conical structure, is the
great temple or pagoda, called Shoomadoo Praw, situated between India
and China, but. partaking more of the style of the latter people than of
the Hindus. Its pyramidal shape is graceful," its apex approaches even
to the elegant, and, except a tendency to- the florid style, its accessories
are rich and beautiful.
" This singular building is called the temple of Shoomadoo, or the
Golden Supreme ; compounded of the Birman word shoo, golden, and
madoo, a corruption of the Hindu word maha deo. Its addition Praw
signifies in the Birman language Lord, and is always annexed to the
name of every sacred edifice. As a farther proof of this hypothesis of
the Indian derivation from Egypt may be added, that phra is the proper
name under which the Egyptians first adored the sun, before it received
the allegorical appellation of Osiris, or author of time.
" This extraordinary sacred edifice, according to Col. Symes, who de-

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 43
lineated and described it a few years since, is built upon a double terrace,
one raised above the other. The lower and greater terrace is quadran
gular, and raised about ten feet above the natural level of the ground.
The upper terrace is smaller, of a like shape, and raised about twenty
feet above the lower.
" The length of one side of the lower terrace is about one thousand
three hundred and ninety feet, and of the upper six hundred and eighty-
four. These terraces are ascended by flights of stone steps, and on each
side are dwellings of the Rahans or priests. The temple itself is an octan
gular pyramid, built of brick and fine shell-mortar, without any excava
tion or cavity of any sort. Each side of the octagon, at the base, mea
sures one hundred and sixty-two feet. This immense breadth diminishes
abruptly to a spiral top, and may not be inaptly compared in shape to a
speaking-trumpet. In defining the styles which prevailed at this period of history, we
should consider that the orders are not only Greek and Roman, but
Phoenician, Hebrew, Egyptian, and Assyrian ; therefore are founded upon
the experience of all ages, promoted by the vast treasures of all the great
monarchs and skill of the greatest artists and geometricians, every one
emulating each other : experiments in this kind being very expensive and
errors incorrigible, is the reason that the principles of architecture should
be founded more on the study of antiquity than a dependence on fancy.
Beauty, firmness, and convenience, are the principles ; the first two de
pend upon geometrical reasons of optics and statics, the third only makes
variety. " Wren well observes, that there are natural causes of beauty. Beauty
is a harmony of objects begetting pleasure by the eye. There are two
classes of beauty, natural and customary. Natural beauty arises from
geometry, consisting in uniformity (that is equality) and proportion ; cus
tomary beauty is begotten by the use of our senses, to those objects which
are usually pleasing to us for other causes, as familiarity or particular in
clination breeds a love to things not in themselves lovely. Here lies the
great occasion of errors ; here is tried the architect's judgment ; but al
ways the true test is-natural or geometrical beauty.
" '- Geometrical figures,' he continues, ' are naturally more beautiful
than other irregulars ; in this all consent, as to a law of nature. Of geo
metrical figures the square and the circle are most beautiful ; next the
parallelogram and the oval. Straight lines are more beautiful than curved ;
next jo straight lines, equal and geometrical flexures ; an object elevated
in the middle is more beautiful than if depressed.' (See Parentalia, p. 352,
and Elme's Life of Wren.)

44 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
" The Egyptian, Hindu, Chinese, and other styles, having no imme
diate relation to the present section, the next step will be to the wisdom
of the orders as practised by the Greeks. The Greek style of architecture
is divided into three modes or orders ; namely, the Doric, the Ionic, and
the Corinthian ; named from the countries which gave them birth, or are
said to have been the first to use them. The sacred edifices of the Greeks
are the most ancient as well as the most beautiful of all the buildings of
that tasteful people that have reached our times. The great superiority
of the Greeks in architecture, is to be traced to causes similar to those
which occasioned their pre-eminence in every thing else ; namely, a deep'
investigation into first principles, and an accurate perception of the
elements of all that they attempted to execute.
"A similar investigation, and a similar perception or knowledge, and
nothing else, will produce the like effects in our country and in our times.
In Greece, no painter proceeded without acquiring a knowledge of ana-' -
tomy and drawing. Their sculptors carved their own marble, and their
architects understood design, construction, perspective, and composition,
and had a clear preconception of effect.
" It has been said that the Greeks did not understand anatomy, and
did not dissect ; that we are uncertain as to their knowledge of geometry;.
because Euclid, the earliest author in that science with whom we are at
present acquainted, lived considerably after the construction of their best
edifices ; and" that our certainty as to their knowledge of perspective is.
still less. It has also been asserted in corroboration that the Greeks, had
laws prohibiting dissection ; therefore they did not dissect. ' The excep
tion,' says the great Lord Coke, ¦' proves the rule ;' therefore, even did not
those sculptural wonders which now grace our national museum, and the
anatomical details which are so abundant in the poems of Homer, prove the ,
depth of their anatomical knowledge, this very exception proves that they
did dissect, and that it was necessary to enact laws against the practice.
Among the most remarkable proofs of the deep knowledge of the Greeks
in anatomy, the Theseus and the llissus of the Elgin collection exhibit
the perfection of art, and show the most scientific research into anatomy
and the natural history of man.
" The divisions and subdivisions of the orders will come more appro
priately in another section : therefore we proceed to the history of sacred
architecture among the Greeks.
" The religion and laws of the Greeks are acknowledged to have been
derived from the creeds and institutions of Egypt, and their styles of archi
tecture, in spite of the hypotheses and splendid fables of Vitruvius, were
no less adopted and improved from the same source. Herodotus assures

ARCHITECTURAL HISTOBY. 45
us that the worship ofthe greatest part ofthe first gods that were adored
in Greece, came from Egypt, and that all antiquity regarded the Egyp
tians as the first who paid a solemn and public worship to the Deity, and
therefore were the first inventors of sacred architecture. In this deriva
tion he excepts only Neptune, and says farther, that the worship of this
deity was derived from Libya. Saturn, Jupiter, Ceres, &c, were, the
first gods of Greece ; hence it is probable that the Titans introduced these
deities, and consequently, that those princes came from Egypt : for the
worship of Saturn, Jupiter, and Ceres was established, according to Dio-
dorus, from time immemorial. The Titans also taught the Greeks the first
elements ofthe arts and sciences, and their earliest sacred edifices were
first borrowed from them.
" Cadmus, who lived about 1500 years before the Christian era, and
was the grandson of Agenor, king of Tyre, brought the arts and sciences
into Greece, five hundred and sixty-two years after the building of the
walls of Babylon. In the part of Greece where he settled, he built a city,
which he named after the celebrated Thebes in Egypt, and doubtlessly
imitated the Egyptian style of architecture iffhis earliest structures. In
corroboration of this, Pliny expressly states that Daedalus, the architect
of the Grecian labyrinth, imitated that of Egypt in every respect. This
same Thebes afterwards became so celebrated, that Germanicus made a
journey purposely to survey its magnificent ruins.
" Ogyges, Inachus the first king of Argos, Cecrops, Cadmus, Lelex, and
Danaus, founded successively the kingdoms of Athens, Argos, Sparta, and
Thebes ; but it was in the colonies of Asia Minor, that sacred architec
ture began to exhibit its greatest splendour. The invention of the first
two Grecian orders is attributed solely to the inhabitants of these coun
tries, as their names Doric and Ionic evidently import. The Corinthian
did not appear in its full perfection till long after these two orders.
"It seems to have been invented in Greece, properly so called, and is
the richest, the most magnificent, and the most elegant of all the Grecian
orders, and perhaps of any that architecture has ever invented.
" The first materials used by the Greeks in their sacred buildings was
timber ; next brick, which they learned the art of making from the Egyp
tians. Stone next succeeded, as in the temple of Apollo at Delphos, built
by Amphictyon ; and afterwards, when they had accomplished the com
plete glories of their style, they immortalized it in marble.
" The character of the genuine architecture of the Greeks, in their
brightest days, the days of Pericles, Alexander, Plato, Aristotle, Apelles,
Phidias, Sophocles, and Euripides, is that of an imposing grandeur, united
to pleasing simplicity, elegance of ornament, and harmony of proportion

46 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
in an eminent degree, together with a certain relation or coincidence of
parts, as necessary in works of art as in those of literature.
" Sacred architecture was carried to the highest perfection by the
Greeks. Indeed, the greater part of their fine and pure style which has
reached our times may be arranged under this class or department of civil
architecture. " Besides the beautiful simplicity and elegance of style which distin
guished the Greeks above all other nations, their able and sufficient style
of construction is worthy of study for its simplicity, and for effecting its
purposes by legitimate means, although they did not aim at the arch, or
vault, by which their successors, the Romans, so signalized themselves.
And as their works surpassed all others, so did the beauty and excellence
of their materials. '
" In the time of Pericles the Athenians used Pentelican marble, and a
species from Mount Hymettus, in their buildings. The sort called Parian
was the most admired, but it was almost exclusively appropriated to sculp
ture. Bronze was also occasionally used for building in some of their
early structures ; and Pausanias mentions several buildings of this costly
material, particularly a small temple of Minerva, called on this account
Chalcoecus, which was standing in his days at Lacedaemon. Stones of
an almost incredible size, after the manner of the Egyptians, were also
amongst their earliest modes of construction, whence originated the tra- _
dition that they were the works of the Cyclops. In later periods they
used stones of a smaller size, of irregular polygon figures, of four, five, and
six sides, joined with the utmost care and nicety.
" The walls of the ancient city of Paestum, are thus built of huge poly-
haedric masses. Chandeler, the Grecian traveller, discovered walls of this
method of construction, near to Trcezene, Epidaurus, and Ephesus ; and
Dr. Pococke also in the island of Mytilene.
" As architecture and mechanical skill advanced, they used cubical
and oblong stones, with which they constructed their walls after two
methods : one called Isodomon, which, as the word implies, was with
courses of equal thicknesses and of equal lengths ; and the other Pseudi-
sodomon, where the heights, or thicknesses, and lengths of the courses
differed. The first, or true manner, was always used in their grandest
buildings, as being the most beautiful ; and the latter, or false method,
where beauty of appearance was of less consequence.
" Another and still inferior mode was also used by them for works of
less consequence, and was called Emplecton. The front stones only, in
this manner of construction, were wrought ; and the interior was left
rough, and filled in with stones of various sizes or with rubble. It was

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 47
principally used in walls of great thickness, such as those wherewith
they surrounded their cities. In some instances they built their walls of
brick or common stone, and faced them with marble. Cement was sel
dom used by the Greeks in their best works ; as the size and ponderosity
of the blocks, and the great exactness with which they were squared,
were sufficient for solidity, and made more perfect and complete joints. '
" The ancient Greek architects were, moreover, very careful that
every ornament or decoration which they used should always accord in
character and situation with the order and the building to which they
applied it ; and both the order and the ornament were characteristic of
the destination of the edifice: never \building a prison of the Corinthian
order, nor a theatre of the Doric. The external ornaments were bold,
simple, and distributed with a judiciously sparing hand. The pediment
of the temple and the metope of the frieze, as in the temples of Minerva,
and of Theseus at Athens, and of Jupiter Panhellenius at Egina, were
decorated with bassi relievi, and the angles of the walls with pilasters or
antae. The porticoes which surrounded their public squares, in which
they often exhibited pictures, statues, and other works of art, appear to
have been more elaborately decorated than their temples, their theatres
of declamation, and gymnasia ; and, with regard to interior ornaments,
little can be known, from the general destruction of those parts.
" The Greek style of architecture may be classed under five different
epochs, according to the historical periods which gave rise to five corres
ponding styles or modes. The first embraces the works of Trophonius,
who built the temple at Delphos, and those of Agamedes and Daedalus.
" This early period of Grecian history, which may be termed the
heroic age, does not furnish any remains of architecture of positive cer
tainty. Yet those lights which are wanting from the deficiency of exist
ing ancient ruins, are supplied in some degree by ancient writers, who,
however, are not sufficiently explicit or circumstantial in those details
which alone could give us the information we require.,
" Homer, for instance, in speaking of the palace of Priam, says that
it had at the entrance fifty apartments, well built, in which the princes,
his sons, lodged with their wives, and that it was surrounded by porti
coes, wrought with the greatest care. At the bottom of the court there
were twelve other apartments for the sons-in-law of that monarch, and
a magnificent dwelling for Paris, who is reported to have been a skilful
architect. These all tend to prove that architecture was cultivated
as an art in Asia Minor, although it affords us no information as to
sfyie. or, taste. -¦ • * ¦- —
: :r "The second epoch includes from the time of Rhoecus of Samos, and

48 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
Theodorus, who lived about seven hundred years before the Christian
era, down to the time of Pericles ; in which period flourished Ctesiphon,
Metagenes, Andronicus, Eupolemus, Callimachus, Libon, and other emi
nent and celebrated architects.
" The third epoch is the period from Pericles to that of Alexander
the Great ; under the former, architecture reached, the summit of its per
fection — a perfection of which Sir William Jones, with his accustomed
truth and perspicuity, says, ' in those elegant arts, which are called fine
and liberal, it is really wonderful how much a single nation has excelled
the whole world : I mean the ancient Greeks, whose sculpture, of which
we have excellent remains both on gems and in marble, no modern tool
can equal ; whose architecture we can only imitate at a servile distance,
but are unable to make one addition to it without destroying its graceful
simplicity ; whose poetry still delights us in youth, and amuses us at a
maturer age ; and of whose painting and music we have the concurrent
relations of so many grave authors, that it would be strange incredulity
to doubt their excellence.' In this brilliant period flourished Hippoda-
mus of Miletus, Phidias, Ictinus, and Callicrates, who were conjointly
employed in the building of the great temple of Minerva at Athens called
the Parthenon. > -
" The fourth great epoch is that which extends from the decease of
Alexander the Great to that of Augustus. Alexandria, under the domin
ion of the Grecian monarchs, was the principal school of the great archi
tects of this period, among whom Dinocrates — whose proposal of forming
Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander the Great, and subsequent
founding of Alexandria, is celebrated by Vitruvius — and Sostratus were
the most eminent.
" ' I cannot conceive,' says Spence, in his entertaining anecdotes of
the great men of his time, ' how DinOcrates could ever have carried his
proposal of forming Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander the Great
into execution. ' For my part,' replied Pope, ' I have long since had an
idea how that might be done ; and if any body would make me a present
of a Welsh mountain, and pay the workmen, I would undertake to see it
executed. I have quite formed it,' he continued, ' in my imagination.
The figure must be in a reclining posture, because of the hollowing that
would otherwise be necessary, and for the city's being in one hand. It
should be a rude unequal hill, and might be helped with groves of trees
for the eyebrows, and a wood for the hair. The natural green turf
should _be left wherever it would be necessary to represent the ground he
reclines on. It should be so contrived that the true point of view "should
be at a considerable distance. When you were near it, it should still

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 49
have the appearance of a rough mountain ; but, at the proper distance,
such a rising should be the legs, and such another an arm. It would be
best if a river, or rather a lake, were at the bottom of it, for a rivulet
that came through his other hand to tumble down the hill and discharge
itself into it.'
" It is somewhat singular that Mr. Pope should have thought this mad
project practicable ; but it appears that there are still persons who dream
of such extravagant and fruitless undertakings. Some modern Dinocra-
tes had suggested to Buonaparte to have cut from the mountain called
the Simplon an immense colossal figure, as a sort of genius of the Alps.
This was to have been of such* an enormous size that all the passengers
should have passed between its legs in a zigzag direction.
" During this fourth epoch are found the names of Saurus and Batra-
chus, who executed several works in Rome ; not being allowed to inscribe
on them their names, they used the expedient of carving- a lizard and a
frog upon the pedestals, as anagrams of their names, o-avoog signifying in
Greek a lizard and (laTQuxo? a frog.
" The fifth and last great epoch of Grecian architecture comprehends
from the time of Augustus, in whose days Vitruvius is supposed to. have
flourished, until the removal of the -seat of empire to Constantinople.
" The pure architecture of Greece is superior to all that preceded it,
and all that has been designed and executed' since Its architects and
sculptors never violated the inherent properties of any object for an arti
ficial effect ; while those of Rome perpetually committed such violations,
deteriorating all that they laid their hands upon. The irregular and fan
tastic variety of their orders proves the truth of this accusation, and
powerfully opposes itself to the beautiful simplicity of the Greeks. The
Romans executed works containing gross infringements of the sounder
laws of architectural taste, which have, however, obtained a general and
lasting reputation.
" Such is the Colosseum, such is the theatre of Marcellus, such are
their amphitheatres, such is the Pantheon ; structures that excite wonder,
and seize upon our admiration, certainly not for the faults with which
they abound, but in spite of them.
" The architecture of the Romans undoubtedly possesses splendor,
vastness of conception, a noble carelessness of expense, and a profuse
redundancy of decoration in all their public buildings ; which, as Quin-
tilian observes, is more easily cured than barrenness : and if they are
to be praised for their great knowledge of scientific construction, and
bold command of the arch, the vault, and the cupola, they most amply
deserve it ; but certainly they were never eminent for that purity of
4

