HANDBOOKS PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE
HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE.— No. 40

UPPER
SILESIA

LONDON:
PUBLISHED BY H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE.
Ir5 1 1 1920
ail

'Yi&LE'WMUVIEI&SflW''

1921

HANDBOOKS PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE
HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE.— No. 40

UPPER
SILESIA

LONDON :
PUBLISHED BY H. M. STATIONERY OFFICE.
1920

Editorial Note.

In the spjring_of__1917 the Foreign Office, in connection
with the preparation which they were making for the work
of the Peace Conference, established a special section whose
duty it should be to provide the British Delegates to the
_Peace_jConference with information in the most convenient
form — geographical, economic, historical, social, religious and
political — respecting the different countries, districts, islands,
&c, with which they might have to deal. In addition,
volumes were prepared on certain general subjects, mostly
of an historical nature, concerning which it appeared that a
special study would be useful.
The historical information was compiled by trained
wr^rs_on_hjstprical subjects, who (in friost cases) gave their
services without any remuneration. For the geographical
sections valuable assistance was given by the Intelligence
Division (Naval Staff) of the Admiralty ; and for the
economic sections, by the War Trade Intelligence 1 )epart-
ment, which had been established by the Foreign Office. Of
the maps accompanying the series, some were prepared by
the above-mentioned department of the Admiralty, but the
bulk of them were the work of the Geographical Section of
the General Staff (Military Intelligence Division) of the
War Office.
Now that the Conference has nearly completed its task,
the Foreign Office, in response to numerous enquiries and
requests, has decided to issue the books for public use,
believing that they will be useful to students of history,
politics, economics and foreign affairs, to publicists generally
and to business men and travellers. It is hardly necessary
to say that some of the subjects dealt with in the series have
not in fact come under discussion at the Peace Conference ;
but, as the books treating of them contain valuable
information, it has been thought advisable to include them.

It must be understood that, although the series of
volumes was prepared under the authority, and is now
issued with the sanction, of the Foreign Office, that Office is
not to be regarded as guaranteeing the accuracy of every
statement which they contain or as identifying itself with all
the opinions expressed in the several volumes ; the books
were not prepared in the Foreign Office itself, but are in the
nature of information provided for the Foreign Office and
the British Delegation.
The books are now published, with a few exceptions,
substantially as they were issued for the use of the Delegates.
No attempt has been made to bring them up to date, for, in
the first place, such a process would have entailed a great
loss of time and a prohibitive expense ; and, in the second,
the political and other conditions of a great part of Europe
and of the Nearer and Middle East are still unsettled and in
such a state of flux that any attempt to describe them would
have been incorrect or misleading. The books are therefore
to be taken as describing, in general, ante-bellum conditions,
though in a few cases, where it seemed specially desirable,
the account has been brought down to> a later date.

'&1

G. W. PROTHEEO,
General Editor and formerly
January 1920. Director of the Historical Section.

Upper T
Silesia J

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL
(1) Position and Frontiers ....
(2) Surface and River System
Surface
River System
(3) CHmate .
(4) Sanitary Conditions
(5) Race and Language
Race .
Language .
(6) Population Distribution
Towns and Villages
Movement .

PAGE

II. POLITICAL HISTORY
Chronological Summary .
(1) Prussian Claims to Silesia
Subdivision of Silesia
Ratibor and Oppeln
Jagerndorf Liegnitz, Wohlau, and Brieg
The Schwiebus CompHcation
The Silesian Wars ....
(2) Silesia after the Prussian Conquest .
(3) Economic Development under Frederick
Great ......
(4) Effects of the Napoleonic Era .
(5) Silesia after the Congress of Vienna .

the

10
10
1111111212 13 13151618

III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
(1) Political 
(2) ReHgious and Educational

2021

Wt. 42349/441. 1,000. 3/20. O.U.P.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

[no. 40

IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS page

(A) Means oe Communication

(a) Roads  22

(6) Rivers and Canals ..... 22

(c) Railways ....... 23

(B) Industry

(1) Labour  24

(2) Agriculture

(a) Products of Commercial Value . . 26

(b) Methods of Cultivation

27

(c) Forestry .

28
(d) Land Tenure .
29
(3) Minerals
29
(a) Natural Resources
Coal .
30
Lignite
31
Iron .
31
Zinc and Lead
32
Silver
32
Copper
32
Arsenic
32
Other Minerals
32
(6) Output.
Coal .
33
Lignite
33
Iron .
33
Zinc .
34
Lead .
34
Copper
34
Arsenic
34
Pyrites
34
(4) Manufactures
Sugar
34
Beer
34
Spirits
35
Cotton
35
Flax .
35
Wool .
35
Paper and Wood-pulp
35
Chemicals .
36
Glass and Pottery
36
Cement
36
Machinery .
36
Pianos
36
SSSSJ TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

(C) Commerce
(1) Domestic (a) Principal Branches of Trade . . .37
(6) Towns  37
(c) Organizations to promote Trade and Com
merce ...... 38
(2) Foreign  38
(D) Finance
(1) Local Taxation ...... 40
(2) Banking  40
(E) General Remarks ...... 41
AUTHORITIES  43
Maps  43

Upper -|
Silesia J

I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND
POLITICAL
(1) Position and Frontiers
Upper Silesia,1 or the Regierungsbezirk of Oppeln,
lies between 49° 50' and 51° 11' north latitude and
16° 55' and 19° 16' east longitude. It is the south
eastern part of the Prussian province of Silesia, and
forms a tongue of land, roughly 5,087 square miles
in area, jutting out between Austria and Russia. On
the_east and south-east it is_contiguqus with Russian
Poland_,and Galicia ; on the south and south-west
with Austrian Silesia, except for a stretch of a few
miles where the Austrian province of Moravia juts out
northward and meets the Silesian frontier. On the
west and north-west lies the Regierungsbezirk of Breslau,
Avhich, with that of Liegnitz, forms the remainder of
the province of Prussian Silesia ; while in the northern
most corner the district marches for some 12 miles
with Poznania.
The eastern boundary traverses the undulating
western section of the plateau of Little Poland, follow
ing for the most part the courses of small rivers — in the
north the Prosna, subsequently the Liswarta (Liss-
warthe), and in the south the Brinitsa and Przemsza.
These rivers, wjrilej^ording j, definite frontier line, do not
form a geographical division, and the plateau stretches
uniformly on both sides of the frontier from the Oder
to~the~hnl"s "of "Czestochowa.
In the south-east the GaTician frontier is formed by
the Przemsza down to its confluence with the Vistula
( Weichsel ). The southern boundary follows the Vistula
up to its bend at Schwarzwasser, continuing westwards
to the Oder and f olio wing that river to near Ostrau, thence
following the Oppa from Ostrau to Jagerndorf, except
1 While it has not been found convenient to confine the historical
or economic section of this handbook strictly to Upper Silesia, it
is this district alone which is here treated geographically.

2 GEOGRAPHY [No40
for a curve designed to leave the town of Troppau to
Austria. It then continues in a north-westerly direc
tion as far as the boundary of the Regierungsbezirk of
Breslau, along the lower slopes of the Altvater and
Reichenstein Mountains, the line being on the whole
fairly straight. The hne of division between the
Regierungsbezirke of Breslau and Oppeln crosses the
Silesian plain in a north-easterly direction, cutting the
Oder at right angles, and following no natural boun
daries. (2) Surface and River System
Surface
The country west of the Oder is a south-easterly
continuation of the plain of Middle Silesia, which
extends to the foot of the Sudetes, rising with a
slight gradient towards them. The mountain slopes
lie mostly beyond the frontier, except for a spur which
runs south-east, just within the frontier, f rom Jagerndorf
to Hultschin. East of the Oder, the country is a plateau
of moderate height, broken by the valleys of rivers and
small streams, and rising into three ridges which radiate
from a point beyond the Russian frontier near Bedzin
(Bendzin). The northernmost of these ridges extends
along the frontier and then in a north-westerly direction
north of the Malapane beyond Kreuzburg into Middle
Silesia, where it is known as the Silesian Ridge.
Another ridge runs west, between the Malapane and
the Klodnitz, to the edge of the Oder valley, where it
rises to a height of 1,260 ft. in the Annaberg. The
third ridge runs south-west by west by Nikolai and
Rybnik to the Oder valley opposite Ratibor.
In general, the country has a downward slope from
both sides towards the Oder valley, which lies at an
altitude of between 300 and 600 ft. ; the plateau lies at
between 600 and 1,000 ft., only rising over the 1,000 ft.
level at the higher points of the ridges.
River System
Nearly all of Upper Silesia lies within the drainage
area of the Oder, which rises in Moravia, reaches the
frontier near Ostrau, and follows it for 17 miles to a
point near Oderberg. Thence it runs through the centre

sE] RIVERS; CLIMATE 3
of Upper Silesia for 87 miles to the Middle Silesian
boundary. South of the frontier the upper Oder and
its tributaries are mountain streams liable to sudden
floods, the most considerable of which occur in the
spring and summer, and occasionally cause extensive
damage to crops. Recent regulation of the banks has
somewhat diminished the danger, but the large volume
of the flood-water renders it necessary to leave a wide
channel, and the Prussian and Austrian Governments
have hitherto failed to agree on any joint scheme for
regulating the floods.
The left-bank tributaries of the Oder are all small
mountain streams, with the exception of the Glatzer
Neisse, which rises in the Sudetes, and has a length
of 122 miles.
The right-bank tributaries,, which rise in the Little
Polish plateau, are rather longer and have a less rapid
fall. The Klodnitz (52 miles in length) drains the
western part of the industrial district ; in 1789 a canal
28 miles in length was constructed along its course up
to Gleiwitz. The Malapane (81 miles in length) rises
a few miles east of the Russian frontier, and joins the
Oder a little below Oppeln. The Stober (53 miles in
length) rises west of Rosenberg and flows westwards
into Middle Silesia, joining the Oder just below its
confluence on the left bank with the Neisse.
The north-eastern corner of the Regierungsbezirk is
drained by the Prosna, which is a tributary of the
Warthe ( Warta), and here forms the Russian boundary.
The Vistula (Weichsel) forms the southern boundary
for 27 miles from Schwarzwasser to Oswiecim (Ausch
witz). At Oswiecim it is joined by the Przemsza, which
for the latter part of its course forms the frontier between
Silesia and Galicia. (3) Climate
The climate of Upper Silesia is the most continental
of any part of Germany, and has the greatest range
of temperature. The mean January temperature
(27° F., — 3° C.) is colder than that of any other district
except East Prussia, while the July mean (64^ F.,
17 J° C.) is equal to that of the lower Rhine plain.
B 2

