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JVOTES

NORTHWEST,

VALLEY OF THE UPPER MISSISIPPI.

COMPRISING THE COUNTRY BETWEEN LAKES SUPERIOR AND MICHIGAN, EAST; THE
ILLINOIS AND MISSOURT RIVERS, AND THE NORTHERN BOUNDARY OF THE UNITED
states; — INCLUDING IOWA AND WISCONSIN, PART OF MICHIGAN NORTHWEST
OF THE STRAITS OF MACKINAW, AND NORTHERN ILLINOIS AND MISSOURI.

WM. J. A

ADFOED.

NEW YOEK AND LONDON :
WILEY AND PUTNAM.
1846. f

7.«'9

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by
WILEY AND PUTNAM,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southem District of New York.

H. Craiohbad'b Power Prea*'
118 Fulton Street

INTRODUCTION.

The present work covers, in part, new ground geographical
ly : — and differs in design, plan, and mode of treatment,
from those that have before appeared descriptive of some
portions of the district of which it treats.
Though for more than a century and a half known to the
French Missionaries, the voyageurs, and the coureurs des
bois, and to those few who went out as discoverers and ex
plorers, yet it was almost wholly an unknown region to our
American geographers only twenty years since. Mr. Darby,
in his Gazetteer date 1827, says that much of the portion
west of the Missisippi is unknown.
Most of the books that have been published in relation to
this country, have been designed only for guides to travellers
and emigrants ; — and have consequently been subject, so far
as the general reader has been concerned, to the twofold
objection that they were too much in detail to be of interest
to them, or to embody that kind of information, in that
shape, that would be valuable ; — and also that by the rapid
transitions constantly in progress in this part of the country,
they very soon became antiquated and not to be confided in

IV INTRODUCTION.
for present information, and possess only the value of a past
year's almanac ; the fate necessarily of books of mere details.
The country of which the present volume treats is one of
great interest intrinsically, and especially at this time when
two new sovereignties are about to be established within its
limits. And the object of the writer has been, to put
together some notes upon it, in such form as will be inter
esting to persons seeking general information in relation to
the United States, and of such a kind as will be more per
manent than the usual chapters of detail.
The physical geography of a country will, of course, re
main unchanged, while the descriptions of towns given
to-day will hardly apply to the same place when the earth
shall come again to the same place in its orbit.
The same is true of the history of a country. What has
transpired will not be effaced by a new page, but what is
once written will remain.
The other portions of the work are not of so permanent a
nature, yet a considerable portion of the remaining three
parts will not very soon become obsolete. The population
and municipalities, the state of society, and the pursuits of
the people, will undergo modifications. They are, however,
made to occupy a subordinate place in the work.
The physical description of the country has been drawn
almost exclusively from two sources : the writer's own ob
servation, and the very excellent and graphic report of Mr.
Nicollet to the Topographical Bureau of the War Depart
ment of the United States : from which, being the only pub
lished description of a considerable portion of this country

INTRODUCTION.

narrated in very animated style, large extracts have been
transcribed literally, as better than a reproduction in new
shape. The history has been collected from a variety of sources :
some of them of undoubted authenticity. Some of the
older relations, however, to which resort must be had to
ascertain the early events connected with the discovery of
the country, are not to be received without caution. The
practice among the French of publishing books in names of
other persons, not the authors of them, has thrown doubts
over some of its story. M. Tonti disclaimed the author
ship of the volume published in his name ; and it is proba
ble the same liberty may have been taken with others.
Parts III. and IV. are principally the result of the writer's
observation, aided in some particulars by Mr. Wetmore's
Gazetteer of Missouri, by a contribution of a gentleman of
Wisconsin, and by some few public documents.
The reports of Mr. Owen and Nicollet, being very full
and correct on the geology of this region, large extracts from
them have been transcribed in the Appendix, and that part of
the volume consists of little else than extracts from these
reports and Mr. Keating's descriptions. These form the
most complete and satisfactory account of the geology of the
district that can be furnished ; and it was thought best to in
sert them literally. On that account this has been placed in
the Appendix, though the subject would make it more ap
propriate to the body of the work. In the Appendix also is
a very curious and interesting extract from Mr. Owen's
Report, giving a minute description of some earth work