50 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
taste, elegance, and simplicity of invention and construction, which cha
racterize the Greeks above all others. Hence are to be found so
many more models of a fine style among the Greeks than among the
Romans. Give me simplicity and good design, and keep your ornaments
for children. " The Romans are indebted for all the excellencies of their style of
architecture to the1 Greeks, and its deficiencies and redundancies are all
their own. Their earliest^architects were all Greeks, and it was not till
late in their history that they made any figure in the arts of design.
Thus all the Roman architects, with Vitruvius at their head, follow the
plans that were laid down for them by the great master-spirits of Greece.
They every where imitate the Greeks, and every where misrepresent
them, as may be seen in comparing the Doric of the temple of Minerva
Parthenon with that of the theatre of Marcellus, the very best of the
Roman specimens, and the Ionic capitals selected from Greek and Roman
specimens. Compare them together, and they will be found comments
upon each other ; the one showing the commanding excellence of purity
of style, the other the glitter and frivolity of false decoration.
" That which Cicero says so truly of the qualities requisite to a fine
oration may as correctly be applied to the qualities necessary to a fine
piece of architecture : ' Let ornament,' he says, ' be manly and chaste,
without effeminate gayety or artificial coloring ; let it shine with, the glow
of health and strength.'
" Had the taste of Vitruvius been as refined and as unsophisticated
as that of Cicero, the Roman purity in architecture would have been
uppn an equality with that of their fine and majestic language. But on
the contrary we find very many of their buildings frivolously and effemi
nately rich in ornament, and miserably deficient in invention and good
taste. For with fillets upon fillets, — with bands over beads, and beads
over bands, cavettos and cimas both right and reversed, — with ornamen
tal plain faces (excuse the bull), carvings, dentals and denticals, drop
flowers and festoons, and other tawdry, misplaced, and misapplied orna
ments, — they disfigured their spoliations from the Greeks. As examples,
look at any Roman specimens, particularly that of the temple of Concord
at Rome, and compare it with any of its lovely originals- from Greece.
Of these expensive barbarisms it may be truly said, that they are
'Of such a frightful mien,
As to be hated nee.d but to be seen.' — Pope.
Yet such things find their admirers even in our days, and we need
not travel out of the metropolis to witness them. Little, however, was

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 51
it to have been expected, after the many introductions to this country of
the pure forms and fine proportions of Greece, by Stuart, Wilkins, Cock-
erell, and other eminent architectural travellers, that Batty Langley, and
Barromini, would in our days have driven the Athenian antiquities from our
shelves, and the purity of Grecian art from our streets, and substituted
imitations ofthe altogether inferior productions of Rome and modern Italy.
" To the sacred architecture of Greece, as exhibited in Jheir various
temples, we are indebted for the purest and best canons of architecture
that the world has ever seen.
"The elements. of this pure style are three classes or modes called
orders, while those of the Roman style, its despoiling imitator, are five.
" Nature dictates but three essential modes of building, which are
clearly and distinctly visible in every style of the art; namely, the
robust, the chaste, and the elegant. Those three essentials in the art the
Greeks have embodied in their Doric, their Ionic, and their Corinthian.
But the Romans, restless after innovation, sighing for more worlds of art
to conquer, and pining after more than all, would have one more robust
than the robust, and one more elegant than the elegant. Hence thejr
Tuscan, which is but, as a musician would say, a variation upon the
theme of the Doric ; and the Composite, which is any thing but an im
provement upon the Corinthian.
" Architecture, that is to say, classical architecture, is generally divi
ded into certain modes or systems called- orders, which are named from
the country whence they are supposed to have been derived or invented ;
as the Tuscan from Tuscany, the Doric from Doria, the Ionic from Ionia,
the Corinthian from Corinth, and the Composite or Roman from Rome.
Now, although the preceding orders form five in number, yet three only
are to be received as such, in the pure or Grecian style of architecture.
The Tuscan, as I have already said, and will hereafter prove when I ar
rive at the Roman system, is merely a variation of the Doric ; and the
Composite a corruption of the Corinthian, and too much like it, both in
essence and in character, to be distinguished by an untutored eye, or to
be acknowledged a distinct genus or order by the critic.
" Thomson, who may be called the poet of the fine arts, and whose
taste was formed by a long residence at the seats of ancient arts, with
the son of the Lord Chancellor Talbot, beautifully and characteristically
depicts the three orders in his ' Liberty.' In the second part of that
poem he personifies public virtue in Greece as a goddess, and the sister
arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture, as
' The Graces they
To dress this sacred Venus.' •¦'-•'

52 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
And farther on he states that architecture was
' By Greece refined,
- And smiling high to bright perfection brought ;
Such thy sure rules, that Goths of every age,
Who scorned their aid, have only loaded earth
With labored heavy monuments of shame,
Not these gay domes that o'er thy splendid shore
Shot, all proportion, up. First, unadorned
And nobly plain, the manly Doric rose ;
Th' Ionic then, with decent matron grace,
Her airy pillar heaved ; luxuriant last,
The rich Corinthian spread her wanton wreath,
The whole so measured true, so lessened off
By fine proportion, that the marble pile,
Formed to repel the still or stormy waste
Of rolling ages, light as fabrics looked
That from the magic wand aerial rise.
These were the wonders that illumined Greece
From end to end.'
" These orders undoubtedly derived their origin frorri the chance-
built huts and cabins ofthe first inhabitants, of the world, and which as
doubtlessly contained in themselves the constituent elements of architec
ture, till drawn forth by the hand and eye of taste, as the marble block
contained the statue whence Canova drew forth his shining Hebe, ever
young. As we cannot derive our knowledge of the origin of these ele^
ments of style from a better source than from Vitruvius, he must be
our guide through this obscure path. . In my description of the orders
I must confine myself briefly and generally to the three classical, orders.
of antiquity. " Vitruvius, our best authority, indifferent as he is for historical truth,
informs us that when Dorus, the son of Helenus and the nymph Optice,
reigned over Achaia and all Peloponnesus, he built in the ancient city of
Argos a temple to Juno, which was formed by chance of the order since
called Doric. Afterwards the Athenians, according to the responses of
the Delphian Apollo, by the common consent of all Greece, sent out
thirteen colonies at one time into Asia, and appointed a leader to each
colony. They gave the command to Ion the son of Xanthus and Creusa,
whom Apollo of Delphos also acknowledged to be his son. These, colo-,
nies were led into Asia by Ion, who seized upon the country of Caria,
where he built the large cities of Ephesus,. Miletus, Myunta, Priene, Sa-
mos, Teos, &c.

ARCHITECTURAL HIS TORY. 53
" These states were called from their leader Ionia ; and here they
began to erect and dedicate temples to their deities : and first they built
one to Apollo Panionios in this manner in Achaia, and which they named
Doric, because they had first observed it in the Dorian states. In this
temple they intended to use columns, but not knowing their symmetries,
and while considering how they should proportion them so that they
might support the weight, and at the same time have a graceful appear
ance, they measured the length of the human foot, which as they found
to be nearly the sixth part of the height of a man, they used this propor
tion for their columns, making the thickness of the shaft at the bottom
one-sixth part of the height including the capital. Thus the Doric col
umn, having the proportions of the human body, began to be used in
building with solidity and beauty.
" Afterwards, being desirous of building a temple to Diana, they in
vented a new order on similar principles, using the proportions of a for
male. They made the bottom diameter the eighth part of its height; and
that it might appear the more graceful, they added mouldings around its
base -to represent the shoe, and volutes to the capitals to imitate the
twisted braids of hair falling on each side, and the eymatium and en-
carpae, the locks of hair braided and arranged on each side over the fore
head. They also fluted the shaft from bottom to top like the folds in the
garments. Thus were the two species or orders of columns invented ;
one representing the strength and simplicity of man, the other the ele
gance and fine proportions of woman. This latter order was called
Ionic, says Vitruvius, because it was invented by the-Ionians. But sub
sequent architects, who wished for lighter proportions, have often made
the heights ofthe Doric column seven diameters, and that of the Ionic
eight and a half, destroying the character and beauty of each.
" The third Grecian order, which is called the Corinthian, is imita
tive of the delicacy of shape and slenderness of proportion of a young
virgin. 'For the limbs,' says Vitruvius, ' at that early age, are formed
more slightly, arid admit of more graceful decoration.' The invention of
its capital is thus related by Vitruvius :
" A Corinthian virgin just marriageable, being attacked by a fatal dis
order, died. After her interment, her nurse collected some vases and
toys, which pleased her when living, put them in a basket, and placed it
on the top of her tomb, covering it, that it might endure the longer in the
open air, with a tile. The basket being placed on a root of acanthus,
depressed it in the middle, occasioning the leaves and stalks which grewt
up in the spring to encircle and twine round the basket ; but being re
sisted by the angles of the tile, they convolved at the extremities in the

54 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
form of volutes. This was seen by Callimachus, called on account of
his taste and skill in sculpture Catatechnos, who, delighted with the no
velty of its figure and its delicate and appropriate form, encircled by the
beautiful foliage, formed from its model a new capital to some columns
he had sculptured for Corinth, thus composing this most elegant and
beautiful of the orders.
" The above hypothesis is nothing but a splendid fable : notwithstand
ing Mr. Wilkins says, that of all the opinions entertained by Vitruvius
on the origin of the orders of architecture, that relating to the invention
of the Corinthian capital seems alone entitled to any attention ; both be
cause the reputed age of Callimachus, its supposed inventor, approaches
within certain limits of the first recorded instances of the introduction
of the order into Greece; and because the recital is less open to the
charge of absurdity and fiction. Notwithstanding this, the account just
quoted of the origin of the Doric and the Ionic is not only less open to
the charge of absurdity and fiction, but may be considered as nearly his
torically true ; while the Vitruvian hypothesis of the vase of toys, the
projecting tile, and the accommodating acanthus, appears more worthy
the reveries of a poet, and a fine poetical episode it certainly is, than of
the historian of such an art as architecture.
" The Corinthian order is clearly derived from the architecture of
Egypt, adapted, refined, and naturalized. First, Cecrops, the founder of
Athens, was an Egyptian ; next Daedalus, the earliest Athenian artist,
visited Egypt to investigate and study the principles of the fine arts.
Added to these facts, it is also well known that the Greeks borrowed
their laws, their manners, and their customs from the Egyptians, purify
ing them in the alembics of their own brighter genius.
"A colony at first always imitates its mother country ; and afterwards
as surely does all in its power to render its origin forgotten. When we
refer to examples of both styles, surely the Egyptian origin of the Corin
thian capital cannot be denied. Their elements are incontestably the
same, namely, a vase, surrounded by flowers and covered with an abacus.
The story of the Corinthian girl was probably invented by a Grecian
poet, and related as authentic by Vitruvius.
" Mons. Quatremere de Quincy, secretary to the French academy of
arts, corroborates this opinion, and supposes even the Ionic capital also
to have been borrowed from Egypt. He metamorphoses the ears of the
head of Isis, in an Egyptian capital, into the Ionic volutes ; the braids of
hair on the forehead into the -helices, or threads ofthe capital ; the throat
into the alarino, or necking ; and so on.
" Following this ingenious hypothesis, the Doric may also be said to

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 55
have been drawn from the rude types or prefigurations of the Egyptians,
which contain all the primitive elements ofthe beautiful examples ofthe
Greeks. Belzoni farther corroborates it by saying, that the Isis of the
Egyptians is the same personage with the Io of the Greeks; therefore
capitals designed after the head of this goddess are Isislike, lolike, or
Ionic. " Referring to any of the ancient Grecian temples, it will be seen that
the metopes, or spaces between the trylyphs in the entablature, are filled,
and sometimes with sculpture, as in the Parthenon, which were occupied
by those wonderful efforts of the chisel, now in the British Museum, re
presenting battles of the Centaurs and Lapithas. These metopes in the
earliest Greek buildings were open, and the trylyphs justly represented
the ends of the beams of which they are the' types ; as the following" quo
tations from the Iphigenia in: Tauris proves. Pylades is counselling Ores- .
tes to scale the Doric temple of Diana, and says to his friend,
' But when the eye
Of night comes darkening on, then must we dare,
And take the polished image from the shrine,
Attempting all things ; and the vacant space
Between the trylyphs, mark it well, enough
Is open to admit us ; by that way
Attempt we to descend.' Iph. in Tau., Potter's Vers.
" The first general division of architecture being its orders, the next
division in sacred architecture is the several orders of temples or sacred
edifices. The orders of sacred buildings or temples of the Greeks are
seven : first, the Antis'; second, the Prostyle ; third, the Amphiprostyle ;
fourth, the Periptoral ; fifth, the Dipteral ; sixth, Pseudo Dipteral ; and
seventh, the Hypasthral.
" The first order of sacred buildings, called antis, is that wherein the
ends of the flank walls finish in pilasters or antas. Of this order is Inigo
Jones's fine Tuscan portico of St. Paul's Church, Covent Garden.
" The second or prostyle differs from the antisby having columns in
front of the pilasters or antas ; both these orders of temples have only a
portico at one end.
" The third or amphiprostyle order of temples is nearly the same as
prostyle ; but, as its name imports, has a posticum or portico at the rear
the same as the principal front.
"The fourth order, the periptoral, has also porticoes at both ends of six
columns each, and eleven, counting the angle columns at each side. It
has, as its name. imports,, eolumns all round about the cell, as in the tern-

56 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
pie of Theseus, which by the way has two columns in flank more than
the rules of Vitruvius prescribe.
" The fifth or dipteral order, which Vitruvius places after the pseudo
dipteral, is octostyle, or eight columned, like the portico of the Parthenon,
but has a double row of columns all round the cell.
" In the sixth, that is, the pseudo dipteral, or false dipteral, the porti
coes are octostyle, or eight columned, in front, and on each side fifteen
columns, including those of the angles. The Parthenon is of this order of
sacred buildings, but has seventeen columns on the sides ; for the ancient,
architects of Greece did not servilely follow every dogmatical rule of
the critics, yet in their variations they never lost the true spirit of the
original. W
" The hypasthral is the seventh order of sacred buildings, and is de-
castyle, or ten columned, both in front and rear ; the other parts are dis
tributed the same as in the dipteral, but it has a double row of columns
in its interior, one higher than the other, continued on all sides, and re
sembling an interior portico. The middle part has no roof' A fine spe
cimen of this order of temples is to be found in that of Jupiter Olympus
at Athens, and in one of the three at Passtum. In Rome there is not a
single example of the hypasthral order.
" Before leaving the pure sacred architecture of Greece, a short space
must be devoted to that of its colonies and other distant parts.
" The ancient temple at Corinth is an architectural structure of un
known antiquity ; it is of the Doric order, and the proportion of its co
lumns, from actual measurement, is shown in Aikin's Essay on the Doric
Order. Its character is simple, pure, andHbold, inferior to the three prin
cipal examples found at Athens, but still partaking of the purest charac
teristics of the order.
" Among other curious and interesting ruins are the three ancient
temples of Passtum. One of them differs from every other temple in the
world, having nine columns in the front, with a central range down
the middle of the cell, the use of which appears to have been to support
the roof.
" The central or hypasthral temple is generally supposed to have been
dedicated to Neptune, the tutelar divinity of Passtum or Posidonia. Mr.
Wilkins thinks it to have been a temple of Jupiter, from its being of the
hypasthral order, which is a class of building generally confined to the
temples of Jupiter. Its columns possess, in common with all its other
parts, the Greek character in the highest degree ; and there is no doubt
of its being coeval with the earliest migration of the Greeks to the south
of Italy. These examples, with that of Corinth, possess the characteris-

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 57
tic energy of the early style of the Greeks, which may be distinguished
from their later and more finished style by the following definitions;
namely, a shaft diminishing rapidly and of low stature, a large and massy
capital with a very bold projection of the abacus, a necking composed -of
three grooves, and an extremely massive entablature of nearly one-half
the height of the column.
" The author of the Pleasures of Memory, in some lines of character
istic energy, written at Paestum, in March, 1815, says of these temples :.
" ' They stand between the mountains and the sea,
Awful memorials ! but of whom we know not.
Time was they stood along the crowded street,
Temples of gods ! and on their ample steps,
What various habits, various tongues beset;
The brazen gates for prayer and sacrifice !
Time was, perhaps, the third was set for justice,
And here the accuser stood, and there the accused ;
And here the judges sat, and heard and judged ;
All silent now ! as in the ages past,
Trodden under foot, and mingled dust with dust.'
They are indeed silent yet speaking memorials of time and eternity. Of
Paestum and its twice-blowing roses, what lover of poetry has not heard
of those lovely flowers which
" ' Now a Virgil now ah" Ovid sang,
Palatum's twice-blowing roses?'
" The next division of this section is the analysis of the Etruscan
school of architecture, which is, however, so lost in the lapse of ages, that
it leaves but little room for architectural research.
" The Etruscans are generally reported to have been equally distin
guished in architecture and in the other arts of design. The Romans em
ployed Etrusean architects in the building of the capitol, the temple of
Jupiter, and many other large and splendid edifices. The walls of Etrus^
can cities were lofty and constructed of huge polyhasdric masses of ml
sonry ; remains of which have been discovered . at Volaterra, Cortona,
Fassula, and other parts of ancient Etruria.
" The earliest temples of Etruria were small in size, being, in many
instances,, not able to contain more than a statue of the divinity to whom
it was dedicated, and sometimes an altar.
" The sacred architecture of the ancient Romans, under their >kings;
is undoubtedly derived from, the Etruscans. This people; a . colony from

58

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.

