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Library of the
IPale 2>ivintt2 Scbooi

The Books of
Ifranfe Cbamberlafn porter
Winkley Professor of
Biblical Theology

Hnvi'i'rrL-rriir''rri,i,i'rri''vi'.'i'i'i'.TiMvivivi'iTiTi'r'i'i'.'ri'iviviviixg

DANIEL,

WITH ITS

APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS,

TRANSLATED, ARRANGED, AND THE PRINCIPAL QUESTIONS
0E ITS INTERPRETATION CONSIDERED.

BY

LEICESTER AMBROSE SAWYER,
TRANSLATOR OF THE SCRIPTURES, ETC.

BOSTON:
WALKER, WISE AND COMPANY,
245 Washington Street.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1863, by
LEICESTER AMBROSE SAWYER,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.

ELECTROT YPED AT THE
BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY.

CONTENTS. PART I.
Hebrew Series. Fags
Story I. Captivity, early piety, abstinence, superior scholar
ship, and promotion of Daniel and his three friends, . . 7
Story H. Daniel's vision of the four kingdoms till the end of
the world [aion], and its interpretation by Gabriel, ... 8
Story HI. Daniel's prayer, and the oracle of 70 weeks re
ceived from Gabriel,  11
Story IV. Daniel's fast of three weeks, and an Apocalypse of
the latter days received from an angel  14
PART H.
Mixed Series.
Story V. Nebuchadnezzar's forgotten dream of the four
kingdoms, and the kingdom of God,  21
Story VI. Nebuchadnezzar's gold image, and the three pious
children in the fiery furnace,  25
PART in.
Chaxdee Series.
Story VH. Nebuchadnezzar's edict concerning his madness,
its causes, accompaniments, and cure,  31
Story VIH. Belshazzar's feast, sin, and punishment, ... 35
(3)

4 _ CONTENTS.
Story IX. Conspiracy against Daniel, his deliverance from
the lions, and the destruction of the conspirators, ... 38
Story X. Daniel's dream of four earthly kingdoms, and a
final heavenly one, and its interpretation by an angel, . . 40
PART IV.
Greek Series.
Story XI. Susanna, or Daniel delivering an innocent woman
from false accusers,  43
Story XII. Bel and the Dragon, or Daniel destroying Baby
lonian idols, and saved from the lions' den,  47
CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I. Contents and subject matter of the book; its
language and natural divisions,  51
Chapter II. Assumed dates of Daniel ; its defects as a biog
raphy ; titles of the book ; slight grounds on which it is
referred to Daniel and his times ; and the account of its
being shown to Alexander the Great,  55
Chapter III. Argument for the late authorship of Daniel
from its late position in the Hebrew canon, and unsuc
cessful attempts to invalidate it,  60
Chapter IV. Statement of Josephus analyzed and harmo
nized perfectly with the present canon and arrangement ;
his testimony distinguished from his opinions, and his
later admissions to Apion,  68
Chapter V. The Apocrypha; different estimates of it by Cath
olics and Protestants ; its value, and its negative evidence
against the historic character of Daniel and his book, . . 78

contents. o
Chapter VI. New Testament authority for making Daniel
a prophet and the author of his book, shown to be unre
liable  83
Chapter VII. The Chaldee language of the Stories is a con
clusive proof that those of the Mixed and Chaldee Series
are not productions of Daniel or his times,  90
Chapter VHI. Proximate dates of the different parts of
Daniel  94
Chapter IX. Character and objects of the book of Daniel, . 96
Chapter X. Importance of interpreting Daniel correctly ;
dark sayings of the ancients ; methods of common inter
preters  101
Chapter XI. Questioning old opinions no cause of alarm ;
infallible interpretation and inspiration considered ; cer
tain principles of knowledge,  108
Chapter XH. Geographical notices of Chaldsea, Assyria,
Syria, Egypt, and the Greeks,  113
Chapter XIII. Ethnic and chronologic introduction to Dan
iel, and to a knowledge of its times,  116
Chapter XIV. Historic notices of the Jews, from the close
of the Babylonian exile, 538 B. C, to the destruction of
Jerusalem, A. D. 70,  127
Chapter XV. Notes on Story I.,  136
NOTICE BY THE PUBLISHERS,  142
I *

TO THE READER.

It is not a work of supererogation to gather up and concentrate
the light that is shed on the Scriptures by the immense labors of
the last 300 years ; still less, to subject accredited opinions on the
Scriptures to new trials, and test the validity of traditionary judg
ments from the earliest periods. If correct, the severest scrutiny
will place them in clearer and stronger lights, and enhance their
credit and usefulness. Inquiry and scrutiny cannot harm the
truth ; they can only serve it, and are only formidable to error.
Truth courts inquiry, defies skepticism, and is stronger and clearer
in proportion to the thoroughness with which it is examined.
Truth is a cardinal principle of religion, and belongs preemi
nently to Christianity. Christ taught his doctrine, whatever it was,
as a system of right thinking and right doing. Truth is orthodox
and evangelical. No partial systems have a right to monopolize
these titles ; they belong to all the disciples of religious truth and
practical righteousness, and may not be wrested from them.
True thinking is always right, and new truth is always evan
gelic ; it is good news, and contributes to do good. Good men
anticipated, from the earliest times, that knowledge would one day
cover the earth as the waters do the ocean ; and the star of science
is preeminently in the ascendant now. The times are auspicious
for the indefinite progress of truth. Knowledge does not travel at
its ancient slow pace ; the railroad and steamboat speed, which
have expedited other travel, and the lightning wing of the tele
graph, with the kindred improvements of the age, have put intel
lectual and spiritual conquests in the power of single generations,
which anciently required ages. THE AUTHOR.
Boston, January 1, 1864. (6)

DANIEL.

part a.
HEBREW SERIES.
STORY I. 1.
Captivity, early piety, abstinence, superior scholarship,
and promotion of Daniel and his three friends.
1 In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of
Judah came Nebuchadnezzar king of Babel [Babylon] to
Jerusalem, and besieged it. And Adonai gave into his
hand Jehoiakim king of Judah, and all the vessels of the
house of God, and he brought them to the land of Shinar,
to the house of his god, and the implements he brought
to the treasury of his god. 1 : 1, 2.
2 And the king commanded Ashpenaz chief of his
eunuchs to bring [some] of the sons of Israel, both of the
royal family and of the nobles, children in whom there
was no blemish, and of fair countenance, and instructed in
all wisdom, and knowing knowledge, and understanding
science, and who had ability to stand in the king's
palace, and to teach them the books [literature] and
tongue of the Chasdim. And the king appointed them a
daily allowance of the king's rich food, and of the wine
which he drank, and [was] to nourish them three years;
and at the end of them, they were to stand before the
king. And there were among them, of the sons of Judah,
Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah. And the prince
of the eunuchs gave them names, and named Daniel Bel-
(7)

8 HEBREW SERIES.
teshazzar, and Hananiah Shadrach, and Mishael Meshak,
and Azariah Abednego. 3-7.
3 And Daniel determined not to defile himself with the
king's rich food, nor with the wine which he drank; and
he asked the prince of the eunuchs that he might not de
file himself; and God gave Daniel kindness and pity be
fore the prince of the eunuchs ; but the prince of the
eunuchs said to Daniel, I am afraid of my lord the king,
who has appointed your food and drink ; for why should
he see your faces' more stern than the children of your
age ? And you would endanger my head to the king.
Then Daniel said to the steward whom the prince of the
eunuchs had appointed over Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael,
and Azariah, Try, I pray you, your servants ten days, and
let them give us of seeds to eat, and water to drink; then
let them see our appearances, and the appearance of the
children who eat the king's rich food ; and as you see, deal
with your servants. And he heard to them in this thing,
and tried them ten days ; and at the end of ten days their
appearance was seen to be good, and they were fatter in
flesh than any of the children who ate the king's rich food ;
and the steward took away their rich food, and wine which
they drank, and gave them seeds. 8-i6.
4 And God gave these four children knowledge and
understanding in all books [literature] and wisdom, and
Daniel understood all visions and dreams. And at the
end of the days when the king commanded that they
should bring them in, the prince of the eunuchs brought
them in before Nebuchadnezzar. And the king examined
them, and there was not found among them all [any] like
Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah ; and they stood
before the king ; and in every matter of wisdom [and]
understanding which the king asked of them, he found
[them] ten hands above all the scribes [and] enchanters
who were in all his kingdom ; and Daniel continued till
the first year of Cyrus king [of Persia]. 17-21.

STORY II.

STORY II.

Daniel's vision of the four kingdoms, till the end of the
world, and its interpretation by Gabriel.
1 In the third year of the reign of Belshazzar the king
[of Persia] ; a vision appeared to me, — I am Daniel, —
after what appeared to me at the beginning. And I saw
a vision ; and it came to pass, when I saw, that I was in
Shushan the royal city, which is in Elam the province.
And I saw a vision, and was by the river Ulai [Choaspes].
And I lifted up my eyes and saw, and behold, a ram stood
before the river, and he had two horns, and the two horns
were high, and the first was higher than the second, and
the higher came up last. 8 : int.
2 I saw the ram pushing towards the west, and towards
the north, and towards the south, and no animal could
stand before him, and none [was able] to deliver from his
hand ; and he did as he pleased, and became great. And
I considered, and behold, a mighty goat came from the
west over the face of all the earth, and touched not the
earth ; and the goat had a conspicuous horn between his
eyes. And he came to the ram that had horns, which I
saw standing before the river, and he ran against him in
the fury of his power; and I saw him smite beside the
ram, and he was indignant against him ; and he smote the
ram, and broke his two horns ; and there was no power in
the ram to stand before him; and he cast him on the
earth, and stamped on him ; and there was none that
could deliver the ram from his hand. And the mighty
goat became very great ; and when he was strong, his
great horn was broken, and four conspicuous horns came
up in its place towards the four winds of heaven. 5-s.
3 And from one of them came forth a little horn, and
became very great towards the south, and towards the

10 HEBREW SERIES.
east, and towards the beauty [of all lands]. And it be
came great to the host of heaven, and cast down some of
the host to the earth, and some of the stars, and stamped
on them. And it magnified itself to the prince of the
host, and the continual sacrifice was taken away from him,
and the base of his sanctuary cast down ; and a host was
given against the continual sacrifice, on account of trans
gression, and truth was cast down to the earth, but it
practised and prospered. &-12.
4 And I heard a holy one speak, and a holy one said to
a certain one that spoke, For how long is the vision of,
the continual sacrifice and the desolating transgression, to
give both the sanctuary and the host [of heaven] to be
trodden down? And he said to me, Till evenings
[and] mornings 2300; then the sanctuary shall be
cleansed. 13, 14.
5 And it came to pass when I saw the vision, — I am
Daniel, — then I sought understanding ; and behold, there
stood before me like the appearance of a man [of rank] ;
and I heard the voice of a man between the Ulai, and he
called and said, Gabriel, make this [man] understand the
vision. Then he eame beside where I stood, and when he
came I was afraid, and fell on my face ; and he said to me,
Understand, for the vision [relates] to the time of the
end. And when he spoke to me I was in a deep sleep on
my face on the earth; and he touched me, and set me up
on my feet, and said, Behold, I make you know what shall
be at the end of the indignation, for the end is at the
appointed [time]. The ram which you saw with two
horns is the king of Media and Persia, and the mighty
goat the king of Greece ; and the great horn between his
eyes, the first king [Alexander]. And [as] it was broken,
and four' stood up in its place, four kings from the
nation shall stand up, but not with his strength ; and at the
end of their kingdom, when transgressors shall have com-

STORY in. 11
pleted [their term], a king [Antiochus IV., 175 B. C] shall
stand up with a stern countenance and understanding dark
sayings ; and he shall be strong with his strength and with
strength not his, and shall destroy wonderfully, and prosper
and do, and destroy mighty ones, and people of holy ones.
And by his intelligence he shall also cause deceit to prosper
in his hand ; and he shall magnify himself in his heart, and
in peace destroy many, and stand up against the prince
of princes, and be broken without hand. And as to the
vision of the mornings and evenings, which has been told,
this is the meaning. But do you seal up the vision, for it
is for [many] days. And I Daniel fainted, and was sick
[some] days [perhaps a year] ; then I arose and did the
king's business, and was astonished at the vision, and
none understood it. 15-27.
STORY III. 9.
DanieVs prayer, and the oracle of 70 weeks received from
Gabriel.
1 In the first year of Darius son of Ahasuerus, of the
race of Media, who ruled over the kingdom of the Chas-
dim, in the first year of his reign, I Daniel understood by
the Scriptures the number of yeai'S concerning which the
word of Jeva came to Jeremiah the prophet, to fulfil the
desolations of Jerusalem 70 years. And I set my face to
Adonai the God, to seek [him] by prayer and supplica
tions, with fasting, sackcloth, and ashes, and prayed to
Jeva my God, and confessed, and said, — 9 : 1-4.
2 I pray thee, Adonai the Mighty one, great and terri
ble, keeping the covenant and the kindness for those that
love him and keep his commandments ; we have sinned,
and done wickedly, and transgressed, and rebelled, and
departed from thy commandments and judgments. And
we have not obeyed thy servants the prophets who spoke

12 HEBREW SERIES.
in thy name to our kings, our princes, and our fathers,
and to all the people of the land. To thee, Adonai, be
longs righteousness, but to us confusion of faces as at this
day, to the men of Judah, and the inhabitants of Jerusa
lem, and to all Israel, near and remote, in all lands to
which thou hast driven them for their trespass which
they have trespassed against thee. 9 : 5-7.
3 To us, Adonai, belongs confusion of faces, to our kings,
to our princes, and to our fathers, because we have sinned
against thee. To Adonai our God belong mercies and
forgiveness, because we rebelled against him, and obeyed
not the voice of Jeva our God, to walk in his law which
he set before us by the hand of his servants the prophets.
And all Israel transgressed thy law, and departed, not to
obey thy voice, and thou didst pour out upon us the curse
and oath which are written in the law of Moses servant
of God, because we sinned against him. And he estab
lished his words which he spoke against us, and against
our judges who judged us, to bring on us a great evil, for
it has not been done under all the heavens as was done
against Jerusalem. As it is written in the law of Moses,
all this evil came on us, and we propitiated not the face
of Jeva our God, to turn from our wickedness, and to
have a wise regard for thy truth. And Jeva watched for
the evil, and brought it on us ; for Jeva our God is
righteous in all his works which he has done, and we
obeyed not his voice. 9-14.
4 And now, Adonai our God, who didst bring out thy
people from the land of Egypt with a strong hand, and
didst make thee a name as at this day, we have sinned,
we have done wickedly. Adonai, according to all thy
righteousness, let thy anger, I pray thee, turn away, and
thy wrath from thy city Jerusalem, the mountain of thy
sanctuary, because for our sins and the wickednesses of
our fathers, Jerusalem and thy people are a reproach to

story m. 13
all about us. And now hear, our God, the prayer of thy
servant, and his supplications, and cause thy face to shine
on thy sanctuary, which is desolate, for the sake of my
Lord. Incline, my God, thy ear and hear ; open thy eyes
and see our desolations, and the city that is called by thy
name ; for not on account of our righteousness do we pour
out our supplications before thee, but on account of thy
great mercies. Adonai, hear; Adonai, forgive ; attend and
do ; defer not for thy sake, my God, for thy name is called
on thy city and on thy people. 15-19.
5 And while I was yet speaking and praying, and con
fessing my sin and the sin of my people Israel, and pour
ing out my supplication before Jeva my God, concerning
the mountain of the sanctuary of my God, even while I
was speaking in prayer, the man Gabriel, whom I saw in
vision at the beginning, being made tofly swiftly, touched
me at about the time of the evening bread offering. 2 : 5.
And he made me understand, and spoke with me, and
said, Daniel, now I have come to give you understanding.
At the beginning of your supplication the command went
forth, and I have come to show, for you are greatly be
loved; both understand the word and understand the
vision. 20-23.
6 Seventy weeks are determined on your people and
on the city of your sanctuary, to restrain the transgression,
and seal up sins, and expiate wickedness, and bring in the
righteousness of ages, and seal up vision and prophet, and
anoint a most holy sanctuary. And know and understand,
from the going forth of a command to restore and build
Jerusalem to Christ the Prince shall be seven, weeks ; and
in sixty-two weeks shall the street and trench again be
built, and there shall be times of distress. And after sixty-
two weeks Christ shall be cut off, and none shall be for
him, and the people of a prince that shall come shall
destroy both the city and the sanctuary ; and its end shall
2

14 HEBREW SERIES.
be with a flood ; and till the end [of the world] a war of
desolations is determined. And he shall make a strong
covenant with many for one week, and half a week shall
he cause the sacrifice and bread offering to cease, and on
a battlement shall be the abominations of the destroyer,
even till the consummation and decreed [punishment]
is poured out on the desolate. 24-27.
STORY IV. 10-12.
DanieVs fast of three weeks, and an Apocalypse of the
latter days received from an angel.
1 In the third year of Cyrus king of Persia, a word was
revealed to Daniel, whose name is Belteshazzar, and the
word was true and host great; and he understood the
word, and understanding [was given] him by the appear
ance. 10: 1.
2 In those days I Daniel mourned three weeks. I ate
no pleasant bread, nor meat nor wine came into my
mouth ; and I practised no anointing till the completion
of the three weeks. And on the twenty-fourth day of
the first month I was on the bank of the great river Ti
gris, and lifted up my eyes and saw, and beheld, a man
clothed with linen, and his loins were girded with fine
gold of Uphaz, and his body was like a topaz, and his face
like the appearance of lightning, and his eyes like lamps
of fire, and his arms and legs like the eye of polished
brass, and the voice of his words like the voice of a mul-
. titude; and I saw — I am Daniel — I saw the appearance
alone, and the men who were with me Baw not the ap
pearance ; and I remained alone and saw this great ap
pearance ; and there remained no strength in me, and my
beauty was turned to destruction upon me, and I retained
no strength. 2-8.
3 And 1 heard the voice of his words, and when I heard

STORY IV. 15
the voice of his words, I was in a deep sleep on my face,
and my face to the ground. And behold, a hand touched
me, and set me on my knees and the palms of my hands.
And he said to me, Daniel, precious man, understand the
words which I speak to you, and stand on your feet, for
now I am sent to you ; and when he spoke, I stood trem
bling. And he said to me, Fear not, Daniel, for from the
first day that you applied your mind to understand and
to afflict yourself before your God, your words were heard,
and I came for your words. But a prince of the kingdom
of Persia withstood me twenty-one days ; and behold,
Michael, one of the first princes, came to help me, and I
was left there [victor] by the side of the kings of Persia,
and came to make you understand what shall happen to
your people in the latter days ; for yet the vision is for.
[many] days. 9-14.
4 And when he spoke these words to me, I set my face
to the ground, and was dumb. And behold, [one] like
the likeness of the sons of man touched my lips, and I
opened my mouth and said to him that stood before me,
My lord, by the appearance my pains have returned upon
me, and I have retained no strength. How can the ser
vant of this my lord speak with this my lord? and hence
forth no strength remained in me, nor did my breath
remain in me. Then again touched me [one] like the ap
pearance of a man, and strengthened me. And he said to
me, Fear not, precious man ; peace be to you ; be very
strong. And when he had spoken to me I was strength
ened, and said, Let my lord speak, for thou hast strength
ened me. And he said, Do you know why I have come
to you ? And now I return to fight with the prince of
Persia; and [when] I go forth, behold, the prince of
Greece will come, but I will show you what is written in
the writing of truth; and there is none that holds with
me in these things but Michael your prince. And as for

16 HEBREW SERIES.
me, in the first year of Darius the Mede, my place was to
strengthen and support him. 15. 11 : 2.
5 And now I [will] show you the truth. Behold, yet
three kings [Cambyses, Smerdis, and Darius I.] stand up
for Persia, and the fourth shall be richer than all ; and
when he has strengthened himself with his riches, he shall
excite all against the kingdom of Greece. And a mighty
king [Alexander] shall stand up, and rule with great do
minion, and do as he pleases ; and when he has stood up,
his kingdom shall be broken, and divided to the four
winds of heaven ; and not to his descendants, nor accord
ing to his dominion with which he ruled, but his kingdom
shall be plucked up, and be for others besides these. 3, 4.
6 And a king of the south [Ptolemy I.] shall be strong,
and another of his princes [Seleucus] shall be stronger
than he, and shall rule a dominion, and his kingdom
be great. And at the end of years they shall form an alli
ance, and the [Berennice] daughter of the king of the
south [Ptolemy II.] shall go to the king of the north [An
tiochus II.], to make peace, but shall not retain strength of
arm, and his arm shall not stand ; and she shall be given
up, and those that brought her, and he that begat her, and
he that strengthened her in [those] times, s, 6.
7 But a sprout shall stand up from her roots in his
place [Ptolemy III.], and shall go with a force, and shall
go to the fortresses of the king of the north, and he shall
deal with them, and be strong ; and their gods, with their
castings and precious vases of silver and gold, shall he
carry with captives to Egypt ; and he shall stand up more
years than the king of the north. 7-9.
8 And the king of the south shall go to his kingdom,
and return to his land ; and his sons [Seleucus III. and
Antiochus III.] shall be excited, and assemble a multitude
of great forces, and one [Antiochus III.] shall come with
power, and overflow, and pass over, and return, and be

STORY IV. 17
excited to [the extent of] his strength. And the king of
the south shall be angry, and go forth and fight with the
king of the north, and he shall set forth a great multitude,
and the multitude shall be given into his hand ; and he
shall take the multitude, and his heart be lifted up ; and
he shall cause ten thousand to fall, and not be strength
ened. 10-12.
9 And the king of the north [Antiochus III.] shall
return and set forth a multitude greater than the former ;
and at the end of years he shall surely go with a great
force and great riches ; and in those times many shall
stand up against the king of the south, and sons of the
violent ones of your people shall be raised up to establish
the vision, and shall fall ; and the king of the north shall
go and raise a mound, and take fortified cities, and the
arms of the south shall not stand, nor the people of his
chosen ones; and there shall be no strength to stand;
and he that comes against him shall do according to his
will, and none shall stand before him ; and he shall stand
up in the land of beauty, and destruction be in his hand.
And he shall set his face to go with the strength of all
his kingdom, and upright ones with him ; and he shall do
[according to his pleasure] ; and a daughter of women
[his daughter Cleopatra] shall he give him to destroy her ;
but she shall not stand up, nor be for him. 13-17.
10 Then he shall set his face against the islands, and
take many ; but a prince shall cause his reproach to cease,
and his reproach shall not return to him, and he shall set
his face to the fortresses of his land, and stumble and fall
and not be found. 18, 19.
11 And there shall stand up in his place one who shall
send around an exactor of the glory of his kingdom [Se
leucus IV.]; and in a few days he shall be broken, but not
in anger nor in war. 20.
12 And in his place shall stand up a despicable one
2*

18 HEBREW SERIES.
[Antiochus IV.], and they shall not put on him the glory
of the kingdom, but he shall come quietly and take the
kingdom with flatteries, and arms of a flood shall be over
flowed from before him, and broken, and the covenant
prince. And from treaties made with him he shall act
deceitfully, and go up, and be strong with a small nation.
And he shall go quietly into the richest parts of provinces,
and do that which his fathers did not, nor his fathers'
fathers ; he shall divide plunder, and spoil, and riches to
them, and form his schemes against fortified places, and
[continue] to the time [of the end]. 21-24.
13 Then he shall excite his strength and mind against
the king of the south, with a great and very strong army,
and the king of the south shall be excited to war with a
great and strong army exceedingly ; but he shall not stand,
for they shall form schemes against him ; and those that
eat his rich food shall crush him, and his army shall .over
flow, but many shall fall killed. And as to the two kings,
it shall be in their heart to do evil, and at one table they
shall speak a lie, but it shall not prosper ; but yet the end
[will be] at a set time. And he shall return to his land
with great riches, and his mind be against the holy cove
nant, and he shall do, and return to his land. At the ap
pointed time he shall return, and go against the south ;
but it shall not be in the latter case as in the former one.
And ships from Kittim [Greece] shall come against him,
and he shall be depressed, and return, and be indignant
against the holy covenant, and do [wickedly], and again
have intelligence with those that forsake the holy cove
nant. And arms from him [ApoUonius] shall stand up,
and profane the sanctuary of strength, and take away the
continual sacrifice, and set up the desolating abomination ;
and those that transgress the covenant shall he propitiate
with flatteries ; but the people that kno^ their God shall
be strong and do wonders; and those that teach the
people wisdom shall make many understand, but they shall

STORY IV. 19
fall by sword, and fire, and captivity, and plunder [many]
days ; and when they fall, they shall be helped by a few,
but many shall cleave to them with flatteries ; and [some]
of those that teach the people wisdom shall fall, to try
them and purify [them], and make [them] white, till the
time of the end ; for it is yet for an appointed time. 25-35.
14 And the king shall do according to his will, and ex
alt himself, and magnify himself above every mighty one
and the Most mighty one. He shall speak great things
[blasphemies], and prosper till the indignation is finished ;
for the determined [must] be done. And he shall not
have intelligence against the God of his fathers [Zeus],
nor against the desire of women [Artemis], nor against
any god, but shall magnify himself above all ; and shall
honor the god of fortresses in his place, and shall honor
a god whom his fathers did not know : gold, and silver,
and precious stones, and delicacies. And in his strong
fortresses he shall deal with a strange god. Whom he
recognizes he shall greatly honor, and make them rule
over many, and divide the land for a price ; and at the
time of the end the king of the south shall push him, and
the king of the north shall be excited against him, with
chariots, and horsemen, and many ships, and shall over
flow and pass over, and go into the land of beauty ; and
many [lands] shall fall, but these shall be delivered from
his hand : Edom and Moab, and the beginnings of the
sons of Ammon. And he shall stretch forth his hand on
the lands, and the land of Egypt shall not escape ; and he
shall rule over the hidden treasures of gold and silver,
and over all the precious things of Egypt; and the
Lybians and Ethiopians shall be under his feet ; and re
ports shall trouble him from the east and north, and he
shall go forth in great anger to kill and destroy many ;
and he shall plant his palace tents between seas against
the mountain of the beauty of the sanctuary, and come to
his end, and none shall help him. 36-45.

20 HEBREW SERIES.
15 And at that time Michael shall stand up, the great
prince who stands up over the sons of your people ; and
there shall be a time of trouble, such as has not been since
there was a nation to that time; and at that time your
people shall be saved, every one that is found written in
the book. And many of those that sleep in the dust of
the earth shall awake ; some to life eternal, and some to
reproaches and eternal abhorrence; but those that teach
wisdom shall shine as the brightness of the firmament,
and those that make many righteous as the stars forever
and ever. But as for you, Daniel, close up the words, and
seal up the book, to the time of the end ; many shall go
about, and knowledge be increased. 12 : 1-4.
16 And I Daniel saw, and behold, two others stood,
one on this bank of the river, and the other on that bank
of the river. And [one] said to the man clothed with
fine linen, who was on the waters of the river, How long
shall it be to the end of the wonders ? And I heard the
man clothed with fine linen, who was on the waters of
the river, and he lifted up his right hand and his left to
heaven, and swore by him that lives forever, that it shall
be for a time and times and a half; and when he has
finished scattering the hand of the holy people, all these
things shall be finished. And I heard, but understood
not, and said, My Lord, what shall be the end of these
things? And he said, Go, Daniel, for the words are
closed up and sealed, to the time of the end. Many shall
be purified and made whitQ, but the wicked shall do
wickedly ; and none of the wicked shall understand, but
the wise shall understand. And from the time of the
taking away of the continual sacrifice, and setting up the
desolating abomination, shall be 1290 days. Blessed is
he that waits and comes to 1335 days ; but as for you,
go till the end ; you shall both rest [die], and stand [rise]
up for your lot at the end of the days. 5-13.