4 GEOGRAPHY [*°-40
The rainfall is distinctly below the average for Prussia,
the annual mean being 25 in. (647 mm.). The months
with the greatest rainfall are July and August. The
average of sunshine is high, being noticeably great in
winter. The winters are severe, but not excessively long, the
frost period being only between two and three months.
Spring is about a week later than in Middle Silesia,
and nearly a fortnight later than in west central
Germany. The prevalent winds are west, north-west,
east, and south-east. The east and south-east winds
are cold and rough in winter ; they specially affect the
country east of the Oder, and render it unattractive
to settlers from the west. The climate is on the whole
less unfavourable to agriculture than the soil.
(4) Sanitary Conditions
From the standpoint of hygiene, Upper Silesia com
pares favourably with Russian Poland. It is naturally
well supplied with water, with the exception of the
region between the Malapane and the Klodnitz. Owing
to a long series of epidemics, the Government some
forty years ago instituted a comprehensive scheme for
supplying this part of the country with water, which
was completed by a similar scheme carried out by the
Kreis of Kattowitz.
Medical provision in the Regierungsbezirk is, as in
other Polish districts, not very efficient. Infectious
diseases and inflammation of the lungs are unusually
frequent. Infant mortality is, however, lower than in
the German districts of eastern Prussia. Deaths from
tuberculosis are slightly above the average.
(5) Race and Language
Race
Upper Silesia is the southern part of the eastern
border-zone of Prussia, in which the German and
Polish races meet. The south-west parts of the Kreise
of Ratibor and Leobschiitz also have a certain Czech
population, which has spread across the frontier from
Austrian Silesia.

5K] HEALTH; RACE 5
As in other regions on the eastern frontier of Prussia,
the races are not evenly distributed over the Regierungs
bezirk. The five Kreise west of the Oder are all pre
dominantly German, except for the rucal parts of the
Kreis Neustadt. The Kreise on the Oder and those
east of the river are all predominantly Polish, except
for the six larger towns, namely, Oppeln and Ratibor
on the Oder, and Beuthen, Gleiwitz, Konigshutte, and
Kattowitz in the industrial district. If the Oder itself
be taken as the boundary between the Polish and German
sections of the Regierungsbezirk, the eastern and western
sections have majorities of about three to one of Poles
and Germans respectively.
The Prussian census figures give the following pro
portions of Poles in the two districts and their most
important sections :
Numbers of Poles in Districts of Upper Silesia, and Proportions per
Cent, of Total Populations, according to German Censuses
1867. 1890. 1900. 1910.
Left (west) bank (excluding Oder

Kreise) ....

15%

58,466 16%

56,062
16%

59,557
17%

Left (west) bank, excluding Kreis
Neustadt ....
Kreis Neustadt

3%
50%

5%
48%

6%
47%

6%
47%

Oder Kreise (Oppeln, Kosel, and
Ratibor) ....

77%

205,839 63%

218,202 61%

231,153 60%

Oder Kreise, excluding towns of
Oppeln and Ratibor
Town of Oppeln
Town of Ratibor

—

70%
22%
38%

67%
24%40%

67%
20% 39%

Right (east) bank (excluding Oder
Kreise) ....
Agricultural Kreise only .

81%83%

77%
386,750 84%

73%
406.563 83%

66%
450,249 80%

Industrial Kreise only (excluding
towns of Gleiwitz, Beuthen,
Kattowitz, and Konig
shutte)

249,944 79%

355,913 76%

434,846 67%

Towns of Gleiwitz, Beuthen,
Kattowitz,and Konigshutte

—

49,453 45%

81,786 42%

82,333 33%

Upper Silesia . . . 950,452 1,118,526 1,258,138
62% 60% 60% 57%

GEOGRAPHY [*°-

40

The figures show a fall of 3 per cent, between i 1900
and 1910 in the percentage of Poles to the total popula
tion, and suggest that, great as was the mcreaseo .the
Polish population, that of the German was still grater.
It is, however, clear that the more recent census
figures cannot be relied upon, a fact due to _ the
pohtical bias of the enumerators and local otticials.
It may be concluded that the proportion ot Poles to
the total population has not fallen in the period but
was in 1910 at least as high as in 1900, and probably
rather higher. The figures for 1900 are thus the
best available means of determining the proportion
of Poles both in the whole area and in the different
districts. The whole area falls into three sections :
(a) The Kreise wholly on the left bank. Here the
Germans are in a majority of six to one ; and, if the
Kreis of Neustadt, previously mentioned as having a
largely Polish population, be left out of account, there
is a German majority of sixteen to one.
(b) The Kreise traversed by the Oder. Here the
Poles amount, according to the figures for 1900, to
61 per cent, of the total (which includes the Czechs).
Excluding the towns of Oppeln and Ratibor, the Poles
form 67 per cent, of the total, being more than twice
as numerous as the Germans and Czechs together.
(c) The Kreise wholly on the right bank. Here the
Poles are, according to the figures for 1900, in a majority
of practically three to one. The only exceptions are
the four towns of the industrial district, which have
a small German majority. In the rest of the industrial
district the Poles form over 75 per cent, of the popula
tion, and in the agricultural Kreise, which cover nine-
tenths of the right-bank section, the proportion of
Poles is over five to one (83 per cent.).
The relative proportions have altered very little
i The evidence on the subject is summarized in a memorandum on
the language statistics of the German census of 1910 fWPhpr •
Berlin, 1914), containing a preface (by Bernhardt pt>+,-+W \ ni.
FehUrquellen in der Statistik der Nationalitaten. ''

sS] RACE AND LANGUAGE 7
during the past hundred years, except in the six larger
towns, where the fall in the proportion of Poles is due
to the immigration of Germans. In other parts the
proportions have not varied by more than 4 per cent.
since 1828.
If the Oder is taken as the racial boundary, the
eastern part of the Regierungsbezirk forms a solid block
of Pohsh territory. Outside the four towns of the
industrial district, the percentage of Poles in the popu
lation is as high as in any other large district, Russian
Poland included. Among the German inhabitants of
the four towns, moreover, are military and other officials
of all grades, who are not indigenous, and should not be
counted in an estimate of the permanent population.
The'Czecho-Slovaks of Upper Silesia nearly all live
in the western part of the rural Kreis of Ratibor,
where they form 60 per cent, of the population. They
are also found in the proportion of 10 per cent, in the
adjoining Kreis of Leobschiitz.
It should be observed that, strictly speaking, the
Germans of Silesia, like those of East Prussia, are
racially very mixed, and probably as much Slavonic
as Germanic in blood. The modern national division,
however, only follows the racial division in as far as it
coincides with a difference of language.
Language
The Germans of Upper Silesia speak a Middle
German dialect common to the whole province, and
allied to the dialects of Lusatia and Thuringia. The
Polish dialect of Upper Silesia, called by the Germans
' Water Polish ', has a number of German expressions,
and differs in a few points from the standard language.
These, however, are not sufficient to prevent Silesian
and other Poles understanding one another's speech;
and standard Polish is used by Silesian Poles in writing.
Since 1873 the Prussian authorities have made per
sistent and rough-handed efforts to replace the Polish
language by the German, but this the Poles have
hitherto effectually resisted.

8 GEOGRAPHY [N°-40
(6) Population
Distribution
The population of Upper Silesia was in 1910 about
2,207,000. That of the agricultural districts is fairly
evenly distributed. It is thinnest (about 150 to the
square mile) in the northern Kreise of Falkenberg,
Lublinitz, and Rosenberg, and densest (about 300 to
the square mile) in the western Kreise of Neisse,
Neustadt, and Leobschiitz. The three Kreise of
Tarnowitz, Rybnik, and Ratibor include parts of the
coal and other mine-fields, and have, on an average,
460 inhabitants to the square mile. The industrial
district proper, which covers an area of only 17 miles
by 10, has a population of 850,000, or 40 per cent, of
that of the whole Regierungsbezirk, and a density of
5,050 per square mile.
As a whole, Upper Silesia is more thickly populated
than other parts of Prussia which contain a large Polish
element, only one Kreis being as thinly populated as
the province of East Prussia. The average density of
the population (433 per square mile) is three times that
of the population of East Prussia, and more than twice
that of the population of Posen.
Towns and Villages
There are very few towns in Upper Silesia possessing
municipal government. The six largest, with a popu
lation of over 30,000, are Konigshutte (72,000), Beuthen
(67,000), Gleiwitz (64,000), Kattowitz (43,000), Ratibor
(38,000), and Oppeln (33,000) \ The four largest of
these are all in the industrial area.
On the other hand, there are many communes or
villages where great numbers of people live under urban
conditions, but without the advantages of municipal
enterprise. Twenty of these communes have popula-
i Cf. below, pp. 37, 38, where towns in Lower Silesia are also
mentioned.

tea] POPULATION 9
«
tions of over 10,000, the largest being Zabrze, wbich
in 1912 had no fewer than 59,000 inhabitants.
The. German element is larger in the towns than in
the country. In the towns taken together it forms 66
per cent, of the population, and predominates also in
the communes with more than 20,000 inhabitants. In
all other classes of communes, the Poles are in a majority.
Movement
The population has increased since 1890 at the rate
of 2-2 per cent, per annum. The rate for the towns
has been 3-3 per cent, per annum, that for the country
1-6 per cent. The population of the industrial region
is twenty times as great as in 1828. That of the whole*
of Upper Silesia is over three times as great as in 1828.
Both birth-rate and death-rate have been diminish
ing steadily in recent years, as in the rest of Germany.
The death-rate has fallen, as elsewhere, more rapidly
than the birth-rate. The rates in 1913 were : births,
37-5 per 1,000 ; deaths, 20 per 1,000 ; the average
excess of births over deaths for the previous years was
about 18-5 per 1,000.
In Upper Silesia the birth-rate is higher among the
Poles than among the Germans. In 1900 it was calcu
lated to be 47 per thousand for the Poles and 37 for
the Germans. The corresponding death-rates being 25
and 26, the excess of births over deaths among the
Poles was 22, and among the Germans 1 1 per thousand.
The Poles were thus estimated to be increasing at twice
the rate of the Germans.