Greece, were antecedent to all the rest of the Italian peninsula in culti
vating the arts, which they had practised even before the reputed time of
Cadmus. " The natural tendency of the ancient Romans was to the grand and
wonderful, the colossal, the showy, and even the prodigality of expense;
hence their amphitheatres, their circuses, their temples. Of ah the an
tique temples now remaining in Rome, the Pantheon is at once the most
celebrated and the most beautiful ; and may be considered the master
piece of Roman architecture, whether we estimate it as when entire, or,
as at present, stripped of all its statues and other ornaments. It is sup
posed to have been built by Marcus Agrippa, son-in-law, of Octavius
Augustus, in his third consulship, before the Christian era, and was dedi
cated to Mars and Jupiter the Avenger, in, memory of the victory obtained
by Augustus over Marc Anthony and Cleopatra ; but it is more probable,
as Palladio thinks, that the body of the temple was built ki the time of the
Republic, and that Agrippa added the portico, and perhaps some other
decorations, as the double pediments seem to prove. It was repaired by
Septimius Severus and Caracalla. The interior was decorated with bronze
ornaments in the panelling of the cupola, and contained, in niches, statues
of all the gods. The interior is no less fine and striking than the outside;
and from its circular form is called by the Italians Rotondo ; as from its
containing statues of all the gods, it was named by the ancients Pantheon,
from nav and Oeog. The diameter, exclusive of the large niches, is one
hundred and thirty- two feet, being nearly thirty feet more than the cupola
of St. Paul's, and the height from the pavement to the summit the same
as the diameter ; the thickness of the walls is nineteen feet, which is re
lieved by the. beautiful Corinthian niches- now used as chapels and altars.
" Among other specimens of the sacred architecture of the Romans is
the temple of Concord, whose ugly capital has been before discussed, the
temple of Janus and of Romulus, of the Sun and Moon, of Fortuna Virilis,
Vesta, Minerva Medica, Neptune, Antoninus and Faustina, Jupiter Sta-
tor, — whose beautiful entablature is so well copied in the portico of Carl
ton House, — and the temple of Peace. The three . magnificent arches
Sow standing of this latter edifice have been finely adopted by Sir Chris
topher Wren in the choir of St. Paul's Cathedral.
" The declension of style from the days of Roman splendour may be
witnessed in the modern Italian churches, particularly in the churches of
St. John, the Lateran, and St. Paul without the walls ; the most of these
buildings were executed from the ruins of the antique temples which
they barbarously despoiled for this purpose; and when they had no
longer skill to place, the connecting architrave, they substituted ugly

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 59
and uncharacteristic arches, as may be seen in the fine plates of it by
Piranesi. " The fine, original, and striking style of sacred architecture, called
Gothic, is of too much importance for a portion of so small a share of a
brief work like the present ; but a short view will serve better than a
total omission.
" The earliest British style is called Saxon ; and its elements are heavy
round columns and semicircular arches, bad resemblances of the worst
Tuscan, covered with the round arch of the middle ages.
" As a proof that the decline of the Roman style produced the Saxon,
which was called by the monks Opus Romanum, we have only to con
ceive a country mason, ignorant of art, but skillful with his chisel, to have
observed a Composite capital of the depraved style of those of the temple
of Bacchus on the Mount Viminalis at Rome, or the Ionic capitals of the
temple of Concord, or even a respectable Corinthian, and to be desired, at
some considerable interval of time, to carve some capitals as nearly re
sembling them as possible from memory. Imagine this, and it may be
asked whether it be not more than probable that they would resemble the
Saxon capitals of St. Bartholomew the Great in Smithfield, or those of
the crypt of Lastingham Priory. Hence we may fairly conclude that the
origin of the Saxon style may be traced to the decadence of the Roman ;
and that the introduction ofthe Saracenic, Arabesque, and Grotesque styles,
aided by the practical and scientific improvement of the workmen, and by
the knowledge of the society of travelling architects, the early freemasons,
produced that singularly romantic and beautiful style called the Gothic.
" ' A Doric temple differs from a Gothic cathedral,' says Mr. Hazlitt,
' as Sophocles does from Shakspeare. The principle of the one is sim"-
plicity and harmony, that of the other richness and power. The one re
lies on form and proportion, the other on quantity, and variety, and pro
minence of parts. The one owes its charm to a certain union and regu
larity of feeling, the other adds to it effects from complexity and the
combination of, the greatest extremes. The classical appeals to sense
and habit, the Gothic or romantic strikes, from novelty, strangeness, and
contrast. Both are founded in essential and indestructible principles of
human nature'
" The style now before us has been sweepingly designated, as being
any thing that is not Grecian ; but whether this affected antithesis pro
ceed from humour or contempt is not certain.
" Our illustrious countryman, Wren, whose mechanical and mathe
matical skill elevates him above all modern architects, called this fine
style a gross concameration of heavy, melancholy, and monkish piles.

60 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
Now, it certainly is the very reverse of this definition, and is not quite
so much opposed to Grecian art as was thought by the professor before
quoted ; but on the contrary, is a style of architecture pure, grand; im
pressive, and characteristic. The elements of it are spires, pinnacles;
lofty pointed or lancet-shaped windows, and elevation as opposed to the
horizontal line of the Greeks. Its character somewhat resembles that of
the old German school of painting ; and a fine Gothic building, with its
elaborate and carefully marked details, its gaudy colours, its vermilion,
a'nd its leaf gold, reminds one of Albert Durer and his hard but correct
school. " England is the classic soil for this style of architecture, as ancient
Greece is for that of the orders ; and here the student must come to
measure and to study it. York Minster is the Parthenon of Gothic archi
tecture, Westminster Abbey the Theseum, and the Chapel or Mausoleum
of Henry VII. the choragic monument of Lysicrates. Among the finest
specimens is the venerable Abbey Church at St. Alban, in Hertfordshire,
which is also one of the most valuable documents in the archaiological
history of the country.
"Gothic architecture disdains the trammels and the systems ofthe
schools ; nevertheless, it has its own laws, its genera, and its species,
although they have not yet been arranged in a grammatical form. Batty
Langley endeavoured, it is true, to reduce it to a system, and to engraft
on it the five orders of the Palladian school, instead of a more natural
and philosophical arrangement ; but his efforts were altogether vain and
nugatory. " III. Domestic Architecture, perhaps the most interesting depart
ment of the art, is indigenous to every country where human reason has
in any degree manifested or developed itself Like all the productions of
nature, architecture assumes different forms, according to the properties
of the climate, the wants it may superinduce, the quality of the soil, the
building materials, and the personal character of the human beings com
posing the various nations who practice it.
" The first dwellings of the most ancient inhabitants of the earth were
doubtless movable huts or tents, in the manner ofthe modern Arabs and
Tartars. Uninstructed nature first demands personal clothing ; next, a
shelter from the. perturbed elements ; then, a store for housed provisions,
clothing, and other necessaries against winter and inclement seasons.
The first demand will introduce mere drapery ; the second, a hut or cabin ;
at first movable, next stationary, then secure, and afterwards improved
and embellished as security increased.
"Domestic architecture is a portion -of the art which comes home to

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 61
every man's business and bosom. ' Every man's proper mansion-house
and home,' says Sir Henry Wotton, ' being the theatre of his hospitality,
the seat of self-fruition, the comfortablest part of his own life, the noblest
of his sons' inheritance, a kind of private princedom, — nay, to the posses
sors thereof an epitome of the whole world, — may well deserve by these
attributes, according to the degree of the master, to be decently and de
lightfully adorned.' It is, therefore, no mean part of the art, although it
has been seldom so much studied and cultivated as it deserves.-
" The first buildings recorded both in the Bible and in the earliest his
torians, are of the simplest forms, materials, and design, and only fitted to
keep the humble-minded inhabitants from the severity of the weather.
The primeval dwelling was either a natural cavern, or the simplest con
trivance against the asperity ofthe Weather.
" The Egyptians are among the first who built solidly and well ; and
their domestic architecture, as displayed in the palatial style, is described
by ancient writers as being magnificent, costly, and splendid.
" The earliest dwellings were originally simple huts or cabins to
protect the inhabitants from the weather ; who then began to coalesce
into cities, hamlets, and other congregations, for safety and association.
The wall and gates next succeeded ; and security giving birth to luxury,
added to the single living or sleeping-room a second and a third, as the
wants and the refinements of the inhabitants required. The separa
tion of the elder from the younger, the males from the females, the
married from the single, and other necessary consequences of an increase
of civilization and refinement, all added to the increase in size and im
proved convenience of the primeval dwelling. These are the origins
of the parlor, the eating-room, the kitchen, the chamber, and the hall.
" More solid materials, more elegance, more convenience, were soon
added to the original cabin, as men advanced in refinement and civiliza
tion, and became more convinced of security, and felt the desire of pos
sessing their own, their private home.
" Egypt is undoubtedly the first country where stone was used in
domestic architecture, unless, perhaps, Babylon may be considered its
rival,' either chronologically or in splendour. Egypt abounded more in
stone than in timber, and its inhabitants have proved themselves to be
among the ablest workers in that material which the world has ever
produced. "- Of the early and private domestic architecture of the Egyptians,
we have not many or sure grounds ; but their immense palaces or con
geries of palaces, called the Labyrinth, which the Greeks imitated in
their no less celebrated Labyrinth at Crete, by Daedalus, proves them

62 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
to have advanced in the palatial style of domestic architecture to as
great a perfection of splendour as they had in the sacred styles.
" It has been doubted whether any ruins of this wonderful structure
have ever been discovered ; but Captain Wilford, an enterprising searcher
into antiquities, asserts, in a very able paper in the Asiatic Researches,
that its ruins are still to be seen near the Lake Moeris, at a place which
the Arabs have named the Kasi, or Palace of Karan, whom they sup
pose to have been the richest of mortals. We must, however, rely
upon the credit of ancient authors for an account of it ; and the authori
ty of Herodotus is undoubtedly the best we can refer to on this head.
There is great diversity of opinion upon the exact period to which this
much boasted edifice should be assigned. Herodotus (lib. ii., n. 148)
attributes its construction to the twelve kings who reigned in Egypt at
the time, about six hundred and eighty years before the Christian era.
Pomponius Mela agrees in most points with Herodotus ; and from these
two authors we may gather a' tolerably clear idea of this great example
of the palatial domestic architecture of Egypt.
" Herodotus, who had visited and examined this edifice with great
attention, affirms that it surpassed every thing that he had conceived of
it. Within one and the same circuit of walls, it contained twelve mag
nificent palaces, regularly disposed, and communicating with each other.
. Each of these palaces contained three thousand halls, twelve of which
were of a particular form and beauty. Half of these halls or chambers
were interspersed with terraces, and were arranged round the twelve
principal halls, communicating with each other, but by so many turns
and windings, that, without an experienced guide, it was impossible to
escape wandering; the other half were underground, cut out of the rock,
and were said to have been used for the sepulchres of their kings.
Herodotus assures us, that he visited all the apartments above ground ;
but those which were subterraneous, they would not, from motives of
superstition, permit him to enter. Captain Wilford thinks that the vari
ous apartments under ground had been used for depositing the chests or
coffins of the sacred crocodiles, called Sukhus or Sukkis in old Egyptian,
and Soukh to this day in the Coptic or vernacular language of Egypt.
The halls had an equal number of doors, six opening to the north, and six
to the south ; and at each angle of the external walls of this labyrinth
was erected an immense pyramid for the sepulchres of its founders.
The whole of the labyrinth, walls, floors, and ceilings, was of white
marble, and exhibited a profusion of sculpture. Each of the before men
tioned twelve halls, or galleries, was supported on columns of the same
sort of marble. This splendid palace, or rather city of palaces, is also

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 63
mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, who thinks it was a magnificent cemetry
for the Egyptian monarchs and their families ; and it is also described
by Strabo and Pliny, who confirm the accounts and descriptions of
Herodotus. " Among other splendid examples of the palatial style of domestic
architecture of this wonder-working people, are the magnificent palace of
Memnon, in the Thebais, or Upper Egypt, which, according to Strabo,
stood in the splendid city of Abydos, the second in Egypt after Thebes ;
and the celebrated palace of the Ptolemies, under whom the national
style of architecture experienced a complete change, and aimed at the
superior graces ofthe Greek style.
" The vast and splendid city of Thebes is celebrated by, ancient wri
ters for the beauty and splendour of its domestic architecture, as well as
for its great perfection in sacred, monumental, and defensive architecture.
This style, domestic art, must have arrived to a high degree of perfection
among the Thebans ; for Diodorus says, that the houses of the private
citizens in Thebes were of four and five stories in height; which proves
their knowledge of floors, stairs, and the other necessary mechanism of
storied buildings. Of an antiquity nearly as remote as these splendid
examples of the Egyptian kings is the celebrated palace of Solomon, who
proposed to construct the most magnificent temple and the most splendid
palace that had yet been seen. Although a very able contemporary
(Mr. Wilkins) has endeavoured to convert the temple of Solomon to a
Grecian temple of the pure Doric order, there can be no question that
the style of architecture, both of the temple and of the palace of Solo
mon, was strictly Egyptian in every particular but in its materials. The
ancient historian who reeords the chronicles of the Jewish kings assures
us* that Phoenicia produced the most skilful artisans in wood, or as our
translation renders it, hewers of wood ; and were probably skilful car
penters, joiners, carvers, and such like. A supply of these able workmen
and materials of all descriptions were sent from Tyre to Jerusalem to
build this palace, which was also designed by Phoenician or Tyrian
architects. In corroboration ofthe opinion that the style of the archi
tecture of this palace was the same as the Egyptian, it should be remem
bered that Solomon married the king of Egypt's daughter, and built it
for her accommodation and in her honour. The artists of Phoenicia
were then the m6st skilful of their day ; and much of the work was exe
cuted in their own country, and sent over to Judea for constructing
these edifices. The palace was thirteen years (1 Kings vii.) in build
ing, and is described to have been built of hewn stones, of beams, and of
columns of cedar wood, with spacious windows, porticoes, and porches,

64 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
in one of which he constructed a lofty throne, whereon he sat to admin
ister justice to the people. The description of this magnificent palace,
and of the columns of wrought and cast brass, executed by Hiram, the
architect, in the first book of Kings, is worth referring to, in corrobora
tion of the perfection to which domestic architecture, and, in fact, all the
other arts, had reached in this period of ancient history.
" In these early ages, as well as those so beautifully described in
Homer, the patriarchal form of government was so prevalent, that the
palaces of princes were used for every ordinary public use, and they
seem to have been the only buildings dedicated to public purposes. The
royal palace of Troy is described by Homer as very spacious ; the mate
rial, stone, artfully wrought ; the apartments numerous. But we have
no accounts of the detail.
" The walls of Troy are celebrated as having been the works of gods;
which fable proves nothing but that neither the Greeks nor the Trojans
of those days excelled in such works, which had been raised, like the
temple and palace of Solomon, by foreign artists. The Israelites before
Solomon, and the Greeks in Homer's time, seem to have made about
equal progress in domestic architecture.
" Among various ancient specimens of domestic architecture of East
ern nations, is the ruins of the beautiful stone building at Delhi, called
the Shikargah, or hunting palace, of Feeroz Shah. The lofty pillar of a
single stone upon its summit, is -called the lat, or walking staff, of the
same monarch. From a translation made by Colonel Follien of its in
scriptions, it would appear as old as the year 97 of the Christian era ; but
from another version, made by Mr. Henry Colebrooke, — who is celebra
ted as a Sanscrit scholar for his translation of the digest of the Hindu
law, compiled under the superintendence of Sir William Jones,— it is
made much later (1164). One date may, however, refer to the pillar,
and the other to the building.
" The Feeroz Shah, whose name is attached to the building, which is
acknowledged to be a very ancient Hindu monument, appears from Fe-
rishtuh's history to have reigned at Delhi between the years 1351 and
1388, in the last of which he died, at the age of ninety; and this historian,
according to his translator Colone] Dow, gives him the following charac
ter : that ' though no great warrior in the field, he was by his excellent
qualities well calculated for a reign of peace.' He reigned thirty-eight
years and nine months, and left many memorials of his magnificence in
the land. He built fifty great sluices, forty mosques, thirty schools,
twenty caravanseras, a hundred palaces, five hospitals, a hundred tombs,
ten baths, ten spires, one hundred and fifty wells or public fountains, a

