D "Ijgti/e tixft, Mmoks for tt^K founding of a College in this Colony" 'Y^ILE«¥]MimEIESinr¥«> Gift of OttoT Bannard 1912 .ri; SARAWAK 5 ITS INHABITANTS AND PRODUCTIONS NOTES DURING A RESIDENCE IH THAT COtJNTET -WITH HIS EXCELLENCY MR. BROOKE. BY HUGH LOW COLOKIAL SECRETARY AT LAB0H-AN. LONDON: RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET, ^ubltsjer in ©rlifttarB to f^er iMa^JStg. 1848. LONDON : R. CLAY, PRINTER, BREAD STREET HILL. TO HIS EXCELLElSrCY JAMES BROOKE, ESQ. D.C.L. GOVERNOR OS LAB0H-AN, HER majesty's COMMISSIONER IN BORNEO, RAJAH OF SARAWAK, ETC. MY DEAR MR. BROOKE, In availing myself of your kind permission to dedicate to you the following Work, I discharge with pleasure the duty under which the author of the first Volume pro fessing to treat of the inhabitants of Sarawak, lies ; and if I am fortunate in securing for it your approbation, I shall consider the time I have devoted to it to have been profitably spent. IV DEDICATION. You know the circumstances of haste under which it has been written, and I trust, in consequence, much to your kind indulgence for its many imperfections; but should the Volume be found to contain any new or interesting particulars, I shall have the greatest satisfaction in acknowledging that your great kindness, and the facilities and protection you afforded me, alone enabled me to collect and supply them. With sentiments of the deepest respect and gratitude, I am, MY DEAR MK. BROOKE, Your most obedient and humble Servant, HUGH LOW. Leyden, Dec. 13, 1847. PREFACE. The remarks contained in the following pages have been prepared from notes col lected during a residence of about thirty months in Sarawak, and the west coast of Borneo, !lMy object, (the collection of plants and seeds,) led me more into the country, and amongst the tribes of aborigines, than any other Englishman who has yet visited the shores of this Island ; and I trust that, though very incomplete, this Work may, in the absence of others on the subject, be found to contain some interesting informa tion respecting the domestic economy of the people. On my arrival in England, in October last, I had no intention of publishing any account VI PREFACE. of the Island; and, in consequence, many of my notes, particularly those on the sub ject of the languages and superstitions of the various tribes, were left in Borneo, my purpose being to present them to the public, when a longer residence and further in quiries in the country should have rendered them less unworthy of attention. Though thirty months may seem to pro mise a less meagre and unsatisfactory account than that contained in the pages which follow, it must be recollected, that a great part of that time was spent before I had sufficiently acquired the native languages to trust my remarks on paper, so that these may be considered as but the result of one year's inquiry. A further cause of their present imper fection is the want of time under which I laboured in their preparation for the press, consequent on the necessary arrangements for an early departure for the East. It is with the greatest diffidence I now offer them for the public approval, and crave for them PREFACE. vii that indulgence which, under other circum stances, could not be expected or allowed. I wish in this place to acknowledge my obligations to the numerous friends, both here and in the East, who were kind enough to interest themselves in my proceedings. To the Earl of Auckland I am under the greatest obligations for letters to the Official Residents in the Straits Settlements, parti cularly for one to the Honourable the Governor, Lieutenant- Colonel Butterworth, C. B., who on all occasions, and by every means in his power, forwarded the objects of the expedition, and by his and his lady's kindness during my frequent visits to Singapore, has placed me under infinite obligations. To Drs. Oxley and !Martin, and C. Carnie, Esq., with many other friends in Singapore, I am indebted for many favours ; but 1 am only one of many who have had occasion to record their kindness. I need not mention the name of !Mr. Brooke, as his amiable character is too well known ; but to the other gentlemen of Sarawak I may viu PREFACE. express my thanks for their kindness, and assure them that in whatever manner the remainder of my time may be spent, the period I passed in their company will ever be remembered with pleasure. I return my thanks to the gentlemen of the British !Museum for the list of Zoology in the Appendix, and very much regret that family affliction has prevented E. Doubleday, Esq., of th^t Institution, from furnishing the Catalogue of the Lepidopterous Insects. !M!any other skins and animals than those enumerated have been sent to England, but have not yet been examined. HUGH LOW. Upper Clapton, Dec. 22d, 1847. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION xiii CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OE BORNEO BRITISH AND DUTCH SETTLEMENTS ON THE ISLAND ITS MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, LAKES, AND VOLCANOES — THE ERUPTION OP TOMBOKO COAL POUND IN THE ISLAND OP LABUH-AN THE MODE OP 'WOBKING ANTIMONY ORE — MINERALS IN BORNEO GOLD POUND IN SARAWAK — THE MODE_a£, woBKTMq jj^Ji^ T.nj TaT-AJHB^ ,^j^ ITS PRODUCE _ra.TTy^°''" BX^aiBi-aT ' ""»'"'" Tl I TTifT.iT.a — GOLD AN EXPORT OP SARAWAK — DIAMONDS IN BORNEO .... CHAPTEE II. THE TEMPERATURE AND SOIL OP BORNEO THE VEGETABLH PRODUCTIONS OP THE ISLAND DESCRIBED IN SUCCESSION THE' SUGAR CANE — SPICES — THE NIBONG THE BAMBOO — RICE THE COCOA-NUT SAGO THE GOMUTI PALM ITS USES — THE BETEL, OR ARECA NUT — RATTANS AND CANES THE NIPAH AND MANGROVE CAMPHOR VEGETABLE OILS — THE GUTTA PEECHA THE UPAS TREE, — DAMMAR WILD CINNAMON AND COTTON PEPPER AND COPPEE GAMBIBK AND TOBACCO TIMBER TREES — ORNAMENTAL AND SCENTED WOODS FLOWERS |30 a CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. PAGE THE PRUITS OP BORNEO ANIMATED NATURE THE RHINOCEROS THE TAPIR — THE BEAR — DEER THE KIJANG AND PALAN- DOK THE PANTHER VARIETIES OP CATS ANECDOTE OP AN ORANG UTAN MONKEYS ALLIGATORS — THE ALLIGATOR DOCTOR THE MODE OP OPERATION LIZARDS — SNAKES AND VIPERS THE COBRA AND PLOWER-SNAKE INSECTS PISH AND PISHING ESTABLISHMENTS BUEFALOES HARES GOATS — PIGS — DOGS — DOMESTIC FOWLS 71 CHAPTER IV. THE KINGDOM OP BORNEO — THE MALAYS THE BUGIS PEOPLE OP CELEBES THE ABORIGINES — DUTCH AND ENGLISH SETTLE MENTS MAJOR MULLER's EXPEDITION MB. MURRAY KILLED PRESENT STATE OF THE CAPITAL — THE SULTAN SARAWAK AND MR. Brooke's possessions — description op Sarawak ITS CHIEFS — ITS native MERCHANTS AND INHABITANTS DYAK SLAVES IN BORNEO THEIR TREATMENT AND PRICE IN THE MARKET SLAVE DEBTORS 93 CHAPTER V. ARAB DESCENDANTS OP THE PROPHET THEIR IMPOSITIONS AND SUPERSTITIONS — PIRACY ACTION OE THE NEMESIS GAM BLING AND OPIUM SMOKING — CRIMINAL TRIALS AND PUNISH MENTS — IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF SARAWAK MANNERS OP THE PEOPLE EDUCATION DRESS AND APPEARANCE OP MALAY WOMEN — OIL POR THE HAIR-^A SUPERSTITION — MARRIAGES PRICE OP A WIFE RUNNING A-MUCK< — ARTS AND MANU FACTURES PALACE OF THE SULTAN — MITIiffET fll TITiniTT MALAY PISHING — TRADERS AT SABAgAK — WARS OF THE PEOPLE — THEIR WEAPONS — ASSOCIATION WITH EUROPEANS . 123 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER VI. PAGE SEA-DYAKS TRIBES OP LUNDU, SAKARRAN, AND SAREBAS — DYAK HOUSES LANGUAGE, RELIGION, AND SUPERSTITIONS THE MANANG, OR VILLAGE DOCTOR — DRESS OF DYAKS AND OP THEIR WOMEN SEVERAL OP THEIR CHIEFS ANECDOTE OF ONE — HEAD-TAKING GRATITUDE TO ME. BROOKE PIRACY OP SEA-DYAKS — ITS SUPPRESSION DYAK LAXITY OF MANNERS THEIR LOVE OF THEIE CHILDREN — DUTIES AND LABOURS OP THE MEN AND WOMEN — CAPTIVE DYAK CHILDREN COOKERY OF THE DYAKS THEIR FUNERALS AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES 1 65 CHAPTER VII. TREATMENT OF A CAPTURED HEAD SEA-DYAK GAMES THEIE PROGRESS IN THE USEFUL ARTS THE BLACKSMITH THEIR WEAPONS WARS BALANCE OP HEADS — PRESERVATION OP enemies' heads HEAD-HUNTING SEA-DYAK BOATS BOAT ENGAGEMENTS BRAVERY OP THE CHIEF OP LUNDU DEFEN SIVE WARFARE MODE OP ROWING A CHIEP's SUPERSTITION — DYAK AGRICULTURE: — PREPARING LAND FOR A FARM PAD! AND_IN£IAN CORN GRANARIES MODE OF REAPING THE PADI DYAK GARDENS THEIR PRODUCE FRUIT TREES TRAPS POR DEER AND PIGS — CAGE-TRAPS AND SPRINGES POR BIRDS — STRANGE MODE OF FISHING 206 CHAPTER VIII. THE HILL DYAKS THEIR CHARACTER THEIR RELIGION AND SUPERSTITIONS THEIR DEITIES INVOCATION OP THEM PRO PITIATION OP THEM AND OF THE RAJAH — CEREMONY PER FORMED BY ME. BROOKE THE PAMALI, OR " TABOO" A DYAK FUNERAL — A PECULIAR SUPERSTITION OP THE DYAKS THEIR ABSTINENCE FROM ANIMAL FOOD ANCIENT DYAK MONU MENTS AND DBAGON-JARS^THEIR,yENEBATiaiL,.J'OB...CBBXml,_., PLANTS — SUPERSTITION OP THE DYAKS OP SARAWAK — SPE CULATIONS AS TO THE ORIGIN OP THE DYAKS 239 a 2 XII CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. PAOE LAND DYAK VILLAGES AND HOUSES THE PANGAH DYAK FOR TIFICATIONS—THEIR PATHS AND BRIDGES MODE OF TRA VELLING — THE ORANG KAYA DYAK ASSEMBLIES, OR PARLIA MENT THEIR POPULATION VILLAGES DYAK TRIBES IN SARAWAK THEIR MORALITY AND MARRIAGE CEREMONIES A CURIOUS AND SALUTARY CUSTOM HEAD-TAKING DYAK DISEASES, MEDICINE AND SURGERY MODE OP CURE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS AND SINGING WEAPONS THE TAPANG TREE MODE OF PROCURING WAX AND EDIBLE BIRDS' NESTS AGBI-- CULTURE LANDOWNERS 278 CHAPTER X. THE KYANS THEI5,£aM^)^flB, — THE KYANS FOES OP THE DYAKS TATTOOING KYAN DRESS — IMPUTED CHARACTER OE THE KYANS — THEIR WAR DRESSES —THEIE WEAPONS — THE SAMPIT- AN THEIR SWORDS AND KNIVES THEIR COURAGE THEIR SHIELDS — HUMAN SACRIFICES KYAN MODE OF TRANSACTING BUSINESS — THE MILANOWES AND THE MERI PEOPLE AN ALBINO— THE EEJANS, KADYANS, AND OTHER TRIBES THE SEA-GIPSIES — (!fe&iamS--&S^..^'^^SRmTm^g£lss:^^^^BA- BLE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS BY DR. HOOKER . . . .321 CHAPTER XI. ILLUSTRATIONS 350 CHAPTER XII. ILLUSTRATIONS 373 CHAPTER XIII, ILLUSTRATIONS 388 APPENDIX . . . .' 407 INTKODUOTION. It has been suggested, that a short notice of !M!r. Brooke should precede this work; since it is to his exertions that the details contained in the following pages will owe their chief interest. This concise memoir is offered without comment, for a reason which a glance at the title-page will enable everybody to understand. !lMr. Brooke was born on the 29th of April, 1803, at Coombe Grove, near Bath. He was the second, but is now the sole surviving son of the late Thomas Brooke, Esq., who was long employed in the civil service of the East India Company ; and, descended by both parents from ancient families, is the lineal xiv INTRODUCTION. representative of Sir Robert Viner, Baronet, Lord !Mayor of London in the reign of Charles IL Sir Robert was honoured by an intimacy with his Sovereign, of which a plea sant story is told in " The Spectator," and did the Crown many great services. Such was his loyalty, that he willingly permitted a great portion of his large fortune to find its way into the Exchequer of the !Merry !IMonarch, to whose memory he raised a monument in Stock's !lMarket. Designed for the military service of the East India Company, !IV[r. Brooke received a suitable education; and went out to India at a very early period as a cadet. He spent the first years of his active life in Bengal, where he held several advantageous appoint ments ; and on the breaking out of the Bur mese war he accompanied his regiment to Assam. In an action with the enemy his gallantry was so conspicuous that he received the thanks of the Government; but, being shot through the lungs, his native air was deemed necessary to his recovery, and he returned to Europe. INTRODUCTION. XV Once more at home, he resumed the studies of his boyhood, and made himself master of several modern languages. He travelled also through France, Switzerland, and Italy, a tour which his recent literary pursuits had prepared him to enjoy. The period at length arrived when it was necessary that he should return to India, and he embarked, but the ship was wrecked on the Isle of Wight. This mishap occasioned such a loss of time, that when he reached !Madras, his leave of absence had expired, and he found that to regain the position he had involuntarily forfeited, a prolonged and tedious correspondence with the Home Autho rities would probably be necessary. Accord ingly, he at once relinquished the service, and decided on proceeding with the ship to China. This step was the most important of his earlier life. Then, for the first time, he saw the islands of the Indian Archipelago, with their natural riches and incomparable beauty. The notion of one day visiting and exploring them insinuated itself into his mind, but the resolve xvi INTRODUCTION. was not suddenly made. The value and variety of the products of the Archipelago were in some measure disclosed to him during his stay at Canton. He returned to Europe, by this time full of his design, and in con junction with another gentleman, fitted out a ship of large burden, and proceeded once more into the China seas ; but circumstances, which, considering his ardour and the pur pose he had at heart, must have been numerous, or indeed deterring, prevented at that time the accomplishment of his wishes. He gave up the idea of carrying out his plan in company with another, and again visited Europe, to " bide his time, to wait a happier hour." On the death of his father, Mr. Brooke succeeded to a handsome fortune; and in October, 1838, eight years after his first entrance into the China seas, he set sail from England in his yacht, the ' Royalist,' a handsome schooner of 142 tons, with a picked crew of more than twenty men. The sailing qualities of his vessel, and the thorough seamanship of his crew, he had INTRODUCTION. XVll previously tested in a voyage up the Medi terranean. On reaching Singapore, where he stayed nearly two months, Mr. Brooke saw reason to modify his original intention, and to restrict his researches for a time to the north-west coast of Borneo. He learned that Borneo Proper was under the rule of the Rajah Muda Hassim, who was represented to be humane and generous, and well-affected to the Eng lish. Muda Hassim was then at Sarawak — his occasional residence only — but at which he was detained by a rebellion in the in terior. Taking with him such presents as were likely to prove most agreeable to the Rajah, Mr. Brooke stood down the Strait, visited Borneo, and proceeded up the river Sarawak, anchoring abreast of the town of that name on the 15th of August, 1839. He was received by the Rajah with courtesy and kindness, but soon found that the rebellion, of which his host had spoken lightly, was a serious matter, and he had cause to believe that Muda Hassim wished him to stay as an intimi dation to the rebels. He, however, obtained XVm INTRODUCTION. permission from the Rajah to visit parts of his country, of which he availed himself, mak ing several excursions to various Dyak tribes. On his return to Sarawak, he had several conferences with the Rajah, touching the estab lishment of commerce between that place and Singapore; and on the whole was encouraged to endeavour to effect it. Carrying with him letters for the merchants of Singapore, and a list of the imports and exports of Sarawak, Mr. Brooke took a cordial leave of the Rajah, and set sail for the former port. Mr. Brooke's second visit to Sarawak was at the end of August, 1840. He found the civil war pretty much as he had left it, but the Sultan of Bruni (Borneo) was now bestirring himself, and his raeasures excited Muda Has sim to action. Still, it was found that Uttle or nothing decisive could be achieved without the co-operation of our Englishman, which, after some persuasion, he consented to render. The rebellion was at length put down, the chief surrendering at discretion, and it was not without much difficulty that Mr. Brooke INTRODUCTION. XIX succeeded in prevailing upon the Rajah to spare their lives. By this time the Rajah was tired of Sarawak, the government of which was handed over to his valuable associate in the extinction of the civil war. The agreement was drawn out, signed, and sealed, on the 24th of September, 1841. After many months occupied in the ardu ous duties of establishing his government, Mr. Brooke, accompanied by Muda Hassim, sailed for Borneo Proper, and had several interviews with the Sultan, by whom at length he was, with all solemnity, confirmed in his government. Everything now went so prosperously in the interior of his territory, that he found he could with safety proceed once more to Singapore. In his journal he observes, " My motives for going are various ; but I hope to do good, to ejccite interest, and make friends ; and I can find no season like the present for my absence. It is now two years since I left Singapore, ' the boundary of civilization.' I have been out of the civi- XX INTRODUCTION. hzed world, living in a demi-civilized state, peaceably, innocently, and usefully." He sailed on the 8th of February, 1843. The Honourable Captain Keppel, on the termination of the war with China, was or dered by his commander-in-chief. Sir William Parker, to proceed with his ship, the ' Dido,' to the Malacca Straits, to protect the trade and put down piracy. Borneo was included in the station, and the captain, being on duty at Singapore, made the acquaintance of Mr. Brooke, who returned -with him in his vessel to Sarawak. At Borneo, the captain found enough to do, and did much towards the suppression of piracy, with the assistance of his friend ; but he was recalled to England in August, 1844. Mr. Brooke in his journal thus speaks of that event, " The departure of the ' Dido ' left me sad and lonely, for Cap tain Keppel had really been my companion and friend ; and he so thoroughly entered into my views for the suppression of piracy, and made them his own, that I may not expect any successor to act with the same vigour and the same decision. Gallant Didos ! I would INTRODUCTION. XXI ask no further aid or protection than I re ceived from you." Shortly after Captain Keppel's departure, H.M.S. ' Samarang' and ' Phlegethon' visited and inspected the island of Labuh-an, of which final possession has since been taken, and which is now a British settlement. In February, 1845, H.M.S. 'Driver' brought Captain Bethune to Sarawak, bearing a letter from Lord Aberdeen, appointing Mr. Brooke confidential agent in Borneo to Her Majesty. This letter enclosed one to the Sultan and the Rajah Muda Hassim, replying to their request for the assistance of the British Government to extinguish piracy. The cap tain and Mr. Brooke instantly proceeded to Borneo (Bruni) city, where the letter was received by the Sultan with firing of guns and streaming of banners, and every personal demonstration of respect. The Sultan ex claimed, " it was good, very good," — wanted to know when the English would occupy Labuh-an, and observed that he wanted to have the Europeans near him. XXU INTRODUCTION. Hearing of hostile demonstrations on the part of certain formidable pirates, Mr. Brooke went to Singapore, and had several inter views with Sir Thomas Cochrane. The ad miral proceeded to Borneo Proper, accom panied by Mr. Brooke, with a fleet of seven vessels, and had an interview with the Sultan and Muda Hassim, and an action was shortly after fought with the pirates, in which they were completely routed, but not without some loss on the English side. " Never," said the Borneons, " was such a war in Bruni." All tendered their submission to Muda Hassim, and the Sultan and Mr. Brooke returned in triumph to Sarawak. Scarcely had these events taken place, when the Sultan, who had been accounted imbecile and a mere cypher, was discovered to be not without treachery, and the means of effecting it. He caused Muda Hassim and many others to be murdered, because they were friendly to the English ; and he had employed a wretch, Mr. Brooke's greatest and most inveterate enemy, although his life had been three times interceded for by his intended victim, to INTRODUCTION. XXIU poison him, or to get him dispatched by any cowardly and safe means. On hearing of these occurrences. Sir Thomas Cochrane lost not a moment in taking measures to bring the Sultan to account, unmoved by an apologetic letter which the traitor trans mitted to him. The fleet ascended the river, which was stoutly defended from forts and batteries, but on reaching the city it was found that the inhabitants had deserted it, and that the Sultan had effected his escape. In a few days, the dispersed inhabitants became reassured, and returned to their homes, when a proclamation for the Sultan was confided to the chief person in the town, remind ing him how utterly he was at the admiral's mercy, and warning him of the consequences, should he again offer hostilities to England. Sir Thomas Cochrane then left Captain Mundy to complete such operations as might be necessary. This officer, accompanied by Mr. Brooke, made some vigorous and successful demon- XXIV INTRODUCTION. strations against the pirates, at the termi nation of which, the Rajah of Sarawak returned to Bruni, for the purpose of re storing order, a task which had been con fided to him by the admiral. Thence he returned to Sarawak, taking Muda Hassim's son with him, and the rest of the ill-fated Rajah's family. In about a month after his flight, the Sultan was permitted to return to Bruni, whence he wrote Mr. Brooke a penitential letter, imploring forgiveness and promising amendment. A similar letter was also des patched to Her Majesty Queen Victoria, but his power, as a source of offence to the British Government, is gone for ever. SARAWAK. CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCEIPTION OF BORNEO BRITISH AND DUTCH SETTLEMENTS ON THE ISLAND ITS MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, lAKES, AND VOLCANOES THE ERUPTION OF TOMBORO COAL FOUND IN THE ISLAND OP LABUH-AN — THE MODE OF WORKING ANTIMONY ORE MINERALS IN BORNEO — GOLD FOUND IN SARAWAK THE MODE OF WORKING IT IN THE ISLAND, AND ITS PRODUCE ESTI MATED BY SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES — GOLD AN EXPORT OP SARAWAK DIAMONDS IN BORNEO. Borneo, one of the largest islands of the world, occupies portions of both the first and second grand divisions of the Eastern Archipelago, as established by !!V[r. Crawfurd; the eastern boundary of his first or western division, 116° of east longitude, running through the island a little to the eastward of the town of Bruni, more commonly known as Borneo Proper, so that the western and greater portion of the island belongs to his first and most favoured division, which includes also Sumatra, Java, and the !M!alayan peninsula. That part, east of the above-named me ridian, is comprised in the second division, which also B 2 GEOGRAPHY OF includes the island of Celebes and others, to the meri dian of 124° east, and to the parallel of 3° north latitude, A portion of the island enters the fourth geographical division of the above-named author, but this appears to be a superfluous one, as the inhabitants and productions of !M!agindanau, Soolu, &c., very much resemble those of the second division ; the vegetables on which stress is laid, particularly the nutmeg and sago, being abundant on those parts of Borneo which are included in the former divisions : the first of them, however, is not the kind so valued for its aromatic flavour, and though there are several species, they are all valueless in commerce, the fine ones being confined to the !M!oluccas. The name Borneo, by which the island has been always distinguished on European charts, and which was probably applied to it by the Portuguese from information received previously to any of their visits to the island, is a corruption of the word Burni, tho name of a kingdom and town on the N. W. coast of the island — Bruni being called by the inhabitants of the !M!alayan peninsula, where the Portuguese first settled after their conquest of !M!alacca, under the celebrated Albuquerque, in 1511, Tanah Burni, the land of Burni, it being rarely the custom of the natives to apply a distinguishing name to the whole island collectively, but to designate each part by the name of the most powerful kingdom situated in it. Thus it is said that the southern part of this island is named by the Javans,. Tanah Banjarmasin, BORNEO. from the Malayan or rather Javanese kingdom of that name. The natives of Borneo in general have no idea that their country is an island : it is only the !Malays and inhabitants of the sea-coasts, whose maritime pursuits have necessarily forced upon them the know ledge of its insular position, who have one compre hensive term for the countries which compose it. These call it Tanah Kalamantan, and occasionally Pulo Kalamantan, or the island Kalamantan ; but this term is usually restricted to what we should call an islet, large countries being designated Tanah, or land — a word nearly similar in signification to our term conti nent — their language having no other expression equivalent to that geographical term, and consequently more appropriate to this land, than the term Pulo. Though this large island has been long known to Europeans, settlements were not for many years after its discovery attempted upon it, and it is remarkable that the Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch, who so long contended for the spice trade of the !M!oluccas, should have so neglected the rich island of Borneo, the pro ductions of which must have been well known to them all. In 1747, the Dutch made a settlement at Banjar, on the southern coast, which was abandoned by !M!arshal Daendels, the Governor-general of Nether lands, India, in 1810; the sultan paying them, by agreement, the sum of 50,000 Spanish dollars for the forts and buildings. They had previously, in the year 1687, attacked Sucadana, at the instigation of the Sultan of Bantam, for the purpose of replacing the B 2 BRITISH AND DUTCH disinherited sultan, Gura Laya, on his throne. This territory was afterwards ceded to the Dutch by the then Sultan of Bantam in 1778, in which year they estabhshed a fort and factory at the neighbouring flourishing Malay settlement of Pontianak, from which they destroyed the rival flourishing and independent states of Mampawa and Sucadana. Pontianak itself, says Mr. Crawfurd, " soon fell in consideration under their influence, until their removal and unrestricted trade once more restored it in our times." They occu pied it at this time during fourteen years. In 1823, they again possessed themselves of Pontianak, which they now retain. Soon after the Dutch had left Ban- jar, in 1810, the Earl of Minto received at Malacca an embassy from the sultan, requesting the English to settle, which was accepted ; and when Java was taken possession of by the British in 1811, a factory was established there. This settlement was delivered over to the Dutch on the restoration of Java, and they still retain it. The remaining Dutch settlement is at Sambas, on the western coast : it was formed in 1823, the Hollanders paying a sum of money to the sultan for the monopoly of the trade. It had previously been a nest of pirates, who were destroyed by Eng lish ships of war, sent from Batavia for that purpose, in 1812. With the exception of a British residency formed from Balambangan during our short occupation of that island, at Bruni, and which was soon after wards abandoned on account of internal commotions in that state, these are the only settlements which settlements. 5 have been established by Europeans on the island, and none of them have ever prospered; even those which the Dutch now maintain being reported to be an annual expense to the government. The English, in the year 1773, formed a settlement at Balambangan, an island off the northern coast of Borneo, which had been ceded to them by the Soolus, together with a portion of the opposite coast, from the river Kimanis on the west, to the great bay on the eastern side of the island. Two years after the settlement had been made, the English were attacked by the Soolus, and driven from the place in Pebruary, 1775. In 1803 the settlement was again attempted, but soon voluntarily abandoned. The above comprise the whole of the settlements which had been made on the island pre viously to the establishment of Mr. Brooke at Sara wak, and the failure of all of them is to be attributed to the monopolies and illiberal principles of the Euro pean nations or companies which formed them. In consequence of the languid state of the Euro pean settlements, the true geographical position of the points and headlands of its shores has to this day remained unascertained ,- but the recent survey of Sir E. Belcher, of H.M.S. ' Samarang^' which has lately returned, and Lieut. Gordon, of H.M.S. 'Royalist,' who is now engaged on the northern part of the island, will soon enable the Admiralty to furnish a more correct chart of the western shores, though the eastern are still unexplored. These, however, cannot long remain unknown, as the settlement to be formed at Labuh-an mountains. will probably soon find it necessary, for the extermi nation of the piratical inhabitants, to have them fuUy investigated. In geographical features this island presents us with great variety. It has high mountains, magnificent rivers, extensive lakes, and probably, in the northern part of the island, considerable plains. The mountains are disposed in a range which traverses the island from its N. E. extremity in a south-westerly direction.; in the northern division they are very high, Kina Balou being nearly 14,000 feet. They appear gradually to decrease in height as they approach the south-western shore; about the middle of the island they are observed inland of Tanjong Barram 8,000 and 9,000 feet high ; but westerly, in the Pontianak country, as they approach the sea, they are from 2,000 to 4,000 feet in height. The heights of many of the principal peaks of the northern part of the island have been recently ascer tained by Lieut. Gordon, but as his observations are not yet pubhshed I am unable to avail myself of them. Kina Balou (the Chinese widow), which is situated about eighteen miles inland, and at the foot of which is Malludu Bay, is supposed much to exceed any of the others in height. I have been informed by the Rajahs of Borneo that it derives its name from the cir cumstance of its summit having been in former times the residence of a female spirit of great beauty, of whom it is said a Chinese prince of Bruni (before the time of its conversion to the religion of Mahomet), RIVERS. became enamoured, and, wishing to obtain her in marriage, made a journey intending to visit her resi dence, but, losing his footing, fell over one of the rocky precipices near the top, and was killed. Hence the spirit has been denominated the Widow of the China man, and the mountain, after her, named Kina or China Balou ; the Borneans not pronouncing the ch soft, as is the practice amongst Malayan nations. Erom these mountains issue innumerable rivers, which empty themselves into the sea on all sides of the island. On the north coast the largest are those of Bruni, Rejang, Sarebas, of Sakarran, and of Sara wak; on the west coast are the enormous rivers of Sambas and Pontianak ; on the south the great river Banjar; on the south-east that of Passir; and further north that of Coti : beside these are very many others, all of which wiU be found of the greatest service hereafter, in difiusing trade and civihzation from our new settlement ; but those above named are selected on account of their great size. Between the province of Sarawak and the town of Bruni are upwards of twenty considerable mouths of rivers, with settlements frequented by Malay boats, for the pur poses of trade ; indeed, it is proljable that, with the exception of the west coast of Africa, no country in the world is better watered than this island. The purposes of navigation will be greatly facihtated in these rivers by tides, wliich, for a great distance, flow up the larger of them ; those of the greatest size being found in the flattest parts of the island. This is the RIVERS case particularly with the Rejang on the north-west, and the Banjar on the south, side of the island : the same applies also to the Sambas and Pontianak, together with all the other rivers which, as on the north coast, do not immediately descend the moun tains to the sea. These have frequently fresh water at their mouths, not having to traverse any level country before they disembogue. Lakes of considerable extent are asserted by the natives to exist in the interior of the island. One called the Danau Malayu, or Malay Lake, situated on the head waters of the river of Pontianak, was visited by an expedition from that Dutch settlement in the year 1823. It ascended the river to the distance of 250 miles, when it was found to open out into a lake of twenty-five miles in length, and nine in breadth, but of no considerable depth, the average being three fathoms. It was abundantly stored with excellent fish, and in the centre were two islands, to which European names were attached by the expedition ; one being that of the Baron Van der Capellen, the then governor pf Netherlands, India. Before arriving at this lake they had passed mar.y^ialls, one of the height of twenty-five feet ; the lake itself was not estimated to be situated more than 100 feet above the level of the sea. The great river Batang-Lupar, of which the Sakarran is a branch, takes its rise very near this lake, on the banks of which one or more Malay states are established, with which, if the disturbances of the Sakarran river were settled, a lucrative commerce would AND LAKES. 9 be carried on by the Malay traders of Sarawak. A large lake is also said to exist amongst the ranges of mountains near Kina Balou ; and on the Dutch charts a chain of lakes is laid down between this and the Danau Malayu already noticed, and consequently stretching across the island ; but, as no one has visited any of them, they must be laid down from native information, which they alone have been able to ob tain, or, what is more probable, they have been placed there without any information at all respecting their existence. In surface the island is usually low and undulating towards the sea shore, and for a long way into the interior in the north-west, and south, and south east parts of the island. The belt of undulating land on the west coast is not so broad, as the general and continuous ranges of mountains of the north are here much broken, and at first sight appear to be scattered about in a solitary manner, and without any order ; they approach nearer to the sea than in the centre of the island, so that the M^est coast, particularly approaching the territories of Sarawak and Sambas, has a mountainous appearance at a little distance in land, quite foreign to the southern and western districts. The sea shores are all of fine sand, and lined with a hedge of the beautiful arroo tree, (Casuarina,) which, from their resemblance, are usually called firs by the Europeans. The mouths of the rivers are generally muddy and overfiowed for some few miles by the tides ; here the nipah palm and the mangrove delight to 10 VOLCANO grow, and forests and swamps of these useful trees abound in all such situations : they give shelter to in numerable mosquitoes, which render it impossible to sleep at night in their vicinity. Situated in the centre of islands, most of which abound in volcanoes of the most frightful activity, one would expect earthquakes and other indications of their vicinity to be frequent in Borneo ; but as far as has yet been discovered, no volcanoes or other indica tions of subterraneous fire are found, and if they ever existed, it must have been at a period so remote that even to tradition the remembrance of them is lost. The Philippines to the north, and Java and other islands to the south, are frequently disturbed by these fearful phenomena, and I have seen raany inhabitants of the western coast of Borneo, who perfectly re collected the great eruption of the mountain Tomboro, in the island of Sumbawa, which happened in April, 1815,* the effects of which are distinctly stated to * The following interesting account of this eruption, given by Sir Stamford Raffles, is extracted from his excellent History of Java : — " In order to give the reader some idea of the tremendous vio lence with which nature sometimes distinguishes the operations of the volcano in these regions, and enable him to form some con jecture, from the occurrences of recent experience, of the effects they may have produced in past ages, a short account of the extraordinary and wide spread phenomena that accompanied the eruption of the Tomboro mountain, in the island of Sumbawa, in April, 1815, may not be uninteresting. Almost every one is acquainted with the intermitting convulsions of Etna andVesuvius as they appear in the descriptions of the poet and the authentic OF TOMBORO. 11 have been perceptible at Sarawak, though distant, in a straight line, 800 miles. I have been told that on the Samarhand river is a small spring of warm water, and at Borneo are one or accounts of the naturalist, but the most extraordinary of them can bear no comparison, in point of duration and force, with that of Tomboro. This eruption extended perceptible evidences of its existence over the whole of the Molucca Islands, over Java, a considerable portion of Celebes, Sumatra, and Borneo, to a cir cumference of 1000 statute miles from its centre, by tremulous motions, and the report of explosions ; while within the range of its more immediate activity, embracing a space of 300 miles around it, it produced the most astonishing effects, and excited the most alarming apprehensions. On Java, at the distance of 300 miles, it seemed to be awfully present. The sky was overcast at noon-day with clouds of ashes, the sun was en veloped in an atmosphere, whose ' palpable ' density it was unable to penetrate ; showers of ashes covered the houses, the streets, and the fields, to the depth of several inches ; and, amid this dark- nes.?, explosions were heard at intervals, like the report of artillery or the noise of distant thunder. So fully did the resemblance of the noises to the report of cannon impress the minds of some officers, that, from an apprehension of pirates on the coast, vessels were despatched to afford relief, Superstition, on the other hand, on the minds of the natives, was busily at work, and attributed the reports to an artillery of a different description to that of pirates. All conceived that the effects experienced might be caused by eruptions of some of the numerous volcanos on the island ; but no one could have conjectured that the showers of ashes which darkened the air, and covered the ground of the eastern districts of Java, could have proceeded from a mountain in Sumbawa, at the distance of several hundred miles. Conceiving that it might be interesting and curious to preserve an authentic and detailed account of the information that could be gained of this wonderful phenomenon, while the event was still recent and fully remembered, I directed a circular to the different residents. 12 ERUPTION OE two small mineral springs, and one of naphtha, but this wiU not be thought sufiicient to prove the present existence of subterranean fires. Coal is exceedingly abundant in Pulo Labuh-an, requiring them to transmit to the Government a statement of the facts and circumstances connected with it, which occurred within their own knowledge. Prom their replies, the narrative drawn up by Mr. Assey, and printed in the ninth volume of the Batavian Transactions, was collected ; the following is an extract from that paper. " ' The first explosions were heard on this island (Java) in the evening of the 5th of April : they were noticed in every quarter, and continued at intervals until the following day. The noise was, in the first instance, universally attributed to distant cannon ; so much so, that a detachment of troops was marched from Djocjocarta, under the apprehension that a neighbouring post had been attacked ; and along the coast boats were in two in stances despatched in quest of supposed ships in distress. On the following morning, however, a slight fall of ashes removed all doubt as to the cause of the sound ; and it is worthy of remark, that as the eruption continued, the sound appeared to be so close, that in each district it seemed near at hand, and was generally attri buted to an eruption either from the mountains Merapi, Klut, or Bromo. Prom the 6th the sun became obscured ; it had every where the appearance of being enveloped in a fog. The weather was sultry and the atmosphere close, and still the sun seemed shorn of its rays, and the general stillness and pressure of the atmo sphere seemed to forbode an earthquake. This lasted several days. The explosions continued occasionally, but less violently and less frequently than at first. Volcanic ashes also began to fall, but in small quantities, and so slightly as to be hardly preceptible in the western districts. This appearance of the atmosphere continued, with little variation, until the 10th of April ; and till then it does not appear that the volcano attracted much observation, or was considered of greater importance than those which have occa sionally burst forth in Java. But on the evening of the 10th, TOMBORO. 13 and the kingdom of Borneo Proper, on the mainland, being situated near the surface of the earth in thick and apparently inexhaustible veins, it will prove of the greatest value to our increasing steam communi- the eruptions were heard more loud and more frequent ; from Cheribon eastward the air became darkened by the quantity of falling ashes ; the sun was nearly darkened, and in some situations, particularly at Solo and Rembang, many said that they felt a tremu lous motion of the earth. It was universally remarked in the more eastern districts, that the explosions were tremendous, continuing frequently during the 11th, and of such violence as to shake the houses perceptibly. An unusual thick darkness was remarked all the following night, and the greater part of the next day. At Solo candles were lighted at 4 p.m. of the 12th ; at Mfigelan in Kedu, objects could not be seen at 300 yards' distance. At Gresik and other districts more eastward, it was dark as night in the greater part of the 12th April, and this saturated state of the atmosphere lessened as the cloud of ashes passed along and discharged itself on its way. Thus, the ashes that were eight inches deep at Banyuwangi were but two in depth at Stimenap, and less in Gresik, and the sun does not seem to have been actually obscured in any district west of Semarang. "'All reports concur in stating, that so violent and extensive an eruption has not happened within the memory of the oldest inhabitant, nor within tradition. They speak of similar effects in a lesser degree, when an eruption took place from the volcano of Karang Asam in Bali, about seven years ago ; and it was at first supposed that this mountain was the seat of the eruption. The Balinese in Java attributed the event to a recent dispute between the two Rajahs of Bali Balilingj which terminated in the death of the younger rajah by order of his brother. " ' The haziness and heat of the atmosphere, and occasional fall of volcanic ashes, continued until the 14th, and in some parts of the island until the 17th of April. They were cleared away uni versally by a heavy fall of rain, after which the atmosphere became clear and more cool ; and it would seem that this seasonable relief prevented much injury to the crops, and removed an appearance 14 ERUPTION OP cation with the East. It has been tried by various government steamers, the engineers of which pronounce it to be of the finest quality, superior to that imported to Singapore from England, and in all its properties of epidemic disease which was beginning to prevail. This was especially the case at Batavia, where, for two or three days pre ceding the rain, many persons were attacked with fever. As it was, however, no material injury was felt beyond the districts of Banyuwangi. The cultivators everywhere took the precaution to shake off the ashes from the growing padi as they fell, and the timely rain removed an apprehension very generally entertained, that insects would have been generated by the long continuance of the ashes at the root of the plant. In Rembang, where the rain did not fall till the 17th, and the ashes had been con siderable, the crops were somewhat injured ; but in Banyuwangi, the part of the island on which the cloud of ashes spent its force, the injury was more extensive. A large quantity of padi was totally destroyed, and all the plantations more or less injured. One hundred and twenty-six horses and eighty-six head of cattle also perished, chiefly for want of forage, during a month from the time ofthe eruption. " ' Prom Sumbawa to the part of Sumatra where the sound was noticed, is about 970 geographical miles in a direct line. Prom Sumbawa to Temate is a distance of about 720 miles. The distance also to which the cloud of ashes was carried, so quickly as to produce utter darkness, was clearly pointed out to have been the island of Celebes and the districts of Gresik on Java : the former is 217 nautical miles distant from the seat of the volcano ; the latter, in a direct line, more than 300 geographical miles.' " The following is an extract from the reports of Lieutenant Owen Phillips, dated at Bima on the island of Sumbawa. ' On my trip towards the western part of the island, I passed through nearly the whole of Dompo and a considerable part of Bima. The extreme misery to which the inhabitants have been reduced is shocking to behold. There were still on the roadside the remains of several corpses, and the marks of where many others had TOMBORO. 15 having the greatest aSinity with the best canal coal. One great advantage it has over English coal for a hot climate is, that it requires but httle " stoking," as it does not cake about the bars of the furnace, but burns been interred ; the villages almost entirely deserted and the houses fallen down, the surviving inhabitants having dispersed in search of food. The Rajah of Sang'ir came to wait on me at Dompo, on the 3d instant. The suffering of the people there appears, from his account, to be still greater than in Dompo. The famine has been so severe that even one of his own daughters died from hunger. I presented him with three coyangs of rice in your name, for which he appeared most truly thankful. " ' As the rajah was himself a spectator of the late eruption, the following account which he gave me is perhaps more to be de pended upon than any other I can possibly obtain. About 7 P.M. on the 10th of April, three distinct columns of flame burst near the top of the Tomboro mountain (all of them apparently within the verge of the crater), and after ascending separately to a very great height, their tops united in the air in a troubled confused manner. In a short time the whole mountain next Sang'ir appeared like a body of liquid fire, extending itself in every direction. The fire and columns of flame continued to rage with unabated fury, until the darkness caused by the quantity of falling matter obscured it at about 8 p. m. Stones, at this time, fell very thick at Sang'ir ; some of them as large as two fists, but generally not larger than walnuts. Between 9 and 10 p. m. ashes began to fall, and soon after a violent whirlwind ensued, which blew down nearly every house in the village of Sang'ir, carrying the ataps, or roofs, and light parts away with it. In the parts of Sang'ir adjoining Tomboro its Effects were much more violent, tearing up by the roots the largest trees and carrying them into the air, together with men, horses, cattle, and what ever else came within its influence. (This will account for the immense number of floating trees seen at sea.) The sea rose nearly twelve feet higher than it had ever been known to do before, and completely spoiled the only small spots of rice land in Sang'ir, sweeping away houses and every thing within its reach. 10 COAL IN LABUH-AN. away to a clear white ash. In using it, however, there is no saving in quantity, as the ' Nemesis,' in steaming from Bruni to Singapore in June last, used nearly the same quantity as she would have burnt of Enghsh coal. It is probable that the whole of the sandstone formation of the north and east coasts will be found to produce this useful mineral in abundance, it having been already found by the Dutch on the great Banjar river, but in such a situation, and at such a distance from the coast, as to render it unavailable on account of the difficulty of transporting it. One of the principal reasons which has caused our govern ment to form the settlement at Labuh-an is the value that this mineral will prove both in time of peace and in case of war. .-.- Next in abundance to the coal, as far as is yet The whirlwind lasted about an hour. No explosions were heard till the whirlwind had ceased, at about 11 a.m. From midnight till the evening of the 11th, they continued without intermission; after that time their violence moderated, and they were only heard at intervals, but the explosions did not cease entirely until the 15 th of July. Of the whole villages of Tomboro, Tempo, con taining about forty inhabitants, is the only one remaining. In Pekate no vestige of a house is left : twenty-six of the people, who were at Sumbawa at the time, are the whole ofthe population who have escaped. Prom the most particular inquiries I have been able to make, there were certainly not fewer than 12,000 individuals in Tomboro and PekS,t6 at the time of the eruption, of whom only five or six survive. The trees and herbage of every description, along the whole of the north and west sides of the peninsula, have been completely destroyed, with the excep tion of a high point of land near the spot where the village of Tomboro stood.'" ANTIMONY ORE, 17 known, is the antimony ore; it is found in several parts of the western coast, in the interior of Sambas, at Sarawak, and several other places ; but, from the wild state of the inhabitants, its distance from the coast, and other causes, it can only be at present effectually worked at Sarawak. It was first brought to Singapore, soon after the establishment of that settlement, by some people who had touched for water at Sarawak on their return from a voyage to Bruni. The ore being of a much richer nature than the antimony produced in Europe, the Rajahs of Borneo were soon informed that it would readily find a sale at the British settlement ; and being en couraged by some merchants of that place, the needy rajahs were not long in visiting a part of their dominions hitherto neglected, and the Pangeran Der Makota, who governed Sarawak, caused the Dyaks, unaccustomed to such labour, to work at the anti mony mines : beads and brass were distributed to a very small amount as the price of their labour, the Pangeran with the Princes of Bruni sharing the profits of their reluctant work. From this time are to be dated the troubles of the Dyak and other populations of Sarawak : all were obhged to labour to satisfy the demands of the nobles, to whom the Europeans regularly advanced large quantities of goods. After ten years of this oppres sion the inhabitants rebelled, and were still at war with their rajahs on Mr. Brooke's arrival, as will be hereafter stated. The trade in antimony of course 18 WORKING OF ANTIMONY ORE. ceased from the beginning of the rebellion till peace was restored. In Sarawak the antimony is found in the limestone districts, both in large boulders of rock, upon the surface of the ground, and in rich veins in the lime stone rock a little below the surface : it is worked by the Chinese and Malays, who split the upper rock by fire until the vein of antimony is laid bare ; the heat causes beautiful chrystals of sulphur to form amongst the antimony, which abounds with this mineral : in smelting the ore, nearly eighty per cent, of the sul phate of antimony is obtained. A manufactory for reducing it to this state has been for some time established at Sarawak; but the metal undergoes another smelting to reduce it to regulus of antimony, which is the metal pure, all the sulphur being ex tracted by a chemical process. It is in this state, in which it resembles silver, that it enters into the com position of type-metal, the various descriptions of plate, &c. The ore of the richest quality is obtained from a limestone hill called Batu Bidi, on the western branch of the Sarawak ; here it is worked by Malays, but the greatest works are in the neighbour hood of the Chinese settlement at Tundong, on the same branch of the river. Iron in various forms is found in abundance over the whole island. It is said to have been smelted in former times by the Chinese, who cast guns from it; but it is not of sufficiently good quality to lead us to suppose that it will ever engage the METALS IN BORNEO. 19 capital of the European. It is said still to be dug and smelted by the Kyans, a people afterwards to be described, who inhabit the interior of the island. Their weapons, which, it is asserted, are manufactured from the native iron, are of excellent quality and temper, and are in general valued by the other tribes, who form theirs of bar-iron brought from Europe. Tin has been recently discovered in the alluvial soil in the country of the Suntah Dyaks, on the eastern confines of the Sarawak territory: it is of that de scription called stream tin, which is so abundant in Malacca, and the Malayan peninsula. By digging, a vein of it will probably be found ; and it is likely to be a valuable metal to the island, as the working of it generally pays the European miner a greater profit than gold. Nickel is found over the whole territory of Sarawak, particularly in the tin and gold districts : in the for mer it is very abundant combined with iron and cobalt : it has not yet been worked. Quicksilver is known to exist in several parts of the island, but has not yet been obtained in sufficient quantities to render it an article of exportation ; it is, perhaps, common in the unexplored Kyan countries up the Rejang and Bintulu rivers, as a weapon which I received from them has its sheath ornamented with it. Of the precious metals, gold is abundant ; silver being unknown in the East in these latitudes, though it abounds in China and Japan. The gold is found in three situations ; — in crevices of limestone rocks, in c 2 20 GOLD IN SARAWAK, alluvial soil, and in the sand and gravel of the rivers : it is found chiefly on the western and southern portions of the island, but is not obtained in any quantities to the northward. In Sarawak, Sambas, Sangow, and Banjar, it appears most to abound. In Sarawak it is found in all parts of the country on the right-hand, or western branch of the river, beyond the influence of the tides : it is found also in the southern branch, but in less considerable quantities. In the crevices of the limestone above mentioned, it is worked by Malays. Last year I accompanied Mr. Brooke on a visit to the rocks. The place they were then working was about four miles inland from the river, and about that distance from Seniawan and Tundong. This place was called Battu Kaladi, and was a limestone hill about 200 feet in height, the surface of which was worn, hke all the limestone rocks of the country, apparently by water, into ridges so sharp that it would have been exceedingly dangerous to have fallen upon them. Amongst these ridges were holes, very small, continuations of which penetrated into the heart of the mountain, some of them being forty or more feet in depth. The only difficulty appeared to be in the labour of making the aperture sufficiently large to admit the miner ; but, this accomplished, on his descent he found the bottom, which invariably opened to a cave, covered with earth of a loamy nature. This, on being brought to the surface in , baskets, was washed, and we were told produced a AND HOW IT IS WORKED. 21 bengkal of gold, about one and three quarters of an ounce, from each bushel of earth ; from six to ten or twelve bushels being found in each cave, according to its size. It was accordingly a very gainful speculation, and the working it was carried on by all the idle and poorer classes of the community of Sarawak ; so much so, that it was difficult to hire men for ordinary work. Gamblers repaired to this employment, and a few weeks' exertion soon repaired their ruined fortunes; so that, by supplying them with funds to encourage them in this vice, it is, perhaps, no advantage to the settle ment. The Chinese, who were not permitted by the Malays to work in the rock, were quietly trenching the earth at the foot of the hiU, which they had long worked for the same purpose, and with more certainty of profit, as it is not always that the caves, after the labour expended in getting into them, are found to produce the coveted metal. How the gold should be discovered in these fissures at all is very remarkable, and perhaps may afford a curious fact for the study of geologists and mineralo gists : it cannot have descended from any place higher, as the caves are found on the highest as well as on the lowest parts of the surface of the fiat- topped hill ; nor, after repeated examinations of the limestone, is the slightest trace of the metal discoverable in it : the surface of the rock is but scantily furnished with earth, and that is of a vegetable nature. It is true that the whole of the soil of the surrounding district is alluvial, and strongly impreg nated with gold, but pot to nearly so great an extent 32 GOLD IN SARAWAK, as that found in the fissures above described ; hence the soil in these differs in the relative quantities it contains. The golden shower into which Jupiter is fabled to have transformed himself, appears to have fallen here. Antimony is found in a vein in the same rock, the fissures of which produced the gold above described. The gold which is found in alluvial soils is that of which the supply is most to be depended on. This is, in Sarawak, found and worked in many places prin cipally by the Chinese, though the Malays also occa sionally work it on a smaller scale. The earth in which it is found is a yellow clayey loam ; this being removed to a series of large troughs, into which the water of a pond, previously dammed up for the pur pose, is turned, the heavier particles of earth are removed. What remains is washed away by hand in small shallow wooden dishes, until nothing, or very little, but the pure gold remains, — the refuse in melt ing that which is cleaned by the Chinese never exceed ing the 3^ part. It is not found in veins in any part of Sarawak, but in small particles distributed through the soil ; nor does it extend to any great depth. In particular cases, the smaller grains are preferred by purchasers to the larger, as they are generally much cleaner than the latter, the crevices of the granulated particles of which render them more difficult to be thoroughly cleansed. The gold which is found in the river is of the same description as that last mentioned, and is probably washed from the alluvials during heavy AND HOW IT IS WORKED. 23 rains. It is sought for by numberless Malays during the dry season, when the water of the river is low. They are much exposed to agues, from their manner of standing up to their waists in water during the time they are washing it ; which is for the convenience of having the strength of the stream to carry off the gravel and sand, the gold, by its greater weight, fall ing to the bottom of the flattish implement before described. This is usually a profitable employment, and suits the indolent Malays much better than the method followed by the Chinese. The following account of the state of productive ness of the gold mines of Borneo is extracted from the work of Sir Stamford Raffies, who, from his high official position, had the best means of arriving at an accurate computation : — " Gold. — Prom a calculation recently made, it appears that the number of Chinese employed in the gold mines at Mentrada and other places on the western side of Borneo, amounts to not less than 32,000 working men. When a mine affords no more than four bengkals (weighing about two dollars each, or some thing less than a tahil) per man in the year, it is reckoned a losing concern, and abandoned accordingly. Valuing the bengkal at eighteen Spanish dollars, which is a low rate of estimation, and supposing only four bengkals produced in the year by the labour of each man, the total produce'is 128,000 bengkals, worth 2,224,000 Spanish dollars, equal to 656,00OZ., at the rate of five shillings the dollar. But it is asserted, that upon the general run of the mines, seldom less than six bengkals per head has been obtained, and in very rainy seasons seven. Taking the medium at six-and-a-half bengkals, the 32,000 Chinese will pro cure 208,000 bengkals, which, at eighteen Spanish dollars the bengkal, is 3,744,O0O Spanish dollars, equal to 936,000?, Such 24 ESTIMATED PRODUCE OF GOLD IN BORNEO, is the result of a very moderate calculation of the produce of these mines. According to an estimate made in the year 1812, the annual produce of the mines on the west coast of Borneo was estimated at 4,744,000 Spanish dollars, being an excess of a million sterling. The quantity of gold procured in Sumatra, the supposed golden Chersonesus of the ancients, is, according to Mr. Marsden, about 30,800 ounces, which, at il. sterling the ounce, is worth 123,200?., equal to 492,800 Spanish dollars. " With respect to the disposal of the gold from the mines of Borneo, it may be observed, that every native Chinese, whether employed in the mines, in agriculture, as merchant or artificer, manages every year to remit at least the value of one tahil, more or less, of gold to his relations in China. These remittances are gene rally made by the junks in gold, as it saves freight, is more easily smuggled on shore without the notice of the rapacious mandarin, and remitted overland to the residence of their families. Taking the Chinese male population who can thus remit at double the number employed in the mines, and supposing one half to be born the country, most of whom may not remit to China, this remittance would amount to 34,000 bengkals or tahils, which at eighteen Spanish dollars is 612,000 dollars, or 153,000?. " Tt is calculated that, one year with another, at least 600 Chinese return in the junks to their native country with a competency. Several have been known to take away 1,000 bengkals of gold, many from 100 to 530 ; but very few return before they have cleared a competency of 2,000 dollars, or from 100 to 120 tahils of gold. This goes partly in gold ; though they prefer investing a part of it in tin from Banka, opium, and other articles. Say, however, that they remit one half in gold ; 500 men, at 1,000 dollars each, will give 500,000 dollars, which added to the small family remittances, accounts for an amount exceeding 1,000,000 dollars, or 250,000?. This calcula tion, however, seems to be far within the mark, and gives less by one-half than what is usually stated to be remitted to China from the Bornean mines, which has been estimated at a loose guess at 2,000,000 dollars, or 500,000?. " A further amount of not less than the value of 1,000,000 dollars, or 250,000?, is supposed to find its way annually to Western India, and principally to Bengal, vid Batavia, Malacca, BY SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES. 25 and Pinang, for the purchase of opium, and piece goods. The surplus enriches Java and some of the other islands, in exchange for salt, tobacco, coarse cloths, &c. " As the mines are worked with so little expense of machinery, the funds necessary for commencing an undertaking of the kind are small ; and as the property of the soil belongs to the first occupant, almost every Chinese would become a proprietor, but for the mode by which their services are, in the first instance, secured by the council of proprietors, or kongsis. A parcel of half-starved Chinese, enchanted with the prospect of wealth on the golden shores of Borneo, readily find a passage in the annual junks that sail from the mother country to Borneo at ten dollars a-head. On their arrival, being unable to pay the passage-money and the tax of a dollar per head established by the native authority, while their immediate wants for food and habitation are urgent and imperious, the proprietors of the mines find it easy to engage their services for three or four years. In some other cases, agents are employed to obtain men from China, on stipulated agreements, to work for a number of years : the usual rate of pay ment to the miners so engaged is not considered to average less than five Spanish dollars a-month. No sooner, however, are these engagements concluded with their masters, than a number of them club together with the funds they have been able to save, and commence a new mine upon their joint account, in a few years acquiring a competency to return to their native country. This computation at that time would have included the gold produced by Sarawak, with the exception of such portions of it as were collected by the Malays ; the Chinese who work its gold being ah members of the great Kung Si, or company of their countrymen settled in the territory of Sambas, and to whom all their collections are remitted four times a-year ; the Kung Si having officers in all the districts it occupies, who manage all their affairs, and are in constant com munication with Montradak and Sambas. It is pro bable that the export of gold from Sambas has been 20 EXPORT OF GOLD FROM SARAWAK. rapidly decreasing since 1823, as immigration from China has in a great measure ceased, on account of the bad understanding which exists between the Dutch and Sultan of Sambas, and the Chinese, the former holding the monopolies of the opium, salt, tobacco, and other things, without which the Chinese cannot exist. The export of gold from Sarawak has, on the contrary, greatly increased ; but as no duties or taxes are levied by its government on the mines, and no notes kept of the quantity exported, it is impossible to arrive at anything near the true result, each person taking out and bringing into the country what he pleases. One of the nakodas (merchants) of Sarawak who deals in gold very extensively, told me that he considered that quite one picul of gold was annually exported from the settlement by Malay traders to Singapore ; and as this includes very little gathered by the Chinese, which finds its way to Batavia and Singapore by way of Sambas, I have no doubt that four times this amount is collected in this little coun try. I should suppose, from the number of men employed (about 700), that at least 7,000 ounces are annually collected. The diamonds of Borneo have long been celebrated as equal to any from India or Brazil in abundance and beauty. They are found principally in the greatest numbers in Sangow, Landak, and Banjarmasin. They were also formerly worked at Sarawak, but never very extensively: a few years since, some fine ones were obtained by the chief Patingi Ali, in a large hole during a very dry state of the river. At the other DIAMONDS IN BORNEO, 27 three places they are worked to a small extent by the Chinese and Malays. The mines of Landak have supphed the Malays with diamonds ever since their first settling on the island ; those of Sangow and Banjar are more recent. It is said by Sir Stamford Raffles, that " few courts of Europe could perhaps boast of a more brilliant display of diamonds than, in the prosperous days of the Dutch, was exhibited by the ladies of Batavia, the principal and only mart then opened for the Bornean diamond mines." The diamonds are found in a gravelly stratum, at various dis tances below the surface : in Sarawak the gravel in which they are found is in some places not more than six feet, in others as much as eighteen below the surface. They are found in abundance in the soil, but are generally small in size, though of the most brilliant water. Large ones are also occasionally met with, and it is said that at Sangow and Landak, dia monds of from twelve to sixteen carats are not un common. The diamond of the Sultan of Matan is known to be one of the largest in the world. It is as yet uncut, and weighs 367 carats, so that if cut and polished it would be reduced in size to 183| carats. Its value is stated by Mr. Crawfurd to be 269,378/., being less by 34,822/. than that of the Russian diamond : and 119,773/, 10*. more than that of the Pitt diamond : its present shape is that of an egg indented on one side. I have been informed by a person, who supposed himself to be a good judge of diamonds, that the sultan possesses the real stone. 