STOBY 1. 21
PART II.
MIXED SERIES.
STORY I. [V.] 2.
Nebuchadnezzar's forgotten dream of the four kingdoms
and the kingdom of God.
1 In the second year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar,
Nebuchadnezzar dreamed dreams, and his spirit was
troubled, and his sleep departed from him. And the king
commanded that they should call the scribes, and en
chanters, and magi, and Chasdim, to show to the king his
dreams ; and they came and stood before the king. And
the king said to them, I have dreamed a dream, and my
spirit is troubled to know the dream. And the Chasdim
said to the king, in Syriac [Aramaean, or Biblical Chal
dee], King, live forever. Tell your servants the dream,
and we will show the interpretation. The king answered
and said to the Chasdim, The thing has gone from me.
If you will not make known to me the dream and its in
terpretation, you shall be cut to pieces, and your houses
made a dunghill. But if you show the dream and its
interpretation, you shall receive a gift and present, and a
great reward from me. Therefore show me the dream
and its interpretation. 2 : 1-6.
2 They answered a second time, and said, King, let the
dream be told to your servants, and we will show the in
terpretation. The king answered and said, Of a truth, I
know that you would gain time, because you see that the
thing has gone from me; but if you will not make known
to me the dream, this is your purpose ; and you have de
vised a false and corrupt word to speak before me, till the
time is changed. But if you tell me the dream, then I

22 MIXED SERIES.
shall know that you can show me the interpretation. The
Chasdim answered before the king, and said, There is not
a mortal on earth that can show the king's matter ; there
fore no king, rab, or ruler has demanded such a thing as
this of any scribe, enchanter, or Chasdian. The thing
which the king has demanded is rare, and none can
show it to the king, except the gods, whose dwelling is
not with flesh. 7-11.
3 On this account the king was angry and very indig
nant, and commanded that they should destroy all the
wise men of Babel [Babylon] ; and the law went forth
that all the wise men of Babylon should be killed ; and
they sought for Daniel and his companions to kill
[them]. 12, 13.
4 Then Daniel answered Arioch, chief of the king's exe
cutioners, who went forth to kill the wise men of Babylon,
wisely and discreetly. He answered and * said to Arioch,
the king's ruler, Why is this severe decree passed from
the king ? Then Arioch made the thing known to Daniel ;
and Daniel went up and asked the king that he would
give him time to show the interpretation to the king.
Then went Daniel to his house, and made the thing
known to Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, his companions,
that they might ask mercies of the God of heaven con
cerning this secret, and Daniel and his companions perish
not with the rest of the wise men of Babylon. Then was
the secret revealed to Daniel in visions of the night ; then
Daniel blessed the God of heaven. Daniel answered and
said, Let the name of God be blessed, from age to age, for
wisdom and might, which are his. And he changes times
and seasons ; he takes away kings, and sets up kings ; he
gives wisdom to the wise, and knowledge to those who
understand science ; he reveals the deep and concealed ;
he knows what is in darkness, and light dwells with him.
I confess and praise thee, God of my fathers, for thou hast

STORY I. 23
given me wisdom and might, and now hast made known
to me that which we asked of thee ; thou has made known
to me the king's matter. 14-23.
5 Therefore Daniel went to Arioch, whom the king had
appointed to destroy the wise men of Babylon ; he went
and said thus to him, Destroy not the wise men of Baby
lon. Bring me up before the king, and I will show the
king the interpretation. 24, 25.
6 Then Arioch brought up Daniel with haste before the
king, and said thus to him : I have found a man, of the
sons of the captives of Judah, who will make known the
interpretation to the king. The king answered and said
to Daniel, whose name was Belteshazzar, Are you able to
make known the dream which I saw, and its interpreta
tion ? Daniel answered before the king, and said, The
secret which the king has demanded, none of the wise
men, enchanters, scribes, diviners, can show to the king;
but there is a God in heaven that reveals secrets, and has
made known to king Nebuchadnezzar what is to be in after
days. Your dream, and the vision of your head on your
bed, were these : As for you, king, your thoughts came
up, on your bed as to what should be hereafter ; and he
that reveals secrets made known to you what shall be ;
and as for me, not for any wisdom that is in me more than
in any living one, is this secret revealed to me ; but on
[this] account, that the interpretation may be made known
to the king, and that you may know the thoughts of your
mind. 20-30.
7 You, king, saw, and behold, there was a great image,
This image was a Rab, and his excellent brightness rose
up before you, and his appearance was terrible. This was
the image : his head was of fine gold ; his breast and arms,
silver ; his belly and thighs, brass ; his legs, iron ; his feet,
part iron and part clay. You saw, till a stone was cut
without hands, and it smote the image on his feet, which

21 MIXED SERIES.
were of iron and clay, and beat them to powder. Then
were beaten togetherthe iron, clay, brass, silver, and gold,
and became like the dust of a summer threshing floor;
and a wind bore them away, and there was no place found
for them ; and the stone which smote the image, became a
great mountain, and filled the whole earth. This is the
dream, and the interpretation shall be told before the
king. 31-30.
8 You, king, are a king of kings ; for the God of heaven
gave you a kingdom, riches, and power, and glory ; and
all places where sons of men dwell, the beasts of the
earth, and the birds of heaven, has he given into your
hand, and made you ruler over them all. You are that
head of gold. And after you shall arise another kingdom
[the Persian], inferior to you ; and a third kingdom [of
the Greeks] after that, of brass, which shall rule over all
the earth ; and then shall be a fourth kingdom [Syria],
strong as iron, inasmuch as iron beats fine and crushes all
[things] ; and as iron which breaks all these, shall it break
and crush. And as you saw the feet and toes, part pot
ter's clay and part iron, the kingdom shall be divided,
and it shall have the strength of iron, inasmuch as you
saw iron mixed with sherds cf clay. And as the toes of
the feet are part iron and part clay, at the end, the king
dom shall be partly strong and partly weak. As you saw
the iron mixed with sherds of clay, they shall mix with
the race of man, and not cleave one to another, even as
iron cannot mix with clay. 37-43.
9 And in the days of those kings shall the God of
heaven set up a kingdom which shall never be destroyed ;
nor shall the kingdom be left to another people ; it shall
crush and destroy all these kingdoms, and stand forever.
Inasmuch as you saw a stone cut from a mountain without
hands, and it crushed the iron, brass, clay, silver, and gold,
the great God has made known to the king what shall be

story rr. 25
hereafter ; and the dream is certain, and its interpretation
sure. 44, 45.
9 Then king Nebuchadnezzar fell on his face, and wor
shipped Daniel, and commanded that they should offer
him a bread offering and sweet odors. The king answered
Daniel and said, Of a truth, your God is God of gods, and
Master of kings, and reveals secrets ; for you were able to
reveal this secret. Then the king made Daniel a Rabbi,
and gave him great gifts, and made him ruler of all the
provinces of Babylon, and chief of the prefects over all
the wise men of Babylon ; and Daniel asked the king, and
he appointed Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego over the
province of Babylon ; and Daniel sat in the king's gate.
STORY II. [VI.] 3.
Nebuchadnezzar's gold image, and the three pious children
in the fiery furnace.
1 King Nebuchadnezzar made an image of gold. Its
height was ninety feet, and its breadth nine ; he set it up
in the plain of Dura, in the province of Babylon. And
king Nebuchadnezzar sent to assemble the satraps, pre
fects, governors, judges, treasurers, - counsellors, lawyers,
and all the rulers of the province, to come to dedicate
the image which king Nebuchadnezzar had set up. Then
were assembled the satraps, prefects and governors,
judges, treasurers, counsellors, lawyers, and all the rulers
of the province, to dedicate the image which king Nebu
chadnezzar had set up. And they stood up before the
image which Nebuchadnezzar had set up ; and a herald
cried aloud, To you it is said, peoples, nations, and
tongues, at the time when you hear the sound of cornet,
pipe, harp, sambuca, lyre, bagpipe, and all kinds of music,
fall -down and worship the" gold image which king
Nebuchadnezzar has set up ; and whoever shall not fall
3

26 MIXED SERIES.
down and worship, in that hour shall be cast into the
midst of a burning fiery furnace. Wherefore, at the time
when all peoples heard the sound of cornet, pipe, harp,
sambuca, lyre, and all kinds of music, all peoples, nations,
and tongues fell down [and] worshipped the gold image
which king Nebuchadnezzar had set up. 3: 1-7.
2 Wherefore, at that time [certain] Chasdim came near
and accused the Jews. They answered and said to king
Nebuchadnezzar, King, live for ages. You, king, made a
decree that every man who hears the sound of cornet,
pipe, harp, sambuca, lyre, and bagpipe, and all kinds of
music, shall fall down and worship the gold image ; and
whoever shall not fall down and worship shall be cast
into the midst of a burning fiery furnace. There are Jews
whom you have set over the service of the province of
Babylon, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego ; these men
regard not your decree, king; they serve not your gods,
nor worship the gold image which you have set up. 8-12.
3 Then Nebuchadnezzar, in excitement and anger,
commanded that they should bring [forward] Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abednego. Then these men were brought
before the king. Nebuchadnezzar answered and said to
them, Is it on purpose, .Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego,
that you serve not our gods, nor worship the gold image
which I have set up ? Now, if you are ready at the time
when you hear the sound of cornet, pipe, harp, sambuca,
lyre, and bagpipe, and all kinds of music, you fall down
and worship the image which I have made, [well]; but if
you worship not, in that hour you shall be cast into the
midst of a burning fiery furnace ; and who is that god that
can deliver you from my hands ? 13-15.
4 Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego answered and
said to king Nebuchadnezzar, We have no need to answer
you concerning this decree. If our God whom we serve
[please], he is able to save us from the burning fiery

story n. 27
furnace, and he will save us from your hands, king ; but
if not, be it known to you, king, that we will not serve
your gods, nor worship the gold image which you have
Set Up. 16-81.
5 Then king Nebuchadnezzar was filled with rage, and
the appearance of his face was changed against Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abednego. He answered, and commanded
that they should heat the furnace seven times more than
it was [customary] to heat it. And he commanded the
mightiest men in his army to bind Shadrach, Meshach,
and Abednego, [and] cast them into the burning fiery
furnace. Then these men were bound in their pantaloons,
tunics, and mantles, and [other] clothes, and cast into the
midst of the burning fiery furnace. Wherefore, because
the king's command was urgent, and the furnace exceed
ingly hot, the flame of the fire killed those men who took
up Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. And those three
men, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, fell into the
midst of the burning fiery furnace, bound. 16-23.
6 And they walked about in the midst of the flame,
praising God, afnd blessing Kurios ; and Azariah, stand
ing with [them], prayed thus, and opening his mouth in
the midst of the fire, said, —
Blessed art thou, Kurios, God of our fathers, and to be
praised, and thy name has been glorified for ages. Thou
art righteous in all thou hast done, and all thy works
true, and thy ways right, and all thy judgments truth;
and thou hast executed the judgments pf truth in all thou
hast brought on us, and on Jerusalem, the holy city of our
fathers ; for in truth and justice hast thou brought all
these things on [us], on account of our sins ; for we
sinned and did wickedly in departing from thee ; we
sinned exceedingly in all things, and obeyed not thy
commandments, nor kept [them], nor did as thou didst
charge us, that it might be well with us; and all that

28 MIXED SERIES.
thou hast brought on us, and all that thou hast done to
us, thou hast done in truth. 1-7.
7 And thou didst deliver us into the hands of un
righteous enemies, and detestable rebels, and to the most
unjust and wicked king in all the earth; and now it is
not for us to open our mouth. We have been a shame
and disgrace to thy servants, and to those that worship
thee ; but do not give us up wholly, on account of thy
name, nor break thy covenant, nor remove thy mercy
from us, on account of Abraham, loved by thee, and of
Isaac thy servant, and Israel thy saint, to whom thou
didst say that thou wouldst multiply their descendants as
the stars of heaven, and as the sand on the sea shore. For,
Master, we have become least of all nations, and are low
in all the earth to-day, on aocount of our sins. And there is
not at this time ruler, or prophet, or governor, nor whole
burnt offering, nor sacrifice, nor oblation, nor incense, nor
place to make an offering before thee and find mercy ; but
with a contrite soul and spirit of humility, let us be
accepted. As with a whole burnt offering of rams and
bulls, and with ten thousand fat lambs, so let our sacrifice
be before thee to-day ; and let us go fully after thee, for
there is no shame to those that trust in thee. 8-16.
8 And now we follow with our whole heart, and fear
thee, and seek thy face. Put us not to shame, but deal
with us according to thy gentleness, and according to the
multitude of thy mercies, and deliver us according to thy
wonders, and give glory, Kurios, to thy name, and let all
that injure thy servants be put to shame, and [cast down]
confounded from all power, and their strength broken ;
and let them know that thou art Kurios, God alone, and
glorious in all the world. 17-21.
9 And the king's servants that put them in ceased not
heating the oven with naphtha, pitch, and tow, and fagots,
and the flame extended 73 feet above the furnace, and it

STORY II. 29
went about and burned those Chasdim whom it found
about the furnace. And the angel of Kurios descended
with those about Azariah in the furnace, and drove the
flame of the fire out of the furnace, and made the midst
of the furnace like a dewy whistling wind, and the fire
did not touch them at all, nor occasion them pain or
trouble. Then the three, as from one mouth, praised, and
glorified, and blessed God in the furnace, saying, — 22-27.
10 Blessed art thou, Kurios, the God of our fathers, and
to be praised and greatly extolled for the ages; and
blessed be the holy name of thy glory, and praised and
greatly extolled for all ages ; and blessed art thou in the
temple of thy holy glory, and to be much sung and glori
fied for ages ; blessed art thou who lookest on the
abysses sitting on cherubs, and to be praised and extolled
for the ages; blessed art thou on the throne of thy king
dom, and to be much sung and^ praised for the ages ;
blessed art thou in the firmament of heaven, and to be
sung and glorified for the ages ; bless Kurios, all the
works of Kurios, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless
Kurios, heaven, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless
Kurios, angels of Kurios, sing and extol him for the ages ;
bless Kurios, waters, and all things above the heavens,
sing and extol him for the ages ; bless Kurios, every
power of Kurios, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless
Kurios, sun and moon, sing and extol him for the ages ;
bless Kurios, stars of heaven, sing and extol him for the
ages ; bless Kurios, all rain and dew, sing and extol him
for the ages ; bless Kurios, all the winds, sing and extol
him for the ages ; bless Kurios, fire and heat, sing and
extol him for the ages ; bless Kurios, nights and days, sing
and extol him for the ages ; bless Kurios, light and dark
ness, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless Kurios, cold
and heat, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless Kurios,
frosts and snows, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless
3*

30 MIXED SERIES.
Kurios, lightnings and clouds, sing and extol him for the
ages ; let the earth bless Kurios, sing and extol him for
the ages ; bless Kurios, mountains and hills, sing and extol
him for the ages ; bless Kurios, all things produced in the
earth, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless Kurios, sea
and rivers, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless Kurios,
fountains, sing and extol him for the ages; bless Kurios,
sea-monsters, and things that move in the waters, sing
and extol him for the ages; bless Kurios, all the birds of
heaven, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless Kurios, all
wild beasts and cattle, sing and extol him for the ages ;
bless Kurios, sons of men, sing and extol him for the ages;
bless Kurios, Israel, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless
Kurios, priests, sing and extol him for the ages; bless
Kurios, slaves, sing and extol him for the ages ; bless
Kurios, spirits and souls of just [men], sing and extol
him for the ages ; bless Kurios, holy and humble in heart,
sing and extol him for the ages ; bless Kurios, Ananiah,
Azariah, [and] Mishael, sing and extol him for the ages;
for he has delivered us from hades, and saved us from the
hand of death, and plucked us from the midst of a furnace
of burning fire ; he has even plucked us from the midst of
the fire. Give thanks to Kurios, for he is good, for his
mercy is forever ; all who worship Kurios, bless the God
of gods, and sing and confess [him], for his mercy is
forever. And Nebuchadnezzar heard them singing. 2S-67.
11 Then king Nebuchadnezzar was astonished, and rose
up in agitation ; the king answered and said to his coun
sellors, Did we not cast three men into the midst of the
furnace, bound ? They answered and said to the king,
Certainly, king. He answered and said, Behold, I saw
four men, loose, walking in the midst of the fire, and there
is no hurt on them, and the appearance of .the fourth was
like a son of God. 24-25.
12 Then Nebuchadnezzar approached the door of the

STORY I. 31
burning fiery furnace ; he answered and said, Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abednego, servants of God the High one,
come out and come forth. Then came out Shadrach, Me
shach, and Abednego, from the furnace of fire, and the
satraps, prefects, and governors and counsellors of the
king saw these men, on whose bodies the fire had no
power, and the hair of their head was not singed, nor
their pantaloons changed, nor had the smell of fire passed
on them. 26, 27.
12 Nebuchadnezzar answered and said, Blessed be the
God of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, who has sent
his angel and delivered his servants that trusted in him,
and changed the word of the king, and gave up their bodies,
that they might not serve nor worship any god but their
God. And I appoint a decree, that every people, and
nation, and tongue that speak amiss against the God of
Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, shall be cut to pieces,
and their houses made a dunghill ; because there is no
other god who can save like this. Then the king pro
moted Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego in the province
of Babylon. 28-30.
PART III.
CHALDEE SERIES.
STORY I. [VII.] 4.
Nebuchadnezzar's edict concerning his madness; its
causes, accompaniments, and cure.
1 King Nebuchadnezzar to all peoples, nations, and
tongues who dwell in all the earth, may your peace be
multiplied. It has seemed good to me to show the signs
and wonders which God the High one has performed with
me. How great are his signs, how mighty his wonders !

82 CHALDEE SERIES.
His kingdom is an eternal hingdom, and his dominion is to
all generations. I Nebuchadnezzar was at rest in my
house, and flourishing in my palace. I saw a dream, and
it made me afraid, and thoughts on my bed and visions
of my head troubled me ; and I made a decree to bring
up before me all the wise men of Babylon, that they
might make known to me the interpretation of the
dream. 4: 1-3.
2 Then came the scribes, enchanters, Chasdim,. and
diviners, and I told them my dream, and they could not
make known to me the interpretation. And at last Daniel
came before me, whose name is Belteshazzar, according to
the name of my God, because a spirit of holy Gods is in
him, and I told my dream before him. Belteshazzar
[said I], chief of scribes, because I know that a spirit of
holy Gods is in you, and no secret troubles you, tell
the visions of my dream which I have seen, and its inter
pretation. And the visions of my head on my bed [were
these] : I saw, and behold, a tree in the midst of the
earth, and its height was great. And the tree was large
and strong, and its height reached to heaven, and its
sight to the end of all the earth ; its leaves were fair, and
its fruit abundant, and food was on it for all ; under it
were shaded the beasts of the earth, and on its branches
dwelt the birds of heaven ; and all flesh was fed from it.
I saw in the visions of my head on my bed, and behold,
a watcher, a holy one, came down from heaven. He
cried aloud, and said thus : Cut down the tree, and trim
off its branches, and strip off its leaves, and shake off its
fruit ; let the beasts flee from under it, and the birds from
its branches ; but leave a stump of its roots in the earth,
in a band of iron and brass, in the grass of the field, and
let it be wet with the dew of heaven, and its portion be
With beasts of the grass ; let its mind be changed from
man, and the mind of a beast be given it ; and let seven

STORY I. 33
times pass over it. The ordinance is by the decree of the
watchers, and the order is the demand of holy ones, that
the living may know that the High one rules in the king
dom of men, and gives it to whom he pleases, and exalts
over it the basest of men. This is the dream which I
king Nebuchadnezzar saw ; and do you, Belteshazzar, tell
the interpretation, for none of the wise men of my king
dom can make known to me the interpretation ; but you
can, for a spirit of holy Gods is in you. 4-15.
3 Then Daniel, whose name is Belteshazzar, was aston
ished about an hour, and his thoughts troubled him. The
king answered and said, Belteshazzar, let not the dream
and its interpretation trouble you. Belteshazzar answered
and said, My lord, let the dream be to those that hate
you, and its interpretation to your enemies. The tree
which you saw, which was large and strong, and its height
reached to heaven, and its sight to all the earth, and its
leaves were abundant, and its fruit much, and food was
on it for all ; under it dwelt the beasts of the field, and
on its branches rested the birds of heaven ; that, king, is
you, who have become great and mighty ; and your great
ness is increased, and has reached to heaven, and your
dominion is to the end of the earth. And as the king
saw a watcher, a holy one, descend from heaven, and he
said, Cut down the tree and overthrow it, but leave a
stump of its roots in the earth, in a band of iron and brass,
in the grass of the field, and let it be wet with the dew
of heaven, and let its portion be with the beasts of the
field, till seven times pass over it ; this is the interpretation,
king, and the decree of the High one which has come on
my lord the king. They shall drive you from men, and
your dwelling shall be with the beasts of the field, and
they shall make you eat grass like oxen, and wet you with
the dew of heaven, and seven times shall pass over you,
till you know that the High one rules in the kingdom of

34 CHALDEE SERIES.
men, and gives it to whom he pleases. And as he com
manded that a stump should be left with the roots of the
tree, your kingdom shall be sure when you know that
Heaven, rules. Wherefore, king, let my counsel be
acceptable before you, and break off your sins by
righteousness, and your wickednesses by showing kindness
to the poor ; possibly there may be a lengthening of your
tranquillity. 10-24.
4 All [this] came on Nebuchadnezzar the king. At
the end of twelve months, he was walking before the
palace of the kingdom of Babylon. The king answered
and said, Is not this great Babylon, which I have built for
the house of my kingdom by the power of my riches, for
the glory of my majesty ? While the word was in the
king's mouth, a voice came down from heaven, To you,
king Nebuchadnezzar, is it spoken : the kingdom has de
parted from you, and they have driven you from men,
and your dwelling shall be with the beasts of the field ;
they shall feed you with grass like oxen, and seven times
shall pass over you, till you know that the High one rules
in the kingdom of men, and gives it to whom he pleases.
In that hour the word was performed on Nebuchadnezzar,
and he was driven from men, and made to eat grass like
oxen, and his body was wet with the dew of heaven, till his
hair grew like eagles, and his nails like birds. And at
the end of the days, I Nebuchadnezzar lifted up my eyes
to heaven, and my knowledge returned to me, and I
blessed the High one, and praised and honored Him who
lives forever, for his dominion is an eternal dominion, and
his kingdom to all generations ; and all that inhabit the
earth are considered nothing, and he does according to
his will in the army of heaven, and among the inhabitants
of the earth, and there is none that can smite with his
hand, nor can it be said to him, What have you done?
At that time my knowledge returned to me, and with the

STORY II. 35
glory of my kingdom my honor and brightness returned
upon me, and my counsellors and great men sought me,
and I was established over my kingdom, and superior
majesty was added to me. Now I Nebuchadnezzar praise,
and extol, and glorify the King of heaven, because all his
works are true, and his ways just, and those that walk in
pride he is able to abase.
STORY II. [VIII.] 5.
Belshazzar 's feast, sin, warning, and punishment.
1 King Belshazzar made a great feast to a thousand of
his lords, and drank wine before a thousand. Belshazzar
commanded, when he had tasted of the wine, that they
should bring the vases of gold and silver which Nebu
chadnezzar his father had taken from the palace at Jeru
salem, that the king and his lords, his wives and his con
cubines, might drink in them. Then they brought the
vases of gold which they had taken from the palace of
the house of God at Jerusalem, and the king and his
lords, his wives and his concubines, drank in them ;
they drank wine, and praised the gods of gold, and silver,
brass, iron, wood, and stone. 5 : 1-4.
2 In that hour came forth fingers of a man's hand, and
wrote opposite to the candlestick on the plastering of the
king's palace wall, and the king saw the palm of the hand
which wrote. Then the king's countenance was changed,
and his thoughts troubled him, and the joints of his loins
were loosed, and his knees smote together. The king
cried with a loud voice, that they should bring up the
enchanters, Chasdim, and diviners. The king answered
and said to the wise men of Babylon, Any man who will
read this writing, and show its interpretation, shall be
clothed in purple, and have a gold chain about his neck,
and rule third in the kingdom. Then came in xall the

36 CHALDEE SERIES.
king's wise men, and could not read the writing, nor
make known to the king the interpretation. 5-8.
3 Then king Belshazzar was greatly troubled, and his
countenance w"as changed upon him, and his lords were
perplexed. The queen came to the banquet house on
account of the words of the king and his lords ; the queen
answered and said, King, live for ages ; let not your
thoughts trouble you, nor your countenance be changed.
There is a man in your kingdom in whom is a spirit of
holy Gods. In the days of your father, light, and intelli
gence, and wisdom, like the wisdom of Gods, were found
in him ; and king Nebuchadnezzer your father made him
chief over the scribes, enchanters, Chasdim, [and] diviners,
— your father the king, ¦ — ¦ because an excellent spirit, and
knowledge and intelligence to interpret dreams and solve
riddles, were found in him, — ¦ in Daniel, — to whom the
king gave the name of Belteshazzar. Now let Daniel be
called, and he will show the interpretation. 9-12.
4 Then Daniel was brought up before the king. The
king answered and said to Daniel, Are you that Daniel
who is of the sons of the captives of Judah, whom the
king my father brought from Judah ? I have heard of,
you, that a spirit of Gods is in you, and light, and intelli
gence, and superior wisdom are found in you. And now
the wise men, the enchanters, have been brought up be
fore me to read this writing and make known to me its
interpretation, and they could not show the interpretation
of the thing. And I have heard of you, that you can
make interpretations and solve problems. Now, if you
can read this writing, and make known to me its inter
pretation, you shall be clothed in scarlet, and a gold chain
be about yo*r neck, and you shall rule third in the king
dom. 5-16.
5 Then Daniel answered and said before the king,
Keep your gifts to yourself, and give your presents to

STORY II. 37
others; but I will read the writing to the king, and make
known its interpretation. As for you, king, God the
High one gave a kingdom, and majesty, and glory to
Nebuchadnezzar your father; and from the majesty which
he gave him, all peoples, nations, and tongues feared and
trembled before him. Whom he would he killed, and
whom he would he preserved alive, and whom he would
he exalted, and whom he would he cast down. And
when his heart was lifted up, and his spirit strengthened
[with pride], he was cast down from the royal throne,
and honor taken away from him ; and he was driven from
the sons of men, and his mind made like the beasts, and
his dwelling was with wild asses. They fed him with
grass like oxen, and his body was wet with the dew of
heaven, till he knew that the high God rules in the king
dom of men, and sets over it whom he pleases. And you,
his son Belshazzar, did not humble your heart, though
you knew all this, but exalted yourself against the Master
of heaven ; and they have brought the vases of his house
before you, and you and your lords, your wives and your
concubines, have drank wine in them, and praised gods of
silver and gold, of brass, iron, wood, and stone, which
neither see, nor hear, nor know, and the God in whose
hand your breath is, and whose are all your ways, you
have not glorified. Then was sent from before him the
palm of a hand, and it wrote this writing, and this is the
writing which was written : Mena, Mena, Tekel, Upharsin.
This is the interpretation of the thing : Mena, God hns
numbered [your kingdom, and finished it]. Tekel, you
are weighed [in scales, and found wanting]. Peres,
[your kingdom] is divided [and given to Media and
Persia]. 17-28.
6 Then Belshazzar commanded, and they clothed
Daniel in purple, and a chain of gold was put on his neck,
and they proclaimed concerning him, that he should be
4