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY. 65
hundred bridges, and the pleasure gardens he made were without
number. " Mohammed Ameen Rasee, a native historian, who wrote a history
of the world in the reign of Akbar, affirms that this palace was a hunting-
place of Feeroz Shah. It is a building of three stories, in the centre of
which is a column of red stone of a single piece, round which are engrav
ed several inscriptions of a character which has hitherto remained un-
deciphered. The historian says only one-third of this column is visible,
and that the remaining two-thirds are concealed by the ruins. Its length,
or rather height, above the roof is thirty-seven feet, and its circumfer
ence, as measured by Captain Hoare's moonshee, Mohammed Morad, ten
feet four inches ; some authors say that the column is a monument of
renown to the rajahs or princes of Hindustan, and that Feeroz Shah
erected the building on which it stands for a menagerie and aviary, as
an atonement for the severities which he practised on the inhabitants of
Cumassa. It is a beautiful remain of ancient Hindu domestic architec
ture, and is agreeably varied in its several stories for effect of light
and shade. When perfect, .with its verandas and porticoes, it must have
presented a very graceful and elegant appearance. Other specimens
of the domestic architecture of this people are the palace of Gazipoor,
Oude, &e, &c.
" The Phoenician artists who executed the palace and temple of Solor
mon are generally supposed to be those descendants of Noah who settled
on the coast of Palestine, and are the same people who are spoken of in
the Old Testament as Canaanites, a word signifying merchants, and were
afterwards called by the Greeks Phoenicians. Sidon, their capital, so
often spoken of by Homer, which was afterwards eclipsed by its own co
lony Tyre, was founded by Sidon the eldest son of Canaan. Inhabiting a
barren country, they applied themselves to commerce and the arts, and
were distinguished for their excellence in manufactures and works of
taste. Their first settlements were in the isles of Cyprus and Rhodes,
and they passed successively into Greece, Sicily, and Sardinia, after
wards into Gaul ; and, always advancing, discovered the southern and
western coast of Spain, and lastly Britain. It is even thought that the
isles of CasSiterides, whence they obtained their tin, were the Solingues
and part of Cornwall. Of their beautiful city Tyre the twenty-seventh.
and twenty-eighth chapters of Ezekiel give a grand and poetical descrip
tion ; describing it as of perfect beauty, situated in the midst of the sea.
"Its public and private buildings and fortifications were of great extent :
' the men of ArVad with thine army,' says the writer, ' were upon thy
walls, and the Gammadims were in thy towers;«fhey hanged their shields
5

66 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.
upon thy walls round about.' The whole of the two chapters are wor
thy of reference for their striking descriptions?
" The Phoenicians built several cities distinguished for the magnificence
of their domestic architecture, their wealth, manufactures, and extended
commerce. Among the principal were Joppa, Damascus, and Baalbec.
Herodotus mentions among other celebrated Phoenician structures a
splendid temple dedicated to Hercules* at Tyre ; and Hiram, king of
Tyre, the friend and ally of Solomon and the patron of Hiram the great
architect, is mentioned as the founder of many palaces and cities.
" It-is probable that the style of Phoenician architecture differed from
that of other contemporary nations, as Strabo, in speaking of Tyrus and
Aradus, two islands in the Persian Gulf, says they had temples and other
structures resembling those of the Phoenicians.
" It has been conjectured, and with much probability, that the Phoe
nician architects constructed the principal part of their edifices with tim
ber, as Mount Libanus supplied them with great quantities, and its cedar
is much celebrated ; and, from what we can learn of the construction- of
the palaces and other buildings of Solomon, by Phosnician architects and
workmen, much timber was used in their erection.
" Of the domestic architecture of the Chinese both ancient and mo
dern, for they scarcely differ, little need be said. Tents and pavilions
were the original types of its style, and appear to have served as models
of design to this extraordinary people. From this origin arises its essen
tial character, lightness ; and its essential defects, weakness and bad
taste. The materials principally used by the Chinese, are wood of differ
ent sorts, bricks and tiles burned in the sun. Marble and stone are not
often used, which may perhaps be attributed, to their climate. The heat
and humidity of the southern provinces render it extremely unhealthy to
reside in houses built of stone; and, according to the missionaries who
were at Pekin, they would, in the northern provinces, be uninhabitable
for more than half the year. The general style of Chinese architecture
cannot but be familiar to any one who has ever drunk from a China tea
cup, or who has seen many of the signs of our grocers' shops, Sir Wil
liam Chambers' pagoda in Kew Gardens, or the Pavilion at Brighton.
" The Chinese are governed more by the laws of their police than by
either theory or good taste in their domestic architecture. These laws
prescribe with the greatest accuracy how the lou, or palace, should be
built of a prince of the first, second, or third order of the imperial family,
of a grandee of ' the empire, or of a mandarine ; and they regulate, like
our building act of parliament, the public edifices of the capital, and of
provincial edifices, cities, and towns, according to their several ranks or

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.

07

grades in the empire. According to these laws, which are said to be
very ancient, the number of courts, the dimensions of the terraces, the
length of the buildings, and the height of the roofs, are ordered, by pro
gressive degrees of increase, from the simple citizen to the man of letters,
from the man of letters to the mandarine, from the mandarine to the
prince, and from the prince to the emperor himself.
" All these measurements are fixed to within a few inches, and these
laws have of course produced a uniformity in the houses of individuals ;
and, after the gradation prescribed among all buildings, it is not aston
ishing that the common houses are merely huts of a single floor ; but
the climate may also prevent them from building many stories. Their
plan is also as uniform as their elevation ; more than half the ground-
floor is occupied by courts and passages. The fronts of Chinese dwelling-
houses next the street have no windows, except when the building is
"used for a shop. There is but one opening, namely, the door, before
which they hang a mat or place a screen, to prevent the passers-by from
looking in. The form of the Chinese roof is characteristic of their style,
always producing the idea of the tent or pavilion, as the primeval type
of their architecture.
" In the domestic architecture of the Chinese are often found doors
of a circular form at the top, approaching somewhat to the idea of the
arch, but resembling more the door of a bird cage than that of the
entrance of a dwelling-house. The palaces of China, especially those of
the emperor, are distinguished by their vast extent, by the number of large
courts, turnings, galleries, porticoes, halls, &e, of which they are composed.
" Some of their public buildings are of a more substantial and dura
ble nature than their domestic architecture ; but there is nothing in their
style— even after attentively perusing the best European Chinese critic
and architect, Sir William Chambers, and inspecting the best designs
both executed and on paper — to commend either on the score of pro
priety, beauty, or good taste.
" The domestic architecture of the Greeks cannot be accurately as
certained ; but that of the Romans can be well gathered from some of
their ruins, and the relations of their authors. The palaces and dwelling-
houses of the ancient Romans were in a profuse style of grandeur and su
perb decoration. Their villas, baths, and town-houses were of vast extent,
and embraced every luxury that domestic architecture could demand,
aided by painting, sculpture, and all the arts of design and decoration.
" Among their most splendid and costly examples of domestic archi
tecture were their baths, their theatres, and their amphitheatres. In the
latter description of building they aimed so much at prodigality that the

68

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY.

relations of their most authentic writers almost appear fabulous ; as the
account of the temporary theatre of Marcus Scaurus, erected while he
was edile, which he embellished with three hundred and sixty marble
columns and three thousand bronze statues. It was capable of holding
eighty thousand persons. The shafts ofthe lower range of columns were
thirty-eight feet long, and their weight so great that Scaurus was obliged
to give security for the reparation of the great sewers over which they
were to pass, if they should be damaged by their conveyance ; and this,
we should remember, was only for an occasional temporary amusement.
" Such also in character was the timber edifice erected by Curio for
the celebration of the funeral games in honor of his father ; which was so
contrived as to form, according to the nature of the exhibition, either a
theatre or an amphitheatre. When to be used in the former manner, the
circular backs were placed against each other, thus becoming two separate
theatres ; so that the declamations, music, and applauding acclamations of
the one were not heard in the other. After the theatrical performances
were concluded, the two edifices, turning on pivots, were rolled round
by machinery, with all the audience within them, and the circle or amphi
theatre was completed : the pit, cleared of the populace, forming the arena.
" The splendour of the baths of the Romans was equal to their other
structures. Ammianus Marcellinus describes them of immense size.
Some idea of their splendour may be gathered from the ruins of the
baths of Titus, and from the Pantheon ; which Cameron, in his dis
sertation on the baths of the ancients, says was only a vestibule to the
vast and magnificent baths of Agrippa, who is the reputed founder of its
fine portico.
" Before the introduction of pure taste, and the importation of Grecian
arts and artists into Rome, we have the authority of all historians to prove
that its architecture was as rude as that of any people of antiquity. Their
Etruscan neighbours led them to copy Greek originals ; and one of their
earliest kings, Tarquinius Priscus, was a native of Greece : hence the
origin of the Roman style. Nor was it the architecture of Greece alone
that the Romans imitated ; but also their literature, their eloquence, their
manners and customs, were all borrowed from their illustrious predeces
sors. Vitruvius founded his code of architectural laws upon those of the
Greeks ; Virgil imitated Homer ; Cicero, Demosthenes ; the early Roman
plays were translations from the Greek, and their later ones imitations.
" The elements, or constituent parts of Roman architecture, like those
of the Grecian, are the orders ; which consist in the style now before us
of five, as the Grecian does of three ; and are named the Tuscan, the
Doric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, and the Composite."

GLOSSARY OF f
NAMES AND TERMS USED IN ARCHITECTURE.*
(FROM THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BKITANNICA  SEVENTH EDITION.)

Abaciscus (diminutive of Abacus, 5. v.). ' This
term is applied to the chequers or squares of
a tessellated pavement.
Abacus (Gr. a/3a(, a square tile or table). The
rectangular and equilateral tablet covering
the ovalo of the capital of the Doric column,
and on which the superimposed entablature
rests, is called the abacus ; and from it the
similar part (though differently shaped) of
all capitals is distinguished by the same
term. Abacus means the same thing, but
is opposed in application to Plinth.
Ackoterium (Gr. aKpaiTriptov, the summit or
vertex), a. statue or ornament of any kind
placed on the apex, of a pediment. The
term is often incorrectly restricted to the
plinth, which forms the podium merely
for the acroterium. The statue of the saint
on the apex of the pediment of the west
ern front of St. Paul's is an acroterium ;
the other statues may be called acroterai
figures.
Amfhiprosttle (Gr. a/1^1, around or about,
and prostyle, q. v.) A temple with a porti
co at each end is said to be an amphipro
style. This term would be more correctly
applied to a structure having projecting por
ticoes on all its sides, especially if.it be
equilateral like the Bourse or Exchange at

Paris, allowing no distinction of flanks or
wings to make' it peripteral.
Annulet (Lat. annulus, a ring). This term
is applied to the small fillets or bands which
encircle the lower part of the Doric capi
tal immediately above the neck or trache-
lium. *
Antm (probably from the Gr. avnos, or some
other compound of the preposition aim, for,
or opposite to ; it has no singular), the pier-
formed ends of the walls pf a building, as in
the portico of a Greek temple. . A portico
is said to be in antis when columns stand
between anta?, as in the temple of Theseus,
supposing the peristyle or surrounding col
umns removed.
Antefix.k (Lat. ante, before, and fixus, < fixed),
upright blocks with an ornamented face
placed at regular intervals on a cornice.
Antefixa? were originally adapted to close
and hide the lower ends of the joints of the
covering tiles on the roof of a temple.
Apophvge (Gr. amfvyn, a flying off), the low
er part of the shaft of an Ionic or Corinthi
an column, or the highest member of its base
if the column be considered as a whole.
.The apophyge is the inverted cavetto or con
cave sweep, on the upper edge of which the-
cylindrical shaft rests.

* Those marked thus f are either entirely, or almost entirely, peculiar to Pointed Architecture.

70

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

Apteral (Gr. a, priv. and impov, a wing), a
temple without columns on the flanks or
sides.
Ar.kostyle (Gr. apmos, rare or weak, and
crniXof, a column), a wide intercolumniation.
The space allowed to thia term is four dia
meters.
Arjeosystyle (compounded of araoslyle and
sy style, q. v.) This term is used to express
the arrangement attendant on coupled co
lumns, as in the western front of St. Paul's
Cathedral.
Arcade, a series of arches.
Arch (Lat. arcus, a bow), a construction of
separate or distinct blocks or masses of a'ny
hard material, cut wedge-wise, and arranged
in a bowed form, so as to bear from end to end
horizontally, or across an opening, though
abutting or being supported only at the ends.
Architrave (Gr. apxi, chief, and Lat. trabs, a
beam), the chief beam,— that part of the en
tablature which rests immediately on the
heads of the columns, and is surmounted by
the frieze ; it is also called the episiylium or
epistyle. The moulded enrichment on the
sides and head of a door or window is called
an architrave.
Archivolt. This term is a contraction of the
Italian architrave voltato. It is applied to
the architrave moulding on th? face of an
arch, and following its contour.
Arris, the sharp edge or angle in which two
sides or surfaces meet.
Astragal (Gr. aorpnyaXoj, a vertebral joint), a.
convex moulding. This term is generally
applied to small mouldings, and torus to
large ones of the same form. (See Torus.)
Attic, a low story above an entablature, or
above a cornice which limits the height of
the main part of an elevation. The etymo-
- logy of this term is unsettled : probably the
upper range of columns in a Greek hypaethral
temple was called arcixov, from having no
coherent wall ; whence the Latin atticum,
and its application to a story superimposing
the general ordinance. Otherwise such a
thing, is unknown in Greek architecture ; but
it is very common in both Roman and Italian
practice. What is here termed the tholobate
in St. Peter's and St, Paul's cathedrals are
generally termed attics.

Baluster, a small column or pier supporting
the coping in a pierced parapet : the parapet
itself, when pierced, is hence called a balus
trade.
Band or Tjenia, nearly synonymous with Fil
let, q. v. This term is, however, most ge
nerally applied to that listel in the Doric en
tablature which separates the frieze from the
architrave, and connects the lower parts of
the triglyphs.
Base (Gr. (lams, from the verb to bear). The
congeries of mouldings generally placed un
der the shaft of an Ionic or Corinthian
column is called its base. The term is ap
plied also to the lowest part of a pedestal or
stylobate ; to the vertical moulded fittings
which go round walls on the floor ; and
generally to every thing that is put lowest,
for any thing to rest on.
Batter (Fr. battre, to beat). Building over in
projecting courses, like inverted steps, is
termed battering, beating, or corbelling over.
t Battlement, a pierced or machiolated para
pet.
t Bay. The space between the mullions of%
window, between piers, and between the
principal beams of a roof, floor, or ceiling, is
a bay.
Bead, a small cylindrical moulding of frequent
use.
Bed-mould, the congeries of mouldings which
is under the projecting part of almost every
cornice, and of which indeed it is a part.
Blocking-course, a deep but slightly projecting
course in an elevation, to act as cornice to
an arcade, or to separate a basement from a
superior story. (See String-course).
t Boss, a sculptured knob which is placed on
the intersections of ribs in groined ceilings.
t Buttress, the projected piers against the
angles of towers, and against the ordinary
piers of walls, to strengthen them, and re
ceive the outward thrust of the inner trans
verse arches.
Cabling. The flutes of columns are said to
be cabled when they are partly occupied by
solid convex masses, or appear to be refilled
with cylinders after' they had been formed.
t Canopy, a covering or hood, the enriched
projecting head to a niche or tabernacle.