[Ko. 40

II. POLITICAL HISTORY
Chronological Summary
1524. Purchase of Jagerndorf by George the Pious.
1537. Covenant of succession between Liegnitz and Branden
burg.
1546. George Frederick deprived of Ratibor and Oppeln.
Covenant of succession declared invalid.
1623. Jagerndorf confiscated from John George.
1642. Death of John George's son. Elector of Brandenburg
claims Jagerndorf, Ratibor, and Oppeln.
1675. Liegnitz line extinct. Elector of Brandenburg claims
Liegnitz, Wohlau, and Brieg.
1685. Silesian claims abandoned for Schwiebus.
1694. Restoration of Schwiebus. Silesian claims revived.
1728. Prussia recognizes the Pragmatic Sanction.
1740. Frederick the Great revives Silesian claims and invades
Silesia.
1742. Truce of Breslau. Cession of Prussian Silesia to Frederick
the Great.
1744. Resumption of hostilities.
1745. Treaty of Dresden confirms arrangement of 1742.
1748. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle confirms Prussia in possession
of Silesia.
1778. War of Bavarian Succession.
1806. Jerome Bonaparte reduces Silesia.
1808. Silesia restored to Prussia.
1827. Oppression of Silesian Lutherans begins.
1841. Silesian Lutherans form separate Church.
1844. Insurrection of Silesian weavers.
1848. Revolutionists elect Committee of Public Safety.
1851. Constitution of Prussian Diet on existing basis.
1866. Negotiations between Austria and Napoleon III for
recovery of Silesia.
(1) Prussian Claims to Silesia
The history of Silesia up to the conquest of the greater
part of the province by Frederick II has been dealt
with in Austrian Silesia, No. 4 of this series; it will

S52KJ PRUSSIAN CLAIMS 11
be well, however, to recapitulate those parts of it with
which the Prussian claims, culminating in annexation,
are connected.
Subdivision of Silesia. — In the course of the four
teenth century, Silesia became subdivided into a num
ber of duchies, among which were Ratibor, Oppeln,
Jagerndorf, Liegnitz, Wohlau, and Brieg. All these
became at a later stage the subject of claims by the
House of Brandenburg.
Ratibor and Oppeln. — In the reign of Vladislav of
Bohemia (1479-1516) his nephew George, Margrave of
Ansbach, known as George the Pious, obtained from
his uncle in exchange for some pecuniary claims a pro
mise of the succession to the Dukes of Ratibor and
Oppeln, who were without issue. The transaction was
not legal, and, though it does not seem to have been
seriously questioned for some time, yet in 1546 the son
and successor of the Margrave, George Frederick, was
deprived of the two duchies, which were held to have
escheated to the Bohemian Crown. Notwithstanding
these flaws in his title, George Frederick claimed to
dispose of this property by his will, leaving it to
Joachim Frederick, afterwards Elector of Brandenburg.
This was the sole ground of the claims of the House
of Brandenburg to the duchies of Ratibor and Oppeln ;
these were, therefore, of the most dubious character,
and were in abeyance until 1642.
Jagerndorf. — This duchy was purchased in 1524 by
the Margrave George the Pious, and passed without
question to his son, George Frederick. When, however,
the latter included this duchy in the territory which he
left to Brandenburg by his will, the Emperor disputed
the validity of the will on the ground that the original
enfeoffment of the Margrave George could not be
extended to include persons who were not his direct
descendants. Notwithstanding this objection, the
duchy in fact passed according to the terms of the
will, and from 1608 to 1623 was held by John George,
the second son of the original beneficiary, Joachim
Frederick of Brandenburg. In 1623, however, in con-

12 HISTORY l>-40
sequence of the part played by John George in the
Bohemian Revolution, the duchy was confiscated, and
bestowed by the Emperor on a member of another
family. Claims to Jagerndorf were asserted by
Frederick William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg,
in 1642, on the death of John George's son, and were
thenceforward persisted in.
Liegnitz, Wohlau, and Brieg. — These three duchies
had been made in 1537 the subject of a covenant of
succession between Frederick, Duke of Liegnitz, who
was a son-in-law of George the Pious, and the House
of Brandenburg. By the terms of this curious agree
ment, it was provided that on failure of heirs to
Liegnitz the three duchies should pass to Brandenburg,
while correspondingly, if the Brandenburg succession
should fail, the Bohemian possessions of that house
should pass to Liegnitz.
Liegnitz being a fief of the Bohemian Crown, such
an arrangement was clearly ultra vires, and in 1546 it
was declared invalid by the Estates of Silesia, and it
was ordered that the two copies of the deed should be
destroyed. With this order the Duke of Liegnitz com
plied, but the Brandenburg counterpart was preserved
in defiance of Imperial orders; and on the death of
George William, the last of the Dukes of Liegnitz, in
1675, a claim to the duchies was immediately put for
ward by the Great Elector, though he shortly after
wards made an unsuccessful endeavour to commute
this claim for the recognition of his title to Jagerndorf,
which was perhaps the least shadowy of the Branden
burg pretensions in Silesia.
The Schwiebus Complication. — In 1685, on reconcilia
tion with the Emperor, the Great Elector agreed to
abandon all his Silesian claims in return for the cession
of Schwiebus ; and this arrangement was adopted and
continued in force from 1686 to 1694. On the death
of the Great Elector, however, in 1688, negotiations
were started for the restoration of Schwiebus to Austria,
which took effect in 1694; whereupon the Elector
Frederick III, who became King of Prussia in 1701

SiSSJ PRUSSIAN CLAIMS 13
tentatively revived his Silesian claims. These were,
however, not admitted by the Emperor, and remained
in abeyance up to the death of the Emperor Charles VI
in 1740. In 1732 King Frederick William I of Prussia,
in whom the claims were then vested, actually con
sented to be the Emperor's guest in Liegnitz and
Jagerndorf. The Silesian Wars. — On the death of the Emperor,
however, Frederick II (Frederick the Great), who had
succeeded Frederick William some months previously,
determined on pressing the Silesian claims, although
his father in 1728 had recognized the Pragmatic Sanc
tion, whereby the hereditary dominions of Charles VI
were guaranteed to Maria Theresa.
In December 1740 he invaded Silesia, and captured
Breslau in the following January. After various
successes on Frederick's part, Maria Theresa gave way ;
and in June 1742 the Truce of Breslau, subsequently
confirmed in Berlin, gave to Prussia that part of Silesia
which still belongs to her.
In 1744, however, war again broke out, but at the
end of the following year the Treaty of Dresden con
firmed the settlement of 1742. During the Seven
Years' War, Frederick's title was again challenged, but
the ultimate result was to leave the situation un
changed ; and, though so late as 1866 the recovery of
the lost territory was made one of the objects of a
proposed alliance between Austria and Napoleon III,
Prussia has since remained in undisturbed possession
of those parts of Silesia which were won by Frederick II.
(2) Silesia after the Prussian Conquest
There is no indication of any violent attachment of
the Silesians to Austria in 1741 ; and the Prc-testants
of the region were probably willing to welcome Prussian
rule. Even after the intervention of Charles XII, they
had suffered from repressive measures, including (for
example) heavy fines upon converts to Protestantism,
though the penal laws had been relaxed in practice

14 HISTORY [>°-40
since 1737. Nevertheless, in the First Silesian War,
there were sporadic instances of dislike to the invaders ;
and bands of Silesians, inhabitants of the country dis
tricts, carried on a guerrilla warfare against the Prussian
army. These risings were suppressed with great severity,
and any Silesian found bearing arms was treated as a spy.
The opposition to the Prussians was specially strong in
the Polish districts, and the Polish Diets urged their
sovereign, Augustus III, Elector of Saxony, to take up
arms on behalf of the Roman Catholics of Silesia, who
were threatened with subjection to a Protestant prince.
In the towns, and especially in Breslau, Frederick tried
every means of ingratiating himself ; and his measures
were made the subject of banter by Voltaire. At the
opening of the war of 1740, Breslau showed no indica
tion of a desire to hold out in defence of Maria Theresa ;
but, in spite of Frederick's blandishments, it showed
no greater desire to suffer on his behalf in 1757 ; while
the circumstance that the Silesians of the Breslau
garrison, who had been pressed into the Prussian
service, went over to the Austrians after the fall of the
city, shows that, at the beginning of the Seven Years'
War, Prussian patriotism had not taken any deep root.
The process of introducing Prussian administrative
institutions was delayed by the Second Silesian War
and the Seven Years' War. The new province was
administered after 1742 as part of the kingdom of
Prussia, and was placed under a Prussian Governor,
who reported directly to the King of Prussia. The old
Estates, of which a permanent committee, the Gon-
ventus Publicus, was the organ of communication with
the Emperor, came to an end. With the Estates dis
appeared the old local boards of finance and all the other
mechanism of provincial autonomy. The administration
of the law was placed in charge of two boards, meeting
at Breslau and Glogau, and containing a majority of
native Silesians ; but the two boards of finance, con
stituted at the same time, were Prussian in composition.
Direct contributions were imposed upon the peasants ;
and the towns paid their share of taxation in the form