28 DIAMONDS IN SARAWAK. which he had seen, but that a crystal is shown to strangers, as the sultan, who has been already robbed of his territory, fears that this last emblem of royalty will be also taken from him by his powerful and avaricious neighbours at Pontianak, The mines which I have seen at Sarawak are of the most simple construction : shafts are sunk in the earth to the stratum that contains the diamonds (which varies in thickness from two feet to much more), at the distance of about twenty feet apart ; the soil is then extracted from each by the miner, who excavates it for ten feet on each side of the shaft, so that the workers in the different shafts communicating with each other ; the whole of the gravel is removed ; this is passed up in baskets and washed in troughs, as already described, in the gold mines, or rather ditches, as the native word signifies (parit). The Malays of Banjarmasin and Landak are very anxious to work the diamonds at Sarawak, but being generally very bad characters, the government has not thought proper to encourage their immigration. Many diamonds are, however, obtained by the people, who wash for gold in the river ; and on one occasion I saw a person get three small ones at one washing, together with a considerable portion of gold. With capital, and proper superintendence, it would pro bably turn out a gainful speculation if properly con ducted, more particularly as gold is found in the same soil, though not in such abundance as in some other kinds of earth. Though in the neighbourhood of Siam and the Birman PORCELAIN CLAY IN BORNEO. 29 Empire, which are said to produce rubies and sapphires superior to those of Ceylon, neither of these or any other precious stones have yet been discovered in Borneo. A beautifully resplendent sand, the particles of which resemble amethysts and topazes, and which is used in the adulteration of gold dust, may perhaps be thought to indicate the vicinity of other gems : it is found at Lingah, a branch of the great Batang Lupar river, not far from its mouth. The above metals and minerals are, I beheve, all that are as yet satisfactorily proved to exist on the island, though, doubtless, many more remain to be yet discovered. Copper, it is said, has been produced by the Dyaks of the Sambas territory ; but the ore has not hitherto been examined by Europeans, Besides the metals and minerals, many coloured earths and valuable clays are in abundance. In the neighbour hood of Sarawak is found a white clay of great purity, such as is used in the manufacture of the finest porce lain. It is used by the native goldsmiths for the purpose of making the crucibles in which they melt the gold dust. In proper hands a profitable manu factory might, perhaps, be established for the purpose of making coarse China ware, so much valued by the Dyaks, from it ; but as this is bought at a very low price, and in very large quantity, at Singapore, it would be difficult, on account of the higher price of labour, to compete with the manufacture of China. CHAPTER IL THE TEMPERATURE AND SOIL OP BORNEO THE VEGETABLE PRO DUCTIONS OP THE ISLAND DESCRIBED IN SUCCESSION THE SUGAR CANE SPICES THE NIBONG THE BAMBOO — RICE THE COCOA NUT SAGO THE GOMUTI PALM ITS USES — THE BETEL, OR ARECA NUT — RATTANS AND CANES — THE NIPAH AND MANGROVE — CAMPHOR VEGETABLE OILS — THE GUTTA PERCHA THE UPAS TREE DAMMAR WILD CINNAMON AND COTTON PEPPER AND COFFEE — GAMBIER AND TOBACCO TIMBER TREES ORNAMENTAL AND SCENTED WOODS FLOWERS. The climate of Borneo, like that of most of the Eastern islands, has been found exceedingly healthy to persons whose avocations do not render great exposure necessary. The north-east monsoon, or that which blows from April to October, is the rainy period ; but a day rarely passes during the south-west, or fine monsoon, without a refreshing shower : this, with the constant warmth, causes every thing to grow during the whole year, the forests being clothed with a per petual verdure, which gives the islands, when seen from the sea, a beautiful appearance, possessed by no country in the world to so great an extent ; shrubs (Hibiscus) and flowering trees (Barringtonia) always overhanging the margin of the ocean, and the inland mountains are observed covered to their summits with a dense and luxuriant vegetation. In temperature it has never been found by Euro- temperature of BOBNEO. 31 peans to be oppressively hot ; the thermometer gene rally averaging 70° to 72° Fahrenheit in the mornings and evenings, and 82° to 85° at 2 p.m., which is generally the hottest part of the day ; and though in the dry season the mercury has sometimes ascended as high as 92°, and occasionally 93°, it has not been felt so inconveniently oppressive to Europeans as a hot summer day in England. The houses of the Euro peans being built near the rivers, are kept cool and pleasant by the breeze which generally prevails in those open situations. As in all countries within the tropics, thunder and lightning are so very frequent as to be but little regarded by the inhabitants, though the former is more sonorous, and the latter more vivid, than in Europe. The lightning is, also, very destructive, several instances of damage and loss of life by it having happened, although from the smaller number of inhabitants these are of less frequent occurrence than in Europe. One of the men belonging to H.M.S, ' Samarang,' who was cutting wood in the jungle, near the Santubong mouth of the Sarawak river, was killed by a tree, which had been struck, falling upon him. The 'Hazard,' in 1846, was also struck, and the upper works and masts considerably injured ; fortunately there was no loss of human life. In all the quiet seas of the East the lightning is very much dreaded by European shipping, many vessels having been lost in the Straits of Malacca and the Java seas by its effects. A heavy shower of rain is 32 THE SOIL OF SARAWAK. always preceded by lightning and thunder, and gene rally by strong wind. Though the vegetation of no country in the world is so luxuriant as that of the Eastern islands, it has been proved by many writers that the soil of some of them is not so fertile as the appearance of the forests would lead the cultivator to expect. This remark particularly applies to Sumatra, the forests of which are supported in their luxuriance, in a great measure, by the moisture of the surrounding atmosphere. Java has, however, been proved to be, in the very highest degree, fertile, and capable of producing every thing in the greatest perfection suitable to a tropical chmate ; and in this respect, from what I have observed of the soil of Borneo, I should imagine it to be equally pro ductive. The soil of Sarawak, with which I am best acquainted, and which, from the similarity of produc tions over the whole island, may probably be fairly taken as an example of its whole extent, is of a rich strong yellow loam, covered to a depth of from sis inches to a foot with black and very productive vegetable mould, which has been formed by the decayed vegetation of the forests. Beneath the loam, which is generally from ten to twenty feet in depth, is found a stratum of gravel in the districts where diamonds are found; in others, it rests upon the sandstone and hmestone rocks, in their particular dis tricts. It is admirably suited for the production of the sugar-cane, which here grows amongst the Dyaks THE SUGAR CANE AND SPICES, 33 without the shghtest cultivation, to greater perfection than I have seen it in Ceylon under the care of Europeans, The cultivated cane of the Chinese in Sarawak I have frequently seen eighteen feet in length, and abounding in saccharine juice of the richest quahty. The natives grow several kmds_gr_sugaj-.Qaiie, some of whichjhey assert WCTefgrmeilyjQ^^ the island.; but the golden yellow cane, which appears to have been importedjbyjhe^ cultivated fby_^, them, is the most^ jjtggmei hy the _ !M^^gJt-is not cultivated for the purpose of making sugar, but, the outer skin being thrown off, the inner is chewed by them much in the manner followed by the orang utan of their woods, the fibrous part being throw away after the sweet juice has been extracted. Some nutmegs, which were planted .for experiment by Mr. Brooke, grew, without manuring or any atten tion, remarkably well ; they were left entirely to nature, the weeds not being once cleared away ; and the result is satisfactory proof that the cultivation of this valuable spice, which in Singapore and Penang is pursued at so great an expense, may be here carried. on with the ordinary cost of cocoa-nut, or. other cheap plantations, merely at the cost of labour sufficient to clear away the weeds. Some plants of the cinnamon, nutmeg, and clove, together with oranges and many other exotic plants, now . growing in the beautiful garden of Mr. Hentig, an English gentleman resident at Sara wak, afford abundant testimony of the suitableness 34 VEGETABLES. of the soil and climate for the production of the finer spices, should their cultivation be attended to with ordinary care. The heat of the cHmate, and the constant growth consequent on its moisture, render it difficult to raise European fruits and vegetables, though, when roads are cut through the island, the mountains will be found to produce these in perfection. In the low lands it is useless to attempt the cultivation of the former, though, by great perseverance on the part of the gentleman above referred to, some kinds of vege tables, have been obtained in considerable abundance : of these, French beans, cucumbers, endive, tomatoes, and asparagus, have succeeded best ; when I left, in June last, many others, however, were looking very promising. As on the mountains, the sides of all of which are covered with productive soil, any climate and tempe rature may be obtained, it is probable that the new settlement of Labuh-an will not be left in the same destitute state for vegetables as Singapore, where the few cabbages which are produced are cultivated in flower-pots, and with great care. TPh&._Clm]5se_i^ii^^araw;a^^^^ the production of native vegetables near the town. In these are grown, in great perfection, the egg plants, thermit of which, under the name of ' brenjal,' is a favourite vegetable; a large kind of radish, which, cooked, very much resembles the turnip in flavour. Sweet potatoes, yams,earthnuts (Arachis hypogoea), and various kinds of leguminous plants (kachang), cucum- THE NIBONG, 35 bers, and some herbs, are also furnished from these gardens for the tables of the Europeans. In them are also grown abundaiice^.^ug.aX:Ca!Hfi.j!Hd nine-apples vating these things themselves. Some kinds of fern (paku), the yet unopened fronds of which when boiled become an excellent vegetable, and, with the excep tion of the cabbage of the various palms, are preferred to most others of the production of the island by European residents. The fern which produces it is a strong growing species, (Marrattia) plentiful on the banks of the rivers -. several kinds are eaten, but this is preferred. Of all the vegetables produced in the island, the cab bage of the palm, called ' nibong,^ is the most esteemed ; it is taken from the heart of the tree, being formed of the unexpanded leaves, which are of a delicate whiteness, and of a very sweet, nutty flavour. It is preferred to that of the cocoa nut, but is in ferior to that of the ' pinang,' or areca nut, which, however, on account of the value of the tree, is very rarely used, the extraction of the edible part, in all cases, causing the destruction of the tree. The nibong is found in great numbers near the mouths of all the rivers, and besides producing the esteemed vegetable above described, is very useful to the natives in house building, for forming their posts, flooring, &c. The stem being perfectly round, and of about six inches in diameter, no more trouble is necessary than to cut down the tree, and divide the stem into the requisite D 2 36 THE BAMBOO. lengths. Its outside has a rind, and is hard to the thickness of an inch ; the inside, being, as in all palms, the most recently formed fibre, is soft, and conse quently soon decays. These trees are used principally -by the poorer sort of inhabitants, the richer generally employing hard wood posts. The posts of nibong will last from three to four years, so that they have, at the ¦end of that time, to be either renewed, or the houses supported by extra ones, when it may be made to stand for some time longer, though, as house-building of this description is not at all expensive, the greater part are pulled down, at the end of this period, and rebuilt. It forms the rafters to which the roof-cover ing and the open flooring are tied. The stems ofthe -nibong are split into laths, the outer, or hard part, oilly being retained for flooring. These are kept "together by rattans interwoven amongst them, each lath being placed at the distance of about two inches from that on each side of it ; by this arrangement all the dirt and rubbish passes below the house, which is generally cleansed by the river at high tides. The bamboo, the shoots of which are also an esteemed vegetable, and which, in the hands of Europeans, make a most excellent pickle, is as useful to the Dyaks as the nibong is to the Malays, the one being as abundant in the interior as the other is on the coasts. There are many kinds of bamboo, but that most valued is the large kind, called by the natives ' boolu ayer,' or the water bamboo ; it grows to a very large size, attaining the height MODE OF COOKING BICE. 37 of sixty feet, and appears to thrive best on the sides of mountains, in very rich soil. The other kinds, of which there are six, are much smaller, but are very useful to the natives, as they grow in more attainable situations, generally on the banks of the rivers, and their stems are said to be of a harder nature than those of the large bamboo. They are used, as in India, and in all countries where they are produced, for an infinity of purposes, and in house-building they take the place of the nibongs, except in their per manent habitations, which have hard wood posts ; the smaller kinds are used as cooking pots- by the natives when in the jungle, and by those whose poverty pre vents them purchasing the pots of earth or brass, called ' priuck,' which the Malays bring to them for sale. The rice called ' pulut,' hereafter to be described, is always cooked by the Malays and Dyaks in. a green bamboo, this mode of preparing it being most esteemed amongst all their tribes. For the purposes of cooking, the bamboo is cut into lengths of about two to three feet ; these being filled with the rice or meat cut into small pieces, and having a sufficiency of water, are. placed over the fire in such a position that the joint of the bamboo does not come in contact with it, but rests upon the ground beyond it, the fire being placed under the green and harder part of the cane, which resists the effects of the heat and flame until the provisions are -sufficiently prepared ; a bundle of leaves placed in the mouth of the cane answers the purposes of the lid of an ordinary cooking pot. This cane is of such value 38 THE COCOA-NUT. to them that, like the fruit trees, those wbich are planted in the vicinity of their villages, are individual property. Next in order of the vegetable productions, and equal to either of the above in the estimation in which it is held by the natives, is^thf;,, cnnoa-^wt. whick has been so often and so well described that I shall not here repeat its well-known uses ; though in countries where cordages of other kinds abound, and where better thatch for their houses can be easily procured, the husk of this fruit is not used for the one purpose, nor its leaves for the other. The wars of the inhabitants have almost exterminated this useful plant from the western coast of Borneo ; it is, however, abundant to the northward ; and the Natunas on the west, and the Sooloo islands on the east, are said to be covered with these palms. The supply of Sarawak and the west coast is drawn entirely from the Natunas islands, the inhabitants of which trust principally to this commerce for their supply of rice, which they do not themselves produce. About fifty of their boats, carrying from six to twenty tons each, arrive annually at Sarawak, during the fine monsoon, loaded with nuts, oil, and sugar, the productions of this tree. The sugar is a coarse kind, resembling molasses, and is made by boiling the sap extracted from the flower stem of this palm ; it also may be procured in less quantities from the gomuti, nipah,, and many others. Thej,ag9_pjlm iMiatmjgdoiiXi§_grgwn^^ fection in some parts of the island,.anxLthfiLjaaugh.^ago is exported in -lajrge quantities from the west coast, ta,. SAGO. 39 Singapore, and also by the Bugis boats from the\ eastern and southern sides of the island. The sago of commerce is the well-known substance forming the heart of the plant, and in those parts where it is most abundant it forms a great portion of the food of the in^abitaHtsj_^but^j[0^^ its nutritive proper- ties^thenatr^BSr-JEhd-^a?^ expert ui preparing iti as those farther east, much prefer rice; and the! !Milanowes^ who live on J;he rivers Egan, Hoya, Mocha, and Bintulu, and ar£ihej)rincipal cuUivatorsTrf-tlieJiEee, always import considerable quantities of grain for their own consumption. The tree grows in marshy places, and rarely attains a greater height than thirty feet. The time for collecting the sago, and in Avhich state it is most productive, is just before it begins to show its large and spreading terminal spike of flowers. It attains this state in from seven to eight years from the time of planting. While young, it is beautifully provided by nature with strong and lengthy spines, which serve to protect it from the wild pigs which would otherwise destroy it. On its attaining a greater size, the outer shell of the trunk becoming sufficiently hard, the spines drop off, the hard wood protecting the farina of the centre from their attacks ; after the flower and fruit have peifected themselves, which occupies a period of two years from tlieir first appearance, the pith of the eentre .Is found dried up, the leaves have fallen,, and the plant is dead. It is rarely propagated from the seed,, which is generally unproductive ; but as it freely produces offsets, the supply is easily raised. Amongst the Dyaks,, who grow 40 THE GOMUTI PALM ITS USES. rice, sago is very rarely used as food except in times of scarcity, from oppression, or other causes. The whole of the sago exported from Borneo is in a rough state, manufactories being established at Singapore and Batavia for its preparation and refining. In itsi rough state it is an ungainly-looking and ungrateful-' smelling substance, and one unacquainted with its properties would be at a loss to conceive that the pearl sago of the shops is prepared from it. The manufacture of the medulla into sago is fully described by Mr. Crawfurd and other writers. In general appearance the gomuti-palm (Arenga saccharifera,) very much resembles the sago, but the pinnee of the leaves, which are erect in the latter, droop in the former like those of the nibong and many other palms. It is valued by the Dyaks, as producing the best toddy, and in the greatest abundance. It is ex tracted from the plant by cutting off the large lateral bunches of fruit. When these are about half-grown, they are severed close to the division of the peduncle or stem; and bamboos being hung to them, a good tree with- two incisions will produce about a gaUon daily for two months; a fresh surface being constantly kept on the severed part by a thin slice being daily cut off the stem or peduncle, so that at the end of the above- named period it has altogether disappeared. The toddy is taken from the bamboo twice a-day, and, when fresh, has a very agreeable taste, and is are- freshing drink ; but the Dyaks always place a piece of a bitter kind of bark in the bamboos which contain it, and this communicates its flavour to the toddy. The THE BETEL, OR ARECA-NUT, 41 cordage it produces from the hairy -like filaments, whtcHT^re interwoven round the stem and about the axils of the leaves, is of excellent quality, and of great service, on account of its durability, in the house-build ing economy of the Dyak. This substance is also plaited into ornaments for the arms, legs, and neck, and its deep black and neat appearance renders it, to the eye of an European, a much more agreeable orna ment than either the brass or beads vnth which they abundantly adorn their persons, as will be explained hereafter. The graceful betel or areca-nut (Areca catechu) palm is one of the greatest ornaments of Eastern gardens. It is not here planted in sufficient quantities to form an article of exportation ; indeed, considerable quantities are imported, as, like the cocoa-nut, the trees were destroyed dming the wars which, previous to the arrival of Mr, Brooke on the western coast, desolated the country. The nut is used for no other purpose but that of being chewed with the sirih leaves (piper), lime, and gambler ; this practice of the other natives of India and the Archipelago being quite as universal among the Dyaks as the Malays. This beautiful tree is also much prized by the natives on account of the delightful fragrance of its flowers, which, taken just before opening from the sheath or spathe, in which the inflorescence is enveloped, and called myang, is requisite in all their medicines and conjurations for the purpose of healing the sick : it is also used with other sweet-scented flowers at bridals and all occasions of festivity. This delightful perfume. 42 RATTANS and its fine head of plume-like leaves, supported on a slender and graceful stem, render it the universal favourite amongst its beautiful tribe. Of the remaining articles useful to the natives, either in their own economy or for exportation, the numerous kinds of rattans and canes are of the great est importance. They are produced from many species of the genus Calamus, and abound in aU the old and dense jungles in damp situations. The leaves of many of them being furnished with a long and slender mid-rib, which extends far beyond the pinnae of the leaf, and furnished with strong curved spines, are particularly troublesome to persons travelling in the jungles. Their slender form rendering them in visible unless carefully watched, they frequently catch the clothes, or person, and cannot be detached except by walking back a pace or two, and carefully un hooking them. The different kinds of rattan vary very rauch both in size and in the appearance of the leaves ; some of them being smooth and spineless, with leaves hke those of the bamboo ; others rough, with spines covering the stems and ribs of the leaves : of the former class are all the smaller rattans, such as bear that name in commerce, while to the latter belong the Malacca cane, and other strong varieties. The rattans of Borneo are esteemed finer than those produced in any other part of the world, and are exported to Singapore and Batavia in immense quantities from the Coti and Banjar rivers : on the south and eastern parts of the island they are collected, and brought down these AND CANES, 43 streams on rafts by the Dyaks for avery smaU remune ration ; they are principally exported finally from Ba tavia and Singapore to India and China. To the natives themselves they are very useful in the manufacture of baskets and mats, of great durability, and very fine workmanship ; they are also of the greatest importance as cordage, where nails are not known, and the timbers of houses are secured by them : for this purpose the outer and hard parts only are used, the rattans being split, and the inner part carefully re moved. The drug called Dragon's Blood is procured from one of the large species of rattans ; but as its manufacture in Borneo is peculiar to the southern parts of the island, which I have not yet visited, I can give no satisfactory information respecting the method of preparing it. Large quantities of it are annually exported from Banjarmasin to Singapore and Batavia, and thence to China, where it is held in high estimation. The nipah (Nipa fruticans), though in growth amongst the humblest of the palm tribe, in its value to the natives of this island is inferior to few of them. It is found on the margins of the rivers as far as the salt water extends, and large salt marshes at the mouths of rivers are covered with it to the extent of thousands of acres; its chief value is for covering houses, the leaves of which for this purpose are made into ' ataps,' and endure for two years. Salt is made in some places from its leaves by burning them, and in others sugar is extracted from syrup supphed 44 THE NIPAH AND MANGROVE. by its flower -stem. The fruit, though tasteless, is esteemed by the natives, and is said to make an ex cellent preserve. Its leaves, on luxuriant plants, are occasionally twenty feet long, all growing from the centre, the plant having no stem, unless a kind of rhizoma, which is found on the ground, like that of a fern, and attached to the old plants, may be called such. The- mangrove, which abounds in- situations similar to the nipah,- is valued- on account of its timber, which is used as the best firewood ; from the aerial roots of this tree a bitter and coarse salt is made, similar to that from the nipah. Such are the principal products of the vegetables of the island which are used for home consumption. We will now notice those which are principally col lected for exportation ; of these perhaps the first in rank is camplwr,jir, a^^^t^k-CaMed by^the natives and in commerce, the ' kapur barus,' or Barus camphor, to "^iStiiiguish it from the production of the Laurus camphora, or Japan camphor. It derives its name of Barus from a place in Sumatra, where it is produced, and whence it was probably first exported. The true Dryobalanops camphora, which produces it, has not hitherto been found on any of tbe Indian islands, with the exception of those of Borneo and Sumatra, and only on the northern parts of these islands : the tree is said by Mr, Marsden to be very common in Sumatra, in the country of the Battas, but not to be found to the south of the line. THE KAPUR BARUS, OR CAMPHOR TREE, 45 On Borneo it is found at present towards the north ; but as I once discovered these trees in Sarawak, near the Santubong entrance of the river, I think it pro bable that they have once been abundant here, but have been destroyed in extracting the camphor. That it has been once collected there appears, the more pro bable, as one of the three trees above named, on being felled, was found to have had a large notch cut into the tree, as is the custom to the northward, to see if it is likely to produce the camphor. On Labuh-an it is common, and is one of the noblest trees in that, the finest jungle I ever saw : it has a fine straight stem, from which the bark comes off in large flakes ; the foliage is very dense, forming a well shaped head to the tree, the stem of which is frequently ninety feet to the first branches. A tree of another species, which had fallen down, measured nearly 120 feet to the branches, but none of these at all equal the Tapang, of which men tion is made in another place. Nearly all the kapur trees, excepting such as were young, had large notches cut almost into the centre of the tree : this was for the purpose of ascertaining whether, on being felled, it was likely to be productive, as it is said that not one in ten is found tto produce it ; so that its appearance must be caused by a particular state, probably of vigour or disease in the tree. It is said that in those which produce it, the younger and smaUer trees are often found to be quite as pro lific as the old and larger trees. The camphor is found in a concrete state in the crevices of the wood, so that 46 SEVERAL SPECIES OF it can only be extracted by felling the tree, which is afterwards cut into blocks and split with wedges, and the camphor, which is white and transparent, is then taken out. An essential oil is also found in hollows in the wood, which the natives crystallize artificially, but the camphor thus obtained is not so much esteemed as that found naturally crystallized. The tree is found on all the northern parts of Borneo, and is said to be particularly abundant in the country of the Kyans, in the interior of the Bintulu and Rejang rivers. The produce, though so valued by the Chinese, is not used much by the natives, though it is occasionally taken inwardly as a medicine. The price in China of the Bornean camphor is said to be higher than that of Japan, in the proportion of twenty to one : it has been supposed that this disproportion is caused more by some superstitions of the consumer, than any real dis tinction of properties, for though the trees which produce them are so dissimilar, the chemical properties are said nearly to approach each other. Several trees of the genus Dipterocarpus produce a nut, that, when compressed, yields a fatty oil, which having been recently sent to England, has been used extensively under the names of vegetable tallow and vegetable wax. Three species of this genus are com mon in Sarawak, under the name of ' mencabang ;' one of them, * mencabang pinang,' is valued for its close- grained timber; the others do not grow so large in size, but have larger leaves and fruit. The one most valued for producing the oil, is a fine tree growing on the banks of the Sarawak river ; it attains the height VEGETABLE OILS. 47 of forty feet ; the leaves being large, and the branches drooping towards the water, give it a very beautiful appearance : its fruit is produced in the greatest pro fusion about December and January, being as large as a walnut, with two long wings to the seed. These nuts are collected by the natives, and yield a very large proportion of oil, which, on being allowed to cool, takes the consistence of sperm, and in appearance very much resembles that substance. The natives at present only value this as a cooking oil ; but when the demand for it in Europe becomes better known to them, they will doubtless increase their manufacture ofit. In England it has proved to be the best lubricating substance for steam machinery, far surpassing even ohve od; and it has been used in Manilla in the manufacture of candles, and found to answer admir ably. As it becomes more common, it will doubtless be applied to many other purposes. From the quick ness of its growth, and the great profusion with which it bears its fruit, it -will, should the demand for it continue, become a profitable object for cultivation, by which the quality and quantity would most likely be improved and increased. It is also found in Java and Sumatra, and a sinular substance has been lately sent from China. In Bomeo it is called by the natives indif ferently ' miniak mencabang,' or ' miniak tankawan.' Another oil expressed from the seed of a tree, called ' katiow ' by the natives, and much valued for cooking, is, as far as I have been able to learn, entirely unknown 48 VEGETABfLE OILS. to Europe ; but as the tree which produces it is not found in Sarawak, I have never had an opportunity of seeing it. The seeds are oblong, pointed, and of a shining rich brown colour ; the oil which they produce, on compression, is of a yellow colour, with a perfume precisely resembling that of almond oil ; aud, as it is very cheap and abundant in the places where it grows, it would perhaps be serviceable to soap-makers and perfumers. It is a very fine oil for lamps, burning with a bright and clear flame, at the same time emitting an agreeable .odour ; it is produced chiefly on the Sadong, Lingah, and Kallekka rivers, and ex ported to Sarawak and other places under the name of ' miniak katiow.' The ' miniak kapayang ' is another oil held in esteem for cooking amongst the natives.: it is produced by a tree called by botanists Pangium edule. The tree grows to about forty feet high, and is not found wild, but has been planted by the Dyaks : the leaves are large, dark green, on long petioles, and the large fruit is terminal. On opening the fruit it is found to contain many large seeds embedded in a slight pulp, which is said by the natives to be deleterious. When the fruit is ripe, these seeds are extracted, and when compressed, produce an oil which is much scarcer than any of the other kinds before enumerated : the tree bears fruit all the year, and is a very ornamental plant. Wood oil, called by the natives of Borneo ' miniak kruing,' is extracted from the trees which produce THE GUTTA PERCHA, 49 it, by simply cutting a large hole in the tree, into which fire being placed, the oil is attracted. The tree pro bably belongs to the order Myrtacese, but I have never seen it; it is found plentifully to the eastward, in the interior of the Samarhand, and Sadong rivers : it is used by the natives to mix with dammer for paying the seams of boats, and also instead of linseed oil in mix ing their paints, and is of great assistance in preserving wood from the effects of the weather. The seeds of many of the forest trees, as the niato, or gutta percha, of the Malay peninsula, produce edible oils of fine qualities ; but the natives, possessing such a choice, rarely take the trouble to express them ; but in future it will be well worth the study of our merchants and others whose occupation and oppor tunities vrill permit them to make inquiries respecting these and many other totally unknown products. The gutta percha, or niato, is a plant which has been lately brought before the attention of British merchants by Dr. W. Montgomerie and Dr. D'Al meida, the former of whom communicated some infor mation respecting its application to surgical purposes to the Bengal Medical Board, in 1843. In April, of the same year. Dr. D'Almeida presented specimens of it to the Royal Society of Arts in London, who, at the time, merely acknowledged the receipt of the specimens. Its character and properties have since been more fully given to the public by Dr. Oxley, the senior sur geon of the Straits settlements ; a gentleman whose kindness and valuable assistance all who visit the East for scientific purposes have gratefully to record. 50 THE GUTTA PERCHA. Dr. Oxley says of it, that it is called, properly, the gutta suban — the percha being an inferior article — and is a tree of considerable size, being from sixty to seventy feet in height, and from two to three feet in diameter ; in general appearance, much resembling the genus Durio, which produces the celebrated durian of the East, It is said to be found in aU the forests of the peninsula of Malacca, of Bomeo, Singapore, and the adjacent islands ; but the quantity is much diminished, as, to procure the gutta, the natives fell the trees, and ring the bark at distances of from twelve to eighteen inches ; a cocoa-nut shell, or some other receptacle, being placed to receive the sap which exudes from each incision : this sap is afterwards col lected in bamboos and boiled, in order to drive off the watery particles and inspissate it to the consistence it finally assumes. Although in large quantities the boiling may be necessary, the Doctor observes, it will consolidate and assume the same appearance with out it. The quantity of gutta obtained from each tree varies from five to twenty catties, each catty being equal to to l|lb. English. Its great pecuharity, and that which renders it so very useful, is the effect boiling water has upon it ; for, on being immersed in water above the temperature of 150° Fahrenheit, it becomes soft and plastic, so as to be capable of being moulded into any required form, which it retains on cooling. The Malays have manufactured it into whips, baskets, basins and jugs, shoes, traces, vessels for cooling wine, and several other doraestic uses. THE GUTTA PERCHA, 51 It has been found by Dr. Oxley to be of the greatest value in surgery, particularly as sphnts for fractured limbs. Many interesting particulars connected with it wiU be found in the original paper from which these remarks are extracted, and which will be found in the first or July number of a little but highly interesting work, published monthly at a trifling expense, under the superintendence of Mr. Logan of Singapore. It is entitled the ' Journal of the Indian Archipelago, and Eastern Asia,' and the numbers already published contain some valuable and new information on the in teresting countries of which it treats. As has been stated above, the gutta percha has been found in Borneo, and the same substance is said by the natives, who know at present nothing of the manner of collecting it, or of its uses, and who call it by a different name, ' gutta niato,' to be produced by several different trees. The same name is men tioned by Sir Stamford Raffles, in his ' History of Java,' (vol, i. page 42, 4to edition), but he con founds it with the miniak kawon, or tankawan, already described; but the name being the same as that used by the people of Borneo, it is very likely that both the trees are found in Java. The gutta pereha has been re cently referred by Sir W. Hooker to the order Sapo- tacese, and to Dr. Wight's new genus, Isonandra, under the name of Isonandra gutta. Another substance, similar in all respects to caout chouc, might be obtained in quantities in Borneo, as well as in many other of the islands and on the penin sula : it is the produce of a chmbing plant ofthe genus E 2 52 OTHER VARIETIES OF GUTTA PERCHA. Urceola, which grows to the size of a man's body. The bark, which is soft and thick, with a very rough ap pearance, on being cut, emits the sap in the greatest abundance, and without destroying the tree ; very large quantities might be obtained from a single trunk. There are three kinds in Borneo, called by the generic name of ' jintawan ' by the natives ; two are common in Sarawak, viz. the J. susuh, or milky jintawan, and the J. bulat, or round-fruited jintawan. They equally produce the caoutchouc, which, having been analyzed, is found to differ in no respect from that produced by the Ficus elastica and other trees. The natives of Borneo use it to cover the sticks with which they beat their gongs and other musical instruments. The fruit, which is large, and of a fine apricot colour, contains ten or twelve seeds enveloped in a rich reddish pulp, and though but a jungle plant, is one of the most grateful fruits of the country to the European palate. Many of the other trees produce sap from their soft aild spongy bark, which, on being drawn from the tree, assumes a concrete form, but they are not known to the natives as of any use. Perhaps, as in the case of the oils, the skill and enterprise of Europeans will discover amongst them properties analogous to those of gutta percha ; and when a mode of extracting them less injurious to the tree than that pursued in the case of the tuban is followed, will prove a source of per manent wealth to the island. The celebrated upas tree, Antiaris toxicaria, is found upon the island, but not very common. Of a UPAS TREES. 53 tree which I had an opportunity of observing through the kindness of Captain Bethune, R,N, C.B., who aUowed me to accompany him to Borneo, in May, 1845, and gave me every facility for examining the jungles which the disturbed state of the country would admit, and which were in his power, many absurd stories were related to me by the natives, similar to those pubhshed by Mr, Foersch, of the Dutch East India Company, in the 'London Magazine' for Sep tember, 1785 ; and it seems very curious that, having this tree before them, which was surrounded by their graves, they should teU me it was impossible to go under it without dying. On my insisting, however, I got one of them to climb up to get me some specimens, but they were neither in flower nor fruit. The poisonous sap flows freely from the bark when tapped, and Dr. Horsfield, whose admirable account of it was first pubhshed in the Batavian Transactions (vol. vii.) and afterwards by Sir Stamford Raffles, (Hist. Arch, vol, i.) tells us that it is equal in potency, when thrown into the circula tion, to any animal poison yet known. Several in teresting experiments with it, in prepared and natural states, are detailed in the paper alluded to. The tree is called 'Bina' by the Borneans, and has a fine appearance. The specimen at Borneo was about sixty feet high, with a fine stera, the bark of which was of a very white colour : it was supported at its base by those processes resembling buttresses, which are so common to the trees of tropical jungles. A poison of greater potency was said to be manu- 54 DAMMAR. factured from a chmbing plant which grew in the neighbourhood of Bintulu ; it is perhaps the same as the ' chitik,' of Java — the botanical name of which is not yet ascertained. This was called upas by the natives of Borneo, but I think, with other authors, that upas is a name for vegetable poisons in general. Dammar is a resinous gum produced by many kinds of trees quite different in their character and habit from the Dammara orientalis figured in Marsden's ' History of Sumatra.' The dammar is of several Idnds : the white, which is used for the same purposes as gum copal, is called ' dammar mata kuching,' or the cat's eye dammar ; it is the least common, and most valuable, being beautifully transparent. The ' dammar daging,' or flesh-like dammar, takes its name from its veined appearance, which causes it to resemble some kinds of agate ; it is not set apart, but used with the comraon kinds for paying the seams of boats and prows ; for which purpose it is pounded and boiled with wood oil until it becomes of a pitchy consistence. The various kinds of dammar form an article of considerable trade between different places in the Archipelago, and are exported to India and China from Singapore, at a very low price : they exude sponta neously, and are collected after having faUen to the ground. The Dyaks and Malays form torches of this inflammable substance, by filling the interior of small bamboo canes with it, which have been previously dried for the purpose ; such torches are used only by the poorer classes of Malays, those in better circum stances preferring the more expensive oil of the cocoa- WILD CINNAMON AND COTTON. OO nut, which is burnt in turablers by means of cotton wicks generally floating in the oil. The ' kulit lawang ' of commerce is the aromatic bark of a wild species of cinnamon, and is produced in abundance in all parts of the island : it is the true Cinnamomeum kulit lawan, but I think that other varieties are also found. It was probably this plant which induced the earlier voyagers to imagine that the true cinnamon of Ceylon, which this much resembles, was found in the Archipelago. The bark is well known for its clove-like aromatic flavour, and for the essential od it produces, which, however, is never extracted by the natives of Borneo. Cotton is grown by the Sea Dyaks sufflcient in quantity for their own use, and to make cloths for exportation, Sorae of the sarae kind produced in the garden of Mr. Hentig, and which was sent to Liver pool as a' sample, was found to be of superior quahty. Its cultivation will hereafter, probably, forra an important feature in the agricultural pursuits of the island, as it can be exported to China with great advantage. Indigo has not beeu tried on the island ; but as it succeeds in Sumatra and Java, there can be no doubt that its culture might be successfully pursued. Pepper has been long exported in great quantities frora several ports in Borneo, particularly from Bruni and Banjar. During the disturbances of Bruni, since the withdrawal of the Enghsh factory, the trade has very much declined, as the Chinese — who, it is said, to the number of 30,000, cultivated pepper in the neigh- 56 PEPPER AND COFFEE. bourhood of the capital — have all been obliged to leave, neither their lives nor property being secure ; the few who are now in Bruni, and who do not pro bably exceed twenty in number, being detained as slaves. The pepper at present exported from Bruni is grown by the Kadyans and Meroots, a race of people resembling the Dyaks, who inhabit the interior of the Borneo river. It is a curious fact, remarked by all writers on the East, that this aromatic is universally esteemed, except by the inhabitants of the countries which produce it; the Malays never use it in their cookery, as they ascribe a heating quality to it: the small kind of capsicums they use largely, and attribute to them a contrary effect. In 1801 the district of Banjarmasin alone, on the south coast of Borneo, was capable of producing 1,500 tons of this spice. Coffee has been tried in the gardens of the Euro peans, and thrives reraarkably well, producing a fine and well-flavoured berry, I have been told by the Malays that it is grown by the Dyaks of the Ponti anak river, for the use of that settlement, but its cultivation on an extensive scale has not been en couraged; the government probably not wishing it to come in competition with Java, which so largely produces this berry. The hills on the main-land opposite Labuh-an, would be well adapted for its culti vation, since here, as in Ceylon, it raight be grown without the trouble and expense of raising trees amongst the plantations to protect the bushes frora the sun, as is done in Java. In Ceylon the best elevation for the coffee estates is from 3,000 to GAMBIER AND TOBACCO. 57 4,000 feet ; the berries produced at this height being of much finer quality and richer flavour than any others. Gambler (Uncaria) is not cultivated in the island, though found wild in many parts of it : that used by the Malays is brought from Singapore, the Dyaks con tenting themselves with chewing the leaves together with their Sirih, &c. The gambler plantations in Singapore are said so much to exhaust the land, that nothing can be grown on their site for many years after they are abandoned, T£^?!!££2--'^-^--S'J2!^ILilLi^a9ll-^J^i^ and people of Bruni ; but they .are... imskilfiuLin its manufacture^, thougL_t!he. Jlavour „flLLihat..,.xiLJBiuni. is much.£st£iein£d_Jiy:..JEjmipeans-™,.^U^nageraent, and by introducing a better kind — if the one now known should not prove a good one — it might become as profltable to the island as it now is to the neighbouring ones of the Philippines, Java, and Bali. The Dyaks might be more readily induced to cultivate this plant, the nature of which they know, than indigo and other plants which are strange to them. Besides the articles above imperfectly enumerated, raany others, it is highly probable, might be intro duced with advantage. The success attending the partial cultivation of the spices of Amboyna, and the Banda islands, has been already raentioned, and it is probable that they may be cultivated at so cheap a rate, as to be able to compete with the productions of their native islands, even if ah restrictions on the com- 58 BORNEO A PRODUCTIVE COUNTRY. merce in them were removed by the government. VaniUa, should the climate not prove too damp, is a valuable spice, and of easy cultivation. The cocoa-tree of Manilla (Theobroma cacao) has been proved to be in every way suited to the soil and climate, producing fruit of excellent quality. Cotton, it has been already said, might be cultivated with advantage ; as also the plantain, (Musa textilis), of which the fine Manilla cordage is made. Ginger grows well in all the native gardens, and turmeric is found wild in abundance. Many kinds of oils might be produced in perfection, and most of the valuable vegetable productions of India and the tropics, it is supposed, might be here success fully grown, and profitably exported. Now that the British settler will be cared for and protected by his owm government, the national enterprise wiU soon develope sorae of these immense vegetable resources. While treating of the vegetable productions, the many valuable kinds of wood produced by the vast and magnificent forests of the island must be noticed. The botanical characters of but few of these are yet ascertained, so that I am unable at present to furnish their scientific names. The wood most esteemed amongst the natives, on account of its hardness and durability, is caUed by them ' balean ' or ' kyuh baleaD,' the term kayu, meaning wood, being always appended to the names of timber trees. The balean is a tree of the largest size, and although its wood is so hard as to be almost incorruptible, the tree is of quick and vigorous growth : it is found most abundantly in the low damp forests in the neigh- TIMBER TREES IN BORNEO, 59 bourhood of the sea and of large rivers. It is much used by the natives for posts of their houses, which, amongst the Dyaks, are handed down from father to son for many generations. Many specimens which I have seen, and which must have been in the river for ages, are as hard when cut as those fresh taken from the forest, and I have never met with a piece of this timber in a state of decay. The water worm (Teredo) is the only insect which attacks it when in the water ; and though its channeUing the wood must necessarily much weaken the post, the water being admitted into it does not cause it to rot. On land or under the earth it equally resists the effects of atmo sphere and white ants, so destructive in tropical countries to most other species of wood. This valuable timber was formerly an article of export much sought after by the Chinese ; and in those ports which they still frequent, is stiU a source of considerable trade. Next in value is the ' kayu kapur' a close-grained and dm-able timber, much valued by the natives for boat building purposes. Several kinds of the puhn of India grow here in perfection ; they are caUed by the natives ' bintangur,' and are well known for their value in ship building. The 'kayuh rasack' very ra^ch resembles the bintangur, is close-grained, strong, and tough, and is used for rudders, masts, and oars for the trading boats. The mungris is, while fresh, nearly as hard as the iron- wood, and raore difficult to be worked; though it is very durable, it is not equally so with the balean or iron- wood; but is a large timber and avery fine tree. The ' merbau ' is a fine durable timber, very useful in ship 60 TIMBER TREES IN BORNEO. and house-building, being easily worked and very durable. ' Mencabang pinang ' is one of the trees which produce the vegetable tallow ; it is plentiful in the forests, but would be more profitable for its fruit (which is of the small kind, and produces good oil) than its timber, though for this it is also held in high esteera. The wood is close-grained, hard, of a reddish colour, easily worked, and very durable. This tree differs from the others which produce the vegetable oil, in growing to a much greater height. The tiraber of the Kapur barus, or true camphor tree, is also highly esteemed : excepting when charged with the valuable drug, it does not emit the caraphor smell, as does the timber of the Laurus camphora, of which the Chinese manufacture trunks and boxes, which, from the odour emitted by the wood, preserve whatever is put into them, from the attacks of insects of all kinds, particularly of the small ants, which are so troublesome in hot countries. The 'neri' is a very hard wood, growing with the man grove in salt swamps ; its timber, which has a reddish appearance, is not large but very abundant. The ' jelu- tong ' is a larger growing tree with verticillate leaves, and a bark which, on being wounded, emits plenti fully a white milk, which is inspissated by boiling, but has not yet been discovered to be of any use. The timber it produces, though large, is not esteemed by the natives, on account of its early decay when exposed to the rain and sun : it is white, and, being very soft, easily worked ; and it is much used by the poorer Malays for the sides of their houses, which are pro- TIMBER TREES IN BORNEO. 61 tected from the rain by the overhanging roofs. The ' maranti,' also a quick-growing timber tree, is held in much higher esteem than the last. In grain it re sembles cedar, and like it is of a reddish colour, and it is rauch valued for making packing-cases, planks for the sides of houses, &c, : when protected from the weather it is a good and useful timber. The ' duhgun ' also belongs to this class : it grows on the banks of rivers, and though the timber is soft, the large buttress-like supports at the base of the tree are very hard, and are valuable for gun carriages, and other purposes : they would doubtless be useful in turnery. These that I have enumerated are but a few of the trees in most general use araong the natives ; indeed, I have been informed that the trees which are abun dant, and produce excellent timber, amount to up wards of sixty species : many of the other- kinds, not useful as timber trees, are valuable, or might be, for making charcoal, pot-ash, pearlash, &c. Several kinds of oaks are found in the forests, but being of quick growth and soft wood, their timber is not esteemed. Of ornamental woods, though it is improbable that the island should be destitute of them, many kinds have not yet been found. The ebony is abundant in many parts of the island, particularly on the west coast, but it is said to be inferior to that from the Mauritius, although it has been found a very profit able export to China. In the neighbourhood of the Lundu river, in the Sarawak territory, are large forests of it, w4iich the Sebooyoh Dyaks would collect with gladness, if merchants were established at Sara- 62 ORNAMENTAL AND SCENTED WOODS. wak to buy it of them. The ' ruhgas ' is a red wood handsomely veined, which takes a fine polish, and is much used at Singapore for the purposes of fumiture- raaking : like the ebony, it is only the old wood in the centre of the tree which is of an useful colour. Of scented woods, several are known to exist, though few are collected, the value of the others not being yet known to commerce. The ' bidarru,' a yellow wood of a very agreeable odour, is the most plentiful, and being of a very hard and durable nature, is much esteemed for posts of houses and other purposes under ground : its perfume will ultimately rescue this beautiful wood from its present degradation. There are one or two others, the names of which I have not preserved, which are all very durable and highly esteemed woods amongst the natives. The sandal wood, though it grows on Tiraor, has not, I believe, been hitherto found on this island. Lignum aloes, of which there are several kinds, called generically by the natives ' kayu garu,' are produced apparently by diseases in some trees, the scented and resinous parts not being procurable until the tree has been cut down and decayed. The garu has long been an article of considerable export from this and the other islands to Arabia and China, where it is burned as incense. A curious substance called ' plye,' is collected in the forests, and is the root of a large timber tree of the same name. It is very light, more so than cork, and might perhaps be used for the same purposes. A very similar substance is the root of another tree called BARKS AND FRUITS FOR DYEING AND TANNING. 63 ' si pait,' or the bitter wood : to the taste it is, as its narae implies, very bitter, and in substance, appearance, and lightness, precisely resembles its tasteless con gener. These plants have never been as yet either commercially or botanically examined, so that their uses are at present unknown, but the bitter one raay perhaps prove valuable as a medicinal drug. The tiraber of both these trees, though large, is white, light, and useless, resembling that of the jelutong already noticed. Dye stuffs and tannin are the produce of many barks and fruits of the Indian islands, but from what has been hitherto ascertained of thera, they are not hkely to be of use except for home consumption. The flowers of Borneo, and of the Archipelago generally, are not less grateful and beautiful than the forests are grand and majestic. It has been said, perhaps too hastily, that no country in the world pro duces such ravishing vegetable perfumes as the Malayan islands ; and the well known and now widely distributed scents of Kananga, (Uvaria), Charapaka, (Michelia), Melur (Jasminum), and many others, would seem in a great measure to sustain them in this enviable pre-eminence ; but though grateful perfumes are in such profusion, the woods also abound in shrubs and flowers, which delight the eye and attract the curiosity by their rich and gaudy colours, or their delicate and beautiful forms. As in all tropical countries, the tribe Orchidacese is in profusion and beauty ; and on the open banks of the rivers, where the sun can shed its vivifying influence upon them. 64 THE FLOWERS OF these delightful epiphytes decorate with their fragile but showy forras the otherwise naked and unsightly stumps of decaying forest trees. The most gaudy are perhaps the various species of Caslogyne, called collectively by the natives the ' buiiga kasih-an,' or the flowers of mercy ; they are all highly fragrant, and their white and orange coloured flowers are exceedingly delicate and beautiful. Several Vandas, of which the continent of India has produced so many for the ornament of our gardens, are found here inferior to none of those frora India, raany of which are, by one gigantic species, far surpassed in beauty. This I have been successful in introducing into England, and Dr, Lindley has done me the honour of naming it after me. One kind of the beautiful genus Cyprepedium, or Ladies' Slipper, so naraed from the curious form of the labellum, far surpasses in beauty any of its tribe from other countries. The Dendrobiums, which in India are so gorgeous, here dwindle, for the most part, into insignificant flowers ; while the species of vEria which are abundant, are so beautiful that, were they once seen, they would probably raise their hitherto despised genus in the estimation of the English culti vator of these beautiful plants. Of the smaller kinds, the Cirrhopetalon Bolbophyllum, and some other genera, though not showy, are curious, dehcate, and beautiful. Several new species and some genera I have had the pleasure of introducing into England. On the banks of the rivers, and growing as underwood in the dense jungles, are found many OF BORNEO. 65 beautiful species of the genera Ixora and Pavetta, the former with large bunches of flowers of every shacle, from orange to crimson, the latter with tufts of pure and delicate white blossoms ; other genera of the order Rubiacese abound, and are araongst the most beautiful wild plants ; many of these are fragrant. Perhaps the most gorgeous of the native plants are the various species of the genus Rhododendron, which here assume a peculiar form, being found epiphytal upon the trunks of trees, as in the genera of the tribe Orchi- daceae. This habit, induced probably by the excessive moisture of the climate, is not, however, confined to the Ericaceous plants, but also prevails with the genera Fa- grea, Combretum, and many others, usually terrestrial ; the roots of the Rhododendrons, instead of being, as with the species, inhabitants of cold climates, small and fibrous, become large and fleshy, winding round the trunks of the forest trees ; the most beautiful one is that which I have named in compliment to Mr. Brooke. Its large heads of flowers are produced in the greatest abundance throughout the year : they much exceed in size that of any known species, frequently being formed of eighteen flowers, which are of all shades, frora pale and rich yeUow to a rich reddish salraon colour; in the sun, the flowers sparkle with a brilliancy resem bling that of gold dust. Four other species which I discovered are very gor geous, but of different colours, one being crimson and another red, and the third a rich tint between these two : of the fourth I have not yet seen the flowers. Besides the curious nature of the root above noticed. 66 FLOWERS OF botanists may learn that these species differ from others ofthe genus in having very small, almost imperceptible, calyces and caudal appendages to the seeds ; these last greatly facilitating the attainment of a situation favour able for their growth. Four species of the Cleroden dron also adorn the banks of the Sarawak river, two of them bearing white, one scarlet, and one crimson flowers ; one of the white ones emits a grateful perfume. The Clerodendron which bears the crimson flowers is the most handsome of them aU; it grows to a shrub of ten feet in height, having at the point of every branch a large loose spike of rich crimson flowers ; the head of the flowers is frequently three feet in height from the foliage — rarely less than two — forming -with the bracts and stems, which are equally crimson, a magnificent pyramid of flowers ; each being relieved by a beauti fully white centre and the long protruding stamens ; the foliage is also fine, being heart-shaped, very large, and dense. This fine species, which is now growing well in England, I have named after Captain C. Drink water Bethune, R,N,, C.B,, whose kindness in Borneo was of the greatest assistance to me, and who, on his return, was successful in introducing some of the finest of the Borneo plants. When the Clerodendron has ceased flowering, the crimson bracts and calyx which remain are scarcely less gaudy than the flowers, and each calyx contains within it a four-seeded berry of the richest blue colour. Scitaminse, an order not much cultivated in England, produces some beautiful plants here of the genus Alpinia, and others, A fine white-fringed flowered Big- OF BORNEO. 67 nonia is a beautiful and fragrant shrub. An Echites, which produces its handsome blossoms abundantly in April and May, grows also on the banks of the rivers; it emits a dehghtful perfurae. The beautiful Melas- toraas grow everywhere in open places, and their soft and pulpy fruit furnishes a never-failing supply of food to pigeons of every colour. Of climbing-plants, a new and undescribed species of Bauhinia is the most showy, covering the trees in December with its large bunches of gaudy crimson blossoms. The Hoya imperialis is highly beautiful, its large and rich purple flowers being relieved by the white, ivory-like centre ; it is epiphytal. On trees near the river various kinds of beautiful Combretums may be added to these ; and Cyrtandracese produces species of Lysinotus and .^Eschynanthus, which yield to none in beauty : that which bears the name of the Earl of Auckland, (Lysinotus Aucklandii,) far surpasses any others yet known in the size and richness of colouring of the flowers, which are produced in bunches frequently containing twenty-four corollas ; it is distinguished from others by its undulate and verticillate leaves, and the woody nature of the stems, which render it more a shrub than others of its genus. On the mountains are found plants altogether different from these : there the genus Dacrydium, and others of the order Taxacese, resemble the cypresses and firs of om* northern clime. Herbaceous plants of great beauty are also found on the exposed and damp rocks, while in mossy places the beautiful golden-leaved Ansectocheilus and a new and more beautiful species F 3 68 FLOWERS OF flourish. But of all those above mentioned, though they excel in beauty, none so much attract our curiosity as the various and beautiful pitcher-plants, eight different species of which I discovered in the western part of the island. The pitchers, which in sorae instances would con tain upwards of a pint of water, hang from the mid rib of the leaf of which they are a formation ; they precisely resemble pitchers, being furnished also with a lid. The Nepenthes Rafflesiania produces its pitchers singly ; they are large and generaUy crimson : it' grows on rocky islands in the neighbourhood of Singapore, and it is easUy distinguished from its near ally the native of Borneo and Mount Ophir by its inferior size, shortness of the column which supports the lid, the white and powdered appearance of its stems, and its bushy habit, never exceeding four or five feet in height, while the largest Bornean one, which I propose to call Nepenthes Hookeriana, in honour of Sir W. J, Hooker, the able director of the Botanic Gardens at Kew, is found growing in deep aud shaded jungles, climbing to the tops of the trees. The pitcher is nine inches in length, having a large lid standing on a column, which is a continuation of the beautiful edge of the pitcher : that part which is broadest and turned towards the mid-rib of the leaf from which it depends, is furnished with two broad wings, which are beautifully ciliated with large cilise ; the broad pitcher — for this, like the Rafflesiana, produces two kinds — is generally crimson; the long pitcher differs frora the other in its trumpet shape and green colour, BORNEO, 69 which is spotted with crimson. The flower I have not seen, but the leaves, which are moderately large and broad — at least those of them which produce the broad pitcher, and which are found near the base of the plant — are dark green above, and of a fine peach- coloured red beneath. Six plants of this kind are now in England, but have not yet produced their pitchers. The Nepenthes ampullacea produces its green or spotted short and broad pitchers in a different raanner from the last : it is also a climbing plant, and found in thick jungles. The old stems, faUing from the trees, become covered in a short time with leaves and vegetable matter, which form a coating of earth about them ; they then thro-w out shoots which become in time new plants ; but apparently the first attempts to form the leaf are futile, and become only pitchers, which, as the petioles are closely imbricated, form a dense mass, and frequently cover the ground as with a carpet of these curious formations. As it continues growing and endeavouring to become a plant, the laminae of the leaves gradually appear, small at first, but every new one increasing in size, until finally the blades of the leaves are perfect, and the pitchers, which, as the leaves developed theraselves, have become gradually smaller on each new leaf, finally disappear altogether when the plant climbs into the trees. This formation of the pitcher may afford an instructive lesson to the naturalist, as, though not to the same extent, the principle is perceptible in aU of this curious tribe, the leaves of seedlings and weak plants always producing the largest pitchers. 70 FLOWERS OF BORNEO. The others cannot be enumerated, but one which ap proaches the Nepenthes boschianus of the Dutch must be mentioned on account of the elegance of its foliage and the beauty of its purple flowers : it produces small tubical pitchers, but in the greatest profusion ; it is a climbing plant on low shrubs, generally covering them to the height of about eight feet : it grows near the sea, on rocky places, and, as I have said before, is strikingly handsome ; if it be different from the boschianus, as I have no doubt it is, I should wish it to bear the name of the celebrated botanist. Dr. Lindley, whose kindness and advice have been always most beneficial to me. It would be out of place, were I to occupy more space in a work of this nature in enumerating aU the beauties of the kingdom of Flora displayed by the forests of this beautiful land ; and as they would be un interesting to many, I wUl let those already noticed ' suffice, as they are quite numerous enough to show any one interested in flowers that those of Borneo are in ferior to very few of the neighbouring islands or other tropical countries. CHAPTER III. THE FRUITS OP BORNEO — ANIMATED NATURE THE RHINOCEROS THE TAPIR — THE BEAR DEER THE KIJANG AND PALANDOK THE PANTHER VARIETIES OP CATS — ANECDOTE OF AN ORANG UTAN MONKEYS ALLIGATORS — THE ALLIGATOR DOCTOR THE MODE OF OPERATION LIZARDS SNAKES AND VIPERS THE COBRA AND FLOWER-SNAKE INSECTS FISH AND PISHING ESTABLISHMENTS BUFFALOES HARES— GOATS PIGS DOGS DOMESTIC FOWLS. The fraits of the Indian islands since their first discovery, have been held in the highest esteem, and though neither care nor expense has been spared in endeavouring to cultivate them in other countries, as India, Ceylon, and the West Indian islands, they have never succeeded, though the fruits of these countries grow with the greatest luxuriance in the Archipelago. " Malaya's nectared raangustin" has been by all writers placed at the head of the native hsts of fruits, its dehcious and delicate flavour having gained it a place in the estiraation of Europeans qyer the rich and luscious Durian. In my opinion, though both of these are exceedingly flne, the Lansat (Lancium), when well ripened, has a peculiar aromatic flavour combined with aU the delicacy of the raangustin, which renders its firra, transparent, and jeUy-like pulp much more agreeable. The ' raangustin,' or, as the natives caU it. 72 FRUITS OF ' buah manggis,' (buah, signifying fruit, being prefixed to all the names of the different kinds as puhn and kyuh are to trees,) is produced terminally by a tree which attains the height of thirty feet, caUed, botani- caUy, Garcinea mangustina; it is a very handsome tree, the foliage, which is large and opposite, being of the darkest shining green. The fruit, as large as a moderate apple, is composed of an outer skin of a soft and fibrous nature, dark purple on the outside, but when cut of a bright crimson : the snow-white pulp which envelopes the seeds, lying within this, has an appearance no less beautiful to the eye than the flavour is grateful to the palate ; when cultivated, as in the peninsula of Malacca, it fruits twice a year, being ripe in July and Deceraber. The durian (Durio zibethinus), the strong odour from which disgusts many Europeans, is a large fruit frora nine to twelve inches in length ; when ripe it opens into five divisions, each con taining several seeds, which are environed by the rich and cream-like acid. The tree which produces it is lofty, frequently sixty or more feet in height. In Borneo its seasons are irregular, but in favom'able seasons it produces three, and sometimes four, crops in immediate succession, having the flowers, young fruit, and perfect, all at one time. The flowers are produced in bunches from the stem and older branches. Of this fruit there are many kinds, some of which are Mdthout the offensive odour complained of by Euro peans : the most esteemed is called by the natives ' durian esa ;' its coat is furnished with longer but weaker spines than those of the other kinds. The wild BORNEO. 