VI INTRODUCTION
monuments in Wisconsin. These two portions of the Ap
pendix consist of matter suitable to the body of the
work : — and to many readers will have more interest than I
dare to hope for the original matter. The only reason for
placing them in the Appendix is that they are not original
matter. This will be a sufficient apology to most readers
for the length of the Appendix.
The design of the work is to make an instructive volume
for the library — and at the same time, though not strictly a
guide, yet more useful to the emigrant than a book of mere
details can be, by imparting to him those general ideas of
the country which will be always of no less value than a
knowledge of minute particulars in relation to certain places.

CONTENTS.

PAGE
Introduction ...... . . , , iii
Part I. — Physical Geography  1
- " II. — History . . ....... 60
" III. — Population, Political System, Civil Divisions, Mu-
' nicipalities. Topography ... . 108
~~- " IV.— Society, Laws, Pursuits, Life, Habits, Health, Pub
lic Lands . .  139
" " V. — Indians, Monuments  174
Appendix A. — Geology . . . .... 201
" B.— Monuments  271
" C— Plants .... . . . 281
" D. — Table of Distances, Elevation and Latitude . 291

PART

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
This country (west of Lake Michigan) was almost un
known to geographers twenty years ago. The report of
Rev. J. Morse to the Secretary of War, in 1821, states that
in 1819 there were but three families settled from the mouth
of the Illinois up two hundred and forty miles, and Darby, in
his Gazetteer (2d edit., 1827), says, " of this immense re
gion" (included between Lakes Michigan and Superior, Rivers
Missisippi and Red, the State of Missouri and the northern
boundary of the United States) "much remains unknown,
and of those parts that have been explored, our information
is generally imperfect." ['Verb. Michigan.] Galena was
settled in 1828; and in 1833, after the Black Hawk war,
settlements began on Rock River and the northern parts of
Illinois and in Iowa, upon the tract purchased of the Sacs
and Foxes. In the list of rivers flowing into the Upper Mis
sisippi, in the same work, are several defects and errors.
On the right side. Root and Wabsipinicon and Checagua (or
Skunk) are omitted ; and that now known to the inhabitants
of Iowa as Tete des Morts, is called Galena. On the left,
some considerable streams are not named. The falls of St.
Anthony are placed, in the same authority, in latitude 44°,
which is one degree south of their true situation.
It is said that the list is given mostly on the authority of
Schoolcraft, and they are also more minutely detailed from the

NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.

circumstances that the valley of the Missisippi is yet imper
fectly known, of great importance in the geography of the
United States, and that the source of intelligence is recent
and respectable. Mr. Darby well said that the knowledge
of this region was imperfect ; for we are informed by Mr.
Schoolcraft, to whom he refers as a source recent and
respectable, that the Rock River Rapids extend six miles up
the river. Their length is, in fact, fifteen miles. Another
striking instance of the errors in regard to this country, is in
the statement of Mr. Brackenridge, that the St. Peter's enters
the Missisippi forty miles below St. Anthony, and is navi
gable one thousand miles to its source — when, in fact, it is
nine miles from the falls, and its whole length is less than
five hundred miles. In some maps of this country, still
more recent, published within twelve years of the time of
writing this, there also appear similar inaccuracies. It is,
in fact, only since the termination of the Black Hawk war,
and the settlement of the country consequent thereon, that
it has become known to geographers and to the world.
The country which is here intended to be included in the
name of the Northwest, or the Upper Missisippi valley, is
bounded on the east and southeast by the Lake Michigan
and the waters connecting it with Lake Superior, and by
Illinois River ; on the south, southwest, and west, by the
Missouri River ; and on the north by the line separating the
territory of the United States from the British Possessions.
It comprehends about 10° of latitude, from 39° to 49°, and
14° of longitude, from 87° to 101° (10° to 24° from Wash
ington), and contains about 300,000 square miles. A laro-e
part of this tract, consisting of the northern portten, is still
held by the Indians ; and the Notes, excepting those relating
to the geography, history and climate, will, for the most
apply to its remaining or southeastern portion,