38 CHALDEE SERIES.
third ruler in the kingdom. On that night was Belshazzar
king of the Chasdim killed, and Darius the Median took
the kingdom, at about sixty-two years of age. 29—6 : 1.
STORY III. [IX.] 6.
Conspiracy against Daniel, his deliverance from the
lions, and the destruction of the conspirators.
1 It seemed good to Darius to set over the kingdom
120 satraps, that they should be over all the kingdom ;
and he set over them three presidents, of whom Daniel
was first, that these satraps might give account to
them, and the king not suffer loss. Then this Daniel
was set over the presidents and satraps, because an excel
lent spirit was in him, and the king thought of setting
him over all the kingdom. 0: 2-4.
2 Then the presidents and satraps sought to find a pre
text against Daniel, in respect to the kingdom; and they
could find no pretext, nor fault, because he was faithful,
and no error or fault was found in him. Then these men
said, We shall not find a pretext against this Daniel unless
we find it against him by the law of his God. Then these
presidents and satraps assembled themselves before the
king, and said thus to him ; King Darius, live for ages.
All the presidents of the kingdom, prefects and satraps,
counsellors and governors, have consulted together to
establish a royal decree, and make a strong prohibition,
that any man who shall ask any thing at all of any god or
man for thirty days, except of you, king, shall be cast into
the lions' den. Now, king, establish the prohibition, and
write the writing, that it may not be changed, according
to the law of Media and Persia, which changes not.
Wherefore king Darius wrote the writing and de
cree. 5-10.
3 And when he knew that the writing was written,

STORY III. 39
Daniel went to his house, and, his windows being open in
his chamber towards Jerusalem, three times a day kneeled
on his knees, and prayed, and gave thanks before his God,
in all respects as he had done before that. Then these men
assembled and found Daniel praying and making suppli
cation before his God. Then they came near, and spoke
before the king concerning the king's decree: Did you
not write a decree, that any man who should ask any thing
of any God or man for thirty days, except of you, king,
should be cast into the lions' den ? The king answered
and said, The thing is true, according to the law of Media
and Persia, which passes not away. Then they answered
and said before the king, That Daniel, who is of the sons
of the captives of Judah, regards not your decree, nor the
prohibition which you have written, but offers his prayers
three times a day. Then, when the king heard this thing,
he was exceedingly displeased with himself, and set [his]
heart on Daniel to save him, and he strove till the rising
of the sun to save him. Then these men assembled them
selves together to the king, and said to the king, Know,
king, that it is a law of Media and Persia, that no prohi
bition or ordinance which the king establishes can be
changed. Then the king commanded that they should
bring Daniel and cast him into the lions' den. The king
answered and said to Daniel, Your God, whom you serve
continually, shall save you. And a stone was brought
and put on the mouth of the den, and the king sealed it
with his signet ring, and the signet ring of his lords,
that the purpose concerning Daniel might not be
changed. 11-18.
4 Then went the king to his palace, and passed the
night fasting; and his concubines came not before him,
and his sleep was driven from him. Then the king rose
up at the dawn, with the light, and went with haste to
the lions' den. And when he approached the, den, he

40 CHALDEE SERIES.
cried to Daniel with a bitter cry. The king answered and
said to Daniel, Daniel, servant of the living God, has your
God, whom you serve continually, been able to save you
from the lions ? Then Daniel said to the king, King, live
for ages ; God has sent his angel and shut the mouth of
the lions, and they have not hurt me, because before him
innocence was found in me, and also before you, king, I
have done no harm. • 19-23.
5 Then the king was greatly pleased on account of
him, and commanded that they should take up Daniel
out of the den ; and Daniel was taken out of the den, and
no hurt was found in him, because he trusted in his God.
And the king commanded, and they brought those men
who accused Daniel, and cast them into the lions' den,
they and their sons, and their wives ; and they did not
touch the bottom of the den, before the lions had the
mastery of them, and broke all their bones. 24, 25.
6 Then king Darius wrote to all peoples, nations, and
tongues that dwell in all the earth, May your peace be
multiplied ; I make a decree from before me, that in
every dominion in my kingdom they shall fear and trem
ble before the God of Daniel ; for he is the living God,
and stands up forever, and his kingdom shall not be
destroyed, and his dominion is to the end. He saves, and
delivers, and performs signs and wonders in heaven and
earth ; he saved Daniel from the hand of the lions. And
this Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, and in the
reign of Cyrus the Persian. 26-29.
STORY IV. [X.] 7.
DanieVs dream of four earthly kingdoms and a final
heavenly one, and its interpretation by an angel.
1 In the first year of Belshazzar king of Babylon,
Daniel djeamed a dream, and [had] visions of his head

STORY IV. 41
on his bed. Then he wrote the dream, [and] told the
chief of the things. Daniel answered and said, I saw
visions by night, and behold, four winds of heaven burst
forth on the great sea, and four great animals [beasts]
came up from the sea, one different from another. The
first was like a lion, and had eagle's wings ; and I saw till
its wings were plucked off, and it was lifted up from the
earth, and set on two feet, like a man, and a man's mind
was given it. 7 : 1-4.
2 And behold, another second beast was like a bear,
and it was set up on one side, and three ribs were in its
mouth between its teeth ; and they said thus to it : Arise,
devour much flesh. 5.
3 After this I saw, and behold, another, like a leopard,
and it had four wings of a bird on its back, and the beast
had four heads, and dominion was given it. 6.
4 After this I saw, in visions of the night, and behold,
a fourth beast, terrible and strong, and of great power,
and it had great iron teeth, and it devoured, and beat fine,
and trampled down the remnant with its feet. And it
was unlike all the beasts before it, and had ten horns. I
observed the horns, and behold, there came up another
little horn among them, and three of the former horns
were plucked up before it ; and behold, this horn had eyes
like the eyes of a man, and a mouth speaking great things.
I saw, till thrones were set up, and one of ancient days
[David] sat ; and his clothing was white as snow, and the
hair of his head like pure wool, his throne a flame of fire,
and his wheels a burning fire. A stream of fire flowed
and came forth before him, a thousand thousand minis
tered to him, and ten thousand ten thousand stood before
him; and the judgment sat, and the Scriptures were
opened. I saw then from the voice of the mighty words
which the horn spoke ; I saw till the beast was killed,
and his body destroyed and given to a burning fire. But
4*

42 CHALDEE SERIES.
as for the rest of the beasts, their dominion was taken
away, and a prolongation of life was given them for a
time and season. 7-12.
5 I saw, in visions of the night, and behold, in the
clouds of heaven came [one] like a son of mortal. And
he came to the one of ancient days, and they brought him
near before him. And there was given him dominion
and majesty, and a kingdom ; and nations, and peoples,
and tongues serve him, and his dominion shall be an eter
nal dominion, which shall not pass away, nor his kingdom
be destroyed. 13, 14.
6 My spirit was grieved — I am Daniel — in the midst
of its sheath, and the visions of my head troubled me. I
came near to one of those that rose up [angels], and in
quired of him the meaning of all this. And he told me,
and made me understand the interpretation of the thing.
These great beasts, which are four, [he says,]/ are four
kings [kingdoms], which shall rise up from the earth ;
then the holy ones of Olions shall take the kingdom, and
possess the kingdom for the age, and for the age of
ages. 15-18.
7 Then I desired that he would explain concerning the
fourth beast, which was different from the others, very
terrible ; its teeth iron, its claws brass ; it devoured, beat
fine, and trampled down the remnant with its feet ; and
concerning the ten horns which were on its head, and the
other which come up, and three fell before it, even that
horn which had eyes, and a mouth speaking great things,
and its appearance was greater than its fellows. I saw,
and that horn made war with the holy ones, and prevailed
against them, till one of ancient days came, and the judg
ment sat for the holy ones of Olions, and the time came,
and the holy ones possessed the kingdom. He said thus :
The fourth beast is the fourth kingdom that shall be on
the earth [Rome] ; it shall be different from all kingdoms,

STORY I. 43
and shall devour all the earth, and trample it down, and
beat it fine. And the ten horns of that kingdom are ten
kings [rulers ; 2 consuls and 8 tribunes of the people],
which shall arise, and another shall arise after them [em
perors], and he shall be unlike the former, and shall cause
three kings [the triumvirate] to fall ; and he shall speak
words against the High one, and shall wear out the holy
ones of Olions, and think to change times and laws, and
they shall be given into his hand for a time and times
and a half [3^ years]. And judgment shall sit, and they
shall take away his dominion to destroy [it] and bring it
to an end; and the kingdom and dominion, and greatness
of the kingdom under the whole heaven, shall be given to
a people of the holy ones of Olions, whose kingdom is an
eternal kingdom, and all dominions shall worship and
obey him. Thus far is the end of the word. As for me, —
I am Daniel, — my thoughts greatly troubled me, and my
countenance was changed upon me ; but I kept the word
in my heart, w-28.
PART IV.
GREEK SERIES.
STORY I. [XL]
Susanna, or Daniel delivering an innocent woman from
false accusers.
1 There was a man living at Babylon, and his name
was Joakim, and he took a wife whose name was Susanna,
daughter of Chelcias, exceedingly beautiful, and fearing
the Lord [Kurios] ; and her parents were just, and taught
their daughter according to the law of Moses. And Joa
kim was very rich, and had a park near his house, and
the Jews resorted to him, because he was more honorable
than all. i-4-

44 GREEK SERIES.
2 And two of the elders of the people were designated
that year judges, of whom the Master said that unright
eousness from Babylon went out from elders [who were]
judges, who seemed to guide the people. And these were
much at Joakim's house, and all that had causes came to
them. 5, o.
3 And when the people went away at midday, Susanna
went out and walked ( in her husband's park. And the
two elders saw her daily going in and walking about, and
were in a passion for her. And they perverted their
minds, and turned away their eyes that they might not
look to heaven, nor remember just judgments ; and they
were both anxious concerning her, and neither told the
other his desire, for they were ashamed to declare their
desire, for they wished to be with her. And they watched
diligently every day to see her ; and one said to the other,
Let us go home now, for it is time for dinner. And hav
ing gone out, they separated from each other, and turning
back, came to the same place ; and examining closely
each other for the cause, they confessed their desire, and
then appointed a time in common when they would be
able to find her alone. 7-14.
4 And it came to pass, when they watched for a con
venient day, she went out as yesterday and the day be
fore, with two girls only, and desired to wash herself in
the park, for it was warm. And there was no one there,
except the two elders, hid and watching her. And she
said to the girls, Bring me the oil and soaps, and shut the
gates of the park, that I may wash myself. And they
did as she said, and shut the gates of the park, and went
out at the side gates, to bring the things ordered for her,
and knew not of the elders, for they were hid. 15-18.
5 And it came to pass, when the girls went out, then
the two old men rose up and ran to her, and said, Behold,
the gates of the park are shut, and no one sees us, and we

STORY I. 45
are in a passion for you ; wherefore consent to us, and be
with us ; but if not, we will testify against you, that a
young man was with you, and for that reason you sent
the girls away from you. And Susanna sighed and said,
I am straitened on every side ; for both if I do this, it is
deatluto me, and if I do [it] not, I shall not escape from
your hands. It is preferable for me, not having done it,
to fall into your hands, rather than to sin before Kurios.
And Susanna cried with a loud voice, and the two old
men also cried against her ; and one, having ran, opened
the gates of the park. And when those from the house heard
the cry in the park, they ran in by the side gate to see
what had happened. And when the old men told their
words, the servants were greatly ashamed, for such a word
was never said of Susanna. And it came to pass on the
morrow, when the people came together to her husband
Joakim, the two old men came, full of an unrighteous
purpose against Susanna, to kill her, and said before the
people, Send for Susanna, daughter of Chelcias; she is
the wife of Joakim. 19-29.
6 And they sent, and she came, and her parents, and
her children, and all her relations ; and Susanna was a
very delicate woman, and beautiful in appearance. And
the transgressors commanded her to be uncovered, for she
was covered with a veil, that they might be filled with
her beauty. And all that were with her, and all that saw
her, wept. And the two old men stood up in the midst
of the people, and laid their hands on her head, and she,
weeping, looked to heaven, for her heart trusted in
Kurios. 29-35.
7 And the old men said, As we were walking about in
the park, this [woman] entered in with two girls ; and
she shut the gates of the park, and dismissed the girls ;
and a young man who was hid came to her, and fell back
with her. But we, being in a corner of the garden, seeing

46 GREEK SERIES.
the unrighteousness, ran upon them, and seeing them to
gether, were not able to hold him, because he was stronger
than we ; and opening the gates, he ran away ; but seizing
her, we demanded who the young man was, and she would
not tell us. These things we testify. And the synagogue
believed them, as being elders of the people and judges,
and condemned her to die. 36-41.
8 But Susanna cried with a loud voice, and said,
Eternal God, knower of secrets, who knowest all things
before they occur, thou knowest that they have testified
falsely against me ; and behold, I die, having done noth
ing of what they have injuriously accused me. And Ku
rios heard her voice, and when she was being led away to
be killed, God excited the holy spirit of a young boy by
the name of Daniel, and he cried with a loud voice, I am
innocent of this blood. And all the people turned to him
and said, What is this word which you have said ? And
he stood up in the midst of them and said, So foolish are
the sons of Israel, not examining nor knowing certainly,
you have condemned a daughter of Israel. Return to
the place of judgment, for these men have testified falsely
against her. And all the people returned with haste,
and the elders said to him, Come, sit in the midst of us,
and declare to us, for God has given you the elder
ship. 42-50.
9 And Daniel said to them, Separate them at a distance
from each other, and I will examine them. And when
they were separated one from the other, he called one of
them, and said to him, You that have grown old in evil
days, now have your sins which you formerly committed
become sharp, judging unjust judgments, and condemn
ing the innocent, but acquitting the guilty, when God
said, You shall not kill the innocent and just. Now there
fore, if you saw this woman, tell under what tree you saw
them having intercourse with each other. And he said,

story n. 47
Under a mastic tree. And Daniel said, Well, you have
lied against your own head ; for already an angel of God
has received [an order] from God to [masticize] cut you
in two ; and he put him aside. 51-56.
10 And he ordered that they should bring forward the
other; and he said to him, Race of Canaan, and not of
Judah, beauty has deceived you, and passion perverted
your mind ; you did thus to the daughters of Israel, and
they through fear had intercourse with you ; but a daugh
ter of Judah endured not your unrighteousness. Now tell
me under what tree you caught them having intercourse
with each other. And he said, Under a scarlet oak. And
Daniel said to him, Well, you also have lied against your
head ; for the angel of God, having a sword, waits to [oak-
ize] cut you in two, that he may destroy you. And all the
congregation cried with a loud voice, and blessed God who
saves those that hope in him. And they rose up against
the two old men, for Daniel had convicted them as false
accusers from their own mouth, and did to them as they
injuriously purposed to do to a neighbor; they did accord
ing to the law of Moses, and killed them, and innocent
blood was saved on that day. And Chelcias and his wife
praised God, on account of their daughter, with Joakim
her husband, and her relations, because nothing dishonora
ble was found in her ; and Daniel was great before the
people from that day and thenceforward.
STORY II. [XII.]
Bel and the Dragon, or Daniel destroying Babylonian
idols, and saved from the lions' den.
1 And king Astyages was put with his fathers, and
Cyrus the Persian took the kingdom, and Daniel was a
table companion of the king, and honored above all his
friends. And there was an idol at Babylon by the name

48 GREEK SERIES.
of Bel, and there were expended upon him each day 12
artabse of fine flour, and 40 sheep, and 6 metretes of wine.
And the king worshipped him, and went daily to worship
him, but Daniel worshipped his God. And the king said
to him, Why do you not worship Bel? And he said,
Because I do not worship idols made with hands, but the
living God, who created heaven and earth, and has do
minion of all flesh. And the king said to him, Do you
not think Bel is a living god ? Do you not see how
much he eats and drinks daily? And Daniel, laughing,
said, Be not deceived, king; for this [object] is clay within
and brass without, and never consumed a thing. 1-7.
2 And the king, being angry, called his priests and said
to them, If you tell me not who it is that consumes this
expense, you shall die ; but if you show that Bel con
sumes it, Daniel shall die; because he has blasphemed
against Bel. And Daniel said to the king, Be it accord
ing to your word. And the priests of Bel were seventy,
besides women and children, s-io.
3 And the priests of Bel said, Behold, we will go out,
and do you, king, set the food and mix the wine, and close
the door, and seal it with your finger ring ; and come in
the morning, and if you do not find all eaten by Bel, we
will die, or [otherwise] Daniel, who has lied against us.
And they despised [it], because they had made under the
table a concealed entrance, and by it went in continually,
and consumed the things. 11-13.
4 And it came to pass, when they went out, the king
set the food for Bel, and Daniel commanded his servants,
and they brought ashes and sifted them over the whole
temple in the presence of the king alone. And they went
out, and closed the door, and sealed [it] with the king's
finger ring, and went away. And the priests came by
night, according to their custom, and their wives and
children, and ate and drank all. And the king rose early

story ii. 49
in the morning, and Daniel with him; and he said, Daniel,
are the seals safe ? And Daniel said, Safe, king. And it
came to. pass, as soon as they opened the doors, looking
on the table, the king cried with a loud voice, Great are
you, Bel, and there is no deceit with you at all. And
Daniel laughed, and held the king, that he might not go
in, and said, See now the floor, and note whose tracks are
these. And the king said, I see the tracks of men, women,
and children. And the king, being angry, apprehended the
priests, and their wives and children; and they showed
him the concealed doors by which they went in and con
sumed the [things] on the table. And the king killed
them, and gave Bel as a present to Daniel, and he
destroyed him and his temple. 14-22.
5. And there was a great dragon, and the Babylonians
worshipped him ; and the king said to Daniel, Will you
say also that this is brass ? Behold, he lives, and eats,
and drinks: 1 You cannot say that this is not a living god ;
therefore worship him. And Daniel said, I will worship
Kurios, my God, for he is the living God ; but, king, give
me permission, and I will kill the dragon, without
sword or staff. And the king said, I give you [permis
sion]. 23-26.
6. And Daniel took pitch, and fat, and hair, and boiled
[them] together, and made cakes and put in the mouth
of the dragon, and the dragon ate, and was torn open.
And he said, See your objects of worship. 27.
7. And it came to pass, when the Babylonians heard [of
this] they were very angry, and turned against the king,
and said, The king has become a Jew ; he has torn Bel
to pieces, killed the dragon, and slaughtered the priests.
And they came to the king, and said, Give us Daniel ; if
not, we will kill you and your house. And the k-ing saw
that they pressed him exceedingly, and the king gave
them Daniel, and they cast him into the pit of lions, and
5

50 GREEK SERIES.
he was there six days. And there were seven lions in the
pit, and there were given them daily two slaves [bodies]
and two sheep ; and then they were not given them, that
they might devour Daniel. And Ambakoum [Habakkuk]
the prophet was in Judea, and he boiled meat, and broke
bread in the vase, and went to the plain to carry it to the
harvesters. And the angel of Kurios said to Habakkuk,
Carry away the dinner which you have, to Babylon, to
Daniel in the pit of lions. And Habakkuk said, Kurios, I
never "saw Babylon, and do not know of the pit of lions.
And the angel of Kurios took hold of the crown of [his]
head, and bearing [him] by the hair of his head, placed
him in Babylon above the pit, with the force of his spirit.
And Habakkuk cried, saying, Daniel, Daniel, take the
dinner which God has sent you. And Daniel said, My
God, thou hast remembered and not forsaken them that
love thee. And Daniel rose up and ate. And the angel
of God restored Habakkuk instantly to his place. And
the king came on the seventh day to mourn for Daniel.
And he came to the pit, and looked in ; and behold, Daniel
was sitting [there] ; and crying with a loud voice, he
said, Great art thou, Kurios, God of Daniel, and there
is no other besides thee. And he drew him out, and cast
the causes of his destruction into the pit, and they were
devoured instantly in his presence. 28-42.

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.

CHAPTER I.
Contents and subject matter of the book, its languages and natural
divisions.
1. The book of Daniel, as it appears in the Hebrew
Bible, is bilingual, of two languages, Hebrew and Chaldee.
In its completed form, as it appears in the Septuagint,
and was generally accepted by the Hellenic Jews of the
time of Christ, it has additions in Greek, which, being
joined to the Hebrew and Chaldee, make it trilingual, a
book in three languages. The Hebrew part consists of
four independent stories, the mixed of two, the Chaldee
of four, and the Greek of two. Of these, the first ten,
without the Greek addition to Story VI., constitute the
canonical book of the Hebrew Bible ; and the other por
tions are uncanonical additions in Greek, but essential
parts of the Septuagint book.
2. It is the natural mode of treating books in different
languages, to resolve them into integral parts, according
to their structures and subjects, as we do other books ;
and then further to distinguish, as far as may be, those
integral parts in different languages, according to their
languages and dates. This is the natural and scientific
method of treating all books, sacred and common ; and
obvious as it is, has yet to be applied to Daniel. It needs
but to be proposed, in order that its propriety and neces-
(51)

52 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
sity may be clearly seen. Its neglect hitherto is a sur
prising oversight.
3. The Hebrew stories ought to be discriminated and
studied as Hebrew, the Chaldee as Chaldee, and the
Greek as Greek; and the whole ought to be combined
and studied as a single work. The Hebrew stories are
complete without either the mixed or Chaldee, and the
Hebrew and Chaldee without the Greek ; but when all
are combined, we have the completed book of Daniel as
it appears in the Septuagint, and was received and used
both by Jews and Christians from the time of Christ,
during the earliest Christian centuries. Ignatius men
tions Susanna in his epistle to the Magnesians, and the
Roman Clement, in his second Epistle. The Greek books
and parts of books were commented upon and freely dis
cussed in sermons, in connection with the other sacred
books. The church of Rome, agreeably to a decision of
the Council of Trent, allow's them to be of equal authority
with the Hebrew; and the English and Lutheran churches
allow them to be used in public assemblies for religious
instruction, without admitting their canonical authority,
or elevating them to the same dignity as the canonical
books. 4. The first of the stories of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible
is in Hebrew ; then follows a Chaldee story, with a He
brew introduction, and five other stories in Chaldee ; after
which the Hebrew is resumed, and three more stories in
Hebrew complete the book. In the Septuagint the story
of Susanna is prefixed to the first Hebrew story; the
Chaldee story of the image of Dura, and the deliverance
of the three pious children from the burning fiery furnace,
is interpolated with the prayer of Azariah and song of
the three; and the whole is followed by stories of Bel
and the dragon. When these additions were made is not
known. Theodotion found them in the Septuagint of his

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 58
time, 180-192 A. D., and passed them along. Theodotion
was not a recensionist, revising his text, but only a trans
lator, revising and improving the rendering. For aught
that appears, these additions may have been the work of
the original Septuagint translator. This is indicated by
their agreement in style with his translations ; they have
his peculiar modes of expression. Some have thought,
however, that the song of the three was by a different
composer from the prayer.
5. Julius Africanus, in the third century, objected to the
historic character of Susanna, and Origen defended it, but
not satisfactorily. It has all the essential marks of fiction,
but Home, Davidson, and Tregelles think it is substan
tially true. [See Home's Introduction, revised and cor
rected by Davidson and Tregelles, vol. ii. page 938.]
Can there be a more striking exhibition of the simplicity
of Christian criticism ? Like the parables of the New
Testament, it illustrates principles, and its historical truth
is of no consequence.
6. Theodotion's translation of Daniel superseded the
original one found in the Septuagint, on account of its
superior accuracy. The original was long supposed to be
lost, but it has since been recovered and published, and is
among the most venerable relics of an age preceding that
of Christ and the apostles.
Theodotion was a Jewish proselyte of Ephesus, called
by Jerome an Ebionite, or Judaizing Christian. Accord
ing to Jerome, his version was published under Commo-
dus, 180-192. It is a revision of the original Septuagint,
and not strictly a new translation, though generally called
such. His translation of Daniel superseded the original
one in the Septuagint, about 300 A. D. It was less literal
than Aquila's, who preceded him as a translator, and less
free than that of Symmachus, who followed him.
7. Home divides the Hebrew and Chaldee Daniel into
5*

54 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
two parts. First, Historic, containing the first six chap
ters; and second, Prophetic, containing the last six. This
division is preserved in the revised work, with the joint
authority of Davidson and Tregelles, but has no just
foundation in the character of the book, and is not sus
tained by scientific analysis. The book consists of 10
stories in Hebrew and Chaldee, and with the Greek addi
tions, of 12. These might be divided into Historic and
Prophetic; in which case the Chaldee story concerning
Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the four kingdoms would have
to be classed with the Prophetic part, and perhaps the
story of Belshazzar's feast: that also contains a prophecy.
But a classification according to languages, and in some
degree according to the dates and ages of the stories, is
both more natural and more useful, and is therefore
adopted in this work. This language and chronologic
classification is as follows : —
I. Hebrew stories, 4 ; II. Mixed stories, 2 ; III. Chal
dee stories, 4 ; IV. Greek stories, 2. Total, 12.
Part I. Hebrew Series.
1. Captivity, early piety, scholarship, and promotion of
Daniel and his three friends.
2. Daniel's vision of the four kingdoms to the reign of
^Antiochus IV., 175-163 B. C, and its interpretation by
Gabriel. 3. Daniel's prayer, and oracle of the 70 weeks received
orally from Gabriel.
4. Daniel's fast of three weeks, and an Apocalyse of the
latter days to the times of Antiochus IV., and the king
dom of Michael, received from an angel.
Part II. Mixed Series.
1. Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the four kingdoms, to the

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 55
close of the Syrian and Egyptian Greek empires, near the
time of Christ, and of the stone cut without hands.
2. The image of Dura, and the three pious children
saved from the burning fiery furnace.
Part III. Chaldee Series.
1. Nebuchadnezzar's edict, or encyclic letter concerning
his madness, with its premonitions, accompaniments, and
consequences. 2. Belshazzar's feast, with his profanation of the sacred
vases of the temple, his warning, and punishment.
3. Law of Darius the Mede against prayer, Daniel's ob
servance of the higher law, and his deliverance from the
lions' den.
4. Daniel's dream of the four kingdoms, with Rome
under the emperors for the fourth and last, and the final
kingdom of God. Part IV. Greek Series.
1. Susanna, or Daniel delivering an innocent woman
who was falsely accused, and destroying her accusers.
2. Bel and the dragon, or Daniel destroying Babylonian
idols and imaginary deities, and saved a second time from
the lions' den.
CHAPTER II.
Assumed dates of Daniel, its defects as a biography, titles of the
book, slight grounds on which it is referred to Daniel _and his
times, and the account of its being shown to Alexander the Great.
1. The first story commences 605 B. C, in the third
year of Jehoiakim, and the latest assumed date in the book
is that of Story IV., in the third year of Cyrus, at Babylon,
535 B. C. These extreme dates include an interval of 70