stt] ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 15
of an excise. Frederick refused the appeal of the
Silesian nobility to be allowed to share the privileges
of the Prussian nobles with regard to taxation. On
the military side of the administration, a regular
system of annual levies for the army was instituted ;
and fortresses were built or restored and equipped.
Religious equality was established ; and Consistories,
including both Roman Catholic and Protestant mem
bers, met at Breslau and Glogau. From these Con-
sistorial Boards, and even from the decisions by
Catholic Bishops, there was an appeal to Berlin, an
arrangement which produced some initial difficulties
with the Papacy.
(3) Economic Development under Frederick
the Great
The revenue of Silesia at the death of Frederick II
was double what it had been in 1741 ; and the increase
was due, not merely to improved methods of taxation,
but also to the attention bestowed on finance, agri
culture, and industry. It was in Silesia that Frederick
first introduced the Credit Societat; and the system
of agricultural credit thus established helped largely in
the development of Silesian land. The industries of
Silesia were encouraged. The Government superin
tended the organization of lead-mine* and blast
furnaces, and sold Silesian metals in Berhn, forbidding
the import into Silesia of Swedish iron, except for the
ordnance. Technical schools were established to give
instruction in spinning wool, and a spinning qualifica
tion was established as a condition of permission for
the. marriage of peasants. In the linen districts near
Hirschberg mining was prohibited, in order to secure
an ample supply of wood for the bleacheries, and
immigrant weavers were encouraged to settle. A con
siderable influx of German colonists after the conquest
had an appreciable effect upon the prosperity of the
province ; and, when John Quincey Adams, who then
represented the United States at Berlin, visited it in

16 HISTORY i>-

40

1800, he was deeply impressed by the success of
Prussian administration. The value of his evidence is
enhanced by the circumstance that his account of
Silesia was given in private letters, which were printed
in America without his knowledge. They were soon
published both in German and in French, and are
frequently quoted by German historians. On the other
hand, Seeley, in his Life of Stein, quotes a description
by Theodor von Schon of a journey made in Silesia in
1797, in which he deplores ' the horrible condition of
the common man ', that is, the serf, and says that
' the labourers were so weak that on a Silesian estate
it was necessary to have some 33 per cent, more hands
than an equal estate in the Magdeburg district had '.
These conditions were a legacy from pre-Prussian
times ; and the Silesian serfs obtained their freedom by
the Emancipation Edict of October 1807, which applied
to all the territories of the Prussian monarchy, though
local efforts were made to prevent it from taking
effect. (4) Effects of the Napoleonic Era
Silesia was disturbed to some extent by the War of
the Bavarian Succession in 1778, but it did not again
suffer from the ravages of war until the last years of the
Napoleonic era. After the military collapse of Prussia
in 1806, Jerome Bonaparte reduced Silesia, and in 1807
only Kosel and Glatz held out for Frederick William III ;
but by the agreements made in 1808, when Prussia
lost her western possessions, Silesia was given back,
although Napoleon might have conciliated Francis II
by its cession to Austria. The province was destined
to play a large part in the War of Liberation. Silesia
shared in the revival of national spirit which preceded
the military struggle ; and German Silesians rallied to
the Tugendbund, a political society formed to incul
cate the duties of Christian patriotism. Silesia had
also its share in the administrative reorganization,
and in 1808 was given one of the three superior presi
dents of provinces. Prussia was bankrupt ; and the

3&£k] EFFECTS OF NAPOLEONIC ERA 17
cession of Silesia was discussed, both in France and in
Prussia, as compensation for the indemnity payable to
Napoleon. To avoid this necessity, two steps were
taken, both of which affected the province. The sale
of the royal domains, sanctioned elsewhere by the
provincial estates, received in Silesia such general
approval as the representatives of the Agricultural
Credit Associations and some of the towns could give.
The second financial expedient, the secularization of
ecclesiastical property, affected Silesia more deeply
than any other part of the kingdom, because the
See of Breslau, the monastery of Griissau, and other
ancient foundations were still in possession of very
large revenues. A portion of the spoil was given to
the University of Breslau ; and the sale of the remainder
brought comparatively small results, for no one was
rich enough to offer a large price.
The first step in the War of Liberation was the
retirement of Frederick William III to Silesia and the
mobilization of the Silesian troops. The German
Silesians showed enthusiasm in contributing recruits to
the army, but Treitschke admits that ' the Poles in
Upper Silesia did not share the devotion of the Ger
mans '. In the early stages of the war (1813) Silesia
was not only the chief Prussian base but also the
scene of important military operations. It was in
attempting to destroy the Silesian army that Marshal
Macdonald was defeated at the Katzbach (August) ;
and the Silesian army played a distinguished part in
the battle of Leipzig (October).
Silesia, which had suffered with the rest of Prussia
in the period of Napoleon's conquest, suffered also
during the campaign of 1813, but its economic recovery
began at once. Mines and other industries recommenced
operations in 1814; and in the same year the Agricul
tural Credit Associations resumed payment of interest,
although some years had to elapse before the landed
classes again became prosperous. In 1817 it was still
almost impossible to find purchasers for Silesian
manors.

18

HISTORY I>'40

(5) Silesia after the Congress of Vienna
After the European settlement, the old boundaries of
Silesia were enlarged by the addition of part of Upper
Lusatia, which, though before the eleventh century it
had been connected with Silesia, had for seven centuries
been Saxon. Thus enlarged, Silesia became one of the
eight provinces of Prussia, governed by a Superior
President (Oberprdsident), and divided into Adminis
trative Districts (Regierungsbezirke), with subdivisions
into administrative circles (landrdtliche Kreise). The
Superior President or Lieutenant-Governor had very
wide powers ; and the first holder of the office, Merckel,
had considerable popularity among the German Sile
sians. There remained, however, a strong local feehng.
The Silesian 'nation' is a phrase of f req*uent occurrence;
and provincial independence was fostered by the
' Silesian Society for Patriotic Kultur ', and by the
prevalence of intermarriage among the Silesian families.
Religious differences accentuated provincial feehng, for
the Roman Catholic nobility avoided intimacy with
the Brandenburg and Prussian Junkers, and found
their associates in Vienna rather than in Berlin. These
Austrian friendships assisted the rise of a strong ultra
montane party, led by Schimouski, the Prince-Bishop
of Breslau. A division of opinion among the Protes
tants was brought about by the attempt of Frederick
William III to unite Calvinists and Lutherans. This
effort, especially the introduction of a new Liturgy,
was distasteful to the Silesian Lutherans, and from
1827 onwards there were serious difficulties with the
Government ; Lutheran pastors were imprisoned, and
orthodox Lutherans migrated from Silesia at the very
time when the King was engaged in settling in the pro
vince persecuted Lutherans from Tirol. In 1841 the
recalcitrant Lutherans founded a separate Church.
Another cause of internal trouble was the failure
of Frederick William III to fulfil the promise of
a Constitution. This breach of faith was specially
resented in Silesia, where the Governor, Merckel, was

«BSSL] AFTER CONGRESS OF VIENNA 19
a follower of Hardenberg, and where industrial develop
ment produced a rapid growth of liberal opinion.
When the system of provincial estates was established,
the Silesian notables urged that the peasants of Upper
Silesia were not yet ready for political rights, but the
Government did not accept their view. In 1823,
therefore, the Silesian Diet was constituted on the usual
principle of a division of nobles, towns, and peasants ;
but, in Silesia, the estate of the nobility was subdivided
into nobles and gentlemen, the nobles sitting in person,
and the gentry, like the towns and the peasants,
electing representatives. The growth of liberal opinion
continued; and the repression of Silesian reformers
created, even in Breslau, a sympathy with the Polish
aspirations of the period about 1830, a sympathy
which Treitschke attributes to a general desire to offer
opposition to the Prussian Government. Political
unrest continued through the second quarter of the
nineteenth century ; and in 1844 there was an insurrec
tion among the Silesian weavers. In the revolutionary
years, 1847-8, there was a vigorous political agitation
in Silesia ; and the influence of liberal opinion was
increased by famine, plague, and by the industrial
troubles which form the subject of Hauptmann's play,
The Weavers. In 1848 it was believed that a republic
had been proclaimed at Breslau; and, though the
revolutionary party had not gone so far, they did
elect a Committee of Public Safety and sent a deputa
tion to Berlin to demand reforms. After the failure of
the revolutionary movement and the constitution of
the Prussian Diet on its existing basis in 1851, the
representatives of the Silesian towns reinforced the
progressive party ; but, like the rest of Prussia, the
Silesian province acquiesced in the reaction, a d
Silesian troops took their share in the wars which led
to the formation of the German Empire.

C 2

20 tNo-40

III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
CONDITIONS (1) Political
Silesia sends 35 members to the Reichstag and 65
to the Prussian Diet. Its political influence, as repre
sented in the Reichstag, is threefold. The district of
Oppeln, where the Poles are in a large majority, is in
sympathy with the Polish feeling in Poznania, and
acts with the Polish section of the Reichstag ; the
large industrial towns support the Socialist party ; and
the nobility belong to the Liberal section of the Con
servatives (the Reichspartei) and to the Centre. The
existence of Polish national feeling in Silesia has been
an element in German policy, for Bismarck said that
' our geographical position, and the intermixture of both
nationalities in the eastern provinces, including Silesia,
compel us to retard, as far as possible, the opening of
the Polish question'.1 Nearly a quarter of the whole
population of the province is Polish, and Poles constitute
an overwhelming majority in many parts (see above,
p. 5). In addition to nearly 1,200,000 Poles, there
are over 100,000 Silesians whose mother-tongue is
Czech or Wendish. The strength of the socialistic
element among the German Silesians has caused con
siderable anxiety to the Government, and in 1890 was
the subject of an Imperial oration. Bismarck, possibly
influenced by dynastic considerations, suggested in the
reminiscences dictated after his retirement ' that the
Prussian Crown is the chief link that binds Silesia to
Prussia :
No one could decisively answer the question whether, sup
posing the Hohenzollern dynasty and all its rightful successors
1 Bismarck, Reflections and Reminiscences, trans A J Butler
i. 342.