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

71

The tablet or drip-stone, whether straight of
circular, over the heads of doors or windows,
ff enriched, is called a canopy.
Capital, Cap (Gr. KctpaXt,, the head), the spread
ing, moulded, voluted, foliate, or otherwise
enriched head of a column. The term cap
is applied, in contradistinction, to the con
geries of mouldings which forms the head
of a pier or pilaster.
Caryatides. Human female figures used as
piers, columns, or supports, are called Cary
atides; and, adjectively, Caryatic is applied
to the human figure generally, when used in
the manner of Caryatides.
Cassoon (Jtal.), a deep panel or coffer in a
soffit or ceiling. This term is often written
after the French caisson, whereas we derive
it directly from the Italian cassone, the aug
mentative of cassa, a chest or coffer.
Cathetus (Gr. kuSstos, a perpendicular line).
The eye of the volute istso termed because
its position is determined, in an Ionic or vo
luted capital, by a line let down from the
point in which the volute generates.
Cauliculus (Lat. a stalk or stem), the inner
scrolls or tendrils of the Corinthian capital
are called Cauliculi. It is not uncommon,
however, to apply this term to the larger
scrolls or volutes of the same also.
Cavetto (Ital. cavare, to dig oiit), a moulding
whose form is a simple concave, and im
pending.
Cella (Lat.), the cell or interior of a Cleithral
temple. The Greek term is Naos.
Chamfer. An edge or arris taken off equally
on the two sides which form it, leaves what
is called a chamfer, or a chamfered edge. If
the arris be taken off more on the one side
than the' other, it is said to be splayed or
bevelled.
t CiNQUEFOiL,.ji ,tfac,ery in five foliations or
featherings.
CleithKal (vide Cleithros). This is used of
a covered Greek temple, in contradistinction
to ByptBthral, which designates one that is
uncovered.
Cleithros (Gr. nXeiBpos, an inclosed or shut up
place). A temple whose roof completely
covers it is a Cleithros.
Coffer, a deep panel in a ceiling.
Column (Lat. colwmna), a tapering cylindrical

m'ass, placed vertically on a level stylobate,
in some cases with a spreading congeries of
mouldings called a base, and having always
at its upper and smaller end a dilating mass
called a capital. Columns are either insu
lated or attached. They are said to be at
tached ov engaged when they form part of a
wall, projecting one half or more, but not
the whole of their substance.
Consol or -Console, a bracket or truss, general
ly with scrolls, or volutes, at the two ends, of
unequal size and contrasted, but connected
by a flowing line from the back of the up
per one to the inner convolving faoe of the
lower.
Coping, the covering course or cornice of a
wall or parapet. The term coping is gene
rally applied to a plain, slightly projected,
covering- course, and cornice to a larger
moulded coping.
t Corbel, a knob, boss, or consol, projecting
from a verticalface, to act as a prop or sup
port. Its jutting or overhanging has induced
the application- of the term to describe the
i projection of one thing over another.
Cornice (Gr. nopuvis, the highest part, that
which is placed last on a building), the high
est part of an entablature — that which rests
on the frieze. The term cornice is very ge
nerally applied to any bold congeries of
moulding occupying the highest place in a
composition, whether external or internal.
A plain covering to a wall or parapet is
called a coping, q. v.
Corona (vide Cornice). This term is applied
to the deep vertical face of the projected part
of the cornice between the bed-mould and
the covering mouldings.
t Crocket (probably from the old English word
croi, a curl), an ornament of foliage orani-
mals running up the back of a pediment,
arch, pinnacle, or spire, from the corbels be
low to the finial above, in which latter the
crockets "on both sides appear to merge. In
the earlier examples the, crocket is a mere
curl, or bent tendril, with an enriched end.
Cupola (Ital. cupo, concave, profound), a spher
ical or spheroidal covering to a building, or
to any part of.it.
t Cusp (Lat. cuspis, a spear), the points in
which the foliations of tracery finish. These

72

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

are sometimes themselves enriched, and are
sometimes plain.
Cyclostylar (Gr. kvk\os, a circle, and imAos,
a column). . A structure composed of a cir
cular range of columns without a core is cy
clostylar ; for with a core, the range would
be a peristyle. This is the species of edifice
falsely called by Vitruvius Monopteral. (See
MoNOPTEROS.)
Cyma (Gr. kv/lcl, a wave), the name of a mould
ing of very frequent use. It is a simple,
waved line, concave at one end and convex
at the other, like an Italic/. In that man
ner it is called a cyma-recta ; but if the
convexity appear above, and the concavity
below on the right hand, it is then a cyma-
re versa.
Cyrtostyle (Gr. Kvpros, convex, and o-tuAoj, a
column), a circular projecting portico.
Dado or Die, the vertical face of an- insulated
pedestal, between the base and cornice or
surbase. It is extended also to the similar
part of all stereobates which are arranged
like pedestals in Roman and Italian archi
tecture.
Decastyle (Gr- Ssko, ten, and a-m\os, a col
umn), a portico of ten columns in front.
(See note to the term HexasTyle.) The
portico to the London University is of this
description ; more particularly described, it
is deca-prostyle and recessed.
Dentil (Lat. dens, a tooth). The cogged or
toothed member, so common in the bed-
mould of a Corinthian entablature, is said
to be dentilled ; and each cog or tooth is
called a dentil.
Design. Architects apply this term to what is
vulgarly called a plan, intending by it the
scheme or design of a building in all its
parts, the term plan having a distinct appli
cation to a technical portion of the design.
(See Plan.) The plans, elevations, sections,
and whatever other drawings may be neces
sary for an edifice, exhibit the design.
Detail. As used by architects, detail means
the smaller parts into which a composition
may be divided. It is applied generally to
mouldings and other enrichments, and again
to their minutiae.
Diameter (superior and inferior). The greater

diameter of the shaft of a column is techni
cally termed its inferior, because it is that of
the lower end ; and the lesser, that of the
upper end, its superior diameter.
Diastyle (Gr. Sia, through, and orvXo;, a co
lumn), a spacious intercolumniation, to
which three diameters are assigned. (Vide
EUSTYLE.)
Dipteral. (See Difteros.)
Dipteros (Gr. Sis, twice, and xrcpov, a wing),
a double winged temple. The Greeks are
said to have constructed temples with two
ranges of columns all round, which were
called Dipteroi. A portico projecting two
columns and their interspaces is of dipteral
or pseudo-dipteral arrangement.
Distyle (Gr. Sis, twice, and oruXot, a column),
a portico of two columns. This term is not
generally applied to the mere porch with two
columns, but to describe a portico with two
columns in antis. The elevation of the pro-
naos of the hexastyle peripteral temple ex
hibits an example of distyle in antis.
Ditriglyph (Gr. Sis, twice, and triglyph, q. v.),
an intercolumniation in the Doric order, of
two.triglyphs. (See Monotriglyph.)
Dodecastyle (Gr. SaSexa, twelve, and qt-uXos, a
column), a portico of twelve columns in
front.
Dome (Gr. Supa, a structure of any kind ;
whence the Latin domus, a house or tem
ple), a cupola or inverted cup on a building.
The application of this term to its generally
received purpose is from the Italian custom
of calling an archiepiscopal church, by way
of eminence, II duomo, the temple. ; for to
one of that rank, the cathedral of Florence,
the cupola was first applied in modern prac
tice. The Italians themselves never call a
cupola a dome : it is on this side the Alps
the mistake has arisen, from the circum
stance, it would appear, that the Italians use
the term with reference to those structures
whose most distinguishing feature is the cu
pola, tholus, (or as we now call it) dome.
(See Cupola.)
t Dripstone, the moulding or cornice which
acts as a canopy to doors and windows.
¦ Horizontal running mouldings are sometimes
called tablets and sometimes dripstones.
Drops. (See Gutt.&.)

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

73

Echinus (Gr. txivos, an egg), a moulding of
eccentric curve, which (when it is carved)
being generally cut into the forms of eggs
and anchors alternating, the moulding is
called by the name of the more conspicuous.
It is the same as Ovalo, q. v.
Elevation, the front, or facade, as the French
term it, of a structure. A geometrical draw
ing of the external upright parts of a build
ing. Architects speak of front, back-front,
and side or end elevations.
Entablature or Intablatuke (Lat. in, upon,
and tabula, a tablet). The superimposed
horizontal mass in a columnar ordinance,
which tse'sts upon the tablet or abacus of a
column, is so called. It is conventionally-
composed of three parts, architrave, frieze,
and cornice.
Entasis (Gr. cv-acns, a stretching or swelling).
Columns are said to have entasis when they
do not diminish regularly, but in a curved
line.
Epistylium or Epistyle (Gr. sin, upon, and
imiXnc, u. column). This term may with
propriety be applied to the whole entabla
ture, with which it is synonymous ; but it is
restricted in use to the architrave or lowest
member of the entablature.
Escape, a term sometimes used for the apo-
phyge of a column. (See Apophyge.)
Eustyle (Gr. sv, well, and o-tv\os, a column),
a species of intercolumniation, to which a
proportion of two diameters and a quarter
is assigned. This term, together with the
others of similar import, — pycnostyle, sy-
style, diastyle, and araeostyle, referring to
the distances of columns from one another
in composition, is from Vitruvius, who as
signs to each the space it- is to express. It
will be seen, however, by reference to them
individually, that the words themselves,
though perhaps sufficiently applicable, con
vey no idea of an exactly defined space, and
by reference to the cotumnar structures of
the ancients, that no attention was paid by
them to such limitations. It follows, then,
that the proportions assigned to each are
purely conventional, and may or may not be
attended to without vitiating the power of
applying, the terms. Eustyle means the best
or most beautiful arrangement ; but as the

effect of a columnar composition depends on
many things besides the diameter of the co
lumns, the same proportioned intercolumni
ation would look well or ill, according to
those other circumstances ; so that the limita
tion of eustyle to two diameters and a quar
ter is absurd, and so it-is in the case of the
other similar terms. With Doric interco
lumniation it is different, as may be seen by
reference to the word Monotriglyph.
Facade. (See Elevation.)
Fascia (Lat. a band). The narrow vertical
bands or broad fillets into which the archi
traves of Corinthian and Ionic entablatures
are divided, are called fasciae or fascias ; and
the term is generally applied to any similar
member in architecture.
t Featherings. (See Foliations.)
Fillet, a narrow vertical band or Kstel, of
frequent use in congeries of mouldings, to
separate and combine them, and also to give
breadth and firmness to the upper edge of a
crowning cyma or cavetto, as in an external
cornice. 4The narrow slips or breadths be
tween the flutes of Corinthian and Ionic co
lumns are also called fillets.
t Finial (Lat. finis, the end). This term is
equivalent to the Greek Acroterium. It is
applied to the carved apex of pediments,
piers, pinnacles, and canopies.
Flute, a concave channel. Columns whose
shafts are channelled are said to be fluted,
and the flutes are collectively called flut-
ings.
t Foliations or Featherings, small arches
meeting in points or cusps, which are plain
. or enriched. They are used as an enrich
ment in tracery, and are distinguished as
trefoils, quatrefoils, and cinquefoils, as the
case may be.
Frieze (Ital. fregio, from the hat..phrygionius,
enriched or embroidered), that portion of an
entablature between the cornice above and
the architrave below. It derives its name
from being the recipient of the sculptured
enrichments either of foliage, or figures which
may be relevant to the object of the structure.
The frieze is also called the zoophorus.
Frontispiece, the front or principal elevation
of a structure. This term, however, is. ge-

74

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS,

nerally restricted in application to a deco
rated entrance.
Gable. When a roof is not hipped or returned
on itself at the ends, its ends are stopped by
carrying up the walls under them in the tri
angular form of the roof itself. This is call
ed the gable, or indeed, the pediment. The
latter term, however, is restricted to the or
namental and ornamented gable ; and gable
itself is applied to a plain triangular end.
Gradino (Ital. dim. of gradus, a step). Ar
chitects frequently use the plural of this
term, gradini, and to gradinate, instead of
the English, steps, and to graduate, perhaps
without sufficient reason, though they find
them useful to distinguish what they intend
from the meaning of the latter words in
their ordinary acceptation.
Groining. In vaulting or arching over from
insulated piers, the cross vaults meet in an
gles, and lead to a common centre or apex.
This is called groining.
Guiloche or Guilochos (Gr. yvwv, a member,
and Xo^of, a snare). An interlaced ornament
like network, used most frequently to enrich
the torus.
Guttjb (Lat. drops). The small cylindrical
drops used to enrich the mutules and regular
of the Doric entablature are so called.
Helix '(Gr. 2Xi|, a wreath or ringlet), used syr
nonymously with Cauliculus, q. v. It forms
in the plural Helices.
Hemiglyph (Gr. bfucvs, half, and. yXvfri, an in
cision or channel). The half-channels, or
rather chamfered edges, of a triglyph tablet,
may be so called. The two hemiglyphs are
included to make the, third channel, and
complete the triglyph. (See Triglyph.)
Hexastyle (Gr. if, six, and otdXoj, a column).
A portico of six columns in front is of this
description. Most of the churches in Lon
don which have porticoes have hexa-pro-
styles. (See Prostyle.)
Hypjethral. (See Hypjethros.)
Hypjethros (Gr. im, under, and aiBpa, the air),
a temple open to the air, or uncovered. The
Greeks frequently made the temples of the
supreme divinities hypasthral. For instance;
those of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigentum in

Sicily, of Neptune at Passtum, and of Mi
nerva Parthenon at Athens, are all of this
description. The term may be the more
easily understood by supposing the roof re
moved from over the nave of a church in
which columns or piers go up from the floor
to the ceiling, leaving the aisles still covered.
In that case it would be hypasthral, after the
manner of the Greek hypsethros. The Pan
theon in Rome having an opening in the
centre of the dome, is thereby rendered hy-
paethral.
Hypogea (Gr. iiro, under, and yij, the earth).
Constructions under the surface of the earth, ,
or into the sides of a hill or mountain, are

Hypotrachelium (Gr. fa-o, upon, and Tpaxv\°s,
the neck), the part forming the junction- of
the shaft with the capital of a column ; the
neck of the capital itself. In some styles
it is a projecting fillet or moulding, and in
others, as the Doric, it is composed of a
channel or groove, and sometimes of more
thafn one.
Jamb, the side-post or lining of a dobr-way or
-other aperture. The jambs of a window
outside the frame are called reveals.
Ichnography (Gr. ix""s, a footstep or track,
and ypa<p>i, a description or representation).
A plan for the representation of the site of
an object on a horizontal plane, is its ichno
graphy. The term plan (q. v.) is, however,
much more frequently used than this.
Impost (Lat. impositus, laid upon). The ho
rizontal congeries of mouldings forming the
capital of a pier, pr edge pilaster, which has
to support one leg of an arch, is called the
impost ; sometimes, and more conveniently,
this term is used for the pilaster itself, when
its capital is called the impost cap or impost
mouldings.
Intercolumniation (Lat. inter, between,' and
column, q. v.) The distance from column
to column, the clear space between columns,
is called the intercolumniation.
t Label,, the level moulding or dripstone over
a door or window, common in the later
Pointed works. It is generally turned down
at the ends at right a'ngles, and slightly re
turned- again horizontally and outwards.

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

75

Lacunar (Lat), a panelled or coffered ceiling
or soffit. The panels or cassoons of a ceil
ing are more classically called laevnaria.
Lantern (Lat. lanterna,), a turret raised
above a roof or tower, and very much
pierced, the better to transmit light. In
modern practice this term is generally ap
plied to any raised part in a roof or ceiling,
containing vertical windows, but covered in
horizontally.
Metope (Gr. ficmn-rj, a middle space), the square
recess between the triglyphs in a Doric frieze.
It is sometimes occupied by sculptures.
Mezzanine (Ital. mezzunino, dim. of mezzo,
the middle), a low story between two lofty
ones. It is called by the French entresol,
or inter-story.
Modillion (Lat. modulus, a measure of pro
portion), so called because of its arrange
ment in regulated distances ; the enriched
block or horizontal bracket generally found
under the cornice of the Corinthian entabla
ture. Less ornamented, it is sometimes used
in the Ionic. (See also Mutule.)
Module (Lat. modulus a modus, a measure or
rule). This is a term which has been gene
rally used by architects in determining the
relative proportions of the various-parts of a
columnar ordinance. The semidiameter of
the column is the module, which being di
vided into thirty parts called minutes, any
part of the composition is said to be of so
many modules and minutes, or minutes alone,
in height, breadth, or projection. The whole
diameter is now generally preferred as a mo
dus, it being a better rule of proportion than
its half.
Monopteral. (See Monopteros.)
Monopteeos (Gr. poi/os, one, or single, and
tttbpos, a wing). This term is. incorrectly
used by Vitruvius to describe a temple com-
. posed of a circular range of columns sup
porting a tholus, cupola, or dome, but with
out walls, (gee' Peripteral.) Such an edi
fice would be more correctly designated as*
Cyclostylar, q. v.
Monotriglyph (Gr. jwvos, one, or'singje, and
triglyph, q. v.) The irttercolumniations of
the! Doric order are determined by the num
ber of triglyphs whieh intervene, instead of

the number of diameters of the column, as
in other cases ; and this term designates the
ordinary intercolumniation of one triglyph.
Mouldings, eccentric curves of various kinds;
intended to enrich and ornament, by produc
ing light and shade, and obviating the mo
notony .attendant on many flat and angular
surfaces. They may be variously carved to
increase their efficiency. The most usual
forms of mouldings are called the cymarec-
ta and reversa, cavetto, scotia, torus, astra
gal or bead, and the echinus or ovalo. In
Pointed architecture, mouldings are not limit
ed either to those names or to the forms they
are intended to designate, nor indeed is any
other style, except by absurd custom and
authority.
t Mullion, the columnar vertical bar used to
divide a window into breadths ; the trunk
out of which tracery flows.
Mutule (Lat. mutulus, a stay or bracket), the
rectangular impending blocks under the co
rona of the Doric cornice, from which gutta;
or drops depend. •• Mutule is equivalent to
modillion, but the latter term is applied more
particularly to enriched blocks or brackets,
such as those of Ionic and Corinthian en
tablatures*. /
Naos (Gr. vans, a temple). This term is some
times used instead of the Latin Cella, as
applied to the interior ; strictly, however, it
means the body of the edifice itself, and hot
merely its interior or cell.
Newel, the solid or hollow column or cylinder
Which bears up the handrail of a staircase at
the foot and in the most material parts. It
means also the core or hollow, as the case
may be, about which a circular staircase
winds.
Niche, a concave recess in a wall, with a
straight or single head. Niches are gene
rally made to receive statues, vases, &c.
Octostyle (Gr. ok™, eight, and omXof, a co
lumn), a portico of eight columns in front.
(See note to Hexastyle.) It may indeed be
called a pseudo-octo-prostyle. (See Pseudo-
prostyle.)
Ogee, the vulgar name for the Cyma, q. v.
OpIsthodomus (Gr. trnwdev, behind, and ifo/ior,