56 critical introduction.
years, concerning which the book gives us but little in
formation. History supplies considerable, and it is a
period that well deserves attention.
2. How old Daniel was at the opening of Story I., or
how long he lived after the apocalypse related in Story
IV., we are not informed. He is not immature when he
is first introduced to us, but is old enough to have settled
principles of morality of the strictest and severest kind,
and to be a candidate for the Babylonian college, the
qualifications for which, required that he should already
have been instructed in "all wisdom and understanding."
These were not novices, or persons in early youth, but
must have been of considerable age. We may suppose
that Daniel was 20 years old at the time of his capture ;
if he was, he was 90 at the time of receiving the apocalypse
of Story IV. ; he evinces no decline of his mental powers
at this advanced age, nor is he represented as an aged
man ; his age does not seem to have been thought of by
the writer.
3. Nothing is said of Daniel's parentage or domestic
relations ; he is as destitute of father, mother, brother,
sister, or other relations, as Melchisedec, and as far as ap
pears, might have been a special creation, or have had a
divine origin. No account is given of his birth or death ;
his book is not a biography, and does not describe his
life, but states a few remarkable incidents and events, in
most of which he bears a part. Daniel is the principal
character in all the stories but one. Story VI., of the
three pious children in the burning fiery furnace, relates
exclusively to his three friends.
4. The reasons for referring the book of Daniel to the
times in which its scenes are laid, and for making Daniel
its author, are about as weighty as might be adduced to
show that Paradise Lost belongs to the age of Adam, and
was written by Seth, and that the Iliad belongs to 1184

critical introduction. 57
B. C, the period of the fall of Troy, previous to the times
of Samuel, and was written by Achilles or Agamemnon.
It is quite as possible that Seth wrote Paradise Lost, and
Agamemnon the Iliad, as that Daniel wrote the book which
bears his name.
5. Nothing is said in the book of its age or authorship ;
and Daniel makes no claims to be its author. Its title is
by the Jewish canonists, and is no part of the book ; it is
simply Daniel ; in Theodotion's version in the Septuagint,
it is the same ; in the common English Bible it is, The
Book of Daniel; which signifies either by Daniel or con
cerning him. The latter is all that it necessarily signifies,
and therefore is all that can be certainly inferred from it.
6. Thomas Hartwell Home, in his " Critical Introduc
tion to the Study of the Scriptures," calls it " The Book
of the Prophet Daniel," and makes Daniel the fourth of
the greater prophets. He says that, " although the name
of Daniel is not prefixed to the book [by the writer], the
many passages in which he speaks in the first person suffi
ciently prove that he was the author."
7. This statement is a good example of the loose and
inconclusive reasoning of the most eminent Christian
scholars on the subject. On superficial inquiry it looks
plausible, and at the first glance has the appearance of
an argument; it is a pillar of the common faith. The
superficial character and credulity of Christian criticism
are amazing, and this may serve as an example of much.
Home is a learned and excellent man, and an indefati
gable laborer in the cause of sacred learning ; his reading
is, extensive and his studies are immense ; but he begs his
primary questions, and they vitiate numerous later con
clusions. His work was rejected by the Christian Ra
tionalists of Germany, at the time of its publication, as
radically defective in its logic ; but the English, of nearly
all denominations, received it with great favor as almost

58 critical introduction.
the Talmud of Christianity ; and such it is, in more senses
than one. With most, it is still a high authority. The
representation of Daniel, as speaking in the first person in
several stories of the book, proves nothing in relation to
its authorship. Homer in the Iliad and Odyssey contin
ually represents his characters as speaking in the first
person ; Milton in Paradise Lost, and Shakspeare in his
plays, do the same. Is Adam therefore the author of
Paradise Lost, or Agamemnon of the Iliad ? Is Hamlet
the author of the play of Hamlet, and Julius Caesar of the
tragedy which relates to him ? The use of the first person
is no evidence of authorship whatever, but often an evi
dence of fiction. It is often quite clear that none of the
parties Who are represented as speaking in the first person
can, by any possibility, have participated in constructing
the works to which their parts belong.
8. It wants no argument to show the defectiveness of
this logic ; the literature of all ages and nations is against
it, and unless the other arguments depended upon to
prove Daniel's authorship of the book shall, on examina
tion, prove sound, that assumption must be abandoned.
9. Josephus tells us (A. J. 11. 8. 4, 5) that Jaddua, the
chief priest, was divinely instructed in a dream to open
Jerusalem to Alexander the Great, after he had taken
Tyre and Gaza, and receive him into the city. He also
tells us that Alexander, in consequence of a dream by
which he had been divinely instructed before he left
Europe on his perilous enterprise of the conquest of Persia,
received the chief priest with great respect, went to the
temple with him, offered sacrifices by his direction, and
was shown the prophecy of Daniel, in which it was sa*id
that a Greek king should overthrow the kingdom of
Persia. 10. This prediction belongs to the Hebrew part of
Daniel, and is the earliest of the four parts which consti-

critical introduction. 59
tute the book ; but its composition was not earlier than
164 B. C, 168 years after the time of Alexander's sup
posed visit to Jerusalem.
11. Josephus tells us further, that Alexander was so
well pleased, that he allowed the Jews to enjoy their own
laws, exempted them from tribute the seventh year, and
promised to do for them all that they desired. It is not
impossible that Alexander visited Jerusalem, though we
have no contemporary account of it, and it is scarcely
probable. He doubtless accepted the submission of the
Jews, as he did of other nationalities in Western Asia and
elsewhere. He probably received the Jews with liberality,
and treated their religion with respect : this was his
general method ; he raised up no unnecessary obstacles
to the success of his arms, by making war on religions.
His subjects worshipped what gods they pleased, and in
what modes they pleased ; but this account of the show
ing of the book of Daniel wants proof. How did Josephus
know it ? What authority has he for his assertion ? He
gives us none, and appears to have none.
Alexander's supposed visit to Jerusalem, after the con
quest of Gaza, was in 332 B. C, and Josephus published
his works, after the taking of Jerusalem, in A. D. 70, more
than 400 years after the events which he relates. The
showing of the book of Daniel to Alexander by Jaddua
is entirely unsupported by previous authorities, Greek or
Hebrew, and cannot therefore be admitted. The asser
tion of Josephus proves nothing, except that the Hebrew
stories of Daniel were extant in his time, and belonged to
the canonical books of the Jews, which agrees with the
showing of his earlier writings. Josephus, 400 years after
the event, is quite too late to be a witness, and his account
is not entitled to the least confidence. The mythic and
fictitious character of the transaction is indicated by the
two dreams, one had by Alexander before he left Europe,
and the other by Jaddua, after the taking of Gaza.

60 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
Jaddua would have been stupid indeed, not to dream
favorably to admitting Alexander into the city and mak
ing the best terms with him possible, after he had con
quered Northern Syria, Tyre, and Gaza, and was threat
ening Egypt and Persia, the two great dominant powers
of the world at that time. The work of Josephus abounds
with mythic and other fictitious elements, interpolating
the older Judaic narratives ; and this appears to be one of
them. It proves nothing, therefore, in favor of the author
ship of the book by Daniel, or its existence in the times
of Alexander ; nor is there any good reason why the truth
on this subject, as on others, should not be gladly accepted
and welcomed.
CHAPTER III.
Argument for the late authorship of Daniel, from its late position in
the Hebrew canon, and unsuccessful attempts of critics to invali
date it.
1. The position of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible is not
the same as in the English; in the English it follows
the major prophets and precedes the minor ; in the Hebrew
it stands in no connection with the prophets, but is in
the latter part of still later writings of the scribes. The
Projjhetic books consist of two series : I. The Earlier
Prophets, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; II. The
Later Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel,
Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zeph-
aniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. These complete
the books of the prophets. The Hebrew Bible begins
and ends with books not attributed to them. The books
called the Prophets are so called as being supposed pro
ductions of the prophets. The Earlier Prophets do not
relate to prophets chiefly, nor report their discourses, but
narrate the principal events of Hebrew history and tradi-

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 61
tion, from the death of Moses, 1451 B. C, to that of Je
hoiachin, about 550 B. C, during a period of 901 years.
No reason can be assigned for their having been called
Earlier Prophets, but the opinion that they were written
by the earlier prophets.
2. The Pentateuch was supposed to be written by Moses,
and therefore was not ascribed to the earlier prophets,
though probably written by them. No professional proph
ets appear before the time of Balaam, and he was a prophet
of Midian, but at the same time a prophet of Jeva. The
next prophet that appears in sacred history is Samuel,
who seems to have founded schools of the prophets.
Several prophets are mentioned in the times of David
and Solomon, some of whom are distinguished; in the
time of Ahab Obadiah hid a hundred prophets by fifties.
(1 Kings 18 : 13.) After this Jeva's prophets were re
duced to Elijah alone, when he killed 450 prophets of
Baal and perhaps 400 of Ashera (v. 19-40). Subsequently
we are told of the sons of the prophets at Bethel (2 Kings
2 : 3), at Jericho (v. 5), and of 50 men of the sons of the
prophets that went to witness the ascension of Elijah
(v. 7), 896 B. C. Elijah and Elisha are scarcely less dis
tinguished than Samuel. Elisha died 838 B. C, Joel
and Jonah succeed in 810, Amos in 790, Hosea in 785,
Micah in 725, Nahum in 710, Zephaniah in 640, Isaiah in
759-710, Habakkuk in 605, Jeremiah in 629-588, Ezekiel
in 595-572, Obadiah in 570, Haggai and Zechariah in
520, and Malachi in 420.
3. Some of these were men of great distinction in their
times, others scarcely rose above mediocrity. The pro
phetic institution was not peculiar to the religion of Jeva ;
it belonged equally to that of Baal and Ashera. The
prophets differ essentially from the priests. The priests
were sacrificers, and served about the temple ; the prophets
were writers, teachers, preachers, and seers, and served
6

62 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
wherever their services were required. The priests were
hereditary, and their support provided for at the expense
of the other classes. The prophets were a voluntary
class, and provided for their own support either by their
professional services or by other means.
4. The Hebrew books of the prophets are all ascribed
to the prophets generally, none of them to any single
prophet in particular. Vision of Isaiah in Isa. 1 : 1, words
of Jeremiah in Jer. 1 : 1, the use of the first person in
Ezek. 1 : 1, and similar titles and usages in the later
prophets, do not signify authorship, but the person de
scribed as speaking. All these books are anonymous.
Their authors, however, are divided into two classes:
earlier and later prophets, and the two divisions of books,
referred to these two classes of writers. The Hebrew
books, from the death of Moses to the death of Jehoiachin,
are referred to the earlier prophets, and the fifteen from
Isaiah to Malachi to the later prophets. Which of the
earlier prophets wrote the first, or any part of them, or
which of the later prophets wrote the last, or any part of
them, we are not informed ; neither is the information
that we do have certified by any reliable authority ; it is
an assumption of the Jewish canonists, like the Rabbinical
ascription of the Pentateuch and Mishna to Moses, and is
entitled to no credit except as far as it is supported by
internal and other evidence.
5. In Story III., 1, Jeremiah is referred to as a prophet;
but Daniel is never mentioned as such, and was not such ;
he was neither educated at their schools, nor connected
with their order.
6. The prophets among the early Hebrews correspond
to the sophoi and early religious poets among the Greeks
of the same period ; both were expounders of history,
theology, and morality to the unlettered men of their
times, and both pressed hard on the mysteries of the fu-

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 63
ture, which they resolved, in the name of superior beings,
from the past. When the first period of Aramaean letters
passed, the Hebrew literati dropped the title of prophets,
and assumed the more modest and humble one of scribes ;
and the Greeks dropped the title of sophoi, and assumed
that of philosophoi. Both these later titles are now aban
doned for literary and scientific men, and designations
derived from particular arts and sciences, such as histo
rians, poets, chemists, geographers, naturalists, etc.
7. The Hebrew scribes are as much the lineal successors
of ^he prophets, as the Greek philosophers are of the sophoi,
or wise men, and modern literary and scientific men, of
the Greek philosophers. Prophets were indigenous to
Palestine, and the institution appears to have been adopted
by the Hebrews from the Midianites, their relations,
after the exodus from Egypt. The Babylonians had no
prophets, and few appear among the Jews after the Baby
lonian exile.
8. The word for Babylonian scribe is Hartum or Char-
tum, from a word which signifies to engrave, to write on
some hard tablet, like stone. Babylonian writing was
performed by cutting and engraving. The Hebrew word
for scribe is sopher, from a word which originally signified
to cut, but afterwards to mark with a pen, which was the
usual method of Aramaean writing. Daniel was a Baby
lonian, and Ezra a Hebrew scribe ; neither was a prophet,
nor is ever accounted such in the books which describe
their doings.
9. Scribe first appears as the title of a literary man in
Jer. 8 : 8, in the passage, " How say you, We are wise ;
the law of Jeva is with us? Behold, surely the false pen
of scribes has made it a falsehood." The next instance of
its use in this sense is in Ezra 7 : 6, where it is said,
" This Ezra went up from Babel, and he was a ready
scribe in the law of Moses, which Jeva God of Israel

64 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
gave." In verse 11 Ezra is further described as "the
priest, the scribe, a scribe of the words of the command
ment of Jeva and his ordinances over Israel." In Neh.
8 : 1, 12 : 36. Ezra is called the scribe, and in 12 : 26 the
priest the scribe.
10. The New Testament has the corresponding Greek
term applied to denote the Jewish literati, and finds them
numerous and influential. Christ often meets with scribes,
as he does with Pharisees and Sadducees, but never with
prophets, unless John the Baptist is considered such.
John was an extraordinary man, and his contemporaries
called him by the original title of Baptist. Simeon and
Anna, who, according to Luke, blessed Christ's infancy,
appear to be fictitious. No prophets were found among
the Jews in Christ's time, and the Christian church pro
duced none who rose to distinction or transmitted instruc
tions to later times.
11. The book of Kings brings down the history of the
Jews to 550 B. C, 15 years previous to Daniel's apoca
lypse of the latter days in Story IV., the last of the He
brew Series, and 53 years after the first dream of Nebu
chadnezzar. The Later Prophets commence with Jonah,
810 B. C, and extend to Malachi, 400 B. C, 410 years.
Several of the books that follow the Later Prophets are
among the most instructive and valuable in the whole
series. 12. If the book of Daniel was written as a narrative of
facts, and finished in the third year of Cyrus, its latest
assumed date, 70 years after the date with which it com
mences, and 15 years after the conclusion of Kings, it
ought to have followed Kings, and to have been the next
book in the sacred canon, unless a still earlier book had
preceded it. If it was written after Daniel's time, and
before the latest of the Minor Prophets, it ought to have
preceded them ; but instead of occupying either of these

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 65
positions, it is far removed from Kings and all the prophets,
and placed after eight other books, some of which are
believed to be more than 200 years later than Malachi.
Daniel, in being the ninth of the 12 books which follow
the Later Prophets, completes three fourths of the series
of those books, and according to that analogy, its time
ought to complete three fourths of the interval which they
fill between Malachi and Christ.
13. Professor Stuart, in his critical history and defence
of the Old Testament canon, p. 266, states this argument
from De Wette and others as follows : " No reason can
be assigned, except the lateness of the composition, why
Daniel and Chronicles should be placed among the Ke-
tubim [writings of the scribes], since the first belongs to
the class of the Later Prophets, and the second, like
Samuel, Kings, etc., to the class of the Former Prophets.
The fact, then, that Daniel and Chronicles are joined with
the Retubim, shows that they were written after the second
class of scriptural books, the Prophets, were fully com
pleted. As this class comprises Haggai, Zechariah, and
Malachi, Daniel and Chronicles must have been composed
or introduced into the canon subsequent to Nehemiah
and Malachi, which was about 430-420 B. C."
14. To this, Barnes, after Stuart and others, objects that
the arrangement of the books of the Old Testament by
the Talmud, and which prevailed among Jews and Chris
tians in the time of Jerome, 400 A. D., m&y have been a
departure from the original one. He says the Ketubim
were deemed less highly inspired than the older books,
and that Daniel may have been removed from the
Prophets to them, from a low estimate which the Jews
formed of his inspiration ; but that this was more proba
bly done to discredit the book, on account of the use
which Christians made of it in defending the Messianic
doctrines of Christianity. (Barnes, Notes on Daniel,
6*

66 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
pp. 36-41.) How does all this appear? Where is the
proof? It is nowhere. Is it not amazing that an accom
plished Christian scholar, and earnest seeker after truth
within the limits to which he judges it to be restricted,
can reason so loosely? A thousand things may have
been ; the question is, what was f
15. In addition to the groundless assumptions above
noted, Mr. Barnes says (p. 37), Josephus "has men
tioned the division of the books in his time, and in earlier
times, in a way to make it morally certain that Daniel
was not in the third class, but in the second class of
Prophets," and transcribes the following statement from
Josephus against Apion, as showing this (I. 8.) : " We
have not a countless number of books, discordant and
arrayed against each other, but only 22, containing the
history of every age, which can justly be credited ; and of
these, five belong to Moses, and contain both his laws and
the history of man till his death. This period lacks but
little of 3000 years. From the death of Moses till the
reign of Artaxerxes, king of the Persians after Xerxes, the
prophets who followed Moses described the things which
were done during the age of each respectively in thirteen
books ; the remaining four contain hymns to God and
rules of life for men. From the time of Artaxerxes till
our present period all occurrences have been written
down [in the Apocrypha], but they are not regarded as
entitled to lik*e credit with those which precede them,
because there has not been a continual succession of
prophets." 16. The above, according to Barnes, makes it certain
that Daniel was not in the third class of Hebrew books
in the time of Jose]3hus, and in this extract it is necessa
rily implied, according to him, that Daniel was then in
cluded in the second part among the Prophets. That
Josephus includes him among the prophets is quite obvi-

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 67
ous, as he does all the other books except four, which he
describes as being songs to God and rules of life. The
books which answer to this description are Psalms, Prov
erbs, Canticles, and Lamentations. All the rest, accord
ing to Josephus, are works of the prophets who followed
Moses, and describe things which were done during the
age of each respectively, in thirteen books.
17. Here is no transfer of Daniel from the writings of
the scribes to those of the prophets, but a comprehension
of all the prophets and all the historic books of the scribes
in the same division ; but his reference of them to the
times before Artaxerxes I. is without proof, and is there
fore without authority. The times of the authors must
be determined by evidence, and the opinions and judg
ments of men of after ages are no proof whatever on the
subject. Josephus separates the four poetic books from
the historic books of the scribes; in other respects he
appears to make no change in their arrangement.
18. Let us examine his thirteen books after the Penta
teuch, and see what they are. Home, Davidson, Tre
gelles, Stuart, and others, reckon them thus : —
1, Joshua, 2, Judges and Ruth, 3, Samuel, 4, Kings, 5,
Chronicles, 6, Daniel, 7, Ezra and Nehemiah, 8, Esther, 9,
Job, 10, Isaiah, 11, Jeremiah and Lamentations, 12, Eze
kiel, 13, the twelve Minor Prophets ; and substitute Eccle-
siastes for Lamentations in the last general division of
songs to God, etc.
19. This arrangement is objectionable in the following
particulars, and cannot be admitted : —
1. Ruth is not a part of Judges, but a fiction of a late
period, the scene of which is laid in the time of the last of
the judges. It has never been connected with Judges by
the Jews.
2. Lamentations is a book of songs, and not a part of
Jeremiah, and has no more connection with it than it has
with Kings or Chronicles.

68 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
3. Ezra and Nehemiah are two books as clearly as
Samuel and Kings, and cannot properly be united into
one. 4. No reason exists for making the 12 Minor Prophets
a single book, which does not exist for making the three
Major Prophets and all the Later Prophets a single book.
CHAPTER IV.
The statement of Josephus analyzed, and harmonized perfectly with
the present canon and arrangement, his testimony distinguished
from his opinions, his admissions to Apion, etc.
1. Part of the statement of Josephus, in his reply to
Apion (1 : 8), respecting the twenty-two Hebrew books,
relates to matters of fact which came under his observa
tion. Of this description are the number of the books
and their character as historic or poetic. On these sub
jects he had but to observe and discriminate, in order to
represent the facts correctly, and so far his statements are
entitled to full credit. Besides, they are supported by
other collateral and independent evidence. We do not
receive this information from him alone ; we have much
of it from other reliable sources, and should have known
it if he had not written. But this number and descrip
tion of the books is peculiar to him ; thirteen after the
Pentateuch are historic, and four poetic, and all, accord
ing to him, are justly entitled to be credited.
2. Eusebius quotes him (Eccl. History, III. 10) as say
ing, that they are justly accredited divine, and is followed
by Whiston ; but this is an addition to the original text,
and makes Josephus unnecessarily express an absurdity.
Strictly speaking, divinity is not predicable of books ;
creation and providence are divine, as are all the works
of nature, but books are neither works of creation nor
providence ; they are exclusively works of art and of man.

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 69
3. It is extremely absurd to exalt an ox or a bullock
into a god ; and yet they are creations of God, and so far
divine ; but it is far more absurd to exalt a book, however
excellent or valuable, into a book of God ; God makes
oxen, but he does not make books ; he leaves book-making
exclusively to man, and all books are equally human pro
ductions. When God makes books, indites them, con
trols the minds or directs the hands of book-makers, it
will imply a change in the divine economy. It is not his
present method, and as far as. we are informed, is not his
past method. We might as well expect him to make
houses, bridges, maps, charts, and implements of industry
and art. He keeps himself to his divine sphere, and
allows us to fill ours.
4. The statement of Josephus respecting the Hebrew
books is, that they consist of five [till the death of Moses],
and thirteen more [till the time of Artaxerxes I., all his
toric], and four books of hymns and rules of life ; total,
22. His opinions are, 1. that these ought to be credited ;
2. that the Pentateuch was written by Moses ; and,
3. the thirteen historic books that follow, by prophets
belonging to the times of the events and transactions de
scribed. In all these opinions Josephus was liable to err,
and his errors, if he committed such, require to be re-
judged and corrected. He gives no authority and pro
duces no proof of either of them. They relate to matters
that extended back more than a thousand years from his
time, and that were as impossible to be known by him
from observation as by us. If he knew them at all, he
could only do it by inquiry and research ; and to make
his judgments reliable, should sustain them with his
reasons. Not only are these judgments unreliable, they
are erroneous. The Hebrew books are not all works of
prophets. Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings may be
works of the earlier prophets, as signified by their Hebrew

70 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
title of the Earlier Prophets ; Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Hab
akkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi may
be by later prophets, as signified by their title ; but they
are more probably by scribes who succeeded the prophets,
and viewed them through the magnifying medium of
tradition ; several of the books that follow belong to a
period long subsequent to that of the prophets, when the
title and office had both been abandoned for those of
scribes and literary men claiming no divine prerogatives.
5. The title of Later Prophets is not sufficient evidence
that all the books of that division were written by proph
ets, and yet it is all the evidence we have ; but for this
we should be authorized to ascribe a portion of them,
equally with the books of Part IV., to the scribes. Ezra
commenced the dispensation of the scribes, as Samuel did
that of the Hebrew prophets, and but for the title of Later
Prophets placed in the Hebrew Bible over the third
division of sacred books, we should be fully authorized to
make the last of them the works of the earlier scribes.
We have seen in the previous chapter, that the method
of harmonizing the list of Josephus with the present lists
adopted by distinguished critics, for the purpose of sus
taining the early composition of Daniel and other later
books, is inadmissible. Let us now see if they can be satis
factorily harmonized.
6. According to the present lists, the whole number of
Hebrew books is 39 ; uniting the books of Samuel, Kings,
and Chronicles, the separation of each of which is arbi
trary and apparently for the purpose of breaking them up
into portions of moderate length, we have 36. How can
this be still further reduced to 22 ? Must it be by com
bination, or selection and exclusion? There is no evi
dence that any thing ought to be excluded ; the canonical
authority of all the books is fully established, and cannot

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 71
be invalidated. It follows that the further reduction of
the number must be by combination. What shall we
combine? What can we combine without violence or
impropriety ?
7. We can combine the Later Prophets, and reckon
them as a single book, unique in character and design,
relating the memoirs of fifteen prophets, to be compared
with Plutuarch's lives of distinguished Greeks, with other
books of biography, ancient and modern, and with the
dramatic works of JEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.
Those Greek masters go further back to the heroic age
for their characters and incidents, and treat them more
freely. The Hebrew author makes his personages chiefly
preachers, and represents them almost exclusively in that
character, but with considerable variety of style. We do
not find it necessary to assume a different author for each
of the tragedies of Euripides, and just as little is it neces
sary to demand one for each of the prophets; several
may have proceeded from a single hand.
8. The Later Prophets are already combined as they
come to our hands, and named Later Prophets ; we have
only to accept them as a single work, and we have the
number of books reported by Josephus. With this reduc
tion the books stand thus : —
I. Books to the death of Moses, the Pentateuch, 5
II. From the death of Moses to Artaxerxes,
Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Later Prophets,
Job, Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehe
miah, and Chronicles, 13
III. Hymns to God and precepts, Psalms, Prov
erbs, Canticles, and Lamentations, 4
Total, 22
This embraces all the canonical books, violates no- prin
ciple of order, is consistent with facts, and is liable to no

72 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
reasonable objection. The Earlier Prophets are equally
a single work, which had become divided up and given
to different authors before the time of Josephus, and the
Later Prophets have been similarly divided and distrib
uted since.
9. Josephus ascribes the Pentateuch to Moses incor
rectly. It appears clearly from an examination of the
evidence, that it was not written by Moses, nor till long
after his times. Josephus is equally mistaken in ascribing
all the historic books after the Pentateuch to prophets,
and those written by prophets, to such as lived in the
times of the events they described. History cannot be
written correctly by contemporaries ; neither characters
nor events can be appreciated till a subsequent age sheds
the light of its developments upon them. Then they are
understood, and their history can be written. Neither
the greatly good or evil are fully understood during their
lives ; it is the inevitable condition of greatness to be only
appreciated at its full value when it has passed away, and
the logic of events has resolved in some degree its myste
ries. All the great historians of the world have acquired
their renown by describing mainly the past. The He
brews are not an exception to the rest of mankind in this
respect; if their history had all been written in the times
of the events and persons described, it would have been
comparatively worthless. The books of Moses were writ
ten long after Moses, and those of the prophets generally,
as long after them. The statement, therefore, that the
prophets wrote down what was done in their times in
thirteen books (to Apion 1 : 8), unsupported by evidence,
and contrary to all analogy, would be entirely incredible, if
there was nothing to discredit it in the books themselves;
but there is much. Some of the earlier books after the
Pentateuch were probably written by prophets, but very
few of the books appear to have been written by persons

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 73
who belonged to the times of which they treat, and some
of them extend through several generations.
10. Josephus reckons Daniel with the 13 books in which
the prophets wrote down what was done in their times ;
this would allow him to be the author of his book, but is
as far from proving that he was such as his similar state
ment in regard to Moses is from proving that he was the
author of the Pentateuch. On both of these subjects Jo
sephus concurs in the superficial judgments of his times,
accepts the most absurd conclusions from tradition, and
passes them along without a question. These subjects
were never thoroughly investigated by the early Chris
tians, and the Protestant Reformers did not investigate
them thoroughly. They have since been examined and
reexamined by the German Rationalists, and many new
facts ascertained.
11. Josephus ignores the Hebrew distinction between
the Earlier and Later Prophets, and also that between the
Prophets and the writings of the scribes. No harm is
done by this ; these distinctions are of no importance, ex
cept as they mark the succession and chronological posi
tions of the books ; but his assigning the books to authors
"who wrote down what was done in their times," and
making them all antecedent to Artaxerxes I., or contem
porary with him, is a great historical blunder, and shows
his profound ignorance of the subject. His neglect to
note the distinctions of the Hebrew Bible proves nothing
against them. He says nothing of the order of the his
toric books, and nothing that indicates a different arrange
ment from that of the Hebrew Bible. He allows them all
to precede the poetic books, and these he seems to sepa
rate from the rest out of deference to the scientific meth
ods of the Greeks and Romans, who always distinguished
between prose and poetry.
12. Josephus received Daniel as a prophet, and treats
7

74 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
his book as historic ; but this does not prove that he found
it among the Prophets, any more than Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Chronicles, which are never imagined to have been
found there. The true significance and meaning of
Daniel's position in the Hebrew Bible were not noted by
early inquirers. It was left for the moderns to observe
its inconsistency with the traditionary theory of the age
and authorship of the book, and to modify their views
accordingly. 13. In his Antiquities of the Jews (10. 10. 1-6; 10. 11.
1-7), Josephus gives an account of Daniel, derived mainly
from his book, which he treats as historical. He makes
Daniel and his three friends of the family of Zedekiah.
This is a mistake. Zedekiah was but twelve years old at
the time of Daniel's supposed capture, and not of an age
to have a family. Zedekiah and his family were not taken
captive till 19 years after the supposed capture of Daniel,
and his sons were then killed in his presence. (2 Kings
25: 7.) Josephus makes Evil Merodach reign 18 years,
when he is succeeded by Neriglissar his son, who reigns 40
years. Then, according to him, Labosordacus reigns nine
months, when Beltazar, called by the Babylonians Nabo-
andel, reigns 17 years. Under Beltazar, Cyrus king of
Persia and Darius king of Media make war on Babylon
and besiege it. Darius takes it, with Cyrus his kinsman.
This Darius was a son of Astyages ; and Daniel went with
him into Media, where he honored him very much, and
set him over his 360 provinces. (A. J. 10. 11. 2-4.)
14. To be satisfied of the incorrectness of these state
ments, we have only to refer to the later work of Jose
phus against Apion, where he gives the facts from Berosus
thus (Against Apion, 1. 20) : Evil Merodach reigned 2
years, when he was killed by Neriglissar, his sister's hus
band. Neriglissar reigned 4 years, and was succeeded
by his son Laborosoarchad, who reigned nine months.