SftSb] POLITICAL CONDITIONS 21
to have passed away, the political cohesion of Prussia would
survive. Is it quite certain that the eastern and western
divisions, that Pomeranians and Hanoverians, natives of
Holstein and Silesia, of Aachen and Konigsberg, would then
continue as they now are, bound together in the indisruptible
unity of the Prussian State ? l
For administrative purposes the province is divided
into the three Regierungsbezirke of Breslau, Oppeln, and
Liegnitz, subdivided into Kreise, of which there are
25 in Breslau, 25 in Oppeln, and 21 in Liegnitz.
(2) Religious and Educational
Of the 5,225,962 inhabitants of Silesia in 1910,
2,962,783 were Roman Catholics, 2,199,114 were
Evangelicals (Lutherans), and 12,893 belonged to other
Christian denominations. There were 44,985 Jews ; and
6,187 persons were entered in the census returns as not
being of any religious description. Upper Silesia and
Glatz are the districts predominantly Roman Catholic ;
and Lower Silesia is chiefly Protestant. The educa
tional arrangements follow the ordinary -Prussian
system. Besides elementary schools, there are in the
province 40 Gymnasia, 9 Realgymnasia, 7 Real-
schulen, and 5 Oberrealschulen. Technical education
is provided by Technical and Agricultural Colleges,
and there are three Military Academies.
1 Bismarck, op. cit., i. 318.

22 l>-40

IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
(A) MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
(a) Roads
In Silesia the main public roads are the provincial
roads and the district (Kreis) roads, which, as elsewhere
in Prussia, are well metalled and kept in good repair.
As might be expected, Silesia, an industrial province, is
much better provided with such roads than the neigh
bouring province of Poznania, which is almost entirely
agricultural. The following table gives statistics of
the principal1 roads in Silesia in 1912. Figures for
Posen are added for comparison :
Regierungsbezirk^ Total for Total for
of Silesia. Silesia. Posen.
Breslau. Liegnitz. Oppeln.
Provincial roads (km.) . 780 942 489 2,211 1,888
District roads (km.) . . 4,276 2,412 3,452 10,130 3,186
Km. of road to 100 sq. km. 37-4 24-6 29-8 30-6 17-5
There are also roads maintained by the various
parishes, but these are relatively few.
(6) Rivers and Canals
The Oder is navigable for nearly the whole of its
course through Silesia. As early as 1886 it was regulated
for traffic as high as Breslau, beyond which it has since
been canalized up to Kosel, while small vessels can go
as far as Ratibor. The Oder affords the products of
Silesia an outlet not only to Stettin, near its mouth,
but also to Berlin and Hamburg, with which it is con
nected by an extensive system of waterways. The
goods that go down-stream include coal, timber, sugar,
cereals, iron, and cement. The up-stream traffic is also
large and heterogeneous.
1 Officially described as Kunststrassen im Rechtssinne.

S8S&] ROADS; RIVERS; RAILWAYS 23
Great quantities of coal from the mines of Upper
Silesia reach the Oder by the Klodnitz Canal, which
connects Gleiwitz and Kosel, a distance of 45 km.
(c) Railways
The position of Silesia in respect of railways is shown
by the following table, which refers to 1913. Some
other figures are given for purposes of comparison.

Km.

Km. per
1,000 Inhabitants.

Km. per
100 Sq. Km.

4,614142,780-76

8-8
12-7 2-939-15

11-4 9-6
2-9

Silesia ....
Posen ....
Russian Poland
German Empire
In 1913, of the Silesian lines 2,849-70 km. were main
lines and 1,764-44 km. were branch lines, of the same
gauge as the main lines, but not so heavily laid. Of the
2,332 km. of lines under the Breslau Railway Board,
53 per cent, were single tracks and 47 per cent, were
double tracks, whereas, in Poznania, of the lines under
theBromberg direction 71-5 per cent, were single bracks
and 28-5 per cent, double tracks. In Silesia the double
tracks predominate in the industrial regions such as
those near Konigshutte and Breslau.
The main line from Berlin to Lemberg runs through
Liegnitz, Breslau, Oppeln, and Konigshutte. The only
double track from Breslau to Vienna passes through
Oppeln, Oderberg in Austrian Silesia, and Prerau in
Moravia. The districts bordering on Poland are very
well supplied with railways, mostly constructed for
strategical reasons, but only two lines cross the frontier,
one connecting Lublinitz, and the other Myslowitz, with
Czestochowa. Of tramways and light railways there are in Silesia
799 km., whereas Poznania, with a smaller area, has
820 km. Their gauge varies from 1-435 m. to 0-600 m.

24 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [K°-4°
(B) INDUSTRY
(1) Labouk
In 1907, 30 per cent, of the population of Silesia was
dependent on agriculture and 43 per cent, on other
industries ; while in Upper Silesia, which has a great
coal-field and important industries connected with it,
the proportion dependent on agriculture was somewhat
smaller. In Poznania, on the other hand, 54 per cent.
of the inhabitants were dependent on agriculture and
only 23 per cent, on "other industries.
The following table shows the numbers employed in
the mining industry of Prussian Silesia in 1912 :

Upper Silesia.

Lower Silesia.

Officials, technical .
,, commercial

3,920 924

1,153 401

Total .

4,844

1,554

Male workers
Below ground .
Above ,,
Female workers
Above ground .

79,583
.32,281 5,721

19,168 8,394 361

Total .

117,585

27,923

Workers engaged in the mining industry of Upper
Silesia are but poorly paid. The highest wage paid to
coal-miners in 1914 was 4-79 marks a day (after deduc
tions for insurance contributions, &c.) ; other labourers
employed below the surface receiving only 3-51 marks.
Men employed on the surface got 3-22 marks ; boys
under 16, 1-26 marks ; and women, 1-31 marks.
In the mining industry of Lower Silesia men's wages
are lower. In 1914 miners were paid on an average 3-89
marks a day, and other labourers below the surface,
3-46 marks. Boys, however, received 1-35 marks, and
women, 1-73 marks. These wages compare badly with
those of western Germany. In the Dortmund district

sS] LABOUR 25
for instance, a miner got 6-17 marks, and other workers
below the surface, 4-49 marks.
Women are poorly paid in all branches of industry.
Before the war the highest wages for unskilled labour
were 1-80 marks a day, given in Breslau town and in
Waldenburg. At Schweidnitz 1-60 marks was a common
wage, and in the circle of Liiben the maximum was only
one mark.
Though wages in mining and manufacturing industry
remained low, they rose greatly, in some cases being
doubled, during the twenty-five years preceding the
war. The result was a serious deficiency in the supply
of agricultural labour. It became increasingly difficult
to keep the younger generation on the land, and many
went to the local mines or even to those of Westphalia.
This tendency, which affected the whole of Eastern
Germany, is discussed at length in Prussian Poland,
No. 45 of this series.
The shortage of agricultural labour varies according
to the locality. As a rule it is worse where sugar-beet
is cultivated, as this needs seasonal labour. In the Kreis
of Ohlau no labour from outside would be needed were
it not for the sugar-beet cultivation, for which Polish
labour used to be imported from Austria and Russia.
For many years before the war, there was indeed
little to attach the rural population to the land. As in
Poznania (see No. 45 of this series), the small landholders
had, in many cases, lost their land and communal rights
and were constrained to work as day-labourers. The
hind who ' lived in ' was poorly paid, and a man and
his wife together earned in Silesia no more than a single
labourer in Mecklenburg.
In Silesia the payment of wages in kind is less
common than in most other parts of East Germany ;
and in consequence the money wage for many kinds
of agricultural work is higher than in adjacent regions.
Nevertheless the workers consider that it is to their
advantage to receive at least part of their remuneration
in land, fuel, or food. Great vahie seems to be attached
to facilities for cow-keeping.

26

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

[

No. 40

Before the war, the usual daily wages for agricultural
work were as follows : Marks
Men (summer) ... 1*10
(winter)

1-0
0-70
0-50 0-40
0-30

Women (summer)
,, (winter)
Children over 10
Children under 10

Piece-work was paid as follows :

Mowing, per morgen .... 1-50
Meadow and clover mowing, per morgen 1-0 ¦
Binding, per morgen . . . .0-50
Threshing grain, per bushel . . . 0-50

(2) Agriculture
(a) Products of Commercial Value
The following figures show, in hectares, the amount
of land under various crops in 1878 and 1914 :
Wheat. Rye. Barley. Oats. Potatoes. Sugar-beet. Flax. Vines.
1878 161,577 637,686 164,496 331,649 317,008 24,703 15,690 1,409
1914 227,931 603,726 142,072 390,847 343,031 90,463 5,974 768
It is noticeable that the surface under wheat in
creased largely, and that the surface under sugar-beet
more than trebled. On the other hand, the amount of
flax planted greatly diminished (since it pays Germany
better to import flax from Russia than to grow it),
and the vineyards in Silesia cannot compete with those
in more favoured locahties.
The following tables show (a) the total yield in
Silesia of the chief crops in 1914, and (b) the average
annual yield per hectare in each of the administrative
districts of Silesia during the period 1910-14 :