73 kind is common in the woods, as is the wild raangustin in those of Malacca, A species of mangustin pro duces the gamboge of commerce, which exudes also in smaU quantities from the cultivated varieties. The fruits of the islands have been so well described by the writers on the Archipelago, that I will here do no more than enumerate them, referring to the other works for particular descriptions of them. The lan sat is one of the finest ; it is small, and produced in bunches from the stem and branches of the Lancium. The bread fruit (Artocarpus) is well known ; two kinds exist in Borneo, but neither are esteemed by the natives or Europeans. The ' nangka,' or ' jack,' and the ' champadak,' are varieties of Artocarpus integrifolla, and differ frora each other in the sraaller size, and hairy stems of the latter. The Jack fruit is very large, and exudes abundantly a slimy matter which makes exceUent bird-limq : a single fruit sometimes weighs sixty pounds ; they esteem it, as it is constantly producing its rough looking fruit from the trunks and large branches. Though the tree grows forty feet high, it will produce fruit on small ones : a wild species is found in the jungle. The ' tampui ' is an orange-coloured fruit produced on the stems and branches of a small tree, with large dark colom-ed leaves, of the order Sapotaceae ; its pulp is of a sweetish acid ; the fermented juice makes an in toxicating liquor much esteemed by the Dyaks. The ' rhambut-an ' (NephUium) is produced in bunches ter minally ; the pulp, which surrounds a seed of the size and flavour of a cob-nut, is transparent, and of a delicate 74 FRUITS OF BORNEO. sweetish acid flavour ; it is very plentiful in the woods. The varieties of raango (Mangifera) are very nuraerous, but the island produces none of those of the fine flavour of the Indian ones : all the species known to Borneo, probably seven or eight, are found wild. Several kinds of ' jambu ' (Eugenia) are grown, but are not held in high esteem for their flavour, though they have a beautiful appearance. The ' bhmbing' (Averoah), of which there are two kinds, are used by the natives in cookery, as are also the limes for purposes where acidity is required. The ' barangan,' a kind of chestnut, is grown by the Dyaks, and the pomegranate is found ¦with the fruits of India and America in the gardens of the Europeans. To the above an extensive list of fruits produced in Borneo alone, and peculiar to it, might be added, but the papers containing it, together with several others of valuable notes, were left by me in Bomeo, as on my departure for England I had not contem plated publishing my remarks on the island. The fruit trees generally receive little attention from the natives, and it is probably for this reason, that the seasons are so irregular. They are surrounded by the jungle, and, except to the experienced eye, are in no way to be distinguished from the trees coraposing it. In Penang and Malacca, where care is taken of the trees, they always produce fruit regularly twice a year — the small crop about July, the large and gene ral crop about December. Having thus, as far as the limited knowledge we possess will allow, noticed the principal vegetables and ANIMATED NATURE. 75 vegetable productions of the island, we pass in order to the animal kingdom, which, however, is not of such au extensive nature as to detain us so long iu its de scription, although some of its forms are highly curious and interesting. The larger and fiercer animals are not found ni this island ; so that, though its jungles teem with the smaller carnivora, the tiger, which is so abundant and destructive to human life in Singapore, on the peninsula of Malacca, in Sumatra, and in Java, never molests the traveUer in these wdds. Of the larger animals, the elephant is said by the natives to exist in the northern parts ofthe island, but as they have never been seen by any of my informants themselves, I have not put much faith in the relation. The rhino ceros exists in the interior of the country, but as it is seldom seen, it must be very rare. An animal resem bling the Malayan tapir has also been described to me, but I have not seen during my travels either ofthe above three animals, or even traces of their existence. The small Malayan bear (Ursus Malayanus) is found on the west coast, but must be much more common in the country of the Kyans, as their dresses are frequently made of its skin. It is a well-known species, which feeds principaUy on vege tables, and climbs the trees in search of honey, frequently going up to the bees' nests on the lofty tapang. Deer are abundant, and of several kinds. The large Malayan rusa, common to the whole Archi pelago (Cervus equinus), is very common all over the country, and affords excellent sport to the Europeans of 76 ANIMATED NATURE. Sarawak in such places as are sufficiently open to allow of an approach to it. The flesh is coarse, and, being altogether devoid of fat, it is not esteemed by the Europeans, though much sought after by the Malays. It is said by the natives to be found occasionally white ; it is then called ' rajah-rusa,' or the king-deer. Its usual colour is dark brown. The rutting season is about August. The ' kijang,' or roe, as it is commonly called by Europeans, is the Cervus muntjack, an elegant animal, the points of the horus of which are turned forwards : it is of a light brown colour, about the size of the antelope, which, with the exception of the horns, it resembles in general appearance. The elegant little 'palandok' and its varieties are perhaps the smallest of the deer tribe, some of them being only eight inches in height at the shoulder. They live in very old woods, and feed entirely, as does the kijang, on leaves and berries, and they are particularly fond of the flower-buds of the beautiful Dillennia speciosa. They are so graceful and elegant in their forms and moveraents as to be universal pets. Their coat is covered with fine and glossy rich brown fur, and their eyes, which are large and dark, have all that soft and raelting beauty which has rendered the gazelle so famous. Had the Malayan countries been as fertile in poets as those of the west, the palandok had doubtless occupied in their delight ful romances the place at present ceded to the gazelle. They are frequently eaten ; and, notwithstanding their fitness to adorn the page of poetry, they are not con sidered out of place on a weU-furnished table. ANIMATED NATURE. 77 Wild pigs are very plentiful, though they are con stantly beset by the Dyaks and their traps in every jun gle, so that it is astonishing that they have not been long since exterminated. They are of two kinds — the large, long-legged, and bristly brown pig, which is . found most abundant near the sea shore, and the white, short-legged, and round-bodied pig of the interior. This is perhaps a mere variety of the Chinese breed, which has run wUd, as it very much resembles those kept by these people,. The fiesh of both kinds is highly esteemed by the Dyaks, particularly at certain seasons when the fruits are ripe, as then the animal becoraes fat, and its flesh of a better flavom". Though the tiger itself is a stranger to the island, a kind of panther (Felis macrocelis) exists, but it is not of a sanguinary description, nor does its size render it dangerous. In appearance it is very similar to the hunt- ing-chita of India. Many species of cat — amongst them the tiger- cat — are found. Sorae of them are fine and beautiful animals. Two or three kinds of otters, the civet-cat, and the pole-cat are common. The sloth is also known by the name of ' ka-malasan,' a word having the same signification as our terra, which is, perhaps, but a translation of the Malayan one. The great ant- eater (Manis), called by the Malays ' peng-goling,' or the aniraal which rolls itself up, which this animal does, like the hedgehog, being in this position better defended by the scales with which its body is covered, is also to be found here. Many kinds of Lemur are seen in the woods. Some ofthe flying ones, particularly a long-tailed species (a species of Pteromys) 78 ANIMATED NATURE. with very rich brown fur of a fine texture, are very rare in Europe, and others are unknown to zoologists. Squirrels are very numerous, and some of them are of great beauty. The little Sciurus Rafflesiana is amongst the most common and pretty. One species is very large, and of a black colour ; another resembles in form the hare, being also nearly equal in size. Their flesh is much valued by the Dyaks, and they -wiU doubt less hereafter be prized for the tables of Europeans. Monkeys are found in inflnite variety, and of the most rare and curious kinds : the true orang utan is a native of no other country, and notwithstanding the fabulous accounts of its resemblance to the huraan species, which have so often amused the world, there is stiU a sufficient degree of similarity to render the comparison disgusting. It is found in the old jungles on the banks of rivers in some parts of the island, but not in the Sarawak territory, nor in that of Sam bas; the tract of country between the Sadong and Batang Lupar rivers extending across the island in the direction of Pontianak, are the favourite haunts of this strange animal. Two species of it have been seen by Europeans, the larger caUed ' mias pappan,' and the smaller, or ' mias rarabi.' They are dis tinguished from: each other by the greater size, more abundant and long red hair, and the large processes on each side of the head of the forraer ; though both are found in the sarae forests, the breed is said by the natives never to be raixed : they do not attain the large size which has been attributed to them, and it is probable they rarely exceed five feet when measured from ANECDOTE OF AN ORANG UTAN. 79 the heel to the top of the head ; those, the heights of which have been often given to the public as exceeding this, have been measured to the toes, the foot being of very great proportionate length. In the jungle they are indolent animals, never jump ing from tree to tree, as do the more active monkeys, but carefully securing their safety by previously catching hold with their hands ; they do not make houses or huts in the jungle, but live in every respect as other large monkeys. Fruits are their food, and. during the fruit season many of thera are destroyed by the Dyaks stealing the, to them, prohibited food ; they also occasionally do injury to the sugar-cane ofthe Dyaks. A story was once related to me of this animal by a Malay, which, though I cannot vouch for its truth, may perhaps amuse the reader : " A Dyak, whose farm had been visited every night by the orang utan, watched for him carefully on a clear night, armed with a spear. Soon after night fall the mias came, and, whUe seated on the fallen trunk of a tree masticating and extracting the sweets of the sugar-cane, was carefully approached by the Dyak, who succeeded in wounding him with the spear ; but, as these animals when wounded fight desperately, he was also provided with a sword, wiiich, however, in this instance, was not necessary, as the mias on turning to see by whom or what he was wounded, perceived coming down the trunk of the tree towards him, a bear, probably with the intention of only sharing his meal ; but the mias, who did not see the 80 ANECDOTE OF AN ORANG UTAN. man, fancied the bear the aggressor, and began to punish hira accordingly. The Dyak fearing that perhaps they might see the real offender, and both set upon him, and terrified besides at the grunting of the one, and the growling of the other combatant, ran away as fast as possible ; but on returning in the raorning he found the bear dead on the field, and the raias also dead not far distant, his spear wound having rauch disabled him." If the story be true, the Dyak might thank the bear for interfering, as a full-grown mias is quite a match for a naked man, and generally before he can be kiUed contrives to bite off two or three fingers, or otherwise maim the individual. I have seen several Dyaks thus mutilated by them. The long-nosed monkey (Semnopithecus nasicus) is exceedingly rare in the collections of Europe : it is remarkable for its very long nose ; it is a very fine monkey, in size approaching the orang utan, but much less disgusting in appearance. It is furnished with a very long tail, and its fur is particularly fine, and of a pretty fawn colour ; its eyes are very small, and bright ; its teeth sharp and long ; its head is small ; it feeds on fruits. The curious nose of this species is long and fleshy, the bones of it not being larger than those of other monkeys of its size; the hands and feet are short, but very powerful, and the whole frame more muscular in proportion than that of the mias. The 'wa-wa' (Hylobates) or long-armed ape, is the most beautiful of all the monkey tribe. This species has been MONKEYS. 81 introduced into England, to the gardens of the Zoo logical Society, but has not, I believe, lived long. The fur of this gentle httle animal is grey ; its face, hands, and feet, are jet black; in features it more resembles those of the huraan race than the orang utan, or any other I have seen ; it has no tail, and feeds on fruits and insects ; is delicate, and does not, though it becomes very gentle, live long in con finement. It is abundant in the jungle, and in the raorning may be heard, close to the houses at Sarawak, uttering its peculiar note, which has been aptly com pared to the noise made by water being poured out of a bottle. The moniet is a pretty little monkey, with a long tail and grey fur, easily tamed, and very amusing. The briik, (Innuus nemestrimus), is a large and disgusting short- tailed animal of the baboon kind. Besides these are many others not distinguished by particular names ; many of them are perfectly unknown to the naturalist, and would be very interesting to the learned of this country. As all kinds of monkeys are destructive to the rice-fields, the Dyak is equally their enemy, and as these people esteem their flesh as an article of food, no opportunity of destroying them is lost; they are very abundant, and at night, about sunset, all the trees, on the banks ofthe river are absolutely alive with them, they are in such aston ishing numbers. ReptUes, so abounding in moist and hot countries, are found, as might be expected, in abundance here ; and the large size of the alhgators (CrocodUus G 82 THE ALLIGATOR DOCTOR, biporcatus) and sorae kinds of serpents, testify the suitableness of the climate for them. The alligator is in some of the rivers of the west coast plentiful and voracious. It is said, that on the Sambas river it is dangerous in the highest degree to sleep in boats : they do not swarra in the river Sarawak as in that just mentioned, though they are numerous, and occa sionally destructive. Many superstitions are observed by these half Mahometans respecting thenr, for it is supposed that they cannot be caught -without the assistance of a person who charms thera, called the ' dukun buaya,' or the alligator doctor. In Noveraber, 1845, two persons having been taken by the alligators, the dukun was sent for to Sadong, a town and river to the eastward : the traps were set by him, which merely consisted of a cage made of bamboo and placed on posts above the water. In this was confined a Pariah dog, that by his barking and howling he might attract the aUigators to the true bait which was hung beneath : it was a dead monkey, through the body of which had been passed a stout stick with a fine smaU rattan made fast to the centre. During the night the bait was taken away, and the doctor, accompanied by a great raany men, went to search for the rattan, which, being small, passes between the crevices of the teeth so that the animal cannot bite it, and it remains attached to the stick, which by this time the alligator, in his at tempts to evacuate, has got athwartwise in his throat. The top of the rattan floating soon discovers the HIS MODE OF OPERATION. 83 retreat of the alligator, and then the conjuror's work begins. The alligator is addressed by all sorts of dignified and pathetic names ; and it is asserted, that he is as quiet as possible in their hands, and suffers his hands and feet to be bound without a struggle. Certain it is, that the one now referred to was soon brought down the river, slung between two large boats, and escorted by the greater part of the male population of the town, with flags and banners flying, and drums and gongs beating. No native present spoke of the beast as the alligator, but always as the rajah, addressing it in such terms as these : " Will the rajah come ashore ?" " WiU the rajah please to be quiet?" On reaching the grand wharf a large rope was bound round the body of the already powerless rajah, and 200 or 300 people soon dragged him ashore; now aU consideration with all fear of him ended, and every one considered himself entitled to play the part of the ass in the fable, and they accordingly insulted in every way the now powerless monster. A heavy ' parang,' or chopping knife, was delivered to a man whose child had been taken, and he soon revenged himself by cutting off his victim's head. Till this time the animal had shown nothing but passive endurance, but, on feeling the knife, struggled furiously, but being bound every way was dispatched by his many executioners. This aniraal was seventeen feet in length ; but the doctor said it was not a mischievous one, so he set G 2 84 LIZARDS, his traps again, and in two days we had the pleasure of seeing another brought down the river, which the dukun insisted upon being the wicked one ; and when he was kUled, the prediction was verified by the bones and clothes of a man being taken from his stomach. It was not so large as the former one, being only about fifteen and a half feet in length: a large piece had been broken off its bony nose by fighting with others of its tribe, and it was probably from this outward evidence of its disposition that the doctor was enabled to pro nounce so confidently on its character. Since that one was destroyed we have not been troubled with them in Sarawak, though they are still numerous. The ' biawak ' of the Malays, caUed by Europeans the iguana, is plentiful in creeks near houses where poultry is kept, to which it proves very destructive. In appearance it resembles the alligator, but rarely attains a greater length than six feet. A smaUer animal, called by the same name, which lives in woods and climbs trees, is rauch valued by the Dyaks as a delicate article of food. Many other kinds of the lizard tribe, under various naraes, are also abundant in trees and in grassy places, araongst old houses, &c. The most beautiful are the green ones, resembling the chameleon, of which there are several kinds ; they live on flies and other insects. The flying lizard (Draco volans) is a curious and harmless little animal, which is frequently found about the pinang, and other trees, in the vicinity of the European houses. The'chichak' is a little SNAKES AND VIPERS. 85 lizard found in houses, running along the walls and ceilings in search of flies ; the structure of their feet enabling them to do this by creating a vacuum beneath the foot : this is proved by their not being able to sustain themselves on cloth, which often forms the ceUings of houses in Borneo. They sometimes faU, and their tails get broken off, but, being possessed of the power of reproduction, the loss is soon supphed — a new tail growing in its place. The land-tortoises are of at least two species, one of which attains considerable size : I once had one in my possession which was nearly two feet in length. They are found in the thick and damp woods : their food is vegetable; their eggs are long and linear, rounded at the ends, hard, like that of the alligator, not with a soft shell, as that of the turtle. All the marshes abound with frogs, which croak their dismal notes during the whole night ; they are fed upon by the snakes, which are in great nurabers in the same situations. Many of the snakes of Bomeo are unkno-wn to European naturalists. The crested cobra of India is found here, and called by the natives ' ular tadong ' — but I think that tadong is a generic name, applied to raany of the^venoraous ones, — and the beautiful but deadly ' tadong matahari,' or the sun-snake (Tortrix), and the ' tadong chinchin mas,' or golden-ringed viper (Dipsas dendrophUa), deri-ving its narae frora the beautiful golden rings with which its black body is adorned : this kind is very common in mangrove swamps, ascending the trees to sleep at high water, and descending to search for its prey 80 THE COBRA AND FLOWER-SNAKE. when the tide has receded. The ' ular ledong ' (Trigo- nocephalus Waglerii), or, as it is caUed by Europeans, the hammer-headed viper, from the great proportionate breadth of its head, is also very venomous ; its body is short and thick, and it is of very sluggish habits. There are many other kinds which have poisonous fangs ; but, notwithstanding their number, accidents rarely occur from thera. Those which are poisonous rarely are large, the cobra never exceeding six feet in length, while the green hammer-headed viper does not attain that length. The largest of the snake tribe are the different kinds of the ' ular sawah ' (Python), found in damp and marshy places -. they are called boa by Europeans. I never met -with them larger than fourteen feet in length ; but while I was in the country a native killed one, which had an undigested deer with horns in its stomach, and must have been considerably larger. None of these large snakes are venomous, being provided with strength sufficient to ensure the capture of their prey : those not venomous are more numerous than the others. Amongst them is a small one, called ' ular bunga ' (Dryophis prassina), or the flower-snake ; it is of the most rich and beautiful green colour above, re sembling velvet, and yellow beneath, with a slender and graceful forra ; it is very pretty, and a favourite aniraal with the Malays. A very venomous one resembles it; and, during my stay, a fatal acci dent had nearly occurred to an European gentleman, who, having one of them brought to him, thought it had been a flower-snake, and was putting his hand INSECTS, 87 into the basket to take it out, when fortunately the native observed it in time to prevent the fatal conse quences. In the river are various kinds of water- snakes, some of them very large ; they are also common in the sea, and of beautiful colours ; many of them are said to be poisonous. The woods of this island, and every other part of it, teem with insect hfe. The butterflies are large, and of gaudy colours, many of them of very curious forms ; they appear to be irregular in their seasons, at some periods being very plentiful, at others rarely seen. Beetles are very scarce, and, excepting three or four fine kinds, which are occasionally met with about the lamps in the houses at night, are difficult to be procured. Many species of garden bugs are found, which, though beautiful to the eye, are of a very unpleasant odour. The spiders, so disgusting in appearance in many other countries, are here of quite a different nature, and are the raost beautiful of the insect tribe : they have a skin of a shell-like texture, furnished with curious processes, in some long, in others short, in some few, in others numerous; but are found, of this description, only in thick woods and shaded places : their colours are of every hue, brilliant and metallic as the feathers of the humming-bird, but are, unlike the bright colours of the beetle, totally dependent on the life of the insect which they beautify, so that it is impossible to preserve them. The noisy cicadas sing their shrill notes from 88 FISH AND every tree, and the chorus is always supphed by the numerous varieties of grasshoppers which every where abound. No one who has not walked in simUar jungles, can imagine the noisy concert pro duced by the loud and shriU voices of so many insects during the whole day, which is increased towards evening by the many lizards, frogs, snakes, &c., so as to be almost deafening. !Bees, of different descriptions, are found in the woods in great abundance, and this is the only country of the Archipelago where those little insects are known to be kept in a domestic state. Having noticed the productions ofthe land sufficiently for our purpose, those of the sea and waters claim our attention. The fish of the Archipelago are very nu merous, and some of them particularly fine. The porafret, or ' ikan bawal,' two kinds of mullet, and the sole are much esteemed by Europeans. The natives seldom eat their fish in a fresh state, but it is for the most part salted and dried in the sun, and in this state forms an extensive article of trade between the sea coasts and the interior country. Large fishing establishments are found at the mouths of aU the principal rivers during the S. W,, or fine monsoon ; the fishermen usually leaving them during the N. E., or boisterous monsoon, and returning to the town, where they pursue other avocations until fine weather again brings the shoals of fish to their shores. One kind of fish, the ' ikan trobuk,' is caught in great numbers during this season on the west coast ; it is FISHING ESTABLISHMENTS. 89 valued for its large roe, which, being extracted, is salted and dried, and sent to those parts of the coast which do not possess it. The ' blachang ' is a kind of flsh paste of several quali ties. That most in esteem is made of a species of very small shrimp, which, in the fine season, is found iu enormous numbers on the borders of the sea : it is salted and pounded in a mortar, and being made up into little parcels is sent into the interior, where it is highly esteemed. The inferior kind is made of aU kinds of little fish — shrimps, &c,, in the same way, but does not bear so high a price : they both have an odour which renders them offensive to Europeans. Sharks' fins and ' tripang,' or sea slug, are exported by the Bugis boats frora the eastern parts of the island ; they are first sent to Singapore, afterwards to China. Tortoise-shell is also found in these seas, but not in such abundance as amongst the islands further to the eastward. The turtle is very common on the small islands off the coast. Its flesh is not eaten by the natives, but its eggs forra a considerable article of trade. SheU-fish of several kinds are found upon the coasts, the oysters being of very great abund ance, and of very fine flavour. The pearl and the mother-of-pearl oyster also abound, 'and the fishery of the Soolu islands has been long known and highly valued : in proper hands it would be the finest in the world; but pearls are produced in plenty all along the northem coast. The prawns produced by the seas and rivers of this island are of the very finest flavour, 90 BUFFALOES. and many other edible shell-fish are in perfection. The sperm whale is found ¦ amongst the quiet seas of the eastern coasts, and the fishery is often profitable to the American vessels employed in it. There is little doubt, should our new settlement at Labuh-an prosper, and forra a colony in these seas, that to the above list of marine productions many wiU soon be added. Ambergris is found in the Indian seas, but I am not certain that those of the coast of Borneo produce it. Under the fostering care of the British govern ment, the natives theraselves will in a great measure assist in developing the resources of this rich island ; and when European skill and capital are employed, as they are likely to be, we may soon see its valuable productions forming a larger, and much more impor tant item than they have hitherto done in the com merce of the Archipelago. Of the doraestic animals but few are kept on the west coast of Borneo, though the buffalo (kerbau) is well known on the south and north, at Banjarmasin and Borneo ; they are probably abundant on the east coast, I have not heard of their having ever been found wUd in the island, and from their scarcity should think they have been introduced. They are sometiraes brought to Sarawak by the chiefs for their festivals, from the Natunas islands, where they are plentiful. The cow is of the Indian breed, having a hump at the shoulders ; they are small, but prettily shaped cattle, and when furnished with good pasture HORSES, GOATS, PIGS, 91 afford exceUent beef : they are plentiful at Bruni and to the northward, but not on the west coast, and are sold to the ships of war at a very cheap rate. The cows of this breed kept at Sarawak do not give rauch milk, though the httle they produce is very rich. About the river of Tanjong Barram, and on the Sangow river, is a breed of wild cattle caUed by the name of ' banting,' (Bos Soudiacus), they are said to be very vrild and fierce, hving chiefly in bamboo forests, on the young shoots of which they feed. Were they not in such inaccessible parts of the country, they would furnish exceUent sport to the Europeans; and if in very great numbers, their hides and tallow might becorae an article of commerce. Horses, of a small breed, are also plentiful in the northern and southern parts of the island, though unknown on the western coast. In Banjarmasin, as in Celebes, they are trained to hunt the deer, which are caught by a lasso, the loop of which being carried on a light bamboo is passed over the head of the animal. This sport can only be followed in open countries, which are not found on the western coast. It is a favourite amusement with the Bugis nobles of Celebes, and has been by them introduced into the south and east coasts of Borneo. Amongst the Kyans and sea Dyaks, and in most of the Malayan towns many goats are kept, but the land Dyaks have none of them, as their superstitious belief, hereafter to be mentioned, prevents their using the flesh of these animals. They are of a small breed, and are killed by the Kyans and sea Dyaks on festival days ; but their flesh is not so much esteemed as that of the 92 DOGS, CATS, DOMESTIC FOWLS. pigs, which they keep in large quantities. The Dyak pig very much resembles the breed of China, being short and broadly made httle animals ; when fattened and, kept by the Chinese, who purchase them from the Dyaks, their flesh is valued at the European tables on the west coast, where neither beef nor mutton is procurable except at'rare intervals. The Dyaks have also a small kind of currish looking dog, which is very useful to them in the jungle, in hunting the wUd hog, the deer, and the palandok : these little animals are of a reddish colora' in general, though they vary as do the dogs of Europe. The Chinese settlers have a larger breed, which, when young and weU fattened, form an esteemed dish at their tables. The cats of the Malays have been mentioned, and described by many writers, their peculiar tads having always attracted attention. The joints of the tail are crooked, so that the tail appears, as it were, tied in a knot, nor can the animal itself straighten it : this breed being mixed with the European for some gene rations does not entirely lose this remarkable deformity. Of doraestic poultry both ducks and fowls are kept by the Malays, the latter only by the Dyaks. Mr, Brooke has attempted to introduce others, and has for this purpose distributed many geese among these people. He has also endeavoured by the introduction of the larger Cochin China breed of fowls to improve the small race now kept by the Dyaks, Pigeons are occasionally, though rarely, seen amongst the Malays ; but I have never seen them in the Dyak vUlages. CHAPTER IV. THE KINGDOM OF BORNEO— THE MALAYS — THE BUGIS PEOPLE OF CELEBES THE AB0RI6INEES DUTCH AND ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS — MAJOR MULLER's EXPEDITION MR. MURRAY KILLED — PRESENT state op the capital the sultan sarawak and mr. Brooke's possessions — description op Sarawak — its chiefs — ITS native MERCHANTS AND INHABITANTS — ^DYAK SLAVES IN BORNEO THEIR TREATMENT AND PRICE IN THE MARKET — SLAVE DEBTORS. Having in the foregoing chapters given a general description of the island of Borneo, or Kalamantan, and having enuraerated such of its vegetable, mineral, and other productions, as cannot -with equal propriety be introduced into other parts of the work, it becomes necessary to notice the political divisions of the land, and to inquire, as far as our at present very limited knowledge -will allow, into the situation of the many tribes inhabiting it, and their relations to each other. The island ha-s been, frqm its first discovery by Euro peans, separated into several kingdoms, the limits and power of which have been constantly changing, then- extent and influence generaUy depending on the talent and tastes of their respective chieftains. The Malays, who settled here on the north coast during the flourish ing periods of the kingdoms of Singapore, Malacca, and Johore, have become so mixed with the Javans who colonized the western and southern shores, as to 94 THE KINGDOM OF have given their name to the whole of the people in these districts ; but though it is very common to call the people of each town or kingdom the Malays of such or such a place, it would be rauch raore cor rect to designate thera by a terra derived frora the name of the town or kingdom of which they are inhabitants ; for though they have a very considerable general resemblance to the Malays of Sumatra and the peninsula, any person accustomed to see both people can readily distinguish one from the other. Though this distinction is so perceptible, that even the descendants of the different races which have colonized the various parts of the island are to this day easily separated, it is more difficult to reduce it to writing. No person conversant with these people would be for an instant at a loss to distinguish one of the natives of the town of Bruni from a person descended frora the Javan colonists of Sarawak, and yet these differ from the present natives of their parent island, as much as from the people of Bruni, The kingdom of Bruni is said by the natives themselves to have been first formed by large settle ments of Chinese ; and in Forrest's Voyages he relates that the brothers of Serif Ali, the first sultan of Magindanau, of the Mahommedan religion, becarae King of Borneo towards the latter part of the fifteenth century. It is probable that these brothers, with another who becarae Sultan of Soolu, had in their capacity of zerifs, or descendants of the prophet, gathered many followers on their road frora Mecca at BORNEO. 95 the Malayan kingdoras on the peninsula, and thus have appeared, at the kingdoms of which they after wards became the sovereigns, not only as spiritual teachers, but also as temporal princes. It is not likely that the three carae at one time, but the Sultan of Magindanau being himself successful, perhaps invited the other two. There stdl existed during the lifetime of the late rajah, Mudah Hassira, the genealogical tree of the royal faraily of Borneo, and annals of its history, but after his laraented death I could not learn what had become of them ; and the surviving brother, the present rajah, Mudah Moharamed, feared that these relics, which had been preserved through gene rations with the most rehgious care, had perished in the flames of the houses of the murdered paiigerans. These Mahometans, being more proud of their ancestry than those of the eastern world will allow themselves to be, take the greatest possible care of the his tories of their families. On returning to the island I shall not fad to try by every means to obtain these papers, or copies of them, if they should be found still to exist. The Arab xerif, or serif from Mecca, is said to have married the daughter of the kst of the infidel kings, and thus the Malays were established in this part of the island; but it is curious, that, if this had been a powerful Chinese settlement, so few traces of their language or customs exist ; and I should rather be inclined to suppose, in the absence of authentic documents, that the Chinese population was 96 THE MALAYS. not considerable, nor, previous to the arrival of the Arabs and Malays, the kingdom either extensive or influential. Abundant proof exists, both in the tra ditions of the inhabitants, and the written histories of Java, that colonies from that island were the first foreign settlers on the southern and westem coasts, as far north as Sarawak; and during the thirteenth century we find the whole of the southern and western shores of Borneo, which are described as having at that period no regular government, protected by the sultan of the powerful Hindu state of Majapahit, in Java, against the piratical inhabitants of Lampung in Su matra, who thus early appear to have been dangerous in those seas. After the fall of Majapahit, and the triuraph of the Mahometan religion in Java, a. d. 1478, the colonies of the coasts of Borneo are said to have be come independent; but in 1643 we find the chief of the Javanese colony of Banjarmasin, and in 1653 the Sultan of Sucadana, sending raissions of homage to the then Sultan of Motarem ih Java. In 1687 the Dutch attacked Sucadana at the instance of the King of Bantam, whose right to interfere in their country was, however, denied by the people of Sucadana. As has been previously observed, the descendants of the Javanese colonies are all now denominated Malays, and they call themselves ' orang Malayu,' and ' orang laut' — meaning, respectively, Malay men, and men from the sea. These descendants of Javans have mixed more with the aborigines of the countries than any other tribes of the coast, and it is probable that THE BUGIS PEOPLE OF CELEBES — ABORIGINES. 97 it is this mixture of race which serves to distinguish them in person, as already noticed, from the present inhabitants of Java, as the mixture with the Chinese may have altered the race of the kingdom of Borneo from the true Malay of Sumatra. The east coasts of the island appear to have been occupied by the Bugis people of Celebes, who have kept themselves more distinct, and their blood more pure than the other races, so that the Bugis of Pasir or of Coti is in no way distinguishable from his countryman on the opposite island of Celebes. These are aQ the tribes inhabiting the sea-coast : 'they profess the Mahometan religion, and from the power given to them by being in possession of the mouths of the rivers, they have always continued to hold the Dyaks, the Kyans, and other aboriginal tribes in some degree of subjection, though in general, when the weakness of the Malayan governments, or other causes, presented opportunities of thro-wing off their allegiance, these have been duly seized ; and the Kyans of the Barram, Bintulu, and Rejang rivers, and the Dyaks of Sarebas and Sakarran, at present allow of no coast government's interference. The aboriginal inhabitants, which, doubtless of the same race as their more civUized and power ful neighbours, but now differing rauch from thera, have, though divided into several families, so great a general resemblance as to mark them undoubtedly equally the offspring of the great Polynesian race. At present they are distinguished by the Malays, and after them by the Europeans, as the orang Dyak and 98 DESCENDANTS OF THE MALAYS, the orang Kyan ; the orang Milanowe, Tedong, Kad- yan, Idaan, and Merut, and sorae others, being smaUer divisions, and differing in some particulars frora either of the two flrst and greatest divisions. The peculiarities of each will be described in portions of the work which will be devoted to them ; and as here it is raore our object in mentioning them to facilitate our description of the division of the country into Malayan kingdoms, it will suffice to say that, independent of their simi larity of language and many customs, the great and distinguishing feature of their character ^ — the barbarous custom of taking and prizing as objects of pride and triumph the heads of their enemies — is equally common to aU the ramifications of their tribes. The descendants of the Malays of the peninsula appear to have formed no other kingdom in the island than that of Bruni, which has been of sufficient import ance to have caused strangers to apply to the whole island the appellation of Borneo, a corruption of the name of this state. During the time of its greatest power, in the 16th and 17th centuries, it governed the whole of the north-west coast, from Tanjong Dattoo, in long, 109° 41' east, and lat. 2° 5' 22" north, to the oppo site or eastern shores. All the tribes of the many rivers in this extensive district are said to have acknowledged its sway ; and it was divided into provinces, each of which was governed by wise though rigorous laws, administered under the iraraediate superintendence of a pangeran, or noble, sent directly from the capital, which, when visited by Pigafetta, the companion of the THE SOOLUS. 99 celebrated MageUan, about the year 1521, contained 25,000 families. He says of it, that " La ville est batie dans la mer merae, excepte la maison du roi et de quelques principaux chefs. Elle contient vingt-cinq mUles feux ou famiUes. Les raaisons sont construites de bois, et portees sur de grosses poutres pour les ga- rantir de I'eau ; lorsque la raaree monte, les femmes qui vendent les denrees necessaires traversent la ville dans des barques," (Pigafetta, extracted frora Mr, Crawfurd, vol, i. p. 172.) Excepting in size, and the wooden structure of the houses, the description is suitable to the present town. In 1645 the Malays of Borneo, in conjunction with their aUies, the people of Soolu, attacked the Spanish settlements in the Philippines, doing rauch damage. This was in revenge for the repeated but unsuccessful attacks of the Spaniards on the Soolu islands. Soon after, the Spaniards burnt the city of Borneo, and took many of the inhabitants prisoners, but were disgrace fully beaten by the Soolus in 1751, in their last great attempt upon that island. Since that time the kingdom has gradually lost its iraportance. In 1776 we find, by Forrest's account, that the Soolus were the deadly eneraies of the Borneans, these latter alleging that tbe forraer had encroached upon their territories ; which was doubtless the case, as the people of Soolu had ceded to the English the whole of the northern part of the island, frora the Kimanis river on the west, to the great bay on the east, to which territory they had no other right h2 100 DUTCH AND ENGLISH than that of conquest. In 1774, we find one of the terms of agreement between the Sultan of Bomeo and the government of Balarabangan, — the settlement established by the English in the previous year, — respecting the establishment of a trading factory in Bruni, to be, that the English should protect his kingdom against his enemies the Soolus, on condition of having the monopoly of the Bomean pepper. Neither parties, it is said, fulfilled the agreement contracted by Mr. Jesse, though the residency at Borneo was continued for several years after the aban donment of Balarabangan. It was finally withdrawn, the intestine troubles of the state, and consequent anarchy, rendering it unproductive. Of the Javanese settlements on the west and south ern coast, Sucadana and Banjarmasin have been the most considerable. The territory of the former was, as has been previously mentioned, ceded to the Dutch by the Sultan of Bantam in 1778. It was destroyed by them, and the new and rival state of Pontianak, where they established a fort and factory, was en couraged, but soon fell into insignificance under their protection, and was abandoned by them after an occu pation of fourteen years. In 1 823 they again returned to Pontianak, and purchased the monopoly of the diamond mines of the sultan for 50,000 doUars : they have since retained possession of the place, though it is not supposed to be profitable to them. Banjarmasin, in the south of Borneo, is another Javanese state which, on account of its exports, has SETTLEMENTS. 101 always enjoyed consideration ; and, notwithstanding the occupation of the Dutch, is still a place of great trade, exporting quantities of gold, diamonds, pepper, rattans, and dragon's blood. In 1706 the Enghsh attempted to establish a factory at Banjar, but before their forts were finished their haughty and insolent behaviour brought down upon them the vengeance of the sultan, who attacked and burnt their settlement in the night with 3,000 men ; but as the Euro peans had received notice of his intention, they had retired to their ships, which, to the number of four, were in the harbour ; but these also were attacked by the infuriated sultan and his injured subjects, so that though the larger two escaped, the two smaller ones were burnt, together with the greater part of their crews. Soon after, the sultan, finding the loss of trade affected his revenues, informed the English that a free trade might be carried on with his domi nions, but that he would never suffer thera, nor any other nation, to fortify themselves in his country. In 1714 the English company, wishing to restore its trade and factory at Banjar, sent Capt. Daniel Beeck- man, a gentleman of great discretion and ability. This person had an opportunity of seeing the great odium in which the company was held ; but by his conciliatory conduct, and by giving the natives to understand that the ships were in no way connected with the company, but private traders, he succeeded in getting cargoes of pepper, though he found it impos sible to get permission to re-establish the factory. In 102 MAJOR MULLEr's EXPEDITION. 1747 the Dutch succeeded in establishuig a settlement, which, as has been before stated, was continued till 1810, when it was formaUy abandoned by the then Dutch governor- general. Marshal Daendals ; it was soon after re-occupied by the English frora Java, at the invitation of the sultan, and was, together with the other possessions of the Dutch in the East which the English had occupied during the war, delivered over to that nation at the general peace. Coti, the largest of the Bugis kingdoms on the island, has been but little known to Europeans : the inhabitants are of the same commercial disposition as those of their countrymen in the other parts of the Archipelago. In 1825 the Dutch sent an expedition for the purpose of exploring the river, which is said to be one of the largest in the island. It was comraanded by Major Muller, a gentleraan who had been long eraployed surveying on the western coast, but it was unfortunate in its termination. The major and his attendants were murdered by the Dyaks at the insti gation of the Bugis who accompanied hira, after having ascended the river upwards of 300 miles from its mouth. It is said that Major Muller, on his first arrival, had made an arrangement with the sultan, by which the latter had agreed to permit the Dutch to settle, and monopolize the commerce of the place, they paying annuaUy the sum of 80,000 guilders into the royal treasury. When this compact became known to the nobles, with whose interests it would have seriously interfered, they remonstrated so strongly MR, MURRAY KILLED. 103 with the sultan that he regretted having made the agreement, and, to destroy all evidence of it, caused the Dyaks to assassinate Major Muller and his party. Since then the unfortunate death of the Honourable Mr. Murray, in 1845, while gallantly fighting his two ships down the river, has brought the place under the notice of the English and protection of the Dutch, as the sultan, fearing that Mr, Murray's death raight be revenged by the English, consented to the estab- lishraent of a Dutch residency, and a gentleman of that nation now resides at Seraerindem, the Bugis capital. The Sultan of Coti does not appear to have been to blame in his conduct to Mr. Murray, that gentleman appearing to have insulted him grievously, and by his conduct to have brought upon himself the displeasure of the nobles and other orders in the place. Pasir is another Bugis settlement, a httle to the south of Coti, but has never been so important. The re mainder of the eastern coast to the northward of Coti, is nominally tributary to the kingdom of Soolu, the people of which have large settlements on it ; but there are also several wild and independent tribes. Besides the kingdoras of the coast above enume rated, there are several other sraall settleraents of raore recent forraation on the south and -western coasts, of Bugis, and the Javanese Malays, who are the chiefs of them, as of the settlements of Soolus and Magindanau. Pirates on the northern and eastern parts of the island frequently arrogate to themselves the title of sultan, though their states are of little power or consideration. 104 KINGDOMS ON THE WESTERN COAST. Sambas, on the western coast, formerly a piratical station, but destroyed by the English, has becorae a kingdora of some consideration: the Dutch established themselves there in 1823, for the purpose of hemming in, and thus stopping aU the supplies of the refractory Chinese gold-workers of the country situated between the Sambas and Pontianak rivers, whom they could not otherwise reduce : they pay the sultan an annual sum for the monopoly of the trade, which they farm out to the Malays at a great profit. Frora the preceding sketch of the several — and as they are generally called collectively and to distinguish them from the Aborigines — the Malayan nations, it wiU be seen that the principal kingdoms on the western coast are those of Sambas and Pontianak, to the latter of which the large settlements in the diamond and gold districts of Landak and Sangau are nominally tributary. On the southern coast Banjarmasin is the most powerful, Sucadana having fallen into insignifi cance, and on the eastern the kingdom of Coti ; and on the northern and north-western the state of Bruni, or Borneo Proper, of which the principality of Sarawak is a large and flourishing settlement. As it is not our wish or in our power to furnish complete histories of these kingdoms, we shaU pass on to the description of the inhabitants of the island, in their different classes, merely premising, that what is said of the Malays applies raore particularly to the descendants of the Javanese on the western coast, except when it is stated expressly to the contrary ; PROBABLE RESTORATION OF BORNEO. 105 these people being selected frora the other Mahometans, since they are those with which the English have had the greatest comraunication, and whose habits theyhave in consequence had the best opportunities of observing. It is certain that none of the Mahometan kingdoras of the island possess at present so rauch influence, or such extensive territories, as during the flourishing periods of their history, — the first and second cen turies after their conversion to Islaraism. The power of Pontianak, the pet settlement of the Dutch, is con siderable, but its sultan is a mere puppet in the hands of that nation. Had the talented rajahs of Borneo, who, in the beginning of last year, fell a sacrifice to their patriotic exertions for the rescue of their country from its fallen state, been spared, we might have hoped to have seen it soon restored in some measure to its ancient power and consideration; but as if Providence had ordained that it should not be at this time renovated, every one of the royal family possessing the least good sense, principle, or talent, fell a sacrifice to the cruelty of the raost ignorant and brutal of princes that ever disgraced even an eastern throne. Some hope, however, yet remains for Bomeo, from the family of the mm'dered rajah, Mudah Hassira ; his sons, though stiU young, showing indications of a high order of inteUigence ; and as they are residing at Sarawak, where the European missionaries vriU shortly be established, it is to be hoped that these gentlemen will have opportunities, and be successful, in instUling into their minds such principles as will hereafter 106 THE PRESENT STATE OF THE CAPITAL. enable them to fiU, with profit to the nation and honour to themselves, the high station in it which they are born to occupy. The great fear is, that should the life of the present unprincipled and idiotic tyrant be long continued, his maladministration, or, more properly speaking, that of his corrupt advisers, may reduce the country to so low a state, that to raise it again will be impossible ; but the talents and energy of Mr. Brooke, the governor of the new settlement at Labuh-an, are a sufficient guarantee, that if it should be thought advisable to continue Omar Ali in the govern ment, he wiU be surrounded by advisers who wiU have at heart more than their master the interests of the kingdom and of the heirs to the throne. We have seen that at the visit of Pigafetta the capital alone was estimated to contain 25,000 families : 200 years after, it was computed to be only 40,000 persons, with a Chinese population in its neighbourhood, era ployed in the cultivation of pepper, amounting to 30,000 persons. At present the town may be said to be in ruins ; the houses being no longer built of wood, and on those strong posts described by Pigafetta, but of atap leaves and on nibong posts, which are fre quently in a very tottering condition. The present native population is not estimated to exceed 12,000, and the Chinese have altogether disappeared, the very few that are occasionally seen having been reduced by the Borneans to slavery ; thus by the dissensions of the nobles and princes has a once powerful and flourishing state been reduced THE SULTAN. 107 to the condition of a miserable viUage. Before the abandonment of the town by the Chinese, several large junks annually visited Borneo, and many were built at the town, of the fine timber with which the country abounds. These were sent to China loaded with the produce of the island, and on being sold in that country, reahzed a profit exceeding 300 per cent, ; as tiraber, fit for the purposes of ship buUding, is very expensive in China. The governraent of Borneo appears to have been despotic, or oligarchical, according as the power and talent of the prince or the nobles prevailed. The great officers of state appear usually to have been selected from the royal family. The title of the prince was formerly lang-de-per-tuan, which has been translated, " The lord who rules ;" but " the ruler" appears to be equally appropriate. The second person in the kingdom was formerly styled the Rajah Mudah, and was the successor to the throne ; but the present sultan, Omar Ali, has never been properly invested with the suprerae title of lang-de-per-tuan, and is, consequently, only styled sultan by courtesy — a title foreign to the court lan guage of Borneo. The character of the present ruler of Borneo has been frequently before the Enghsh public during the last few years. He is a raan of upwards of fifty years of age, of dark complexion, and stupid features. On his right hand he has a malformation resembling a thumb, which stands at an angle from the true thumb. This 108 CHARACTER OF THE SULTAN: alone, according to the laws of Borneo, would have disqualified him for the throne ; for these provide that no person in any way imbecile in mind, or deformed in person, can enjoy the regal dignity, whatever title his birth might have given him. His mind also is weak, approaching to idiotcy; he is, nevertheless, possessed of a wicked disposition, by encouraging which his worthless advisers have held their sway over him; amd by these means it was that the insolent rebel, Pangeran Usuf, possessed his undue influence in the councils of the kingdom. His weakness of intel lect, combined with the depravity of his dispo sition, causes him to be swayed by the advice of the last speaker, and the worst and most wicked counsels are sure to be the most acceptable to him. His object being immediate gain, his covetous dis position eagerly seizes upon all means of supplying his cupidity ; and it was by their knowledge of this trait in his character that the pahgerans, who insti gated the murder of those rajahs that insisted upon the suppression of piracy, gained the consent of their avaricious lord. These unprincipled men are reported to have laid before the sultan a statement of the riches which would accrue to him from murdering his rela tions ; and the weak old man is said so eagerly to have coveted the goods of his kinsmen, that so soon as the murder and pillage were accoraplished, his agents car ried the plunder to the anxiously expecting sultan. This consisted principaUy of the presents which had been made to the rajahs by Mr. Brooke and the HIS CONDUCT AND MORALITY. 109 English government through Captain C. Drinkwater Bethune, R.N. CB. The whole of the property for which this man murdered eleven of his relatives could not have exceeded the value of a few hundred doUars ; the rajahs during thefr absence, whde attempting to queU the insurrection of Sarawak, having been de spoiled of the revenues of their estates by the sultan and the Pangeran Usuf, then his prime minister. He has been happily described by a person who saw him and knew him in Borneo, as possessing the " head of an idiot, and the heart of a pirate," He has frequently said, that provided he be supplied with money, and his harem be filled with women, he does not care who governs the country, or in what manner it is done. The two men who are called by the sultan his sons, Pangeran Hassira and his brother, are the weU-known offspring of two Bornean nakodahs, or merchants, introduced to the harem by the sultan himself, nature having fortunately denied this im- becUe the power of propagating his like. Neither Pangeran Hassim nor his brother have had at any time thoughts of being successful in any attempts to succeed the sultan, though it had been the declared intention of Pafigeran Usuf, — who was driven from Borneo by the admiral, in 1845, for having detained slaves, and for having fired at the admiral's own ship, and who was afterwards killed by the Pangeran Bed-er- ed-din, at Kimanis, — in the event of the sultan's death to endeavour to place himself on the throne. Since llO SARAWAK AND the murder of the rajahs, and the attack on Borneo in consequence, by Admiral Sir Thos, Cochrane, last year, the sultan has been quiet, and has given repeated assurances of protection to the two sur viving brothers of Bed-er-ed-din and Mudah Hassim, if they will return from Sarawak to Bruni: in his letters to them he has also stated, that the murder of their relatives took place against his wish, and that it was perpetrated by Pangeran Hassira and the others of the party friendly to the late Pangeran Usuf and his piratical practices, and of consequence iniraical to their relations with the English, The sultan has raoreover promised to govern according to the councils of the Pangeran Moulmein, the brother-in-law of the late Rajah Mudah, and the other nobles recomraended to him by Mr. Brooke on the part of the British governraent. The country is now quiet, and the near vicinity of our new settleraent will probably keep it so; but the intriguing and restless nature of the Borneans wUl probably cause petty disturbances to be of frequent occurrence. The flourishing settlement of Sarawak promises soon to eclipse in power and iraportance the capital of the kingdom to which it is tributary. Through the work of Captain Keppel, the enterprise and cha racter of Mr, Brooke have been laid before the public ; and the hero of the work is now in London, receiving the rewards and honours which a country proud of his achievements and character are liberal in bestowing on him. The discovery of the antimony ore, the MR. Brooke's possessions. Ill oppression to which it gave rise, the rebellion in consequence, its continuance and suppression, are all related in the above work in the words of the Rajah of Sarawak. His principality, which is situated in the north-west corner of the island, extends from the Tanjong Dattu on the west, to the river Samarhand on the east, comprising an extent of coast in a straight line of about seventy geographical mUes in length : it varies, but the average depth is between seventy and eighty miles, being bounded on the west by Sambas, on the south by Sangau, and on the east by Sadong and Samarhand ; but though this country is the actual prin cipality and property of the rajah, his influence and governraent extend over a much greater space, but weaker, of course, in proportion to the distance at which the respective countries are situated frora his residence. Samarhand, Sadong, and Lingah have equal or nearly equal reason -with Sarawak to rejoice in his govern ment ; for, by the authority granted to him by the rajahs of Borneo, and at the prayer of the natives themselves, he has been enabled to correct many abuses, and in particular to stop the kidnapping of the Dyaks for slaves in the Sadong territory, which formerly prevailed to as great an extent as in the immediate territory of Sarawak. This province, not being cursed by an indigent nobUity, as is the capital, where princes, nobles, and their slaves and foUowers, form a large proportion of the population — but the people being in a more inartificial state, and of more simple and less intriguing natures — has been brought 113 DESCRIPTION OF SARAWAK. by the perseverance of Mr, Brooke into the prosperous and peaceful state it now enjoys. The people of Sarawak (we are now speaking of the viceroy, the Malays of the town), at the retfreraent of the forraer Pafigeran Makota, formed a population of about 2,000 souls. At present the town is supposed to contain nearly 8,000 inhabitants; this great and increasing population having flocked from the misgoverned towns along the coast to a settlement where their persons were inviolate and their property secure. The town is situated on the river of the same name, and was called by the natives Kuching ; but the name of the river is now universally employed also to designate the town. The houses of the natives are built on each side of two reaches of the river, and are divided into kampongs or clusters, which are generaUy named after the chief or other principal person about whose house the others are collected ; they are also frequently named from other circumstances, as the ' kampong bharu,' or the new kampong, and the ' kampong Pa-mutus' or the kampong inhabited by the people who settled here from Pa-mutus in the Batang Lupar river, on its destruction by Captain Keppel. The Chinese occupy a kampong on the bank of the river, opposite to the residences of the Europeans, which occupy hiUs on the left bank. The fort is a six-gun bat tery, commandingthe reach immediately belowthe town, being situated ontheright-hand bank, below the Chinese houses : it is garrisoned by twenty-flve Malays under the command of a native officer formerly in the Ceylon ITS PRINCIPAL NATIVE CHIEF. 113 rifle regiment. Their business is very light, their principal duty being to had and report every boat which passes the fort during the twenty-four hours : they are armed with muskets and bayonets, and have barracks adjoining the fort : they are each paid six Spanish doUars per month, and found with a certain portion of rice ; the jemadar and corporal having pro portionately higher pay. The town is governed by three native chiefs called Dattus, whose authority is derived from the rajah for the time being ; though their office is not strictly hereditary, the son of a chief, if he be of age, and otherwise fltted to conduct the business of the office, usually succeeding his father ; or, if the deceased chieftain has not children of the requisite age, ano ther relation is appointed, who enjoys it for life ; but, on his decease, it reverts to the family of his predecessor. The principal native chief of Sarawak is styled Dattu Patingi Gappur ; he is a fine character, and high in the confidence of Mr. Brooke, to whose intercession he owes his hfe, forfeited to the Rajah Mudah Hassim on account of his having been one of the chief rebels in the Seniawan war. It was with great difficulty that Mr. Brooke prevailed upon the rajah to spare the lives of this and the other chieftains, although, when they had submitted, he had stipulated for them. The Dattu Patingi was one of the greatest sufferers by the oppression of the Pangeran Makota, the pangeran having seized all his 114 OTHER CHIEFS. revenues, and destroyed the Dyaks by whom he gained his subsistence as chief. The patingi was, during aU the troubles of Sara wak, the friend of the Dyaks, and assisted them by every means in his power, and for this the Dyaks have a grateful remembrance of hira, never raentioning him but with respect. He is now a firm friend and active supporter of Mr. Brooke's government ; and, being a person of good ability, is of great service in carrying out his views, and during Mr. Brooke's absence is of the greatest assistance to Mr. Crook- shank, the gentleman in charge of the settlement, from his knowledge of the customs and usages of the people. The second chief is the Dattu Bandar, a young man of mild, pleasing, and elegant manners, the son of that brave chief, the Dattu Patingi Ali, who, together with Mr. Stuart of Sarawak, perished with an advanced party of the expedition up the Sakarran river. At present the young Bandar does not interfere much with the affairs of the state : though he regularly attends the court, he always defers his opinion to the more experienced patifigi. The Bandar is very anxious to learn English, and provided the mission aries do not at first interfere with his religious belief, of which he is a strict observer and zealous advocate, they wiU find this young chief of great service to them. The chief third in rank in the Sarawak river is the Dattu Tumungong, a hale old man, and finely and strongly made, but heretofore of very bad cha- MR. Brooke's policy with regard to them. 115 racter, and stiU of very questionable loyalty. He dehghts in teUing stories of his adventures and nar row escapes from the Dyaks and Chinese in his numerous marauding expeditious against them; and he would doubtless, had he the opportunity, act over again the whole of his former achievements. On account of his many injuries to them, the Dyaks hold hira in abhorrence, and probably nothing but the fear of the rajah's displeasure would aUow them to permit hira to return safe out of any of their countries ; but the old man wanders about amongst thera, constantly trading, as he fortunately has no vrish to interfere in the government, and when he visits a tribe which he has in former times severely injured, he never fads to remind them of the different circurastances under which he had previously seen thera : during aU his relations of this nature, he laughs as if he were recounting an excellent joke, and any successfid piece of treachery or duplicity practised on the Dyaks calls forth an increase of his merriment. These officers it has been Mr. Brooke's wise policy to perpetuate in their offices, in preference to trusting the affairs of the province to Borneans or other men of hereditary rank. Their revenues have been duly secured to thera, and more considerable profit and dignity is now attached to their offices than they ever before enjoyed, or than probably ever previously appertained to the rank of Dattu. Nor have the chiefs alone to congratulate themselves on this better istate of things ; but the nakodahs, or merchants — who I 3 116 the nakodahs or merchants of SARAWAK. are of great respectability, and though without any definite place in the councils, are always allowed to give an opinion — have their properties secured to them, which were previously taken from them by their rajahs ; and of what these, their principal oppressors, left, their followers despoiled them. During the residence of the Pangeran Makota at Sarawak, and generaUy under the native princes, their wives and daughters were frequently taken from the respectable classes of the people to gratify the passions of these tyrants. On the return of the rajahs to Bruni, a great number of women, daughters of the chiefs and most respectable people of Sarawak, were left behind with their own famUies at Mr, Brooke's request. This favour was obtained for the parents with difficulty from the rajahs, who prefer the women of the Sarawak as concubines before the women of the north, those of the western parts of the island being more fair and- beautiful from their mixture with the Dyak races. The nakodahs of Sarawak are now men of wealth and traders on a large scale, some of the boats recently budt being as large as 100 tons. They sail annually to Singapore, carrying sago and the other productions of the coast, which they exchange for European goods, Javanese cloths, and brass-work, and the coarse basins and earthenware manufactured in China, and brought down by the junks. Until within very recent times, none of these people would have been known to possess money sufficient to build a boat, knowing that it would assuredly have been taken from them. Their improved ITS inhabitants — their employments. 