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 75
Nabonnedus [Nabonidus], a Babylonian, succeeded, and
reigned 17 years ; when Babylon was taken by Cyrus.
Nabonnedus was not in Babylon at the time of its cap
ture, but in Borsippa, on the east side of the Euphrates,
15 miles distant. Cyrus went to Borsippa, and Nabonne
dus surrendered himself to him, and was treated with
clemency ; he was banished from Babylonia, but allowed
an estate in Carmania, where he spent the rest of his life,
and died in peace.
15. This latter account is a correction of the former,
and of the book of Daniel. Josephus follows it, with the
assertion, " These accounts agree with the true history in
our books ; for in them it is written that Nebuchadnezzar,
in the eighteenth year of his reign, laid our temple deso
late, and so it lay 50 years ; but then, in the second year
of the reign of Cyrus, its foundations were laid, and it was
finished again in the second year of Darius [Hystaspes]."
They agree so far indeed; but this agreement is with
other books, and not with Daniel ; the book of Daniel is
silent on these subjects.
16. Josephus correctly represents the book of Daniel as
describing Antiochus IV., of the Syrian Greek kingdom,
by the little horn from the Grecian goat, and his fighting
against the nation, taking the city, bringing the temple
worship into confusion, and prohibiting sacrifices 1296
days. (A. J. 10. 11. 7.) He also describes the other
prophetic dreams and visions relating to the Greeks, and
brings down the prophetic history of the world to Anti
ochus IV., but takes no notice of the last of the Chaldee
dreams of Daniel, in which the Roman empire is repre
sented by the fourth beast with ten horns, and the em
perors by the little horn, except to say, after describing
Antiochus (A. J. 10. 11. 7), "In the very same manner
Daniel also wrote concerning the Roman government,
that our country should be desolated by them." Any

76 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
more distinct reference to Daniel's dream of the four
kingdoms might not have been safe. It presented views
and encouraged expectations of the speedy and terrible
destruction of the Roman empire, and must have been
offensive to those interested in its prosperity, especially
to its emperors.
17. Our earliest information of the Hebrew books from
Christians is received through Eusebius, who was born at
Cassarea about 270 A. D., and who spent most of his life in
that city. After the martyrdom of his friend Pamphylus,
309, he fled to Tyre, and went from there to Egypt, and
after the persecution subsided, returned to his native city,
and was made bishop of it, about 314 : in 325 he attended
the Council of Nice, delivered the opening address, sat at
the right hand of the emperor in the council, made the
first draft of the Nicene creed, and died in 340. He wrote
many valuable works, among which is a church history
from the birth of Christ to the triumph of Constantine,
324 A. D. He reports the following catalogues of the
Hebrew sacred books previous to the time of Constan
tine : —
18. I. That of Melito, bishop of Sardis, about 170 A. D.
Melito went to Palestine, and there ascertained the num
ber of Hebrew books from the Jews. This shows that
he was not previously informed on the subject. He re
ports to his brother in a letter which is preserved by Eu
sebius. His list is as follows : 1, Genesis, 2, Exodus, 3,
Leviticus, 4, Numbers, 5, Deuteronomy, 6, Joshua, 7,
Judges, 8, Ruth, 9-12, four books of Kings, 13, 14, two
of Chronicles, 15, David of Psalms, 16, Proverbs of Solo
mon, which is also Wisdom, 17, Ecclesiastes, 18, Song of
Songs, 19, Job, 20, the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, the 12
in one book, 21, Daniel, Ezekiel, 22, Esdras.
19. The translation of this list by Professor Stuart, on
the canon, p. 432, exhibits a surprising oversight in

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 77
respect to the one book of the prophets. It compre
hends Isaiah and Jeremiah equally with the 12 ; and Eze
kiel seems to have been omitted by mistake, and inserted
out of place after Daniel. Replacing Ezekiel, and reck
oning it as a part of the book of the prophets, the whole
number is 22, not 21, as said by Stuart, p. 259. This
catalogue was obtained from the Jews in Palestine, and
the information was then new to the bishop of Sardis and
his friends. Melito was a voluminous writer on Chris
tianity in the latter part of the second century. (See
Murdock's Mosheim, vol. i. p. 123, etc.)
20. II. The second list is that of Origen, first a cate-
chist of Alexandria, then a resident writer of Csssarea, who
died 254, in the 69th year of his age ; the most learned
Christian of his times, and one of the most learned of all
times. He writes, according to Eusebius, as follows :
" But one must not be ignorant that the covenant books,
as the Hebrews relate, are 22, so great is the number of
letters with them." Then, after some remarks, he adds,
" The 22 books, according to the Hebrews, are these :
1, Genesis, 2, Exodus, 3, Leviticus, 4, Numbers, 5, Deuter
onomy, 6, Joshua, 7, Judges, 8, Ruth, 9, Samuel, 10, Kings,
11, Chronicles, 12, Ezra, 13, Psalms, 14, Proverbs, 15, Ec-
clesiastes, 16, Song of Songs, 17, Isaiah, 18, Jeremiah,
with Lamentations and the Epistle, 19, Daniel, 20, Eze
kiel, 21, Job, 22, Esther." Besides these there are the
Maccabees. The list is abridged, but not otherwise
changed, in the above. From this list the Minor Prophets
are omitted, for which no good reason appears.
7*

78 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.

CHAPTER V.
The Apocrypha, different estimates of it by Catholics and Protestants ;
its value, and its negative evidence against the historic character
of Daniel and his hook.
1. Apocrypha signifies hidden, and denotes the books
of Hellenic Hebrews contained in the Septuagint which
have no existing Hebrew originals. They are as much a
part of the Septuagint as the translations of the Hebrew
books, but are not admitted by Protestants to be of equal
authority with the Hebrew. No good reason appears for
this distinction ; the Hellenic Jews were neither less wise
nor less pious than their Chaldee contemporaries.
2. The Council of Trent, April 8, 1546, admitted Tobit,
Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Ba
ruch, the Epistle of Jeremiah, Song of the Three Children,
Stories of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, and Maccabees,
to the sacred canon ; and they accordingly appear in the
Roman Catholic Bibles. From the Bibles of Protestants
they are mostly banished. The action of the Council of
Trent was based on good grounds; the authority of these
Greek books is equal to that of the Hebrew, and the in
formation which they afford is in many cases as important.
Both are equally human compositions, to be read with
discrimination and judgment, and both contain documents
of great historic value. Most of the arguments of Home,
Davidson, and others, against the Apocrypha, are equally
valid against the Hebrew books. Such considerations
prove the books not to be divine, but they do not prove
them not to be valuable. The Apocryphal books origi
nated at Alexandria in 'Egypt, one of the most celebrated
seats of Greek learning, during the Egyptian Greek dy
nasty of the Ptolemies, and were admitted into the Sep
tuagint at the time of its compilation, before the Christian

CRITICAL introduction. 79
era. They were there, and their authority unquestioned
in the time of Christ and the apostles, and also in that of
the earliest church fathers. The Roman Catholics are
in error, with the great masses of Protestant Christendom,
in making the sacred books infallible rules of faith, but
they are not in error in claiming the same respect essen
tially for the Apocrypha as the other sacred books, and
extending common principles of interpretation to both.
3. The authors of the Septuagint changed the order of
the Hebrew books, arranging those of a kind together in
cases where the Hebrew Bible separated them. They
removed Chronicles from the close of Part IV. and of the
whole Bible, to the close of Part II., and made them follow
Kings, and put the other books of Part IV., with the ex
ception of Daniel, before the later prophets, interspersing
them with Apocryphal books and considerably changing
their order. In some cases these changes appear to be
arbitrary or accidental. The Major Prophets are placed
after the Minor in the Septuagint, ancl Daniel follows the
whole, after which we have the three books of Macoabees.
The Septuagint books of the Apocrypha are Esdras,
Tobias, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom of Solomon,
Siracides, Epistle of Jeremiah, Prayer of Azariah, Song
of the Three Children, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon,
I. Maccabees, II. Maccabees, III. Maccabees. Susanna,
Prayer of Azariah, Song of the Three, Bel and the Dragon,
are connected with the book of Daniel, and reckoned as
integral parts of it. They are Hellenic additions to the
previous Hebrew and Chaldee stories, as the Chaldee
are to the still earlier Hebrew ones.
4. The Greek books contain no direct information con
cerning the book of Daniel; they never describe the book
nor mention it, nor do they make any certain reference to
it. Ecclesiasticus, written about 130 B. C, refers to the
previous sacred books "as the law, the prophets, and

80 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
others which followed, given after them, on account of
which Israel is to be commended for culture and wisdom."
The law seems to denote the Pentateuch, the prophets,
the Earlier and Later Prophets, and the other books,
which followed, given after them, the twelve books by
the scribes, which conclude the Hebrew Bible.
5. Ecclesiasticus claims to have been written in the
38th year of Ptolemy Benefactor IL, which is about 130
B. C. (See the Prologue.) The book consists, to a
great extent, of moral sayings and precepts of morality
and piety; and in chapters 44-50 celebrates illustrious
Hebrews and their ancestors from the earliest times.
The piece is entitled, in the Septuagint, Hymn of the
Fathers, and mentions the following : 1, Enoch, 2, Noah,
3, Abraham, 4, Isaac, 5, Moses, 6, Aaron, 7, Phineas, 8,
David, 9, Joshua, 10, Caleb, 11, Samuel, 12, Nathan (Da
vid again), 13, Solomon, 14, Elijah, 15, Elisha, 16, Heze
kiah, 17, Josiah, 18, Jeremiah, 19, Ezekiel, 20, Zerubbabel,
21, Jesus, son of Josedec, 22, Nehemiah (Enoch again),
23, Shem (Seth again), 24, Joseph, 25, Adam, 26, Simon
son of Onias.
6. A few are mentioned twice, and some out of their
natural chronological order, as if omitted at first through
inadvertance, and afterwards remembered and inserted
out of place. The list extends over the times of Mor-
decai, Esther, Daniel, and Ezra, and mentions Jeremiah
and Ezekiel, their contemporaries, but makes no mention
of them. Mordecai, Esther, and Ezra might possibly be
omitted, as lesser lights, but the greatest of all the He
brews, and the most illustrious of all the interpreters of
visions and dreams, should have had a conspicuous posi
tion in this galaxy ; the greatest among the great should
not be ignored. The neglect to mention Daniel in this
song is a strong evidence that his star had not yet risen.
7. In 1 Mace. 2 : 49-69 Mattathias is described as deliv-

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 81
ering his dying charge to his sons and other friends, in
which he adverts to the illustrious martyrs and witnesses
of earlier times as follows : " Was not Abraham found
faithful in trial, and it was imputed to him for righteous
ness ? Joseph, in time of his distress, kept the command
ment, and was made lord of Egypt ; Phineas, our father,
by being extremely zealous, obtained the covenant of an
eternal priesthood ; Jesus [Joshua], by fulfilling the word,
became judge in Israel ; Caleb, by testifying in the assem
bly, obtained an inheritance of the land ; David, by his
mercy, inherited a throne forever; Elijah, being zealous
for the law, was taken up even to heaven; Ananiah, Aza
riah, and Mishael, having believed, were saved from the
fire ; Daniel, by simplicity, was saved from the mouth
of lions." Here is a recognition of Daniel as saved from
the mouth of lions ; and it follows the mention of Ana
niah, Azariah, and Mishael, who in consequence of faith
were saved from fire. These references agree with the
book of Daniel, except that they make Ananiah, Azariah,
and Mishael precede Daniel ; but they do not authenticate
the book, nor prove that it was in existence in the time
of Mattathias. They only say that some Ananiah, Aza
riah, and Mishael had been saved from fire by faith, and
that a Daniel had been saved from lions by simplicity.
It is more probable that these allusions, and the stories
in Daniel on the subject, are founded on facts, an exact
statement of which has not been preserved, than that the
accounts in Daniel are narratives of facts. It is not im
possible that these allusions are hints on which the stories
in Daniel were constructed.
8. A distinguished personage, by the name of Daniel,
is twice mentioned by Ezekiel in terms of high respect.
In an oracle to the elders of Israel, in Ezekiel 14 : 14, it
is said, " And if these three men were in the midst of it,
Noah, Daniel, and Job, they by their righteousness should

82 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
save their own lives [only], says Adonai Jeva." Verse
20 is still stronger : " If Noah, Daniel, and Job were in it,
as I live, says Adonai Jeva, they should save neither son
nor daughter by their righteousness ; they should save
their own lives [only]." This oracle purports to have
been delivered 594 B. C, four years after the first capture
of Jerusalem under Jehoiachin, and seven before its final
capture and destruction under Zedekiah. Daniel was yet
a young man, and not of an age to be reckoned with Noah
and Job. Besides, Noah is a diluvial patriarch, and Job
pre-Abrahamic, so that the Daniel of this oracle ought to
be previous to Abraham. He cannot, without great im
propriety, be a Babylonian exile, and a young contempo
rary with Ezekiel.
9. In Ezekiel 28 : 2, 3, it is said, in an oracle to Tyre,
"Because your heart is lifted up, and you say, I am a
mighty one, I sit in the seat of God in the heart of the
seas, and you are a man and not a mighty one, and you
set your heart like the heart of God, behold, you are wiser
than Daniel, and they can hide no secret from you."
Daniel is formed, like Gabriel, by a combination with el
mighty one, and seems here to denote an angel of judg
ment, whose severe and thorough scrutiny nothing can
baffle or escape. Daniel is as suitable a term to be the
name of an angel as Gabriel. This allusion to Daniel
purports to be in 588 B. C, at about the time of the cap
ture and destruction of Jerusalem under Zedekiah, and is
six years after the previous oracle classing Daniel with
Noah and Job. The book of Ezekiel belongs to the He
brew book of the fifteen prophets, which was not com
pleted till after 400 B. C, all of which preceded the book
of Daniel ; nor is there any thing in these allusions, or else
where, to discredit that supposition. But if the Daniel
of Ezekiel 28 : 2, 3, from whom nothing can be hid, is
not a supposed god of judgment, or an angel like Gabriel,

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 83
but a man of remarkable wisdom and perspicacity, and if
that man lived at Babylon from the third year of Jehoia
kim, 605 B. C, to the third year of Cyrus, 535, 70 years,
it then does not follow, from any thing that Ezekiel says,
that he was concerned in the transactions related in his
book; still less that he recorded them. It would still
appear that the book is, to a great extent, fictitious, and
that it was composed long after the times to which its
incidents belong.
CHAPTER VI.
The New Testament authority for making Daniel a prophet, and the
author of his book, shown to be unreliable.
1. The New Testament is made by many to give sup
port and qualifications to the Old, as historic and other
wise reliable for the establishment of facts, which far
transcends its powers. It cannot abolish or reverse facts,
or determine questions contrary to evidence ; it cannot
make historic what is fictitious, give the productions of
later ages to earlier, or make the personages of allegories,
poems, and moral tales their authors. To make it contra
dict facts, and sustain false assumptions, is greatly to per
vert and misuse it.
2. To take its testimony, we must consider its char
acter and credentials. It is not a simple indivisible unit ;
it is made up of integral parts, each of which has its own
independent character. Besides other discriminations, its
books are of two kinds, considered in respect to authenti
cation. Some of them are signed, prefaced, and other
wise acknowledged and claimed by their authors, as the
Epistles of Paul and Peter ; and we have only to deter
mine that the subscriptions, prefaces, and acknowledg
ments are genuine, in order to make the testimony of the
books complete, for whatever came under the observation

84 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
of the authors, and also for their opinions. Others have no
subscriptions, prefaces, or acknowledgments by the au
thors, and are attributed to supposed authors, by an
authority extraneous to the books, and on grounds and
evidences which are not reported, and of which we can
form no rational judgment, except the unfavorable one
of rejecting them as insufficient, on account of their sup
pression. Sufficient evidences would neither have been
suppressed nor allowed to perish.
3. Daniel is never alluded to by Paul, Peter, or any
New Testament writer who authenticates his production,
and makes himself responsible for it. He is but once
mentioned in the New Testament, and that is in Matthew.
Matthew is neither subscribed, prefaced, nor in any way
acknowledged by the author. The title, with those of
the other Gospels, is by a foreign hand. The author
neither gives his name to the work, nor assumes any re
sponsibility for the correctness of its statements ; he men
tions no circumstance and relates no incident by which
he can be identified. This is not the method of history,
nor of witnesses testifying to facts. The historian gives
authorities and proofs, and the witness signifies his pres
ence and attention to facts and incidents which he relates.
4. The laws of evidence are laws of God; and they
require testimony to be subscribed, acknowledged, and
certified. Statements that are put forth without respon
sible names, are shown by that circumstance not to be
intended to be received as evidence of facts, but to be
designed for other purposes. Such a document is the
Gospel according to Matthew, not by Matthew, nor by
any known author. A more important document was
never given to the world, and authorship was never more
perfectly concealed.
5. The early Christians took it up, and failing to find
an author, prudently entitled it Gospel (good news) accord-

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 85
ing to Matthew, one of the least conspicuous of the 12
apostles. It cannot be Matthew's; it is not only without
any attestation and acknowledgment from him, but it has
none of the marks of a witness and observer who relates
what he sees and hears. It cannot be by an apostle ; it
nowhere speaks in the name and with the authority of
an apostle. The author is some indifferent person, who
had no observations of his own to record, and claims to
have none ; but he had what is not to be despised — the
power of representing Christ according to a high ideal of
intelligence and moral worth ; and he exercised, it freely.
6! Had Matthew written this narrative, and delivered
it to the world as his testimony of Christ, he would have
told us what he saw and heard, and what he had from
the reports of others. In cases o>f importance, where he
depended on information, he would have given us the
character and qualifications of his informers, and a history
of the reports he received. This is the method of He
rodotus, the father of history, and of all his legitimate
sons. A book of his own personal observations and ac
quaintance with Christ, by Matthew, telling us what he
saw and heard, and what he had by information from
others, and stating the character of his informations,
would be inestimable, and would dispel many popular
delusions that have grown up in the absence of exact
information. 7. It may be supposed by some, that Matthew pub
lished this book with proper attestations and acknowledg
ments, as from him, and that they have been lost. This
is impossible ; such attestations and acknowledgments
would have been the most important parts of the book, to
be guarded with especial care, like the names subscribed to
notes and bonds, the loss of which vitiates the instruments
and makes them worthless. Testimony without a name
is like a bond without a signature; it is part of an instru-

86 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
ment, but is not completed, and is good for nothing ; no
expedient can supply the defect. The name must be
there, and the acknowledgment made and certified, or
the bond is of no force. A bond is an instrument of
evidence, and proves a promise and 'assumption of respon
sibility; but it cannot prove this without the name of the
contracting party; it is not completed till it is subscribed
and acknowledged ; and just as little is any book of evi
dence completed without similar accompaniments. The
acceptance of unattested documents as evidence of facts
is a manifest error.
8. It was an amazing blunder ever to accept this book
as a reliable narrative of facts ; the want of a responsible
name renders it incapable of establishing a fact ; as far as
it deals with known facts, they can be recognized on the
ground of the evidence which makes them known, but
the unknown remains unknown, notwithstanding any
assertions of an anonymous publication. Whether Mat
thew is a narrative of facts, or wholly or in part fictitious,
are questions to be determined by evidence, and not by
arbitrary assumptions. Anonymous books may be narra
tives of facts, and may be fictitious; they may be wholly
or in part narratives of facts, or wholly or in part fictitious.
9. The author tells of nothing that he heard, saw, or
ascertained by personal observation; he reports no dis
courses which he had from one that was present and
stated only what he heard. Nor are any such found in
the New Testament. The real discourses of Christ have
perished ; they were like seed sown in the fields that
never returns, but vegetates and dies, and reproduces like
seeds. Christ's words sunk into the minds of men, and
produced pious and holy lives, and pious and holy men
spoke for him, and reproduced his words. Thus the good
seed became multiplied and increased 30, 60, and 100 fold.
We get no more the exact words of Christ in Matthew,

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 87
than we do the exact seeds deposited in the earth by the
farmer, in the return of the harvest. The old seed per
ished, but others of the kind are reproduced from it ; so
the words of Christ perished, but others of the kind are
reproduced from them.
10. The book represents Christ as the highest and no
blest ideal of a religious teacher, invested with all the
powers supposed ever to be delegated to mortals. Others
were supposed to have supernatural powers, and it was
deemed right to attribute them to him ; others had the
spirit of God in limited degrees, he without measure.
The honest representation of Christ by these writers does
not preclude mistakes as to facts, nor the use of such as
were known to be fictitious. Fiction is a servant of truth,
and is not to be confounded with falsehood ; and the hy
pothesis of fictitious incidents in the Gospels is liable to
no a priori objections.
11. The author of this Gospel writes as a Christian
deeply imbued with the doctrines of Christ, as they were
then understood, and able to teach them in attractive
forms. He copies Mark entire, with few omissions, many
slight and some considerable variations, and with great'
and invaluable additions. Concerning Daniel, the author
of Mark said nothing ; but he made Christ speak of the
abomination of desolation which first appears in Daniel.
The phrase is indefinite, and admits of considerable
diversity of meanings. Whatever was meant in Daniel,
the evangelist makes Christ signify by it the Roman
eagle borne as a military standard. The author of Mat
thew transcribes the passage, and tells us that this object
was spoken of by Daniel the prophet. His statement is
as follows : " When, therefore, you see the abomination of
the desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet, standing
in a holy place, — let him that reads understand, — then
let those in Judea flee on the mountains." (Matt. 24 : 15.)

88 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
The original in Mark reads thus: "But when you see the
abomination of desolation standing where it ought not, —
let him that reads understand, — then let those in Judea
flee to the mountains." (Mark 13 : 14.)
12. These statements are important, but they neither
prove that Daniel was a prophet, nor that he was the
author of his book. The statement in Matthew proves
only the opinion of the writer. In his opinion Daniel
was a prophet, and the abomination of desolation spoken
of by him is the Roman standard, spoken of by Christ as
to be set up on holy ground previous to the destruction
of Jerusalem, A. D. 70. On these subjects the writer is
only competent to give us his opinion ; they did not
come within his personal inspection and observation.
13. The author of Matthew makes Daniel a prophet,
predicting the Roman invasion of Jerusalem by Vespasian
and Titus, A. D. 69 and 70. Does he represent Christ as
doing so ? Apparently he does ; and the two Gospel
narratives apparently concur in making Christ say, Let
him that reads understand ; but this is not suitable to
Christ, nor to a public speaker ; it is only suitable to a
•writer. If Christ says any thing of the kind, he ought to
say, Let him that hears understand. A speaker addresses
hearers, not readers ; this phrase, therefore, must be re
ferred to the writers ; it is evidently by the author of
Mark, and is copied with the rest into Matthew. The
words, Spoken of by Daniel the prophet, are by the author
of Matthew, either as his own, or as a part of the discourse
of Christ. It determines nothing except Daniel's reputed
character, and may be compared to Luke 16: 18, "Hear
what the unjust judge sa3's." We speak in the same way
of the angel Abdiel in Milton, of Hamlet in the play of
Hamlet, and of fictitious characters in all works whatever.
14. The statement of the evangelist does not prove
that Christ mentioned Daniel the prophet; all that it

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 89
proves, on the supposition that the author intends it to
be understood as an assertion of Christ, is, that in his
judgment it was suitable for him to have said it. More
than this is an unwarrantable assumption.
15. The New Testament authority, therefore, for mak
ing Daniel a prophet, is not the whole New Testament,
the work of several authors, nor all the Gospels, nor
Christ, to whom the words are attributed, but the un
known author of the Gospel according to Matthew, re
porting Christ as speaking conformably to his ideas of
what it was consistent and proper for him to say, and rep
resenting him as the highest conceivable ideal of a reli
gious teacher.
16. Christ founded no school of historic and biblical
criticism, nor did Christianity reach that stage of develop
ment in the times of the New Testament writers ; but
Christ founded Christianity, as a system of truth, historic,
dogmatic, and moral, and put men on the track of im
provements in knowledge that will never be completed,
because the path of knowledge never ends, and its moun
tain summits pierce the infinite.
17. Christ left both the authorship and character of the
books of the Old Testament to be studied and determined
on their evidences, whatever they are, and laid no restric
tions on the freest inquiry. Christianity is independent
of all false assumptions, and spares the supports of the
superstitions and delusions of ages, without the least
peril or fear. It is a system of perfect truth and duty, -
and has nothing to gain by delusions or sins, but every
thing to lose. •
18. Heb. 11 : 33, 34, mentions those who subdued
kingdoms, wrought righteousness, obtained promises,
stopped the mouths of lions, extinguished violent fires,
etc. Daniel is represented in his book as one in whose
behalf God stopped the mouths of lions ; who the others

90 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
were we are not informed. Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed
nego are represented in Daniel as persons in whose behalf
God extinguished violent fires ; in both of these cases the
book of Daniel is probably alluded to, but no authentica
tion of it accompanies the allusions, and the author would
be incompetent to give any.
CHAPTER VII.
The Chaldee language of the Stories is a conclusive proof that those
of the Mixed and Chaldee Series are not productions of Daniel,
or his times.
1. Language is one of the most reliable witnesses of
history and chronology, and enables us to solve many
questions that would otherwise be unresolvable. The
Hebrew Stories of Daniel have striking affinities with
Ezekiel, as in the use of the phrase, The beauty, for The land
of Judea ; Son of man, for Man ; and Clothed with linen, for
Splendidly clothed. Ezekiel is of an uncertain date, and
later than the times it represents.
2. The Mixed and Chaldee Stories agree essentially in
their language with the earliest Targums, which were
written about the time of Christ. They have, however, a
few Hebrew peculiarities, which are wanting in the Tar
gums. The Chaldee of Ezra is still more Hebraic in one
or two particulars, and in others more conformable to the
Targums. Different authors might exhibit these slight
diversities in the same age, but they belong more naturally
to successive stages of language formation.
3. The biblical Chaldee has been incorrectly supposed
to be an importation from Babylon at the return of the
Jews, and to have been the language, first, of Nebuchad
nezzar and the Chaldeans, 603 B. C, as reported in Mixed
Story V. of Daniel, and then of Rehum the Syrian, other
Syrians, Darius I., Artaxerxes I., and the Persians in 522