physical GEOGRAPHY. 3
This country has some very peculiar natural features.
The most remarkable of these is the innumerable multitude
of lakes that spangle its northern surface, the remains, no
doubt, of a vast sea that once covered the whole country
extending north from the Gulf of Mexico, and perhaps reach
ing to Hudson's Bay.
Besides this, there are two great natural features belong
ing to the Valley of the Upper Missisippi, which perhaps
are never fully realized but by actual inspection. The first
consists in the uniformity of elevation, and the shape of the
surface. The country, from the outlets of the Illinois and
Missouri to St. Peter's, and from the Lake Michigan to
Council Bluffs, and beyond that point westerly, is a vast
plain, slightly inclining, ascending to the north and to the
west. By observations taken between the Missisippi and
the Lake, the elevation above the Atlantic has been found a
little exceeding 500 feet : and west of the river, in the same
parallel, toward the Missouri, something over 700 feet. At
St. Peter's it is about 700. Nicollet states, as the result
of over one hundred observations taken at Camp Kearney,
near Council Bluffs, that that point is 1037 feet above the
Gulf; and the elevation of Rock Island, in the same lati
tude, on the Missisippi, he says, is 528 ; and the height of
Fort Pierre Chouteau, on the Missouri, he states at 1456 ;
and the lower end of Lake Pepin, in the same latitude (44°
24'), 710. The mouth of St. Peter's, in about latitude 45°,
744 feet. There are a few elevations above the general
range, called mounds : but with the exception of these, the
surface is marked only by ravines running from the general
level down to the beds of the streams, which are usually
from 100 to 200 feet lower.
The other remarkable prominent feature is the vegetable
covering of the surface. There are large tracts of country

4 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
i wholly destitute of tree or shrub, and covered only with a
luxuriant growth of wild grass, and beautifully interspersed
with flowers of every hue and variety, each successively
making the prairie to look gay with their presence from
April to October. This beautiful natural meadow is not
more pleasant to the eye, than it is genial to the culture and
grateful to the toil of man. It consists of a very dark brown
vegetable mould, in appearance like a mixture of the light
feathery part of ashes with a rich ooze. It is mellow beyond
the conception of those who are acquainted only with the
hard, stiff soils of the Atlantic slope, and as rich and pro
ductive as it is mellow. It is turned over by a prairie plough
running on wheels and set to cut the turf in a regular and
uniform parallelogram, about three inches thick, and fifteen
or eighteen inches -wide. This ploughing should be done
during the springing of vegetation, or one of the three sum
mer months ; though May would usually be considered bet
ter than August for the operation. If done in May or June,
it will, in some cases, be ready for a fall sowing, the same
year. This mould is from one and a half to two feet deep
usually, and sometimes more than that ; and for whole sec
tions, for several townships of six miles square in extent, a
person could not find more gravel in the same quantity of
mould than in his flour barrel. Below this rich mould is a
subsoil, which seems not unsuitable to cultivation, being
similar in appearance to the soil of the timbered lands, a
yellow light clay, or clay loam. The country is a limestone
formation. The timber is only on the streams, and consists
of elm, ash, black walnut, butternut, maple, mulberry and
iron wood on the bottoms, and on the upland white red
black, and burr oak, shell bark and common hickory,' with
occasionally linden, birch, wild plum and cherry, locust and
some other. On the Wisconsin and St. Croix are heavy

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 5
gro-wths of pine, and for several years past a great busmess
has been carried on upon the Missisippi in getting lumber
do-wn from those regions to the towns along the river.
The best portions of this Upper Missisippi Valley are
upon the western shore of Lake Michigan, including the
eastern portion of Wisconsin ; the Illinois and Rock rivers,
and their tributaries ; the Missisippi on both sides ; and gene
rally the whole of Iowa. In Iowa the prairies are less ex
tensive than in lUinois, and the proportion of wood is greater.
In the southem portion of Iowa, below the Iowa River, the
soil is more stiff than to the north of that river, where, by a
slight admixture of fine sand, it is made more friable and
mellow. By reason of this quality, and being also, for the
most part, more level, the land south of that river retains its
moisture later in the spring, and the soil thus loses the
advantage of time which the climate would give in the differ
ence of latitude.
The soil of the prairie is deeper, and is said also to be
richer at a distance from timber than in its vicinity. By
scientific examination, it has been found that carbonate of
lime enters into its composition in proportion of from twenty
to forty per cent. In timber lands the proportion is much
less. The first settlers, however, take the timber land for the
convenience of fuel and making improvements. Thus the
best land is actually the last taken. The soil is of such fer
tility, that in a few years, if the fires are kept out, there wiU
be an abundant growth for all purposes. In the Gazetteer
of Missouri, by Dr. Beck, pubUshed in 1828, it is stated
that St Louis county is generally prairie : yet, in fifteen
years after that date, it was almost wholly covered with a
thrifty growth of timber. The same is the case with other
places. The foUowing statement of the geological structure of that

NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.

portion of Illinois known as the military bounty tract, situated
in the northern part of the State, is extracted from a volume
caUed "lUinois in 1837." As it is applicable to aU the vaUey
of the Upper Missisippi, with very slight variations, a very
accurate idea may be derived from it of the structure of any
portion of that country. In Iowa generaUy the vegetable
mould at the top is a little thicker than it is here stated : —
" A scientific gentleman who has recently examined the
central parts of the Military Bounty Tract, has given the
following as the geological structure of the upland prairies
in that region. That the same general structure prevails
throughout the entire peninsula (between the Illinois and
Missisippi Rivers), and all the central and northern parts of
the State, is most probable. 1st. Vegetable mould, formed
by the decomposition of grass upon the original clay soU,
eight to thirty inches : 2d, pure yellow clay, three to eight
feet : 3d, gravelly clay, mixed with pebbles, four to ten feet :
Sth, limestone rock, two to twelve feet : 5th, shale, covering
a stratum of bituminous coal, generally four to five feet
thick : 6th, soapstone ; then sandstone. The bed of Ume
stone seems to be universal in this region, it having been
discovered in all the wells that have been dug, and in aU the
banks of water-courses of any magnitude."
Although no part of this region can with propriety be
denomiaated hilly, yet upon the Wisconsin, Fox, the head
waters of Rock and Milwaukie Rivers, the country is consider
ably diversified with hUls, or rather swells, and valleys. The
only hills worthy of particular notice, not only in this vicinity
but in the whole section under consideration, are the Ocooch
and Smoky Mountains, which are broad and elevated ridges
rather than mountains. The former is situated about twelve
miles north of the Wisconsin, one hundred mUes above its
mouth ; and the latter about forty miles south of the portage

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 7
between the river just mentioned and Fox River of Green
Bay. (Long's Expedition, v. ii., p. 335.) The blue mounds,
near the Wisconsin ; the Platte mounds, near PlatteviUe ;
the Pilot-knob, near Galena ; the Table mound, three miles
south of Dubuque ; Sherald's mound and Pike's mountain,
may also be named among the lesser elevations of this
region, as also Sinsinewa mound. There are some eleva
tions also near the right bank of the Missisippi, above Lake
Pepin ; and, in fact, on both sides in that part of the country.
The Coteau des Prairies is an extensive and elevated table
land, dividing the waters which flow into the Missouri from
those falling into the St. Peter's and Missisippi. A range
of highlands extends from the Ocooch, on the Wisconsin, to
Lake Superior, supposed by Long and Dr. James to be a con
tinuation of the Ozark mountains. The northern section
of this highland usually goes under the name of Porcupine
HiUs. " It is neither a mountainous, nor a hilly, nor an absolutely
flat country," says Nicollet, " exhibiting undulations of the
surface that are not entitled to these usual appellations.
There are hillocks, swells and uplands, but they have a lon
gitudinal and horizontal rather than a vertical projection. In
other words, it is a beautiful arrangement of upland and low
land plains, that give it an aspect sui generis. The first
Frenchmen who explored it, and the British and Americans
who followed them, were so forcibly impressed with this
novelty in the appearance of the topography, that they
employed new names to designate it. Hence we have the
expressions coteau des prairies, coteau des bois [highland
prairie, highland woods], hauteur des terres [summit of land],
and rolling, flat, or marshy prairies. There is still sufficient
variety in the irregularities of its surface, and the distribution

NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.

of the water-courses, woodlands and prairies, to bestow
interest and value upon its several sub-divisions.
" The basin of the Upper Missisippi is separated, in a
great part of its extent, from that of the Missouri, by an ele
vated plain, the appearance of which, seen from the vaUey
of the St. Peter's, or that of the Riviere Jacques, looming, as
it were, a distant shore, has suggested for it the name of
coteau des prairies. Its more appropriate designation would
be that oi plateau, which means something more than is con
veyed to the mind by the expression, a plain.
" Its northern extremity is in lat. 46°, extending to 43° ;
after which it loses its distinctive elevation above the sur
rounding plains, and passes into rolling prairies. Its length
is about two hundred miles, and its general direction N.NW.
and S.SE. Its northern termination (called ' t&te du coteau,^
in consequence of its peculiar configuration) is not more than
fifteen to twenty miles across ; its elevation above the level
of the Big Stone Lake is 890 feet ; and above the ocean
1,916 feet. Starting from this extremity (that is, the head
of the coteau), the surface of the plateau is undulating,
forming many dividing ridges, which separate the waters
flowing into the St. Peter's and the Missisippi from those
of the Missouri.
" Under the forty-fourth degree of latitude the breadth of
the coteau is about forty miles, and its mean elevation is here
reduced to 1,450 feet above the sea. Within this space its
two slopes are rather abrupt, crowned with verdure and
scolloped by deep ravines thickly shaded with bushes form
ing the beds of rivulets that water the subjacent plains. The
coteau itself is isolated in the midst of boundless and fertile
prairies, extending to the west, to the north, and into the val
ley of the St. Peter's.
" The plain, at its northern extremity, is a most beautiful

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 9
tract of land, diversffied by hiUs, dales, woodland and lakes :
the latter abounding in fish. The region of country is pro
bably the most elevated between the Gulf of Mexico and
Hudson's Bay. From its summit, proceeding from its
western to its eastem limits, grand views are aflforded. At
its eastem border, particularly, the prospect is magnificent
beyond description, extending over the immense green turf
that forms the basin of 4he Red River of the North, the
forest-capped summits of the hauteurs des terres that sur
round the sources of the Missisippi, the granite vaUey of the
Upper St. Peter's, and the depressions in which are Lake
Travers and the Big Stone Lake.
" The other portions of the coteau, ascending from the
lower latitudes, present pretty much the same characters.
This difference, however, is remarkable : that the woodlands
become scarcer, whilst the open prairies increase in extent.
It is very rarely only that groves are met with, to which the
N'dacotahs, or Sioux, have given the name of Tchan Witah,
or Wood Islands. When these groves are surrounded by
water, they assume some resemblance to oases, and hence I
have assigned this name to some of them on my map.
" These oases, possessed of a good soil, well wooded,
offering an abundance of game, and waters teeming with, fish,
ofier inducements for permanent settlements. In this region
there are frequent instances of a marsh or lake furnishing
waters to difierent hydrographical basins, — a fact observed
by the Sioux, and whifch they express in the compound word
of iheir dialect, mini-akipan-kaduza ;* — ^from mini, water ;
akipan, division, share ; and kaduza, to flow, to run out."
[NicoUet, pp. 7, 8, 9, 10.]
Mr. Nicollet seems to mistake the application of the phrase mmi-
akipan-haduza. Akipan is probably a ridge of land, or, as the white set
tler calls it, in the very word of the Indians, a divide. The phrase is pro-