117 condition is also seen in the appearance of their houses, which, three years since, were buUt entirely on nibong posts and of atap leaves ; but, finding that the Euro pean influence is likely to be perraanent — which at first they feared raight not be the case — all the better classes have, within the above-named period, raised houses on posts of balean, and with wooden sides, which would be considered palaces in the capital city of Bruni, ~ Roads along the town to the court-house and offices of business have been constructed, so that the natives can now communicate with each other by land, whereas formerly the only method available was by water. The other classes of the inhabitants of Sarawak com prise the poor people who are free, and the slaves and slave debtors. The araba raja, or followers of the princes, are not known here. In Sarawak the poorest man can always without difficulty ensure to himself a comfortable subsistence, as at present the araount of labour is not in proportion to the demand ; but as the Malay is averse to working for hire, and much prefers gaining a livelihood by trading, it generally happens that having gained a few dollars as a servant, or labourer to the Europeans, these are laid out in a stock of beads, salt, and brass wire, with which he starts up the country on a trading expedition to the Dyaks ; and though, notwithstanding the com petition caused by so many pursuing the same course of life, the profits are usually very large, and no ex penses are incurred beyond the first purchase of the trading stock, as the trader always expects to be fed 118 dyak slaves in BORNEO. by the viUage at which he is staying, he contrives to hve easily and idly. Another means of livehhood to which those of the poorer classes have often recourse-^at least such of thera as are not averse to a little exertion — is the never-failing gold mines. As no tax is put upon the produce, and no restrictions are laid upon the work ing of them, the extravagant, the dissipated, and the gambler, always supply their exhausted funds, so that Malayan labour, such as European settlers would re quire, would never be available, and it would, in the event of large settlements being made, be necessary to introduce the Malabar or Chinese labour, siraUar to that employed by the proprietors of the Pinang and Singapore estates. Slavery in the east has always been of a raore mdd and gentle character than that which in the west has so disgusted the intelligent nations of Europe. The slaves (ulun-ulun) in Borneo are generally Dyaks and their descendants who have been captured by the rulers of the country for the purposes of slavery, and swelling the nuraber of their immediate dependants. During the misgovernment of the western provinces of the kingdom of Bruni by the Arabs, Sereib Saib, and his brother, Sereib Muller, and their relations, it was no uncommon thing for these tyrannical chiefs, heretofore, and in Sadong after Mr. Brooke's arrival, to send up parties to the Dyaks to bring down aU the young girls and boys they could catch. I have been told by Dyaks, and by dependants on the sereib, that THEIR EASY CONVERSION TO ISLAMISM. 119 300 gkls and boys have frequently been brought down at one time ; such of these as the chief selected as likely to be suitable to his purposes were reserved, the remainder were sold to whoever woidd buy them, the chief taking a considerable share, though his ser vants who had kidnapped the poor chUdren generaUy contrived to cheat him of a considerable portion of the produce, to which they had perhaps as good a right as he. With regard to slavery, the Malays strangely dis regard the instructions of the Koran, which teUs them that no true believer can be retained in slavery, so that the nations of the west are always obliged to find some method of proving that their prisoners are not of the orthodox; faith before they keep them in slavery. The Malays, on the contrary, rarely aUow infidels who have by any means come into their hands long to remain in ignorance of the true faith. The first act of their masters is to cause thera aU, both men and woraen, to be circumcised ; nor do the Dyaks in general exhibit the least reluctance to embrace Islaraisra, considering it more as consisting in the use of the better clothes of the Malays than as a ceremony affecting their futm'e state, of which, during their adoption of their new faith, they hear very little ; but they look upon the Malays always with respect, and consider that an appeal to the book — as the Koran is caUed — is unanswerable, though it is believed that no person residing in the town of Sarawak, priest or layman, could transkte a single chapter of it. It foUows from the hstlessness they display in em- 120 THEIR TREATMENT AND bracing the Mahometan religion that, should they by any chance return to their tribe, they soon throw it off, and, without the least thought on the subject, embrace their old habits of life. This, however, rarely happens. Those Dyaks who have long resided with the Malays, appear to faU into their ways of life, and the women particularly, to whom the finer clothes and less hard work are great teraptations, seldom return to their tribes, even when opportunities are afforded them. The slaves generally in Sarawak belong to the Dat tus and merchants, and are treated with great libe rality. Their duties consist in assisting, their master, who always works with them, in his house or boat building occupations, accompanying him on his trading expeditions, assisting in the navigation of his boats, &c. Their masters generaUy allot them wives from amongst their female domestics, and in this respect, where wives are not to beobtained without money, and where love is seldom a cherished and pure natural affection, they are much better off than their free but poorer neigh bours, who are often obliged to pledge their own per sons to obtain the object of their choice. Many slaves acquire so much of the confidence of their masters as almost to turn the scale, and become the masters of their lords ; but araongst a people so naturaUy saga cious and clever as the Malays, this undue influence less frequently occurs than araongst the raore enervated Asiatics of the continent. When the male slaves are not wanted by their masters, they are at liberty to'Tiire themselves by the PRICE IN THE MARKET. 121 day to other employers, and the proceeds are kept by themselves. The price of a slave iu Sarawak is from thirty to sixty dollars, but as the trade is being as graduaUy and quickly suppressed as possible, without too much shocking the prejudices of the inhabitants, they have of late become very scarce and difficult to be bought. The slave boys purchased by Europeans, who bring thera up as servants, are necessarUy free as soon as they enter the settleraent, but are not often anxious to go away, as, being vrithout friends, they raight be again captured and sold to some other place, whereas with the Europeans they get, in addition to their freedom, their clothes, food, and two or three Spanish dollars per month pocket money. Slave girls are frequently more harshly treated than their husbands and brothers, the Malayan ladies whom they serve being raore commonly difficult to please than their lords. Should a girl be so unfortunate as to be possessed of personal attractions, so as to excite the jealousy of her mistress, her case is, indeed, pitiable ; but, under the circumstances, the girl has generaUy redress by causing herself to be purchased by another person, if her proofs of bad treatment are sufficiently clear. Any slave girl having been used as a concubine is free by the law, and she can, if she hkes, accordingly depart ; but as virtue amongst the lower classes is but little regarded, they find it better to live at the expense of their raaster, though they receive the constant attentions of a lover equaUy favoured. The price of a girl varies according to her age and other quali- 123 SLAVE DEBTORS. fications, from thirty to 100 dollars, but at Sarawak they are even more difficult than men to be obtained. Slave debtors differ but little in the estunation in which they are held, and in their duties, frora slaves, but they have the privdege of freeing themselves if they can raise the money to pay the debt with its enorraous accuraulation of interest. Another privdege is, that they cannot be sold or transferred but with their own consent. No institution of the Malays has been more abused than this system of taking the per sons for slaves of such as have become indebted to them. I have seen instances where, for the triffing amount of a very few doUars, borrowed from the pan geran to pay perhaps an exaction of his own, which by the accumulation of interest, perhaps fifty per cent. monthly, had increased to so large an amount that whole famUies were obliged to submit themselves as slave debtors to their creditor. As it is impossible for them ever to raise the constantly increasing araount, this state of slavery is hopeless. I need scarcely add that this abuse of the practice of usury, as also the state of the slaves in general, received the prorapt attention of the Rajah of Sarawak, and many are the slaves in the settlement whom he has freed by the sacrifice of his money. CHAPTER V. ARAB DESCENDANTS OP THE PROPHET THEIR IMPOSITIONS AND SUPERSTITIONS PIRACY ACTION OF THE NEMESIS GAMBLING AND OPIUM SMOKING CRIMINAL TRIALS AND PUNISHMENTS . IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OP SARAWAK — MANNERS OF THE PEOPLE EDUCATION DRESS AND APPEARANCE OF MALAY WOMEN OIL FOR THE HAIR A SUPERSTITION MARRIAGES PRICE OF A WIFE RUNNING A-MUCK-^ARTS AND MANUFACTURES'^ PALACE OF THE SULTAN MARKET OF BRUNI MALAY FISHING TRADERS AT SARAWAK ^WARS OF THE PEOPLE THEIR WEAPONS ASSO CIATION WITH EUROPEANS. The Malays of Sarawak are all of the Mahometan religion, and having received the faith through mis sionaries from Arabia, are all of the orthodox or Sunni sect. The Princes of Borneo, and of the other Ma layan nations of the coasts, though professing the religion of Islam, were always very neglectful of its tenets, the only precept strictly observed being the destruction and reducing to slavery of their infidel subjects and neighbours. The Arabs, who were at one tirae numerous on the coasts, and are still so at Pontianak, aU pretending to be sereibs or seriffs, descendants of the Prophet, have always been held in high consideration. They are always addressed by the title of tuan-ku, or " your highness," and on state days and festivals occupy a position more eminent than that of the highest hereditary nobles. These 124 ARAB DESCENDANTS OF THE PROPHET. priestly hypocrites, constantly interfering for the pur pose of promoting their own ends, caused more of the troubles which have afflicted the Malayan kingdoras of this island than have been produced by any other raeans. On one occasion a man of rank, who ought to have known better, informed rae seriously that a cer tain vagabond of this class, called Mulana, who had cajoled the rajah out of the governraent of the Ka- lekka river, had only been prevented by the earnest entreaties of Sereib Sahib frora removing the island of Pulau Barong, opposite the Sadong river, to the neigh bourhood of the Kalekka river. As this threat and entreaty took place before a large assemblage of peo ple, it is probable that the two hypocritical Arabs had contrived the scene to impress the vulgar with an awe of their persons. The generality of the natives of Pa-mutus believe, or pretend to believe, that had not Sereib Sahib so earnestly entreated him to desist, the Tuan Mulana, as he was called, would have ordered the island to reraove, and that it would accordingly have stationed itself opposite Kalekka. This Mulana, who died last May, was discovered to be an Arab, who, having arrived poor at Pinang, was befriended by a rich countryman, who advanced him goods to the amount of 4,000 dollars that he might go on a trading voyage to the Archipelago. It is useless to add that the friendly merchant never heard again from his holy debtor ; but having accidentaUy found out the place of his residence, he sent his son to deraand the debt. It was not denied, and a box was offered to the young THEIR IMPOSITIONS. 125 man which was said to contain jewels, &c,, to the amount. The merchant could never recover any of his raoney, the Tuan Mulana having spent it on his nuraerous concubines and slaves. He was in the habit of sending charras and jackets which were inscribed with the verses of the Koran to the chiefs of Sarawak as presents, of course expecting a valuable consideration in return, but of late years the old gentleman did not find this plan of raising money at all productive ; and as the Rajahs of Bruni had removed from Sarawak, he was able to draw but little revenue from the natives of the settlement, who, though in general they pretend to be good Musselmen, never contribute, if they can possibly avoid it, to the support of their religion. Until very recently the only mosque in the town was in such a dUapidated condi tion that it was dangerous to enter it, and when the inhabitants were called upon for subscriptions to raise a new one, not a fourth of the necessary sum could be procured by the priests. The Klings, or natives of the Malabar coast, who have a flourishing bazaar in the town, have recently budt a respectable mosque, being, though few in number, very zealous for their religion, I believe they are of the Shiah sect, which is that prevalent in Persia, and between the advocates of which and the orthodox sect so deadly a hatred subsists on the con tinent of Asia; but here, if the distinctions be un derstood, the hostUe spirit does not exist, though the Malays rarely worship in the same budding with thena. 126 MALAY SUPERSTITIONS. That doctrine to which the Malays of Sarawak most rigidly adhere, is the aversion in which the unclean animal is held. The Princes of Borneo do not scruple to drink wine when it is procurable, and I have fre quently seen them partake of it before the Malays, their dependants, without the least sense of impro priety, or fear of their being openly seen thus to violate the inculcations of the Koran. Frora what has been stated respecting their reli gion, it will be easily seen that the intolerant bigotry of the western Mahoraetan is entirely unknown to these people ; and I ara strongly inchned to believe that a rigid Turk, being set down in their country, would scarcely aUow that they had a chance of safely skating over the narrow bridge into the paradise of the Prophet, Many superstitions are mixed with their religious belief, such as charming out the spirits which are supposed to possess a sick or mad person ; these, and many others, the relics of a former idolatry, are unknown to the purer precepts of the Koran. Their marriages and burials are performed according to the ceremonial ritual of the Koran, but as far as I have been able to observe, the respect paid by most of the Mahometans to the graves of their ancestors does not prevail here, as their graves are neglected, and fre quently aU traces of them taken away -without the slightest remonstrance on their parts. A little stone, or a piece of wood which soon decays, are the most frequent and only memorials of the persons, the sole indications of the tenements of the dead. The modern THE MALAY CHARACTER. 127 burial-place at Sarawak is kept in better repair, and the graves have various attentions shown them, being frequently planted with flowers ; of these the pinang appears to be the most esteemed. I have never seen the bufiga karaboja in such situations, though it is so commonly employed for this purpose in other Malayan countries. The Malays, natives of the western coast of Borneo, do not practise many of the vices for which their nation in general has become so famous. In their character they are a radd and quiet people, devoid of the cunning and treachery of the natives of Sumatra, whom the dissolute inhabitants of the capital more nearly resemble. They are not, like the inhabitants of the piratical states, fond of desperate adventure, and not being possessed of a great share of physical courage, and their tastes inchning them to follow the more peaceful pursuits of trade, under a government which wUl encourage comraerce, they live happy and contented. Tn capacity the Malays are probably not inferior to any of the nations of Europe, and in their trading expeditions, and other intercourse with foreigners of several nations, particularly the Chinese, their abUity in raanaging their affairs protects thera from the frauds which are constantljr attempted by these unscrupulous traders. In the government of Sarawak Mr. Brooke has generaUy found the view of a political question taken by the principal natives and chiefs to be the most sound and profitable which, under the circura stances, could be adopted. Piracy, which is con- 128 PIRACY. sidered in Europe to be proper to the nature of every Malay, has never been carried on by the na tives of the western coast of Borneo, It is true that formidable fieets were sent from Sambas, and that many ships were taken at Bruni, but the chiefs of both these towns, the inhabitants of which are by far the raost dissolute on the island, were lUanons, or at least intimately connected with thera. The son of one of the raost formidable of the chiefs who defended Sambas against the English in 1812, is now hving a peaceable inhabitant of Sarawak : his father came with his followers from Magindanau and settled at Sambas, as did those to the northward which have been more recently destroyed by Sir Thomas Cochrane, Though the pirates were encouraged by the rulers of the west coast, it does not appear that they have succeeded in inducing the natives of it themselves to go on piratical cruises. Teluk Serban, a bay inside of Tanjong Dattu, and opposite to the islands Telang Telang, was a station occupied during the S,W. monsoon by the pirates of Soolu and Migandanau. Here their principal fleet lay anchored, whde small and fast cruisers in the offing constantly communi cated to them the appearance of a sad : a force deemed sufficient was immediately sent out to cap ture it, when, if it proved to be from a distance, the slaves or goods were sent into the Sarawak or Sadong rivers to the sereibs, who then governed this part of the coast, in exchange for provisions and other necessaries, of which their long absence from home had exhausted their stock ; the prisoners cap- PIRACY. 129 tured in the neighbourhood were handcuffed and bound until their captors were ready, on the approach of the boisterous monsoon, to return to their island horaes. Thus the whole trade ofthe coast was destroyed, and it was for protection against these people that the government of Borneo stipulated with Mr. Jesse, when it granted to the settlement of Balambangan the mo nopoly of the pepper of Bomeo. Piracy does not therefore appear to have been proper ' to the native inhabitants of the west coast of Borneo, though frequently carried on frora its ports ; at present the coast is annuaUy infested by the fleets frora the Soolu Archipelago, which, leaving their own islands, situated on the N.E, of Borneo, about the middle of the N.E. monsoon, sail round the island with a fair wind, stretching across to the coasts of Java, Banca, Singa pore, and the peninsula, and -risiting aU the islands in the way, attacking aU the trading boats they meet, and carrying their crews into slavery, frequently landing and capturing the whole of the inhabitants of small viUages. They generally pass the western coast of Borneo about June or July, arriving in August at the Soolu islands laden with plunder. The number of boats which sail from this Archipelago cannot be ac curately ascertained, but they must be* very nuraerous, as not less than six squadrons of frora five to eleven boats each, were seen to pass the Sarawak river during the past season. A large trading boat belonging to a native merchant of Sarawak was captured a little to the eastward of the river ; her valuable cargo being K 130 ACTION OP THE ' NEMESIS.' taken out, she was scuttled and sunk ; the crew saved themselves by their boats. This was in April last. Another boat, coraing from the Natunas to Sarawak laden with oil, was chased by five boats to the small island Satang, opposite the western entrance of the Sarawak river, and two large boats, the property of merchants of this town returning from Singapore in March, sustained an action which lasted several hours, but the boats being weU armed, and containing cargoes which rendered them worth defending, succeeded in beating off the pirates. The action of the ' Nemesis ' in June last is fresh in the recollection of our readers; of eleven boats which were caught by that ship in the act of piracy, chasing a small merchant-man near the mouth of the Borneo river, five were sunk, and of the six which escaped three only were enabled to reach Soolu from the daraages they had received. This action, conducted by Captain Grey, of H.M.S. 'Colura- bine,' and Captain Wallage, H.C's steam-ship, ' Ne mesis,' has been the severest lesson the pirates have ever received at sea, of the force of European nations, and their determination to suppress piracy : by this action the pirates suffered very severely, and several slaves which were bound in the boats were released. The pirates, who deserted their sinking boats and fled into the jungle, were captured by the parties sent against them by the Sultan of Bruni, in his anxiety to convince the English of the goodness of his intentions. It is rumoured that the fine frigate lately comraissioned by GAMBLING AND OPIUM SMOKING, 131 Captain the Honourable Henry Keppel, who has pre viously so much distinguished himself in those seas, is intended to act particularly against the people of Soolu and Magindanau, though from the nature of their strong-holds, their numbers, and the confidence they have from having hitherto defeated all the expe ditions sent against them by the Spaniards, a large additional force wiU be necessary to insm-e success. The natives of the coast of Borneo are not addicted to the vice of gambling, which amongst the natives of Celebes and the Malays of the peninsula and Sumatra, is carried to so great an excess ; it is, however, much practised in the two capitals of Bruni and Sambas, together with opium smoking and other kinds of debauchery. In the town of Sarawak, gambling, except to a trifling extent by the Chinese and other foreigners, is unknown ; the natives of Sarawak, or those of other coast towns which have settled there, never being known to indulge in either of the above-named vices. Cock-fighting is not practised, except amongst the debauched nobles and their followers in the capital towns, and thefts and robberies are always traced to the natives of Sambas and Bomeo. During a residence of upwards of two years in Sarawak, no native of the town was ever convicted of either gaming, using opium, or stealing ; and were it not for the strangers and traders from other towns, the magistrate of Sara wak would, perhaps, not have to adjudicate on half-a- dozen cases in a year. The government of Sarawak is carried on, in the K 2 132 CRIMINAL TRIALS AND rajah's absence, by his deputy, Arthur Crookshank, Esq., assisted by the three Dattus ; but, as has been previously noticed, the Dattu Tumungong seldora at tends. These raagistrates try, in the court-house, all cases brought before thera, in the presence, generaUy, of a large assemblage of natives, who have free access during the hours of business. The class abang-abang, who are the merchants and respectable people, and from whom the dattus are chosen, are permitted to offer any proper and pertinent remark they please after the evidence has been heard. The rajah, after summing up the case to the chiefs, leaves them to re turn the verdict, which, as justice is here administered, free frora the subtleties and technicalities of law, is generally unaniraous, and according to evidence. When it happens that a Dyak, or any of the more simple classes of inhabitants, are brought before this com-t, they always make, imraediately on being caUed upon, a simple and artless confession ; but the Borneans, and people of Sambas, and the Chinese, who are much more frequently the accused, always most stoutly deny the charges, even in the face of the most positive evi dence, and sometimes those known to be the greatest rascals will appeal to the court in the most impudent manner, and inquire whether the people present could conceive them capable of the actions laid to their charge. The punishments awarded by their laws were very severe, resembling those of the Javans, from whom they are descended; but these have been aU modi fied, and tortures and mutUations are now totally PUNISHMENTS. 133 abohshed. Forraerly the slightest and raost paltry" theft, if, during the supremacy of the native rajahs, the culprit had no powerful friend to protect him, was punished by the loss of his hand ; and, at the present " day, many of these mutilated objects may be seen at the town of Bruni, where, notwithstanding thefts are of daUy occurrence, the foUowers and slaves of the Paiig erans of Borneo were formerly allowed, and are still — excepting in countries under the influence of Sarawak — to corarait any excesses, without the fear of punishment, as followers — ' amba-raja' — of the princes and power ful nobles, who frequently themselves employed them in robberies and extortions on the poorer and indus trious classes of the people. Murder is, at present, the only crime in Sarawak punishable with death ; and, during its recent history, occasions which have called for this extreme penalty are of very rare occurrence : for the most part the crimes are of so light a nature, that fines and banish ment are considered sufficient punishments ; the money coUected from the former is spent on the ex tension and improvement of the roads and government buddings, though the rarity of fineable offences prevents this fund from ever becoming sufficient to be of any con siderable service to the purposes to which it is applied. No duties or exactions are levied on any ships or boats entering the port, all being allowed to come and go as they please, prorided only that they report their arrival and departure to the government. The trade of the place has increased in the same proportion as its size and 134 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. population, and, during the year, there are now upwards of 120 boats of large tonnage enter the river of Sarawak for the purposes of trade. Before the present govern ment was established, the trade was carried on by about one- tenth of that nuraber. A schooner sails monthly to Singapore, carrying the produce of the settlement, and it is visited frequently during the year by junks, and other merchant vessels, from Sambas, Java, Bali, &c. Besides the above-named trading vessels a great number of smaU boats are employed in the coasting trade, which is, as is also the foreign business, steadily and rapidly on the increase. The exports from Sarawak are antimony, gold, diamonds, sago, bees'-wax, birds'-nests, tortoise-sheU, sharks' fins, vegetable tallow, dammar, rice, ebony, rattans, Malacca canes, salt fish, and many other articles, as the valu able caraphor, which are brought here by the coasting vessels from the eastward. They iraport, salt, opium (consumed by the Chinese), silks, cocoa-nut oil, brass wire, and brass cooking-pots ; with Javanese handker chiefs, and European cloths and earthenware, and also much of the coarser earthen manufacture of China. The Klings have a well-stocked bazaar in the town, and make expeditions from it to all the towns along the coast. These people and the Chinese, who culti vate gardens and work the gold and antimony mines, are always found where the Europeans residing afford them protection. The Klings successfully compete with the native merchants for goods of European manu facture, which they bring over, of a damaged descrip- SHIPPING OF SARAWAK. 135 tion, they having been sold at Singapore at less than their original cost. This the Klings buy from their cor respondents at Singapore cheaper than can the Malayan traders who visit that settleraent ; and as they are not at the expense of sailing ships of their own, but get their things on freight by the schooner, the Malays ge neraUy leave this branch of the coraraerce to thera, and confine themselves to trading in the goods of Javanese and Chinese manufacture, the prices of which do not fiuctuate. The Kling merchants, after living here for two or three years, become so rich that they are soon enabled to return to their own country, which, as they bring no wives with them, and have no ties in the island, they are all anxious to do. The vessels belonging to the Malayan nakodahs of Sarawak are sailed at an inconsiderable expense, A person having the capital to build a boat, when it is finished finds no difficulty in getting sadors to navigate it; the sailors, being aU merchants on a sraaUer scale than the owner and captain of the vessel, engage with the nakodah to sail with him, and assist in navigating and keeping the ship in repair, on condition of having a certain quantity of the ton nage of the vessel for their own purposes. Thus, if a nakodah gives out that he iiftends to sail his boat to Singapore, all the persons -wishing to go to Singapore apply to him, and he grants them passages, or such of thera as he has roora for, on the above conditions. Quarrels respecting amount of tonnage allowed to each are very rare, and every thing pro- 136 MANNERS OF THE ceeds quietly and orderly during the voyage. The most experienced persons, under the captain, are the juro-batu, or pilot, and the juro-mudi, or steers man; these act in the capacity of officers of the prauh. As the Malays are never in a hurry, they remain at one place as long as any trade can be carried on, when they either sail to another port, or return home as circumstances seem to render most profitable. The nakodahs sometiraes have -wives at each of the different places they are in the habit of visiting annually, so that wherever they go they have a home for their reception. Their taste for the pursuits of trade is quite a passion, and during all their early life they look steaddy and anxiously forward to the time when they shall be able to indulge it with profit to themselves. It is from this principle being so rooted in their natures, that the kings and princes have been found, in aU periods of their history, to be the greatest merchants in their state ; and a torab a little below the town of Bruni is that of one of the most powerful sultans who govemed the kingdom in its flourishing times, and who is called by the natives by no other name than that of nakodah Ragam, or captain merchant Ragam. The people of Sarawak, and the west coast generally, possess none of the disgusting and cringing servdity of the natives of continental India ; but their manners are distinguished for their politeness and freedom. The peasantry of Europe would lose much by comparison on this head with the poorest of the PEOPLE OF SARAWAK. 137 Malays, whose manners are rendered attractive by a natural courtesy quite unknown to the lower orders of Europeans : excepting in places where their inter course with foreigners has corrupted them, as in Bruni and Sambas, an impertinent person is unknown. Europeans visiting these countries are frequently astonished at the elegant manners and dignified bearing of the higher classes of Malays. The late lamented Pangeran Bed-er-ed-din displayed an air and carriage which would have adorned an European prince ; and the gentlemen who had opportunities of seeing him, delight in recounting anecdotes of the high generosity and considerate feeling which occurred in their intercourse with him. !From what has been said of the character of the people of Sarawak and the west coast of Borneo generaUy, with the exception of those in the imme diate vicinity, and under the influence of the de bauched natives of the capital, — it will be easily seen how susceptible their condition is of improvement, and with what facility they may be brought to become useful members of society under the influence of a good government. The reader vrill also notice, that the terms of treacherous, and other equally abusive epithets, are no more applicable to them than we may suppose they would be to European nations in cir cumstances when, reduced by oppression, they could not revenge themselves by open and honest means. Though the natives of Sarawak are quiet, and accord ingly easdy governed, it is not to be supposed that on 138 SCHOOLS AND STATE OF EDUCATION this account they wUl long endure oppression without complaint, or that they wdl aUow theraselves to be en tirely trodden down without resistance. The history of the settlement proves the contrary, and the tyrannical sereibs and pangerans, who formerly governed the coun try, now perhaps regret the measures they pursued, and envy the prosperity of the settleraent which they had well nigh ruined by the civd wars their extortions occasioned. At the present tirae, Sarawak presents the rare prospect of a government, the people living under which are prosperous, contented, and happy; and when the state in which it was found by its rajah nine years ago is considered, the English nation raay well admire the energy and enterprise of Mr. Brooke, Many schools are established in Sarawak for the education of the children, as the neglect of providing instruction for those of the better classes reflects disgrace upon the parents. The sons only are edu cated in these establishments, which are generally kept by priests : their course of instruction comprises the reading and writing of their own language, the reading of the Koran in Arabic, and the repetitions of the various forms of prayer enjoined by the Maho metan religion. The children are not supposed to understand a single word of the book, nor could their teachers translate it; and as it cannot be translated into any language and remain pure, according to the instructions of the prophet, the forms of the religion are preserved by the oral precepts of the hadjis who have visited the holy city. The chUdren in the schools IN SARAWAK. 139 are only taught to give it in reading the proper into nation, and to repeat its precepts in the singing, chant ing method supposed to be practised in the temple of Mecca, The great use of their learning to read the Ko ran at all is, that by using a chapter of it they pretend to be able to drive away the spirit which is supposed to possess an insane person, or one in a fit. The different periods ofthe progress of the sons' advancement in edu cational knowledge afford the parents an opportunity of giving feasts to their relations, when the son is exa mined by the master in the presence of his family and connexions, vs^ho, in consideration of the liberal and expensive feast usually provided for them, congratulate the father on the splendid talents of the son ; at these entertainments the principal part of the feast consists of rice, fish, and fowls. The rice is brought up in large dishes, some of which contain the grain coloured, and disposed in fanciful combinations. The dishes are also garnished with sweet-scented flowers ; the fish and fowls are curried with vegetables, and in the number of different flavours given to these two articles consists the principal secret of their cookery. They have so many of them, some of which are, however, only to be distinguished by the nicest palate, that I cannot give their nurabers, nor is it probable that they theraselves know. The Malayan curries, when made by the natives, have a flavour which is frequently pre ferred to those raade by the natives of Madras, into the coraposition of which, I believe, the cocoa-nut, so liberally eraployed by the Malays, does not enter. 140 FOOD OF THE MALAYS. On occasions of great festivals, goats are kiUed, and buffaloes, which are brought frora the Natunas islands : the woods also are ransacked for the different species of deer. The Malays in general are abstemious in their eating, and not partial to animal food. Fowls and ducks are rarely kUled by thera excepting on high occasions; of eggs, both of the fowl and the turtle, they are very fond; the former, coloured variously, and having flowers and other patterns upon them, formed by the colouring matter being picked off so as to expose the white sheU of the egg, are a part of all their entertainraents. Salt fish is preferred by thera to fresh, in which state it is seldom eaten : the Malays eat none of the animals of the jungle which are not used by the Europeans, and are equally clean and par ticular in the preparation of their food. Their rice is beautifuUy boded, as is generaUy the case in the East, where it forms so great a portion of the food of the inhabitants. The Dattu Patingi of Sarawak, and many other Malays, eat no flesh whatever, declaring that the flavour of it is coarse, and not equal to that of fish, of which they constantly partake, and which is caught in abundance during the fine season or south west monsoon, at the mouths of aU their rivers. Few of the Malays eat more frequently than twice a- day, though those of the higher classes frequently partake of tea out of small cups, in the manner of the Chinese, from whora they have adopted the practice : all classes and sexes use the sirih and betel, which they ATTRACTIONS OF THE WOMEN. 141 are constantly chewing ; this renders their teeth black, and spoils the appearance of their mouths : an exciting effect is attributed to its use. In person these people, together with those inhabit ing the other islands, are below the average stature of European nations : they are, however, finely formed, and well made in their persons, and of a strong, robust constitution, which renders them capable of enduring, when caUed upon, excessive fatigue ; their women, at least those of the higher classes, are, as in other countries where the profession of Islaraism pre vails, carefuUy excluded from the gaze of strangers ; some whom I have had opportunities of seeing have astonished me by the fairness of their complexion, and the comparative beauty of their features. They are generally short in stature, but of the most beautifully symmetrical figures, and their long and slender fingers, with the spaaU and pretty hands, wrists, feet, and ankles, are seldom seen amongst the western fair ones in any thing approaching such perfection. Their long black hair, which faUs on their backs in the greatest pro fusion, and in many cases reaches nearly to the ground, has, if we may believe the reports of the vendors of oils and unguents said to be used by them, been long the envy of the ladies of the west. But," notwithstanding these advantages of figure, and of the greatest orna ment of feraale beauty, they can never approach the corabination of perfection which constitutes loveliness in the west ; their too flat noses, and the want of clear ness and briUiancy in their complexions, and of anima- 143 MALAY PASSION FOR FLOWERS. tion in their features, are the great natural bars to their successful rivalry ; whde their totaUy uncultivated rainds, and the absurd practice of blacking their teeth, to heighten, as they imagine, their beauty, renders them disgusting to inteUigent Europeans : should the Malays themselves becorae more improved, it is probable that these women, who at present are in so ignorant and debased a state, will also rise in the scale of civdization ; but unless they can be per suaded to relinquish the religion of Mahomet, it is rauch to be feared that neither of these desirable results can take place. The women adorn their hair with beautiful and fra grant flowers, of which they are passionately fond. The sweet unopened buds of the bufiga melur (Jasminum sarabac), and the bufiga gambir, both of them species of jessamine, are the favourites for this purpose ; the buds, being gathered in the morning, are strung in wreaths by the girls, who afterwards weave them into their hair, also concealing amongst the folds sorae flowers of the bunga kanafiga (Uvaria), and of the dehghtful golden chara- puka, both of which trees they cultivate for this purpose. The strong but ravishing perfume of the flower caUed sundal malara, or harlot of the night, the tuberose of European gardens, is also esteemed by thera, as is the ganda suli, a species of Hedychiura, and the Gardenia florida, a variety of the Cape jessamine : these, with many other flowers, are usually planted by the women, or their slaves, near to their houses. As the Malays of Sarawak do not make gardens, the flowers are often DRESS OF MALAY WOMEN. 143 difficult to be procured, except by purchase, when they are very expensive, A garden or two at Sarawak, for the purpose of supplying the Malays with sweet-scented and other flowers, would pay well if the Chinamen could be induced to undertake it, and so refined a taste araongst these people it would be well to encourage. At present the faradies of the chiefs are supplied with flowers from the bushes and trees m the garden of their rajah, the liberty of taking which they value highly. The Malay women are also, like their sex in general, fond of fine clothes and jewellery, and their extravagance is the frequent cause of unpleasantness between them and their husbands. Their dress is simple, and consists of the kain tape, or cloth, which has been described as a wide sack open at both ends ; this extends from below the breast to the ground. It is fastened by being merely folded and tucked in ; it is of silk or satin araongst the higher orders, and of cotton cloth of their own, or European manufacture, amongst the poorer classes. The jacket is the next part of their dress ; this also is of dark-coloured satin, and made to fit close at the neck when fastened, and with tight sleeves for the arms ; it reaches to the waist, so as to cover the folds of the tape : it is buttoned at the wrist with nine large gold buttons, which extend up each sleeve towards the elbow, and is fastened at the neck with a large gold clasp. The front, which covers the breast, is also adorned with a profusion of gold plates of various shapes and patterns, so as with rich people entirely to conceal the jacket, or badju, as it is 144 DRESS OF MALAY WOMEN. called. The only other article of apparel is the kain sarong. This is worn by thera loosely folded round the waist when in the house, but abroad it is opened so as to cover the whole upper part of the person, as a ved, being extended over the head, and supported by the hands. It is of the same form as the cloth first de scribed, but when not of a rich sdk of a tartan pattern, it is raade of the cloth caUed kain bentabur, which is satin, with threads of gold wire forraing the pattern of it. These cloths cost about forty to fifty Spanish dollars, 8/. to 10/, sterling. They wear no head-dress, and their hair, which is but loosely confined, without the aid of combs or other contrivances, but the greater part being doubled and passed under a few hairs separated frora the rest, hangs at the back of the head, in a large and loose knot. It is difficult to conceive how the woraen of the upper class pass their tirae confined in the hareras ofthe great : the apartraents allotted to them are small and dark, and each wife or concubine has a number of slaves of her own, with whora the other -wives do not interfere ; their cookery, and all their proceedings, appear to be carried on entirely independent of each other. The indolent, enervated persons who now forra the principal part of the nobles of Bruni and Sambas, confine themselves to the apartments of the women during the whole of the day, what little business they transact being done about ten or eleven at night, which is to them what the day is to other people. They are fond of playing at chess, and those of them who are industrious, as were several IGNORANCE OF THE NOBLES OF BRUNI. 145 of the murdered pangerans, employed themselves in the manufacture of krises, and the carving and polish ing of their beautiful sheaths and handles; in this work they excelled all their subjects. The education of the existing nobles of Bruni has been rauch neglected, and the greater part of the young nobles, with the sultan at their head, can neither read nor write ; of such a state of things the raiddle classes of Sarawak would, as has been already observed, be ashamed. The men amongst the Malays do not, as do the Javans, suffer their hair to become long, but have it always cut short, and their heads very frequently shaved ; they do not wear beards, and are naturaUy without thera. The greater part carefully shave off the few hairs they have upon their faces, but some encourage to a great length three or four straggling hairs on the upper lip, and evidently contemplate vrith satisfaction this con temptible approach to what is generally supposed a sign of manhood. It may be useful to mention, that the only oil used by the women in the cultivation of their hair is that freshly expressed frora the cocoa-nut : this is perfumed by allowing the flowers of the various plants, previously mentioned as being used in the adornment of their hair, to remain for some time in it, the fat oil of the nut extracting and retaining the essential od of the fragrant flowers. I have been told by Mr. Brooke that in Macassar, and on the coasts of Celebes, the rajahs' domestics prepare, with great care, an od for the use of their women which is supposed 146 OIL FOR THE HAIR, — A SUPERSTITION. to be of a highly invigorating quality, but it is proba ble that the luxuriance of the hair of the women of these countries is, in a great measure, constitutional; although it cannot be denied that they take the greatest possible care of it, and pride themselves on its profusion. Should it be faUing from weakness, many superstitious practices are resorted to for the purpose of preventing it : in these cases the fat ex tracted from venomous snakes and of crocodUes is foolishly considered very efficacious ; for the feet to corae in contact with the ground during the period when they use these, and similar remedies, is supposed to destroy their good effects; and even when the hair is in the finest condition, such parts of it as separate from the head during the operations of dressing it, are care fuUy preserved, never being thrown out, or burnt, or otherwise destroyed, as bad consequences are sup posed to follow such treatment of any part of it to the remainder. Perhaps the vendor of the next od pur porting to be that used by the natives of the Indian islands may profit by the above remarks, and recom mend to the ladies of Europe the fat of snakes and crocodiles instead of bears and other animals ; it may be remarked, however, that that which the old women who recommend its use to the young girls in Sarawak sell to them, is seldom the fat of those animals, but usuaUy some vegetable oU, which is made to answer the purpose, snakes and aUigators being more difficult to obtain. As the women here are more scarce than the men, as in aU countries where polygamy prevails, on mar- THEIR MARRIAGES. 147 riage the bridegroom has to pay for his wife instead of receiving a dowry with her : this does not so much obtain amongst the higher ranks as in the middle classes of hfe ; so that for a man of the class abang- abang to marry is a very expensive and difficult affair ; he has, perhaps, to pay slaves, goods, and money, to the value of several hundred doUars for a girl whom he has never seen, and who, when he does see her, may, perhaps, soon give him cause to repent of his bargain ; but though, under the Mahometan law, divorces are easily obtained, they do not often proceed to this ex tremity, as were the -wife to be divorced without her own consent, the husband being unable to prove against her adultery, or any other cause of equal weight, he would lose the whole of the raoney and property he had given for her, and which it had, perhaps, been difficult for him to coUect ; so that they generally find it convenient to agree together, — ^the husband con soling himself sometimes,but not frequently, with taking another wife or concubine or two. Polygamy, however, is very seldom practised by the people of the middle class, though tolerated by law ; the rajahs and nobles alone keeping large numbers of con cubines. Many of the respectable people of Sarawak have frequently told me that one wife was quite as many as they could govern, and that in many instances they themselves were governed by that one. On account of the practise above detaded of paying for their wives, it frequently happens that free people of the poorer classes are unable to get married, unless they sell L 2 148 PRICE OF A WIFE, themselves into slavery, or become bound to serve for their wives. In former times their services never expired, but they are now limited, a certain reduction being made monthly for the services of the man ; if he has married a slave. The price paid amongst the poor people for their wives is generally about the same as that at which the woman would be valued if a slave. In consequence of this scarcity and demand for women, daughters are not, as in some other Eastern countries, considered a burthen, but are nourished and cherished with the same care as the sons, who are always weU treated by their parents, the Malays being passionately fond of their children. Instances in which children are neglected or unkindly treated are very rare, whde those in which an excess of fondness is injurious to their offspring are of frequent occurrence : the avaricious old Dattu Turaunggong of Sarawak is the only instance which came under my notice of a father treating his son unkindly. This was caused by the notice taken by the Europeans of the youth, who is a highly respectable trader of the town. The old man fancied that his son envied his title, and wished to gain sufficient infiuence with the Europeans to induce the rajah to supersede him, and confer his rank upon the son, who was already, by successful trade, quite independent of the Dattu. The peculiar feature of the Malayan character which, under circumstances of dejection of spirit, of fear, or of losses, causes their madness to assume that wdd and destructive form known to the English as running a-muck, and by the natives themselves called meng-a- RUNNING A-MUCK. 149 muk, has yet to be spoken of. One case which occurred during my stay at Sarawak arose from fear : the man had, however, been previously subject to fits of insanity. It was during a rumour of an attack on the settlement caused by the firing of some guns early in the morning before the inhabitants were stirring : the person in question seized a large and heavy sword in one hand, and a spear in the other, and rushing out of the house, struck at indiscriminately any one he met ; nine persons being severely wounded by hira before he reached the jungle whither he directed his course. Five of these people died of their wounds ; the insane mur derer was kUled afterwards by the Dyaks, in an attack which he made on one of their viUages some days after he had first fled into the jungle ; during the interval, he was the terror of the inhabitants, who durst not venture into the forests about their ordinary avocations, while they were tenanted by so dangerous a character. Another case happened without the least appear ance of previous madness, but was unattended by serious consequences, except to the deranged person ; and other instances were fortunately prevented before the afflicted person had been able to accomplish any serious injuries. This peculiar form of madness, which has been usually ascribed to the restless temperament of the Malays acting upon diseases of the brain, is not known to exist in other nations ; and though madness amongst the Dyaks of Borneo is not of unfrequent occurrence, it never takes this destructive form. What has been previously said of the quiet and peaceful 150 MALAYAN ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. character of the people of Sarawak, would not interfere with the solution of the causes leading to it above referred to, as in all the cases above mentioned the afflicted individuals were foreigners; and that first described, and which was so much more than the others destructive of human life, was perpetrated by an lUanon, a native of one of the piratical states of Magindanau, The same term meng-amuk is used by the Malays to designate furious fighting in battle. In arts and raanufactures the Malays of Borneo have not surpassed their neighbours on the peninsula and in Sumatra, and are certainly inferior to those of Java ; in the construction of their houses they display no skdl or taste, and their uncouth appearance makes them precisely reserable an English barn upon posts : the causes of the inferiority in neatness of construc tion, and also in durabihty of the raaterials of which they are built, are to be found in the insecurity of property consequent on the uncertain and oppressive governraent which has prevailed in the kingdora of Bruni during the past forty or fifty years. We have seen that during the visit of Pigafetta the town of Borneo was built of wood on strong and sub stantial posts ; it is now constructed entirely on nibongs, which soon decay, and is thatched with the nipah- leaves, of which the sides also are composed : under a good government the natives would, however, soon improve in the construction of their houses, and the people of Sarawak are rapidly substituting houses of large dimensions and durable materials for the small and HOUSES IN BORNEO. 151 inconvenient huts they pre-riously inhabited. The houses in all parts of Bomeo are built upon posts * generally about four or five feet from the ground, but sometiraes more : the object of this originally was for the purposes of health, and as a means of preservation from noxious reptdes, and in some instances, hereafter to be described, as a protection against their enemies. The towns are always situated on the banks of rivers, and such low places are often chosen as are overflowed by the tide ; perhaps these spots have been fixed upon that the water might cleanse the impurities which are frequently allowed to accumulate beneath their resi dences. Borneo and Kalekka are the only two towns which I have seen built entirely in the water, the whole of the houses, vrith the exception of that of the sultan and one or two of the nobles, being built upon posts fixed in the mud banks of the river. That such situa tions should have been chosen is the more strange, as at low water a stench, which cannot be of a healthy nature, arises from the mud, which to an European, or stranger not accustomed to it, is very offensive ; the natives of the town affirm that this does not affect their health. The river at the place where the town is situated is very wide, and receives the waters of the Sungie Kadyan, a tributary stream; ; the main river forms the principal street of the town, and on it are situated the large houses of the nobles and princes. The houses are disposed with more regularity than in most Malayan towns, being intersected by water-lanes at right angles from the main water-street, so that the 153 PALACE OF THE SULTAN OF BRUNI. whole town is divided into a number of solid squares of houses, each of which communicates with one of the streets of the town. The palace of the sultan is a large building of wood, situated on the neck of land formed by the Kadyan river, and a few hundred feet from its mouth : it is surrounded by a high pagar of split and fiattened bamboo, neatly plaited into a close fence, so that nothing can be seen from the outside ; strangers are never admitted into the interior. Every thing about the palace had a much neater and cleaner appearance than the other parts of the town (May, 1845), and the landing-place to it was defended by six small brass guns on handsomely carved carriages ; both the general audience-hall and the private recep tion-room were situated outside the enclosure of the palace. On the low point of land, which was not occupied by the buildings of the sultan's residence, were lying several fine large brass guns without carriages, some of them fifty-six pounders, which had been cast in Borneo in earlier times, others were said to have been presented by the Kings of Spain to forraer Sultans of Bruni ; the whole of these guns have been captured by the British since this account of Bomeo was written. The palaces of the rajahs, which are ungainly looking, but very large wooden buddings, are the only ones of this construction, and most of these are in a dUapidated condition ; their mosques, of which there are several in the town, are in an equally ruinous state. The public market in Bruni presented an unique PUBLIC MARKET OF BRUNI. 153 and interestingly novel appearance, being held upon the water by the women, who arrive every morning from the country -with fruit, vegetables, and other articles for sale ; the vendors are generally two or three in each boat, every one of them provided with a large hat made of palm-leaves, and of an umbreUa shape, which serves to protect the whole person from either the sun or rain. They each have also a paddle, with which they manage their little canoes — which are almost level with the water's edge — -with the greatest dex terity. Early in the raorning the market boats assemble; first about the raiddle of the town; but floating up quietly with the sluggish tide, or down, if the water be ebbing ; during the day, it is seen moving slowly in and out of the different streets with an occasional purchaser, who is making a bargain with a market woman separated from the rest, in the eager ness of trade having forgotten to direct her little boat in the same course as the others, but, the purchase completed, she soon joins the remainder, and is lost in the crowd. This fleet of market boats nurabers gene raUy from 150 to 200, and the whole business trans acted in them is conducted by woraen. It has generally entirely dispersed by noon. Houses built of stone are never seen in Borneo, but traces of iraages and Hindu sculpture, hereafter to be de scribed, prove that during the prevalence of the Hindu- Javan power in the island, stone-work was known, though perhaps never practised by the natives of the country, the few images to be found haring, perhaps, been brought 154 MALAY BOAT-BUILDING. from Java. Even in working in wood, though not un skilful, the Malays have very bad and inadequate tools. Their planks for house-building they generally purchase of the Chinese carpenters and sawyers at Sarawak, as they themselves do not use the large saw for cutting up tiraber, their boat-planks being formed with great labour and waste of wood with the bUeong, a small kind of adze, which is the only cutting instrument employed also in raaking their fine posts of balean aud other hard woods. They are, from their great prac tice, very dexterous with this instrument, and the sur face of the posts formed by them is as smooth as if the plane had been used to them, and the square form is as well preserved as if they had been cut out by the saw. In boat-building they have attained much greater perfection than in other carpenters' work, and in this art they have lately very much improved, and endeavour as much as possible to imitate the strength and durability of English ships in the construction of their large boats. Thus they now copy the ships of Europe; and all the boats of Sarawak have sads of light canvass, and cordage of excellent quality, instead of the clumsy mats and inelegant rattans formerly in use. The people of Sarawak and of the west coast of Borneo, and indeed of the island generally, are far behind the natives of Celebes and Java in the manu facture of cloths. They grow no cotton, and the cloths they raake are frora cotton thread which they annuaUy import from Singapore. They have no variety of patterns, aU their cloths being variations of a red MANUFACTURE OF CLOTH, 155 tartan. The sarongs, or cloths worn round the waists of the men, and into which the kris is frequently stuck, manufactured on the coast, are, however, rauch preferred to any cloths the produce of Europe, or of Celebes or Java, on account of their great durability. The sarongs frora Celebes, which, next to their own, are most esteeraed, sell in the bazaar for two dollars each ; the coarsest of those of the town sell for three, and the finest and those brought from Kalekka for four or five doUars, A much finer and dark-coloured kind, the produce of the looms of Soolu and Magindanau, are very highly esteemed. They cost on the west coast from eight to twenty dollars, and are rarely to be purchased ; at Bruni, where they are more comraonly used by the people of rank, their price is very little lower, though the supply is greater and more regular. It is curious that the price of these cotton cloths should be more than that of silk of the same size, the produce of other countries vvhere the art of weaving is ^ in greater perfection. All the fabrication of cloths is carried on by the females, and a slave who is clever at this branch of industry is proportionately valued. Though silks are rauch worn by the woraen, they do not atterapt themselves to manufacture them ; they are all brought from Singapore, and those manufac tured at the Anambas islands, particularly at Siantan, are generally used. They are of the same patterns as the other Malayan cloths, and cost in Sarawak about three to four Spanish dollars, or 12*. 6d. to 16s. Qd. sterling. Those brought from Palembang and Tring- 156 MANUFACTURE OF MATS. ganu are of stronger quality and thicker texture, and of course are higher in price, soraetimes reaching ten Spanish dollars. The satins and silks of other patterns used are the manufacture of China. The kain benang mas and kain bentabur, or cloth of gold thread, are brought from Singapore, and are principally the manu facture of Sumatra. Most of the women practise embroidery with gold and sUver thread, to adorn the ends of their square pillows or the corners of their beautiful mats of open work, which are brought from the Natunas islands ; but though this accoraplishraent occupies much of their time, they have not attained to any great perfection in it. Were they instructed in the art from ManiUa or China, they would, as they have a natural taste for the eraployraent, soon excel in it. The mats mentioned in the preceding paragraph, though not produced on the island itself, are strictly to be counted amongst its manufactures, as the Natunas, where they are made, though not politically, are geo graphically a portion of it. I have not had opportu nities of seeing this manufacture carried on, but under stand that it occupies the time of the woraen of Sir- hassen, as the produce of the sdk cloths does those of Siantan. The mats are made of a beautifully soft and white rush, the larger ones having a broad border of open work of pretty patterns round the edges, and which is larger as the mats decrease in size, they being always made in sets, until the smallest one, which lies above, is formed entirely of the open work, through OF GOLD, 157 which the under mats are seen ; but in fine and larger sets two or three of the upper ones are generaUy simUar to the small ones above described : they are very expensive in Sarawak, but this is on account of their rarity, and I presume that a fine set in the islands would not be very costly. This manufac ture seems to be carried on in no other part of the Archipelago, and the produce of these islands is gene rally seized by the Rajah of Lingin, in the Straits of Rhio, who, on the ground of his unjust title to the kingdom of Johore, claims the sovereignty of these islands. They export to Sarawak numbers of mats made of the same raaterial as those above described, but without the open work ; these are sold for about one rupee each. It would have been reasonable to suppose that where gold is so plentiful and so highly valued, and rauch used as an ornament, that the natives theraselves would have been at least as clever in the raanufacture of it as the Sumatrans and Javanese, but it does not seem that they have ever even attempted themselves to form it into ornaments, but trust entirely to foreign nations for their supply of artisans in the precious metals. Some of the Borneans were workers in gold, but their masterpieces were of the coarsest description, seldom exceeding in beauty the productions of the Sea Dyaks. The Javanese carry on this profitable trade at Sarawak, but these do not equal the gold smiths of Sumatra, and are ignorant of the manufac ture of the beautiful fiUigree work of that island, so much valued in former times in England, The orna- 158 IRON AND BRASS ments, for which purpose alone the gold is used, are the pieces or thin plates for the jackets of the women ; these are of various forms, according to the taste of the wearers ; the patterns are stamped upon them from the inside ; they are worn, by such as can afford it, in three rows of nine plates each upon the breast, and two rows of sraaller plates of the sarae nuraber, in the shape of stars, are frequent in addition to the others. About three bengkals (five ounces) of pure gold would be necessary to make the ornaraents for the jacket of a dattu's daughter ; besides these the ear ornaments and buttons for the wrists, with brace lets for the younger girls, consurae a great quantity. The ear ornaments are sraall and neat ; they are not pendant, but generally of the shape of an eight-rayed star ; they fasten by a nut which screws into the tube passing through the lobe of the ear, instead of a ring. To aU their gold they give the high rich colour so rauch admired amongst the Sumatran nations : this is termed sapoh, and is performed by a powder made of nitre, common salt, and alum, which is laid on the gold, being kept over a slow fire untd it dis colours, and becomes yeUow or red, according to the tirae it reraains in this situation, and the intensity of colour the gold is wished to retain, Blacksraiths are more coraraon among the natives than any other workers in metals. The iron they use is all purchased from Singapore, the ore of the country not being smelted, though I have been told that the Chinese once smelted the ore of a richer quality in the neighbourhood of Tanjong Dattu. The beUows used MANUFACTURE, 169 by the blacksmiths are forraed of two wooden or baraboo cylinders, with pipes leading from the bottom of them into the fire ; the wind is forced through these pipes by two stout sticks, to which are attached large bunches of feathers. These are worked, alternately, by a boy seated high enough for the purpose, and throw a strong and constant stream of wind into the fire. Their fuel is charcoal ; — even where coal is found the natives never use it. The skiU of the blacksraiths, which is considerable, is principally exhibited in making their instruments of carpenters' work and weapons, and a person skilful in the manufacture of the kris and spear can always obtain abundance of employment. The adze and axe of their own manu facture are preferred to those sent from England, which are frequently of a very inferior quality. None of the sraiths have attained sufficient skiU to be able to Inake a musket, though these, and large guns, have been made in former times in the capital. The Bugis people of Celebes prefer their own clumsy rifles, which are fitted with locks from Singapore, to the finer ones from Europe, These people practise rifle shooting much, and have generally been found in Singapore equal to Europeans who supposed themselves skilful in shooting at a mark at long distances: Brass, though the manufacture of it was formerly extensively practised in Borneo, is now only worked, and to a very small extent, by a few artisans from Java. They make dishes, cooking-pots, and other utensds of it, but not in nearly sufficient quantities to supply the demand for these articles, large quantities 160 MALAY FISHING. being annually imported from Java. Copper is not used, but being mixed with gold, forms a beautiful compound metal, much valued by the Borneans for ornamenting the handles of their long krises. In their apparatus for the capture of fish, they have attained greater perfection than in any of the mecha nical arts, and the contrivances for the capture of this favourite article of food are very nuraerous. The prin cipal are the inclosures of stakes, drag-nets, casting- nets, traps, placed so as to swing to each tide ; and with hook and line : prawns, shriraps, and sraall fish are taken with hand-nets in the fine season. The quantity of fish taken by these various contrivances is enormous. They are salted and dried, as has been before stated, and sent into the interior parts of the country. The river fish in general are not so much esteemed as those taken at sea, though they also are frequently caught, principally by means of hooks and lines attached to the light wood called plye, already described. Pieces of the wood, cut into the shape of birds, may frequently be seen floating down -with the tide, to each of which is attached at the neck a strong line supporting a baited hook. The proprietor is gene rally not far off, and, on the float bobbing under water, soon seizes it, and captures the fish which has taken the hook, but though large, cannot keep the light float under water. A fine fish called by the natives 'ikan malang,' is the one most frequently caught in this manner, Tlie^|alg^s_of-Sar-aw;alLseliora-app]j:.llie^^ gardening or agriculture, trusting entirely for their TRADERS AT SARAWAK. 