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 91
and 457 B. C, as reported in Ezra. Ezra 4 : 8-16 : 18
contains a letter from Rehum the Syrian and others to
Darius I., and his reply, with various historic notices, in 522
B. C; and Ezra 7 : 12-26, reports a Chaldaic decree of Ar
taxerxes, given to Ezra 457 B. C. According to these ac
counts, the language of Nebuchadnezzar and the Chal
deans was the same as that of Artaxerxes and the Persians,
and continued, without any essential change, from 603
B. C. to 457, 146 years. Languages do not always change
greatly in 146 years, so that the want of any perceptible
changes to correspond to this interval, is not impor
tant. But we have positive evidence that biblical Chal
dee was not the language of Babylon and the Chaldeans
in 603 B. C, nor that of the Persians in 457.
4. The Behistun inscription of Darius I. is trilingual,
but neither of its languages is biblical Chaldee, nor is a
letter of Chaldee found among the inscriptions of Babylon
or Persia for these periods. The Hebrew language is
preserved in the Hebrew Bible, and the Chaldee in the
Targums and Talmuds. Instead of being derived from a
foreign source, the Chaldee is formed from the Hebrew, as
the English of to-day is from the older and obsolete English
of 600 years ago, and as all modern languages are from
older ones whose stems they preserve. These stems are
modified by prefixes, suffixes, letters changed for similar
letters, those representing harsher and less agreeable
sounds for such as represent more agreeable ones, unneces
sary letters dropped, and words contracted, with numer
ous additional words from domestic and foreign sources.
Nearly all the stems of the Hebrew are found in Chal
dee words, and prove conclusively the relation of the
Chaldee to the Hebrew, as its lineal successor.
5. The Hebrew is contemporary with the earliest Greek ;
but while the Greek is derived from Aria, in Central
Asia, the Hebrew cannot be traced with certainty to any

92 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
remote region. It is supposed to be a domestic product
of Syria, modified by the Ethiopic and Egyptian. It is
more probably a slip from the stock of Ethiopia, as the
Greek is from that of Aria.
6. The biblical Chaldee is proved, by the earliest Tar
gums and other evidences, to have been the vernacular
language of the Syrian Jews in the time of Christ, and
hundreds of years later. It was the language of the
Tyrians, Sidonians, and other nationalities in Syria, as
well as of the Jews. These circumstances show that it
could not have been the language of Babylon in the time
of Nebuchadnezzar. Living languages are never station
ary, and dead languages never revive nor recover their
primitive forms.
7. Languages are rivers running into the future, and
finding new tracts through which to pass, but never re
turning to their early sources. The Latin once left be
hind is left forever ; so of the Hebrew, the Sanscrit, and
all dead languages. They may be used indefinitely as dead
languages, but cannot be reanimated. The English of
to-day is a new product ; it never existed before ; and
having passed by, as it must, it will never exist again.
Each language has its age, day, and country ; its day may
be prolonged, and its country extended, but neither can
be extended indefinitely. Every past age and every
considerable portion of the human family has its particular
language ; the languages of the present world are all dif
ferent from the past, and those of the future will all be
different from the present. Such is the result of divine
laws ; it does not occur from human design or choice ; it
is resisted and disparaged by many ; but on it goes, in
spite of resistance, and on it will go.
8. In the earliest ages, languages perished, and left no
memorial to show that they had been. Since the intro
duction of letters, they have been preserved and piled up

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 93
like rocks, one above another. They constitute a series
of depositions rising into mountains and sinking into
valleys, like those of the natural world, mark chronological
epochs, and become the lights of history. What should
we know of the earth's history if it were not for its suc
cessive strata ? The world's dead languages perform a
similar office, and carry us back to successive periods of
the past, which we otherwise could never explore. How
long the human family existed before it invented letters
and inscribed memorials, we cannot tell. History com
mences with the era of inscriptions.
9. Written language and interpretation are both in
their infancy, and are destined to be carried to a perfec
tion as far beyond what is yet attained as they are now
beyond their feeble beginnings. The English of to-day is
a far better language than the English of any past age,
and that of future ages will be better still. The art of
interpreting languages, ancient and modern, is more per
fect and better understood than it has been in any past
age, and will be proportionably improved and still better
understood in ages to come.
10. To the common apprehension, it is quite unneces
sary for languages to die, and when dead their usefulness
is supposed almost entirely to cease. But this is a mis
take ; living languages perform one mission, and dead
another. Their usefulness never ceases if they are made
the repositories of documents which are of permanent
value. The language testimony against the early origin
of the Chaldee parts of Daniel is scarcely necessary to
settle that great question, because other evidences are
conclusive ; but if any inquirers fail to perceive the con
clusiveness of other considerations, they will find this
irresistible.

94 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER VIII.
Proximate dates of the different parts of Daniel.
1. Stories II. and III. represent the kingdoms of Me
dia and Persia, Greece, and Syria, to the time of Antiochus
IV. Story IV. relates incidents in the history of Persia,
from the third year of Cyrus, 535 B. C, treats of Alexan
der, 331-323, of Syria and Egypt from 312 to 166, and
then relates operations of Antiochus which he did not
accomplish, and after his death introduces a kingdom of
Michael, a resurrection of the dead, and eternal life on
earth. 2. This shows that Part I. was written during the life
of Antiochus, about 166 or 165 B. C. If the story had
been a narrative of facts, it would not have stopped with
Antiochus IV., still less have given him operations which
he did not accomplish, and have introduced the kingdom
of Michael immediately after him, with other extraordi
nary events. The narrative extends through 370 years,
and relates things correctly and clearly. After 166 B. C.
every thing is erroneous, and the expectations indicated
are of the most extravagant kind, and such as have long
since been abandoned by most sober thinkers of all de
nominations. Story V. in Part IL, the Mixed Series,
commences the line of events in the second year of Nebu
chadnezzar, 603 B. C, and carries it down correctly to 75
B. C, when the Syrian and Egyptian legs of the image
seen by Nebuchadnezzar had become flattened into feet
and divided into toes, part iron and part clay; but mis
represents the agent by which those kingdoms were about
to be subverted.
3. It makes a stone cut by God, their destroyer, and
the destroyer of all other human kingdoms, and sets up a
universal divine kingdom. These expectations were not

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 95
accomplished ; no stone cut by God, destroyed all human
kingdoms, or set up an eternal divine kingdom on their
ruins. This shows that Story V. was written after An
tiochus IV., before Syria was subverted by the Romans
in 65 B. C, and shows, too, that the account is not a nar
rative of facts, but a religious fiction. The indications of
dates are unmistakable, and need only be well considered
to carry universal conviction.
4. Story X. in Part III. represents the four kingdoms
of Babylon, Persia, Greece, with its four divisions after
the death of Alexander, and Rome, a power not promi
nently noted before. It describes Rome first with its ten
horns, or two consuls and eight tribunes, — perhaps the
Decemvirs who made the Roman laws, — and then with
its little horn of the first emperors, with which it stops.
Its representations are in the Oriental style of exaggera
tion, but otherwise so far correct. It then allows the
empire three and a half years, and brings down the holy
ones of the celestial world, consumes the Roman empire
with fire, and sets up the kingdom of God to endure for
ever. Its date is apparently 25 B. C.
5. There is no internal mark of age in Part IV. All
that we know in regard to these Greek stories is, that they
were found in the Septuagint by the early Christians.
They follow the Chaldee after an indefinite interval, and
belong to near the commencement of the Christian era.
6. A due attention to the age of these books is of great
importance in their interpretation, and ought on no ac
count to be neglected. The different ages of the different
Parts show clearlj' that they are not the production of a
single author. One author began them in the Hebrew
age, and constructed several independent stories, about 166
B. C. Another, in the Chaldee age, added the first of
the Mixed Series, about 75 B. C. ; another, later still,
added more in Chaldee, about 25 B. C. ; and the Greek

96 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
additions were made still later. The views presented in
this chapter will receive additional support from the ex
amination of the several stories in the commentary.
CHAPTER IX.
Character and objects of the Book of Daniel.
1. There are three possible theories concerning the
character and objects of the book of Daniel, each of which
has supporters. The first is, that it is a wicked imposi
tion ; the second, that it is a narrative of facts ; and the
third, that it consists of moral tales, parables, or religious
fictions, designed to illustrate and enforce moral and reli
gious lessons. The truth lies between these; no other
supposition is possible.
2. Is it a wicked imposition ? It does not appear like
one; none of the stories evince any sympathy on the part
of the authors with wickedness, but the contrary. It
ought not to be judged to be a wicked imposition without
reason and necessity, and no good reason, still less any
necessity, appears for such a judgment. Men have been
greatly deceived by it ; but this appears to have been by
their fault, and has not occurred from any wrong in the
stories. 3. Is it historic, consisting of narratives of facts? It
does not appear to be such, and has not the style and
methods of history. History gives the names of authors,
cites authorities, and explains the grounds and reasons for
its conclusions. Nothing of the kind appears in this book ;
the name of Daniel placed as its title stands in no connec
tion with it, as denoting authorship, or attesting its state
ments. History records men's sayings in the third person,
He said, etc., to represent men as speaking and acting, is
the method of poetry and other fictitious works, but is
impossible to historians. The use of the first person in

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 97
the case of Daniel and others in this book, is a strong
evidence of fiction. Besides, the book does not agree
with history, and cannot be harmonized with it, except as
a fictitious work. History is consistent with itself; this
book, therefore, is not historic.
4. Is the book a series of parables and moral tales, anal
ogous in its character to Paradise Lost and other fictitious
works, which are written mainly for the illustration of
principles, and aim only to follow the analogy of facts ?
It has every appearance and mark of a fictitious work —
the dramatic style, the absence of all historic authorities,
the use of names unknown to authentic history, and the
application of known names to denote persons unknown
to history, as in the case of Darius the Mede, and the
description of events as real that, according to the uniform
laws of God, are impossible. It is a common rule of in
terpretation, that impossibilities are fictitious.
5. Fictitious writers generally follow history as far as
they understand it, and it suits their purpose ; there is no
occasion for fiction when historic incidents are at hand,
as well adapted to the writer's purpose as those he can
invent. The stories of Daniel might have been con
structed much more in accordance with facts than they
were, if the writer had been familiar with them. The
capture of Jerusalem might have been placed under
Jehoiachin, in the first year of his reign ; for Belshazzar,
son of Nebuchadnezzar, it might have substituted Nabon
idus, a Babylonian not of his family ; for Darius the
Mede, it might have substituted Astyages, the last of the
Median kings ; but as the Jews were never subject to the
Medes, some Babylonian or Persian king should have
been substituted for a Median in the stories to which
Darius belongs.
6. It appears clearly that the writers did not understand
correctly the history of the times in which they laid the
9

98 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
scenes of their stories, and therefore departed from it
farther than they needed to have done. To present the
subject in the clearest light, the following, with others,
may be noted as unnecessary departures from history : —
(1.) The capture of Jerusalem, plunder of the temple,
and carrying away of a portion of the Jewish people, in
the third year of Jehoiakim, eight years before any such
event occurred.
(2.) Making Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon in that
year, when he was not really so till the next.
(3.) Introducing a Median Ahasuerus, and Darius his
son, and making Darius conquer the king of Babylon and
kill him. The first king Darius known to history is Darius
the Persian, the third king after Cyrus.
(4.) Making Darius rule over 120 provinces, while the
Persian empire, in its most prosperous periods, had only
from 22 to 30 ; and the Median kings were far within
these limits.
(5.) Assigning three different times for the end of the
world, and all of them erroneous. Story IV. puts the end
of the world, and the establishment of the reign of the
archangel Michael, immediately after the death of Anti
ochus IV., king of Syria, in 163 B. C. ; Story V. places it
in the latter part of the Syrian and Egyptian Greek king
doms, about 75 B. C. ; and Story X., under the first Ro
man emperors. More conclusive evidence of fiction is not
possible. 7. Men in all ages live much in the past, and the great
teachers of all nations lay it under contribution for the
inculcation of the great lessons of piety and virtue. Under
the Syrian and Egyptian-Greek kings, the Jews were de
pendent on the Greeks, sometimes under Syrian and at
others under Egyptian masters. They preserved their
nationality, and struggled hard to keep their old time-
honored ceremonies in credit ; but the predominant Greek

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 99
influence was difficult to be resisted. The Oriental and
Egyptian simplicity and repose of the Hebrew character
were disturbed, and traditionary usage was confronted
with bold and determined questions of the good and
useful. 8. The dominion of the Greeks in Western Asia is one
of the most remarkable illustrations of the divine law of
order and utility. That small and inquisitive people out
stripped the Oriental world and Egypt in the cultivation
of science and art, and attained a superiority which enti
tled them to be masters, and required that the less im
proved nations should submit to their rule. The dominion
of the. Greeks in Asia under Alexander and his successors
was not an accident ; it occurred in the normal course of
events, and arose from the superiority of Grecian art.
That was not slight, equivocal, or partial, but pertained
to the whole field of human action and thought, and to
matters of the greatest importance. The Greeks were
preeminent in architecture, statuary, writing, painting,
music, oratory, poetry, history, dramatic compositions,
gymnastics, navigation, mathematics, manufactures, ag
riculture, war, politics, morality, and religion, in all of
which they far exceeded all previous and contemporary
nations. It was fit that such preeminence should com
mand, and inferior nations obey. Obedience and subjec
tion are the divinely appointed conditions of inferiority,
and helps to its higher culture. To this general law the
Jews bowed equally with others; successful resistance
was impossible.
9. In this state of inferiority and subjection, the Jews
were sometimes instructed and served, and sometimes op
pressed. They had to contend with Greek masters, and
the contest was unequal. They were thoroughly Oriental
in their dispositions and tastes, little inclined to innova
tion or improvement. They aimed to carry on society,

100 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
according to precedent, by despotic authority, and uncon
sciously made God in many cases a tyrant and partisan.
They followed the fathers, thought as they thought, did
as they did, and were content to be their humble and
often distant imitators, to the extent of imitating their
faults. They aimed to reproduce the past, and to per
petuate the good that had been, by fixed rules, and, like all
imitators, fell far short, and added new follies to old ones.
They invented no liberal or elegant arts, made little im
provement in their language, and commanded little respect
from surrounding nations. Yet, in some of their religious
and moral principles, they were far in advance of their
neighbors. They worshipped one God as the supreme
ruler of all worlds, and a God of righteousness. This was
their glory ; and locked up in this lay infinite blessings,
waiting the set time for their broader development.
10. Besides being compelled to respect the validity and
superiority of Greek arts, they were sometimes oppressed
and persecuted, and compelled to defend themselves and
assail the vices and sins of their masters. They could not
debate questions with them on equal terms ; they were
subjects, and the Greeks masters ; they were inferiors in
arts and arms, and the Greeks superiors. Many things
which they could not denounce directly, they could both
discuss and denounce indirectly in parables and enigmas.
It was not practicable to discuss the vices and sins of their
masters directly, but they did it under the veil of allegory.
They attributed the vices and sins of existing kings to
Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, or Darius, some of them real
kings, and others fictitious, and held them up to public
contempt. .11. Their stories do not describe literally the persons
or times to which they are referred; both are in some
cases fictitious ; but they describe symbolically later per
sons and times, and in a general sense are applicable to all

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 101
times. Interpreted as narratives of facts and incidents
that actually occurred in Babylon or Persia, the book of
Daniel is erroneous from beginning to end. Those facts
and incidents never occurred in those countries ; still less
did they occur in them at the times specified ; but taken
allegorically, they represent facts and incidents that oc
curred under the Syrian and Egyptian-Greek kings, and
such as often occurred elsewhere, both in ancient and
modern times.
12. It is no disparagement of the book of Daniel to be
made fictitious ; fictitious works are among the most im
portant and valuable that have ever been written, and
constitute the best and most instructive portions of all
human literature. The Biad and Odyssey among the
Greeks, the plays of Shakspeare and Milton's Paradise
Lost, are among the most valuable of all human produc
tions after the Bible, and the fictitious portions of the
Bible are among the most valuable of the sacred books.
13. Fictitious books are not necessarily untrue ; fiction
is an instrument of truth, equally with narratives of facts,
and is often superior in efficacy and usefulness. When
fictions are not superior to narratives of facts, they ought
not to be admitted ; and when they are admitted, their
true character as fictions ought to be carefully noted.
Any considerable mistakes cannot be made in their inter
pretation without greatly impairing their usefulness.
CHAPTER X.
Importance of interpreting Daniel correctly; Dark Sayings of the
Ancients ^Methods of Common Interpreters.
1. Daniel is one of the standards of religious faith,
and an incorrect interpretation of it tends to the corrup
tion of religion ; it is a monument of the past, and an
incorrect interpretation of it makes it misrepresent the
9*

102 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
past; it is a notation and illustration of the laws and
methods of God's government, and an incorrect interpre
tation of it makes it ascribe to God laws and methods
which are not his.
2. The ancients were fond of riddles and allegories, and
ancient literature abounds in them. Riddles were a con
stant diversion at feasts, and the celebrated oracles of
Egypt and Greece were chiefly allegoric and enigmatic
sayings. These were long regarded with reverence, and
studied with attention ; but the last century has consigned
them to neglect, and most of them are fast passing into
oblivion. 3. Sometimes the ancients proposed riddles and dark
sayings, to be guessed and interpreted as simple trials of
skill, without any accompanying considerations. At other
times they were accompanied with stakes, penal condi
tions, and forfeitures, and their correct solution made a
matter of the greatest importance.
4. We have an example of this in the riddle proposed
by Samson to his wedding guests, the Philistines of Tim-
nath ; the stakes were thirty shirts and thirty suits of
clothes, to be given by Samson to the guests, if they
guessed his riddle, but to be paid by them to him if they
failed. Proving incompetent to this task, the Philistines
would have lost the stake if they had not obtained the
help of Samson's wrife by intimidation. By this means
they gained the stake, to incur still heavier Ipsses for their
dishonesty. 5. The riddle of the Sphinx in Greece is an instance
of a similar usage among the ancient Greeks. All who
attempted to solve the riddle and failed, were killed ;
OZdipus solved it, and killed the Sphinx. The story is
mythic, and it is not easy to say with certainty what it
means ; but it refers unmistakably to usages and customs
which were real.

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 103
6. Had the stories of Daniel been proposed on the same
hard conditions as the mythic riddle of the Sphinx, the
slaughter of unsuccessful interpreters would have been
dreadful ; as it is, incorrect solutions have not been harm
less ; but the riddle of the Sphinx has almost found an
antitype in this book.
7. The stories of Daniel far transcend the Grecian
oracles, and the most celebrated riddles of antiquity, in
the difficulty of their solution, and in the injurious effects
-of the delusions to which they have ministered. They
have withstood the ingenuity and diligence of eighteen
centuries and 64 generations, and maintained their credit
with the masses of Christendom as genuine oracles. They
have been resolved by a direct reference to God and to
supernatural illuminations and communications from him,
and have thereby taught a system of divine procedure in
dealing with men, which is not conformable to experience.
Thus interpreted, the past is misrepresented, and men are
proportionably misled in their estimates of the present
and future.
8. The early Church Fathers received the oracles of
Daniel as they did those of the priests of Delphi or Ammon,
with unquestioning faith in their divine character, and
commended them as such to after ages. The Roman
Catholic Church Fathers followed the lead of the Fathers
of more primitive Christianity, in giving credence both to
the oracles of Judea and of Greece. Luther, Calvin, and
the other Protestant Reformers followed, in respect to
the Judaic oracles, the lead of the Roman Catholics. Re
cent commentators and critics have generally adopted
and passed along the opinions of their predecessors, in
regard to Hebrew and Christian oracles, as if they were
- an end of controversy; and many have contributed to
their support whatever considerations the superior learn
ing and logical acumen of later times could afford.

104 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
9. Sir Isaac Newton, after reading the heavens, and
interpreting the revolutions of the planets around the sun,
and the secondaries around their primaries, applied his
genius and art to the book of Daniel, and failed. In the
kingdom of materialism he accomplished much ; in solv
ing the book of Daniel he accomplished nothing, but
added plausibility and factitious dignity to old errors, and
extended and strengthened their dominion.
10. The great English commentators, Matthew Henry,
Thomas Scott, Adam Clarke, and others, adopt the views
of their predecessors, and lend the influence of their great
works to extend the empire of delusion and superstition
in connection with religion, and fasten their cords on all
Bible readers. This has been the general course of
thought and labor, but there is some dissent. The Ra
tionalists in Germany, and a few who have concurred
with them in England, America, and other countries, find
no essential difference between the oracles of Shusan and
Babylon, and those of Delphi and Ammon, and reject
both on the same grounds, receiving them only for what
they are, and allowing them their legitimate uses-. They
have boldly denounced the common views of this book,
and other sacred Scriptures, as unsupported by evidence,
inconsistent with facts, and productive of infinite evil.
They demand a reconsideration of questions that have
heretofore been settled on superficial grounds, and a re
jection of all unwarrantable assumptions from human
creeds. They make no war with faith, but only with fal
lacy ; and this they fight to the death. Their suggestions
have received hitherto but little attention, not enough to
be generally understood. The principal information which
the public have concerning them is derived from ignorant
and conceited libellers, who regard them as among the
most dangerous deceivers.
11. Truths declared and proved are Titans unbound,

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 105
and are not easily suppressed ; they domicile themselves
in the high places of the earth, and assail the abodes of
the celestials. The Christian Rationalists are supposed
by many to have been vanquished and driven from the
field. There cannot be a greater mistake ; they have
taken new positions of the utmost importance in religious
science, from which they have not been driven, and never
can be ; and have driven the supporters of old delusions
from positions of equal importance, which they can never
segain, and ground is broken for the precious sowings of
truth, which years to come will cultivate, and the harvests
of which will minister to the wealth and enlarge the stores
of all coming ages.
12. The Rationalists are not beaten, nor silenced, and
the world has not seen the end of them. The little which
they have hitherto done is the preliminary skirmish to
their great battle and world-wide victory. They have
demonstrated the shallowness of common sophistries, and
the unsatisfactory character of common traditionary opin
ions, and have begun to hold sacred history amenable to
the laws of all history. It is pitiful, indeed, if that which
is supposed to be divine cannot stand the tests of the hu
man ; it ought to be stronger in all the tests and evidences
of truth than the productions of man ; it cannot be found
weaker and acknowledged divine.
13. The Rationalists have in some cases made the wis
dom of councils and conventions foolishness, and exposed
their cherished principles and valued results to contempt
and scorn ; but they have impaired the dignity and au
thority of no truth, and sapped the foundation of no
virtue. They have called attention to principles and
facts, and endeavored to inculcate the Christian lesson of
building faith on the rock, and not on the shifting sands
of uncertain opinion. They have shown the difference
between knowledge and opinion, and given the world
salutary cautions not to confound them.

106 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
14. Professor Stuart and Rev. Albert Barnes have
replied to them in this country, and others in England,
Germany, and elsewhere, all in the same impotent meth
ods ; and as yet all are generally accepted by the adherents
of old fallacies as satisfactory. Future ages will admire
the simplicity of implicit, unquestioning faith, and the
power of prejudice, which could blind the minds of these
eminent scholars to a perception of new truths when fully
demonstrated, and induce the deluded masses to follow
them. 15. The difficulty of following discoverers and other
teachers in the demonstration of new truths, is well known
to every learner and every teacher. It is not enough for
the learner to hear the points of evidence stated, and to
have the steps of the argument traced and placed before
his eye — he must hear and consider, he must read and
re-read, he must observe and look long and carefully be-%
fore the new light breaks on his mind. This is the price
of knowledge, and the man who will not pay cannot have
the commodity. But though hard to discover, truth is
sure to win the field and hold it against the scepticism of
ignorance and prejudice. The ages are sown thick with
examples of human weakness and subjection to temporary
delusions ; arguments that prove nothing satisfy preju
diced and interested reasoners, and easily suffice for the
support of traditionary opinions, while irresistible evi
dence of new truth is for a time ignored and discredited.
The religious works against the Rationalists, with Barnes,
Stuart, Home, Tregelles, and even Davidson, who en
deavors in vain to take middle ground between them and
the defenders of the old views, are affecting examples
both of the weakness of human reason under the blinding
and enfeebling influence of popular prejudices, and of the
ability of learned and acute men to resist advancing light,
and disparage and discredit new truth, after it has been
fully demonstrated.