10 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
The country from Platte River to Council Bluffs is thus
described by NicoUet [p. 39, et seq.] : —
" It wiU be recoUected that I have represented the whole
bed of clay, divided into two portions by a band of iron
stone, as having a nearly uniform thickness of 200 feet, and
that it is intermixed with lumps of gypsum and limestone,
together with nodules of pyrites ; so that a soil, produced
from such materials, could hardly be expected to throw up
anything but a meagre vegetation. It is of a character, too,
to be so acted upon by atmospheric agents, as to exhibit, by
the wear and tear of its superficial portions, every variety
of fanciful summits — domes, cupolas, towers, colonnades,
&c.; imparting to it a remarkably picturesque appearance,
especially when contrasted with the dense vegetation that
borders the river, and a narrow slip of prairies crowning the
summits of the hills that are seen to extend themselves on
either side.
" The same physical causes, under other circumstances,
produce new effects, that add to the beauty and grandeur of
the scenery. Thus, the rains furrow and cut through the
plastic and seleniferous clay, down to the most resisting
limestone, giving rise to a sort of advancing platform, with a
perpendicular elevation of from 30 to 40 feet, resembling a
succession of long lines of parapets.
" But I have now reached the proper place to treat of a
very interesting phenomenon observed in the midst of this
cretaceous group. It manifests itself by the occasional
appearance of a dense smoke at the top of some conical
hiU, or along a line of country bounded by the horizon, so
bably applied to a ridge, and not to a marsh. So Nicollet has himself ap
plied it on his map to the ridge separating the waters of St. Peter's from
those of the Missisippi.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 11
as to awaken the idea of distant volcanoes ; hence I have
chosen to call them pseudo-volcanoes
" The smoke from these hiUs and the crevices in the
plastic clay is said to last at the same spot for a long time —
say two or three years ; indicating at them a large accumu
lation of combustible materials. It is not, to my knowledge,
accompanied by luminous vapors, and is silently wafted
along the valley which it moumfuUy shrouds. The observ
ance of this phenomenon, associated with the frequent
recurrence of a pecuUar Ught and spongy stone that the
Missouri carries down and strews along its shores, and
which has been mistaken for pumice-stone, has led to the
often-controverted opinion that there was a volcanic region
on the Upper Missouri. There are, however, no true volca
noes over any portion of the United States east of the
Rocky Mountains ; and it was this belief that led me to the
adoption of the word pseudo-volcano. Neither is the sub
stance found in these regions, and commonly caUed pumice,
a true pumice ; and, by a similar analogy to that which has
prompted the name of its probable origin, I have called it a
pumiciform stone {roche pumiciforme).
" Before proceeding to account for the appearances and
circumstances attending these smoking hUls, I must add a
few more facts concerning their traditional and recorded
history. There were none in activity when I ascended the
Missouri in 1839 ; and so would seem to have been the case
at the passage of Lewis and Clark at the beginning of this
century. But, previous to my arrival, since the memorable
expedition last referred to, and during a period of three
years, they were seen, as my information goes, by many in
teUigent persons engaged in the fur-trade, aU of whom are
naturally observant, and most of them of unquestionable
authority. I have no doubt, therefore, of the existence of