(a) Total Production in Metric Tons in 1914

Wheat.
476,174

953,098

Barley.
317,584

Oats.
821,544

Potatoes.
4,873,094

Sugar-beet. 2,566,760

SKEJ AGRICULTURE 27
(b) Average Production in Metric Tons per Hectare, 1910-14
Regierungsbezirk. Wheat. Rye. Barley. Oats. Potatoes. Sugar-beet.
Breslau. . . 1-95 1-54 209 204 14-89 3008
Liegnitz . . 1-92 1-50 205 1-97 14-53 29-34
Oppeln . . . 1-80 1-47 1-99 1-93 1418 29-70
It will be noted that the Breslau district is the most
fertile and the Oppeln district the least. At the same
time, the Kreis of Leobschiitz, in the Oppeln district,
produces the best crops of potatoes in all Silesia ; and
the region round the town of Neisse, in the same
district, is the most suitable in the whole province for
sugar-beet. Nevertheless, the chief beet-growing area
lies just to the south of the town of Breslau, where, in
a tract of country measuring about 40 miles by 12,
rather more than one-tenth of the soil is devoted to
this crop. J! \
Silesia is an important contributor to the food
supply of Prussia. In 1914, of the wheat grown in
Prussia, Silesia produced 18-8 per cent. ; of the rye, 11-6 ;
of the barley, 16-8 ; of the oats, 13-5 ; of the potatoes,
14-7 ; and of the sugar-beet, 18-8. Silesia had larger
areas under oats and potatoes, and a larger production
of these crops, than any other province of Prussia. It
also held first place in respect of the extent of surface
devoted to wheat, though the province of Saxony,
from a smaller area, produced a larger quantity. In
the production of sugar-beet Silesia stood second
among the Prussian provinces.
(b) Methods of Cultivation
In general there has of late been a transition [from
the three-field system, which prevailed twenty-five
years ago, to intensive culture with deep ploughing
and the free use of artificial manures. On a typical
farm near Ratibor, the first steam plough was intro
duced in 1893, and by 1911 five were in use ; while
the sum spent on artificial manures had increased nine
fold and the wages bill had doubled. On the more
prosperous farms a great variety of artificial manures
is used. For potatoes, however, artificial fertilizers

28 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS O-40
are employed only where farmyard manure cannot be
got. Beet-growers use superphosphates, potash, Chile
nitrates, and in some ca-ses ammonia superphosphates.
The refuse from the sugar factories also furnishes useful
manure for the beet crop.
(c) Forestry
In Silesia there were in 1900, 1,161,892 hectares, or
30-6 per cent, of the surface of the province, under
forest — an area equal to about one-seventh of the
forest lands of Prussia. Of this 78 per cent, is privately
owned, 9-5 per cent, is the property of the communes,
and 12-5 per cent, belongs to the State. The pre
dominant -tree is the pine, which covers 87 per cent.
of the forest area.
The following table gives statistics for 1900 relating
to the forests in each of the administrative districts of
the province :

Regierungsbezirk Breslau
Liegnitz .
Oppeln Total .

Extent of Area under Area under
Forest. Deciduous Trees. Conifers.
Hectares. Hectares. Hectares.
278,467 66,185 212,282
501,169 53,840 447,329
382,256 26,515 355,741

1,161,892 146,540 1,015,352

The amount and value of the wood cut in the State
forests during 1911 were as follows :

Cubic

Metres cut.

Gross Receipts
in Marks.
5,040,864 1.360,694
4,797,316
11,198,874

Regierungsbezirk. Liegnitz Total

Timber. 307,245 81,108
. 313,506
. 701,859

Firewood. 146,443 29,536 95,888
271,867

The commercial value of the Silesian forests has
increased as roads and railways have improved. Fire,
however, sometimes causes much damage, especially in
Lower Silesia, where there are very extensive tracts of
unbroken woodland.

sS] FORESTRY; TENURE; MINERALS 29
(d) Land Tenure
The table given below illustrates the distribution of
cultivated land in Silesia. Figures for Poznania are
appended. It will be seen that small and moderate-
sized holdings are more common in Silesia than in Poz
nania. Nevertheless, the number of landless labourers
in Silesia is very large. Before the war, in fact, it was
estimated that of the day-labourers engaged in agri
culture, numbering approximately 235,000, over 89
per cent, had no land, whether of their own or as part
of their wages. Great landlords, though not so in
fluential as in Poznania, are still numerous. In Upper
Silesia, before the war, 83,000 hectares of land were
the property of the State, and 208,600 hectares were
divided between six private owners, while eight pro
prietors of Middle Silesia possessed 193,000 hectares
between them. Very large estates, however, are less
numerous in Lower Silesia.

Silesia.

Poznania.

Area of cultivated land (hectares)

2,641,707

2,044,848

Holdings of 2 hectares and under
,, 2-5 hectares
5-20 „
20-100 „
over 100 hectares

Percentage of Area.
4
10
29-5 24-5 32

Percentage of ' i
2-6
4-1
27-3
21-544-5

The various kinds of small holdings which are found
in eastern Germany are reviewed in Prussian Poland,
No. 45 of this series. (3) Minerals
The figures quoted below will make clear the great
importance to Prussia of the minerals of Silesia. The
coal of the province is its most valuable asset, but
several other minerals are sufficiently plentiful and
accessible to repay working. By far the greater part of
the mineral wealth of the province lies in the south
east corner of Upper Silesia, very near the frontiers
of Austrian Silesia and Russian Poland.

30 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [no. 40
(a) Natural Resources
Coal. — There are two coal-fields in the province,
one in Upper Silesia and one in Lower Silesia. The
former is much the larger and more valuable.
The coal deposits of Upper Silesia form part of a large
coal-field, which extends across the frontiers of the pro
vince into Austrian Silesia and Russian Poland. Its total
area is about 5,000 square kilometres, 1,000 of which
are in Austrian territory, and 600 in Poland. In shape
the field is a rough quadrilateral, with its angles at
Post in Prussian Silesia, Golonog near Dombrowa in
Russian Poland, Tenczynek in Galicia, and Konigsberg
in Austrian Silesia. The Prussian portion lies almost
entirely to the east of the Oder, but there are seams
of some value near Hultschin on the left bank, in the
wedge of land formed .by the main stream and its
affluent the Oppa. Of the area of the field that has
been worked, the greatest part belongs to Prussia.
The chief centres of production in Prussian Silesia are
Gleiwitz, Konigshutte, and Kattowitz. The most
valuable seams, those of the so-called ' saddle group ',
lie mainly in Prussian territory ; they are 80 ft. in
thickness and form 10 per cent, of the strata in which
they lie. They are found in a triangular area, between
Zabrze, Orlau (in Austrian Silesia), and Radawa. Of
late years they have been exploited on the Zabrze-
Myslowitz ridge, the Rybnik-Nikolai ridge, and in
the Hultschin district.
Throughout the field the coal is generally of very
high quality, and the seams are unusually thick. Its
only serious defect is that it is mostly too dry to coke.
Good coking coal, however, is found at Zabrze and
Hultschin and in the deeper strata at Rybnik.
Estimates of the reserves of the field vary greatly,
for few of the workings go below 1,500 ft. ; and specula
tions regarding the value, and indeed the existence,
of deeper seams are often based on inadequate data.
According to a recent estimate made by Professor
Simmersbach of Breslau, the reserves at or above

Upper

£] NATURAL RESOURCES (COAL) 31
a depth of 3,280 ft. amount to 86,245,000,000 tons,
and those between 3,280 and 6,560 ft. below the surface
to nearly as much. At the present rate of output the
upper reserve will last nearly 2,000 years.
The coal-field of Lower Silesia, sometimes known as
the Waldenburg basin, extends from the slate hills
at Landeshut in a south-westerly direction across the
frontier of Bohemia, but nearly the whole of it falls
within Prussian territory. The deposits, which extend
over only a few square kilometres, lie embedded
between the older layers of the Freiburg coal-formation
and the porphyry, &c, of the Lower Silesian Coal
Mountains (Niederschlesische Steinlcohlengebirge). There
are pits at Altwasser, Waldenburg, Gottesberg, Ditters-
bach, Charlottenbrunn, Neurode, Mittelsteine, and
Mohlten, most of them being close to the first four
places. The coal, which is commonly found in fairly thick
seams, is different in character from that of Upper
Silesia. Most of it is excellent for coking, being of
the ' quick-caking ' variety, which contains only
a moderate amount of gas and produces the firmest
coke. On the average, moreover, it excels the coal
of Upper Silesia in heating power.
Professor Simmersbach calculates that the reserves
of the field at or above a depth of 3,280 ft. total
1,233,000,000 tons, to which 1,711,000,000 must be
added if twice that depth be taken as the basis of the
estimate. The upper reserves will last over 500 years
at the rate of output in recent years.
Lignite. — A considerable amount of lignite is found
in the hilly districts of the Upper Silesian coal field,
but it is worked only in the west of the Kreis of Oppeln.
Iron. — The Muschelkalk (shell-lime) ridge, which runs
along the north-eastern edge of the coal-field, contains
iron ore alike in the Prussian, Russian, and Austrian
sections. The ore is usually soft and earthy, with
20 per cent, of water and a low percentage of iron,
amounting to between 30 and 35 after drying. In
places.it contains zinc, which hinders, the smelting

32 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [»o.«o
process. It is, in fact, only a second-class ore, and
though plentiful and easily worked, it now supplies
but a small proportion of the iron produced at the works
which its presence caused to be erected in the district.
The reserves in Prussian territory are estimated at
16,000,000 tons, the field in this respect occupying
the eleventh place among the iron-ore districts of
Germany. Iron ore is found also in Lower Silesia. Its quantity
is small, but its quality is much better than that of
the iron ore of Upper Silesia. In 1910 it sold at an
average of 12-74 marks a ton, while the average price
of the Upper Silesian product was only 5-95 marks.
Zinc and Lead. — Zinc and lead are found in con
junction with iron ore in the Muschelkalk ridge near
Beuthen. The zinc occurs in two veins, one of which
is some 80 ft. above the other. In the lower vein the
ore is blende ; in the upper vein, calamine. Some
500,000 tons are annually extracted. The deposits are
among the most extensive in the world. Lead is also
found in both the veins, about 45,000 tons of ore being
obtained annually. It occurs, too, in association with
iron near Tarnowitz, where, though formerly worked,
it is not at present exploited.
It is estimated that the reserves of lead and zinc
suffice for a continued production a*t the present rate
for 80 years.
Silver. — Silver is found with the lead and zinc ores
of the Beuthen basin. About 10 tons are produced
annually by the undertakings that work the zinc
mines. It is not present in sufficient quantities to
repay exploitation apart from the other minerals.
Copper.- — Copper of good quality is mined in small
quantities in both Upper and Lower Silesia. In 1910
Silesian copper ore was worth 106-74 marks a ton, while
the output of the province of Saxony, the chief source
of copper in Prussia, sold at only 26- 12 marks a ton.
Arsenic. — At Reichenstein (Middle Silesia) are the
largest arsenic mines and smelting works in the world.
Other Minerals. — Pyrites is found in Upper and

Upper

siiflia] COAL AND OTHER MINERALS 33
Lower Silesia. Marl is dug for agricultural purposes
m a small district east of Oppeln. The limestone of the
Muscnelkalk ridge forms the basis of an extensive
Portland cement industry at Gogolin, where the ridge
ends at the edge of the Oder valley. Building stone
is quarried on the Muschelkalk ridge, where it is
plentiful. (b) Output
Coal— The output of the two Silesian coal-fields in
the years 1908-10 is shown in the following table,
figures for other important fields being also given :

Upper
Silesia.