76

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

a house or other edifice), the part behind a
Greek temple corresponding with the Pro-
naos before it. (See Pronaos.)
Order. A column with its entablature and
stylobate is so called. The term is the result
of the dogmatic laws deduced from the wri
tings of Vitruvius, and has been exclusively
applied to those arrangements which they
were thought to warrant.
Ordinance, a composition of some particular
order or style. It need not, however, be
restricted to a columnar composition, for it
will apply to any species which is sub
jected to conventional rules for its arrange
ment.
Orthography (Gr. opBos, straight or true, and
ypaoitj, a description or representation). A
geometrical elevation of a building or other
object, in which it is represented as it actu
ally exists, or may exist, and not perspec-
tively, or as it would appear, is called its or
thography.
Orthostyle (Gr. opdos,' straight or true, and
urtiXot, a column), any straight range of co
lumns. This is a term suggested to desig
nate what is generally but improperly called
a peristyle, j. « ; that is, columns in a straight
row or range, but not forming a portico.
Ovalo (Ital.), egg-formed. (See Echinus.) This
is the name most commonly applied to the
moulding which appears to have originated
in the moulded head of the Doric column,
and, with an abacus, forming its capital.
Panel, a compartment with raised margins,
moulded or otherwise. Deep panels in a
ceiling are called Cassoons, and Lacunaria,
q.v.
Parapet (Ital. parapetto, against the breast, or
breast-high), the low breast-high wall which
is used to front terraces and balconies, to
flank bridges, &c. The most common ap
plication of the term in this country is to so
much of the external walls of a house as
stands above the level gutters of the roof
behind.
Parastas (Gr. napaaras, standing before), an
anta? or end pilaster. This is the Greek
term for which the Latin antae is generally
used, and it has the same meaning. (See
Antje.)

Pedestal (Gr. mvs, a foot, and o-ruXot, a co
lumn). An insulated stylobate is for the
most part so-called. The term is, moreover,
generally applied to any parallelogramic or
cylindrical mass used as the basement of any
single object, as a statue or vase.
Pediment, that part of a portico which rises
above its entablature to cover the end of the
roof, whose triangular form it takes. The
cornice of the entablature, or its corona and
part of the bed-mould only, with the addi
tion of a cymatium, bounds its inclined sides,
and joins in an obtuse angle at the apex. In
Pointed Architecture, however, the angle of
a pediment is for the most part acute.
t Pendent (Lat. pendens, hanging). In some
of the later works of the Pointed style, large
masses depend from enriched ceilings, and
appear to be formed by the other legs of in
tersecting arches : these are called pendents.
They also occur in canopies.
Peribolus (Gr. izepi, around or about, and /3oXXw,
to gird or throw around), an inclosure. Any
inclosed space is a peribolus ; but the term
is applied more particularly to the sacred in
closure about a temple. The wall forming
the inclosure is also called the peribolus.
Peripteral. (See Perifteros.)
Peripteeos (Gr. mpi, around or about, and
Trrepov, a wing), a temple or other structure
with the columns of its end, prostyles or
porticoes, returned on its sides or wings, and
one intercolumniation distant from the walls.
Almost all the Doric temples of the Greeks
were peripteral. The term is, however, in
correctly applied by Vitruvius to peristylar
structures, though it is clear that a perfectly
round building, such as he describes to be
peripteral, cannot be said to be winged or to
have wings.
Peristyler, having a Peristyle. (See Peri
style.)
Peristyle (Gr. nepi, around or about, and o-ruXos,
a column), a range of columns encircling an
edifice, such as that which surrounds the
*• cylindrical drum under the cupola of St.
Paul's. The columns of a Greek peripteral
temple form a peristyle also, the former be-"
ing a circular and the latter a quadrilateral'
peristyle. The same term is generally but
incorrectly applied to a range of columns, in

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

77

almost any situation, when they do not form
a portico. (See Orthostyle.)
Pier. The solid parts of a wall between win
dows, and between openings generally, are
called piers. The term is also applied to
masses of brick- work or masonry, which are
insulated to form supports to gates or to
carry arches.
Pilaster (Lat. pila, a pillar, and the Ital. aug
mentative astro, which indicates an inferior
quality), an inferior sort of column or pillar ;
a projection from or against a pier, having
the form and decorations of antse, when used
correctly ; but too frequently they have capi
tals, like those of columns, assigned them.
Pillar (Lat. pila, and Ital. piliere), a colum
nar mass of no particular form. Columns
are vulgarly called pillars ; but architects
make a distinction, restricting this term to
such pillars as do not come within the de
scription of a column. (See Column.)
Pillowed. A swollen or rounded frieze is said
to be pillowed or pulvinated.
t Pinnacle, the slender tapering head of a tur
ret or buttress. A small spire, or the head
of a spire or steeple.
Plan, a horizontal geometrical section, of the
walls of a building ; or indications, on a ho
rizontal plane, of the relative positions of
the walls and partitions, with the various
openings, such as windows and doors, — re
cesses and projections, as chimneys and
chimney breasts, — columns, pilasters, &c.
This term is often incorrectly used in the
sense of Design.
Planceer is sometimes used in the same sense
as soffit, but incorrectly, as it is from the
French plancher, to board or floor. It is
more particularly applied to the soffit of the
corona in a cornice.
Plinth (Gr. it\iv8os, a square tile). In the Ro
man orders the lowest member of the base
of a column is square and vertically faced ;
this is~called a plinth.
Polytriglyph (Gr. m>Xt>s, many, and triglyph,
q. v.) An intercolumniation in the Doric or
der of more than two triglyphs. (See Mo-
notriglyph and Ditriglyph.)
Portico (an Italicism of the Lat. Porticus), an
open space before the door or other entrance
to ;any building; fronted with columns. A

portico is distinguished as prostyle, or in an
tis, as it may project from or recede within
the building, and is designated with either of
these terms by the number- of columns its
front may consist of. - (See Distyle, Tet-
rastyle, Hexastyle, Octostyle, &c.)
Poeticus' (Lat. see Portico) . In an amphipro-
stylar or peripteral temple, this term is used
to distinguish the portico at the entrance
from that behind, which is called the posti-
cum.
Posticum (Lat.), a portico behind a temple.
(See Posticus and Portico.)
Pronaos (Gr. irpo, before, and vaos, a temple),
the inner portico of a temple, or the space
between the porticus, or outer portico, and
the door opening into the cella. This is a
conventional use of the term ; for, strictly,
the pronaos is the portico itself.
Propyljeum (Gr. irpo, before, and traX,), a por
tal), any structure or structures forming the
entrance to the peribolus of a temple ; also
the space lying between the entrance and
the temple. In common usage this term, in
the plural (propylaea), is almost restricted to
the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens,
which is known by it as a name.
Prostyle (Gr. irpo, before, and otuXoj, a co
lumn). A portico in which the columns
project from the building to which it is at
tached is called a prostyle. It is tautologous
to say a prostyle portico, — a prostyle is a
portico. Custom, however, seems to war
rant the impropriety, for the word portico is
always superadded. In determining the
number of columns of which a portico conr
sists, the Greek numerals are prefixed to the
term Style, q. v., and prostyle is repeated.
It would be more concise, and, at the least,
equally correct, to put the numeral before
prostyle, and say tetra-prostyle, hexa-pro-
style, &c, instead of tetrastyle-prostyle, &c,
as the custom is ; that mode is adapted in
this article throughout.
Pseudo-dipteeal (Gr. ipevSvs, false, and dipte
ral, q. v., false), double- winged. When the
inner row of columns of a dipteral arrange
ment is omitted, and the space from the wall
of the building to the columns is preserved
of the consequent double projection, it is
pseudo-dipteral. The portico of the London

78

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

University is pseudo-dipterally arranged, the
returning columns on the erids or sides not
being carried through behind those in front.
Pseudo-peripteral (Gr. xfievSr/s, false, and pe
ripteral, q. v.), false-winged. A temple hav
ing the columns on its flanks attached to the
walls, instead of being arranged as in a pe-
ripteros, is said to be pseudo-peripteral.
Pseudo-prostyle (Gr. ipcvSr/s, false, and pro
style, q v). This is a term not io general
use, but is suggested to designate a portico
projecting less than the space from one co
lumn to another, as the western porticoes to
St. Paul's cathedral, and the portico to the
East India House' in London ; but that they
are recessed also, and therefore may be de
scribed as pseudo-prostyle and recessed. The
front of Trinity Church in the new road,
near the Regent's Park, in London, also
presents a mere pseudo-prostyle.
Pulvinated (Lat. pulvinus, a cushion or bol
ster), a term used to express the swelling or
bolstering of the frieze which is found in
some of the inferior works of the Roman
school, and is common in Italian practice.
It is used indifferently with pillowed.
Pycnostyle (Gr. miaos, dense, and o-rvXos, a
column), columns thickly set. The space
or intercolumniation assigned to this term is
one diameter and a half. (See Eustyle.)
Quatre-foil, tracery in four foliations or fea
therings ; but applicable only to circular or
square panels, and not to arches.
Quoin (Lat. "ancon, an elbow or corner, whence
the Fr. coin), a corner-stone. The stones
which are made to project from the regular
surface of the walls at the angles of a build
ing are technically called quoins. The front
of the Farnese Palace exemplifies them.
Regula (Lat), a rule or square. The short
fillet or rectangular block, under the taenia,
on the architrave of the Doric entablature,
is so called.
t Rose or Catherine- wheel Window, the large
circular window filled with various tracery,
which is common in the upper part of tran
sept fronts in churches and cathedrals.
Scotia (Gr. mona, shadow or darkness), a con

cave moulding, most commonly used in bases,
which projects a deeper shadow on itself than
any other form would possess in an under-
view position. It is like a reversed ovalo, or
rather what the mould of an ovalo would
present.
Scroll, synonymous with volute. The term
scroll is commonly applied to the more ordi
nary purposes, while volute is generally re
stricted to the scrolls of the Ionic capital,
Section, a drawing showing the internal heights
of the various parts of a building. It sup
poses it to be cut through entirely, so as to
exhibit the walls, the heights of the internal
doors, and other apertures ; the heights of
the stories, thicknesses of the floors, &c. It -
is one of the species of drawings necessary
to the exhibition of a Design, q. v.
Shaft. The body or tapering cylindrical mass
of a column, from the base below to the
capital above, is so called.
Sill or Sole (Lat. Solum, a threshold, whence
the Fr. seuil). The horizontal base of a door
or window^frame is called its sill, though in
practice a technical distinction is made be
tween the inner or wooden base ofthe win
dow-frame and the stone base on which it
rests, the latter being called the sill of the
window, and the former that of its frame.
The term is not restricted to the bases of
apertures ; the lower horizontal part of a
framed partition is called its sill. It is often
incorrectly written cill.
Soffit (Ital. soffitta, a ceiling), the inverted
horizontal face of any thing. The horizon
tal face of an entablature resting on, and ly
ing open between, the columns, is its soffit.
The underface of an arch, where its thick
ness is seen, is its soffit.
Spandrel. The unoccupied angles, or rather
the excluded triangles of a square, described
. about a circle, are called spandrels ; whence
almost any triangular space is designated by
the same term.
t Spire, the tapering mass which forms the
summit of a steeple.
Steeple. This term is used in contradistinc
tion to tower, the . latter being upright, or
nearly so, and terminating almost abruptly,
or with pinnacles, and the steeple running
to a point with sides converging from the

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

79

base upwards, or from a certain height
only.
Stele (Gr. omXi?, a cippus or small monument).
The ornaments on the ridge of a Greek
temple, answering to the antefixss on the
summit of the flank entablatures, are thus
designated.
Stereobate (Gr. orspsot, firm or solid, and
0ao-is, a base or fulciment), a basement. It
is sought to make a distinction between this
term and Stylobate, q. »., by restricting the
latter to its real import, and applying stere
obate to a basement in the absence of co
lumns.
Stoa (Gr. oroa, a portico).. This is the Greek
equivalent for the Latin porticus and the
Italo-English portico, q. v.
String or String-course, a narrow, vertical-
faced, and slightly projecting course in an
elevation. If window-sills are made con
tinuous, they form a string-course ; but if ,
this course is made thicker or deeper than
ordinary window-sills, it becomes a block
ing-course.
Style (Gr.,o-n,Xoj, a column). The term style
is of very constant use in the composition of
architectural names and distinctions, and in
those compositions it is not to be understood
in its ordinary and almost unlimited appli
cation, but in its simple and original mean
ing, — a column. It is, however, not used
in that sense unless in composition ; but in
its ordinary acceptation it is applied to the
varieties of architecture, as the Greek and
Roman styles, &c.
Stylobate (Gr. ctv\os, a column, and 1800-15, a
base or fulciment), a basement to columns.
(Se>STEREOBATE.) Stylobate is synonymous
with pedestal, but is applied to a continued
and unbroken substructure or basement to
columns, while the latter term is confined to
insulated supports.
Surbase (Lat. super, whence the Fr. sur, above.
or upon, and base, q. v.), an upper base. This
term is applied to what, in the fittings of a
room, is familiarly called the chair-rail. It
is also used to designate the cornice . of a
if pedestal or stereobate, and is separated from
the- base by the dado or die.
SiStyle (Gr. <rw, together with,- and atvKos, a
column), columns rather thickly set. An in

tercolumniation to whioh two diameters are
assigned. (See Eustyle.)
t Tabernacle, a canopied recess or niche. The
rich ornamental tracery forming the canopy,
&c, to a tabernacle, is called tabernacle-
work: it is common in the stalls and screens
of cathedrals", and in them is generally open
or pierced through.
t Tablet. Projecting mouldings, or moulded
Strings in the Pointed style, are better de
scribed as tablets than as cornices.
T^nia (Lat.), a band. (-See Band.)
Terminal. Figures of which the upper parts
only, or perhaps the head and shoulders
alone, are carved, the rest running into a
diminishing pedestal, with feet indicated be
low, or even without them, are called termi
nal figures.
Tetrastoon (Gr. rcrpa, four, and o-roa, a porti
co). An atrium or rectangular court-yard,
having a colonnade or projected orthostyle on
every side, is called a tetrastoon.
Tetrastyle (Gr. rerpa, four, and o-ruXoj, a co
lumn), a portico of four columns- in front.
Tholobate (Gr. BoXojj, a dome or cupola, and
Pads , a basis or substructure), that on which
a dome or cupola rests. This is a term not
in general use, but not the less of useful ap
plication. What is generally termed the
attic above the peristyle and under the cu
pola of St. Paul's, would be correctly desig
nated the tholobate. A tholobate of a dif
ferent description, and one to which no other
name can well be applied, is the circular
substructure to the cupola of the London
University.
Tholus or Tholos (Gr.) a -dome or cupola, or
any round edifice. This is the only term
used by Greek writers that can be supposed
to apply to the conical chambers which ap
proach, in internal form, to that of the mo
dern cupola or dome, and is therefore made
the Greek equivalent for those terms.
Torus (Lat.), a protuberance or swelling, a
moulding whose form is convex, and gene
rally nearly approaches a semicircle. It is
most frequently used in base.s, and is for the
most part the lowest moulding in a base.
Tower, a circular, square, or polygonal struc
ture, with upright or slightly converging

80

ARCHITECTURAL TERMS.

sides, running to a height equal to or greater
than its diameter or base, and terminating
abruptly or in horizontal lines. A tower
may be flanked by buttresses whose pinna
cles surmount it, and be superimposed by a
turret, lantern, or spire.
t Tracery. The transoms, mullions, and in
terlaced or flowing continuations of the lat
ter, with their foliations in windows, on
doors, panels, and in tabernacle work, are
so called. The ribs on groined ceilings, and
almost all eccentric moulded enrichments,
come under the same denomination^
Traohelium (Gr. rpa^ijXof , the neck). In Do
ric and Ionic columns there is generally a
short space intervening the hypotrachelium
and the mass of the capital, which may be
called the trachelium or neck.
Transom, the horizontal bar used to divide a
mullioned window into heights ; the straight
and horizontal parts of tracery.
t Trefoil, tracery in three foliations or fea
therings.
Triglyph (Gr. rpus, three, and y^-ufi, an inci
sion or channel). The vertically channelled
tablets of the Doric frieze are called tri
glyphs, because of the three angular chan
nels in them, two perfect and one divided ;
the two chamfered angles or hemiglyphs be
ing reckoned as one.- The square sunk
spaces between the triglyphs on a frieze are
called metopes.
t Turret, a small tower, or a tower of small

base in proportion to its height. Turrets
are sometimes placed on the angles of tow
ers ; but in the later works of the style they
are attached to the angles of structures in
stead of buttresses, and they run up above
their height in lieu of pinnacles.
Tympanum, the triangular recessed space in
closed by the cornice which bounds a pedi
ment. The Greeks sometimes placed sculp
tures representing subjects in connection with
the purposes of the edifice, in the tympana
of temples.
Vault, an arched ceiling or roof. A vault is,
indeed, a laterally conjoined series of arches.
The arch of a bridge is, strictly speaking, a
vault. Intersecting vaults are said to be
groined. (See Groined.)
Volute (Lat. volutum a volvo, rolling up or
over, convolving). The convolved or spiral
ornament whidh forms the characteristic of
the Ionic capital is so called. The common
r English term is scroll, q. v. Volute, scroll,
helix, and cauliculus, are used indifferently -
for the angular horns of the Corinthian cap
ital.
Zoophorus (Gr. $oiov, an animal, and <pSpa, to
bear). This term is used in the same sense
as frieze, and is so called because that part
of the entablature is made the receptacle of
sculptures which are frequently composed of
various animals.