161 supplies of rice and fruits to the industrious Dyaks of the interior, and to the Chinese gardens in the town for the vegetables they require. Some of the chiefs and principal persons who have slaves about them frora agricultural countries, generally eraploy them in making and taking care of farms and gardens at a distance from the town, to which they regularly bring the produce to their masters. Many of the traders have latterly expressed a desire to become planters, and it is probable that young and profitable planta tions of the cocoa-nut, betel-nut, and fruit trees, will soon become common ; atjgreseflLJthey™impQEL.-the whole^oT the quantiti§s„ nsK.MJMge]y.„fi9nsume^^^^ of these two former useful articles, and it is to be feared that the ease with which large profits are gained in trade, and in working the gold mines, wUl for a long time prevent any considerable progress in agriculture, and untd competition shall have reduced the one to its proper standard, and taxes restrict the working of the other, we cannot expect to see any great improveraent in the cultivation of the land, or in the mechanical arts, though perhaps the instructions of missionaries may assist in diffusing a desire to become greater proficients in these branches of industry amongst them. In war, as far as the Enghsh have had opportunities of observing their behaviour, the people of Sarawak have not been found deficient in courage, though they seldom show that carelessness of life which makes other tribes altogether regardless of danger; the feats M 163 WARS OF THE SARAWAK PEOPLE. of courage displayed by the late Patingi Ali, who accompanied the forces under Captain Keppel against the pirates of Sakarran, were of such distinguished fearlessness as to caU forth the voluntary acclamations of the Europeans engaged. The wars of Sarawak are like those of most nations iu a simdar state of civdiza tion, long, protracted, but very bloodless, and the account of the manner of conducting the operations against the rebels of Sarawak, detailed in Mr. Brooke's Journal, published in Keppel's book, is the narrative of all their bloodless campaigns. The present forces of Sarawak comprise aU the male inhabitants capable of bearing arms, who are obliged to attend their chiefs on any expeditions which they may have decided as necessary for the good of the state, government sup plying them -with food during their continuance. There are now belonging to Sarawak, and which are kept constantly ready for service, eight large war-boats, which can each carry sixty men, and one six-pounder gun ; most of them carry in addition to this two lelahs, or long brass swivel guns, and smaU arms in proportion, the whole of which, with the ammunition, are provided by the government. The weapons in use amongst the natives are principaUy spears and swords, the kris being not here so much in repute as amongst the people of the north, whose krises are much larger and more serviceable weapons than those used by the Javans and Malays in the western part of the Archipelago : the blades are also without the damasked appearance which renders them valuable amongst THEIR WEAPONS. 163 these latter people ; the steel is better tempered, and being heavy and two-edged, they are used to cut as weU as thrust. Bucklers made of a round form, smaU, and of rattans firmly plaited, which are serviceable to resist the stroke of a sword or the thrust of a spear, are in general use among thera. The bow and arrow, if they ever used these weapons, have now entirely given way to the musket, which is in such general repute araong the nations of the Archipelago as to be an article of greater traffic that almost any other cora- modity of European manufacture. It is by the dread the natives of the interior have of fire-arms that the Malays are suffered to occupy the coasts, and thus tyrannize over the people of the interior. The Dyaks of Sakarran and Sarebas have often told me, that were it not for the noise of two or three old muskets which they possess, they should never be able to stand against the Kyans, whom they own to be a more brave and dangerous enemy than any of the others they have to encounter. At the marriages and other festivals, music is in high repute, but generally of the coarsest and most noisy description, Untd the recent introduction of some of the Javanese musical instruments, those of the Sarawak people consisted only of the gongs of different descriptions, and the tom-toms, or drums; similar to those used by the natives of India. At these feasts dancing girls are never introduced, they not being known in the settleraent, except to such as have seen them in Pontianak, Singapore, or Java, M 3 164 ASSOCIATION WITH EUROPEANS, In conversation I have learned from the chiefs that they consider dancing as an indecorous and unbecoming amusement. Singing and recounting romances are practised at aU their festivities, and of these amuse ments they are very fond. The practice of the religion of the Prophet restrains the Sarawak people from drinking; but to all kinds of boisterous mirth they are naturally averse. They are not, however, averse to society, and are fond of associating with the Euro peans; many of them used nightly to visit Mr. Brooke's house, where chairs were placed for the principal personages : they entered readdy and sen sibly into aU conversations on subjects which were familiar to them, and always evinced a strong desire to be informed on such points as they were ignorant of, never, like the conceited Chinese, pretending to despise what they did not comprehend. The extent and ira portance of the English nation was a subject on which they perpetually were asking questions. The variety of our raanufactures, and the application of steara- power to machinery, were subjects on which they exhausted us of information. There is no doubt that, should nothing interfere to prevent the carrying out the measures of the present ruler of Sarawak, it will ere long become a state of the greatest com mercial importance : the facilities which the character of the people, and the richness of its productions, offer for the profitable employment of British capital and skiU, wdl doubtless soon be made available in develop ing its valuable resources. CHAPTER VI. SEA-DYAKS — TRIBES OP LUNDU, SAKARRAN, AND SAREBAS — DYAK HOUSES LANGUAGE, RELIGION, AND SUPERSTITIONS THE MANANG, OR VILLAGE DOCTOR— DRESS OF DYAKS AND OF THEIR WOMEN — SEVERAL OP THEIR CHIEFS — ANECDOTE OP ONE — HEAD-TAKING GRATITUDE TO ME. BROOKE — PIRACY OF SEA-DYAKS ITS SUPPRES SION — DYAK LAXITY OP MANNERS THEIR LOVE OP THEIR CHIL DREN DUTIES AND LABOURS OP THE MEN AND WOMEN CAPTIVE DYAK CHILDREN COOKERY OF THE DYAKS THEIR FUNERALS, AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES. In pursuance of the plan it is our intention to foUow in describing the inhabitants of the island in the order in which they are best known to us, which wiU nearly correspond also with their relative political importance, the Dyaks next present themselves to our notice, sufficient we trust having been said to give the reader a general idea of the Malays of the coast of Borneo, and to leave on his mind a more favourable impression of the character of some of thera than the nation generally has hitherto enjoyed. The Dyaks appear to be divided by many customs and usages naturally into two classes, which have been called by Mr. Brooke, Land and Sea Dyaks ; the latter appear to have been the more savage and powerful, the former the more quiet and easily managed. Amongst the sea Dyaks the practice of preserving the heads of their enemies, anciently instituted that they might be kept 166 SEA DYAKS. HEAD-HUNTING. as meraorials of triuraph, has degenerated, from its originally sufficiently barbarous intention, into a passion for the possession of these horrid trophies, no matter how obtained. Amongst the land Dyaks the custom still remains as it was probably at first instituted, and no vrish. for the possession of a head would tempt these people to take one unless it were that of their enemy with whom they were avowedly at war. These land Dyaks differ more decidedly in other particulars from those who frequent the sea, aU of which shall be related in the chapter upon their customs and manners. The sea Dyaks, or such as are in the constant habit of frequenting the ocean for the purposes of carrying off the heads of fishermen, or any other persons whom they may find in a situation not capable of defence, inhabit principaUy the countries lying in the interior of the great rivers Sarebas and Sakarran, with their numerous and large branches. Settlements of them, which, however, appear to differ iu some measure, are also found on the Kenawit and the neighbouring branches of the river Rejang, and one tribe also be longing to this division has its chief settlement at Lundup, pronounced Lundoo in the Sarawak territory. As it is from this tribe that the following remarks are principaUy drawn, except where it is expressly stated to the contrary, I think it right to give the reader a just idea of its geographical position. This tribe, the name of which is Sebooyoh, misprinted Sibnowan in Captain Keppel's book, came originally from the country THE SEBOOYOH TRIBE. 167 situated about the sources of the westem branch of the Batang Lupar river, in the direction of the lake Danau Malayu and the Pontianak river. They were expeUed from thence by their eneraies, and descending the Batang Lupar, estabhshed their vUlages on a sraall river named Sebooyoh, from which they are now designated. This river is situated a little to the west ward of the mouth of the Batang Lupar, between it and the Sadong rivers. From this they carried on war with their old enemies of Sakarran with various success, but were finaUy compelled, about ten years before the new era of Sarawak, again to decamp farther westward, when they divided into three tribes, and settled in the viUages they now occupy. That portion which foUowed the chief orang kaya of the tribe, and whose family has for many generations pro duced its chief, settled at Lundu, which has now become a beautiful fortified vdlage, and from which the gallant old chief has frequently made successful expeditions against his hereditary eneraies. The river of Lundu is situated to the westward of the Santu-bong, or westem entrance to the river of Sara wak : this river, which is not large, has its rise in the Sarawak territory and country occupied by the land Dyaks of Singhie. Another large village of the Se booyoh Dyaks is established on a creek of the Sarawak river about a raile below the Malayan town ; the creek is called Pedungan, and the Dyaks are often desig nated as orang or Dyak Pedungan — the men or 168 THE DYAKS OF LUNDU, Dyaks of Pedungan. The viUage established here is well budt, and contains about sixty faraihes ; it is not fortified in any way, though the Dyaks possess sorae smaU brass guns. The other divisions of the tribe, which are equaUy under the protection of the govern ment of Sarawak, have vUlages on the Samarhand and Sadong rivers, but many little clusters of houses are to be found scattered about in the country near the mouths of the above-named streams, nominaUy belonging to the tribe, though not residing at any of the principal vUlages, The Dyaks of Lundu have been a pet tribe of Mr. Brooke's, on account of the heroic gallantry displayed by thera and their chief on many occasions of difficulty and danger. The conduct of the orang kaya, and his assistance to Mr. Brooke in the Seni awan war, are fully detailed in the Hon. Captain Keppel's work, whom they also accompanied in his expeditions against Sakarran and Sarebas, which are their favourite places of attack, they being always anxious to revenge theraselves on these people, who have caused them so much loss and trouble during their residence in their former vUlages. The country occupied by the sea Dyaks on the great rivers is generally flat towards the sea, but more un dulating in the interior. It is covered in many parts with dense forests, and the sod is rich and productive, so that, when peaceably disposed, they are large ex porters of rice, and all kinds of fruits are abundant and very cheap in their districts. As far as is yet AND THE SAKARRAN AND SAREBAS TRIBES. 169 known of the products, gold is not one of them, nor have I seen specimens of any other metals which have been extracted from their sod. Small paths intersect the forests between the vdlages of all the Sakarran and Sarebas tribes, so that a constant comraunication is easily kept up, and as their practices and interests are identical, the good understanding which has long existed between these powerful tribes of savages is likely to be maintained, as they probably very well know that a quarrel between thera would only end in the ruin of both, their enemies being so numerous, and anxious to revenge upon them the many injuries they have sustained at their hands. Though the Dyaks generally build their viUages near the river for the convenience of launching their boats, there are many of them situated so high towards the sources of the streams as to be unnavigable from the rapids ; the people inhabiting such join the boats belong ing to some village situated lower down, and are thus enabled to participate in their piratical practices. The -rillages of the sea Dyaks are formed upon one plan, the houses being, if the tribe be small — that is to say, of about sixty families — all collected under one roof. Each house has its separate door, which op§ns into a broad verandah covered in by a continuation of the pitch of the roof, and which answers all the purposes of a street, being floored with laths of bamboo or nibong, and on a level with the flooring of the houses. One terrace of such buildings is often 500 or 600 feet 170 DYAK HOUSES, in length, and the houses being budt on very strong posts with wooden sides, and covered with atap, they present frequently a neater and more comfort able appearance than the frequently ruinous houses of the Malays, Besides the door opening into the verandah, they have on each side of their dwellings, which consist only of one room, a door communicating with the residence of the next famdy, so that, if it were an advantage, a person could traverse the whole length of the terrace without appearing on the verandah at all. The windows of their houses are part of the roof, which, in the construction of the house, has been sepa rated for that purpose ; it is raised and supported open by a notched bamboo or other stick, and when shut is undistinguishable from the rest of the roof. The ataps composing the thatch are not each tied to the rafters, but being bound into large sheets are secured only in a few places, so that in case of fire, by the few fastenings being cut, they are easily shd from the steep sloping roof, and prevented from adding fuel to the, without them, too inflaramable dwelhngs. The large covered shed or verandah above described is the place where aU the in-door occupations of the men and women are carried on, and when not engaged in out-door occupations, they may be all seen here together pursuing their varied avocations ; the men in preparing weapons of the chase or war, or instruments of agriculture, the women in cleaning rice from the husk, making raats, baskets, &c. As the inhabitants DYAK HOUSES. 171 of the different vdlages combine to repair or rebuild them all at the same time, their houses and terraces have always an uniform appearance, and are aU of the same size. In the interior arrangements of their houses the fire-places, of which there are two, are placed on each side of the priricipal entrance; each is formed of a kind of shallow box, or framework, of strong pieces of wood filled with clay; this is sup ported on strong wooden posts reaching through the flooring to the ground, and extending to the top of the house. On the clay are four or five stones of a convenient size, which serve for sustaining the cooking pot over the fire, which is placed in the space left between them, and is always of wood, a large supply of which, split and ready, is always kept dry on another framework above the fire-place, and supported by the same posts. This it is the duty of the woraen constantly to replenish frora the trees which have been feUed in clearing the ground, and which are strewed abundantly all over their farras. As the roofs are high in the centre, and slope at a sharp angle, much room in the top of the house is rendered avail able by the Dyaks, who erect another flooring over the one they constantly use; thus they have a large and useful loft where they stow their baskets, mats, and iraplements of agriculture during the season they are not in use. As may be supposed, people in their state of barbarity have little need of furniture, which for the most part is used to administer to the purposes 172 DYAK MODE OF EATING. of luxury. The Dyaks eat their food from the ground for a table ; each having taken a portion of rice which he considers sufficient for him, this, if he be not provided with a plate, which many of them are, is placed upon a clean leaf of the Ddlenia speciosa, and he dips his hand into the comraon stock of salt which is placed in the centre of the group. If they have flesh to their repast it is partaken of in a similar man ner to the salt. They never drink during their meal, but on rising wash their hands and mouths, and after wards take a draught of water from the bamboos, which are always kept full near the fire-place. Though they eat from the ground or floor of their houses, they rarely sit cross-legged upon it like the Malays, but have each a small block of wood about three inches in thickness, which they use as a seat by day and a pillow by night. Around the walls of the apartment hang the gongs and other musical instruments, and such por tions of their dress as they do not happen to be using, together with their spears, shields, and instru ments of war. One side of the house always contains a rack, in which are placed the naked swords of the faraily, the sheaths hanging by their side. The doors / of their houses are protected on the inside by a bar, but as pdfering is rare amongst these people, it is perhaps more to prevent intrusion when they wish for privacy, than as a protection against robbers. This is rendered evident by the doors, which cannot be fas- LANGUAGE OF SEA DYAKS. 173 tened on the outside, being closed when they are at their farras by the mortar in which their rice is cleaned, and which always stands outside the door in the verandah, or some other heavy piece of wood being raerely placed against it. The whole of their buddings, though of so substantial and good appear ance, are formed and fastened together without the assistance of nails, their place being supplied by rat tans and other cordage. The language of the sea Dyaks, though altogether different in such parts as having not been adopted frora the Malay, is merely a less refined dialect of the language spoken over all Polynesia, and its connexion vrith that of the other wild tribes, particularly those of Sumatra, is easily to be traced. It is not nearly so melodious in sound, or so copious in its extent, as the Malay, though the Dyaks do not scruple to extend it by adding foreign words whenever they find it neces sary, so that a great portion of the words of their vocabulary are frora the Malay : the intercourse, which has been generally friendly, between the two nations has also encouraged this adoption of foreign terras. Speeiraens of their language are given in the work of Captain Keppel, frora the vocabularies of Mr. Brooke, and as I can vouch for their correctness, it is not necessary to repeat them here. The different tribes into which the sea division of the Dyaks is again sepa rated have each dialects, which differ in a trifiing measure from that generally spoken, but as far as I 174 RELIGION AND SUPERSTITIONS. have been able to learn, not nearly so much so as amongst the land Dyaks, and never so much but that the tribes belonging to this division, situated most distant from each other, are prevented from the most free coramunication. This greater similarity of dialect araongst these many villages, than prevads amongst the land tribes, may easily be accounted for, by the greater friendship and intercourse which has subsisted perhaps from the time of their separating from each other : as far as is known, at no period of their history were they ever at war with each other, but were always the foes of the Kyans and land Dyaks in their vicinity ; the land tribes, on the contrary, appear always to have been at war with aU the tribes in their neighbourhood, which, though perhaps they did not cause the yearly average of a single death, effectually prevented all friendly comraunication. The religious observances of these people are very little known, but in their state of civilization it cannot be supposed to extend beyond a few superstitions and belief in spirits of woods and mountains ; their chief deity is called Batara, a pure Sanscrit term for God, but this appears to be the only relic left them of their forraer intercourse with the Javan Hindus, who seem never to have possessed so much influence over the sea Dyaks as over the land tribes, none of the peculiar Hindu customs of these latter obtaining among them. The doctor and priest of the vdlage,, who is termed manang, is a very curious and mys- DOCTOR AND PRIEST OF A DYAK VILLAGE. 175 terious character, and I have not been able to learn that a simdar functionary exists amongst the wdd tribes of the other islands, but as far as my inquiries in Borneo are concerned, the curious practice of priest craft which follows is peculiar to the sea Dyak tribes. The manang is a person of great consequence in the viUage, all diseases being brought to him for cure ; to perform this, if the disease be internal, he caUs together aU the friends of the sick person, and by making, with the assistance of others playing on gongs and tom toms, a deafening noise, sufficient to kid a person in ordinary health. He pretends to converse with the spirit which troubles the afflicted person. This method of treating diseases is not very conducive to the restor ation of health, but if the strength of the person is sufficient to bear him through, it is well; but should he die, no blame is attached to the manang, but it all devolves upon the malignant spirit, who is certainly not so black as, on these occasions, he is painted. I have not been able to hear correctly whether the pamali, or the taboo, hereafter to be described, is practised on these occasions, but as it is an institution anterior to the introduction of the Hindu religion on the west coast, I should suppose it here to be practised with the same rigour as amongst the knd tribes. But to return to the dress and habits of life of the manang. He is generally old, and rich from the many presents and payments made to him by those who require his services : his dress precisely resembles 176 THE MANANG, OR VILLAGE DOCTOR. that of a woraan, wearing no chawat, or waistcloth, as the raen, but the bedang, or short dress of the other sex, hereafter to be described, together with the appropriate ornaments. Not satisfied with the assump tion of the dress of the women, the raanang, the more to resemble them, takes unto himself a husband, who is generally a widower having a family, and who, in expectation of inheriting the manang's property, is glad to comply with his caprices : he is treated in every respect as a woman, and does not go to war with the raen ; he sees little of his husband, and the fact of caUing a person by this narae appears only to be necessary to render his assuraed character more complete. I could never learn any thing of the history of this curious institution from the Dyaks themselves, they declaring they knew nothing of it, and merely saying that it was an old custom, and laughed -with' us at its absurdity : perhaps it originated in persons of natural imbecility, being compelled by the tribe to assume the garb and habits of women, and thus have become through time a custom followed by men who were apparently in every respect fitted for the ordinary intercourse of society. I do not know whether they are brought up to this profession, but I rather think that they enter it after having attained a considerable age. I never saw any one who had a wife or chddren of his own, though they might have perhaps been married while young ; they are permitted to adopt the chddren of other people, and this they frequently do. APPEARANCE AND DRESS OF SEA-DYAKS, 177 Perhaps they only bepome raanangs after having proved themselves incapable of becoming the fathers of famihes, but I am not inclined to believe that such is the case. In general appearance the sea Dyaks have the advantage of the Malays and land tribes, being of a higher, though stdl short, stature, well made, and with limbs of exceUent proportions ; a subdued and calm, but resolute air ; an imposing carriage, walking with a hght and graceful step, and peculiarly self- possessed bearing ; these qualities impress the stranger raore favourably than the sraaUer stature, less elegant figures, darker features, and raore cunning expression of the countenance of the Malays. The dress of the sea Dyaks is very siraple, the prin cipal article of it being the chawat, a long, narrow cloth, which passing several times round the waist, and being brought between the thighs, has its broader and ornamented ends hanging before and behind to the knees. The ends hanging thus have very much the appearance of broad tails at a distance, and when these are raade of the inner bark of trees, as is fre quent among the land Dyaks, might easily suggest the idea of tads ; and we consequently find that a race of men with these appendages inhabiting the interior is a notion very prevalent along the coast. In ordinary weather, and when about their usual occupations, the chawat above described is their only clothing, but in wet or cold days they wear a coarse jacket of cotton, N 178 DRESS coloured brown ; these jackets and chawats are manu factured by the Dyaks of Sakarran and Sarebas, as are also the cotton bedangs of the women, and in times of peace they forra an article of export to all the tribes of the neighbouring countries, the natives of none of which manufacture them for themselves. A war party, or individuals of the Dyaks of Sakarran andSarebas,are immediately recognised by the members of the other tribes by the abundance of their brass or naraents, and particularly the nuraber of rings in their ears, the outer cartUage of that organ being pierced vrith holes along its edges for its whole length for their re ception : the hole in the lobe of the ear contains the largest and greatest number of these ornaments, three or four beingfrequently found in it, sometimes equal to three inches in diameter. The whole number contained in each ear of the Dyak varies from six or eight to four teen, and in young raen, occasionally to eighteen ; these gradually decrease in size towards the top of the ear, where they are very smaU. Other ornaraents of brass- wire are distributed in profusion about their persons, particularly on their legs and arras; these latter are frequently covered with nuraerous rings of very strong brass-wire about an eighth of an inch in thickness, the elbow joint is the only part left bare, and it is frequently adorned with a large white bracelet made of the kima-shell ; occasionally these rings of brass are flattened and stamped in various patterns, but the more general taste is to leave them round and OF DYAKS. 179 plain, taking great care to keep thera highly pohshed. One would think that the necessary weight of so rauch brass would be an inconvenient and cumbrous burden, but habit, and the taste for finery, soon reconcile this people to the load, and having been inured to it frora their earliest infancy, they do not feel it so rauch as strangers would necessarily do. Large rings of this wire also adorn the legs of the young men frora imraediately below the knee to the middle of the calf of the leg, and on their necks strings of the teeth of their enemies, and of bears, panthers, and other wild animals, are their favourite ornaments. In peace, their head-dress is a handkerchief, or a piece of the inner bark of a tree, dyed of a bright yeUow, and is so disposed that its ends stand up from the forehead ; their hair is cut in such a manner as to give to their features the most savage-looking appearance, being shaved from that part of the head near the temples in an arched form, so that the ends of the two arches meet in the middle of the forehead in a fine point : the hair is cut short in front, but left long and flowing behind. In war, they wear jackets of a thicker texture, which are also padded with cotton to such a thickness as to enable them to resist the blow-from the point of a wooden spear. Their head-dress on these occa sions is a kind of flllet, about two inches broad, made of red cloth ornamented with very small white cowrie shells, or beads, worked into different patterns ; from these fiUets rise feathers of different kinds of birds, but N 2 180 DRESS OF the white taU feathers, each having a broad black band across it, of the rhinoceros hornbUl, are preferred ; they have no covering or protection for their thighs or legs, but leave them as on ordinary occasions ; their parang, or large chopping knffe, is suspended from their left sides, and another string supports on the opposite side the little basket which contains their sirih leaves, betel-nut, and lime, for chewing ; these are placed in little cases of bamboo orna mented with brass or silver, and very much carved, but after a very rude manner. A similar bamboo case, and which is generally also carried in this little tarabuk, or basket, contains their tinder, flint, and steel ; a long knife is generaUy attached to it. The women of these tribes are, like their husbands and brothers, short in statm'e, generaUy more stoutly made than the Malay women, and with well-developed figures ; they are very much fairer than they, or even than the men of their own tribes : while young many of them would be thought very pretty, but soon, from their hard duties and other causes, they become stout and plain, and when old are frequently very ugly. When brought up amongst the Malays they continue much longer in their prime, and are generally thought prettier than the women of that nation : their hair, though naturaUy as good, from want of care and culti vation never attains such length and profusion amongst those who reside in their own villages, though in cir cumstances which give them time for the adorn- DYAK WOMEN. 181 ment of their persons it attains equal length and luxuriance. They are, like the men, fond of ornaments of brass or sdver, and display them liberaUy on their persons ; their principal article of dress is the bedang, a very short petticoat of their own cotton fabric of a coarse texture, and dyed of various patterns, but always of a brown or black colour. This scanty garment reaches frora the hips to the knees, and is sustained in its position by being tucked in and fastened by a belt of fine brass chain-work, with a clasp, which encircles it ; amongst those tribes that are richer than others, sdver chain is often substituted for brass, and amongst the poorer ones, split rattans, coloured, or black, are frequently used : above and round this belt, and the upper part of the bedang, are innuraerable folds of chain of brass, silver, and rattans, and when the wealth of the individuals will adrait of it, strings of sraall silver coins are eraployed. Their necks and breasts usually support nurabers of folds of the sarae materials, with the occasional addition of beads ; but these they do not so rauch esteem as the Dyaks of the hiUs : their arms are adorned with brace lets of silver very neatly raade, being forraed of thin plates of a broad and convex shape, so that they stand out frora the arra ; they have the patterns staraped ' upon thera frora the inside, and wear them from the wrist up the arm to the elbow, eight or nine in number; they do not, hke the women of 182 DRESS OF DYAK WOMEN. some other tribes, wear brass-wire above the elbow joint. The woraen of the Sebooyoh and other tribes wear in their ears ornaments of gold or sdver, which are of such an extent of surface as entirely to conceal that organ : like the bracelets, the pattern is staraped upon them frora the back, and the thiil plate is soldered to a sraall tube wMch passes through the hole pierced in the ear, and is fastened by a nut in the manner of the more elegant ear-ornaments of the Malayan woraen before described. When about their household employments, these ornaments and this dress are generaUy worn by the feraales, but when they pursue their out-door duties a jacket sirnilar to that of the raen, but of a little finer texture, envelopes the upper part of their persons, and protects them from the thorns of the jungle. In the house they wear no head-dress, but abroad a large hat, made of coloured rattans very finely woven, protects them from the weather : in size it approaches that of the market- women of Bruni, but is more peaked at the top, and of a rauch more elegant appearance. From the little friendly intercourse between the town of Sarawak, and the Sarebas, and Sakarran Dyaks, I have not been able to collect such accurate details as I could have wished respecting the government esta bhshed amongst the people of these rivers, which differs considerably from that of the hdl tribes, and more nearly approaches that of the orang Kyan, to the eastward of them, in many of their institutions. THE CHIEFS PA-MANCHA AND GASING. 183 The sea Dyaks appear to form a connecting link between the land tribes and the Kyans, showing that they are all of the same family; and, perhaps, these three great and distinct divisions are but the descendants of three different emigrations at periods remote from each other, and when peculiar causes might have altered, as we now see them, the characters of each. AU the tribes of Sarebas, though each has its particular chief, acknowledge in war the authority of the orang kaya Pa-raancha ; but it does not appear that, excepting when his orders and instructions agree with their own wishes, the petty chiefs, who com raand their own boats and the people of their own villages, pay particular attention to them, but stdl they always look up to this old man — ^who has distin guished himself by his bravery — vrith respect, and his opinion possesses great weight in their councils, raore particularly, as, frora his sanguinary nature, and the long practised custora of taking heads, his store of which he is always anxious to increase, the counsels of peace are seldora those he offers to the nation. In Sakarran they have several chiefs of great au thority ; that part of the country which lies nearest to the sea is under the authority of one head chief, naraed Gasing : he is a man in the prime of life, a very sensible and fine-looking feUow; and is, I believe, anxious to be at peace with the English, but finds it impossible to control his followers, and the other chiefs of tribes, who are of a different opinion. At a councU, which met at the junction of the Sakarran 184 THE CHIEFS BULAN and Batang Lupar rivers, an erabassy sent by Mr. Brooke frora Sarawak in the end of 1845, I heard this man declare, before several chiefs and many people, that he would with his own hand kdl the first who committed piracy on the ocean, or in any way departed from the wishes of Mr. Brooke ; several other chiefs asserted the same, but we afterwards heard that they were compelled ultiraately to join the war faction, by their people deserting to the viUages of the interior, whose chiefs were all of the opposite party, Gasing, in this part of the Sakarran country, is acknowledged to have very considerable influence, if he has not lost it by his advocacy of peaceable measures. Under him is a chief named Bulan, or the raoon ; he is called the war-chief, and directs all the operations at the encounter of a hostUe fleet or on the attack of a vdlage. He appeared to us a raan of but little intellect, who had attained his rank by nothing but his bull-dog courage. During the council above mentioned, he sat without taking the least notice of the proceedings, and, as soon as it was over, came to our boats to solicit cloths and handkerchiefs as presents. This man once led an attack against Ban ting, the village of the Balow Dyaks, alhes of Sarawak, whUe his son and nephew were in our hands ; so that judging, as he must have done, that his son and nephew would be put to death by the Europeans, he must have made up his mind to sacrifice thera to his passion for heads. AND LINGIE. 185 ' His son and nephew had been sent to Singa pore at Mr. Brooke's expense, and at their own re quest, during the short interval of quietness, which occurred after the peace above mentioned; they had received from Mr. Church, and other gentlemen of Singapore, rauch attention and many presents, and were about returning to Sarawak in the schooner, when their relation broke the peace by attacking our allies. They were very much afraid that we should revenge ourselves upon them, but, as may be sup posed, they were sent back to Sakarran, with all their valuables, unharmed. Though the effect of this generosity, and of the general conduct of the govern ment of Sarawak to these people has not yet been visible, it is doubtless working, and raust soon appear; and, though such a savage as Bulan can, perhaps, never be affected, there is a strong party favourable to the English rising in their tribes. Besides the two principal chiefs above naraed, they have one called Lingie, who is designated the trading chief, and who appears to have the regulation of the coraraerce of the river. This raan has given several proofs, at the risk of his life, of his anxiety to prevent war between his river and the settleraent of Sarawak : on one occasion he carae, pulling night and day, in a small boat, at Gasing's request, to inform Mr. Brooke that a fleet of eighteen boats was going to descend the upper part of the river on a cruise : by his information they were all captured. The com- 186 ANECDOTE OF LINGIE. mander of the fleet heard that he had gone to give this intelligence, and followed him for about fifty miles ; if he had been caught, his life, with that of his people, would have been sacrificed to his anxiety to maintain peace. In several conversations I have had with Lingie he has painted, in striking colours, the benefits which would arise to this great agricultural country frora the preservation of peace, and the miseries entailed upon them by being at war with Sarawak, which prevents them bringing their padi and bees'- wax, cloths, &c., to market, and supplying them selves with salt, which is almost as necessary as rice to the existence of a Dyak, and their supply of which, being all obtained from the coast, is easily, and gene raUy, stopped on their rupture with the Malayan powers. This man related to rae an anecdote of hiraself, which, notwithstanding the defence they made, proves the actual fear in which they held the force under Captain Keppel. Lingie was in his house cooking a pot of rice (his wife and famdy having been pre viously sent into the jungle for security, together with those of the other men inhabiting his viUage), and listening anxiously for information of the English force, which had attacked the town of Pa-rautus, and which Sereib Sahib, who defended it, had assured the Dyaks could never be taken by the orang putih, or white men, when a gun, discharged below his resi dence on the river, informed him that Pa-mutus was OTHER CHIEFS. 187 taken, and that the English were ascending the stream. Alarmed by the report, he seized his cooking pot and rushed out of the house, the door of which he reached in tirae to see his friends and followers scarapering off to the jungle for protection ; he lost no tirae in iraitating their exaraple, with his rice-pot in his hand ; and so great was his haste that his chawat, or cloth, having becorae unfastened and faUen to the ground, he rejoined his companions in a state of perfect nudity, not daring to stop to pick up his fallen covering. He told me that he was not ashamed to confess himself afraid of the Enghsh, on account of their fire-arms, but that if swords and spears were their weapons he would not raind them so much. Besides these three principal chiefs of the Sakarran Dyaks, each village has its head, who, in the general council of the nation, has an influence proportioned to the individual character of each one. Of these a fine young man naraed Mata-hari, or the sun, bas already distinguished himself in their piratical expeditions, and is a general favourite with their tribes. No other chief is allowed to interfere in the government of these vd lages, their internal raanagement being left entirely to a councd of the old men, by whpse advice the orang kaya generally guides his conduct. As the interior of the countries of Sakarran and Sarebas has never been visited by Europeans, excepting on hostde occasions, we have no means of judging of the number of viUages it contains ; but according to 188 HEAD TAKING. the best native authorities, they are more numerous and thickly inhabited than the vdlages of the poor, and till recently oppressed, land Dyaks, many of whose women and children have been taken from their horaes, and now swell the nuraber of these tribes of their ene mies. Having always preserved peace amongst them selves, these two powerful nations have been able to preserve their country frora invasion, and to inspire terror wherever they carried their arras. The only exception to this appears to be the Kyans, who have always been able to repel the invasions of these, who, araongst the weaker tribes, have sustained, from their uniform success, the reputation of a courage which they suppose themselves to be incapable of withstanding. The passion for head-hunting, which now character izes these people, was not formerly so deeply rooted in their characters as it is at present, and many of the inhabitants of Sarawak have assured me that they well recollect the tribes first visiting the sea with that ostensible and avowed object. In a limited extent the custom is probably as ancient as their existence as a nation ; but though other tribes appear to be equally addicted to the practice, there can be little doubt that it is a corruption of its first institution, unless, as Forrest says of the Idaan of the north of Borneo, they consider human sacrifice the most pleasing to the divinity, and lose no opportunity of presenting it ; but having conversed with the Dyaks frequently respecting this practice, they gave no such reason for it, and merely HEAD-TAKING. 189 accounted for it, in their usual raethod, by saying, that^ it was the adat ninik, or custora of their ancestors. The Malays theraselves, who now frequently feel its bad effects upon their persons and nation, have been in a great measure instrumental in encouraging this bar barous practice. During the prevalence of the Arab power in Sadong under the Sereibs Sahib, Muller, and their relations, and the raisrule of the chiefs of Sarawak during the ten or twelve years previous to Mr. Brooke's arrival, these unprincipled chieftains found the practice of head-taking araongst the Sakarrans raight be made serviceable to their interests. The poor hill Dyaks, who had been previously protected from the ravages of the fierce Sakarrans only by the Malays residing between them and their foes, and having been robbed of every thing calculated to excite the rapacity of their rulers, made an effort to save their wives and daugh ters frora the slavery which threatened them, by con-^ cealing themselves in the jungle. The Sakarran Dyaks were then called in by the extortionate and foolish rulers, and, assisted by a party of Malays with fire arms, generaUy found the hUl Dyaks an easy prey. Thus an opportunity was presented to them of ac quiring abundance of victims, whose heads the Malayan chieftains aUowed thera to retain, whde they took all the plunder, and shared the slaves. In these expe-^ ditions, several of which occurred annually, the greater part of the Dyaks of Sarawak and Sadong were at tacked, their men and women slain and decapitated 190 DYAK GRATITUDE TO MR. BROOKE, under the most cruel circurastances, and the virgins and chddren were carried by their parents' destroyers into captivity. Those who, by concealraent, had suc ceeded in escaping the sWord of the oppressor, from their hiding-places beheld the flaraes consume their remnants of property and their villages. It can easdy be imagined after this account of their suffer ings, which might easily be sweUed by an enumera tion of horrors common to civilised, and many pecu liar to barbarian warfare, with what pleasure they haded the return of peace, which Mr. Brooke's arrival proraised thera ; and the gratitude they now feel, and the affection with which they regard the raan who saved their residue frora starvation, slavery, and death, is equal to the sufferings frora which his huraanity delivered thera ; and the only fear which has hitherto, since the establishraent of his government, alloyed their happiness is, that any accident should interrupt the protection they have hitherto received ; but now they have gained so strong a hold upon the sympathy of the generous British nation, there is little prospect of this fear being ever realised. By such encourageraent the sea Dyaks have been con firraed in the practice of head-hunting, and taught to consider the divided and weaker tribes of the hills their natural prey. It is difficult to conceive how their rulers could have been so blind to their own interest, as so to oppress the people from whora they gained their revenues and subsistence, and for the sake of SKA-DYAKS, — PIRACY, 191 a trifle more at one time than they were in the cus tom of demanding, to destroy their only hope of a future supply. Perhaps the Arab Sereibs, whom Sir Stamford Raffles in describing truly says, " hold like robbers the offices they obtain as sycophants, and cover all with the veil of religious hypocrisy," thought that after they had destroyed the land tribes, they would subsist entirely by piracy on the part of the sea Dyaks, and by their piratical relations with the Soolu and other nations who frequented the coasts and bays of their territories. Pa-mutus in the Sakar ran river was the scene of their overthrow, and though the Sereibs were not taken, the principal of them, Sereib Sahib, has since died, and the remainder, scattered about araongst the tribes of Sarebas and Sakarran, are in a great measure the cause of the bad conduct of these tribes. At the capture of the eigh teen boats formerly mentioned, three of them were present, and fled in such haste to the jungle that their gold ornaments and flne clothing fed into the hands of the Balows. As these Dyaks constantly retreat before a superior enemy into the jungles and fastnesses, it has been found almost impossible to bring their forces either on shore or at sea to a general action. Coidd their fleet be once caught in a bay, or other situation in which European sailors could teach thera the fatal effects of grape and canister, they would be careful in venturing again to disturb the peaceful narigation of the sea. Frora the hghtness of their 192 SUPPRESSION OP PIRACY, construction, their swiftness, and their light draft of water, they are always able to evade the boats of our cruisers; but should it be found advisable on the establishment of Labuh-an, to reduce these people, who are now — no less than the Lanuns and Soolus, though iu a narrower sphere — the terror of the coast, they can be easily and effectually blockaded, and thus soon reduced to quietness. At present, though they have seen the gaUant Captain Keppel in their river, and at their own doors, they have no adequate idea of our power, and fancy, as they have frequently committed piracies since they were last visited, with impunity, that no further notice wiU be taken of them. It is to be wished that they may soon flnd this an erroneous notion, and learn, though circurastances may for a time prevent their punishment, that the trade and interests of civilised nations cannot be interrupted with impunity. So difficult is it at present to induce them to leave off, as a body, their piratical habits, that though the first act of Mr. Brooke in the country, even before he assumed the government of Sarawak, was to turn back a fieet of ninety boats which had been invited by the rajah to attack a land tribe, they have fre quently since had the ignorance or impertinence to re quest his permission to destroy towns and villages under his protection. Their first act of piracy since the expe dition of the 'Dido' was to send out the fleet of eighteen boats, previously mentioned as having been captured by our allies, the Balow Dyaks. This BULAN AND OTHER WAR CHIEFS. 193 occurred in October, 1846. In November the late Mr. Wdliarason, then Mr. Brooke's secretary, was sent to thera accompanied by a considerable force, and having with him the Balow chiefs. They were met at the Malay village, at the junction of the Sakar ran and Batang Lupar, by Gasing, Lingi, Rantap, Bulan, and other chiefs of Sakarran, and a treaty of peace was agreed upon, a pig being killed, as is their custom. This, however, was not long observed. In March, 1846, a large fleet, led by Bulan, the war- chief of Sakarran, attacked the vdlage of the Balow Dyaks, and kdled thirty-five persons, though they had some Malays in the place, and one or two smaU guns, which were taken. The success which attended this expedition was on account of their having sm'prised the village when the raen were all absent at the farras. During the past season, the Sarabas and Sakarran Dyaks attacked one of the kampongs of Kalkeka, the next considerable river eastward frora Sarebas, and in the government of the Dattu Patengi AbduLraham, of Serekei, who, however, assisted by a force of the Kyans who inhabit the interior of his country, so amply retahated, that upwards of fifty of the people of Sare bas were killed or taken captive. On another recent occasion the son of the old Orang Kaya Pa Mancha, the principal chief of Sarebas, was slain by our Dyaks, who accompanied a fleet in search of these pirates, and this has given them another opportunity of swearing to possess themselves of the 194 SAKARRAN AND SAREBAS. head of the Rajah of Sarawak, and annihdating his settlement. A stage for drying the much coveted head has been accordingly erected, and one of their rare and much valued jars has been prepared for its reception. At the attack on the Balow viUage, in the height of their excitement, Bulan is reported, with others, to have caUed out to the assaUed, that his only wish was that a steam-ship, of which in reality they have the greatest possible di'ead, might heave in sight, as he would then have the pleasure of sho-wing the Balow people how he would treat their friends, the English, previously to taking their own heads. A simdar cry, taunting the Princes of Borneo with their relations to the English, was raised at their unfortunate massacre, and the arrival of British ships was in the same raanner spoken of in derision ; but on Admiral Cochrane's appearance in the river they quickly retired from their forts. It has been before stated, that while the taunting expressions above recited were used by Bulan, the son and nephew of this thoughtless savage were in the hands of the Eng lish : he is reported to have said, when reminded of this circumstance, that his sons were clever in the jungle, and that he trusted to their making their escape as soon as the news reached Sarawak. Though frora their friendly intercourse -with the Malays they have adopted some of the customs, and have borrowed considerably from the language of that DYAKS. 195 people, they have not introduced polygamy, or, with the exception of slavery, any other of their reprehen sible practices. The ceremony of raarriage, as far as I have leamt, is very siraple, and consists merely in the persons, who have previously agreed upon the point, h-ring together, and a feast being raade on the occasion to which all who choose may repair. Their marriage feasts, hke all the others, usuaUy end in the whole of the persons assembled becoming intoxicated with a fermented beverage which they make from rice, and which they affirra they were taught by the Chinese. The state of morality amongst the Sakarran and Sara bas Dyaks is strangely more lax than in any of the other tribes. It is affirmed, and they theraselves have frequently told me, that it is the coraraon custora for the unmarried women to have amongst the similarly situated of the other sex, lovers to whora they are liberal of their favours : this proceeds with the know ledge and consent of the parents for some time, but if the girl should prove pregnant, the father of the chdd must take the mother for his wife ; but if the connexion should long continue vrithout the attain ment of this desired result, the acquaintance is dis continued, and they each seek new sharers of their loves. Should they not be constant to each other during this stage of their intimacy, the offence, though public, never becoraes an occasion of scandal to either person concerned, and nothing is said of it except, perhaps, by the one who has beeu deceived. o2 196 LAXITY OF MANNERS. Though virtue before marriage is thus little respected, faithlessness after the marriage feast has taken place is a grave and serious offence in which the whole viUage is concerned. I believe it is punished by fine, but the offence is of such rare occurrence that no person to my knowledge ever incurred the penalty. The license granted to the young women appears amongst these people only to extend to their own nation, but it is probable, and in fact certain, in some tribes, that their favours are liberally extended to the Malays, should any happen to reside in their vicinity. This laxity of manners has been carried so far, that I have been assured that should a chief, or distinguished warrior of another tribe, travelling through the country, rest for a night at a vUlage, it is a necessary part of their hospitality to provide a girl for his companion ; but my information on this particular is derived from the Malays. I, however, think it correct, as a similar custom is always foUowed by the Kyans. The promiscuous intercourse between the unmar ried of the two sexes above described is a curious institution, and not known to the hid tribes. From the father of a child being compeUed to marry its mother, and from their never being known to have any reluctance to do so, it would appear to have been originaUy practised as a precautionary measure arising from their fear of not becoming the fathers of famdies, which the Dyak would consider the greatest possible misfortune, though, from the facility -with which they DYAK LOVE OF THEIR CHILDREN. 197 can separate, but which they seldom avail themselves of, such a practice would not seera necessary. All the Dyaks are exceedingly fond of their chddren, and proud of their farailies in proportion to the number of ^ thera. The curious practice of sinking their own '^ narae on the birth of the first child, and being after wards denorainated by its narae with the prefix of the particle Pa, is strongly iUustrative of their family pride. The Pa placed before the name of the chdd is a contraction of the word bapa, and gives a stranger immediately to understand that Pa Suchran-one is the father of children. Thus the chief of the land Dyaks, who is, or was, named Nirauk, is called Pa Jaguen, Jaguen being the narae of his eldest child. This curious custora is also mentioned by Mr. Marsden as being prevalent araong the inland tribes of Sumatra. The terra Ma, a contraction of the word ama, is mother, and is also occasionally used as a polite raethod of designating the mother of a family ; but they are always called in the village by their own names. It may be observed of this custom, that, should the eldest chdd be dead, or lost, having become a slave to the eneraies of the tribe, the parent is called after the next surviving one, or the next in seniority which reraains with him. Thus Pa Jaguen was called Pa Belal untd his daughter Jaguen was restored to him from Sakarran slavery by the assistance of the Rajah of Sarawak. I have had frequent proofs of the love they bear their chddren, and the longing with which they desire the 198 DUTIES AND LABOURS OF return of such as have been carried into slavery. Mr. Brooke has been the means of restoring many of those objects of their solicitude by his negociations with the Sakarran and Sarebas Dyaks, although this has not been accomplished without a large pecuniary sacrifice : the gratitude they show for the happiness he has conferred upon them has amply repaid hira for his liberality. The girls are equally the objects of the tender care of their parents with the boys ; and though, in their prayers, the Dyaks always ask for male children, the females, who are nearly equaUy useful to them, are not treated with less kind ness, and are never neglected. Amongst the sea Dyaks are no houses erected, as of the hdl tribes, to be hereafter described, for the reception of the unmarried men ; but though they are supposed gene rally to sleep in the verandah of the vdlage, the interior of the houses is not denied to them. The duties of the women are various and nume rous; though the whole care of the house devolves upon them, they are not exempted from participation in the labours of the field. They always rise before day-break, and, if it be the season, accompany their husbands to the farm, carrying with them their breakfast of rice which has been previously cooked ; but as they generally have a hut at the farm, they often cook their rice there. Their labours of hus bandry consist in clearing away the brushwood, while the men fed the larger trees, in sowing their padi DYAK WOMEN. 199 seed, and weeding the plants after they have sprung up, and in collecting the harvest when the crop is ripe ; this, as the padi seldom all ripens together, is a tedious and laborious occupation, as they have to cut off each ear, or head of the padi, separately. They generaUy return to their houses half an hour before the men, who arrive at dark, so that they raay have their plain and siraple food prepared for thera ; this seldom consists of any thing but rice and salt, except when their traps are successful in procuring them better fare. Though they have numbers of fowls, pigs, and goats, about their houses, they seldom kill them excepting on occasions of general festivity. When they can afford to purchase salt fish from the Malays, they much prefer it to aniraal food. Nor after the harvest has been gathered, and the la bours of the farra have for a tirae ceased, are the woraen aUowed to be idle ; they have constant employment in making cloth of the cotton, as already noticed ; fine mats of rattans worked into pretty patterns ; baskets for the next season, made of split and coloured rat tans, which they carry on their backs, suspended by a band which crosses the forehead ; clearing padi from the husk, so that it may be brought to market as rice, or preparing it for their o-wn use; these, together with their household duties, attending to their chd dren, and carrying wood and water for their famdies, fully occupy their time, and the cheerful alacrity with which these are ad undertaken by them, is alike 200 LABOUR OF DYAK MEN. pleasing and instructive to the beholder. But whde so raany eraployraents and labours fad to the lot of the women, the men, unlike those described as the inhabitants of the South Sea, and other more eastern islands of Polynesia, do not dissipate their time in debauchery or indolence, but are equally active and industrious with their weaker helpmates. The heaviest labours of the farm, the raanagement of their trade with the Malays, budding and repairing their houses and boats, making their implements of husbandry and war, eraploy all the tirae remaining from their expe ditions of hunting and piracy. It is very probable that, from the number of slaves in their possession, the sea-Dyaks, particularly those of the Sarebas and Sakarran tribes, do not personally labour so heavUy as those of the Mils ; this may account for their finer ap pearance, which has been constantly observed by the residents at Sarawak. Not being stunted by hard work, and frequent scarcity of food, their limbs more freely develope themselves than those of the poor and hitherto oppressed hiU-Dyaks, who, ha-ring lost their only assistants by their children being carried into captivity, where they perform for their eneraies those services which had otherwise assisted thera, are com pelled themselves to toil from day to day for the subsistence of such as remain, and to endeavour to procure money to purchase back the absent. The slaves of the sea-Dyaks do not in general appear to be hardly treated, as in their wars only such as CAPTIVE DYAK CHILDREN. 201 are young are taken captive ; these, after living with their captors for some years, lose the remembrance of their farailies, or, perhaps, only recoUect that they were destroyed, and consequently fall into the customs and practices of the people araongst whora they hve, and from whose power they soon lose all hope of de liverance. In many instances children, who have*' been taken frora the land-Dyaks, become so endeared to their conquerors, that these latter adopt them as their own, and they are then adraitted to all the pri vileges of the free-born of the tribe, and inter-marry with the sons and daughters of the other inhabitants of the vdlage. Instances are not uncommon when children thus treated have forgotten their parents, and expressed, when the opportunity of returning to their tribe has presented itself to them, an un willingness to avail themselves of it, thus causing to the parents who had so tenderly cherished the remembrance of them, infinite agony ; but, when they have once arrived at their native viUage, and ex perienced all the kindness of parental affection, these impressions soon wear away, and they are always finally glad that they had been restored. In they villages the slaves are not distinguishable from their masters and mistresses, as they live all together, and fare precisely the same, eating from the same dish, and of the same food ; this, as has been before observed, is principally of a vegetable nature, though no super stitious observance prevents them frora partaking of 203 COOKERY OF THE DYAKS. the flesh of animals, as amongst the inland tribes. Nearly aU the beasts of the forest are eaten by these people, even monkeys, alligators (if small), snakes and other reptiles are esteemed. Like the !Prench, they regard frogs as a dehcate dish, and bestow consider able pains in procuring them: their rice is cooked in brass or earthen pots, called priuks, which they pur chase from the Malays ; and plates of English manu facture have recently become very general among them. They eat frora the plates with their right hand, compressing the rice (which is not cooked dry as that of the Malays) into a ball of convenient size. They know no way of cooking flesh but by boding it, which they do in bamboos, having pre viously cut the whole animal into small pieces. I once saw some Dyaks roasting a monkey, but did not stay to observe whether they did not bod it after wards, as they generally partially roast these animals to free thera from the hair. They have very little idea of flavouring their food except with salt, though they soraetiraes eraploy chdis, or sraall capsicums, turmeric, and ginger for that purpose. The Se- booyohs, who have Uved more intimately -with the Malays than the other tribes, have very much im proved upon their cooking, the methods having been copied from their Mahometan neighbours. As they have no occasion for fire except for the purposes of cooking, their houses have no chimney, and the little smoke which is created finds its way through DYAK FUNERALS. 203 the crevices of the roof; and, as they rarely, vrith the exception of the Sebooyohs, who affect Malayan habits, indulge in the luxury of mosquito curtains, the smoke is rather beneficial than otherwise, as it protects them in some measure from the attacks of these tormenting insects, which, though not nu merous in the interior, are, with sand-flies, very abundant on the sea-shore. They generally carry with them in their tarabuk a ffint and steel, for the purpose of making fire ; but should these not be with them, but little difficulty is experienced in ob taining it from two pieces of bamboo, or by friction of a hard and soft stick, the latter of which soon takes fire. The whole of the sea tribes dispose of their dead by burial, which, together -with their not abstaining from the flesh of animals, induces me to suppose that the Hindu religion never influenced them, as it evi dently has the land tribes; or that, if they knew any thing of its institutions, the irapressions having been less strong have been by tirae altogether removed. A person having died, the manang, or doctor, who has been in attendance during the sickness, has also the superintendence of the interment, and the grave being prepared, the body of the deceased, dressed in his finest apparel, is placed in it, together with his sword, spear, gongs, and other property : if the family has been rich, the ornaments of gold and sdver are added, and frequently a sum of money, amounting to forty or fifty doUars, in addition, and the earth covers the whole. 204 FUNERAL CEREMONIES OF No cereraony attends the interment at the grave, but a pig is kiUed in the village, and the rite is terminated much in the manner of an Irish wake. This practice of burying property was practised by the Indians of North America, and probably by those of the southern division of that continent, and must have originated in a behef in the future existence of the deceased person, and that he would require these things in another state ; but at present, as far as I could learn, these people have no idea of the sublime belief of the soul's imraortality ; and though sorae of thera have asserted that the spirits of deceased persons wander amongst the mountains, the more frequent answer was, that they knew nothing of their fate. The memory of a person, and the respect paid to him, is not supposed to be obliterated at the festival on the day of his burial, but, at long and uncertain intervals, other feasts are made, when some of the relics of the deceased, as a por tion of his clothes or weapons, are treated vidth a place of ceremony at the banquet, and looked upon vrith great respect. The whole of these and their other fes tivals end in the sarae raanner. On account of the Ignorant custora of burying such valuable property as above described with the bodies of their deceased relations, it frequently happens that a father, unfortunate in his faraily, is, by the death of his children, reduced to poverty. On one occasion, the Europeans of Sarawak having been invited to be present at one of these wakes THE DYAKS. 