Lower
Silesia.

Rhineland-
Westplialia.

Kingdom of
Saxony.

Metric Tons.

Metric Tons.

Metric Tons.

Metric Tons.

1908 .
1909 .
1910 .

. 33,966,300
. 34,655,500
. 34,460,700

5,623,900 5,619,5005,532,600

84,851,500 84,903,200 89,099,200

5,378,2005,442,200 5,370,000

Included in these amounts are , small quantities of
worthless products, which, in the case of Silesia, may
be estimated at about \ per cent.
In 1912 the Silesian coal-fields together produced
46,584,468 tons, or 28 per cent, of the output of Prussia.
Lignite. — The output of lignite in 1912 was 2,170,743
tons, or 3-3 per cent, of that of all Prussia.
Iron. — In 1912 Silesia produced 220,085 tons of iron
ore. This was only 4-3 per cent, of the ore raised in
Prussia, and Silesia had regularly to import large
quantities of ore from Upper Hungary, Styria, and
Sweden for its smelting works. Of the Silesian output
about 83 per cent, is produced in Upper Silesia and the
remainder in Lower Silesia.
In 1910 Upper Silesia produced 901,366 metric tons
of pig-iron, or 9 per cent, of the output of Prussia.
Its value was 54,806,000 marks, or 60-80 marks per
ton. The chief smelting works are in the neighbourhood
of Gleiwitz, Tarnowitz, Beuthen, Konigshutte, and
Myslowitz. In 1912 there were in Silesia 33 blast furnaces, while
Rhenish Prussia had 76, and the whole German Empire

34 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS |>.4o
338. There were 58 steel furnaces in Silesia, as against
187 in Rhenish Prussia and 605 in the Empire. Of
puddling furnaces Silesia had 102, Rhenish Prussia 124,
and the German Empire 378.
Zinc. — In 1912 Silesia produced 517,572 tons of
zinc ore, more, that is, than any other mining district
of Germany and 80 per cent, of the production of
Prussia. In 1910, of the 216,363 tons of raw zinc produced in
Prussia 138,668 came from the furnaces of Upper
Silesia. The works are in the extreme south-east of
the province.
Lead. — The production of lead ore in 1912 was
48,569 tons and exceeded that of any other mining
district in the Empire, amounting to over 34 per cent.
of the Prussian output. Of raw lead, Silesia in 1910
produced 41,261 tons, or 27 per cent, of the output
of all Prussia.
Copper. — In 1912 no copper ore was mined in Silesia,
but in 1914 1,806 tons were raised. This was only 1 per
cent, of the Prussian output. Although the amount
was small, the quality was high.
Arsenic- — Of arsenic ore the Silesian output in 1912
was 4,870 tons, the whole of the German production.
Pyrites. — In 1912, 19,682 tons of pyrites were pro
duced in Silesia, or 6 per cent, of the Prussian output.
(4) Manufactures
Sugar. — In 1910-11 there were in Silesia 49 factories
producing 336,857 tons of raw sugar. In 1913 Saxony
was the only Prussian province which produced more
raw sugar than Silesia, and in the production of refined
sugar Silesia surpassed all the others. The sugar-mills
and refineries of Silesia lie mostly in the country,
within easy reach of beet-growing estates, but there
are three mills in Breslau and three in Ratibor.
Beer. — In 1910 there were in Silesia 516 breweries,
of which 285 were in the towns and 231 in the country.
The total output was 2,886,300 hectolitres, or 13 per

stt] MANUFACTURES 35
cent, of the Prussian production. By 1913 the output
had increased to 2,995,312 hectolitres.
Spirits. In 1912-13 the amount of spirits produced
in Silesia was 492,869 hectolitres, an output exceeded
by only two Prussian provinces — Brandenburg and
Posen. The spirit is distilled chiefly from potatoes,
but partly from molasses; and the distilleries are
generally in the country districts near the raw material.
There are five distilleries in Breslau. The yield of the
excise tax on spirits is very great in Silesia, and in
1914 was upwards of 25,000,000 marks, exceeding that
of any other province of Prussia.
Cotton. — In 1909 Silesia had 145,563 cotton spindles
and 20,325 cotton looms, or 1-2 per cent, of the spindles
and 7-6 per cent, of the looms of the whole German
Empire. Compared with that of Rhenish Prussia and
Westphalia, the cotton industry of Silesia is small, the
former having twenty times as many spindles and about
three times as many looms.
The cotton-spinning machinery is for the most part
somewhat old-fashioned; and Westphalian yarns are
used in large quantities in the Silesian weaving sheds.
There are cotton mills at Friedland, Landeshut, Lan-
genbielau, Lauban, Mittelwalde, Peterswaldau, and
Reichenbach. Flax. — In Middle and Lower Silesia flax-spinning is
a considerable industry, though the flax used is chiefly
imported from other provinces. At Freiburg and
Landeshut in Middle Silesia and at Neusalz and Ziller-
thal in Lower Silesia, there are four large mills with an
aggregate capital of 22,500,000 marks. In Gorlitz,
which specializes in handkerchiefs, there are three
spinning-mills and two weaving-mills. Linen cloth is
made at Liebau.
Wool. — Woollen weaving is an industry of Lower
Silesia. At Liegnitz there is a large mill, with a capital
of 1,000,000 marks and 750 hands. At Sagan there are
10 mills, one of them large.
Paper and Wood-pulp. — There are 60 paper and
wood-pulp factories in Silesia. They are found chiefly
D 2

36 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [*o.4o
in Lower Silesia, where there are mills at Arnsdorf,
Sagan, Hirschberg, and UUersdorf. Many of these
factories are of considerable size ; engine plant of
500 h.p. is not uncommon and several mills have plant
of 5,000 h.p.
Chemicals. — There are big chemical works at Zabrze,
Ratibor, and Reichenbach. A large combine of works,
with a capital of 5,640,000 marks, refines the Glauber's
salt found near Kattowitz, producing 5,000 tons yearly,
or 7 per cent, of the output of all Prussia. It also
produces manures and aniline dyes. Sulphuric acid
is manufactured at Zabrze and Ratibor, and at Saarau
in Middle Silesia, where pyrites imported from Spain
is used. Carbonic acid is made at Grafenort in the
Schweidnitz district.
Class and Pottery. — Glass sand is found in Lower
Silesia, and glass and pottery are made on a considerable
scale at Gorlitz, Rauscha, Weisswasser, Bunzlau,
Bernsdorf, and Muskau. Muskau specializes in hollow
glass, and also has pottery works. Bottles are made at
Schweidnitz in Middle Silesia. In 1908 there were in
Lower Silesia 49 glass-works with 111 furnaces and
11,135 hands, in Middle Silesia 8 glass-works with 21
furnaces and 2,490 hands, and in Upper Silesia 7 glass
works with 14 furnaces and 139 hands.
Cement. — A good deal of cement is made in Silesia,
chiefly in the neighbourhood of Oppeln, where there
are some large works with an aggregate capital of about
18,000,000 marks. There are also cement works at
Breslau, and at Neukirch in Lower Silesia.
Machinery.- — The manufacture of machinery is of
considerable importance. At Breslau there are 40
factories devoted to it, of which 19 make agricultural
machinery. There are also machine works at Gleiwitz,
Kattowitz, and Ratibor in Upper Silesia, and at
Glogau and Hirschberg in Lower Silesia.
Pianos. — At Liegnitz there are 8 piano factories,
among them being the largest in eastern Germany.