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 107
16. The common interpretations of Daniel are all liable
to the fatal objection, that they either beg their main po
sitions, or else support them by evidences that are incon
clusive. Such judgments cannot be final ; no judgment
can be final the evidence for which is not irresistible. The
sciences are all based on irresistible evidence, and admit
no other. The Rationalists demand the same in all the
fields of religious inquiry, and the demand is legitimate,
and must be conceded. The sooner it is conceded the
better, but the concession cannot be long withheld. There
is no evidence which may not be ignored, and thereby
fail of its true effect for a time ; and there is none which,
on due consideration, can be permanently resisted. Evi
dence is born to rule, and its rule is the rule of God.
17. Till problems are solved, they are matters of debate
and controversy ; contradictory opinions may be held
and maintained about the unknown, and be persisted in
for ages ; but when correct solutions are attained, debate
and controversy cease. The book of Daniel has been
the subject of infinite debate, and the most absurd hypoth
eses have been accepted and maintained by many in re
gard to it, because it has not been fully resolved ; when
its solution is fully attained, those delusions and debates
will cease, and the truth alone prevail. The experiment
has been often tried. Who questions now the Copernican
astronomy, or the Newtonian philosophy? In elder time
the subjects to which they relate were deemed incapable of
ever being fully resolved, and the world debated over them
for thousands of years. Who proposes now to return to
astrology, necromancy, and magic, those great boasts of
the ancients? Their very names have become odious.
Just as little will the more enlightened Christians of
future ages return to the delusions which are now preva
lent, and which are combated with difficulty. The cher
ished and venerated errors of ages have, in many cases,

108 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
been abandoned for certain and salutary truth, and the
good work of reforming human faith will go on till all
errors are rejected, and all discoverable truth is attained.
Invaluable results are already reached which will never be
abandoned; truth, once demonstrated, is master of its po
sition, and holds it forever ; but the great orb of light and
king of day is yet to rise on the world, and shed upon it
the divinest effulgence.
CHAPTER XI.
Questioning old opinions no cause of alarm ; infallible interpretation
and inspiration considered ; certain principles of knowledge.
1. Many are alarmed at the questioning of old opinions,
and adopt principles of conservatism and persistent faith
in religion, that are generally discarded elsewhere, and
that tend only to strengthen and perpetuate delusions.
Laymen defer to councils and other church authorities;
and leave the great questions of religious facts and
fictions to their ministers and spiritual guides ; minis
ters and guides accept the accredited opinions of their
respective orders, and if they find them erroneous, are
often silent, from their dependence on the favor of their
congregations and other religious bodies, which are jeal
ous of the disturbance of old ideas, and hostile to improve
ment as a troublesome innovation. It is an occasion of
grave concern to the friends of the human race, that the
freedom and progress of religious knowledge should be
restricted and opposed as they are by ecclesiastical con
servatism. The evil is immense : if it is necessary, it must
be submitted to; otherwise it ought to be corrected, and
religious science to be as free and unrestricted as secular.
2. If old opinions are correct, it will do no harm to
question them ; and the only effect of examining and reex
amining their evidences and credentials will be to bring
them out into clearer view and bolder relief, and give

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 109
them stronger holds on the apprehensions of men. Only
fraud and delusion suffer by inquiry; truth gains by it.
3. The assumption of infallibility in the interpretation
of the sacred books by the Catholics is a great error,
which Protestants have only partially corrected and modi
fied ; many have abandoned the supposed infallible irMr-
pretations of the Catholics, to replace them with equally
infallible interpretations by Protestants. Truth is certain,
whether apprehended by Catholics or Protestants, and
whether contained in time-honored and world-renowned
creeds, or held by its first and sole discoverers. It may
be resisted and opposed, condemned and rejected, but it
is certain still. It is the relation of things to the human
mind, and is as permanent and abiding as the relative ob
jects to which it appertains. Things are the conditions
of all good and evil; both other things and the mind are
always essentially the same ; their constitutions and rela
tions never change ; the white to-clay is white to-morrow,
and the black is black; the good to-day is good to-mor
row, and the evil, evil. Things must be apprehended cor
rectly, or we cannot adapt ourselves to them. To a limited
extent, correct apprehension is in our power ; we have
but to make experiment of the actions of things, and find
what they are; we make experiment of fire, and find it
to burn combustible materials, and we denominate fire
consuming, and materials combustible, from their mutual
relations to each other. To be correct, we have only to
conduct our experiments with care, and note the results.
4. Infallible interpretation is clearly not the prerogative
of either Catholics or Protestants ; but many correct inter
pretations belong to both, and whatever either have ac
cepted that is erroneous, is destined to be rejected. All
Catholics may not become Protestants, nor all Protestants
Catholics, but both will abandon their errors and extend
their knowledge, under whatever disadvantages it may
10

110 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
be r.ccomplished. Neither has an interest in being per
manently deceived, or in deceiving others, but each has
infinite benefits to gain by the truth.
5. Beyond infallible interpretation lies the dogma of a
divine inspiration, that precludes error or mistake in the
bdfcks ; and this, in the estimation of many, gives them
their principal value. In the works of the present author
all such supposed inspiration is ignored; it is ignored in
the interpretation of Daniel, and equally, in that of all the
other sacred books ; and this is one cause of the remarka
ble difference between the results reached in the author's
works and those generally reported by Christian inter
preters. Ignoring a divine inspiration that precludes
error or mistake in the books, does not imply ignoring a
reasonable divine inspiration, nor does it necessarily imply
ignoring a fact ; it only necessarily implies ignoring an
assumption. Whether that assumption is a fact or fic
tion is a question of evidence. It cannot be a fact, be
cause it contradicts facts, and the sacred books every
where evince, on the part of their authors, the same lia
bility to errors and mistakes as other productions. These
books put forth no claim to such extraordinary inspira
tion, and if they did, it would prove nothing in its favor,
but would be an example either of error and mistake, or
else of fraud. The undoubted errors and mistakes of the
books are numerous, and ought not to be ignored or con
cealed ; the true interests of Christianity and of the human
race require that they should be acknowledged and cor
rected, as far as the books are used for puiposes of in
struction and moral culture.
6. But if the infallible interpretation of the church, as
held by Catholics, is erroneous, and divine inspiration that
precludes error and mistake on the part of the writers, as
held by the great body both of Catholics and Protestants,
must also be given up, what have we left ? Are not the

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. Ill
sacred books a cheat and imposition, and is not Chris
tianity a delusion ? Not at all ; no more than other books
are a cheat and imposition because their authors are not
infallible, and no more than astronomy was a delusion be
fore it cast off the Ptolemaic system, or is such with ex
isting imperfections. Astronomers Were deceived : they
had not apprehended all the fundamental facts of the solar
and stellar systems ; but astronomy was the same as now,
even then partially developed, and waiting the greater
maturity of the human intellect to attain its more com
plete development : other discoveries are still waiting.
Historic Christianity has a basis as substantial as other
social systems, and is a great phenomenon of ages which
cannot be ignored or denied ; dogmatic Christianity em
braces the theory of all our moral and theistic relations
and duties, with much that is correct and of infinite value
and importance, and with some things that are wrong
and require correction. The sacred books teach us much
that is of inestimable value, and Christianity comes to our
aid in the race of moral culture, with kind and helping
hands, to cheer us in despondency, to strengthen us in
weakness, to rescue us from perils, and to crown our ex
istence with peace and love.
7. We are not precluded from committing great errors
and mistakes, but the merciful Creator does not consign
us to inevitable delusions or to useless and depressing
doubts and fears ; he makes us susceptible of knowledge
to the exclusion of doubt or uncertainty ; till all doubt or
uncertainty is removed, we do not know, we only as
sume ; but when knowledge is reached, doubt and uncer
tainty cease. Knowledge is a mystery ; it is a wonder
that we can know any thing, and how we can know any
thing ; but it is a much greater wonder how we can escape
knowledge, and commit the awful blunders that we some
times do. We are not consigned to ignorance and delu-

112 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
sion by any divine destination ; God has hedged us in on
every side by infallible rules of faith and principles of
knowledge, and we have but to use our faculties legiti
mately to extend our information indefinitely in all direc
tions. 8. The following may be specified as some of the infal
lible principles both of faith and knowledge, and are com
mended to the attention of timid and doubtful inquirers,
but especially to spiritual guides of the people and profes
sional expounders of Christianity. It is due from such to
consider them.
I. To beg no questions,' and accept no unproved assump
tions. The rule of admitting nothing till it is proved de
pends on the nature of knowledge, as having things for
its objects. Things must be shown in order that a knowl
edge of them may be possibPe.
II. To distinguish sharply between the true and untrue,
the proved and unproved, the determinate and indetermi
nate, and between fact and fiction. This requires strict
analysis, and nothing can be done without it. All reason
ing is by analysis.
III. To resolve objects into their most minute integral
parts, and determine each part by itself. The correct de
termination of compounds and aggregates is impossible
without determining their elements and integral parts.
IV. To classify objects according to all their agree
ments and disagreements, assigning all agreeing objects
to the same class, and all disagreeing to different classes.
Knowledge and classification go hand in hand.
V. Never to admit the absurd or impossible, but to
refer them to the fictitious, allegoric, or false, as the sub
ject, context, or other concomitants may require.
VI. To regard things as superior' to fancies, and fancies
as symbols of things. There is no objection to fancies;
they have their uses, and cannot be spared ; they are

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 113
among the mightiest implements of human power ; but
they must not be allowed to usurp the place of things ;
their object is always to represent things. A fiction that
represents nothing, means nothing, and is useless.
CHAPTER XII.
Geographical notices of Chaldsea, Assyria, Syria, Egypt, and the
Greeks.
1. Chaldjea embraces the southern portion of the
valley of the Euphrates, and extends from the Persian
Gulf, 30° north latitude, to about 34°. The whole country
is alluvial, and contains about 30,000 square miles west of
the Tigris. Much of it on the Persian Gulf is quite recent ;
the average growth of land is about a mile in 70 years,
and is believed at times to have been much greater. The
last 40 centuries have added to this alluvium a district
130 miles long and 60 or 70 broad. Estimating it at 65
miles broad, its contents are 8450 square miles. The
whole valley is the product of the present geologic era.
2. The Euphrates is 1780 miles long, and the Tigris, its
principal tributary, 1146; the Euphrates is navigable 1200
miles, and the Tigris 1000. Both drain immense moun
tain districts, extending to regions of perpetual snow.
The Euphrates has other large tributaries. The largest
part of Chaldsea is between the Euphrates and Tigris.
3. The most ancient cities are Hur, called in the Scrip
tures Ur, on the west bank of the Euphrates, in 31° north
latitude ; Larsa, 30 miles north-west of Hur, on the east
bank of the Euphrates ; Senkereh, in the neighborhood of
Larsa; Warka, 15 miles north of Larsa; Niffer, 60 miles
north-west of Warka, pn the east bank of the ancient Eu
phrates, but 30 miles from its present channel ; Borsippa,
65 miles from Niffer, on the west side of the Euphrates —
its modern name is Birs Nimrud ; Babel, 15 miles north-
10*

114 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
west of Borsippa ; and Sippara, 20 miles north of Babel.
Babel is chiefly on the east side of the Euphrates.
4. The Burbur name of Hur is Khaldi, which also sig
nifies . the moon god, the presiding deity of the city.
Chaldaeau originally signified lunarian, worshipper of the
moon ; then, perhaps astrologer, calculator of eclipses, teller
of fortunes, etc. ; and lastly, a dominant tribe.
5. The northern portion of the valley of the Euphrates
and its tributaries, extending from 34° north latitude to
37°, near their sources in the mountains of Armenia, is
called Assyria, from the city of Asshur, its earliest capital.
Asshur is on the west bank of the Tigris, above its junc
tion with the Zab, in 35° 30' north latitude ; Calah, the
second Assyrian capital, is 40 miles north of Asshur, on the
same side of the Tigris ; Nineveh, its third capital, 20
miles north of Calah, on the east bank of the Tigris ; and
Khorsabad, 9 miles north of Nineveh, on the same side of
the Tigris.
6. Assyria embraces many mountainous districts, and
contains 75,000 square miles. The country is varied, and
portions of it rough. Susiana- is east of Chaldaea, with
Shushan, Greek _ Susa, for its principal city, and a seat
of empire under the Persians. Persia is still farther east
and north, with Persepolis for its ancient capital : Media
is north of Persia and south of the Caspian Sea; the capi
tal is Ecbatana. Aria, the mother of the Medes and Per
sians, and also of the Greeks and other ancient European
nations, is east of Persia and Media, and extends to the
sources of the Oxus which empties into the Caspian Sea,
and the Indus, which empties into the Indian Ocean.
7. Syria, the ancient Aram, is not to be confounded
with Assyria; it is the country of the eastern shore of the
Mediterranean Sea, and the native seat of the Aramssans,
so called from its ancient name. It contains about 50,000
square miles, and its most ancient and illustrious cities are

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 115
Damascus, Zidon, Tyre, and Jerusalem. Antioch, its
capital under the Seleucida?, was founded after the time of
Alexander. It was in 36° 6' north latitude, on the Oron-
tes, 21 miles from the sea, 60 miles north of Damascus, and
for a time rivalled Rome in arts and wealth. It was founded
byAntigonus,one of Alexander's generals, and taken by Se
leucus, who changed its name to Antioch, in honor of his
father Antiochus. Its fortunes have been various; but it
is now insignificant, with a population of about 20,000.
8. The early Syrians are called Aramaeans, from Aram,
the ancient name of their country, and consisted of several
distinct nationalities, having common languages and arts.
Those most known to later ages are the Phoenicians and
Hebrews. The Phoenicians were the inventors of Ara
maean letters, and were distinguished for their commercial
enterprise and wealth, and the Hebrews improved the
theory of religion by abandoning idolatry and polytheism,
and worshipping one God.
9. Ancient Egypt and Ethiopia occupy the valley of
the Nile, and divide it as Chaldaea and Assyria do
that of the Euphrates. -Ethiopia occupied the banks of
the higher Nile, with Meroe for its capital, and Egypt the
lower, with This, Thebes, Memphis, Diospolis, and other
ancient cities for its capitals. The Hebrew name of
Egypt is Mizraim, which signifies the two Metsers, Me-
roes, or Egypts. Egypt is the mother of ancient arts, and
carries us farther back than Assyria by 1000 years.
10. Alexandria in Egypt was founded by Alexander, be
fore his conquest of Persia, and designed to be the capital
of the world. It was the capital of Egypt under the Ptol
emies, and was distinguished for its wealth and learning.
It was the residence of numerous Jews, who adopted the
Greek language and many other Greek arts. Its cele
brated library was the wonder of the ancients, and its
schools the most distinguished in their times. Under the

116 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
Ptolemies its population was about 300,000. The earlier
great capitals of the valley of the Nile were Meroe, of
Ethiopia, and This, Thebes, and Memphis, of Egypt.
11. The name of Greece originated in Italy, as that of
Egypt did in Greece. In the earliest times the Greeks
had no common name, and appear with none in Homer.
They consisted of independent kindred tribes, like the
early Hebrews, and were settled in the western part of
Asia Minor, in the islands of the archipelago, and in the
south-eastern part of Europe, in the gardens of Asia
Minor, and of South-Eastern Europe. Their earliest tribes
were the Pelasgi, contemporary with the Teutons of more
northern latitudes. They reached their seats by following
the shores of the Caspian and Black Seas and intermediate
rivers, passing entirely around the countries of the Assyr
ians and Aramaeans. The period of their emigration is
anterior to the Persian and Median, and is perhaps, with
that of other European tribes, the oldest of which any
traces remain. Their development is characterized by
great freedom, personal independence, and enterprise.
By a long course of prosperity the Greeks became greatly
multiplied, extended the narrow limits occupied by their
ancestors, and established distant colonies previous to the
conquests of Alexander.
CHAPTER XIII.
Ethnic and chronologic introduction to Daniel, and to a knowledge
of its times.
1. It is impossible to interpret Daniel correctly with
out an exact knowledge of the nations and times to which
the book relates. With this it can be understood, and its
character determined. But an exact knowledge of those
nations and times is not easily gained ; they are far back
in the past; the gulf between the present, and the last

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 117
date in Daniel, 535 B. C, has a breadth of 2398 years,
over which it is not easy to pass. The Jews and early
Christians allowed themselves to be misled by the fictions
of earlier times, and to our day many gross and palpable
errors remain to be rejected, not only from the creeds of
the illiterate, who make no pretensions to original infor
mation or independent judgment on questions of ancient
history, but also from the strongly guarded and stoutly
defended positions of erudite divines, critics, and his
torians. Both are hard to be corrected, but learned error-
ists much the hardest. Tbey correspond to the rich man
in the Gospel whose salvation was represented by taking
camels through needles' eyes. The task of accomplishing
it was not easy or enviable.
2. Ignorance is the mother of errors, and errors are the
patrons and perpetuators of ignorance. Through igno
rance of the times to which the book relates, Daniel has
been accepted as historic, and hindered the attainment of
the little knowledge that might have been gained of those
times. Several kingdoms, and long lines of events and
incidents, are treated of in the book, sometimes symboli
cally and enigmatically, and sometimes literally. Its
kingdoms embrace those of the Medes, Chaldaeans, Per
sians, Greeks under Alexander, Egypt, Syria, kings of
Thrace and Macedonia, the Jews, and the fortunes and
destinies of the whole world till the supposed end of the
existing aion, and the commencement of a new social
order. 3. The book is a great historic document, and ought to
be studied and interpreted in the interest of morality and
history, and with the advantage of all the lights of both.
It will then acquire inestimable value, and become a cen
tral point of illumination and higher culture, with few
equals even in the other sacred books, and no superiors
before the New Testament.

118 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
4. The Medes are a branch of the great Arian family,
who migrated from near the sources of Oxus and Indus
to the region south of the Caspian Sea, at an early period.
The beginning of this migration is not distinctly marked ;
the Medes are not mentioned in the annals of Ziglath
Pileser I., 1130 B. C, and were probably not in Media at
that time. Shamas-iva, about 825 B. C, invaded them,
and obtained a large tribute, and Tiglath Pileser II., 747
B. C, bad frequent wars with them.
5. According to Ctesias, the Median kingdom began
about 875 ; Herodotus introduces it in 708 B. C, as fol
lows : —

Median kings.

B. C.

1. Dejoces,

708—53

2. Phraortes,

655—22

3. Cyaxares,

633—40

4. Astyages,

593—35

Conquered by Cyrus, 558. Total, 150
There was no Ahasuerus, Cyaxares II., nor Darius in this
dynasty. The Cyaxares II. of many critics from Xeno
phon is a pure fiction, inconsistent with facts, and entirely
inadmissible; the only Cyaxares of authentic history pre
cedes Astyages.
6. Media first rose to power under Cyaxares ; its pre
vious kings were mostly tributary to the Assyrians ; the
list of Ctesias commands but little credit.
7. The Chasdim were on the banks of the lower Eu
phrates, simultaneously with the Medes on the southern
shore of the Caspian Sea ; but their origin is not as clear.
Our information of them is received through the Hebrews,
Greeks, their own native historians, and the cuneiform
inscriptions ; but with all these witnesses and reporters,
their origin is involved in mystery. Homer says the
Ethiopians were divided, and were the last of men, some

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 119
belonging to the setting of the sun, and some to his rising
(Od. I. 23, 24) ; and Strabo makes them the ancient South
men both of Africa and Asia. (Strab. I. 2, 25, 26.) Mem-
non, king of Ethiopia, is considered by iEschylus son of
a Cissian woman of Asia, and by Herodotus founder of
Susa. Memnonian palaces belong both to Susa and
Egypt. The Greek mythology connects Belus with
Egypt ; Khurzistan seems to be derived from an ancient
Cush, and the most ancient language of the Chaldaean in
scriptions combines the Turanian and Hamite elements.
The earliest known Euphratean people is Ethiopic, from
the banks of the upper Nile, and the next is Burbur, or
Chaldee, from those of the upper Euphrates. The two
were united and blended before the commencement of
the Egyptian or Assyrian inscriptions.
8. The lower Euphrateans are frequently mentioned in
Jewish history ; their country called the land of the Chas
dim, and paralleled with Babel. Ur is called a city of the
Chasdim in Gen. 11 : 28, 1996 B. C. Few questions have
been more debated, or are the subjects of more doubt and
difficulty, than the ethnic character of the Chaldaaans ;
many eminent scholars have distinguished them from
the Babylonians, and given them an origin and seats of
power on the higher Euphrates. They are mentioned in
the Scriptures generally as coming from the north, and
seem to have occupied northern districts ; but it is impos
sible to remove them from Babel as their great central
metropolis. Berosus, a Chaldaean historian of the early
period of the Ptolemies, applies Chaldaean to denote the
mythic dynasty of 86 kings, who are supposed to reign
34,080 years, to 2458 B. C. ; the second dynasty of 8
kings, 224 years, he makes Median ; the third of 11 kings,
258 years, he is supposed to make Chaldaean ; the fourth
of 49 kings, 458 years, Chaldaean ; the fifth of 9 kings,
245 years, Arabian; and the sixth of 45 kings, 526
vears, Chaldaean. To these are added, from the canon of

120 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
Ptolemy, a seventh dynasty of 8 kings, 122 years, Assyr
ian ; and an eighth of 6 kings, 87 years, Chaldaean. The
whole is as follows : —
EUPHRATEAN DYNASTIES.
Dynasties. Kings. B. C. Periods.
1. Chaldaean, 86 36,538 34,080

2. Median,

8

2458

224

3. [Chaldaean],

11

2234

[258]

4. Chaldaean,

49

1976

458

5. Arabian,

.9

1518

245

6. Assyrian,

45

1273

526

7. Assyrian,

8

747

122

8. Chaldaean,

6
222

625

87

Total,

36,000

Assyrian cycle or

aion.

9. Berosus evidently divides the valley of the Eu
phrates, as we have done, into two portions, and makes
the upper portion Assyria, and the lower Chaldaea.
They are related to each other, like upper and lower
Egypts, or Egypt and Ethiopia, with the exception that
Assyria has the Tigris, a great tributary of the Euphrates,
in addition to the upper Euphrates, and locates its capital
cities on it ; Ethiopia and upper Egypt have only the
Nile. The Assyrians are so called from Asshur, their
earliest capital, on the Tigris, in 35° 30' north latitude,
and the name of their principal deity; he was originally
the founder of the empire, and gave his name and divinity
to it, as Romulus did to Rome. The origin of the name
Chaldaean is unknown. It denoted, under the eighth and
last dynasty of Berosus and Ptolemy, a dominant class of
the inhabitants in the valley of the lower Euphrates. Its
Hebrew form is Chasdim.
10. The sixth Euphratean, first Assyrian dynasty com-

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 121
mences with Bel-lush and ends with Iva-lush III. ; the
seventh commences with Tiglath-Pileser II., and ends
with Asshur-emit-ili. Babel now first presents itself
prominently to view, and Iva-lush III. calls himself the
king, to whose son, Asshur, chief of the gods, granted the
kingdom of Babel. His son Nabonassar founded the first
Chaldaean dynasty, 747. Its last king is Nabopolassar,
who, with the assistance of Cyaxares the Median, con
quered Nineveh, secured the preeminence for the Chal-
daeans, and founded the eighth Euphratean and second
Chaldaean dynasty, in 625 B. C. The student who is not
familiar with the wide range of ancient history to which
the book of Daniel refers, will find occasion for a constant
reference to the tables in this chapter, in the study of the
book and of the history of its times. For further, and
more complete and extensive information, the reader is
referred to the historical works of Rawlinson, Bunsen, and
others, but not to the popular commentaries. These are
generally quite destitute of the lights shed on history by
the discoveries and researches of the last 25 years.
11. Eighth Euphratean, second Chaldaean dynasty, at
Babel.

Kings.

B. C.

Years,

1.

Nabopolassar,

625

21

2.

Nebuchadnezzar,

604

43

3.

Evil Merodach,

561

2

4.

Neriglissar,

559

3 6m.

5.

Laborosoarchad,

555

0 9m.

6.

Nabonidus,

555

17

Conquered by Cyrus, 538. Total, 87 3m.
There was no Belshazzar, son of Nebuchadnezzar, in this
dynasty. Evil Merodach was his son, and Neriglissar his
son-in-iaw. Nabonidus, the last king, was of another
high family. 11

122 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
12. Cyrus succeeded Astyages, the last Median king, in
558 B. C, and reigned 20 years over the kingdom of the
Medes and Persians before the conquest of Babel. His
conquest of Babel brought him into the succession of the
Euphratean kings, and his reign is generally reckoned
from the time of this conquest. The previous Euphratean
dynasty completed the first cycle of 36,000 years, and
with this reign, reckoned from 538 B. C, a new cycle
commences. The Persian dynasty is neither Assyrian
nor Chaldaean ; the seat of empire has moved eastward.
The reason of such a change does not appear ; but it must
be presumed to be that the occupants of the more rugged
country of Persia had risen to higher and better civiliza
tions than the more luxurious dwellers in the Euphratean
valley : power seeks the nobler ; it deserted the Romans
for the Goths and other northern races, after having con
tinued with them more than a thousand years.
PERSIAN DYNASTY AT PERSEPOLIS AND SUSA.

Kings.

B. C.

Years.

1. Cyrus,

538

9

2. Cambyses,

529

6 5m,

3. Smerdis,

522

0 7m.

4. Darius I., Hystaspes,

522

36

5. Xerxes I.,

486

21

6. Artaxerxes I., Longimanus,

465

40 3m.

7. Xerxes II.,

424

0 2m,

8. Sogdianus,

424

0 7m,

9. Darius II., Nothus,

424

19

10. Artaxerxes II., Mnemon,

404

40

11. Artaxerxes III., Ochus,

359

21

12. Arses,

338

2

13. Darius III., Codomanus, 336 5
Conquered by Alexander, 331. Total, 207

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 123
Only four of these kings after Cyrus are mentioned in
Daniel, Story IV., 5: Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius, and
Xerxes I. There is no Ahashuerus in this dynasty, and
no good reason exists for confounding the Ahashuerus of
Esther or Ezra with either Xerxes or Cambyses. The
composition and derivation of Ahashuerus mark it as the
name of a fictitious personage, or a general title of the
ruling king. It represents the Persian Khsha-ya-thiya,
with the old article a prefixed, and signifies the king,
which was the common title of the king of Persia. The
Dariuses of this dynasty were all Persians, and were mon
archs of great abilities ; the first was the greatest of the
three. Under his reign Babylon twice revolted, and the
first time resisted his arms two years, when it was sub
dued by stratagem. The most important of all the an
cient cuneiform inscriptions is that of Darius at Behistun.
13. Alexander the Great is only referred to in the book
of Daniel and in the Apocrypha. The historic notices of
the sacred books after his time would be very incomplete
without any allusion to him ; and we are thankful that he
is not ignored. His career is full .of instruction, and the
mightiest lessons of history are illustrated in his achieve
ments and fortunes. In early life he was the pupil of
Aristotle, the master mind of Greece, and showed the
beneficial effects of his training, in his capacity as a soldier
and statesman. Had he adhered more fully to the prin
ciples of Aristotle, and governed himself in conformity
with them, he might have been the greatest benefactor of
his race. But he committed the fatal error of surrender
ing himself to the dominion of his passions, and they ex
ercised their usual prerogative of plunging him into vices
and sins, and early terminating his career.
14. He entered Asia in the spring of 334 B. C, with
30,000 foot and 5000 horse, and commenced the war in
Asia Minor, where the Persians were dominant. He lib-

124 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
erated the Greek cities, and reestablished their democratic
governments. His first great victory was at the Granicus,
and the second near Issus, where the treasures and family
of Darius fell into his hands. In 332 he took Tyre and
Gaza, and received the submission of Egypt, when he paid
his respects to the temple of Ammon; in 331 he fought
and conquered near Arbela. He then marched to Per
sepolis, the capital, which he burned in a fit of intoxica
tion. From this time the sun of his glory declined. Da
rius was assassinated by Bessus, his lieutenant, in 330, and
fell into the hands of Alexander as he was dying. Alex
ander aimed to unite the Persians and Greeks, and en
couraged intermarriages for that purpose. He married
two Persian princesses, one of them Roxana, the beautiful
daughter of Darius. He died at Babylon in 323 B. C, in
the 32d year of his age, after a reign of 12 years and 8
months. But for his vices, he might have reigned 40
years. His character was a mixture of all the grandest
and mightiest elements possible to humanity, with the
grossest vices of intemperance and their accompaniments.
The lesson which it teaches is less attended to than its
importance deserves. Being asked by his friends, when
near his end, to whom he left the empire, he answered,
To the worthiest. His half brother Aridaeus, son of his"
father by a dancer, and his own posthumous son Alexan
der jEgus, by Roxana, were proclaimed kings by his
generals, and they took the government into their own
hands. Perdiccas was, by general consent, appointed
regent, and the kingdom divided into 33 provinces, cor
responding to the number of generals. Perdiccas soon
fell by an assassin, and Antipater succeeded him. After
great disorders and numerous contests, in 301 .Macedon
and Greece were under Cassander, Thrace and Bithynia
under Lysimachus, Egypt was under Ptolemy, and Syria
and the East under Seleucus — the four conspicuous horns

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 125
of the Grecian goat of Daniel. The kingdom of Syria
was gained by Seleucus in 312 B. C, which commences the
era of the Seleucidae.
15. Of the four Greek dynasties which followed that of
Alexander, two are particularly noticed in Daniel, those
of Syria and Egypt, and great prominence is given to
Antiochus IV., who reigned 12 years, from 175 B. C. to
163. Several kings, both of Syria and Egypt, and many
events before Antiochus IV., are mentioned and described,
but none after him. The author of the Hebrew series
considered him the last of human kings, to be followed
directly by the archangel Michael, the resurrection of the
dead, and the commencement of a new aion, or cycle, of
nobler and higher conditions than had before been at
tained. The Syrian-Greek kings are Seleucus I., Nicator
312 ; Antiochus I., Soter, 280 ; Antiochus IL, Theos, 261 ;
Seleucus IL, Callinicus, 246 ; Seleucus III., Ceraunus, 226 ;
Antiochus III., the Great, 224 ; Seleucus IV., Philopator,
187 ; Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, 175 — 12 years to 163.
Here begins, according to Story IV., the reign of the
archangel Michael and the new aion. Michael was to
stand up as the next king. After this, however, we have
the following series: Antiochus V., Eupator, 163; De
metrius I., Soter, 162 ; Alexander 1., Balas, 153 ; Deme
trius IL, Nicanor, 148 ; Tryphon and Antiochus VI., 145 ;
Tryphon, 142 ; Antiochus VII., Sedetes, 138 ; Demetrius
IL, 128 ; Alexander I., Zebina, 126 ; Antiochus VIII., Gry-
phus, 125; Antiochus IX., Cyzicus, 114; Antiochus X.,
Pious, 96 ; Demetrius III., 94 ; Antiochus XL, Dionysius,
86 : the country was visited and overrun by Tigranes in
83 and 69, and reduced to a province by the Romans in
65 B. G. Of all this line of kings after Antiochus IV.,
the author of tbe Hebrew series of Daniel is entirely
ignorant ; and anticipates no such continuance or termina
tion of this kingdom. The author of the Chaldee stories
11*

126 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
passes over Antiochus IV. and his times, and represents
a later period in the Syrian and Egyptian-Greek king
doms, but does not dream of their terminating in provinces
of Rome ; he provides for them quite another kind of ter
mination. 16. The Egyptian-Greek kings are Ptolemy I., Lagus,
320 ; Ptolemy II., Philadelphus, 285 ; Ptolemy III., Euer-
getes I., 247 ; Ptolemy IV., Philopator, 222 ; Ptolemy V.,
Epiphanes, 205 ; Ptolemy VI., Philometor, 181 ; Ptolemy
VII., Physcon Euergetes II., 145 ; Cleopatra and Ptolemy
VIII., Lathyrus, 116; Ptolemy IX., Alexander I., 107
Ptolemy VIII., Lathyrus recalled 89 ; Cleopatra II. 82
Ptolemy X., Alexander II., 82 ; Ptolemy XI., Auletes, 81
Cleopatra III., Tryphaena and Berenice, 58 ; Ptolemy
XI., Auletes restored, 55 ; Ptolemy XII., 51 ; Cleopatra
III. and Ptolemy XIII., 47 : this ancient kingdom, which
had existed from Menes, 3623 B. C, 1275 years before
the deluge, through 30 dynasties previous to its conquest
by the Persians under Cambyses, and had been the
mother and nurse of human arts, at the death of Cleo
patra, 30 B. C, was reduced to the condition of a Roman
province under a prefect.
17. The author of the Hebrew series takes little notice
of Rome. He only introduces it as humbling Antiochus
III., and arresting the conquests of Antiochus IV. in
Egypt, in Story V. 10, 13; but Chaldee Story X. makes
Rome the fourth of the great powers, and more remarka
ble than all the rest. Rome was founded by Romulus in
753 ; made a republic with consuls, 509 ; tribunes were
added in 490 ; decemvirs introduced in 451 ; consuls and
tribunes restored, 399 ; the first triumvirate established in
60 ; Julius Caesar became emperor in 48 ; the second tri
umvirate was formed in 43 ; Augustus restored the em
pire in 27, and it continued till A. D. 476 ; total, 1229
years. Story X. describes the Roman empire in its fullest

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 127
development as a conquering power, and in the height of
its glory under the first emperors. Its 10 horns seem to
be the ten decemvirs who made the Roman laws, and
were thus its perpetual rulers, or else the two consuls and
eight tribunes of the people. The number of tribunes
varied from two to ten. The little horn of the Roman
animal in Story X. is not to be confounded with the little
horn of the Syrian-Greek kingdom, in Story IV. They
are distinct and different, and belong to different king
doms and ages. The Syrian little horn is Antiochus
Epiphanes, and the Roman Augustus Caesar. There are
three Messianic kings : 1. Michael the archangel, Story IV.,
160 B. C. ; 2. The stone cut without hands, Story V., 75 ;
3. One like a man to come in the clouds of heaven, Story
X., 25. The confounding of these different kings is one
of the marvels of credulity ; a reduction of Judaism,
Christianity, and Mohammedanism to one system would
not be more absurd.