205 of the last son of the chief of the Pedungan vidage, the old man lamented that, having with each of his chddren, who had aU died successively, buried a considerable portion of his property, he was now not only childless but penniless. Of this he did not complain, but that having deprived himself of his wealth, in accordance with a sacred custora of the Dyaks, the repose of his children had been violated, and the sacrilegious Malays had opened the graves, for the purpose of abstracting the treasures which had been placed there. Mr. Brooke, to whora the cora- plaint was raade, very properly consoled the old man by telling him that, if by any means the perpetrators of this act could be brought to justice, they should be severely punished ; and, turning to the Malayan chiefs in attendance on him, requested thera to assist in dis covering the offenders. This was corafort to the Dyak chief, as during the governraent of the Malayan rajahs he durst not have coraplained of such an offence, it being no transgression to defile the grave of the infidel. CHAPTER VII. TREATMENT OF A CAPTURED HEAD SEA-DYAK GAMES — THEIE PRO GRESS IN THE USEFUL ARTS — THE BLACKSMITH THEIR WEAPONS WARS BALANCE OF HEADS — PRESERVATION OP ENEMIEs' HEADS HEAD-HUNTING — SEA-DYAK BOATS — BOAT ENGAGEMENTS BRAVERY OF THE CHIEF OF LUNDEU — DEFENSIVE WARFARE MODE OF ROW ING A chief's SUPERSTITION DYAK AGRICULTURE — PREPARING LAND FOR A FARM PADI AND INDIAN CORN GRANARIES MODE OF REAPING THE PADI DYAK GARDENS THEIR PRODUCE — FRUIT TREES TRAPS FOR DEER AND PIGS CAGE-TRAPS AND SPRINGES POR BIRDS STRANGE MODE OF FISHING. Like the whole of the aboriginal inhabitants of Borneo, the sea-Dyaks hold periodical feasts, which usually end in scenes of debauchery and drunkenness. Many occa sions give rise to these, particularly the planting and harvesting of the padi, and the capture of the heads of their eneraies : the latter is a disgusting ceremony to an European, though the Dyaks -riew it only with sentiments of satisfaction and dehght. The fleet, returning from a successful cruise, on approaching the viUage, announce to its inhabitants their fortunes by a horrid yeU, which is soon imitated and prolonged by the raen, women, and children, who have stayed at home. The head is brought on shore vrith much ceremony, wrapped up in the curiously folded and plaited leaves of the nipah palm, and frequently emitting the disgusting, odour peculiar to decaying TREATMENT OF A CAPTURED HEAD. 207 mortality ; this, the Dyaks have frequently told me, is particularly grateful to their senses, and surpasses the odorous durian, their favourite fruit. On shore and in the viUage, the head, for months after its arrival, is treated with the greatest consideration, and all the names and terms of endearraent of which their language is capable are abundantly lavished on it : the most dainty morsels, culled from their abundant though inelegant repast, is thrust into its mouth, and it is instructed to hate its former friends, and that, having been now adopted into the tribe of its captors, its spirit must be always with them : sirih leaves and betel-nut are given to it, — and finaUy, a cigar is frequently placed between its ghastly and paUid lips. None of this disgusting mockery is performed with the intention of ridicule, but all to propitiate the spirit by kindness, and to procure its good vrishes for the tribe, of whom it is now supposed to have become a meraber. The head having been thus cared for, the whole of the tribe partake of the pigs, rice, fish, and other food, which have been provided in the greatest pro fusion for the joyous occasion. These pigs, taken always frora the largest and fattest in the viUage, have been previously valued by the old men, and their owner is paid for them by rice, which is raised by contributions from the whole tribe, the proprietor of the pig reraitting his share of its cost. After having eaten sufficiently, the tobacco is produced, and they 208 SEA-DYAK GAMES, chew betel and smoke cigars, drinking at the same time large quantities of the liquor of the fermented rice before mentioned, or of the toddy of various palras provided for the occasion : during the drinking the dancing generally coramences ; this is performed with the recently-acquired heads suspended frora the persons of the actors, who move up and down the verandah with a slow step, and corresponding move ments of their out-stretched arras, uttering occasionally a yell, which rises fierce and shrill above the discordant noises of the gongs, chanangs, and tortewaks, to which the dancers move. Another amusement at these fes tivals is carried on by two persons standing or walking with a theatrical air and pecuhar step, and with canes in their hands, reciting to each other in a rude ex tempore verse, the heroic deeds of their fathers and their ancestors, to which, if they live under a Malayan government, and the prince has any share in their affections, they add his meraorable achieveraents and exploits. I heard thera once, in this interesting manner, recount the whole of the events of the Seniawan war, the arrival of Mr. Brooke, &c. The " harvest horae," and other feasts of a more pacific character than that above described, like it, consist in eating, drinking, and dancing, but in these the heads are not introduced, and the women take part. Games are also practised at them, sorae of which astonished us by their siradarity to those practised by the peasantry of Europe, particularly PROGRESS IN THE USEFUL ARTS, 209 that of climbing up a large pole, the being able to do which is also a necessary qualification of a pan- glima, or fighting chief,) previously greased to render the achievement difficult of performance, and to the top of which a piece of pork is at tached. This meat is the reward of the person whose agility renders him the first to attain this eminence, and the frequent failures in the attempts call forth frora the gazing crowd bursts of laughter, as loud and long continued as from those who gaze at the similar spectacle at an English country fair. In the useful arts, excepting such as their habits render absolutely necessary, the Dyaks have raade but little progress, though raore than many of the similarly situated neighbouring tribes. It has been before re marked that they make the ' chawats,' jackets, and ' bedangs ' in general use amongst their own and the more western tribes ; but as this manufacture is carried on only by the Dyaks of Sakarran and Sarebas, I have no means of describing the method of its workman ship. Iron being necessary in the forraation of their weapons of war, they have studied, and brought to greater perfection its workmanship than others of the mechanical arts. It is probable that before the intro duction of European bar-iron into the country, the natives fused and wrought the ore of the island, as many of the Kyan and other tribes, who have little in tercourse with the coast, do to the present day. The blacksmith, with the exception of the 'manang,' or p 210 A SEA-DYAK BLACKSMITH. doctor, is the only person in the viUage whose time is solely occupied by a profession or trade. If the black smith of a village be celebrated for the goodness of his work, he is not only eraployed in the raanufacture of the arras and instruraents necessary for his tribe, but those raade by him sell for higher prices than those of his neighbours, and he is sure of plenty of employ ment and considerable profit. The smith's shop is always a httle apart from the houses of the vdlage, to prevent accidents from the fire ; the bellows precisely reserable those of the Malays, the two bamboos, or hoUow trees, before described; a stone is generally the anvil, but when a heavy piece of iron can be obtained it is preferred. His instruments are all of his own making, and rude in their construction ; the vessel in which the water for cooling his work is held is a block of wood hollowed out. The ' pai-angs,' or chopping- knives, and 'pedangs,' or swords, of which there are several denominations, spear-heads and fish spears, are the principal articles of their manufacture. The chopping-knife, which the Dyak always carries by his side, is a rough and awkward looking instrument, though the Dyaks use it with facility : the blade, which is broadest towards the end, and smaU and square towards the base, is generally from twenty-four to thirty inches in breadth, the hilt being bent from the blade backwards, which makes it appear clumsy ; the axe fits into a wooden handle, and the blade, which is round or square at the end, is preserved by a sheath SEA-DYAK WEAPONS. 211 raade of two pieces of wood bound neatly together with plaited rattans, and bands of brass or silver. The sword amongst the sea-Dyaks, though often pre cisely simdar to the ' parang,' is frequently, amongst the Sebooyoh Dyaks, of a curved shape, the broadest part of the blade being at the point of its curvature, but not having the backward bend of the handle. It is altogether a more serviceable weapon, the hilt being generally made of deer's horn, very rudely carved. An ornament projecting frora the lower part of the weapon, near the handle, serves as a guard for the hand; the handle ofthe weapon is generaUy omaraented with brass and silver; the sheath with a large bundle of the fine feathers of the argus pheasant, from which the quill has been pared, which, by its rigidity, would prevent the wind causing the feathers to wave about. The spears of the sea-Dyaks are made of several forms, but those most used are the broad, double- edged blades, which are about one foot or more in length; these are attached to handles about six to eight feet long, as are also the sagittate blades, which are next in esteera. They are frequently made in pairs, so that their blades fit into a double case ; they are then carried as one weapon. The 'surapitan,' which is a tube of eight to ten feet in length, through which arrows or darts of nine to twelve inches are blown, the points of which are generally poisoned with the upas, are sometimes used by those Dyaks in the vicinity of the Kyans, frora whom they have perhaps borrowed the practice ; neither bows nor arrows are known in the islands. p 3 212 WARS OF THE SEA-DYAKS. In action, the left hand of the Dyak supports a large wooden shield, which covers the greater part of his body. It is made of the light wood of the plye or jelutong, about three feet long, and twenty inches broad, convex towards the centre, and of the sarae breadth throughout, but cut off angularly from each side at the ends, so that its greatest length is the middle. The 'badju tilam,' or padded jacket, has been before noticed. The spears used for throwing at the enemy, and with which an engagement is usually com menced, are about three feet long, made of durable wood, which is further hardened by fire : they seldom do much injury to the eneray if he be prepared to receive thera: they are thrown with great force but little skiU, as they never practise during peace the use of the weapons of war. The wars of the sea-Dyaks are very frequent, and much more bloody than those of the Malays or the land tribes. Many of the feuds in which the Dyaks of Sarebas and Sakarran are now engaged, are quar rels which arose in the times of their ancestors ; and the ostensible object in carrying on of which now is, that their balance of heads raay be settled ; for these people keep a regular account of the numbers slain on each side on every occasion : these memorandums have now, perhaps, become confused amongst the sea-tribes, but amongst those of the bids, where fewer people are kiUed, and fighting is less frequent, the number to which each tribe is indebted to the other is regularly preserved. A hill chief once told me that he durst BALANCE OF HEADS. 213 not travel into another country, which he wished to visit, as their people were the eneraies of his tribe; when I asked him in surprise, having supposed that he was at peace with every one except the people of Sakarran, he told me that in the time of his grand father the people of the other tribe had kdled four of his, and that in retaliation his tribe had killed three of the other, so that there was a balance of one in his favour, which had never been settled, nor had any hostilities been carried on for many years, yet all intercom'se between the tribes had ceased, and they could only meet in a hostile character. It is by these, and similar causes, that the hid Dyaks, unable to unite to form any combined plan of defence, so easily fall, one by one, before the league of Sakarran and Sarebas. Should peace be brought about, it may be done by the tribe, which, in balancing accounts, is found to have taken most heads, paying for the difference to , the other tribe in goods ; in this computation the value of males is estimated at about twenty-five doUars, 5/. 4s. 2d., and females from fifteen to twenty doUars each ; when the difference is thus adjusted the two contracting tribes feast and dance together, and are friends until some new occasion of quarrel happens, and disturbs their amity. The sea-Dyaks, however, rarely adjust their differences with the other tribes, they having gone on so long, and their debt being so large to so many tribes, that were they to attempt the payment, they would find themselves bankrupts ira- 214 PRESERVATION OF ENEMIEs' HEADS. mediately; and I suppose that were they to give thera selves in exchange for the slain, they would not, with their wives and children, be sufficient in nuraber to compensate for them. The heads of their enemies are, amongst the sea-tribes, preserved with the flesh and hair stid ad hering to the skuU, and these trophies are not, as amongst the land-tribes, the general property of the vdlage, but the personal property of the individuals who capture them, though the honour of the tribe is augmented by their being in the village. The skull being freed from the brain, which is extracted by the occiputal hole, the head is dried over a slow and smok ing fire until aU the animal juices have evaporated : they are preserved with the greatest care, and baskets full of them may be seen at any house in the vdlages of the sea-tribes, and the family is of distinction accord ing to the number of these disgusting and barbarous trophies in its possession ; they are handed down from father to son as the most valuable property, and an accident which destroys them is considered the most lamentable calamity. An old and grey-headed chief was regretting to me one day the loss he had sus tained in the destraction by fire of the heads collected by his ancestors. As I heard nothing of his property, which had been very considerable, I supposed that he had succeeded in saving it, untd, on making inquiries, he told me that it had been all destroyed, but he would not have regretted it so much if he could have HEAD-HUNTING. 215 saved the trophies of the prowess of his fathers. It is said that the practice of head-hunting, for which pur pose alone their piratical expeditions are now under taken, has been carried so far, that a Dyak cannot marry until he has at least once obtained a head. - The chief of the Lundu village told rae that such was the custora, but that in his tribe it had been dispensed with, as the difficulty of getting heads was so great under Mr, Brooke's government, the wars being un frequent, and cruising parties not being allowed to go out. The old gentleman seemed to think it a pity that a custom so calculated to inspire the men with courage should be set aside from motives of humanity, and is decidedly of opinion that " none but the brave deserve the fair." On one occasion Lingir, a chief of one of the Sarebas tribes, appeared at Sarawak with his head shaved, and in his most desolate and ragged attire, but attended by thirty-three boats, to request per mission of the rajah to attack the Dyaks of Lundu or Samarhand; he gave as a reason for the strange request, that his brother had died, and that he could not celebrate his funeral until he had somewhere obtained a head. This resembles the custora of those nations who sacrificed their slaves on the funeral pile of their deceased raasters ; and it is said that in the countries of the Kyans, which bounds that of the Sarebas Dyaks on the south and east, this custom of sacrificing slaves is stdl prevalent on the death of a chief. From 216 SEA-DYAK the above anecdote of Lingir, it would appear necessary before a man can marry, or bury a deceased relative, . that he erabrue his hands in huraan blood ! and thus, how many victims must be sacrificed to this sanguinary and ferocious custora. Lingir, of course, was un successful in his application to Sarawak, and being desired immediately to return with his fleet, he cap tured the heads of four unfortunate fishermen, with whom he feU in, on his return. Boats being so necessary to the sea-Dyaks for their cruises, they have attained to greater perfection in budding them than in most other arts, and have suc ceeded in getting them of so light and fast a construc tion, that they surpass in this respect the canoes of Siara and sorae other raore civdized and powerfid states. They appear long since to have left the simple canoe, or boat formed of a single tree ; and at present ; though these are the only ones of the land-Dyaks, the smallest boats for river purposes are not formed on this principle. Their war-boats, which are caUed 'bankongs,' are generally of great length, frequently as much as seventy feet. They are budt very high abaft, and high forward, so that, when they have not their crews on board, they appear merely to touch the water in the middle ; when laden, though high fore and aft, they are not above one plank from the water in the middle, and being budt without a sharp keel, are very crank ; but, as they carry no sail, they are not afraid of capsizing. They are budt from a flat keel BOATS. 217 without timbers of any sort, the planks being merely sewn one to the other, or rather tied by rattans, through holes about eighteen inches apart, and, thus supporting each other, they are caulked with the soft bark of a tree of the tribe Myrtaceae, and payed with the preparation of damraar and oils, as used by the Malays for their trading prows. They are fancifully painted, and soraetiraes decorated with a dragon, or some other monstrous figure-head ; and painted on a board at the stern are frequently huraan figures in indelicate positions. They are steered soraetiraes with a rudder, "but more frequently by paddles, and from the assistance the men paddling are enabled to give, they turn as on a pivot, and consequently lose so little time in this evolution, that before an English boat could accomplish it, they would be far a-head, being con siderable gainers by the manoeuvre. Formerly they had no protection for the men paddling the boat excepting from the weather, which was afforded them by mats, called 'kajangs,' made of the unexpanded leaves of the nipah palm sewn together and dried in the sun. These were of sufficient length to reach across the boat, and were so light that they were of no inconvenience, but having recently feared to meet the war-boats of Sarawak, and the gun-boats of the English cruisers, they have added two heavy planks of wood along the side of each boat above the heads of the rowers, which they suppose to be grape-proof. 218 DYAK BOAT ENGAGEMENTS. These encumbrances raust take rauch from the light ness of the boat, and consequently from its speed, pro bably without rauch assisting the security of those whora it necessarily delays. When going into action, the boat is cleared by its ' kajangs' being aU thrown towards the stern, where the steersman sits. The panglimas and warriors rise to their feet in the centre of the boat, a sufficient number to paddle being left sitting down on the bamboo laths which forra the platforra, or open deck. By the side of each warrior is a large bundle of the wooden spears for raerly described, with which the action coramences at the distance of fifteen or twenty yards, and when the boats have approached closer, it is carried on with the iron-pointed spears, which, being too valuable to throw , away, are kept for close quarters. As their naval engagements for the most part occur near the shore, one party generally jumps overboard, and vrith a yell of triumph the victors decapitate the slain ; and if they think themselves of sufficient strength, or are not satisfied with the heads already captured, they pur sue the fugitives into the jungle, where they generaUy get a few more heads. These boat engageraents sel dom happen, it being the universal practice of Dyak warfare never to attempt by force, an object which they can accomplish by stratagem ; so that we constantly see that their successful expeditions are always directed with the view of surprising their enemies, their object not being to acquire glory or mditary renown, but BRAVERY OP THE CHIEF OF LUNDU. 219 being actuated solely by the desire of procuring heads without exposure to themselves. Their history would show us but few exaraples of that personal courage and distinguished bravery which dazzle the iraagination of politer nations ; there are, however, raany examples in which individual gallantry has distinguished the Dyak character, and these abound as much in the land as the sea division. The chief ofthe Sow (hill) tribe, the orang Kaya, Pa-Mancha of Sarebas, and the chief of Lundu, have on several occasions thus distinguished theraselves. The latter, on one occasion returning frora a cmise against his old enemies of Sakarran, and being at anchor with two 'bankongs' in the mouth of the Batang Lupar river waiting for the ebb tide, found hiraself surrounded by a large returning fleet of these people. It was in the dawn of raorning, whde the mist lay upon the water, and their approach had been made known to him by the quick and regular stroke of the paddles. His force being so inferior, he would not have ventured to attack them, but they perceived him, and, imagining they should obtain an easy victory, attacked him at once on aU sides ; but the discharge from several lelahs and muskets in their faces, at the distance of but a few paces, inade the bravest of them recoil. They, with frantic yells, returned to the charge again and again, but were each time repulsed with a severe loss, and their attacks were less spirited than at flrst. Meantime, the old chief seeing this, and 220 BRAVERY OF THE CHIEF OF LUNDU. fearing the exhaustion of his stock of ammunition, which alone gave him any chance -with his numerous foes, had weighed, and during the latter part of the action was paddhng towards horae with all hands that could be spared from his lelahs (brass swivel-guns carry ing half-pound shot), followed by his occasionally at tacking enemies, who did not leave him, so much would they have valued the head of this their oldest and most formidable foe, until he had gained his own river ; at which, when he arrived after a whole day's puUing, his araraunition was exhausted, as well as the strength and courage of his men. Though several of his people were wounded, he had the satisfaction of knowing that he had fought for hours against a large fleet of his enemies, of whom raany were slain ; but he had not the only pleasure for which he then longed — the op portunity of bringing away their heads in triuraph. Both the Sakarran and Sarebas Dyaks have frequently attacked this chief in his stronghold, the beautiful vil lage of Lundu, but have always been repulsed by the guns supplied to hira frora Sarawak, in which his safety alone consists, and which enable him to defeat ten tiraes his numerical strength. He delights in avenging the many ills his tribe has suffered frora the people of Sakarran, and is always anxious to be let loose against them. Excepting on this difficult to be eradicated custora of barbarisra, he is the most respectable and weU-behaved of the Dyak chiefs tributary to Sarawak, and is truly the father of the people under his charge. DYAK DEFENSIVE WARFARE. 221 on all occasions sacrificing his own interest to the good of the settlement of Lundu, which, though under the government of a Dyak, is also a Malayan Town. In defensive warfare the Dyaks surround their village with a high palisading of palm or other trees, and about all the woods in the neighbourhood are planted 'ranjows,' or smaU sharp-pointed baraboos, which, on account of the raass of decaying vegetables, are with difficulty detected, and are in consequence, together with pit-falls and other contrivances, of great annoyance to a bare-legged invader. As the sea- Dyaks only go on cruises in the fine season, or from April to October, their boats are taken to pieces during the bad monsoon, by cutting the rattans adrift which hold the planks together. Forrest notices an instance in which a fleet of the orang Tedong, a piratical people of the east coast of Borneo, and who very much resemble the sea-Dyaks, being shut up in a bay by a Spanish cruiser, which probably hoped they would surrender, they evaded their eneray by cutting the rattans of their boats, which are of sirailar con struction, and carrying away the planks through the jungle ; this can very easdy be done by the crews of the boats. The sea-Dyaks, during the wet season, lay up the planks of their boats in sheds until the returning fine monsoon invites them again to venture on the ocean. As these planks cost the Dyaks, who are unacquainted with the use of the saw, or any other instrument for forming them but the 'biliong' or adze of the Malays (which can also be used as a chopper. 222 DYAK BOATS. the blade being turned in the haft, which is adapted to it either way), their preservation is an object of no sraall iraportance, two only being obtained from a large tree with infinite labour, it being very necessary that the planks of the boat, on account of her con struction, should all be of the same length as the ' bankong.' These boats, according to their size, carry crews of from thirty to ninety raen, and it is com puted that, without making any extraordinary exer tion, the rivers of Sarebas and the Sakarran branch of the Batang Lupar could send to sea 200 of them, averaging fifty men each. From the nature of these boats, and the slightness of their build, it may easily be imagined that they are not manageable in a sea way, their length causing them to open at the seams : on such occasions, should they not be near enough to the land to run into smooth water, the crew all jump overboard, and hang by -the side of the boat : this I have been assured they have done for many succes sive hours when the squaUs, which are usually short in these tranqud seas, have been prolonged, so as to render it necessary. In this situation they take it by turns for one or two to enter the boat, and cook and eat their rice, untd the squall is past. The Dyaks, on their cruises, are capable of endming great fatigue, and, if they meet with reverses, have fre quently to contend with the pangs of hunger. It is no uncommon thing for the Dyaks to pull for eighteen hours, with only short intervals of rest sufficient to boil and cook their rice, and this, from the beautiful regu- MODE OF ROWING. 223 larily of. their strokes, and their being long accustomed te tb" practice, does not appear much to fag them; in i.^O?rooth. water, and, without tides, at their regular ;stx6ke, they pull about six mdes an hour, but when . exerting themselves fully can double that rate of speed. The 'tambaugs,' or sharp built sampan boats of Sin gapore, which are so renowned throughout the East for their speed, are soon lost sight of by the Dyak ' bankongs,' and I should think it probable that no boats in the world could equal them for speed. Each tribe of the Dyaks has pecuhar strokes in which it de lights, so that in the dark a Sarebas or Sakarran boat could teU whether an approaching one was of Lundu, of the Balows, or a Malay. The Malays also have many methods of paddling, in which the Borneans, or natives of the town of Bruni, excel the inhabitants of the other viUages on the coast. On their cruises the Dyaks, who are not, in their sober moments, friends of boisterous mirth, never make use of the cheering and inspiriting songs of the Malayan boatmen : the noise raade by each paddle beating time on the gun wale of the boat is to them sufficiently enlivening, and they want no other encouragement to exertion when it is necessary. When they have met with reverses on an expedition — such as when they lose their boats and are forced to find their way through the jungle, without food, to their homes, perhaps at a great distance — famine is very oppressive to them, though some parts of the woods produce ferns and other edible roots in abuu- 224 A chief's SUPERSTITION. dance ; but these generaUy grow on the river;s;baxiks. and in open places where the fear of the enemySpre*. vents the fugitive Dyak from searching for theni : .-iaiiv those occasions he has recourse to the bark and leaves'^ of trees ; and sometimes, to still the crarings of hungerj an oily earth, which is found in some places, is eaten. On one occasion the men frora a fleet of Sakarran Dyaks having been driven ashore, they were twelve days in reaching their horaes, having lost five persons by faraine, and raany by their unrelenting eneraies. The difficulties they had to encounter in walking through forests belonging to the eneray, and which were unknown to thera, in crossing rivers, and eluding pursuit, were innumerable. Two poor feUows of this party were discovered crossing, on a log of wood, one of the numerous creeks ; and another party, which had taken possession of a deserted house, were found in it by their enemies, who had no pity upon their raiser- able condition. About this tirae (1845) Gila Beranhi, one of the chiefs of Sakarran — who had been one of the most relentless pirates — before his death, which occurred after only two days illness, is reported to have called his tribe about hira, and exhorted them to leave off piracy, as the failure of the expedition just recorded, and his own approaching death, were ad brought about by the supernatural power of the Rajah of Sarawak, whom he said it was impossible to with stand; so that we see the first slight check to the conquests of these hitherto invincible tribes, leads DYAK AGRICULTURE. 335 their ignorant minds immediately to attribute to superhuman influence, the results which the most common prudence must foresee will attend their op posing the regular force of a civilized enemy. The cognomen of this chief, Gda Beranhi, may be literaUy translated, " the madly brave," in allusion to the ferocious courage displayed in his wars with the eneraies of his tribe. Though agriculture is so generally practised by the Dyaks, they have not made in it so much progress as, from it-s necessity to their existence, raight have been expected. The cause of their never having at tained to greater perfection in this art is probably to be found in the immense productiveness of the soil they cultivate, which, with little care beyond the planting of the seed, yields such heavy crops, that the most moderate skdl and attention are repaid so amply, that the inducements to improvement, which excite more civilized, but less favoured nations, have no existence here. In July and August the Dyak, having previously fixed upon a spot convenient for a farm, begins the labour of felling the forests ; in this he is assisted by the females of his family, who clear away the brushwood; slaves and male children fell the larger trees. The extent cultivated by each head of a family depends upon his industry, and the wants of his household : an industrious per son always prepares more than wiU be necessary for the supply of his household, so -that, with the -surplus, he 336 PREPARING LAND FOR may be enabled to buy little luxuries for himself, and brass vrire, &c., for his daughters and children, from the Malays, who always come to the vdlages to trade when the harvest has been gathered in. Having felled as much forest as he thinks sufficient for his purpose, which — considering the only instrument they employ is the ' bUiong,' or small chopper of theMalays — is accomplished with astonishing quickness, the faUen giants of the jungle are aUowed to remain prostrate, until a succession of dry days has so parched them, that, being set on fire in several places on the wind ward side of the field when a fresh breeze is blowing, the whole is, in a few hours, consumed with a flame, and smoke, and crackling noise, which, at a distance, is awfuUy beautiful, and the sublime appearance of which, when many farms are thus burning together, can scarcely be conceived : the heavy dark cloud which hangs over the country, caused by the smoke, for many mdes previously to the ascent of the flames, has frequently been mistaken for one of the thunder clouds which are seen to gather, of this solid and black appearance, only in tropical countries. So great is the resemblance, that persons accustomed to the appearance have frequently remained undeceived, until a gust of wind carried the bright flames high above the intervening jungle, and displayed to the spectator a scene of the most majestic beauty, which certainly equals, and probably surpasses, the burning of the grass on the plains of North America. A FARM. 337 When the flre has exhausted itself, and the ground is again cool, which, from the frequency of rain, is soon the case, the Dyaks collect, from the black and charred trunks of the trees, the smaller ones suited to the pur pose, and comraence making their ' pagar,' or fence, for the protection of the future crop against the inroads of the deer and wUd hogs, which would soon injure and destroy it. The method generally used in constructing this fence, is by raising one pole above another, hori zontally, and sustaining them in this position by stakes driven into the ground, at an angle, and opposite to each other, so that the bar rests upon the crutch forraed by their crossing each other. The pagars, or fences, are about six feet high, and the bars about fifteen inches one above the other; they are strong enough to resist the encroachraents of wdd animals for one season : for more they are not required, being then split up, and used in the houses for fire-wood. In parts of the country more populous than others, it frequently happens that the Dyaks have not, in their territory, old jungle; or it is at such a dis tance from their houses, that the labour of carrying the produce to them would be very oppressive in a country where the services of no dqmestic animal are available for this purpose. Such situations are not so laborious to prepare, but being destitute of that rich layer of vegetable mould, and the fertilizing properties of the burnt wood, are not nearly so pro ductive. The pagars of these farras, in which bamboo Q 2 228 PLANTING PADI AND INDIAN CORN, always abounds, are frequently made of this light and easily worked material, the ends being stuck into the ground, and supported by cross bars, which run along the whole length of the fence, and to which the per- 4)endicular stakes are attached by lashings of rattan, or other suitable substance. The burning being finished, and the pagar made, though this latter operation is fre quently delayed until the seed has sprung up, no other preparation of . the ground is deemed necessary. The plough, and other instruments for turning up the .sod, the inventions of nations raore advanced in the art, are to thera unknown ; but if the former were introduced, it would be useless in many places, as the sides of steep hdls are frequently chosen for .the farm; and, in all cases, it would be unavad- able while the natives continued to leave their fields after but one year's cultivation, as the labour of removing the trunks of the large trees, which are now allowed to decay in the field, fertilizing it ,as they crumble into earth, would not be compensated by the produce of .the ground they occupy, if the field were not cultivated for a succession of seasons. The padi seed, .which is saved with the greatest care from the choicest.of, the preceding season, is planted in holes, made by a blunt-pointed stick,-at the distance of frora fifteen to eighteen inches, apart every way. Three or four seeds are dropped into each hole by the woraen and chddren, who cover thera by scraping a httle earth or ashes over them with their feet. 'Jagong,' or DYAK FARM, HUT, AND GRANARIES. 229 Indian corn, or maize, as it is frequently caUed in Europe, is planted sparingly at the same time ; and as it is ripe and off the ground in three months from the time of sowing, it does not injure the padi, amongst the rows of which it is sown ; and as it comes in- at a season when the rice is getting exhausted, and the second crop not ready, it is of great use to the Dyaks, though not so much esteemed as rice as an article of food. On the larger collections of ashes they jilso^ sow the seeds o!f gourds, pumpkins, a kind of melon without flavour, and cucumbers, of which they are very fond. These trad along the ground amongst the stems' of the padi, to which they appear to do no injury, and con tinue bearing for some tirae after the rice crop has been gathered in. After the field has been all planted, the Dyak and his farady occupy theraselves in building a hut on sorae elevated position in the field, for the con venience of being able to reside at it constantly during the periods when it most requires their care, and for storing the harvest when ripe frora the rain, until they can carry it to their granaries, which are generally near, but apart from the houses of the vd lage. The ' dafigau,' as this hut is called, is always upon posts, and with a raised but not covered plat forra before it, for the convenience of drying the padi before it is placed in the baskets in which it is to be conveyed to the granary. During its growth the field is always weeded twice : this, as they are assisted by no tools,.with the exception of their parang. 230 MODE OF REAPING is a very toilsome occupation, which is always carefully accoraplished by the industry of the Dyak, as the rapid growth of the weeds would soon spoil his crop, and render unavailing all the labour his farm had pre viously cost him. About March or April, or from six to seven months after the period of its sowing, the padi puts on the beautiful appearance which informs the de lighted husbandman of the approach of the reward of his labours. At this season the field of the Dyak presents a more lovely picture to the eye than the, farms of Europe. The yeUow padi is everywhere relieved by the gaudy flowers of the bayam, a kind of vegetable, which resembles the Amaranthus, or prince's feather of our gardens, and its large tufts of orange and crirason enhance the beauty of the pleasing scene. As the heads of padi seldora all ripen together, or so regularly as the ears of other grain in England, no sickle is used in reaping, nor are the stalks bound into bundles. Every person in the faraily of the Dyak, arraed with his or her basket and knife, is eraployed in going regularly over the field, and taking off all the ripe heads, with but a few inches of the straw, the bulk of which is left standing on the ground, where it decays, and nourishes the earth which produced it. Each person, when the basket is fuU, carries it to the dafigau, where it is rubbed from the ear, frequently by the hands ; but this irksome raethod is, by those who have large farms, avoided by a sieve which they erect outside the hut. AND WINNOWING THE PADI, 231 with split rattans fastened into a frame-work, and supported by four posts, over which also the roof is extended : a mat is placed under the sieve, and the heads of padi, being put into it above, are worked back wards and forwards over the fine rattans of the sieve with a wooden instrument which they have for the purpose, until the padi, being freed from the stalks, faUs into the receptacle below, whence it is taken, and being well dried in the sun, is finally conveyed to the granary of the family, until wanted for the purposes of trade and of home consumption. Every year the series of operations above detaded is repeated; the soil, perhaps, being exhausted by the enormous crop it sometimes produces in favom'able seasons. Last year was one of those, and I saw hun dreds of acres of padi which had fallen to the ground for want of hands to gather it ; the crop having been so much larger than the Dyaks, who generaUy calcu late these matters very shrewdly, and plant no more than their own family can conveniently manage, had anticipated. The Dyaks themselves, however, do not suppose that the soil is in any way incapable of bearing further culture ; but give always as a reason for deserting their farms, that the weeds and grass which immediately spring up after the padi has been gathered, are less easdy eradicated, than ground oc cupied by old jungle is prepared. They never return to the same spot untd after a period of seven years has elapsed, which they say was the custom of their an- 232 INSECT DESTRUCTION OF THE PADI. cestors ; and then they find that the trees, which have, during that tirae, covered the ground, to the destruc tion of the deleterious lalang grass and other weeds, are easily felled, and the ground prepared ; though, as has been before noticed, the crops from such land are not so abundant as those from the 'utan tuah,' or old forest, which in consequence is, notwithstanding the greater proportionate araount of labour requisite to bring it under cultivation, always, when procurable, preferred. It will be seen frora the above stateraent that the farms of the Dyaks are prepared towards the end of the diy season, so that they have the wet monsoou to bring- the padi to maturity, and the beginning of the following fine weather, April and May, to ripen the grain. Some tribes have a succession of farms coming in a few weeks later than each other, but never more than three. The hill Dyaks seldom plant their farras till a raonth or two later than the sea tribes, who con sequently have the first of the market ; new rice always selling for a higher price than the old, the forraer being esteeraed sweeter and more nourishing by theMalays, who are the purchasers. !Prom the mode of pounding the padi in mortars, to free it frora the husk, adopted by the Dyaks and Malays, none of the rice, the produce of the island, can be kept for any length of time : the grains being broken, and the enamel which protects them from the wevd being destroyed, that insect soon takes advantage ofi the circumstance to attack and destroy it ; in the DYAK GARDENS — THEIR PRODUCE. 233 husk, or padi state, it may be kept for years without injury, and is in this respect supposed to be equal to the production of India or America. Besides the farras above described, the Dyaks have sraall gardens, usually the property of women, in which thCT plant veigetgblea-ftF diffe-Tewt.- kinds, principally the ' trong,' brenjal of the East, and egg-plant of Europe, sugar-cane, plantains, yams, sweet potatoes, chilies, &c. A few plants of tobacco are generally found in their farms, the leaves of which they prepare by drying for their own use. Sisawi, a kind of mustard, and a species^ of millet, are also planted amongst the padi in small quantities. The sugar-cane, which grows very freely, is only esteeraed for its saccharine juice, which they extract like the Malays, by chewing. Of the plantains they have several fine varieties ; that most esteemed is the ' pisang araas,' or golden plantain ; its fruit is small and not angular, the bunch is, however, uncommonly large — ^it is of a rich golden yellow colour, and much finer fiavour than most of the other kinds. The ' pisang merah,' or red plantain, called ' pisang udang,' or prawn plantain, by the Malays, and ' pisang baddat,' are the next in esteera, and resemble each other, except in colour, which in the former is red, in the latter yellow, with green ends ; many others are very fine, but as the varieties are so numerous it is unnecessary to particularize them : the ' pisang tandok,' or horn plantain, bears fruit of from twelve to eighteen inches in length, and is a well- 234 FRUIT TREES, flavoured variety. Pine-apples are seldom cultivated by the Dyaks, though they are found apparently in a wild state about most of their vUlages ; in such situ ations the fruit is small and of little flavour, and it is remarkable that the Dyaks, who delight in the culti vated ones from the Chinese gardens at Sarawak, should take no care of their own. The ancestors of the Dyaks having for raany cen turies occupied the countries these people now inhabit, fruit trees are scattered in abundance all over its surface, particularly near the banks of rivers, and aU jungles abound with thera. The raost esteeraed kinds surround their vdlages, and these, vrith other in easdy accessible places, are individual property; but those of the jungles are not owned, and the fruit of them generally becomes the property of the squirrels, monkeys, and birds, which frequent the forests con taining them, unless the destructive Malay should see them, who, ever thoughtless of the future, imraediately cuts down with his hatchet a tree which has taken raany years to attain its fruiting state, and for the purpose of gathering a few for hiraself, destroys what might at some future time be of service to the Dyaks or others, who might, for the purposes of mining or agriculture, be compelled to reside in the -ricinity. As the woods of the country of the sea-Dyaks abound in pigs and deer, and the tribes are not prevented by any superstitious prejudice from eating the flesh of either of these animals, various contrivances are in use for their TRAPS FOR DEER AND PIGS. 235 capture. The raost coraraon for the purpose of catching the larger garae is caUed by thera ' peti :' it is a strong spear of bamboo, laid in a horizontal direction above the ground, about the height of the body of a pig or deer. A sapling, bent for the purpose, forras the spring by being held back ; a string crosses the path of the animal, the least touch on which pulls the trigger by which the sapling is retained, and which, springing forward, forces the baraboo in a straight line across the path, and consequently through the body of any aniraal that may happen to be passing. As these traps are so placed as to be with difficulty discovered in the jungle, the traveller has to be careful, as to be trans fixed with one of these spears set for deer, would occasion death. The Dyaks themselves, though very careful, have frequently met with such accidents. A few weeks before leaving the country one of my men, who was bringing to the hut where we were stay ing, vrith his companions, a deer which had been shot for our dinner, missed the path in the dark, and struck his foot against a trap of this nature, which had been set for pigs ; the spear transfixed his thigh, raaking a large and ragged wound, from which, however, he fortu nately recovered ; had it been a deer-trap instead of a pig-trap, the spear would have passed through his waist, and have certainly kiUed him. Pigs are also caught in pit-faUs ; ranjows, or sharp bamboos, being placed at the bottom, on which they faU. Ranjows are also planted on the steep sides of mountains, so that 236 CAGES, TRAPS, AND SPRINGES FOR BIRDS. the pigs, in hurrying down the declivity, often receive them in the breast, and being thus staked, soon bleed to death, and are discovered by the Dyaks. The smaUer kinds of game, such as porcupines, palandok, or mouse-deer, small pigs, pheasants, and partridges, are caught in springes, and by those alone a clever woodsman can daily supply his faraily with this kind of food in abundance, the cord made use of for the springes is of their own manufacture, very fine and strong; it is made frora the inner bark of several kinds of trees. They have also cage-traps, into which the squirrels and raouse-deer are attracted by choice. food, and which fall upon and detain thera. Pigeons and other birds are caught with' springes and bird lime placed in the trees which they frequent for food, particularly the different species of ' kayu ara' (Ficus), which are very abundant, and on which the many species of these birds delight to feed. A practice of fishing, used by the Dyaks of aU de scriptions, and which has been observed also of the natives of South America, with whom these people have many things in comraon, deserves particular notice. It is called fishing with tuba, and is thus carried on : large quantities of the tuba being col lected, which is the root of a clirabing plant (Meni- spermum), though the same effect is produced by the fruit of a tree grown extensively for that purpose, the tribe intending to fish proceed in their boats to the mouth of a small river, or creek, which has a bar STRANGE MODE OF FISHING, 237 of sand at its entrance, so that, at low water, it has little or no comraunication with the sea ; and having distributed the bundles of .tuba in equal proportions to aU the boats present, the persons in thera proceed to beat up the roots on the thwarts of the canoes, frequently pouring water on them, until the whole of the narcotic principle is extracted and collected in the bottom of the boat, in the water which, during the process of beating, has been poured over the roots, and which has now become of a white mUky coloiu'. At low water, and at a signal given by the chief, all the boats simultaneously coraraence baling out the water charged with the narcotic into the river, and this, spreading through the waters in every way, stupefies the fish. The smaller ones, being most readUy affected, first fioat upon the surface, and are taken -with the light and sharp-pointed spears of the Dyaks. Soon the larger ones, beginning to feel its infiuence, also corae to the top ; then it is that the best of the sport commences : fishes of the largest size, together with sraall aUigators, appear for an instant stragghng to free theraselves from the lethargy occasioned by the infected waters. The Dyaks, who are ever on the alert, paddle instantly towards them, and three or four of the barbed spears are iraraediately thrust into their scaly bodies by the different boats, which arrive together at the scene of their strug gles : occasionally a large fish, in his dying agony, is too powerful for .his assailants, one or two of whom 238 STRANGE MODE OF FISHING. are soraetimes dragged into the water, where, if the place be shallow, they dispatch their prey with their parangs or knives. Many other ludicrous accidents occur, which, when large crowds are assembled (as is the case when the tuba is coUected at the expense of and for the amusement of the Europeans, and on which occasions the whole country is invited to be present, and those who wish to share in the sport), afford merriment to those who are merely spectators. Frora the first appearance of the fish the sport lasts about two hours, when the infiux of water from the rising tide dissipates the narcotic, and such fish as remain recover from its effects. Other kinds of fishing are not much practised by the Dyaks, who trust almost solely to the Malays for their supply. CHAPTER VIII. THE HILL DYAKS — THEIR CHARACTER — THEIR RELIGION AND SUPER STITIONS — THEIR DEITIES — INVOCATION OF THEM PROPITIATION OP THEM ANDOF THE EAJAH CEREMONY PERFORMED BY MR, BROOKE THE PAMALI, OR " TABOO " A DYAK FUNERAL A PECULIAR SUPERSTITION OF THE DYAKS THEIR ABSTINENCE FROM ANIMAL FOOD ANCIENT DYAK MONUMENTS AND DRAGON-JARS THEIR VENERATION FOR CERTAIN PLANTS SUPERSTITION OF THE DYAKS OF SARAWAK SPECULATIONS AS TO THE ORIGIN OF THE DYAKS. The HUl Dyaks, or as they caU themselves, " Orang Gunong," or Men of the HiUs, differ in many pecu harities from the Dyaks of the Sea tribes. The principal tribes of the Dyaks of the country of Sarawak are of this division, and they are consequently the people whose miserable and oppressed condition has recently caUed forth so much of the attention and sympathy of our country. This dirision of the Dyak race occupies the most western portions of the island. The tribes ofthe Malayan states of Pontianak, of Sambas, of Sarawak, and of Sadong, all belong to it, and the hUly interior of these countries is peopled entirely by them. In personal appearance, the Dyaks of the HiUs very much resemble those of the other tribes already described ; but they have a more grave and quiet expres sion of countenance, which gives to their features a melancholy and thoughtful air. It is very probable, 240 THE HILL DYAKS. that their many miseries may have much increased this appearance, though it is natural to them, being observ able, in a less degree, in all the tribes of both divi sions. Their countenance is an index to the character of their mind, for they are of peculiarly quiet and mdd dispositions, not easily roused to anger, or the exhi bition of any other passion or emotion, and rarely excited to noisy mirth, unless during their j^eriodical festivals. Their dress, when they have property suf ficient to obtain one, is the long cloth, or " chawat," the manufacture of the Sakarran Dyaks ; but poverty more frequently compels them to supply its place with a rough substance made of the bark of several trees, particularly that of the .genus .Artocarpus, which produces the bread-fruit. Their head-dress is of the same material, being a strip of the bark dyed yellow, and twisted into folds, after which it is bound round the head. For ornaments, they wear bracelets of the red wood of the heart of the Tapang tree, which, after exposure to the air, becomes black as ebony, and being without its brittle qualities, is more durable ; and broad armlets, which are made of the sheU (Kima) from the coast of Celebes, and which, when polished by length of use among the Dyaks, resembles ivory, but never acquires its yeUow tinge, always remaining, of the purest wbite colour. The young men, who affect gallantry, wear in- numej-able strings of beads around their necks, and also cover the upper portion of the arm with .rings of HILL DYAK WOMEN, 241 the black iju, or horsehair-like substance formerly described, plaited very neatly. This, to the eye of an European, is the most becoming of all their adornments, the dark black of the material contrasting agreeably, but not too decidedly, with the brown colour of their skins. They, also, like the Sakarran Dyaks, wear their sword, or parang, on the left side, and the little basket (tambuck) in which are their sirih leaves, and to which the knife is attached, on the right, and these, together with a single ring in their ears, usuaUy of broad flat tened wire, but frequently of the very smaUest dimen sions, together with a jacket of Sakarran manufacture) in wet weather, complete their clothing, ornaments and accoutrements for ordinary occasions. The women, in appearance, differ but little from those previously noticed. Being, however, used to harder labour, they have not so much time to spend upon their todette, and their hair is consequently coarser and less luxuriant. Some of them are fond of ornaments of opaque and very small beads, which by the Semproh, Sebongoh, and other tribes on the southern branch of the Sarawak river, are worked into very pretty head-dresses. This ornament is made of the strung beads of various colours, disposed in broad transverse bands : they are about four or five inches in breadth, and open at the top, so that they resemble a broad fillet. The young girls of these tribes, also, hke the men, wear beads on their necks, and their arms are covered with brass wire, excepting such parts as are reserved for the displaying of the valued shell bracelets already mentioned. 242 HILL DYAK CHILDREN, of which two on each arm are the favourite numbers. Their dress is the " bedang" of the Sakarrans, with the rattans and appropriate ornaments, as among the women of the Sea tribes. Sdver or gold is, however, never seen amongst them, their poverty effectually preventing any display of this kind. Amongst the tribes on the western branch of the Sarawak river, the dress of the women is in creased by the addition of an article, caUed by them " Saladan:" it is made of a bamboo, split, flat tened, pared thin, and dyed black : being thus pre pared, it is fitted to the body, and secured in its form and position by brass wires passing across its breadth, which also serve for the purposes of ornament : they are placed at the distance of about one inch apart from each other. Girls begin to wear it at the age of five or six years, and as it is too smaU to be taken off and on, being made on the body, it is only removed by destroying it, when the condition of the wearer renders a larger one necessary. This curious article of dress is confined to the tribes of Sarawak, caUed Singhie, Sow, Serambo, Bombuck, and Peninjow, who in theh dress also differ from the other tribes of the HiUs in this, that theu- women wear no beads for ornament, and the men only those of two colours — black and white. Transparent beads are not esteemed by any of the tribes I have visited ; smaU and opaque ones alone being valued by them. The colours, most in demand, are the two above mentioned ; but yeUow and red are also much sought after. The girls of the tribes on the western branch of the Sarawak river CHARACTER OF THE HILL DYAKS. 243 never wear the brass-wire above the elbow-joint ofthe arm, nor have I seen thera use the white bracelets, so common in the others of the southern river, the use of which amongst these tribes is apparently confined to the men. In traveUing amongst the Dyaks, it is weU to be provided with a stock of brass-wire and small beads, together with Java tobacco, with which to requite their services ; but as, since confidence has been restored among them, they are in the habit of visiting Sarawak, and making their own purchases, in those tribes where the use of money is understood, it is always preferred as payment for their labour. The HiU Dyaks are a more amiable people than the Sea tribes, previously treated of: their morality is of a higher standard, their gratitude is undoubted, and their hospitality to strangers well ascertained. It has been previously mentioned, that the Malays, who spend amongst the Dyaks, for the purposes of trade, that portion of their time which, during the pre valence of the boisterous monsoon, they are prevented from navigating the ocean, never think of carrying with them, on leaving their houses, more than sufficient pro visions to last them tiU they reach the first village at which they intend to begin their barter, the Dyaks always freely supplying them with such as they have. During the two years which I spent for the most part amongst their tribes, I always found them ohhging, and anxious to perform for me any service in their power, and on leaving a village, they wished to load me with rice, fowls, and fruits, which I was always obliged to R 2 244 THEIR HONESTY. insist upon their retaining, as they were useless to me. On many occasions, I have known that, towards the end of the season, before the new rice was ripe — which is gene rally a time of scarcity with them — and when there was very little to eat in the village, these people have brought it out to present to me; but at this season I never taxed their liberahty, but always brought with me a supply from the town sufficient for my wants, and was frequently able to return, in their necessity, that with which they had so freely parted, earlier in the year. In traveUing also, I found them wUling, on all occasions, to furnish me as many men as I might require for the transport of my luggage, which was usuaUy, on a long journey, from twenty to thirty ; by these means, my traps followed me from vidage to viUage, aU over the country, without any person with them, every thing being left to the care and known honesty of the Dyaks ; and though many of my things were the articles they would most have valued for dress or ornament, an instance of the shghtest pdfer ing never occurred, though it might have been constantly committed, without the slightest danger of immediate detection. On leaving a vdlage, my property, which had been in use, was left strewed about the house in which I had been staying, my Malays rarely troubhng themselves to see anything properly packed ; but the scrupidous careful ness of the Dyaks prevented the loss of anything, and I have been followed by them with articles which had been thrown away, but which they feared might be of serrice. Having intimated to the chief the viUage to which I was k THEIR SUPERSTITION. 245 going, I generaUy found that my baggage was there nearly as soon as myself. It is difficult, however, to engage them to assist the adventurous traveUer in the ascent of mountains, from the superstitious dread they have of the spirits with which the summits of the higher hiUs are supposed to be peopled : everything upon them is sacred to the spirit of the place, and having got them to the top, it was difficidt to teach them to he of any service. They would by no means be instru mental in destroying a stick, or shrub, to make us a tent or fire, untd they had seen that no harm occurred to the Malays, who had no scruples of the kind ; and had any one of my attendants unfortunately died, or had an accident of any serious nature happened to them after any of these excursions, I should probably have never been able to obtain another to accompany me. Their whole hves being spent in the jungle, these Dyaks are of the greatest possible assistance to Euro peans, whose pursuits lead them into its gloom. When overtaken by night, in the forests, or on the mountains, their burdens being placed on the ground, they dis tribute themselves around, and soon return with sticks and palm leaves, of which exceUent tents are speedily formed, in which to pass the night ; the floors of these are always raised above the ground, to preserve the inmates from the attacks of the leeches which abound amongst the dead leaves on the ground, and which are a great annoyance to the traveller in these wdds. The roof of such a tent is impervious to the weather, and the whole time employed in the con struction does not exceed half-an-hour : fires are hghted 246 THEIR GRATITUDE. in them, and the traveUer having changed his wet and disorderly apparel for a clean and dry suit, may proceed to cook his provisions. The nearest bamboo bush wUl furnish him with an exceUent candlestick, and the rattan will answer aU the purposes of a corkscrew, if the benighted wayfarer be fortunate enough to have occasion for its services. Gratitude, which is too frequently found a rare and transitory virtue, eminently adorns the character of these simple people, and the smallest benefit conferred upon them, calls forth its vigorous and continued exercise. It cannot, then, be wondered at, that this amiable quality should lead them, in their simplicity, to consider with a reverence bordering on adoration, the great benefits they have received from European influence in their country. When we consider the oppression of which they were the objects, and the state of misery to which the tyranny of their former rulers had reduced them, and from which the kindness and power of an indivi dual of a race, distinct from any of which they had previously heard — differing not only in features and complexion so remarkably, but also in the feelings with which he regarded their poor, distressed and destitute condition — we can scarcely blame them, that in the excess of their thankfiilness, they should have considered as supernatural, the person who reheved them from their wretchedness, and by whose cherishing care and protecting kindness, they once more enjoyed the hves and liberties with which the great Creator had endowed them. We accordingly find that several of their tribes have ascribed to Mr, Brooke the attri- THEIR MORALITY. 247 butes and powers of a superior being ; and believe that he can, by his word, shed an influence over their persons or property, which will be beneficial to them. In aU their prayers, he is named with the gods of their superstitions, and no feast is made at which his name is not invoked. This misdirected gratitude shows tbe force with which that virtue influences their minds, and promises, when the Missionaries shall have arrived at the scene of their holy labours, to be a feature of their character which will be of the greatest advantage and assistance to them, if properly directed. The amiabdity of the Dyaks of the HUl tribes is of a superior character to that of those before described ; the licentious intercourse between the sexes is not here permitted ; and so strict are these people in encouraging virtue amongst their children, that the young and unmarried men are not permitted to sleep in the houses of their parents, after having attained the age of puberty, but occupy a large house, of peculiar construction, which is set apart for their use in the viUage, and will be hereafter noticed. Neither' has the passion for taking the heads of their feUow creatures, for the mere purpose of complying with a brutal custom, and satisfying a barbarous appetite, eve*" entered their civil institutions, though to preserve the skuUs of their enemies, as memorials of their triumph, has prevaded. The practice of slavery does not disgrace their usages, nor is piracy practised by their tribes. Crime is so rare amongst them, that its punishments are only known from tradition ; and they live at present 248 THEIR RELIGION AND SUPERSTITIONS. in a state of happiness and contentment, which, perhaps, is at this time enjoyed in so high a degree, by no other people upon earth. The language used by the tribes of Land Dyaks, though differing very much from that of the Sea tribes, has very great affinity with it ; but like the dialects of the natives of America, aU the little tribes differ con siderably from each other, though it generaUy happens that a cluster of these, whose viUages are not far apart, and the origin of which can generally be traced to one which is the most ancient, and parent of the others, do not differ in dialect so considerably as to prevent oral communication : thus the tribes on the southern branch of the Sarawak river all understand the language of the Suntah and Sempoo people, two nations to which they owe their existence. Amongst these people, nothing is more difficult, and requires more study and a better acquaintance with their manners and habits, than to procure anything hke accurate information respecting their religious belief and superstitious observances. My residence in the country was too short, and my knowledge of the language too imperfect, to aUow me to inquire so much concerning them, and to understand so well as I could have vrished, and hope at a future period to be able to do. In their superstitions appear to be strangely blended the observances of the Hindus and the rites of the natives of Eastern Polynesia ; the existence of the "taboo" of the latter people proving that the influence of the religion of the Brahmins was never THEIR DEITIES. 249 strong enough, altogether to abohsh the more ancient superstition of these tribes. At the present time, they beheve in a number of divinities, or different orders of spirits, the chief of which, though they vary in many villages, is the god caUed " Tuppa" by most of the tribes ; though amongst some, a deity named Jerroang, has the precedence. To a stranger asking them the name of their God, they universaUy answer " Juwata ;" but on closely questioning them, they call this deity Juwata Laut ; meaning that they have received the knowledge of bim from the Malays, and that his divinity has no proper place in their mythology. Few people will hesitate in pronouncing Juwata to be a corruption of the Sanscrit word " Dewata," which has been adopted into the Malayan language, and is a term for an order of celestial beings in the Hindu mythology. In the belief of the Dyaks, Tuppa and Jerroang are supposed to be eminently powerful and beneficent beings, controlling, not only the actions of men, but those of the spirits of an inferior order. They dehght in doing good to the human race, and have been the bestowers of aU the most sacred gifts to the Dyaks, who say that in ancient times they received the Padi from the former : other, but less powerful spirits, are the Perchaah, the Jim, the Kamang, and the Triu, all of which are generic terms for classes of beings. The Perchaah appear to be the ministers of the two powerful dirinities (or classes of divinities), Tuppa and Jerroang. " Jim," is, perhaps, a corruption of the terra " Jin," evil spririts 250 THE TRIU AND THE KAMANG. of the Arabians ; and this is the more hkely, from their being considered of the same nature by these people, and inimical to mankind. They are thought to be inhabitants of the lower regions of the air, but not to ascend to the loftier residences of the good and beneficent gods. The Triu and the Kamang are spirits of the woods and mountains ; and the martial genii of these people — the Triu — are inhabitants of the forests and lofty hiUs, who constantly descend from them to visit and bless the houses of their votaries, whom they also accompany in their expeditions against their enemies. In person, they are supposed to resemble the Dyaks themselves, whom they delight in benefitting. Far different from this mUd and benevolent charac ter, is that of the genii of the hideous and savage Kamang, whose joy is in the misery of mankind, and who delight in war and bloodshed, and all the other afflictions of the human race. They mix per sonally in the battles of their votaries, not from any wish to assist them — though they may be, in some measure, propitiated by feasts in their honour — but that the carnage may be increased, for they are said to inspire desperate valour. In person, they are as dis gustingly ugly as they are barbarous and cruel in their dispositions : their bodies are covered, like those of the Oran-utan, with long and shaggy red hair: they are mis-shapen and contorted, and their favourite food is the blood of the human race. They, like the spirits caUed Triu, of whom they are supposed to be the enemies. INVOCATION OF THEIR DEITIES. 