A MODERN FRONT DOOR.
Plate 1.
This design is new, and in many instances may advanta
geously be applied. It being original, and differing materially
from any at present executed, it may by many be thought not
practical, and (as is often the case) preference given to worn-out
designs, instead of new. But prejudices of this kind are fast
passing away, and proprietors of buildings are becoming more
liberal in sentiment, submitting matters of design and details to
those more scienced in the art of design and architecture
generally. Such being the case, a belief is entertained that the
design before you will find its admirers.
Fig. 1 . The plan representing all parts of the elevation stand
ing thereon : a plinth of architrave, see a on elevation, Fig. 2 ; b
return of plinth to doorsill c, (see corresponding letters on eleva
tion ;) c doorsill ; d brick wall ; e plan of architrave, (the archi
trave may be executed of stone or wood, as may be seen in the
enlarged drawing, Plate 3;) /recess jamb-piece which passes
the same overhead, and forms the soffit of said recess; g con
nected with /is a sort of backing to the architrave g ; k enriched
bead; h door-jamb; i inside architrave ; j door. If the doorsill
is of stone, it should not extend from c toj, but stop within half
an inch of the door, in order to admit a good securing through
the front of the iron saddle to the floor, as well as to avoid the
necessity of a broad saddle.
Fig. 2. Elevation : a plinth to architrave as in plan ; c stone
sill; d brick wall; e architrave ; /enriched bead. The upper
panels are designed to be finished with mahogany sash and plate
glass.

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AN ANT M FRONT DOOR.
. •-, Plate 2- —
In this is claimed the construction of the inner anTSTand the
finish of the door, sidelights, transom-light, and transom mould
ings, with said antse, as original. The whole construction and
relative connection of jail the parts wilhbe seen by referring to
the sectional jdrawings to a largescale. Plates |3 and 4.
Fig. 1 . The plan representing all parts [associated with the
elevation referred to, and lettered thus :. a blinth ; b return of
plinth to doorsill ; c dojorsill, (see corresponding letters on eleva
tion ;) rf brick wall; /recess jamb; g d narrow architrave or
facia, which ] is formed of the same width overhead ; h a jamb
extending frbm g to n — this jamb is", connected with a soffit or
head-piece of the sarhe width ; i i pannels under side-lights ; j
front of inner antae ; k door-jamb and retijirn, or flank of antae ; I
inside antae ; m return or flank pf antae,j which likewise forms a
jamb to side-light; n inside architrave ; o outside' line of the
door ; |> inside of door ; q line of wall (finish ; s_plan of archi
trave, i i j
Fig. 2. Elevation : a plinth to anta, (see corresponding let
ters on plan ;) c doorsill ; g front of inner anfa ; i pannetor back
under side-light ; j elevation of the outside antae.

PL. 2.

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DETAILS. Plate 3.
This is a section toj an enlarged "scale, showing the form and
connection of the parts iunder the side-lights of design, Plate 2 :
a is the return plinth from ithe plinth s, under, the side-light
inside; b (dotted line) plinth of anta bstween the door and
side-light. The antae between the door and side-lights stand
in advance of the door, (as may be seen at h in Plate 4.)
This projection is to accommodate the projection of the tran
som and its mouldings, as; represented by the letters/ and p p,
Plate 4 ; c (dotted line) represents the plinth of outside anta
between the door and side-light; d face ! of inside anta; e face
of outside anta between door and side-light ; /front of architrave,
or facia, which passes up1 both sides and overhead, as c and 5,
Plate 4; g inner extemityjof the architrave, which forms the
finish of the door, (refer to i and g, Plate 4, for further particu
lars ;) h h panel under side-light ; i i bottom rail to back or
panel ; jj top rail to panel under side-light; k k facia to capi
tal; 11 ovolo of capital ; m bottom rail and style of side-light
sash ; n represents the inside shutter. It will be observed that
the shutter projects over the pannel, or back under the side-light,
which is only done to reduce the whole width of the work ; o
represents the return jamb of the architrave from g to h- p return
jamb of outside architrave ; r return plinth from under side-light
to front anta ; s plinth under panel ; t ; plinth under outside
panel, or back ; u part of the recess jamb,that finishes- between
the architrave and stone anta, see a and b, Plate 4.

PI.

DETAILS. Plate 4
Is a section ofj the stone, brick, and wood work through the
head of design, Plate 2 : a size of the stone or outside anta ; b
jamb that finishes between the anta and architrave c and 's ; c
return : or jamb of architrave ; d return side of anta ; e front of
transom. The dotted line e is that part of the transom which
projects over the side-light further than it does over the dopr ; /
transom over the door. * Here it may be well to say that the
transom is the width of e wider over the side-light t|ian over
the door ; g represents a portion of the door ; h that pajrt of the
anta which stands in front of the door sufficient to receive the
transom. The transom projects over the door on trie inside
about | of an inch ; i the return or jamb of the archrtrave g ;
j j represents the top and bottom rails of the transom sash oyer
the side-light ; k k top and bottom rails of tfansom~over tfie
door; Zjhead-piece (equal to the "abajaus and„ ovolo or echinus, of
the capital) in which to fix the transom sash ; m m (dot-ted-line)
shows the same piece over the transom of the side-l,ight;~n style
of the -side transom sash ; o side style of transom i sash over the
door ; ppp ovolos on transom overji'oor and side-light ; q archi
trave that forms the finish on the side wall, as shown on the plan,
Plate 2 ; r head-piece, or soffit, which passes over all the parts
directly connected with the side-lights and door. This soffit is
tonguedj grooved, and glued to s and q, and should be finished
and fitted to the jamb on the back in order to make a first rate
job ; s outside architrave or facia, which finishes on both sides
and above ; t soffit or head-piece ; u furring joist ; w lath and
plaster ; x x part of two beams ; y wooden lintel to support the
brick over the aperture ; z brick- work ; I stone blocking over the,
cornice ofthe door- way ; 2 cornice ; 3 bed mould; 4 frieze; 5
tenia, or upper fillet to the architrave moulding; 6 fillet, or
regula • 7 drops, or guttae ; 8 face of architrave ; 9 capital of
anta; 10 front line of brick.* 83

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DETAILS. Plate 5.
This plate represents one half of the head and architrave of
design Plate 1, on an enlarged scale, which will enable the
student to comprehend the subject without the least difficulty.
Fig. 1, is the half head, and lettered as follows : A and B
the head and side architrave as atg in Fig. 1, Plate 1 ; rf e face
of architrave as at e in Fig. 1, Plate 1 ; /relieved ovolo ; g corona.
Fig. 2 is a plan of the architrave rf e in Fig. 1 : a facia as at rf
in Fig. 1 ; rf return or flank of architrave ; 6 the outer margin
of architrave, (see e in Fig. 1 ;) c backing-piece ; c c c plinth
to architrave. See a b in Fig. 1, Plate 1.
The two different scales are for the two different figures, and
will give their correct dimensions when taken by a divider.

PL 5

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PARLOR WINDOW.
Plate 6 i
Presents an original design for . a parlor-window finish ; in
which it will be seen that a bead is executed on the architrave,
receding about $ of an inch, which appears well ; but I amj at
the present time, executing the design without the bead, and give
it a decided preference. It appears more chaste, and is attended
with less labour in its execution.
Fig. 1. Elevation. Iig. 2, scale to Fig. 1. Fig. 3, plan of
architrave, plinth, and shutters : a jamb flap ; b back flap ; c
back lining ; rf rf rf plinth, this plinth is continued under the
elbows and back. Fig. 4, scale of feet to Fig. 3.
The jamb shutter is in one entire panel when executed with
ornaments at bottom, top, and middle of panel, which is the
case in those I am now executing.

PL. 6.

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SLIDING DOORS.
Plate 7.
This plate presents an original design ^ for_sJ.Ming_d6(irs, and,
if executed in every particular suggested, would eclipse j every
thing of the kind yet introduced.
The twjo middle doors are designed^to slide~intothe twja wall
doors, which are- bang-to— the -wall-; -and when— slid- in -thje wall
door, they are together turned around to the wall. In racier that
the wall door shallnot sag, a way-is let into the floor, asl shown
in Plate 8.! To the outer and loweFextremity of the wall doors
is fixed a sheave crosswise ~oTnfte~door, wfiicli^wiiract upon the '
circular way-piece. And in order-^feha-t— the— iniddk-ndoor may.
slide into the JHtalL_or_-hung_ door^uiie_-floox_is_.|_Qf an inch
lower undqr that than any other part of the floor, which will
admit of a [way being secured at the bottom for the convenience
of the middle sliding doors. The circular ways as shown on the
plan in Plate 8.
The doors are designed to be executed-with plate glass in the
upper panels, which_wojald present a very striking effect.
„The details of this plate and design follow in Plates 8*9, 10,
and 1 1 . Plate 9 is an entablature on -a^-enlarged-Bcale, , \ \ Plate
10 is a plan and section of the ceiling" ""over the plan Plate 8.
Plate 11 lk the- base column and capital on an enlarged scale,
adapted to j practical purposes. The above, if executed in a
manner due to the design, will in effect rarely be excelled.

PL ,

SLIDING DOORS.
Plate 8.
-*
This plate represents a plan of the design in Plate 7, and
explained in the explanation of that plate. Nothing can surpass
the beauty and effect of this design when correctly executed in
conformity to it. If at first the execution may be thought im
practicable, it will, on a correct and careful examination, be
found quite otherwise.

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DESIGN FOR AONT ABLATURE .
Plate 9.
This plate is a design for the entablature of Plate 7, on an
enlarged scale for practical purposes.

FI.9.

DESIGN FOR A CEILING.
Plate 10
Is a plan and section of ceiling over the sliding door ; plan in
Plate 8. Fig. 1, plan of the ceiling over sliding door; a is a
way fixed to the beam, fsee b in Fig. 2.) Fig. 2, section of Fig.
1 ; c is the upper end of sliding doors.

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DESIGN FOR A CAPITAL.
Plate 11.
This is a design composed of antique specimens, and reduced
to accurate proportions, with a view to render it acceptable in
many places, instead of the standard orders. For the entabla
ture see Plate 12. In many situations this design will be
preferable to those generally in use.

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ENT AB L ATU RE .
Plate 12.
Entablature to Plate 11. When this entablature is executed
vith a pediment, the effect would be improved on the sides or
lanks by discontinuing the cymatium at a, the centre of the first
ile ornament. It is not intended that the tile ornaments should
ie executed, if the cymatium be returned or continued on fhe
iides or flanks : 6 is the front of the water gutter, which stands
jehind the tile ornaments when executed.

504

PI. 12

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DESIGN FOR SLIDING DOORS
Plate 13. ^

This plate represents the entire elevation of the partition
separating the front and back parlours. In this- elevation are
designs of sliding or folding doors, panels in the siderpiers,
cornice and frieze in the angle formed by- the ceiling and, side
walls. The whole elevation is new in design, and in many
instances may be preferred to the antae c>r column finish. In
designing for interior finishings, and particularly - parlours, the
architect has much to perform if he wishes to excel, or even com
pare with, those of his„ profession. In this elevation, the sliding
door design presents original fixtures, and by unprejudiced minds
they will be favourably received, and in appropriate instances
supersede the use of those which have been in use so long, and
consequently become common, and not so desirable as when first
introduced.

106

PL 13

PARLOUR ELEVATION.
Plate 14.
In this is represented an entire elevation of the side of the
parlours next the hall or entrance from the front door. This
elevation is connected with Plate 13. The doors are trimmed
in the architrave style, and executed next the door without a
bead. The door recedes from the face of the architraves, in
order tp relieve them from the face of the door.

108

PL 14.

WINDOW DESIGN
Plate . lJL 

In designing for parlour finishing, the most difficult task is to
produce a desired effect, with due proportions of enrichments.
In this, although considerably orhamental, yet in no-" respect
has it an appearance of overrated or superfluous labour. . The
capitals of the antae are of an original character, and will equal
anything of a similar application yet in use. The capitals, or
caps, are continued across the head of the window, under which
the shutters will stand, when closed before the; window ; aind
the cap will project over them the same as it does over the
face of the antae and shutters when they are shut into the box,
ana! at the same time forms the return sides or jams of the antae,
as will be seen in the section. By this design it will 'be easy
for the student ta discover the important effect j)xpduced by the
depth on the return of the antas, which, prior to the present time,
did not exceed one and a half inches in ^thickness, which cer
tainly presented a very indifferent effect. The following are the
lettered references to all the varidus partsj^ Fig. 1 js an enitre
elevation of a window with a part of the entablature diredtly
over it. Fig. 2 is a section of Fig. 1, showing all the parts em
ployed in the finish and execution of the design : a in Fig. 1 is
a portion of the entablature ; a in Fig. 2 is the piazza floor;; b
stone sill, this sill forms a common step from the floor c of
window sill ; d bottom rail of sash ; e base to antae and room,
this base is six inches high ; /the thickness of antas to the shut
ter-box ; g shutter, this shutter is in one entire piece, the back flap
is executed in two parts as usual ; h return of brick-work to the
hanging style ; i meeting rail of sasb ;j marble or stone lintel ; k

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section of that part of the antae cap that passes over the window ;
I return of antae cap ; m section of the architrave of the enta
blature ; n frieze of entablature ; o bed mouldings and dentals ;
p , soffit of cornice ; q corona ; r crown moulding of a relieved
ovolo ; s lath and plaster of the ceiling ; t floor of second story ;
u lath and plaster of the second side wall ; v v sections of two
beams : io cross bridgings ; x deafening boards ; y strips nailed
on the sides of the beams, to support the deafening board ; x z is a
section of a 4 x 1^ piece of hard wood running the whole extent
of the wall 6r partition ; 1 pocket-piece that raises up with the
lowermost sash into the groove ; 2 the second story stud ; 3 the
first story stud, this stud or post disappears behind the window
finish ; 4 cross fucriug to form the window soffit ; 5 wooden lintel,
over which a brick arch is turned to take the wall from the mar
ble or stone lintel, j ; 6 wooden lintel, over which is a brick arch
to take the weight of the wall, and to form a recess for the
pocket or groove to receive the sash when raised to admit a
passage from the parlour to the piazza; 7 brick wall ; 8 blank
space; 9 pocket on the head of the window-frame to receive tlie
lower sash. In the soffit oi' head-piece of the window there will
be executed a pocket-piece the thickness of the sash, which will
have a short tenon on each end, and which are to slide up in
grooves prepared for the purpose ; when the sash comes in con
tact with it, or is lowered down, it will follow it until it descends
to its proper place; 10 bracket for lathing to; 11 top rail to
sash ; 12 section of head-piece to hanging style ; 13 hanging
style.

ANT.E base and capital.
Plate 16.
The antae base and capital here represented, are designed at
a half-size scale, intended as a working drawing for Plate 15.
The base in this design' is much lower than the usual height of
parlour bases, which may by some be condemned ; but after
wisely examining the matter, it will be acknowledged that no
architectural reasons can be assigned for its being any higher,
but both utility and effect must be conceded, in an architectural
point of view, in favour of the proportions here represented ; a
in the antae capital represents a section of the moulding.