CHAPTER XIV.
Historic notices of the Jews from the close of the Babylonian exile,
B. C. 538, to the destruction of Jerusalem, A. D. 70.
1. The return of the Jews to Palestine was freely
allowed under Cyrus; many, however, remained in for
eign countries, and not a few at Babylon and other Eu
phratean cities. The celebrated decree of Cyrus, in
2 Chron. 36 : 22, 23, and Ezra 1 : 1-4, is probably not
genuine, but is in accordance with facts, and represents
correctly the generally humane policy of Cyrus. During
the Babylonian exile the Jews and others occupied a por
tion of Palestine, and the former maintained the worship
of Jeva at Samaria.
2. On the arrival of Zerubbabel and his company of re
turned exiles from Babel, the Samaritans kindly waited

128 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
on them, declared their sympathy with them, and adher
ence to the same religion ; and wished to join them in
building the temple, and to make Jerusalem the common
centre of their united worship. This was virtually a pro
posal to be one people with them, if they were not already
such. The proposition was rejected with disdain, and
the Samaritans repelled. This commenced the Samaritan
schism, which was never healed. Much evil resulted from
it, but it has not been entirely unprofitable. The Samari
tans represent the older Hebrew body, before the schism
occurred, and the Jews the later, with its innovations and
improvements. When they separated they had sacred
books in common. This is proved by the fact that the
Samaritans have the Pentateuch, apparently in an original
form, and that though some alterations have doubtless
crept into it, the Hebrew, in comparison with it, bears
marks of a later revision. The fact that the Samaritans
have only the Pentateuch, proves that the other books
were not then in existence, and is a strong collateral
evidence of their late origin. We conclude with certainty
that the Pentateuch, substantially as it is possessed by
the Samaritans, was in existence before the separation,
and that all the other Hebrew books are of later origin.
The Pentateuch was probably revised and slightly modi
fied among the Jews, by the author of the books which
follow it, shortly after the return from Babel.
3. The Jewish temple was completed and dedicated in
516, under Darius I. ; Ezra went to Jerusalem in 458, in
the seventh year of Artaxerxes I., and Nehemiah in 445,
in his 20th year. After being absent an indefinite period,
Nehemiah returned, perhaps in 414, under Darius II.,
when he used extreme rigor in breaking up marriages
between the Jews and their Samaritan and other foreign
neighbors, and otherwise consulted for the rigid observ
ance of Jewish rites. This jealous separation of the Jews

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 129
from other peoples has an appearance of wisdom and good
policy, but is a departure from general expediency in con
formity with that which is partial, and a violation of
the eternal laws of God, which are known and read by all
men. Free intercourse of different nations on just and
equal terms, and unrestricted intermarriages, according to
the judgment and discretion of the parties concerned, are
among the most important and inalienable rights of men,
and no divine sanction can possibly be given to the viola
tion of them. God's supposed authorship of such restric
tive policies is evidently a mistake ; it wants no external
evidence to disprove it, but is self-condemned. Malachi
is contemporary with Nehemiah at his second visit to
Jerusalem, and concurs apparently in his rigid and exclu
sive policy. The Samaritan temple was built on Mount
Gerizim, according to Josephus, about 332, the year that
Alexander took Tyre and Gaza.
4. The chief priests of the Jews after the exile were as
follows: Jeshua, later form of Joshua, from which the
Greek Jesus was derived, 538 ; Joiakim,. 199 ; Eliashib,
463 ; Joiada, 419 ; Johanan, 383 ; Jaddua, 351 ; Onias I.,
331; Simon the Just, 310; Eleazar, 291; Manassas, 276;
Onias IL, 250 ; Simon IL, 219 ; Onias III., 199 ; Jason,
Greek for Jesus, 175 ; Menalaos, a Greek name, 172 ; Al-
cimus, or Joachim, 162; Jonathan ' the Asmonaean, 144 ;
Simon, 143 ; Hyrcanus n., 79 ; Aristobulus, 67 ; Antigo-
nus, 64 ; Ananeel, 37 ; Aristobulus, 34-; Ananeel a second
time, 33 ; Jesus son of Phabis, 23 ; Simon son of Boethus,
23 ; Matthias son of Theophilus, 5 ; Joazar son of Simon,
4 ; Eleazar, 1 A. D. ; Jesus son of Siah, 5 ; Joazar a second
time, 6 ; Anamus, 13 ; Ishmael, 23 ; Eleazar, 24 ; Simon,
25 ; Joseph, called in the Gospels Caiaphas, 26 ; Jonathan,
34; Theophilus, 37 ; Simon Cantharus, 41 ; Matthias, 42;
Eleoneus, 43 ; Simon son of Cantharus, 44 ; Joseph son
of Caneus, 44 ; Ananus son of Nebedeas, 47 ; Ismael, 63 ;

130 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
Joseph Cabei, 63; Ananus son of Ananns, 64; Jesus son
of Ananus, 64; Jesus son of Gamaliel, 64; Matthias son
of Theophilus, 65 ; Phannias son of Samuel, 70. Phan-
nias is the last of the line ; the office was abolished at the
destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, A. D. 70.
5. Under the Persians Judaea was generally peaceful
and prosperous, and that interval was the golden age of
Hebrew literature. Under the Greek, Syrian, and Egyp
tian kings, it naturally belonged to Syria, but was often
held by Egypt ; and Egyptian masters were generally
preferred ; some of them were not only men of great abil
ities, but of great liberality. In 176 Judaea was subject
to Syria, and Heliodorus, treasurer of Seleucus III., at
tempted to rob the temple, and failed, probably through
intimidation, the nature of which is not clearly apparent;
it is imputed to prodigies. In 175 Jason, brother of
Onias III., supplanted Onias, by exceeding him in the
price which he paid for the office. Onias gave 360 talents
($36,000) for it, and Jason 440 talents ($440,000). He
also stipulated that Onias should be removed from Jeru
salem and confined to Antioch, to be out of his way. Ja
son favored Greek arts, and bought the privilege of build
ing a gymnasium at Jerusalem for 150 talents ($150,000).
In 172 Menelaos, another brother, supplanted Jason by
paying 700 talents ($700,000) for his office, and to raise
the money sold the gold vases of the temple at Tyre and
other neighboring cities, much to the displeasure of pious
Jews ; and when Antiochus was at Tyre in 171, on his
way to Egypt, three delegates from the Sanhedrim waited
on him to solicit redress of this grievance ; but instead of
obtaining it, they were killed, and Menelaos was continued
in the king's favor. Antiochus went to Egypt, and con
quered it, with the exception of Alexandria. While in
Egypt a false rumor was circulated among the Jews that
he was dead, when Jason took Jerusalem with a thousand

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 131
men, drove Menelaos to the fortress, and killed many of
his friends. Antiochus, returning from Egypt, took the
city, killed 40,000 people, and made as many more prison
ers, whom he sold for slaves to the neighboring nations.
Jason fled, and perished miserably in exile.
6. In 168, on his return from another expedition against
Egypt, Antiochus deputed ApoUonius, with 22,000 men,
to scourge Jerusalem again, when he entered it peaceably,
and on the Sabbath attacked and killed great numbers of
the people, after which he established a strong garrison
in the vicinity. He prohibited the worship of Jeva, and
set up a statue of Jupiter Olympius, the abomination of
desolation, on the altar.
7. The same year, after returning to Antioch, Anti
ochus commanded all the nationalities in his dominions
to adopt uniformity of religious worship, and sent over
seers into all parts of his kingdom to see this order obeyed.
Other nationalities obeyed, not excepting the Samaritans ;
many of the Jews obeyed, and joined the party of the
king ; and some disobeyed, and were cruelly killed, as in
other ancient persecutions on account of religion. Apelles
went to Modin in Dan, in the extreme north-west part of
the land, to see the law enforced there. He assembled
the people and addressed them on the subject; Matta
thias, an aged priest, son of John, son of Simon, son of
Asmonaeus, replied that no considerations should induce
him to depart from the law of his God. One of the Jews
of the place presenting himself at The altar to sacrifice in
the manner of the Greeks, Mattathias killed him, and with
his sons attacked Apelles and killed him; then calling the
friends of their religion to follow him, retired with his
family to the mountains ; others resorted to him, and he
soon had a thousand men. With these war began. It
was not at first a war for independence, but for liberty to
practise "the national worship.

132 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
8. In 167 Antiochus visited Judaea, and punished recu
sants. Mattathias and his company kept themselves in
the mountains, and when sufficiently strong, visited the
plains and restored the national religion. Mattathias
died in 166, and Judas, his oldest son, succeeded him. Ju
das was called Maccabaeus ; the nature and object of this
title does not clearly appear. It is applied first to denote
the sons of Mattathias and others, and then certain books
of the Apocrypha which relate to them. Judas fought
with ApoUonius, governor of Samaria, killed him, inflicted
a great slaughter on his forces, and took their spoils,
among which was the sword of ApoUonius, that he subse
quently carried. Seron, deputy governor of part of Syria,
attacked him, and was also killed, and his army routed.
Antiochus gave part of his army to Lysias to subdue Ju
daea, and went with the rest to Armenia and Persia, to
confirm Jris authority in those regions, and collect his
revenues ; and Judas attacked the Syrian army by night,
when their general and a portion of his men were absent,
and vanquished it. In 165 Lysias met Judas near Idu-
maea, and was routed, with the loss of 5000 men, when he
returned with the remainder to Antioch. This left Judas
master of the country and enriched with the spoils of the
enemy. He marched to Jerusalem, took it from the Syr
ians, purified the temple, and reestablished its worship, on
the 25th day of the ninth month, Kisleu, three and a half
years after ApoUonius had desecrated it. The fortress
near the temple, however, was' still held and garrisoned
by the Syrians, and guards were posted against it.
9. Antiochus died in 163, at the town of Tabae, on the
mountains of Paractacene, in the confines of Persia and
Babylonia. Polybius tells us that his sickness was at
tended with constant delirium, and imputes it to a divine
i judgment for attempting to plunder the temple of Artemis
"[the desire of women] in Elymais; but Josephus thinks

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 133
it is much more probable that it was inflicted for his actual
plunder of the temple at Jerusalem. Antiochus IV. was
succeeded by his son Antiochus V., at nine years of age.
10. Lysias invaded Judaea in 163, with an army of 80,000
men and 80 elephants, when Judas attacked him south of
Jerusalem, killed 11,000 foot and 600 horsemen, and put
the rest to flight. Menelaus died, and Alcimus was made
chief priest by Antiochus V. Demetrius, son of Seleucus
IV., claimed the throne, of which he had been unjustly
deprived by Antiochus IV., his uncle, and Antiochus V.
was seized by his own soldiers and put to death. De
metrius continued Alcimus as chief priest, and resumed
the war against Judas, who fell before superior numbers,
in B. C. 160. His brother Jonathan succeeded him, and
Alcimus died the same year.
11. Jonathan expelled the Syrians from Judaea, and
commenced a regular government, after the model of the
Hebrew judges, and in 144 was made chief priest. After
a leadership of 17 years, he was treacherously captured
and killed by Tryphon at Ptolemais, and succeeded by
his youngest brother, Simon, in 142, who proclaimed the
Jews free from tribute. From this time the supreme
power, civil, sacerdotal, and military, was made hereditary.
Simon ruled eight years, when he was murdered, with two
of his sons, by Ptolemy, his- son-in-law, and succeeded by
his son, John Hyrcanus, in 135. He completed the war for
independence in 130, and besides other services, conquered
the Idumseans, compelled them to be circumcised, and in
corporated them with the nation. This paved the way
for anldumaean king in the person of Herod; the Idumae-
ans and Jews were thenceforward one people, and had
common rights.
12. Hyrcanus died and was succeeded by his oldest
brother, Aristobulus, in 107 ; and Aristobulus first assumed
the title and insignia of king. He acquired Ituria by con-
12

134 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
quest, and died, and was succeeded by his brother Alexander
Jannseus in 106. After many successes and cruelties,
Alexander Jannaeus died, and left the kingdom to his
wife Alexandra in 79. She ruled prosperously, but often
unjustly, with the advice of the Pharisees, till her death
in 70. Not being competent to hold the office of chief
priest, Alexandra gave it to Hyrcanus II. in 78. At her
death, Hyrcanus II. seized the kingdom, but was soon
superseded by his younger brother Aristobulus II.
13. The Romans, having conquered Syria in 65, were
appealed to by the contending Jewish brothers to decide
between them, when Pompey marched to Jerusalem,
took it, after a siege of three months, in 63 B. C, and gave
the kingdom to Hyrcanus. In 47 Antipater, an Idumaean,
was appointed governor of Judaea, nominally under Hyr
canus, but really over him, and held this office till his
death in 43. In 40 Hyrcanus was taken prisoner by the
Parthians, and Antigonus appointed king by them, when
Herod, son of Antipater, fled to Rome, and received the
same appointment from the Senate. He took Jerusalem
after a siege of two years, and reigned 32, till 6 B. C. He
is distinguished from his sons as Herod the Great. Ar-
chelaus succeeded Herod as Ethnarch of Judaea, Idumaea,
and Samaria, in 6 B. C, and the rest of the kingdom was
given to others ; he was deposed in 6 A. D. for mal-admin-
istration, and the country was annexed to Syria under a
procurator. 14. The procurators were Caius Coponius, 6 A. D. ;
Marcus Ambivius, 9 ; Annas Rufus, 12 ; Valerius Gratus,
15 ; Pontius Pilate, 26 ; Marullus, 37 ; and Publius Pe-
tromus, governor of Syria, 40. Agrippa had previously
received other possessions from Caligula, and in 41 Clau
dius gave him Judaea, and set him over the entire kingdom
of Herod. The Jewish kingdom was thus revived ; but
Agrippa died in 44, when it was again annexed to Syria,

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 135
and subjected to procurators. The procurators after
Agrippa were Cuspius Fadus, 45 ; Tiberius Alexander,
46 ; Ventidius Cumanus, 47 ; Claudius Felix, 53 ; Portius
Festus, 58; Albinus, 62; and Gessius Floras,. 65. Mad
dened by oppression, and misled by false and extravagant
expectations, from misinterpreting their books, the Jews
resisted the Romans in 69, in consequence of which the
country was invaded by the Romans, and Jerusalem sub
jected to a distressing and protracted siege, and finally
taken in A. D. 70, and entirely destroyed.
15. Since then the Jews have been scattered and greatly
oppressed, bnt have generally persisted in the erroneous
and extravagant interpretation of their books. Their
Talmud is a repository of the results of vast labors, ex
pended to little purpose. Extravagant faiths and expecta
tions, from a misinterpretation of their sacred books, were
their great national stumbling-block in the time of Christ,
have been ever since, and will be, till abandoned. They
could not accept Christ and his improvements ; he was
too humble, and his improvements too simple and natural.
They looked for something greater, and more grand and
imposing ; they demanded marvels and signs from heaven.
Truth, knowledge, and righteousness, and a God that hides
himself behind his works, and shines only through his
creatures, did not satisfy them. They despised God's
general laws, and demanded specific precepts ; they ig
nored general arrangements, and demanded special inter
positions. It is not easy to exaggerate this folly. God
appears to all men, speaks to all, converses familiarly with
all the good, helps and guides the weak and erring, effects
great deliverances, and creates great joys. We may avail
ourselves of fictions to illustrate his methods, but we can
not help ourselves by taking fictions for facts, and ignor
ing the more substantial facts which they represent.
16. All history is an illustration of divine laws ; that of

136 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
each nation teaches great and various lessons. The He
brews before the Babylonian exile, the Jews after it, the
Egyptians, Euphrateans, Greeks, and Romans are all on
the stand to testify, and all have important testimony to
give. The history of the Jews is especially valuable, and
ought to be allowed to teach fully its mighty lessons.
They will make us wiser and better. Though not his
toric, the book of Daniel, like the great poems of Homer,
is one of the most important documents of history, and
deserves to be profoundly studied.
CHAPTER XV.
Notes on Story I.
I. The scene of this story is laid in the third year of
Jehoiakim, 605 B. C. This must be fictitious. Nebuchad
nezzar was not king of Babylon till the fourth year of Je
hoiakim. (See Jer. 25 : 1.) " The word which came to
Jeremiah concerning all the people of Judah, in the fourth
year of Jehoiakim, son of Josiah, which is the first year of
Nebuchadnezzar king of Babel." The first capture of
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, noted in Kings, is in the
eighth year of Nebuchadnezzar, after Jehoiakim had
reigned eleven years and slept with his fathers, and Jehoia
chin his son had reigned three months. (2 Kings 24 :
6-12.) According to Jeremiah 52 : 28, this was in the
seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar, which agrees with 25 : 1.
Necho, king of Egypt, had to be conquered before Jeru
salem could be taken. Judea was, at this time, a depend
ency of Necho, and far within the limits of his empire.
Necho was conquered at Carchemish, on the upper Eu
phrates, at its junction with the Chebar, 36° 31' north lati
tude, seven degrees north of Jerusalem, and more than 400
miles north-east of it, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim.
(See Jer. 46 : 2.) " Against Egypt, against Pharaoh Necho

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 137
king of Egypt, who was by the river Pherath [Euphrates]
at Carchemish, whom Nebuchadnezzar,' king of Babel,
smote in the fourth year of Jehoiakim son of Josiah."
In Jer. 25 : 3-9 the taking of Jerusalem is represented
as having been predicted from the thirteenth year of Jo
siah, and not yet to have come. This implies clearly that
there was no capture, of the city in the third year of Je
hoiakim. Chronicles agrees essentially with Kings on this
subject. Kings, Chronicles, and Jeremiah, all concur in
putting the first capture of Jerusalem under Jehoiachin in
598 or 599 B. C, and not eight years before, in 606.
Adonai is the Hebrew word* for the Lord, which here,
as often elsewhere, is used without the article, as a proper
name. Theodotion, in the Septuagint, represents it cor
rectly by Kurios, which is its Greek equivalent, both as a
common noun signifying Lord, and a proper name of Jeva.
In this book Jeva is mostly laid aside ; it only occurs in
Daniel's prayer in connection with Adonai. It is essen
tially the same word as the Greek Zeus, and was, perhaps,
on that account disused by the Hebrews after they became
acquainted with the Greeks ; words, however, retain their
place in poetry and devotional compositions long after
they are disused elsewhere ; and this accounts for it in
Daniel's prayer.
Adonai gave all the vessels into his hand. The Hebrew
Mikzath, here used, is improperly translated in the common
version, part. Without the points, which are a Masoretic
addition unknown to the ancient Hebrews, it is in constant
use to signify from or at the end, as At the end of them,
in verse 2, and At the end of the days, in verse 14. To
carry away the end of things is to carry away the whole
of them. This is what is signified here, and corresponds
to 2 Kings 24: 13, where the first real capture of Jerusa
lem is described; and we are told that the king of Babel
carried out thence all the treasures of the house of Jeva,
12*

138 ' CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
and the treasures of the king's house, and cut up aU the
vessels of gold which Solomon, king of Israel, made for the
palace of Jeva. The word occurs in the same sense in
Neh. 7 : 70, where it is mistranslated some, in the com
mon version ; and a similar word is similarly mistranslated
in Gen. 47 : 2. The lexicons and translations are all in
fault in respect to these words, and require correction.
II. The selection of the Jewish youth to be educated is
doubtless fictitious. Josephus, A. J. 10. 10. 1, makes
Daniel and the three children sons and kinsmen of Zede
kiah the king; but they were quite too early for this.
Their supposed capture was- in 605 B. C, when Zedekiah
was 12 or 13 years old, eight years before he was made
king, and nineteen before he was taken prisoner, when
his sons were killed in his presence, instead of being edu
cated and promoted at Babylon.
III. Daniel and his three friends are examples of great
abstinence. They reject the king's rich food and wine,
and live on seeds and water. This was the diet of the
strictest eremites and other ascetics during the earliest
Christian centuries, and is an instance of over-righteous
ness, not of genuine religious and moral virtue. Wine
drinking was allowed by Christ, but prohibited by Mo
hammed; it was allowed among the Jews, except the
Nazarites, and at a later period, the Rechabites.
Since the sacred books were completed, opium, tobacco,
Indian hemp, and some other narcotic and stimulating
drugs, have been added to the list of luxuries, together
with distilled spirits, tea, and coffee. The use of tea and
coffee is nearly universal, and that of tobacco, distilled
spirits, opium, and other narcotic drugs, extensive.
Tea and coffee are generally deemed useful; their use
fulness, however, is to be questioned, and ought to be de
termined more clearly than has hitherto been done. The
use of tobacco is believed to be a great evil, and therefore

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 139
immoral. The same is true of opium, Indian hemp, and
other narcotic and stimulating drugs as luxuries. The use
of wines and other intoxicating drinks, many of which
are stronger and more intoxicating, has been much dis
cussed in this country and in England within the last
quarter of a century. It is attended with great abuses
and vast injuries to individuals and the public, and re
quires to be put under restrictions and safeguards which
have not yet been adopted. The subject deserves the
further attention of moralists and legislators.
The law in respect to food and drinks is, that we should
use the beneficial and avoid the injurious, and these ought
to be determined and discriminated with great care. Mor
alists have been greatly puzzled in all ages with luxuries,
and the line of duty in respect to them is drawn with
difficulty. The principle of pursuing good and refusing
evil, in the use or disuse of luxuries, is unquestionable,
but its application is sometimes difficult. Every good
man will follow the good as far as it appears, and be
unwearied in seeking it. The physiological objection to
these excitants is, that they substitute artificial excite
ments for natural ones, and divert the vital forces from
their normal exercise, under intellectual excitants, to an
abnormal one under material ones. The happiness of the
subject is not increased, but it is given him without an
intellectual object. The injurious character of such luxu
ries does not appear in any single use of them, but when
they are used frequently or habitually, it becomes very
apparent, and the injuries are often very great.
IV. The attainments of Daniel and his three friends are
represented with Oriental exaggeration, but in other
respects in agreement with facts. The Babylonian liter
ati are scribes and enchanters. The first of these terms
is a natural title of a literary man ; the second originated
in superstition. Enchantments have no natural connec-

140 CRITICAL INTRODUCTION.
tion with literature, except as they are supposed to belong
to the higher arts. The first year of Cyrus is 538 B. C,
making an interval of 67 years between the opening of
this story and its final date. The assertion that Daniel
continued till the first year of Cyrus implies that he con
tinued only till then ; but Story IV. finds him still alive
in the third year of Cyrus, and gives him in that year his
Apocalypse of the course of events till the reign of Mi
chael the archangel, about 160 B. C.
The moral of this story is obvious and striking, and its
lessons are mainly for the young. A pious and virtuous
youth, and the adoption of inviolable principles of recti
tude in early life, lead to success, prosperity, and honor.
They enable us to triumph over adversities, and to make
the most unpropitious circumstances the occasions of our
advancement. Daniel belongs to a high family, but is
early made a prisoner, and carried to a foreign and hostile
land. Neither his courage nor his principles fail him; he
remembers his God and his duty, and God remembers him.
He is singular, but commands respect and love ; he ad
heres inflexibly to the right, and his integrity becomes
the thread of a glorious destiny.
It seems, on a slight consideration, to be a loss to liter
ature to regard the story as a fiction. But it is not ; the
story is one of those immortal fictions which represent
truths that are eternal and universal. The ideal Daniel
represents all noble and manly youth in trying circum
stances, and his methods are the universal resources of
the wise and good. Unspotted purity, unbending recti
tude, and invincible determination, are laws of destiny,
and operate with the same uniformity and certainty as the
laws of gravitation. Daniel in his youth is the Hebrew
ideal of a young man making trial of the reality and effi
cacy of these laws; and the truth and im]3ortance of the
creed illustrated are not at all impaired by the fictitious

CRITICAL INTRODUCTION. 141
incidents of the story. The single fictitious Daniel of the
story is a type of an infinite number of real Daniels, who
act on similar principles in different conditions, and work
out analogous results.
The ascetic character of Daniel's piety, considered in
itself, is a fault, and the story is so far imperfect, and its
lessons to be received with discrimination ; but considered
with respect to the times in which it originated, this fault
becomes a lesson of caution and distrust of human opin
ions, and rises to the dignity of a great historic monument,
marking the steps of human progress in its journeyings to
the infinite.

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