251 and to whom their power is reported to be equal, reside on the earth, in the woods and mountains. Such is aU the information I am able to offer respecting the spirits and divinities, in the existence of which these tribes believe. I am perfectly aware that there are many others whose names I have not recorded ; but that these are the only ones supplicated on ordinary occasions I am sure, having made repeated inquiries, and been present at many invocations of them, some of which wiU be described in the course of the work. Tuppa or Jerroang is always invoked at their agricultural and other peaceful feasts, and, together vsnth the sun, moon and stars, and the Sultan of Bruni, and their own Rajah, are requested to shed their beneficent influence over the seed Padi, and to render the season propitious to its growth. They regulate their agricultural seasons by the motions of the heavenly bodies, particularly the Pleiades, which they call ' Sakara,'* and to the several stars, on which they bestow the attributes of gods. On aU occasions of great festi vities, such as the planting the seed, or gathering in of the harvest, a stage of bamboo is erected in front ofthe door of the viUage chief, on which the offerings to the gods are placed, consisting ofthe choicest morsels from the plentiful feast which is always provided on these occa sions. From this food, the gods are supposed to extract the essence, and the remnants are eaten by the Dyaks as sacred morsels at the conclusion of the festival. The Triu and Kamang spirits of war are only invited to ¦* Is this the Batara Salaa of the Hindu Javan mythology, to whose particular care the earth was confided ? 252 INVOCATION OF THEIR DEITIES. the feasts connected with, or occasioned by blood shed. These fierce spirits are invoked in a manner peculiar and different from the more powerful dirinities. The person who is deputed to caU them, and who is generaUy the chief of the tribe, having prepared a sirih leaf with lime, betel-nut and tobacco, places it in his mouth, and, having chewed it for some time, commences the prayer, speaking in a very fast manner, and occasionally blowing towards the top of the moun tains the betel and sirih he has been masticating. The invocation ends in a loud, long-continued and most ludicrous squeak, during which I had the greatest difficulty to keep the Malays, who accompanied me, from interrupting the ceremony by their noisy laughter. This invocation is carried on in the Dyak language — at least such of the words as I could catch were of it — though the missionaries of Banjar assert that the Kyans of that part of the country have a language peculiar and sacred for this purpose : sorae specimens of it are pubhshed in the Journal of the ' Hade Missionary Society,' from the pen of the Rev. C. Hupd. On being questioned, the Dyaks bave told me that they have not a distinct language for their religious purposes ; and I think that amongst those of Sarawak, the apparent difference is to be accounted for in the peculiar intonation they give to the syUables when using them in their prayers. Some of the Dyaks, whom I had an opportunity of examining on this point, spoke Malay weU, having lived while chUdren in the Malayan viUages; so that I think there could be no mistake, THEIR SUPERSTITION. 253 unless they wiUingly misled me, of which I do not think them capable. Nevertheless, some remnants of the ancient language of Java may be found amongst the people of Banjar, as from the more frequent occurrence of Hindu remains in the southern parts of the island, that religion has evidently been more prevalent there than in other places ; but if the language is stiU preserved, it is curious that the customs have so entirely disappeared, for, so far as I have been able to learn, no indications of their former existence are to be found amongst the southern tribes; and I am inchned to think that the ancient religion of Java was confined, in the southern parts of the island of Borneo, to the colonists from that country, and never had any considerable influence on the custoras or habits of the aboriginal tribes. Though the Dyaks, excepting on festival occasions, pay but little reverence to their divinities ; in situations in which they consider themselves particularly exposed to their power, they are much in dread of the malig- ., nant spirits. Their fear of disturbing the repose of these on the tops of mountains has been previously alluded to; and in such situations we seldom slept untd they had recounted many stories concerning them. On the * Gunong Matang,' a mountain about eight mdes from the town of Sarawak, was a path beaten, probably by wild animals, to the very peak of the hiU, which had never been previously ascended by the Dyaks : they pointed this out to me as the road leading to the residence of the Kamang, and which 254 THEIR SUPERSTITION. they used in their ascent of the hiU ; nor was I fortunate enough to find the tracks of animals, to undeceive them on this point. On aU feasts which have connection with war, the Triu and Kamang are invoked to be present, and a portion of the food is set apart for them, as on other occasions for the god, Tuppa, who is supposed not to attend with the Kamang and Triu, since his more pure and beneficent nature looks upon war with horror and disgust. The offerings to the Kamang and Triu remain exposed four days and nights, after which they are eaten, in a decaying state, by the Dyaks, who by doing this, suppose they perform a sacred duty. At their feasts on less warlike occasions, their more powerfiil and good spirits are petitioned by prayer and supphcation to be present ; but as these festivals are intimately connected with their rehgious observances, I will in this place describe one which was made on my arrival at the viUage of the Sebongoh HUl Dyaks, in August, 1845, in honour of the first European risit to them. After having consented to remain whUe the chief collected the tribe, I sat down in the verandah of the house, which had been prepared for my reception by being covered with fine white Sirhassan mats : simUar ones were also strewed from my boat to the houses, which are budt on the banks of the river, so that I might not soil my feet in the ascent to them. Soon after I was seated, the Orang Kaya (chief of a viUage) requested me to give them a little piece of cloth, and a smaU silver coin — they wishing to cut off the string of a piUow- PROPITIATION OF THEIR DEITIES. 255 case for the first, but I gave them a grass-cloth hand kerchief, which very much delighted them : the old chief brought out his wife to receive it, and the lady told me that it was to be hung up in the house as a memo rial of my visit, and to preserve the viUage from evil influence. When the feast was about to begin — or rather the preparations for it — I was desired by the Orang Kaya to accompany him to the stage before the verandah, which is used by the Dyaks for drying their Padi (Indian-corn), Jagong (maize), &c. Having determined, for the purpose of seeing the ceremony, to be quite passive in their hands, I accordingly rose, and went with him. The old man held in his left hand a small saucer, fiUed with rice, which had been made yellow by a mixture with Kunyit, or Turmeric, and other herbs. He then uttered a prayer in Malay, which he had previously requested me to repeat after him. It was addressed to Tuppa, the sun and moon, and the Rajah of Sarawak, to request that the next Padi harvest might be abundant, that their famdies might be increased with male chddren, and that their pigs and fowls might be very prohfic : it was, in fact, a prayer for general prosperity to the country and tribe. During its con tinuance, we threw towards heaven smaU portions of the rice from the saucer at frequent intervals, and at the commencement of every fresh paragraph of the supplicatory address. After this had been finished, the chief repeated the prayer in the Dyak language by himself, throwing the rice towards the sky, as 256 PROPITIATION OF THEIR DEITIES. before ; which, when he had finished, we returned together into the verandah, and the Orang Kaya tied a little hawk-beU round my wrist, requesting me at the same time to tie another, with which he furnished me for the purpose, round the same joint of his right hand. After this, the noisy gongs and tomtoms began to play, being suspended from the rafters at one end of the verandah, and the chief tied another of the little bells round my wrist: his example was this time foUowed by aU the old men present, each addressing a few words to me, or rather mumbhng them to themselves, of which I did not understand the purport. Every person who now came in, brought with him several bamboos of cooked rice ; and each, as he arrived, added one to the number of my beds, so that they had now become inconveniently numerous, and I requested, as a favour, that the remainder might be tied upon ray left wrist, if it made no difference to the ceremony. Those who foUowed, accordingly did as I had begged of them in this particular. Soon after, a spotted fowl was brought in, haring its legs tied together: it was held out to an old man, who also tied its wings, and the person who had brought it then made it fast to one of the posts of the door- Immediately after, a white one was brought, which was secured in the same manner. In half-an-hour the spotted one was again produced, and its legs being loosened, it was given into the hands of the Orang Kaya, who swinging it backwards and forwards over COMPLETION OF THE CEREMONY. 257 the heads of the seated people, repeated the same invoca tion as that previously used by the chief and myself outside. Haring finished, the white one was given to me, and walk ing up and down the place, I went through the same cere mony. After this, the white one was presented for my acceptance, and another was given to my servant and people. The spotted one was then held by the Orang Kaya over the saucer containing the remainder of the rice we had not used outside : another man cut off its head with a sharp piece of bamboo ; and the bloody rice was then carried out by the chief and myself, who went through the praying ceremony again. This finished, the gongs and tomtoms again began to play, the boys being the performers. The pig, which forms the principal part of the festival, was theu kiUed with a spear, and being first partiaUy roasted over a fire, was cut up into smaU pieces, put into green baraboos, and boiled on the spot ; aU the persons present assisting at this, to them, pleasing labour. After it was put upon the fires, the people aU dispersed for about an hour: when they returned, everything was ready to be eaten. I was now getting very tired of the proceedings, and should have been glad to get away; but retreat, without giring offence, was impossifole. Everything being ready, and the feast served to the seated people, the fish, fowls and pig, of which it con sisted, were soon made to disappear, together with a very large quantity of rice. They drank the palm toddy, and finished what wine I had with me. By 258 COMPLETION OF THE CEREMONY. the time this was accomplished it had become quite dark, so that I requested to be allowed to eat my own dinner, not having the slightest wish to taste the many things which the Dyaks had placed before me, and which they doubtlessly considered the most delicate parts of the entertainment. Having finished my meal, and lighted my cigar, the dancing was commenced by the old men of the tribe, who were tottering under all the fine clothes the viUage could produce. This uninteresting performance consisted in placing and sustaining their bodies in the most contorted positions, and moring up and down the verandah with the slow and shuffling step, and shrUl scream of the Sea Dyak dances, which, excepting in the exhibition of heads, this performance much resembled. The actors were occasionaUy cheered by the spectators, on haring performed dexterously some more difficult and inelegant contortion than ordinary ; but as I did not sufficiently appreciate its beauties, I was unable to echo them. My Malays, however, who were liring at the expense of the Dyaks, were liberal in their commendations. No drunkenness, or other indecent behariour, was exhibited at this festival. On taking my departure on the foUowing day, I made presents to the principal people of the battik handkerchiefs, beads, and other trinkets they so much value. Had I permitted them, they would have laden my boat with rice and fowls, which, when I descended from the houses, I found waiting at the landing-place. At the feast above described, woraen did not dance. CEREMONY PERFORMED BY MR, BROOKE. 25^ as they were too bashful to perform before a stranger ; but I have had opportunities of witnessing them on other occasions, and am enabled to say that the performance differs in no respect from that of the men : hke them, they dress iu aU the fine clothes they can find, not in the least caring whether or not they are elegant in appearance. In other particulars, though they differ in some trifling matters, the feasts of the other Land tribes precisely resemble this of the Sebongoh people. When Mr. Brooke visits their residences, instead of suppli cating him, they each bring a portion of the Padi-seed they intend to sow next season, and with the necklaces of the women, which are given to him for that pur pose, and which, having been dipped into a mixture previously prepared, are by him shaken over the little basins which contain the seed, by which process he is supposed to render them very productive. Other tribes, whom from their distance he cannot visit, send down to him for a smaU piece of white cloth, and a little gold or sdver, which they bury in tbe earth of their farms, to attain the same result. On his entering a village, the women also wash and bathe his feet, first with water, and then with the mUk of a young cocoa-nut, and afterwards with water again : aU this water, which has touched his person, is preserved for the purpose of being distributed on their farms, being supposed to render an abundant harvest certain. On one occasion, having remarked that the crops of rice of the Samban tribe were thin, the chief imme- s 2 260 THE PAMALI, OR "TABOO," diately observed that they could not be otherwise, as they had never been -risited by the Rajah, and he begged of me to try and induce Mr. Brooke to visit them, to remove the causes which had rendered their crop a smaU one. The Pamali is a curious practice, resembhng the " taboo" of the South Sea Islands, and is intimately connected with their festivals, and other rehgious or superstitious observances. The Pamali is of different kinds, and used on several occasions ; but to describe tbe three principal ones, will be sufficient in a smaU work of this nature. These are the " Pamali Mati," or " taboo," for the dead; the " Pamah Peniakit" or that for sickness ; and the " Pamali Omar" or that for the Padi farms. The first, Pamali Mati, is on a house, and on every thing in it for twelve days after the decease of any person belonging to it : during this time, no one, who is not an inhabitant of the dwelhng can enter it, nor are the persons usuaUy residing in it aUowed to speak to such, nor can any thing, on any pretence whatever, be removed from it, untd the twelve days of the prohibition be expired : its conclusion is marked by the death of a fowl or pig, according to the circumstances of the famdy. The Pamah Peniakit is undertaken by a whole vdlage during any sickness which prevails generaUy amongst the members of the tribe ; it is marked by a pig slain, and a feast being made in order to propitiate the dirinity who has sent the malady among them ; in its severest form, it is of eight days' continuance, and during this period every thing in the viUage is at a stand stiU, the THE PAMALI PENIAKIT. 261 inhabitants shutting themselves up from aU intercourse with strangers. This form of Pamali prevented my personaUy risiting the Brang and Sipanjang tribes, as they were under the taboo when I was in their vicinity, for a kind of dysentery which was prevalent among them. The Pamah Peniakit is also undertaken by individuals when any member of the famdy is sick ; thus, parents often put themselves under its regulations, fondly hoping that by denying themselves for a time the pleasures of intercourse with their fellow creatures, they wUl prevad upon the malignant spirit, which is supposed to have shed its withering influence over their offspring, to restore it to its wonted health and strength. Bye Ringate, the chief of the Sennah Dyaks, was dying from a severe dysentery ; his chddren told me, sorrowing, when I risited their vdlage, that pigs had been kdled, and the great Pamah had been tried in vain, and that a person who had come from a distant tribe had also failed to effect a cure, and as a last resource, they wished to have some medicine from the Europeans. On returning, I sent some piUs to him which Dr. Treacher, the clever surgeon at Sarawak, had given me for the purpose ; and though, when he found himself get better from their effects, he took more of thfera than he should have done, we had the satisfaction of hearing that he had perfectly recovered. I never visited the tribe after this occurrence ; but should suppose that it must have shaken their behef in the Pamah, and estabhshed the reputation of the European doctor in its place. 262 A DYAK FUNERAL. The Pamah Omar, or taboo on the farms, occurs immediately after the whole of the seed is sown : it lasts four days, and diudng that period, no person of the tribe enters any of the plantations on any account ; a pig and feast are, according to their practice, also necessary. The proper observance of these various forms of Pamah is probably amongst the most ancient of their customs, and was practised by their tribes preriously to the intro duction of the Hindu rehgion. The Land Dyaks have not among their tribes any of the peculiar functionaries described as " Manangs " in the preceding chapters ; at least, none who assume their effeminate character and ridicidous habits; and they consider it a very strange custom in their neighbours. The only person who appears amongst them to be pro- fessionaUy connected with their religious observances, is the " Balean," who prepares the pdes for the burning of the dead, as these Dyaks do not dispose of their dead relations by burial. These pdes are generaUy erected at the foot of the hUl on which the viUage is budt, and tbe body is conveyed to the place as soon as it has been prepared. It is borne by the male relations of the deceased, and foUowed from the brow of the hUl, where the female relatives station themselves ; by their cries and lamentations, though these are not of that kind which are intended merely to attract the sympathy of passers-by, but are such as are caused alone by heartfelt and genuine sorrow. The body, being surrounded and covered with wood, is altogether consumed by the flames, the ascent of which, and of the THEIR BELIEF IN A FUTURE STATE, 263 smoke, are carefuUy watched by their assistant relations, who draw from its perpendicular direction, an augury favourable and satisfactory to them. Should, however, the smoke ascend, from wind or other causes, in a slanting manner, they depart, assured that tbe Antu, or spirit, is not yet satisfied ; and that soon, one or another of them wIU become his prey. This, however, gives them but little uneasiness ; as death, to their ignorant and unenlightened minds, displays no terror; and though they shun it with that instinctive fear which is common both to animals and men, they have by no means the dread of the King of Terror common to more enlightened nations. Though a knowledge of a future state has eridently been, at some time, prevalent amongst these people, many of them, at the present time, have no idea of the immortahty of the soid ; though some have a slight and confused conception of it. These say that the spirit of a deceased person haunts the house and viUage it had formerly inhabited during the twelve days of the Pamali; but the Dyaks of the western branch of the Sarawak, who do not practice the Pamali so rigorously as those of the southern river, say that It departs, at the burying of the body, to the woods or mountains, or goes they know npt where. One In stance came to my knowledge inferring a partial belief in the transmigration of the soul ; but as it is a solitary example, I merely give the anecdote without any com ment. It occurred in October, last year, as I was on the road to the Gunong Pennerissen, which I intended to 264 A PECULIAR SUPERSTITION. ascend in search of plants, and wbich is situated on the confines of the Sangow and Sarawak territories. Walk ing through a jungle between the viUages of Sennah and Sudoish, a large snake crossed our path ; and when I inquired of the Sennah Dyak, Pa-Benang, who was walking before me, his reason for not kUhng it — his parang haring been drawn, and his arm arrested when raised to strike — ^he told me that the bamboo bush opposite to which we were then standing, had been a man, and one of his relations, who, dying about ten years previously, had appeared in a dream to his vridow, and Informed her that he had become the bamboo tree we then saw, and the ground in its immediate neigh bourhood, and everything on it, was sacred on this account. Pa-Benang told me, that in spite of the warning given to the woman in the rision, that the Dyaks should respect this tree, a man had once had the hardihood to cut a branch from it, in consequence of which he soon after died ; his death being considered by the tribe as a punishment for his sacrilegious act. A small bamboo altar was erected before the bush, on which were the remnants of offerings which had been, but not recently, presented to the spirit of the tree. Besides the trace of the Hindu rehgion, which we have recorded, in the disposal of their dead by fire, other relics are to be discovered in their customs, par ticularly in that which induces them to abstain from the use of animal food of several kinds. This practice — as indeed all those which have any connection vrith Hin duism — is observed more strictly amongst the Sin ghie, Sow, and other tribes of the western branch of ABSTINENCE FROM ANIMAL FOOD. 265 the Sarawak, than amongst those of the Southern stream, where the old Polynesian customs are more venerated. Thus it is that the Pamah is less practised amongst the former than amongst the latter tribes ; and from this we are led to Infer that this country was, most hkely, the boundary of the spread of the religion of the Brahmins, and that its influence had not extended to the eastward, as the Dyaks of Sadong retain but few traces of its existence, and those of Sakarran and Sarebas none at aU. Some of the tribes of the Sadong River, situated farthest to the eastward, are said to bury their dead, as do all the Dyak tribes beyond them. The ox, the buffalo, the deer, the goat, fowls and some kinds of vegetables, are forbidden food to some or other of these tribes. Of these animals, those which are held most sacred are the buU and cow, and nothing would induce a Dyak of any of the tribes of Sarawak, to eat anything into the composition or cooking of which either the flesh of the animal, or any part of its productions has entered ; so that, if offered any of the food which has been prepared for an European, they immediately ask if it has been cooked with butter or ghee ; in which case they wIU not partake of it. So strongly is this superstitious prejudice rooted in theu* minds, that" Dyaks, who have become Mahomedans at the age of five to seven years, and who since that period had resided among Malays, stUl adhered to the practice ; and at the feasts of these latter people, and when on other occasions they have opportunities, never partake of such food. The 266 FURTHER INSTANCES OF IT. prohibition against the flesh of deer is much less strictly practised, and in many tribes totaUy disregarded. As usual with the relics of the rehgion of the Brah mins, it Is less prevalent on the southern than on the westem branch of the river of Sarawak, many of the tribes of the former haring totaUy set aside the custom. In the large tribe of Singhie, it is observed In its fuUest extent, and is even carried so far, that they wiU not aUow strangers to bring a deer Into their houses, or to be cooked by their fires. The men of the tribe wUl not touch the animal, and none but the women or boys, who have not been on a war expedi tion, which admits them to the pri-rileges of man hood, are aUowed to assist the European sportsman In bringing home his bag. It Is amongst this, the Sow, and other tribes on the same branch of the river, that goats, fowls, and the fine kind of fern (paku), which forms an excellent vege table, are also forbidden food to the men, though the women and boys are aUowed to partake of them, as they are also of the deer's flesh amongst the Singhie Dyaks. The tribe of Sow, whose riUages are not far from the houses of Singhie, does not so rigorously observe the practice. Old men, women, and boys may eat of its flesh ; the middle-aged and unmarried young men only being prohibited from partaking of It. I think, however, that the practice of using the flesh of the animal In question Is one of recent Introduction, and probably first used by them in the scarcity of food, in the time of the native Rajahs of Sarawak, by whom. ABSTINENCE FROM MILK. 267 more than any of the others, this tribe was oppressed. I am Induced to entertain this opinion, from having observed several of the men deny themselves its use, and from the abundance of the herds in their district of country. In those places where the tribes have had, for a long time, no scrapie regarding the use of its flesh, the animal Is never plentiful, on account of their ingenuity In catching or destroying it. Their not using the milk or butter of the cow, in which the Hindus dehght, has been accounted for on the supposition that, at the first introduction of the animal Into Java, from whence It came to Borneo, this was a precautionary measure to encourage the breed, by not depriving the calves of their natural sustenance. None of these animals are now to be found in Sarawak, with the exception of the few belonging to the Euro peans, and introduced by them from the northern parts of the island, where large herds of the descendants of some brought thither by the Spaniards about two hundred years ago are found. They are reported to have been kept in considerable nurabers by the natives of Sarawak, untd the disturbances, when they were aU destroyed. The Malays make no use of the milk of the animal, nor do the inhabitants of Java. From the prevalence of the indications of the in fluence of the Hindu rehgion, observed in their customs above detailed, we might suppose that the traces of its monuments in the arts of budding and sculpture, so common in some parjs of Java, might be also found here; but, as has been previously observed, it Is 268 ANCIENT MONUMENTS. probable that this and the neighbouring river of Samar hand, were the most eastern confines of its sway, and that the people were neither sufficiently numerous, nor zealous enough in the exercise of its precepts, to render it adrisable to incur tbe necessary expense of bringing these things from Java, or of importing Hindu artists from thence. One positive monument of these people has, however, been found in Sarawak, though in a much mutdated state. It is the image of a buU, carved in stone, and in a crouching position, simdar to one sketched in Sir Stamford Raffles's History of Java, fig. 5, in the plate from subjects in stone, found near Singa-Sari, in the district of Maling, in Java. The Borneo specimen is too much disfigured to ascertain whether Its trappings had been the same. This relic was much venerated by the Dyaks, who protested against its being removed, declaring that the country would be deluged by rain, and that other supernatural events would occur, if it were aUowed to go out of the prorince. They were finaUy prevaded upon to permit Its removal to Sarawak, by the argu ment, that an object of such veneration should not be permitted to be exposed in the jungle, and that it should be placed under a shed in the town, where It now accordingly stands. Two other objects, the workmanship of a people who had attained to some degree of skUI in the art of working stone, have been discovered; the one at a point of the river, about six mdes above the town of Sarawak, caUed Battu Kawa ; the other on the Samarhand river, near Ledah ANCIENT MONUMENTS. 269 Tanah, and caUed by the Malays, Battu Berala, or the Idol Stone. The best idea of the shape of this last will be given by the accompanying engraring.* The Battu Kawa Is not in any way reverenced by any of these people, and from the square hole in the centre, and Its being situated in a place where Moham medans are known to have been buried, I have thought that with a post, which may have decayed, placed In the hole of the stone. It may have served to commemorate the Interment of a saint, or some otber distinguished person of that religion. But the Malays deny aU know ledge of Its uses, or the period of its construction, and none of them are now capable of producing anything like it in stone. The Battu Berala, on the contrary, is highly vene rated by the surrounding Dyaks, -who suppose the shght elevation on which it is placed, to be the resi- * Dimensions of the Battu Berala : — 2 feet 7 inches across the upper surface. Diameter of the round hole, 12 inches ; diameter of the square hole, on the lower surface, 7 inches. Thickness of the whole stone, 6 inches ; thickness of the upper edge, 4 inches. 270 ANCIENT MONUMENTS. dence of some great spirit, in whose honour, once a year, the Dyaks are said, at this spot, to hold a great feast, bringing the pigs and prorisions from their vdlage for this purpose, I exceedingly regret that during the time I visited the stone, it was impossible to proceed further up the river, which be comes sraall at this distance from the sea, to learn from these Dyaks themselves the whole of the par ticulars concerning it. Such information as I was able to obtain respecting it, is derived entirely from the Malays who are well acquainted with the customs of the Dyaks of the river, and many of whom speak their language vrith facility. None of the Dyaks wdl cut down the trees or make their farms near this place, as they fear to draw upon themselves the anger of the divinity residing in it. Other stones lay about the Battu Berala, one of which appeared to have formed part of the shaft of a column, but they were so broken, that nothing certain, as to their original shape or uses, could be gathered from these fragments. Though these stones are few in number, the image of the bull alone, and the veneration in which It and the Battu Berala are held, are sufficient evidences that the rehgion which Introduced and used them, has had some influence in this part of the island. In the southern provinces, and those of the south-west, where the colonies of Javanese were larger, and their communication with the parent country more frequent and regular, Images of brass and stone are abundant ; and even small temples are said, by the Dutch, to have ANCIENT DRAGON-JARS. 271 been found In the ricinity of Sukadana and Banjar. Some jars and other earthenware, simUar to that used in India in the present day, have been dug up close to the town of Sarawak, in the garden of Mr. Hentig, an European gentleman residing there. In one of the earthen jars, which resembled the chatty, used for cooking by the Hindus, were discovered the golden ornaments of the face, which are common amongst the people of Hindustan : this jar had, per haps, contained the ashes of a person whose body had been burned. Amongst the Dyaks are found jars, held by them In high veneration, the manufacturers of which are forgotten ; the smaUer ones, amongst the Land and Sea Dyaks, but particularly with the latter, are common. They are caUed Nagas, from the Naga or dragon, which is rudely traced upon them. They are glazed on the outside, and the current value of them is forty dol lars ; but those which are found amongst the Kyan tribes, and those of South Borneo and amongst the Kadyans, and other tribes of the north, are valued so highly as to be altogether beyond the means of ordinary persons, and are the property of the Malayan Rajahs, or of the chiefs of native tribes. I have never had an opportunity of seeing one of these valued relics of antiquity, but am told that, like the Nagas, they are glazed, but larger. They have smaU handles round thera, caUed ears by the natives, and figures of dragons are traced upon their surface: their value Is about two thousand doUars. 272 DYAK ,. VENERATION. In the houses of their owners, to whom they are a source of great profit, they are kept with pious care, being covered with beautiful cloths. Water is kept in them, which is sold to the tribe, and valued on account of the virtues it Is supposed to possess, and which it derives from the jar which has contained it. By what people these rehcs were made, and by wbat means they have been thus distributed, and the veneration for them so widely spread, cannot be at this time determined. Some of the jars were sent from Banjar Massin to China, by the Dutch, who hoped to make a profitable speculation by their credulity; but the artists of that country could, not, though famed for their imitative powers, copy these with sufficient exactness to deceive the Dyaks, who Imme diately discovered that they were not those they esteemed; and, consequently, set no value upon thera. From their price. It is presumed that these jars are very rare. I think that I have now mentioned aU the relics of a former superstition — but raore recent than those proper to the Polynesian character — which are known to exist in the westem and north-western provinces of the island. The veneration for certain plants, now to be described, seems to be more ancient than the Intro duction of the Brahminlcal religion, excepting In two instances, those of the Draccena and the yeUow bamboo — which, from their being natives of India, may have come with it. The Draccena resembles the species known to Botanists as "Draccena termmalis," and is not a FOR CERTAIN PLANTS, 273 native of the island. It is planted near their houses and around the "bulu gading," or ivory baraboo, which is held in great reverence. This beautiful cane, one or more tufts of which are found near every -riUage, grows to the height of the largest of the genus : its stems are of a bright yellow colour, with a smooth and ivory-like appearance. Beneath its shade, and amongst plants of the crimson and pink-leaved Draccena, is generaUy erected a little bamboo altar, covered in winter from the rain with a roof, but raore frequently open. When protected, a ladder is usuaUy placed for facditating the ascent of the spirit to the offerings upon the stage, which are placed there on all their festival occasions : when the altar is roofed, it in general reserables a Dyak house, and thus becomes a little temple. No worship is paid to the tree, but the place on which it stands Is considered sacred ; and a plant is always procured and tended with care in every rillage, until it becomes* a large and handsome bush. Its gracefuUy beautiful stems and foliage probably first attracted the attention of these people, and induced them to suppose plants, which were to them of so pleasing an appearance, equaUy the favourites of the gods. The Bunga Si-kudip, as it is called by the Dyaks of the southern branch of the Sarawak river, and amongst whom it is held in the greatest esteem, though known, I believe to aU the tribes, is the plant described by botanists as the Pancratium Amboinense or Eurycles coronata, a native of the Moluccas and other islands to the east- 274 SUPERSTITIONS OF THE ward ; but as far as is at present known, a stranger to the flora of Borneo, In the western parts of which, the order Amaryllideae, to which it belongs. Is ordy repre sented by one species of Crinum, which is found on the muddy banks of the river. By the Si-booyoh Sea Dyaks, this plant is caUed Si-kenyang. By the Dyaks of the southern river, the roots of this bulbous plant are preserved with jealous care, being always taken up when the Padi is ripe, and preserved amongst it In the grana ries, to be planted again with the seed-padi in the foUowing season. It bears a beautiful crown of white and fragrant flowers, which rise about a foot above the bulb ; the only plant which I saw in a flowering state was at Sennah, and no consideration would induce the owner to part with it. These and other Dyaks assert that the Padi wiU not grow unless a plant of the Si-kudip be in the field, and on being asked respecting its origin they answered, that Tuppa gave it to mankind with the Padi, and requested them to take care of it, which they now do. The plant I saw in flower at Sennah, had a bamboo altar erected over it, on which were several offerings, consisting of food, water, &c. I think there can be little doubt that the plant has been brought with the Dyaks from the country whence they first emigrated to Borneo, and as it is not at present known to be an Inhabitant of any country west of the island, it would foUow that the people came from the eastward, perhaps from the opposite island of Celebes ; but conclusions of this natme cannot be drawn DYAKS OF SARAWAK. 275 untU the habitat of the plant be better ascertained. Should it be found to be held in the same veneration amongst the Kyan tribes, and the wdd inhabitants of Celebes and the Arafouras of the different islands to the eastward become better known, the fact of this plant having been carried westward raay be of considerable importance, in setting at rest the long agitated question regarding the direction In which the tide of population in the eastern islands flowed. That this island was peopled originally frora the eastward, is, I think, to be deduced from the relative positions of the tribes : — the Kyans, the raost strong and powerful, occupying the eastern coast, having driven tbe Sea Dyaks, the descend ants of forraer emigrants, to the westward, who had pre viously forced the Land Dyaks, the first immigrants to the island, to retreat before them in the same manner. Connected with the subject of their religious and superstitious observances, must be mentioned the faith they place In omens, which are principally drawn frora the noises of Insects ; they are esteemed favourable, or otherwise, according as they are in particular directions from the person wishing to consult thera : they have also oraens of other kinds, but I am not sufficiently ac quainted with the subject to detad them. I may add, from my own observation, that they wIU never start on any journey, however short, untd they ascertain from these practices, whether it wUl end favourably ; and should the omens not be at first as they wish them, they seldom have to wait long before a promising one is heard, as, from the number of Insects which supply T 2 276 SPECULATION AS TO THE them, this necessarily cannot be long before it occurs. A seat is made at the approach to every rillage, at which aU persons leaving their houses wait the wished- for signal, which shall announce a happy termination to the labours of the day, or other business on which they may be departing. I have not observed amongst the Dyaks of Sarawak, that they hold in superstitious di'ead any species of birds, though such may be the case in some parts of the country, as it is mentioned by one or two writers, though by none from personal observation. I have shot aU kinds of bhds in their presence, and they never showed the least wish to prevent me, but were always amused at seeing them faU, and ready to eat such as I did not want for the purpose of preserring their skins. From the foregoing very imperfect account of the customs of these people, connected with a religious pro fession, it wiU be seen that several of the customs and observances of the Hindus have been grafted on the original and more ancient superstitions general among the inhabitants of Polynesia. AU writers on the East have uniformly declared that, with the exception of the Papuas, or black race, inhabiting some ofthe more eastern of the islands, aU the various tribes of the Archipelago have originated from one people, which Mr. Crawfurd considers a distinct race, and pecuhar to thosa islands. I am not capable of giving an opinion on a matter so weighty; but certainly think vrith the high authority above quoted, that they are not of the Tartar race, as ORIGIN OF THE DYAKS, 277 had been formerly supposed ; though the Javanese, who are the most distinct from the other races of the island, bear considerable resemblance to that division of the human famUy. The natives of the continent of South America are httle known, and 1 have met with no vocabulary of the languages of the central tribes of that continent. Usages cannot be depended on, as the same circumstances would produce similar habits among people who had no com raunication ; but the use of the Surapit-an, which pre vaUs among the South Americans, is also common in Borneo, and is known to some more eastern islands. The Taboo, or Pamah, asslmdates the Dyaks with the islanders of New Zealand and the Pacific Ocean ; and, should the inquiry be properly carried out by persons residing on the spot, and who may have leisure and opportunity to pursue an investigation so Interesting, we may hope, in time, to connect the inhabitants of aU the islands closely one with another ; and, finaUy, annex them to the continent of South America, or establish them — which is, perhaps, more probable — as a distinct race frora any of those of Asia or the Western World, It wUl be my study, if opportunities occur, during a contemplated residence, which I hope may be long continued, on the island of Labuh-an, to prosecute these inquiries ; and I hope that others, with similar advantages, wiU assist in the elucidation of the confused but interesting history of these nations. CHAPTER IX. LAND DTAK VILLAGES AND HOUSES THE PANGAH DYAK PORTI- FICATIONS THEIR PATHS AND BRIDGES MODE OF TRAVEL LING — THE ORANG KATA DTAK ASSEMBLIES, OR PARLIAMENT THEIR POPULATION' — VILLAGES DTAK TRIBES IN SARAWAK THEIR MOBALITT AND MARRIAGE CEREMONIES A CURIOUS AND SALUTART CUSTOM HEAD-TAKING DTAK DISEASES, MEDICINE AND SURGERT — MODE OF CURE — MUSICAL INSTRU MENTS AND SINGING WEAPONS THE TAPANG TREE MODE OF PROCURING WAX AND EDIBLE BIRDS* NESTS AGRICULTURE LANDOWNERS. The nature of the relations which, imtd recently, existed amongst the tribes of the Land Dyaks, rendered it of paramount iraportance that the situation of each riUage should be such as was easdy capable of defence. We accordingly find aU the hUls of the Interior of the western portion of the island, on which springs of water are found, to be occupied by one or other of their commu nities ; and one or two of these, which were possessed by numerous tribes, have been considered sufficiently strong to resist the Sakarran Dyaks, and have, accordingly, been unmolested by these ruthless spoders, excepting in some instances, where smaU parties were discovered at a dis tance from their villages, or hving at their farm-houses, and who were generaUy cut off ; but in other cases, the difficidties of ascent have been overcome by the invaders. LAND DYAK VILLAGES. 279 and the tribes massacred and destroyed. This, however, the Sakarran Dyaks could not themselves have accom plished, had they been unassisted by the fire-arms of the Malays. In appearance, the vdlages of the HiU tribes differ considerably from the houses of the Sea Dyaks pre- riously described : though they are budt much upon the same principles. Though these are by no means so weU carried out, the same terrace-like arrangement is adhered to, where the nature of the ground wiU admit of it, but this arrangement is never seen in such perfection as araongst the Sea tribes, on account of the Inequalities of the surface, and the rocky nature of the sides of mountains, chosen for their position. For these reasons, a row of houses seldom contains raore than from six to ten residences, and these rows are scattered in aU directions, no regularity of position being attempted in the arrangement of the vdlage, but each terrace being placed as near as possible to the others, for the purposes of defence and mutual pro tection. The houses, like those of the Sea Dyaks, are raised upon posts of Balean, or some other hard wood, though the latter are by no means so stout and large : more of them, consequently, are necessary to support the budding. Their houses, individuaUy, are generaUy much smaUer and less commodious, particularly among the poorer tribes. But I have observed that those who have raost felt the cherishing Influence of the European govStnraent, have built houses equaUy coramodious and substantial with those of the other divisions. This is 280 LAND DYAK HOUSES. observable to a great degree in the Sow, Sennah, and Serapro tribes. In the interior, these houses differ from those formerly noticed, only in having at the end of the house, farthest from the door, a raised platform, about two feet higher than the floor of the apartment. This serves as a seat for the farady by day, and is set apart for the use of the unmarried females of the house by night. The roofs of these houses are lower, gene rally, among the poorer tribes ; and, amongst all, are formed frora a different palra frora the Nipah, with which those of the Sea Dyaks are composed. The palms they use are of several kinds ; and though not gathered with such facility, on account of their greater scarcity, they are reported to last much longer than the other. The furniture of the houses differs in no respect from that of those already described; and tbe flooring on which the married people, with their younger chddren, sleep, is of the sarae construction. One or more cradles, formed of the hollow stem of the Sago-palm, or a block of wood, in which a cavity has been made, slung from the beams of the house by ropes attached to both ends of it, adorn the room ; and a notched pole serves them as a ladder to ascend to the loft of the house. In the riUages of aU the tribes of Land Dyaks are found one, and sometimes raore houses of an octagonal form, with their roofs ending in a point at the top. They always stand apart from the others ; and instead of having a door at the side, these, which are THE PANGAH. 281 never buUt with verandahs, are entered by a trap-door at the bottom. In the flooring. These houses vary in size, according to the wants of the hamlet by which they are built; but are generally much larger than ordinary domiciles. The term by which they are distinguished is " Pangah," " Ramin," being the Dyak word for an ordinary house. The Pangah is budt by the united efforts of the boys and unraarried raen of tbe tribe, who, after having attained the age of puberty, are obhged to leave the houses of the riUage; and do not generally frequent them after they have attained the age of eight or nine years. A large fire-place, of simdar construction to those of the ordinary residences. Is placed In the centre of this hall, and around its sides are plat- 282 THE DURIAN. forms similar to those used by the women in the other dweUings of the viUage. The Pangah, being generally the best house in the place, is set apart for the use of strangers visiting the tribe ; and In it aU the councds of the old men are held, and all business connected with the welfare of the people Is transacted. A large drum, formed of the skin of some animal, stretched upon the end of a hollow tree, is placed above the heads of the persons on the floor, for the purpose of apprising the vUlage of any approaching danger. From the timbers which cross the house and support the slight flooring of the loft, where the young men keep their sleeping-mats and other things by day, usually depend the skulls collected during ages, by the tribe. But on account of the bloodless nature of their wars, these are seldom numerous ; and frequently would not equal in number the heads in the possession of a single famdy of the Sea Dyaks. The vUlages of the HUl tribes are always, where the situation has been long the residence of a tribe, surrounded, to a great extent of country, by orchards of the dehcious fruits of these climes ; and on approach ing their houses during the season when these are in blossom, or loaded with their delicate fruits, the perfume exhaled by them is most grateful to the traveUer, who Is generady not long in seating himself under the dense fohage of the beautiful mangusteen, or the lofty and more spreading branches of the durian ; in which position the Dyaks attending, soon DYAK FRUITS, 2 83 supply him with abundance of the choicest fruits of the earth. Any one accustomed only to eat the fiiiits of the Malayan bazaars, cannot imagine tbe superior delicacy of flavour in those fresh plucked. In this state, the durian, which, after it has been gathered for a day or two^ends forth a most offensive smeU, is one of the most delightful of fruits, and its odour neither strong nor unpleasant. No one who has been used to this fruit in perfection, would never think of touching those of the bazaars ; one taste of the garlic-like flavour — which if the offensive odour has not been sufficient — usuaUy prevents the European from enjoying this fine fruit. To have it in perfection. It must be eaten imraediately on its faUing from the tree ; those which are plucked, and ripen afterwards, being equaUy useless with those which have been two or three days from the orchard. The Dyaks are passionately fond of this fruit, and distinguish it by the name "dien," which signifies " the fruit," par excellence ; " dien," being the term for fruit in general, as weU as for this species in particular. Its seeds, which are large, are roasted, when they resemble chesnuts, and are carefuUy preserved by the people, to be eaten when the season of fruits is past. To keep up the succession of these forests of fruit-trees, no care on the part of the Dyaks is necessary, so that they never think of planting young trees, but trust to Nature, which is here so prodigal of its care for a continuance of the supply, that a constant succession of young plants is kept up by the faUen fruits, precisely 284 DYAK FORTIFICATIONS. in the same manner as the ordinary trees of the jungle. The fruit seasons are, however, very pre carious, from the Inattention with whicb the owners regard their trees. The brushwood is aUowed to grow beneath thera, and parasites and Epiphytes, both injurious, but the former particularly so, as they sap the fluids of the tree which supports them, are aUowed frequently to cover the branches. It is proved in the gardens of Europeans, in the Straits of Malacca, that aU the fruits of the Archipelago wdl produce regularly, with ordinary care and culture, a large and a sraall crop annuaUy ; but here the trees bear three, and sometimes four crops. In Immediate succession and in the greatest profusion, and are then barren for two or three years, appearing to have exhausted themselves in their unnatural efforts, so that were it not for a few trees which are always unproductive when the others bear, and vice versd, the Dyaks would frequently be without fruit for many seasons in succession. Near the houses are always planted the cocoa-nut and betel-nut trees of the tribe; but so far inland, and at any considerable elevation, they are long before they come to a fruit-bearing state ; and then their productions are smaU, and not to be compared to those grown in the vicinity of the sea. They add, however, much to the beautiful appearance of tbe Dyak rillages, over the houses of which they hang above the surrounding fruit-trees, from the branches of which their ripe productions raay often be gathered by merely reaching out of the skylight-shaped windows, THEIR ROADS AND PATHS. 285 which open aU round the roof of the Pangah, or " Head- House," as it has been injudiciously translated by the Europeans. The fortifications of the vUlages consist principaUy of a strong palisading of baraboo stakes, or sometimes of hard wood, which are strengthened and fastened together by spht bamboos being woven amongst the perpendicular posts, the ends of which, sharpened to points, project outwards in aU directions, presenting an impassable barrier of spikes, like chevaux-de-frize, to the invader. This pagar or fence, is about six feet high, and surrounds all the village, in accessible positions : two gates are made in it, over each of which the worked spikes are carried, and when the entrance is shut, it presents an uniform appearance with the remainder of the fence. To complete their defences, Ranjows, and other raeans of annoyance to the eneray are resorted to, as by the Sea Dyaks, which have been mentioned In the chapter devoted to the description of their tribes. If the Dyaks, in a fortified vdlage, such as that above described, are enabled to resist their invaders for one or two days, they generaUy escape, but should these be assisted by fire-arms, they h.^\e little chance, as they are so terrified at the report of them, that they generaUy desert their houses, and seek protection in the depths of the forests and the caves of the mountains. The hiUy country occupied by the Land Dyaks, is everywhere traversed by paths, which connect the dif ferent vUlages ; these are carried over bids and swamps, without much attention to the nature of the ground, the Dyaks always endeavouring to keep their road as nearly 286 DYAK BRIDGES AND as possible in a straight line. The object of the paths, until recently, has seldom been to connect the viUages, and render communication between them easy, but this has generaUy been fortuitously brought about by the paths leading to the farms of the neighbouring tribes meeting each other. AU the paths of the Land Dyaks are formed of the stems of trees, raised two feet above the ground, on supports placed under them. Sometiraes larger trees are eraployed for this purpose, but the usual size is about three inches in diameter: the bark frora the upper surface, as they lie in their horizontal position, together with a portion of the wood, is cut off, so as to leave a flat rough surface for the foot of the wayfarer : in good roads, and where bamboos are abun dant, these canes are employed; two large ones, laid paraUel with each other, forraing the breadth of the path ; but as bamboos more readUy decay than the wood of which the more common paths is made, these, though much preferable when new, and in dry weather, are more troublesome when old and decaying, or from the shppery surface of the bamboo on rainy days. Should a river, or torrent, obstruct the way, the diffi culty is soon removed by the Dyaks, who haring previously sought and found two large trees opposite each other, which, as much as possible, overhang the river, carry the road up to a suspension bridge formed of bamboo, and hung by large rattans fastened above to the strong branches of the trees: the breadth of the path of the bridge, is never raore than that of one bamboo, and a raU of the sarae raaterial is carried along Syrjiuim.s.del .ye-r'.y/:ui'4,. Ac/r!yia£/, ,}7aytaM^J.Jy MODE OF TRAVELLING. 287 its length, to afford a more apparent than real protec tion to the timid that may pass that way. The rad slopes away from the footpath of the bridge at so con siderable an angle, that the two sides cannot be reached at the same time by stretching both the arms, and they are so fragde, that it Is dangerous to trust one's weight upon them, so that Europeans find considerable difficulty in crossing them, more particularly in such of them as are agitated by the least motion of the passengers, or of the wind. The Dyaks cross over them with hea-vy burdens on their heads, without requiring the assistance of the parapet, and merely balancing themselves with a light cane held in their hands. The great height above the water, frequently sixty feet, and the foaming and boiling torrent dashing amongst the rocks below them, have no effect upon their practised nerves, but are obstacles which nothing but necessity would Induce the European to face. The Dyaks, In this species of tight-rope dancing, have a great advantage over the nations of Europe, In the prehensUe nature of their feet, their toes being as usefid to thera as the fingers of their hands ; and they may frequently be seen seated with a knife between their toes, with the back of its blade towards thera, cutting, by drawing the object they wish to sever towards them, across the blade : flesh is always cut in this way. For traveUing on roads of this nature, shoes, with soles of the least possible thickness, are preferable to anv others, as with them the feet are of considerable service, and after six months' experience, the traveUer wiU be astonished at the proficiency he has attained in using 288 THE ORANG KAYA, OR CHIEF. these curious paths ; and when, by chance, he meets a muddy and much worn one, he wiU soon wish that he were again in the vicinity of one such as we have been describing. Such paths as are raost constantly in use, and those which are near the viUages, are aU put into repair before the feast, ' Makan Taun,' wbich reserables the harvest-horae of the Enghsh, and at this necessary preliminary to the festival, aU the men of the tribe assist. The government of the HiU Dyaks, excepting in the chiefs, which rule over several tribes of the Sakarrans, resembles that of these latter people, and is of the most patriarchal character. The Orang Kaya, or chief, is elected by the people, though amongst tribes, tri butary to the Malays, the Pafigeran, or Datta, to whom the tribe pays revenue. Is always required, or arrogate to himself the right of confirming or rejecting the appointment. In large tribes, two Orang Kayas are frequently found : but the elder one has usuaUy a slight pre-eminence. Others of the principal inhabitants of the viUage, are called " Panghmas," " Pangarahs," or fighting chiefs, and these are raised to their position on account of the courage and ability in war which they are supposed to possess. The Orang Kaya does not appear to possess the slightest arbitrary power : the office Is not hereditary, and the person fiUing it, is generally chosen on account of the wisdom and ability he displays in the councils of the tribe, and which appear to fit him for the duties of their representative in aU their relations with their Malayan masters, or with the neighbouring vdlages. DYAK ASSEMBLIES. 289 The only real advantage which accrues to the chlef^ of a tribe, besides the standing and consideration his title gives him amongst his people. Is the assistance he receives In his agricultural operations, the whole people combining to construct and take care of one large farm yearly for his benefit, the produce of which he receives. But in many tribes, this institution is neg lected, and bas dwindled into occasional assistance, when the chief chooses to demand it, on the land cultivated by his famUy. AU affairs connected with the prosperity or welfare of the riUage, are discussed by a councd of the men of the tribe, which is always held In the " pangah," and at which every male of the hamlet may be present, though seldom any but the opinions of the old men are advanced — the younger people paying great respect to the advice of the elders at this coun- , cil. If the chief be a man of known and reputed abdity, his opinion, which is generaUy given in a long and forcible oration, whde the speaker Is seated, and without much gesticulation, excepting the waving of the head, is of very great weight, and his arguments most frequently conrince the assembly, unless some other opinion be advanced and supported with equal abdity, when the approvers of each, in succession, address the members of this little parliament — a fair and impartial hearing being given to aU — though the discussions are often protracted tiU near morning from the preceding dusk, when one party either yields Its opinion to the other, or the minority is compelled to give way — u 290 POPULATION OF HILL DYAKS. these assemblies are never riotous, but always con ducted in a quiet, grave, and business-hke manner. As has been previously remarked, these Dyaks, In their different tribes, do not acknowledge the authority of one chief, who has rule or influence over several of them ; though when a tribe is divided into several large viUages, each having an Orang Kaya of its own, respect is nominally paid to the chief of the original stock ; and when the history of the Sakarrans shall be known better, perhaps it may be found that such chiefs as Gasing, and the Orang Kaya Pamancha, of Sarebas, derive their authority from the circumstance of their tribes being the most ancient, and the parents of the others. But at present I am more Inclined to believe that they are chosen from the chiefs of tribes In the same manner as the viUage chief is chosen frora the wiser of the people, solely on account of the reputation they have acquired for discretion and valour. It is difficult to ascertain the number of persons composing the many tribes of the HiU Dyaks, but the number in the territory of Sarawak may be approxi mated. They are divided into twenty-one tribes, which are settled in twenty-nine viUages, containing 1,500 famihes, or rather houses, which at the average of seven persons to a house, not a large one, as two famihes frequently occupy one residence, gives a total HiU Dyak population of Sarawak of 10,500 persons; to wbich. If 1 1 0 famdies of Sebooyah Sea Dyaks be added at the same average, we have the total result of the Dyak population of this territority, 11,270 persons. Of these DYAK VILLAGES. 291 tribes, six have their viUages on the western branch of the Sarawak, the remainder on the southern stream. The Orang Gumbang are situated on the con fines of the Sarawak and Sambas territories ; though as they, to use their own expression, eat the waters of the Sarawak (makan ayer Sarawak), which means, that the lands producing their vegetables are watered or drained by this river — they belong to its territory. They are divided into two vUlages, the one at Teringush, on a mountain of that name ; the other on a well watered hUl, caUed Gunong Api, or the fire mountain ; though I have not been able to learn why this name, usuaUy that of a volcano, should be applied to this quiet and peaceful- looking hid. Both Gunong Api and Terin gush abound in springs, which form the sources of the western branch of the river of Sarawak, and meandering amongst the undulating land at their base, unite at the landing place of the village of Gunong Api, Teringush being situated about six miles from the latter hiU in a southerly direction. The two viUages contain, each about sixty families, or doors, as the term " lawang," more properly is translated. On descending the stream, which, after leaving the position ?above named, be comes clear and tranquil, flowing over beds of sand and gravel, you pass first the viUage of Klokong, situated on the high left-hand bank, and near which several fine bridges, in exceUent repair, cross the stream. It contains twenty-five famUies : in two hours more we pass the mouth of the Sungel Jaguoi, which u 2 292 DYAK VILLAGES, has Its rise on a hill, about six mdes Inland of the left- hand bank of the Sarawak river : on it is a viUage con taining sixty doors, and immediately below the mouth of the stream, and on the right-hand bank, is the smaU village of Pasir Bruang, containing fifteen houses. FoUowing the stream, we pass successively the Battu Bidi, a hmestone hill, in which antimony of the richest quality is procured by the Malays, and the great cave, called Lubong Angin, or the wind hole, in which a few swallows' nests are procured. These are both on the same bank of the river with the vUlage last named. The next Dyak houses are placed on the high left bank, near Bow, where the greatest gold works are carried on, and which are situated on the opposite side ofthe river from that occupied by the Dyaks. This vdlage, at which Is an exceUent bridge, Is caUed Subah, and contains forty houses : the four last-named villages aU belong to the Sow tribe of Dyaks, whose principal station is on a hill called Rat, at the base of which flows the Sungei, or Ayer Tubah, a tributary of the Sarawak, which discharges itself on the left-hand side about four mUes below the landing-place to the Bow gold mines. The vdlage at Rat contains sixty houses, and has been the most oppressed, or amongst the most oppressed, of the HiU Dyaks of this country. They succeeded in defeating the Sakarran Dyaks, who, with a party of Malays, headed by Sereib Jaffir, were shamefuUy vanquished ; but on a second attempt, were more successful, as they surprised the Sow viUage, which was then on a raountain of the same name, THE SINGHIE DYAKS. 293 opposite to that they now occupy, whUe the men were absent at their ordinary avocations, and the women and chUdren alone were in the place. They kdled many of the occupants, and carried upwards of 200 women and^ chddren into slavery. It is this division of the Sow tribe, which on Mr. Brooke's arrival, was found to be almost entirely with out woraen ; but raany have since been restored to thera, though numbers stUl remain In captivity. On account of the destitute state in which he found it, this tribe has been the pecuhar care of Mr. Brooke, and under his fostering kindness, the viUage has been built on Rat, a much stronger position than that they formerly occupied, and the houses are now amongst the most comfortable and weU-buUt of any belonging to the tribes of Sarawak : — the people also are prosperous, and their famdies increasing. Next in order, following the downward course of the stream, we observe, after passing Tundong, on the right, the principal station of the Chinese, employed In the produce of vegetables for the use of their country men working in the neighbouring gold and antimony mines; and about two miles Inland, on the left-hand bank of the river, the Mountain of Singhie, which is occupied by the Dyaks of the same narae, whose houses are about one hundred and forty in number, under the care of two Orang Kayas. This tribe has the character of being the least cultivated of those of Sarawak ; they have always been able to pre serve their viUages from the ravages ofthe Sakarran tribes, though many of their people were cut off at their farms 294 DYAK VILLAGES ON THE BANKS in the low lands, at the base of the hiU, Some years since, Mr. Brooke bad occasion to demand, for the purposes of justice, two of their chiefs, who had been conricted of frequent raurders for the purpose of obtaining heads, against his repeated warnings and authority. After some demur, they were given up, and since that time they, have been a peaceable and con tented tribe. On the several occasions when I visited them, they were uniformly hospitable, but great beggars ; they ask for every thing they see, but are as scrupulously honest as the other Land tribes, never thinking of helping them selves to any thing. The penkaUan, or landing-place, of this tribe is about twenty- eight mdes, by the river, above the Malay town of Sarawak, the residence of the Rajah, and capital of the province. About eight mdes lower down the stream, and half a mde Inland from the right-hand bank, is situated the pretty mountain of Serambo, on which three friendly tiibes bave been long settled, and are probably but divisions of one. The porphyry sides of this hUl are steep and rugged, and the path to the top is very fatiguing. The bid Is covered with fiiiit trees, the pro perty of the Dyaks ; and the three vdlages are situated In beautiful groves of the cocoa-nut and betel-nut trees, which, by their graceful foliage, mark the situation of the houses from the river. Bombuck and Serambo, containing respectively fifty and sixty houses, are placed about two thirds of the way up the mountain ; on the shoulder of whicb, near the top, is the viUage of " Peninjow," a coUection of OF THE SARAWAK RIVER. 