Upper

upper i -|-^
suesiaj DOMESTIC COMMERCE; TOWNS 37
(C) COMMERCE
(1) Domestic
(a) Principal Branches of Trade
Breslau, situated about midway between the frontiers
of Russia and Austria, used to be a centre for the
distribution of goods to those countries. In recent
years the character of its trade has altered. Its sugar
market is the largest in Germany, except that of Magde
burg, and it has a considerable commerce in wool
cotton, and agricultural products.
At Gleiwitz there is a trade in grain, leather, wool,
and wine, and at Oppeln much traffic in grain, timber'
and leather. The most important article of domestic
commerce is coal, but there are no statistics which
show precisely how much of the produce of the coal-fields
is consumed in Silesia. It may be inferred, however,
from such figures as are available, that in the period
1908-10 nearly half the coal produced in Upper Silesia,
and about two-thirds of that produced in Lower
Silesia, went to destinations within the province.
(b) Towns
There are in Silesia 7 towns with a population of
more than 50,000.
Breslau (pop. in 1912, 537,000), besides its important
commerce, has a large number of factories making
railway material, machinery, furniture, linen, cotton
and woollen goods, carpets, gloves, sugar, liqueurs,
china, earthenware and glass goods, oil, paper, and card
board. There are also gun, bell, and iron foundries.
Gorlitz (86,000) has manufactures of cloth, machinery,
and handkerchiefs, and a considerable trade in iron and
steel. Konigshutte (72,000) has a large iron and steel works,
and is the centre of the Silesian zinc industry.
Liegnitz (69,000), in addition to many small industries,
has an important manufacture of pianos,

38 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS |>-*°
Beuthen (67,000) is a great mining centre, has seven
rolhng-mills and three chemical factories, and is the
head-quarters of a number of companies for mining
and smelting zinc or lead.
Gleiwitz (64,000) has factories for the manufacture
of machinery, chemicals, fire-proof goods and cement,
glass, and paper.
Zabrze (59,000), though a notable coal-mining centre,
has no municipal organization, and from the adminis
trative standpoint is only a rural commune. It has
iron-works, foundries, three rolling-mills, and a glass
furnace. Schweidnitz (33,000), though smaller than the towns
noticed above, is the centre of a district containing
a number of small manufacturing towns whose varied
activities include iron-smelting, the making of glass and
pottery, linen and cotton weaving, coal mining, and the
manufacture of chemicals.
(c) Organizations to promote Trade and Commerce
Before the war, trade was promoted and organized
in Silesia by the same means as were employed in
other parts of Prussia. Each of the large towns had
its Chamber of Commerce. (2) FOREIG-N
There are no published statistics showing the total
quantity and value of the goods sent out of the province
or brought into it. Silesia's most important export is
naturally coal; and for the years 1908-10 a German
statistician, Paul Helmuth von Kulmiz, in Das Absatz-
gebiet der schlesischen Kohle has compiled figures show
ing the average quantities dispatched per 'annum by
rail and water to destinations outside the province.
His statistics unquestionably cover very nearly the
whole export of Silesian coal ; but, as both the coal-fields
lie near the frontier, small quantities were doubtless
sent to Austrian and Russian destinations by road.

Upper -i
Silesial

FOREIGN COMMERCE

39

Allowance must be made for this in considering the
following tables.
(a) Coal dispatched by Rail or Water from the Upper Silesian
<-OALITELD TO DESTINATIONS OUTSIDE THE PROVINCE

Destination.
German Empire, excluding Silesia
Moravia and Austria
Galicia and Bukovina
BohemiaHungary Russian Poland
Other Regions Total .

Annual Average, 1908-10,
in Metric Tons.
9,630,831
4,058,476 1,561,787 679,001
1,057,765 752,551 98,628
17,839,039

Percentage of
Total Output.
2805 11-81 4-54 1-97
3072-180-30

51-92

(6) Coal dispatched by Rail or Water from the Lower Silesian
Coalfield to Destinations outside the Province

Destination.
German Empire, excluding Silesia
Moravia and Austria
Bohemia ....
Other. Regions Total.

Annual Average, 1908-10, Percentage of
in Metric Tons. Total Output.
628,928 11-25
113,837 2-05
970,322 17-35
3,226 005

1,716,313

30-70

Silesia has also an external trade in coke and
briquettes. The following table shows the average
quantities exported per annum by rail or water in the
period 1908-10. The figures refer to metric tons.

Destination.
German Empire (excluding
Silesia)
Moravia and Austria.
Galicia and Bukovina
Bohemia .
Hungary .
Russian Poland
Other Regions Total .

From Upper Silesia.
Coke.

92,34438,892 43,354
37,915
121,717 9,435

48,302 18,095 16,204 4,508 5,449

From Lower Silesia.
Briquettes.

Coke.
273,708 37,659
303,959 8,393
23,49£

10,309 7,0265,623

343,657 92,558

647,215 22,958

40 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [*•¦«
(D) FINANCE
(1) Local Taxation
The provincial taxes levied in Silesia during the
financial year 1912-13 amounted to 70 pfennige per
inhabitant, and the standing provincial debt was
equal to 7-52 marks per inhabitant. The direct taxes
levied for local purposes by the towns of the provmce
came, on an average, to 25-41 marks per inhabitant ;
the yield of the indirect taxes represented an average
charg'e of 2-33 marks per inhabitant ; and the standing
debts of the Silesian towns were equivalent, on an
average, to 172-85 marks per inhabitant. The corre
sponding figures for the rural communes with over
10,000 inhabitants were 19- 10, 1-03, and 39-25 marks,
and for the rural circles 3-50, 0-66, and 14-86 marks.
(2) Banking
Three banks with their chief offices outside Silesia
carry on an extensive business in the province. The
Reichsbank has branches in 30 Silesian towns, and the
Bank filr Handel und Industrie in 15. In 1913 the
latter took over the Breslauer Disconto-Bank, which
had a capital of 25,000,000 marks. Its own capital is
160,000,000 marks; in 1912 it paid a dividend of
6^ per cent. The Dresdner Bank has branches, in
5 towns of Silesia.
Of the purely Silesian Banks the largest is the
Schlesischer Bankverein, with head-quarters at Breslau,
and numerous branches. It finances industrial under
takings and is closely connected with the Deutsche
Bank. Its capital is 50,000,000 marks, and in 1912 it
declared a dividend of 7£ per cent.
Among the other banks with head-quarters at
Breslau are the Schlesische Handelsbank (capital
10,000,000 marks; dividend in 1913, 6 per cent.) ; the
Breslauer Baubank in Breslau (capital 1,500,000
marks ; dividend in 1912, 6 per cent.) ; the Schlesische
Boden-Kredit Aktien Bank (capital 25,000,000 marks,

Upper

HBSk] BANKING 41
reserve funds 11,550,000) ; the Schlesische Treuhand
und Vermogens Verwaltung (capital 500,000 marks),
which undertakes the reorganization and control of
trading and industrial enterprises ; the Landeskultur-
Renten-Bank, which advances money to aid agriculture,
irrigation, and road construction ; and two semi-official
loan banks — the Schlesische Landschaftliche Bank zu
Breslau, which grants credit to Silesian landowners,
and has behind it the credit of all the knightly estates
in the province, and the Provinzial-Hilfskasse filr die
Provinz Schlesien, which is empowered to make loans
to an aggregate of 250,000,000 marks, its liabilities
being guaranteed by the provincial government.
Of the Silesian banks which have their head offices
in other towns of the province, there may be men
tioned the Communalstandische Bank fur die preus-
sische Oberlausitz zu Gorlitz (capital 9,000,000 marks),
a dependency of the Oberlausitzer Provinzial-Sparkasse,
the Kattowitzer Bankverein (capital, 2,000,000 marks ;
dividend in 1912, 7 per cent.), and the Oberschlesischer
Kredit-V erein (capital 1,800,000 marks; dividend in
1912, 6 per cent.), which has its head-quarters at
Ratibor. In 1912 there were in Silesia 211 savings banks,
public or private, with 887 sub-offices, whereas in
Posen there were only 94 such banks, with 265 sub-
offices. Before the war Silesia had a considerable number of
credit societies, which existed for the purpose of making
small advances to their members. Most of them were of
unlimited liability. In 1914 the Polish credit institu
tions of Upper Silesia had 13,299 members, a share
capital of 1,101,000 marks, reserve funds of 1,506,000
marks, and deposits of 36,840,000 marks.
(E) GENERAL REMARKS
There is little to add to what has been said above.
The chief source of Silesian prosperity is the coal of
Upper Silesia. If the Regierungsbezirk of Oppeln were

42 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS [*°-*°
united to Poland, this coal would pass from the con
trol of Prussia; and in that case it is possible that
the industries of what has hitherto been Russian
Poland would use more Silesian coal than they did before
the war. Less coal, it is true, would go from Upper
Silesia to German markets ; but this might happen even
if the coal-field remained in the German state, for the
development of the waterways of western Prussia has
long given the coal of the Ruhr basin an advantage
over that of Silesia in certain parts of Germany which
used to rely mainly upon the latter. For instance,
in 1890 72 per cent, of the coal consumed in Berhn
was supplied by Upper Silesia, whereas in 1901 only
54 per cent, came from that source. It is not likely
that any pohtical reconstruction will lessen the export
of Silesian coal to territories formerly ruled by the
Habsburgs.

Uppe* "j
SilesiaJ

AUTHORITIES Historical
Groteeend, H. Stammtafeln der schlesischen Fiirsten bis 1740.
Breslau, 1889.
Grunhagen, C. Geschichte Schlesiens. 2 vols. Gotha, 1884-6.
 Schlesien unter Friedrich der Grosse. 2 vols . Gotha, 1 889-92 .
Knoetel, Paul. Geschichte Ober schlesiens. Kattowitz, 1906.
Morgenbesser, M. Geschichte von Schlesien. Berlin, 1892.
' Oberschlesische Heimat ' (Zeitschrift des oberschlesischen
Gesschichtvereins). Oppeln, 1905.
Zeitschrift des Vereins fiir Geschichte und Altertum Schlesiens.
Berlin, 1855, &c.
Economic
Preussische Statistik, 248 : Landwirtschaft, 1914. Berlin, 1917.
Ryland's Directory of Goal, Iron, and Allied Trades^ London,
1912.
Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir den preussischen Stoat, 1913 and 1915.
Berlin, 1914 and 1916.
Dade, H. G. Die deutsche. Landwirtschaft unter Kaiser
Wilhelm II. Halle, 1913.
Gornandt, Dr. R. Der Landarbeiter mit eigener Wirtschaft
in Nordwest- und Ostdeutschland. Berlin, 1910.
Kulmiz, Paul Helmuth von. Das Absatzgebiet der schlesischen
Kohle. Jena, 1914.
Partsch, Dr. Joseph. Schlesien ; eine Landeshunde fiir das
deutsche Volk auf wissenschaftlicher Grundlage. Breslau,
1911.
Saling, A. Handbuch der deutschen Aktiengesellschaften.
Berlin, 1914. Maps
Upper Silesia is covered by two sheets (Vienna ; North, M. 33,
and Krakau ; North, M. 34) of the map published by the War
Office (G.S.G.S. No. 2758).

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