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DETAILS. Plate 17.
In this plate are illustrated all the particulars necessary to
render the execution of the window design, Plate 15, intelligible
to the understanding of every workman.
The parts that are most difficult to comprehend in Archi
tecture, can no way be attained to, as readily as by plans and
sectional drawings, which in this plate are fully set forth and
explained. It contains a plan of the brick wall, window frame,
inside shutters, shutter box, and a part of the inside architrave,
and also a section of the stone sill, wooden sill, the different parts
in the window frame, and an elevation and section of the base
and anta. The following are the references to the different
figures and letters : Fig. 1 represents a plan of the brick wall,
window frame, shutters, box, and architrave ; a a brick wall ; b
hanging style ; c outside lining, and outside stop bead ; rf pulley
style ; e back lining to window frame ; g inside lining ; v inside
stop bead ; x inside and bottom sash ; / parting bead ; w groove
for uppermost and outside sash ; #• box for sash weights. The
following are the letters for the parts employed in the shutters,
shutter box, &c. : y bed for the shutter when closed on the
window ; z z z projection of the fillet of the base, (see u u in
Fig. 2;)/ style of jamb shutter; t sunk panel of shutter; k
bead and butt panef; m style of jamb shutter ; n style of flap
shutter ; o bead and butt panel of flap shutter ; p outside style
of flap shutter ; r sunk panel ; s s style of back lining ; j panel
of back lining ; v inside architrave. The piece on the back of
the architrave, near the No. 22, is glued or otherwise fitted to

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the architrave, to give it a sufficient projection from the wall,
against which this piece lies ; and, is represented by the short
line extendingcn to Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: a brick jamb, (see a in Fig. 1 ;) 6 hanging style;
(see b Fig. 1 ;) c outside stop bead, (see c Fig. 1 ;) rf groove for
outside sasb, (see w Fig. 1 ;) e parting bead, (see/ Fig. 1 ;) /
inside sash, fsee x Fig. 1 ;) g inside stop bead, (see v in Fig. * 1 ;)
o thickness of jamb shutter when closed on the window, (see y
Fig. 1 ;) p p inside shutter, and likewise serves as a side or flank
to the anta. The p on the extremity of the return of the anta
represents the side of the anta when the shutters are folded over
the window ; r represents the elevation of the base ; w the
section of the base ; u u the projection of the fillet of the base
past the anta and shutter, both when in the anta, and when closed
over the window ; s represents the plinth under the base mould
ings ; w floor line ; m the height of stone sill and thickness of
the piazza floor, j under the sill is the thickness of the piazza
floor, and in front represents the front thickness of sill ; k is the
difference between the height of the parlour and piazza floors ; ,
I underside of piazza floor ; i section of stone sill.

DETAILS. Plate 18.
The details described, are drawn to an enlarged scale for the
panels in Plate 15, but will be applicable in various situations.
The designs are original, and designed and drawn by C. L. Bell,
Architect.

BL./&.

Designed, By C.L.Bell.

PARLOUR DOOR.
Plate 19.
This design is original and appropriate for parlours of the first
class. The composition is novel and judiciously arranged, and in
no instance where elegance is required would it fail to produce a
chaste and elegant effect. '
The workmen in making preparations, and through the whole
execution of this design, must pay particular attention to the
neatness and perfection of all the parts .engaged, in order to
render it more perfect.
The plan of the door jamb.is jnoulded with a neat ogee
moulding, which wilf present it more chaste and acceptable to
classic observers. In order to make it useful in practice, it is
thought neeessary to accompany it with the details in working
drawings, which are illustrated at large and explained in Plate
20.

Note. — The present and former custom of executing high skirtings and bases in par
lours being fixed in the minds of ^almost every-workman as unavoidably necessary, it may
be well to remark, (notwithstanding the treatises in favour of such proportions), that no one
branch of inishing more requires a1 reform from the old school system. The writer is
aware of the prejudices against new designs in architectural department ; he nevertheless
resolves to carry intd effect, as far as his abilities will permit, a change in designs and pro
portions of interior, finishings for private residences. He "would therefore recommend to
those concerned, to duly consider all subjects of the above importance, prior to the execu
tion thereof.

P/. 19

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WORKING DETAILS T&OPLATE 19J
Plate 20.
Fig. 1 represents the plans of the studs, lath and plaster,
irchitrave, door jamb, plinth, and door, which are thus described,
At,. : a a a plinths ; b architrave ; c c mouldings to door jamb;
I door jamb; edoor; //thickness of lath and plaster; g g studs
>r joists ; h space between studs ; i backing of architrave ; j j
ront line of plaster. ,
Fig. 2, profile-of architrave and cornice.;-.a crown.. moulding.;
> corona ; c soffit, or plancer of cornice ; d bed mould ; e outer
acia of architrave ; /inside facia. 
Fig. 3, ornament across the door head] (see Plate 19.)

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DESIGN FOR A CENTRE FLOWER.
Plate 21.
The design presented is original, and appropriate to parlours
of the first class. It may be varied in size to accommodate many
situations.

122

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ANTA AND ENTABLATURE.
Plate 22
Is a miniature drawing of an anta and-entablature, given to
show the comparative heights and proportions^. and to reduce it
to a scale of minutes for operative purposes. The-numbers are
figured the same as in the details of Plates 23 and 24. Fig. 1
is the anta and entablature. Fig. 2, an enriched egg-moulding
scale, but does not belong with the above anta.

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ANTA DETAILS.
Plate 23.
The details of~this plate-a-re-half-- full-size, -and-reduced to a
scale of minutes, in order to render it intelligible to the student,
for practice. This anta bears resemblance to the anta employed
in the Choragic Monument at Athens, yet- immaterially differs
therefrom in the contours and proportions of 'the details. The
projections are figured from fhe centre. The letter H at the top
of the columns represents height, and P projection.
The base mouldings are well adapted in form and proportion
for parlours. N. B. — The termination of the base, which is a bevel, is
figured one and a half minutes, high, but should Jiaye been one
half only-

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ANTA ENTABLATURE DETAILS.
Plate 24.
The architrave guttae, or drops, are formed in two lengths
and projections. The longest guttae, or drops, may be either
round or square; but the shortest row will be square, and pro
ject to the centre of the round guttae. The projections are
figured from the centre, as in Plate 23.

128

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SLIDING DOOR DESIGN.
Plate 25.
This design is original in its features, and may be classed
with the richest compositions of the present style of finishing.
It may be remarked, with propriety, that many attempts have
been made to introduce appropriate and elegant finishing, that
might be executed without connecting it with the cornice of the
room, which in this case is effected, and may in various situations
be preferable to column or anta when the architrave and frieze are
terminated between the walls. The plan and elevation are
shown entire at Figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 1, elevation; Fig. 2, the
plan.

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DETAILS iOF SLIDING DOORS. PL. 25.
Plate 26.
These details are drawn to an enlarged scale, by which the
proportions and forms are distinctly shown, and by which the
workman may be instructed to execute with a degree of correct
ness necessary to produce the required effect. The drawing, as
shown, represents the semi-elevation of the door-head, connected
with a portion of the side elevation : a represents the centre of
the column ; b elevation of the architrave, (see b b in the design,
PI. 25;) e, the dotted line, represents the extremity of the
column.

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DETAILS OF SLIDING DOORS.
Plate 27.
In order that the student may be furnished with necessary
instructions, which will enable him systematically to carry these
designs into execution, the details are, in this and the two follow
ing plates, given on an enlarged scale, with all the parts figured
and referred to in the following explanations.
Fig. 1 represents the plan with the studdings, base, boxing
for the door, the door in the box, and the columns; a a Fig. 1,
plan of columns; b facia back of column, (see a in Fig. 1, Plate
25 ;) c return or flank of g in Fig. 2 ; .rf face of architrave, (see
g in elevation, Fig. 2 ;)/ margin or band, (see/in elevation, Fig.
2 ; g lath and plaster, and likewise grounds ; h regulating bead
to the door; i door jamb; j j j studs; kkk spaces between the
studs which require pieces worked in at about two feet apart for
nailing to; /plan of door when slid on the box; m represents
the partitions, door, &c, as broken off within the full extent.
Fig. 2, a broken elevation of the base, architrave, facia between
the architrave and columns, and the column ; a the base, and a
small portion of the column ; 6 plinth under the architrave ; c de
base mouldings of the room ; /band or margin of the architrave ;
g facia of the architrave; o represents. the way-piece.

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'-¦* SECTION "OVER SLIDING DOORS.
Platev 28.
This section represents all parts employed in cornicing,
furring, and finishing over the doors, and are designated by the
terms, viz. : a a facia of the architrave on which the ornaments
are applied over the door ; b b soffit over the door ; c c regulating
beads for the doors, (see h in Plate 27 ;) rf between the regula-
.ting_beads,- represents the grooveformed for the door to slide in ;
rf rf on the two extremes Represent the border, or margin of
the architrave ; e e bed mould ; //corona upon which the orna
ment is executed; g the centre ornament; h h facia or frieze
of the cornice around the room, which is of plaster ; i i bed
mould ; j dental, (see Plates 30 and 31 ;) A; anta, or intermediate
dentals, .(see-Plates- 30 and 31 ;) i ornamental bead, (see Plates
30 and 31 ;) m m corona of stucco cornice in the angle of the
ceiling and side wall; n n crown moulding; o o ceiling of the
room ; ppp p section of furring ; q q q q studding, or joists.

136

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„ DETAILS. Plate 29.
Fig. 1 represents a section of parts of the styles and panels of
the sliding doors on an enlarged scale ; a a a portion of the two
styles ; b b thickest part of the panels, or that part which forms
the outer margin ; c c the inner recess or panel, the entire eleva
tion of whidh may be seen in the design, PI. 25. Fig. 2, a
parlour base on an enlarged scale : b represents a furring piece
behind the plinth ; a represents the wall line.

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EXTERIOR EAVE CORNICE.
Plate 30.
This design consists of bold and prominent members, dis
posed of in a manner that will not fail to produce an imposing
effect in any situation. It has proportions adapted to a three-
story house ; consequently, if required higher or lower, a varia
tion accordingly will be required : a represents the frieze ; b
a piece put on the back of the frieze, to make the projection
about two inches from the face of the brick wall ; c should have
set back of b, and represented the brick wall. By the projections
over the head of the plate, it will be seen that the whole projects
eighteen inches from the face of the brick wall, and sixteen inches
from the face of the frieze.

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IONIC ORDER.
Plate 31.
This example has neither the proportions nor general features
of the antique Ionic order, nor is it pretended that it is in general
equal to it ; but it is hoped that it may not be wholly inferior.
The general proportions are as below described, viz. :
The whole height of the column, base, and capital, is eight
diameters ; and the whole height of the entablature is three
diameters and five minutes; and the whole entire height of the
order, including base, shaft, capital, frieze, and cornice, is eleven
diameters and five and a half minutes. For the proportions of
the capital, see Plate 32, which is designed for a working drawing.

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DETAILS OF IONIC CAPITAL.
Plate 32.
This capital is not of any particular specimen of antique pro
ductions, but partakes of several, as well as of fancy. The
composition is a departure from sthe strict, perfect, and arbitrary
rules of design. Notwithstanding, it will be admitted that it,
as a modern combination of parts, presents rather a pleasing effect.
Fig. 1 presents the abacus, volute, echinus, bead, the succle
and lotus, necking ornament, and the heads of flutes which are
banded, or headed with an astragle, as at b. Fig. 2, section of
capital, Fig. 1. The quarter circle on the left of the plate, and
represented by the small letter a, is a rule by which the spiral
beads that revolve round the eye are proportioned, and is per
formed thus : Take the whole dimensions of the beads that are
horizontal, under the abacus, and describe a quarter circle ; which
circle divide into -sixteen parts, and each part on the right line
will give a correct diminish for each quarter, as it revolves around
the eye. The revolutions of the spirals are produced as follows :
Divide the eye, which is seven minutes from out to out of the
hem, and six and a half minutes within the hem of said eye, into
the number of parts shown in the eye ; then take the distances
figured on the right lines, which are the" number of minutes
required, and revolve the dividers ; the quarters, as described by
the dotted lines.
The method of describing this volute, was invented and
reduced to practice by Mr. James H. Daken, whose talents,
taste, and ideas, are of the first order, and by the writer held in
very high estimation.

144

Pl.VJ

IONIC DETAILS.
Plate 33.
Tliese detaik'are introduced in order to give the operative
workman a general view of the construction of this simple and
beautiful capital. The details here given are precisely the same
as they were in the original temple. The elevation of the volute,
as represented by Fig. 2, is figured in feet and inches^ as taken
on the spot at the temple by Messrs. Stuart and Revett. Fig. 1
represents a general plan of the angular capital, and is figured
by the scale of minutes, as at Plate 32. Fig. 5 represents a
section of the flank. Fig. 4, a section through the volute, the
same as Fig. 2 in Plate 32, and is not figured. Fig. 3 represents
an elevation of the flank, the projections or which are figured on
the under side of Fig. 5.

146

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FROM THE ERECTHEION TEMPLE
Plate 34.
.Flijgvl, planxof the angular capital. Fig. 2, side elevation,
or profile of the capital. Fig. 3, section of capital. Fig. 4,
elevation of antae capital.

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FROM THE ERECTHEION TEMPLE.
1 Plate 35.
This plate represents the front and side elevation ofja carga-
tides. Fig.l, side or profile view. Fig. 2, front .elevation. For
the peculiar character, refer to the historical description.

150

DETAltS UF CARYATIDA* P#NDR »Sfi ION .

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FROM THE ERECHTHEION,

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PARTHENON AT ATHENS
Plate 36.

The elevation exhibited in this example is simple, beautiful,
rich, and unquestionably the most perfect of any building of
antiquity. The reader, for an historical view, will refer as in the
preceding plate.

GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE!

ELEVATION OF THE TEMPLE OF MINERVA PARTHENON.

GREEK TEMPLES.
Plate 37.
The plans here introduced are, for the purpose of stimulating
the rising generation to a correct taste, of severe and perfect
elegance of architecture. The different plans are to distinguish
the different names originating out of the different number of
columns employed. For' particulars refer to definitions of terms.

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THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.
Plate 38.
Fig. 1, a perspective view: jFjg. ,_%'a-ffcmt geometrical view
Fig. 3, a longitudinal or side view. f

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IONIC DETAILS.
Plate 39.
The details here presented are from the temple of Minerva
Polias, which constitute one of the porticoes of the Erectheion
temple at Athens.

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IONIC DETAILS.
Plate 40.
Fig. 1, entablature to the preceding Plate 39. -Fig. 2, base,
as in plate 39. Fig. 3, antae base to Fig. 4 in Plate 34. Fig.
4, architrave moulding to an enlarged scale. Fig. 5,Tbed mould
ing to an enlarged scale.

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GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. Plate 41.
"This Plate represents a detail drawing of the Doric order,
from the Temple of Minerva, at Athens ; for a description of
which, refer to the history of the Temples. The parts in height
and projections are figured by a scale of minutes.

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DETAILS OF THE DORIC CAPITAL.
. -  ~— Plate 42. -_^~ -  ¦ /~Cr::i. - -

Fig. 1, plan of column at the neck. Fig. 2, semi^elevation
of the capital. Fig. 3, section of fillets, flute, and groove ; a
depth of the flute. It may be useful to the operative workman
to remark that the flutes require to be worked up to the lower
most fillet entire.

164

PT. .42.

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CORINTHIAN COLUMN CAPITAL.
Plate 43.
From the monument of Lysicrates. Fig. 1, column, base,
and capital. Fig. 2, section of capital ; for historical description,
refer to the preceding historical extracts.

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ENTABLATURE. Plate 44.
Entablature to Plate 43. This entablature is drawn to the
same scale as 43, and the dimensions are figured from the centre
of the column.

108

Pi.. I 4.

/-,.-•¦ DETAILS. Plate. 45.
In this Plate is exhibited a cornice, which is designed to ex
plain the method of working the inclined cymatium. to mitre with
the level cymatium. Fig. 1 represents the level moulding, and
Fig. 2 the inclined moulding. To form Fig. 2, first draw ordi
nate lines, as at 1 1,2 2, and 33, in Fig. 1, from which on the
contour of the moulding transfer the .distances. 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, and
so on to 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, in Fig. 2 ;- which- will, when traced,
produce the cymatium required to mitre with the level cymatium,
Fig. 1.

*&«/

CHIMNEY PIECES.
Plate 46.
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Fig. 1, a truss chimney-piece, for either wood or marble.
Fig. 2, profile, showing the projections of the different parts.
Fig. 3, plan ofthe pilaster, jamb, &c. Fig. 4, elevation of an
architrave piece. Fig. 5, profile of FigT 4. Fig. 6, plan of
Fig. 4.

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PULPIT. Plate 47.
Fig. 1, plan of Pulpit ; Fig. 2, elevation ; Fig. 3, caping,
half full size ; Fig. 4, base, half full size.

PL. 47,

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GALLERY FRONT.
Plate 48.
Fig. 1, elevation of gallery front, showing all the parts of the
gallery, and one capital of a column. Fig. 2, section of Fig. 1.
Fig. 3, elevation of two pews.

176

PL. 48.

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