295 forty houses. From this viUage, a beautifiil view of the whole of the country of Sarawak, towards the sea. Is obtained ; and from this height (900 feet,) the Mountains of Sadong, of Lingah, and the mouth of the Batang Lupar are easily discernible. At the foot of the hUl, Is situated the now decaying village of Seniawan, the seat of the war which ravaged the country on Mr. Brooke's arrival, the particulars of which may be found in Captain Keppel's work. The few Chinese who now reside here, subsist by the cultivation of vegetables, which they seU to the Malays, who pass the place on their way to the Dyaks' villages for the purposes of trade. Seven mUes below Senia wan, the western branch of the river Is joined at Ledah-tanah, or the tongue of land by that from the southward ; and, together, they form the fine stream on which the town Is budt, about fourteen mdes below their confluence. The southern branch of the Sarawak river has its sources in the Gunong Penerissen : the highest land In this part ofthe island, Penerissen, or Besuah, as It is sometimes caUed, is a table-topped mountain, about 4,700 feet In height, situated between sixty and seventy miles from the coast in a direct hne. One of the tributary streams of the great Sangow River, which itself is but a branch of the stIU larger Pontianak, flows past its southern base ; where also the Dyak tribe, S'lmpio, who belong to the Pafigeran, at Karang-an-Amas, a Malay village, two days' down the stream. The Pafigeran is a vassal of the Rajah of Sangow, hiraself a tributary to the Sultan of Pon- 296 OTHER DYAK VILLAGES. tianak, and, consequently, of the Dutch, whose creation this potentate is. But neither the Sultan nor bis allies are respected by this rich and powerful vassal, except when It suits his own convenience. On the same waters, but higher up towards the river's source, are found the Dyak viUages of Goon and Si panjang, containing each sixty famUies : those of Goon, in two villages ; that of the sarae name with the tribe, and a smaUer one, called Betah. Near them, but to the northward, and In the Sarawak territory, are the tribes of Baddat, of sixty, and the Tabiah, of fifty famUies. These, with a large independent tribe, caUed Secong, on a mountain of that name, aU frequent the PenkaUan Ampat, for the purposes of trade with the Malays of Sarawak, who bring their goods thither. On the Sarawak, or northern side of the mountain, about four or five miles from its base, is situated, amongst the most beautiful groves of fruit trees, and on either bank of a quiet and crystal stream, the weU- budt houses of the Sennah Dyaks. They have also another vlUage, caUed Sudoish, to the eastward of this, which Is composed of about thirty families. This, however, is their principal viUage, and the resi dence of the Orang Kaya Bye Ringate, a chief respected and referred to by all the surrounding people. The Sennah viUage contains about sixty houses. These people succeeded in saving their property when attacked by the Sakarran Dyaks, having had notice of their intention ; but about sixty of the tribe were kiUed, and many taken prisoners. This -rillage, situated on the level banks of the river, is not capable of any defence. THE SAMBAN RIVER, 297 Near It, but inland, towards the east and north-east, and towards the Sadong river, are situated the houses of the Dyaks of Tumraa and Sinang-kan, the former con taining about fifty, the latter about sixty famUies, many of them refugees from the extinct tribe of Crow and others, sold into slavery by Serieb Sahib, Descending the stream frora Sennah, about two hours in a fast boat brings us to the PenkaUan Ampat, on the left- hand bank of the river, at a point of land forraed by the junction of a smaUer and raore turbulent stream : it is caUed the PenkaUan Ampat, from the four tribes, for the use of which it was first established, viz. Goon, Tabiah, Baddat, and Slpangjang ; though, as has been preriously stated, the Sicong and other tribes also make use of it for the purposes of trade. The Sicong tribe contains three hundred houses, and has never been attacked by the people of Sakar ran. Below PenkaUan Ampat, about half a mile, is the dangerous rapid caUed the Rheura Ledong, which has proved fatal to many Chinamen and others unskilful in the use of their paddles and management of their boats. About an hour after passing it, by following the down ward course of the stream, we reach the landing-place of the Brang Dyaks, a poor tribe, much destroyed by the Sakarran people. The village, situated on a lime stone, rocky and precipitous hiU, a little way in-shore, contains about forty houses. Another hour in a fast boat brings us to the junction of the Samban river, which flows from Gunong Seroung, a mountain 2,627 feet high, situated to 298 DYAK TRIBES IN the south-west, on which live the Dyaks, bearing the same name as the stream. Though the hdl is very steep, the Sakarran Dyaks succeeded In destroying the houses, cutting down the fruit trees, and desolating the place. The vlUage contains about fifty houses, and these Dyaks are the most poor and ignorant I ever visited. Passing the mouth of the Samban, we soon reach the fine village of Sebongoh, the well-budt houses of which are seen peeping out from a forest of fruit trees on both banks of the stream, to the number of sixty. These people, though also attacked by the Sakarran Dyaks, appear now to be in a flourishing and happy state. Here 1 saw a woman whose body was monstrously sweUed by dropsy. The Dyaks said that // she was " bunting naga," or, pregnant with a dragon. The next tribe is situated about two hours' fast pulling lower down ; one rapid, but not a dangerous one, if tervenlng. The houses of the Sempro Dyaks occupy both banks of the river, at the foot of the precipices Se-bayet and Gigi. Tbe scenes of country, and the beauty of the banks of the river above this viUage are not to be surpassed. The hmestone moun tains rise suddenly from the plain in tbe most curious forms and rugged precipices; and the river runs quietly, smoothly, and brightly through this rock, the waters having worn it away, so that it overhangs them on each side, forming sections of deep natural arches, under which large boats take shelter from the passing showers. The Serapro tribe numbers sixty famdies, and is one of the most happy and prosperous of them aU. A SARAWAK AND SAMBAS. 299 little below the village are two large and dangerous rapids. Near to the higher one, the waters of the sraall river Segou disembogue. It flows from the eastward, and on its banks are three sraall and impoverished tribes, that of Segou containing thirty, that of Staang twenty, and one other of twenty families. No other tribes are met with descending the river, untd we come to the mouth of the Suntah stream. On the right-hand side, the Inhabitants of a small village of Serapro Dyaks cultivate the land up this river, where diamonds are found In the greatest abundance. Suntah is an hour and a half fast pulling with the stream below Se-bayet ; and Ledah Tanah is about eight mdes below the mouth of the Suntah river. To the eastward of the river Segou is the ancient tribe of Suntah, situated on the Quap mountain. From three hundred these people have been reduced to sixty families, by the Arab pirate, Sereib Sahib. Their landing-place Is on the Quap river, which discharges itself into the Sarawak, about eight mdes below the town. The situation and numbers of the different divisions of the Sebooyah vdlages and tribes have been noticed in the preceding pages, which wIU give the reader, we trust, a more correct idea of the territory of Sarawak, and of its inhabitants, than the pubhc are at present possessed of Besides the tribes now Inhabiting the country of Sarawak, many more are anxious to be admitted from the territory of Sambas, and the countries of native princes ; but, wishing to live on friendly terms with aU its neighbours, as far as possible, this immigra- 300 DYAK MORALITY. tion has been discouraged by the Government of Sarawak, In all cases where it could by its influence ensure their protection, without changing the site of their -viUages Much good has been thus done in Sadong, the Dattu of whicb place, a weak and easily swayed person, would, ere this, had the Sarawak Government not Interfered, have sold the whole of his tribes of Dyaks into slavery ; excepting such as, to escape this fate, would have fled to Sarawak for protection. The chastity of the women of these tribes has been preriously incidentaUy mentioned, and the reader has seen the care with which the young men are separated from the girls. They may marry at an early age, and the girls are frequently married very young. I have never observed that they have any particular ceremony on entering the marriage state, more than that of klUIng a pig, or fowl, according to the circumstances of the persons ; though I must confess that my inquiries have been lax on this point. Adultery is a crime unknown, and no Dyak ever recoUected an instance of its occurrence. They marry but one wife, though 1 have seen two or three instances where a chief had two : the Chief of Tabiah Is one of these, and In consequence of break ing through the custom of the tribe, had lost aU his influence with its members. Incest Is held in abhor rence, and even the raarriage of cousins is not aUowed. During ray visit to Betah, a viUage of the " Goon" tribe, in 1846, the Baddat Dyaks carae with presents of fowls and rice, their vUlage being about ten mdes distant. They had also a serious complaint to make SLAVE DEBTORS. 301 against one of the chiefs of their tribe, for having disturbed the peace and prosperity of their viUage by marrying his own grand-daughter ! — his wife and the girl's raother, his own child, being still alive. The chiefs who visited me, said, that since the occurrence of the above event, no bright day had blessed their terri tory ; but that rain and darkness alone prevailed, and that unless the plague-spot were removed, the tribe^ would soon be ruined, I told them that I had no power to interfere, but that I would lay their complaint before their Rajah, and in the meantime adrised them to foUow their own customs in the punishment and degradation of the offending chief; knowing that it was not Mr. Brooke's wish to interfere in the internal disputes of the tribes, when their own established usages were sufficient to restore order. They accordingly fined him heavUy, and degraded him from the rank of Orang Kaya ; but I do not know whether the girl was separated from him, although I believe not. They described the ludicrous scenes between the young wife — who was said to be about thirteen years of age — and the old one, as of very frequent occurrence ; and that the whole riUage was disturbed by their altercations ; as the young one wished her grandmother, on aU occasions, to do the heavy work, to which the old lady would by no means quietly assent. Though slavery, in its degrading form of trading in the hberties of our fellow creatures, is not practised by them, the system of slave-debtors Is carried on, though to a very smaU extent. In scarce seasons, 302 A CURIOUS AND SALUTARY CUSTOM, poor famdies are compeUed to borrow of the rich, and it soraetimes happens, that being unable to repay the debt, they live in the houses of their creditors, and work on theh farms. They are just as happy, however, in this state, as If perfectly free, enjoying all the hberty of their masters, who never think of ill-using them. Since the security of property, consequent on the prevalence of European influence in the country, no persons have become slave-debtors; as, with industry, every individual can raise sufficient, and more than suffi cient, to provide himself with food, and to pay the few demands upon him. . One curious custom of the Dyaks of the HUls, which was doubtless intended. In Its original institution, to prevent the prevalence of indolence, is, that no Dyak can, under any circumstances, eat of new rice, untU his own be ripe ; and this is so strictly observed amongst the Sow and Singhie tribes that, when their own supply was finished, a few days before their har vest was ripe, though they had not eaten rice for four days, I could not Induce them to partake of that 1 had brought with me from the town, because it was of the produce of that year's harvest, haring been grown by the Sea Dyaks, who always make their farms earher than the HIU tribes. Could they eat of new rice, many of them would, perhaps, from idleness, delay the preparing of their farms, hoping to borrow, and thus become indebted to their more industrious neigh bours ; but with this curious, but useful practice before them, they aU plant at one time, and are, conse- sequently, not burdensome to each other, and can onlv HEAD-TAKING, 303 becorae indebted towards the end of the season ; when, even those who have had the greatest supply, have none to spare, as they generaUy run theraselves so short, by seUing their Padi to the Malays, as to be very frequently reduced to roots and sago for the month preceding the ripening of the coming crop. The custom of head-taking. It has been before noticed. Is not so deeply rooted in the habits of these people, as to prevent our hope of its being easily eradicated ; though amongst the Sea Dyaks, it wiU probably be long before this desirable result be attained, A person afflicted -with madness, and who had destroyed several others by running-a-muck, was kiUed by the Peninjow Dyaks, in an attempt upon some farm-houses and then- occupants belonging to that tribe. The un doubted custom was, that they should have the head ; but some of the most cirillzed of the Dyak tribes, and who constantly frequent Sarawak for the pur poses of trade, replied that they might bury It with the man, as they did not care about it : this shows with what facUIty they may be brought, by proper care and Instruction, to the practice of better habits of hfe than they formerly led, and holds out an encouraging prospect to the Missionaries of their speedy conversion to the doctrines and practices of our Holy Church. The heads of the enemies of these tribes are not preserved with the flesh and hair adhering to them, as are those of the Sakarran Dyaks ; the skull only is retained, the lower jaw being taken away, and a piece of wood substituted for it. These ghastly objects are 304 HEAD-TAKING. hung up in the Pangah, which Capt. Keppel facetiously calls the " skuUery," and are often painted with hnes of white or red all over them, they are occasionally blackened with antimony, and have cowrie sheUs placed in the apertures of the eyes, with the flat, or white side outwards ; which, in some measure, resem bles the closed eye, the little furrows appearing like eyelashes. ¦^ To have been on a war-party, is necessary before boys can be initiated Into the privUeges of manhood ; but at none of their ceremonies is the shedding of huraan blood practised, and such a thing would be thought of amongst them with horror and disgust. So much have these people been maligned, when caUed cannibals, that if told such a race of people do exist, they cannot credit It, and do not believe such enormities possible. / When two or more tribes of Land Dyaks combine to attack another tribe, and one head only is obtained, it is divided, so that each may have a part ; in honour of this moiety, aU the same ceremonies are observed, as if they had a whole head. I notice in Forrest's Voyages, and other works, that amongst the people of New Guinea, and other of the eastern islands, the bachelors of the tribes sleep apart, in houses appropriated to their use ; but as" no particular description is given of them, it is presuraed that they do not differ in their construction, from the ordinary dweUings of the villagers. The diseases which are most common among them are those incident to their exposed manner of life. Agues and diarrhseas are the most prevalent. DYAK DISEASES. 305 though opthalmia, in various forms, is very frequent, and sometimes occasions the loss of sight, from cataract, though a weakening discharge is the most common appearance. The skin diseases, common to the nations of the other islands, are also prevalent here. They are not Infectious, and appear to be caused by bad and Insufficient food. Several persons having been affected with them, on entering the service of the Europeans have soon lost the disease, though the marks and the discolouration of the skin remain. At Sennah, I observed a sraall hut erected in a Rharabut-an tree, far above the ordinary houses of the vdlage, and though In sight of, at some distance from them. I was told that it contained two persons afflicted with a loathsome disease, which caused large pieces of their flesh, particularly frora the extremities, to drop away. Whether this was one of the forms of leprosy, or some other disgusting disease, I cannot teU, These two unfortunates, a man and woman, were debarred the society of the tribe, and were never permitted to descend from their aerial habitation ; but were constantly supplied with food by their relations from the houses below. The loathsome diseases of the bazaars are unknown amongst the Dyaks, as far as I could ascertain; but madness is said to be not uncommon among them: this may arise in some measure from the practice almost constantly adhered to, of marrying from their own tribe, which though they avoid It as carefully as possible, araongst their immediate relations, must make the whole of the inhabitants one family in the course of X 306 DYAK DISEASES. tirae, though the affinities and relationships are not re raembered by the people themselves. Madness is sup posed amongst the Singhie Dyaks, to be the punishraent inflicted on the hardy offender against the Pamalion deer's-flesh, and a man is now living in that tribe who committed the horrid crime of parricide to save his family from the disgrace Incurred by his father running about the woods in a state of nudity, making the noises and Imitating the habits of a deer, of the flesh of which animal he was supposed to have eaten. The wens, or goitres, comraon among the people of the hlUy countries of Sumatra and Java, are met with here amongst the tribes inhabiting the Sangow River. I observed them at S'lmpio, and am told they are much more common at Secong and Si-Panjang. On account of their great size and length, they must be very inconvenient, though the persons afihcted with them suffer no pain from them, nor is their general health at aU affected by them. I have rayself seen young women with them, so long as to hang below the breasts, and was inforraed that amongst other tribes they were frequently thrown over their shoulders by the people troubled with them. They appeared to me to be more frequent amongst the women than the men. I did not see them exceed more than two in number on one individual. This disease cannot be attributed to the effects of an elevated atmosphere, as those liring on the borders of the rivers, not more than 100 feet above the level of the sea, are troubled with them MEDICINE AND SURGERY. 307 quite as much as those, the situation of whose houses is raore elevated. Nor can It be here — as it has been supposed to be in the mountains of Europe — from the effects of drinking water which has been frozen, for neither ice nor snow are known; and if it were, as Marsden supposes, from the fog prevalent in the mornings in the vaUeys between the mountains, how Is It that amongst tribes simUarly situated, it should be prevalent In some and unknown to others ? Parturition, from the more hardy and robust frames of the women. Is not here attended with the danger and consequent weakness pecidiar to more cIvUized and pohte nations. Amongst the dehcately-kept women of the Malayan harems, chdd-birth Is almost as rauch dreaded as by the ladies in Europe, and they are quite as long in recovering their strength. I have been told that women among the Dyaks are rarely confined to the house more than two or three days, and fre quently are seen at their ordinary employment within that time : their attendants, during the period of labour, are the old women of the tribe. In the practice of medicine and surgery, we cannot look for much skUl amongst so simple a people ; yet they are not ignorant of a kind of phlebotomy, and practice both bleeding and cupping in particular cases. The former operation is perforraed very rudely, by cutting large gashes in the lirab which pains them. The cupping process is curious, and, as far as I know, peculiar to the people. The wounds being made with a sharp knife, or a piece of bamboo, a smaU tube of X 2 308 DYAK MODES OF CURE. this cane is placed over thera, with fire on its upper end, so that the air of the tube being exhausted by the action of the fire, the blood flows readUy, and the operation Is successfully carried on. Wounds are always covered with a kind of paste, made of pounded turmeric roots, and other herbs, which entering the sore, keep it In an unclean state, and prevent rather than assist the cure. Frora the siraple nature of their food, and their way of life, inflararaation in wounds or sores is rare araongst them, and generaUy to a smaU extent. Rheumatic pains are very comraon, and they are grateful for the rehef Dr, Treacher affords them at Sarawak, with his blisters, mustard-poultices, and other appliances. For the cure of internal diseases, turmeric and spices, taken in monstrous quantities, are the favourite remedies ; but for anything at aU serious, recourse is had to the ' Pamah,' both In medical and surgical cases. They have great faith in the medicinal powers of the Europeans, and fancy that aU of them are doctors. In travelling through their tribes, I found great advantage In carrying a little laudanum, quinine, and castor od with me; by the assistance of these, ad ministered in smaU doses, I frequently had the satisfaction of seeing those afflicted with agues, diarrhseas, and storaachic pains, recover ; but some cases brought to me, were beyond my very moderate skdl, and one I think would have puzzled the first doctors of our country. It was that of a young woman who, being married DYAK MODES OF CURE. 309 to an old man, was chUdless, and she requested me to give her some medicine which would cause her to have chUdren which she felt persuaded I could do. In one case, when a man was dying of dysentery, those attending him had prescribed the frequent use of plantains as his only food. Honey enters largely into their raedical practice, and to it they ascribe heating qualities. The Malay women of bad character use It with hot spices, which they swaUow in great quantities,^ to procure abortion, a practice which, amongst the Dyaks, is never resorted to under any circumstances. , They have not that antipathy to the use of castor oil so frequently observed amongst other people ; but, on haring taken one dose, generally hold out the glass and ask for another, saying at the same time that it is very good, European medicines have great effect upon their constitutions, so that, in all cases, sraaller doses than usual must be prescribed for them, Mr. McDougaU, the head of the Borneo mission, wiU be a great acquisition to the Dyaks ; his surgical education fitting him as well to relieve their temporal ailments, as their spiritual destitution. The domestic animals of the Land Dyaks are few, consisting of pigs, which in the time of harvest are carried to the farm, and penned up under their houses, — as by the Arafouras of Magindanau, and other places — that they raay, with their owners, partake of the plenty of that joyous season. In kiUing a pig, which is done at all the riUage festivals, the length of the animal is carefuUy measured while It Is stUl alive, and should, 310 DYAK DOGS AND CATS. after death, he be found a little longer, as frora the distension of the muscles in the dying agony is gene raUy the case, the omen is accepted as one of prosperity to the tribe in aU its undertakings for the ensuing season ; but If, on the contrary, the pains of the slaughtered animal should cause it to contract its limbs, the omen portends misfortunes to the tribe. Goat's flesh being, as has been elsewhere observed, prohibited to the Dyaks by their customs, none of these animals are kept about their viUages, as Is the case amongst the Kyan and Sea Dyak tribes, where no superstition forbids the people the use of these hardy animals. SmaU dogs are kept occasionally, they are not so well-trained or practised as those of the Sea tribes. It is astonishing how such little curs can bring the fine stag and the wUd boar to bay, but such is the case, and while the trembling deer defends himself from the snapping of the curs around him, he Is speared by the Dyaks who have foUowed the dogs. It Is said that the deer are so terrified by the dogs, that when the Dyaks come up, they find the trembling stag an easy prey, his quivering limbs almost refusing him their wonted support. A few cats, generally in a half-starved condition, are found about the Dyaks' houses : they are of tbe Malayan breed, with curled tads. Fowls are plentiful, but pre served more for sale to the Malays, than the use of the famdies who rear them. Like the Malays and others, they are more partial to the flesh of fish, which the Malays bring to them in an almost putrid state, DYAK ANGLING, 311 particularly the large " ikan-pari," or skate. I have seen them also carefuUy gather up the body of a pig which had been overlooked in their traps, untd it was faUing to pieces, so that they evidently admire a " gamey" flavour more than the epicures of Europe. On the Sangow, and other large rivers, the Dyaks are very expert with the rod and hne, which is constructed with a reel and spare line, precisely like those of Europe, Haring hooked a large fish, they play him with a dexterity which would delight old Izaak Walton, and finaUy, having exhausted him, land him with a net In the most skUfid manner. Their hooks are of brass, of which also their shining bait is manufactured. The rod and line, are, 1 believe, used both for troUing and fly-fishing, but I never saw them practise the former. They destroy. In a great measure, the supply of fish In the upper part of the streams by the use of the " tuba," the narcotic before described. The fish most common and most esteemed resembles a perch, and is barred with black bands across the back. With this I was abundantly supplied during my stay at the S'lmpio -rillage by these dexterous anglers ; at the same place, I observed the chUdren playing at peg-top, precisely as do those of England ; but their tops had no iron pegs, and more resembled those which at school we used to caUed whipping-tops, I looked on at the game with delight, and saw the spinning top, the raark for the others, receive several sraart blows, but they appeared to be of very hard wood, and though driven to sorae distance, were never broken. 312 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS AND SINGING, Besides the gongs and their varieties, the chunang and tertawak, which differ only in being smaUer and more harsh sounding, and the tomtoms which they have borrowed frora the Hindus, the young raen and chUdren may be frequently seen amusing themselves with a kind of pipe, which resembles a chdd's penny wooden whistle, and is forraed precisely on the sarae principle, being about a foot long, and raade of reeds, which have five or six holes in the lower part of the tube, on which the fingers are made to act like keys. Another Instrument, of more soft and melodious sound, is sometimes seen : it is formed of a joint of bamboo, which having been dried so that it cannot shrink, is cut lengthwise sufficiently deep, but not through the cane, into narrow strips, about half an inch apart from each other: these strips of the outer skin of the bamboo are then stretched and raised above the surface of the cane by smaU pegs or wedges forced under them at each end, and being played upon by the fingers, as are the strings of the harp and guitar, produce very melo dious sounds, and it is a pity that the Dyaks do not endeavour to improve this instrument, rather than use the deafening and disagreeable noisy gongs. When they sing, which they rarely do, it is in a low and plaintive voice ; but as I did not sufficiently under stand the Dyak language, I could never learn anything respecting the composition of their songs. I never heard them but at night, when most of the inhabitants of the vUlage were asleep. They do not practise vocal music at any of their festivals. DYAK WEAPONS. 313 The weapons used by the Hdl tribes in their wars, are very like those described as appertaining to the Sea Dyaks. The swords of the HUl tribes differ, however, in haring no wooden handle ; this part of the weapon being of iron, and a raere continuation of the blade. The handle of this weapon and its sheath are orna mented with hair, instead ^of the feathers of the argus pheasant. But this is put on sparingly, and in smaU tufts only at the extremities. The sheath Is always stained red, and very rarely carved, and if such decora tion be attempted, it amounts to nothing better than mere scratching. The spears are formed, as to the blade, hke those of the Sakarran people ; but among the Land tribes, par ticularly those of Sadong, each faraUy generaUy possesses one, the haft of which is made of balean wood, and towards the brass plate, which binds the blade into the handle, are carved rude representations of the huraan figure in high relief. These stand with their backs to each other, and are from three to five in number : like those on the war-boats of the Sea Dyaks, these figures generaUy represent indecent attitudes. Their spears are also ornamented with sheets of tin fod, with which the haft of the weapon is covered, and also with the feathers of the argus pheasant and the rhinoceros hornbUl, which latter are usually stuck on three little prongs, into which the handle has been cut for that purpose. Their shields are precisely like those of the people of Sarebas, but they do no use the sumpit-an, and are without the padded jacket of the Sea tribes. It Is, 314 MODE OF PROCURING perhaps, their poverty more than custom that renders the latter article rare amongst them. These people, expert In aU their employraents in the jungle, particularly exercise their dexterity in the search for the wax produced In their forests, and the birds' nests of the raountain caves. The forraer valuable production is found on the sheltered sides of rocky precipices, and on the lofty Tapang. The Dyaks ascend by ladders of baraboo. When their nests are to be built in the forraer position, the bees always select such places as are kept dry by the over hanging precipice, so that they can only be obtained with difficulty and danger; but for the value of two or three dollars' worth of wax, and by the assistance of rattans and bamboo ladders, the Dyaks never fad to overcome aU obstacles, and carry off the coveted prize in spite of the stings of the enraged architects. The wax is more frequently found on the gigantic Tapang-tree than in the rocks. The genus of this tree which, from any elevated position, may be seen just throw ing out its branches, when Its main stem has shot past the tops of the fohage of the surrounding jungle, 1 have not been able to determine, as I never could procure either its flowers or fruits. It appears, however, to belong to the great genus Ficus, or the fig tribe, species of which are common in the Islands : it rises with a straight and beautiful stem, to a height which would be thought incredible, far surpassing the raost lofty of its gigantic neighbours, which frequently attain a height of a hundred feet of clear stem. The bark is white, soft, and very milky. The wood is white and soft, excepting WAX AND birds' NESTS. 315 near the heart of the tree, where it is of a chocolate colour, and very hard and tough; it turns black on long exposure to the atmosphere. The branches are large, and extend high above the tree, being long as the stem itself, over which, with the sraall light green leaves, they form a round, regularly and beautifuUy formed head. The bees generally place their nests on the under side of the larger branches, and the Dyaks ascend to these by torchlight, by means of spikes of baraboo, which are driven In a sloping direction between the bark and wood of the tree. These are about two feet apart, and project about twelve inches from the stem. They are connected by a raU of bamboo, which Is placed perpendicularly along them, and attached to each by rattans, and this ladder is aU the assistance to the Dyak in his perilous undertaking; which, when we consider the height from the ground, the time at which the ascent is made, and the tormenting and sharp stings of the large wasp-like bee {Lanyeh), must make us wonder how the temptation of a few dollars can cause the Dyaks to expose theraselves to so rauch danger. One ascent I witnessed : a httle boy who had never been up before, accorapanied his ' brothers, who aU ascended, singing and making as much noise as possible, and with torches in their hands. The little fellow got safely to the top, but when the nests were disturbed and the bees began to sting, as their doraicdes were placed in the baskets on the backs of the Dyaks, his 316 EDIBLE birds' NESTS. cries were pitiful, and he had nearly fallen, but saved hiraself by catching hold of the leg of one of his brothers, who brought him safely down, in addition to the bees' nests and basket with which he was burdened. On reaching the bottom, the boys were swoUen aU over frora the effects of the stings; but no cry or complaint had been uttered by them, and they, together with their father, who waited below quietly, began to separate the honey frora the wax, and place the forraer in the bamboo. The honey produced by the Lanyeh is very fine and rich, equal to the honey of Europe ; but the nests con tain but very little of it, A smaUer bee, caUed Nuang, by the HIU Dyaks, and which is sometimes domes ticated in hives of baraboo, or bark, about their houses, raakes very little wax, but gathers abundance of honey, which Is, however, of a very inferior quality. It is very plentiful along the coast, and at Hoya, Egan, and Mocha, is sold very cheap, a gantang being procurable for a shiUing. In its wUd state the Nuang, of whicb there are several varieties, builds its nest In the holes of decayed trees. The edible nests of the little swaUows are aU of the black kind, the beautifiil white ones being only found In the rocky caves on the borders of the ocean : they are buUt by two different and quite dissimdar kinds of birds, though both are swaUows. That which produces the white nest Is larger and of raore hvely colours : its beUy is white, but as these birds are very rare in Sarawak, I could not get speeiraens, though, on one occasion. EDIBLE birds' NESTS. 317 I had opportunities of observing thera, but as I was without ray gun, I could not secure one. Skins of the smaUer and darker bird, which inhabits the lime stone mountains of the interior I have sent home. This kind is never found on the sea-coast, nor does the other bird ever frequent Inland places. The nest produced by the small bird is of a much inferior kind, being, like the bird itself, of a dusky colour, and raixed with feathers : that of the coast Is white and transparent, and resembles a net-work of isinglass. Feathers are not mixed with this, and it is free from all other impurities: it is this kind which seUs for so high a price in China. The nests are found in deep and dark caves, in situations extreraely difficult of access, sticking to the sides of the rock in con,siderable numbers. Stages and frames of bamboo are erected along the sides of the precipices leading to the caves, and on these fragde pathways the Dyaks advance to their mouths ; In other situations they are let down by rattans from the heights above. Both means are highly dangerous, and accidents are said frequently to occur. The black kind are sold in Sarawak at four rupees per pound, but the price varies according to the demand and supply. In their agricultural operations these Dyaks differ in no respect from the tribes already described, excepting when they have land of an easily flooded nature, as is the case with the two tribes of Sow and Singhie, but with none of the others. In these places the Padi Sawah, or wet land Padi, is cultivated : it is quite different from that grown on the hUls, its stems being 318 DYAK AGRICULTURE. stronger, its fohage broader and of a dark green colour. The land being prepared by burning down the weeds and grasses, the small brooks which run through the vaUey are dammed up with stakes, which support an embankraent of weeds and rubbish. The field is divided by ridges into parcels of land of different levels, and the water is so raanaged by attention to levels, that any of these can be flooded or drained, as the growth and appearance of the crop raay render necessary. The Padi seed is not planted in the fields, but sown in another piece of land, and taken up and transplanted into the wet land of the farra. The rice of the wet land growth is of a larger and coarser grain than that produced on the hiUs, and does not fetch so high a price In the market as the other kinds ; it being said not to keep long either In the rice or Padi state. The crop from it is, however, larger and more certain than that from the dry farms ; the prospe rity of which, more than the other, depends upon the quantity of rain which faUs. They have no implements for the cultivation of wet land Padi different from those employed on the other farms ; but In these situations buffaloes and ploughs of a simple construction might be introduced 'with Advantage. I am not aware that the Dyaks possess more than one kind of wet rice, but of the upland Padi they have very many : the one most esteemed and in tnost general cultivation. Is the Padi ber-sabong, a good kind and an abundant bearer. There are others of a whiter nature and smaUer grain, but these are not so LAND-OWNERS. 3 1 9 productive, and are consequently less grown. The Padi-pulut is a curious species, each faraily grows a little of it ; It is a fine strong growing kind, but when cleaned and boUed, is of a pecuhar claramy nature, and Is rauch used by the Malays in their cooking for Juadahs and sweet-meats : the Europeans also use it for puddings. It bears a higher price than the other kinds in the market, and is never eaten by the Dyaks unless It has been cooked in a green bamboo, as they suppose that the priuk, or cooking pot, spoUs the flavour, and the Malays also are of this opinion. Land being so abundant, in proportion to the number of inhabitants, but little of It Is the property of Indivi duals ; though each tribe has its limits, which have been handed down from father to son for ages, so that every old man of a tribe knows the exact extent of its district. But, as in a country where beasts of burden do not exist to assist the farmer In bringing home the produce of his lands, it is a very great advantage to the cultivator to have his field as near to the viUage as possible, we find that the tribes situated at a distance from the banks of the river, or where the brooks are too smaU to admit of the use of the canoe, the property In the -ricinity of the houses dirided Into plots, which are the acknowledged property of certain individuals. During one of my risits to the Sennah tribe, a farm of about fifty acres was sold by one Dyak to another, the purchaser giving In exchange one large jar, said to be of the value of sixty rupees, or six pounds Enghsh. 320 LAND-OWNERS. The rich men of a tribe often possess four or five such pieces of land in the favoured situations, and are, consequently, enabled to farm one piece every year near their own vdlages, as weU as a larger farm at a distance, and in the vicinity of others of the tribe. In choosing the place for their farras, the locality is generaUy settled in a councd of the tribe, so that one road may lead to aU, at the making of which the whole vdlage is caUed upon to assist. On the death of a Dyak, his land, together with his other property, is divided equaUy amongst his chddren, without distinction of age or sex. .ff^m&^imj-, del C^a^ ayd c^'i?-7Zii<^'tfvz^, Lyayta.i OF THE SARAWAK RIVER. 395 it lower down, give it, in many places a boisterous and turbulent character. Dec 5th. — Breakfasted a little above the viUage, in one of the prettiest spots imaginable, and where I dehght to stay. It is a large bank of pebbles, on the left-hand side of the river, overhung with beautiful trees and grace ful bamboos. Opposite me, the high mountain. Si Gigi, comes sloping down until near the water, wben it takes suddenly a precipitous form, past the base of which the river peacefully ghdes ; though a httle above, where it flows over a bed of large pebbles, a rippling disturbs its surface, and causes a murmuring sound. The moun tain is beautifully wooded, and graceful palms and ferns have sprung out of the crerices, and adorn the pre cipitous sides, which overhang the water. The moun tain before us is pierced with innumerable fissures and caves, the residence of the pretty little mouse-coloured swaUow fHirundo esculentaj, which Is now flying over our heads, catching its insect food. The nests of this bird form a source of considerable profit to the Sempro Dyaks of Sebayet and to all those tribes inhabiting the hmestone districts, in which alone this species of bird builds, caves being most abundant in this formation. Having taken our meal, and enjoyed this delightful solitude, disturbed only by the hafsh notes of the horn- bUls from the neighbouring mountains, and a solitary species from a Tapang-tree, close to us, at which I fired without effect — shot being useless for birds on these high trees — we started, and pushed on slowly up the stream, several hornbiUs and pigeons being disturbed by our 396 TRIP UP THE SOUTHERN BRANCH approach, from their feast off the fruit ofthe Kayu Ara, a species of fig. A bornblU flying over, makes such a rushing noise with the action of his powerful wings upon the air, even though he be at a great height, that I have never observed the hke in any other large bird. They fly with a steady, regular, and straight flight, hke a crow. The highest woods on the most lofty mountains are the favourite places of their residence ; but they frequently are tempted by the fruit to the plains. They are gene rally seen In smad flocks of frora three to six individuals. There are many species of thera In Sarawak ; but the largest and most common is that known as the rhi noceros hornbiU fBuceros RhinocerusJ. Of pigeons and doves we procured many kinds, and shaU have a famous feast off them at night. The kinds of doves, or smaU pigeons, caUed " punel" by the natives, are very tender and excellent eating ; the large " preggam," or wood-pigeon, though exceUent when young, is generaUy tough when old. They are very large birds, and some just shot weigh as much as a good Dyak fowl. Nothing smaUer than No. 3 shot wUl bring them from their lofty perches. Shooting as we went, and having made a good bag. It was noon before we reached Si Budah, a temporary farm vUlage of the Sempro Dyaks, situated at the foot of the mountain of the same name, which, like the others, is limestone, and precipitous. It appears higher than either Sebayet or Si Gigi, peaked on the face, towards the north, and appearing to be a narrow ridge on the top, as, through a large hole, which pierces the lime- OF THE SARAWAK RIVER, 397 stone, the sky can be seen. There is a hanging bridge at this viUage, but not so fine a one as that of Sempro, or any of those on the western river, In the territory of the Sow Dyaks. The river we have passed to-day is stIU confined within Its limestone barriers ; but so much has it undermined the rock, and overhangs in many places so much, that two or three larger boats than mine might he abreast of each other protected from the weather. Rapids from rocks and fallen trees have been frequent, and karangans, or gravelly shaUows, numerous. Generally, the limestone tracks, traversed by the river between two rapids, are very deep, and the water stIU, a current being only perceptible at the angles of the stream. Here smaU ahgators and large fish are sometimes seen. We coUected the Dyaks, and requested them to show us the cave In the mountain Si Budah, which we had been informed existed tbere. After some delay, the Dyaks were got together, and we walked along the base ofthe mountain and bank of the river about three hundred yards, tiU we came to a smaU brook, up the course of which we turned, and were soon at the entrance of a large cave from which the stream came. Haring lighted our torches, we foUowed the gravelly stream of pure and cold water through a lofty passage into a very large and high chamber of a tent-like form, the stream running through the centre of it. It was a magnificent apartment, the waUs being hung with stalactites, which are all in a decaying state : we passed on among limestone, through 398 TRIP UP THE SOUTHERN BRANCH which the stream bad worn a narrow passage, through a corridor about a hundred yards in length, which con ducted us to the open air on the other side ; so that we had passed, as through a tunnel, under the mountain. This stream does not, like that in Lubong Angin, rise from the interior of the cave, but passes through it from the side on which we now stood. In a country hke Italy and Spain, what a romantic and beautiful retreat for banditti, or any simUar curse of those countries ! A troop of cavalry, a thousand strong, might reside bere, with shelter for man and beast at hand, and the luxury of a delightful stream running through their dweUing, Having gained the opposite side, I tried to ascend the lofty rock by a path used by the Dyaks for reaching tbe caves to get the birds' nests which abound in thera. Having succeeded In getting half way to the top, I found it Impossible to proceed without very great danger, a single stick, not thicker than my wrist, being the only ladder by which an overhanging rock was surmounted. I climbed up to the top of the rock, but looking below me at the rocky depth over which I hung, and not seeing any good hold above, I returned, much to the amusement of the Dyaks, who had told me the path was very difficult, and accessible only to Dyaks — who they truly said were like monkeys. Descending the stick and hiU, we returned through the cave, which Is a regular road of the Dyaks to the vUlage, where we Intended to remain for the night. I had coUected some plants of the fine Ixora, which I OF THE SARAWAK RIVER. 399 had discovered previously ; but neither flowers nor seeds of it were procurable. At night I purchased some spears and other weapons from the Dyaks, in exchange for beads and brass wire. Slept in the boats, the houses being small and dirty. Dec. 6th.— heft early for Sebongoh, and passed through beautiful mountains of limestone. One at the back of Sibudah, which has a reddish and stratified appearance, is in shape exactly resembling the face of a pyramid, and looks as If it had been budt, so correct is its outline : it has no trees upon it. One mountain near it had had aU its trees destroyed about twelve months since, by a fire which had been Ignited by the intensity of the sun's rays on the rock beneath, and which had so dried the vegetation, that It spontaneously took fire, and the whole were destroyed. Nothing but a succession of very wet summers can again restore It. About three mdes from the vUlage is the Rheum Sebongoh, a large, but not dangerous rapid. The houses of this tribe are situated on both banks of the river, which here again runs through banks of sparkling sand and beautifid pebbles. Fruit trees surround the riUage, and, during the day, we have passed through immense numbers of them, the property of this tribe. The fruits are ripe, and the Dyaks brought me baskets of aU kinds in the evening as presents. I did not go up to the houses, but staid in the boat. In which I was risited by the chief people. The Orang Kaya wanted medicine for cataract in the eye, which, if he does not 400 TRIP UP THE SOUTHERN BRANCH take care, wIU soon bhnd him, I advised him to go to Sarawak, and be operated upon for it by the doctor, but he does not seem to consider it of sufficient importance. These Dyaks seldom use paddles in this shaUow stream, but propel their boats with long canes of baraboo, which they use more adroitly than any other tribes I have visited : the women are equaUy expert with the men. Of some pigeons we had kiUed, fowls, fish, yams, fern shoots, and fruit, we made an exceUent dinner, and haring supplied the people with tobacco, slept soundly, undisturbed by dreams, in our very com fortable boats. My bed is a hearth-rug laid on the flooring of the boat with fine mats over it. We are protected from the rain by an awning of Kajangs, or mats raade of the leaves of the Nipah palm. Impenetrable to all weather. These last two days we have journeyed very slowly, as I have been gathering plants and enjoy ing this most beautifid part ofthe river, through whicb it had been a sin to hurry. Dec. 7th. — We left Sebongoh early, and passing the mouth of the Samban, a shallow river which comes frora the Gunong Seroung to the westward, reached the landing-place of the Brang Dyaks, where Is a fine sandy beach. Some Malays, who were here trading with the Dyaks, Informed me that the Brang riUage was under the Pamali, so that I could not visit it without causing them to break through a custom which I had no desire to do. They live on a high limestone, round-topped mountain, half a mile In-shore. Having collected some OF THE SARAWAK RIVER. 401 fern, which is plentiful on the loamy banks where he limestone does not prevaU, we cooked our break fast on the sandy beach, and had. In addition to our usual fare, an omelet made of eggs we had obtained at Si-bungoh. WhUst waiting here, a boat, which had been sent after us by Mr, WiUiamson, reached us, with a letter for me, requesting me to assist the bearer in coUecting a debt for the Tuan-Ku Sireib Hussin of Sarawak, from the Tumma Dyaks. I had promised to assist him, if he obtained Mr. Brooke's permission ; and this was contained in WiUiarason's note. Accordingly, having breakfasted, we puUed up against the stream for about six mUes in a heavy rain to the Rheum Ledong, a rapid formed by hmestone banks, which contracts the stream, leaving a narrow passage for the water, which rushes through with great velocity and a boiling torrent-hke appearance. It is rendered dangerous to boats descending the river by a large rock just under water, directly opposite to the passage, so that to avoid It, boats must turn suddenly to the left whUe shooting the rapid, and again to the right, to avoid the rocky bank. This requires considerable practice and dex terity ; and Chinamen, who visit the Dyaks in search of pigs, have frequently lost their porkers, and sometimes themselves, by their boat sphtting on the centre rock, or fiUing, in the strong ripple occasioned by the velocity of the current over its rocky bed. A mUe above this rheum, is the PinkaUan Ampat, at a point of land where a torrent from the Tabiah country falls in from the westward. D D 402 TRIP UP THE SOUTHERN BRANCH We kept up the river leading to Sennah, which is smaU and shaUow, and filed with boulders of a hard porphyritic rock, the limestone disappearing at the Rheura Ledong. The Padi farms of the Sennah Dyaks are on the sloping banks on each side of us. The delight ful, lively green of its young foliage is a welcome relief to the eye from the more sombre tints of the jungle, the thick fohage of which admits but seldom the rays of the sun. The rain has cleared away, and the sun is now shining beautifuUy on the industry of these Dyaks. Their farms appear very extensive, and each has a plot of yams and other garden stuff, close to the waters of the river. The land here is beautifuUy undulating ; in the limestone districts it is more flat, but broken by the Iraraense raountains of that rock, which arise in aU directions from it. At five P.M. we reached the Sennah viUage, and reraained in the boats untd the return of the people from their farms, a few women and chUdren only being present in the village. The Orang Kaya Bye Ringate Is in his house, but has some days since placed himself under the " pamah" hoping by this means to recover from a severe sickness a favourite chdd. On the arrival of the men at dark, we were escorted by the relatives of the chief to a new and very nice Pangah, where we took up our abode, being able to gather the ripe fruit of the seebow or rhambutan from the windows. Having cooked and eaten our food, we were waited upon by the people of the vdlage as usual, bringing presents of rice, fruit, eggs and fowls. The eggs we get amongst the OF THE SARAWAK RIVER. 403 Dyaks are frequently not good, as they never remove them from the nest, and on a visitor's arrival, take them from under the hen, and bring them to him, so that they are frequently nearly hatched. In this state, they are eaten by the Dyaks themselves, as weU as when fresh. In return for their presents, my servant gave them tobacco, &c. Bye Ringate, the chief, sent Pa-pata and Pa-Benang, his sons-in-law, to Inquire If I had any bechara, (business conversation) for the tribe ; so I told them what I had come for, and requested them to send a man to caU the chiefs of Tumma early to-morrow morning. Dec. 8th. — Pa-pata himself started early for Tumraa, which is said to be half a day's journey in an easterly direction frora Sennah. I amused myself by looking about the vUlage, which consists of several rows of houses, at some distance from each other, on both sides of a beautifuUy quiet stream about knee-deep, flowing over a bed of yeUow sand. Extensive groves of fruit- trees surround the place in every direction, amongst which are the Krakak (a sraall fruit resembling the lansat, but growing in terminal bunches) ; the Langyir, a large fruit, resembhng the mangusteen in size, but of a curious sickly flavour ; the Kinan (rambye) ; Rham but-an Barangan (chesnut) ; Manges (mangusteen) ; Tampuri (Durian) ; Bhmbing (an acid fruit); Champadak; Nangka (jack) ; TankaUah (Parrit), and many others. AU of these are now ripe, and have a beautiful appear ance. In a Rh-ambut-an tree was a smaU hut, the residence D D 2 404 TRIP UP THE SOUTHERN BRANCH of persons afflicted with a kind of leprosy which has been described previously. In this vUlage, whUe waiting for the Tumma chiefs, I coUected a good deal of infor mation respecting the customs of the Dyaks (see chapter on HiU Dyaks), They say that after a person deceased has been burnt, his spirit haunts the house in which he hved for four days, during which period rice is spread daily on the floor, from the door across the house to the window; at the expiration of that time, a basin is broken outside the door, and the rice swept away ; after which, the spirit departs to the mountains. They also said, that on a person's decease they burnt a portion of his property with his body. Dec. 9 th.. — In the evening, the chiefs of Tumma and of Sinangkan, and of other neighbouring tribes who had heard of my arrival, came to visit me, and brought fowls, rice and fruit in great quantities, I gave each of the chiefs a battik handkerchief and some beads, brass wire, and tobacco, as well as simUar things to their numerous attendants, none of whom had come empty- handed. I laid the business I was charged with before Bye Ringate, the chief of Sennah — who had broken through the Pamali to attend this gathering — and the Tumma men. They aUowed the claim, and agreed to pay the rice, forty pasus at once, with the exception of ten, which they wished to remain tiU next season. This I had no doubt the Tuanku would do, so I settled the arrangements to the satisfaction of all parties con cerned. The original debt was the price of a slave which belonged to the Tumma tribe, and having been OF THE SARAWAK RIVER. 405 purchased by the Tuanku at Sadong, ran away to his friends on being brought to Sarawak, At night these people made a great feast, to which I descended, walking on gongs and other musical in struments of brass placed for the purpose, to the verandah. When the dancing was to take place, I was conducted to a kind of couch, which they had made of bamboo, and covered with their finest cloths, as my particular seat : a canopy of scarlet cloth hung over my head ; by the seat were placed immense baskets of Padi and rice, to which many fowls were secured, which I found were aU intended for me ; but which I represented to them that, as I was not going any further, I should not want, and refused as weU as I could. I was obliged, however, to take some, so chose a basket of delicious fruits. The dancing was sImUar to that described In former parts of the journal ; but my Malays were requested not to come in whUe the girls were present. As I have never seen this practised before, I fancy there must be some particular reason for this prohibition. I retired early, but the rausic and dancing were continued during the night. Though a pig had been kUled, none of the people were Intoxicated when I left. Dec. loth. — At 9 a.m. left Sennah on our return. The heavy rain last night has caused a considerable fresh in the river, so that — the stream being very strong, and the rocks all covered — we were carried down with great speed, though accompanied with some danger from the sunken rock. I coUected a good many seeds of 406 THE SOUTHERN BRANCH OF THE SARAWAK. the fine new Ixora, and many other plants, but did not observe any thing which I had not previously seen. I have three hives of bees, which are from the Sennah Dyaks, who keep thera hanging from their houses. The bees are of two kinds ; one hive of small yellow ones, and two hives of a brown-coloured one, both different from the honey-producing bee of England. These are said to yield much honey, but very little wax. Staid during the night at Sebongoh. Dec. Wth. — Before leaving Sebongoh this morning, we were overtaken by a boat belonging to Bandery Samsu. They informed us that another boat had been lost in passing the Rheum Ledong, with a valuable cargo of brass goods, &c. We ourselves when passing it yesterday expected to have been swamped from the rippling of the water caused by the heavy rains, which have so deepened the river, that the rocks of the rapid are aU covered, but with a great sweU on them. Left Sebongoh at 9 a.m., and with the heavy fresh reached horae at 3 p.m., feehng unweU with diarrhoea. APPENDIX. ANIMALS OF BORNEO. Borneo appears to teem with animal hfe, and is especially rich in kinds : as yet the country may be said to be an untrodden field. The Dutch Naturahsts have collected and sent to Leyden some of the more prominent species, which have been described by M, Temminck, Schlegel, and Dr. Miiller : some of the more showy have been figured in the dlustrated work of the latter author. Amongst the few animals collected by Mr. Low, and sent to the British Museum, there appears to he several species not noticed by the Dutch authors ; and as soon as these species can be prepared and examined, they will he de scribed. MAMMALIA. List of Animals from Borneo, which are contained in the collection of the British Museum. Simla Satyrus. Nasalis larvatus. Preshytes chrysomelas. „ frontatus, „ rubicundus. „ cristatus. 408 APPENDIX. Tarsius spectrum. Stenops tardigradus. Galeopithecus variegatus. Rhinolophus trifoliatus. Cheiromeles torquatus. Felis planiceps. Viverra zibetha. Hemigalea zebra (Viverra Boei, Mull.) Paradoxurus leucomystax. Paradoxurus musanga, Cynogale Bennettii (Potamophilus barbatus, (Mull.) Linsang gracilis. Hylogale Javanica. „ ferruginea. Pteromys tana. „ nitidus. Sciurus ephippium. „ melanotis. „ exilis. Bos Bantiger. Sus barbatus, Moschus Napu. Dr, Miiller (Verhandehngen, Leiden, 1845), gives the following additional species as also inhabiting Borneo : — Hylobates concolor. Cercopithecus cynomolgus. Inuus nemestrinus. Pteropus funereus, Macroglossus minimus. Pachysoma brachyotis. Dysopes tenuis, Vespertilio pictus. APPENDIX. 409 Vespertilio macellus. „ tenuis. Nycticejus Temminckii. Hylogale murina. Sorex Myosurus. Aonyx Horsfieldii. Lutra Simag. Canis rutilans. Felis macrocelis. „ minuta. Mustela nudipes. Ursus Malayanus. Sciurus Rafflesu. „ nigrovittatus. „ modestus, „ lati-caudatus, Mus Decumanus, Atherura fasciculata, Manis Javanica, Rhinoceros ? Elephas Indicus. Tapirus Indicus. Cerris equinus. „ rusa. „ muntjac. BIRDS.' Pontosetus ichthysetos. Spizsetus cirrhatus ? Hierax. Poliornis liventer. Athene scutellata. 410 APPENDIX. Ephialtes mantis. Syrnium leptogrammicum. Trogon flagrans. „ fasciatus. „ Diardii. Halcyon concretus. Nectariaia simplex. „ mystacalis. „ Hasseltu. „ hypogrammica. „ phoenicotis. „ lepida. Arachnothera chrysogenys. „ longirostra. Phyllornis Cochin-Chinensis. „ Malabaricus. Orthotomus atrogularis. Pitta cyanoptera. „ Baudii. „ atricapilla. „ granatina. Timaha maculata. „ pohocephala. „ trichorrhis, „ nigricoUis. „ atricapilla. Muscicapa pyrrhoptera. Rhipidura Javanica. Pardalotus thoracicus, „ maculatus. Artamus sanguinolentus. Cracticus gymnocephalus. Glaucopis aterrimus. APPENDIX. 411 Buceros galeritus, „ antracicus, „ corrugatus. „ gracilis. „ convexus. „ rhinoceros, var. Borneonensis. „ Malabaricus. „ Malayanus. „ galeatus. Bucco chrysopogon. „ mystacophanos. „ frontalis. „ corvinus. „ fuhginosus. Indicator archipelagicus. Calobates radiceus. Cuculus lugubris. „ flavus. Treron cinnamomeum. „ aromaticum. Euplocomus Ignitus. REPTILES. LIZARDS. Tachydromus sex-lineatus, Daud. Norbea Brookei, Gray, List of Reptiles in British Museum, p. 103. Tiliqua rufescens, (Shaw), Gray, I. c. 109. Euprepis Belcheri, Gray, I. c. 116. Hemidactylus Brookii, Gray, I. c. 153, „ „ vittatus. Gray, I. c. 155. 413 APPENDIX. Platyurus Schneiderianus (Shaw), Gray, I. c. 157. Gecko monarchus. Gray, I. c. 161. Tarentola Borneonensis, Gray, I. c. 165. Heteronota KendaUu, Gray, I. c. 174. Monitor bivittatus. EMYDO-SAURIANS, Mecistops Journei, (Bory.), Gray. Gavialis Schiegelii, Mtiller. Crocodilus biporcatus. SNAKES. Homalopsis Schneideri. „ Aer. Naja tripudians, var. Pelamis bicolor. „ — n. sp, Zool. Sulph. t. Hydrus. BATRACHIANS. Rana cancrivora. Bufo.Hyla. FISH. Echeneis. Tetraodon argenteus. Monoplerus Javanicus. Conger „ Leuciscus cirrhipes, Helostoma Temminckii. Glyphysodon unimaculatum. Trichopus trichopterus, Rhynchobdella gigantea. Osteoglossus formosus. APPENDIX. 413 Osphromemus cefex, Rohuta aenea. Eleotris puella. Silm-usj n. sp. Ophiocephalus. Pleuronectes.Blennicus, Periopthalmus,Balistes. Acanthurus, Agriopus. Scorpsena. II. Descriptions of two species of Beetles brought from Borneo by Hugh Low, Esq. ; by Adam White, F.L.S., Assistant Zool. Dep., British Museum. The Fauna of Borneo, so far as annidose animals are concerned, seems to be extraordinarily rich : insects of aU orders, and spiders of numerous genera, abounding in the woods ; while the Myriapoda found in damp forests, especially those allied to our globe millipede (Glomeris) are gigantic, and, compared with it and many of its alhes, seem rather as if they had belonged to some primaeval creation. Of these which are large species of ZephronicB, there appear to be several; and of the Polydesmi, many of the species are as pre-eminent for their size, as they are for their beauty and curious appearance. The seas are plentifuUy supphed with Crustacea, belonging to families (such as the Leucosiadce) but feebly represented in our temperate climate ; and the peculiar position of Borneo, brings to its shores the crabs of the Chinese seas, Indian Ocean, and north-east coast of Australia. In the works of Schonherr and Dehaan, and other authors, many of the annulose animals brought to Europe by the Dutch, 414 APPENDIX, are described ; while many more are scattered in European collections without names. In the British Museum we have not a few, principally brought over by Hugh Low, Esq,, Arthur Adams, Surg., R.N., and other officers of H.M.S. "Samarang." It woidd take a long time to get these together, and to describe them, and so far as Crustacea go, Mr, Adams and the writer of this notice are engaged in describing them, and in figuring the new species. As a sample of the Coleoptera of the island, the two following fine species may be described, more especially as the accompanying figures wiU make these descriptions plainer. It is only with a very limited and narrow portion of the coast that we are yet acquainted, and even of this part the productions are but very shghtly known : much, however, is expected from the energy of Mr. Brooke and the Colonial Secretary; while the enterprise and curiosity of colonists will soon make us better acquainted with the animals, and add to our too limited collections. I subjoin the descriptions of two very fine Coleoptera, sent by Mr. Low, with several other Borneo insects. Family Lamiad^e, Genus Sarothrocera, White. The antennae in this genus have the basal joint thick and furnished at the end on the inside with a tuft of hairs • the second joint is very small, with one or two hairs • the third to the seventh joints are fi-inged behind with lonrish hairs, those on the third and fourth joints very thicklv distributed, and extending over a considerable part of the hind edge. The Thorax is almost as long as it is wide, the sides are nearly parallel, somewhat depressed above, with a short spine Sdeletlidi pTiTiledlni^ VloJlmandel i*. Wa-llori. I A.Borneau Stag Beetlel C/LADOGN ATHLIS TARANDU5.(TlumlT) 7. LoWa Bmsh-hom Pieetl.e.f SAROTHROCE KA LUWIH WhUe) :4' Ri Aard fleutle.-jjlondoii.'QI-fi APPENDIX. 415 on each side. The Scutellum is somewhat elongated, the sides parallel. The Legs have the femora compressed, espe cially above ; the tibiae are much compressed, slender at the base, getting thicker towards the middle, and from that to the end wide, with the sides parallel. The tarsi are very wide. The elytra are strongly angled, almost aculeated on the shoulders, rounded and simple at the end. This genus comes close to Cerosterna, Dejean, SerriUe, with which and Batocera it has several characters in common, as weU as a general resemblance. Of this genus I have only seen one species, which in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History (Vol. XVIII), is named in compliment to Hugh Low, Esq., the author of this work, who found it in. Borneo. Sarothrocera Lowii, White, I. c. 47, t. l.f 6. See fig. 3 of the plate of Insects. Of a rich brown, slightly tinged with ochraceous; the hairs on the antennae are of a very dark brown or black ; the scutellum is of a pale yellow ; the base of the elytra is finely verrucose above, the small warts not extending to the middle, but running further along the outer margin than they do towards the suture. The length of the specimen is 1 inch and 8^ hnes. Family LucANiDiE. Genus Cladognathus, Burmeister. Cladognathus Tarandus (Thunb,)# See Fig. 1 ofthe Plates of Insects. Var. Lucanus Dehaanii, Westw. Burm, Handb. V. 375. This fine species of Stag beetle has longer jaws than any other species of the genus I am acquainted with ; the jaws are depressed, considerably curved upwards about the middle, and then depressed toward the tip, which is sharp and shghtly hooked, and with a strong tooth on the inside, not 416 APPENDIX. far from the tip, the edge between this tooth and the tip being crenulato-denticulate ; there is another strong tooth on the inner edge, considerably before the middle, and between that and the base a few slight irregular projections on the edge. The head is very wide in front, the eyes nearly globular, the front hollowed out, and forming a smaU part of a circle. The elytra and femora above are of a fawn colour, with a shght metallic tinge, the suture of the elytra, particularly, bronzed with metallic green; the mandibles, head, thorax, legs, and under parts, of a greenish bronze colour, on the mandibles passing into reddish. The legs are slim, and without teeth on the edges of the tibiae, at least, in the males. Professor Thunberg first described this species in the " Memoires des Naturalistes de Moscou,^^ tome I. 1806, p. 190, and gives a rough but recognizable figure (t. 13, f.l.) Dr. Burmeister seems to think the L. Dehaanii a distinct species; but has some doubt of it, I can see no difierence between our two specimens in the Museum and Thunberg's description and figure. The figure is from the larger of two specimens in the British Museum, and is of the size of nature. On some other occasion I hope to be able to draw up a list of such Borneo species as we have in the Museum, adding references to those which have been described by Schcenherr, Dehaan, Burmeister, Erichson, and others. END. 1. 1) N' 1) r) N : Printed by Schulze und Co., 13, Poland Street. YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 9002 02949 5612