12 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
these hills ; and, in tmth, upon a distance of 130 mUes from
Scalp mountain to beyond the Karmichigah, or Great Bend,
there is nothing to be seen but a black zone, known to the
voyageurs as ' les cotes hruUes ' — ' collines brulees,'' — ^viz :
burnt bluffs, or burnt hills.
" In other respects, the character of the vegetation, which
is always scant upon this zone, indicates, in a measure, the
epochs when it was visited by these subterranean fires ; the
blacker and more sterile parts being the most recently burnt.
They are pointed out by the voyageurs, and I have indicated
several on my map. The fossil shells, that I have preced-
ingly enumerated, lose their brilliant opalescent appearance,
and are partly calcined, though still preserving their specific
distinctions. Layers of the clay are also met with, so
altered as almost to deserve the mineralogical name of por-
cellanite ; in fact, all the minerals belonging to the formation
exhibit the alteration which might be supposed produced by
exposure to that sort of action now to be assigned.
" I believe that these pseudo-volcanic phenomena may be
compared with those described as occurring in other portions
of the globe, under the name of terrains ardens ; although
they are not here accompanied by the emission of flames.
They are evidently due to the decomposition, by the perco
lation of atmospheric waters to them, of beds of pyrites,
which, reacting on the combustible materials, such as lignites
and other substances of a vegetable nature in their vicinity,
give rise to a spontaneous combustion ; whilst further reac
tions (weU understood by the chemist) upon the lime con
tained in the clay bed, produce the masses and crystals of
selenite that are observed in the lower portion of this inter
esting deposit. This is the theory which, with some little
confidence, we have formed of these pseudo-volcanoes.
" It may be interesting to future travellers to learn that.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 13
in order to collect both fossUs and most interesting speci
mens of crystaUized selenite, without taking the trouble of
making diggings, it is only necessary to perambulate the
zone of plastic clay shortly after it has been washed by
hea-vy rains. Under such circumstances, should they be
favored moreover by the reflections of the sun, they will be
struck with the appropriateness of the designation of these
hills, as applied both by the voyageurs and Indians — name
ly, of shining mountains. In truth, it is not unlikely that
these hills, a portion of them attaining an elevation of from
500 to 700 feet above the river, were some of those referred
to by the Sioux of the Missisippi, who, conversing with the
first white men who visited them, and long afterwards with
Capt. Carver, spoke of the Shining Mountains of the West.
" These (so named) pseudo-volcanoes are not, however,
confined to the valley of the Missouri. Traces of them are
not unfrequently found over the more westerly regions, as
far as the upper portions of the rivers called by the Indians
Mankizitah and Washtey. The name of Mankizitah-iuatpa,
usually translated by that of " White-earth-river" (or simply
White river), means, more properly. Smoking Earth river ;
whence I have concluded that these indications of pseudo-
volcanoes were at the same time evidences of the recurrence
of the upper members of the cretaceous formation, the limit
of which I have assigned as being somewhere eastward of
the Black Hills. The name of ' Mauvaises Terres' (bad
lands) has been applied to districts cut up into deep and in
tricate chasms, from which the traveller could hardly hope
to extricate himself without the assistance of a good guide,
and that are doubtless due to the burning out of their
pseudo-volcanoes. " However this may be, there can be no doubt that the
reo-ion of country drained by these rivers which I have last

14 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
mentioned, will present a wide and fertile field of discovery
to any geologist whose good luck it may be to give it a
thorough exploration. For there he wiU find an opportunity
not only of studying the continuation of the secondary
cretaceous formation previously described, but likewise of
discovering the approach to a tertiary formation ; the equiva
lents of which are doubtless to be found to the west of the
Rocky Mountains, as they have already been to the east, on
the Atlantic borders."
This country is probably one of the most remarkable on
the earth, for the variety and abundance of its mineral de
posits, and especially for those which are of most extensive
use in the arts. The sulphuret of lead occupies about one
degree of latitude, extending north from a point on the Mis
sisippi, some eight miles below Galena, and lying on both
sides, varying in width till it covers as great an extent from
east to west. On the east side of the river the mineral is
found principally in a clay matrix, at a depth of sometimes
only five or six feet from the surface ; on the west side of
the river it runs at the depth of one hundred feet or more,
overlaid with magnesian limestone. To the south-west of
the lead deposit is a very abundant bed of iron, extending
from the Maquoqueta River south and west to the Wabesepi-
nicon, in the counties of Jackson and Clinton, in Iowa. The
extent of this mineral deposit is not known, but is proba
bly forty miles or more northeast and southwest, with a
breadth not less than twenty or thirty miles. The copper
region extends north from the lead deposits to Lake Superior.
Its precise limits are not known, but it embraces about
300 miles square ; it is found south of latitude 43°
in large quantities, and beyond 47° north. From east lo
west it has an equal extent, being found in situ on Blue
Earth river, west of the Missisippi, in 94°, and east as far as

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 15
between 88° and 89°. Probably in nearly the whole tract
between the Rivers Wisconsin and St. Croix, and the Missi
sippi and Lake Superior, it is very abundant.
To the south of the lead region, that is, on Rock River,
on the east, and south of the Wabesepinicon, on the west of
the Missisippi, is a vast bed of bituminous coal (called by
Owen the great Illinois coal field), of a good quality, at no
great distance below the surface. The country is principally
of magnesian limestone formation. The rock is, for the most
part, covered with several successive layers of clay, each of
the depth of many feet, and is generally not found in digging
the wells of greatest depth. At the bluffs of the Missisip
pi, however, and on some other streams, it outcrops. The
superstrata of clay are covered with a pure vegetable mould,
unmixed with other matters, of a depth from eight or ten
inches to three feet or more. In some localities, as at Iowa
City, are deposits of a fine madrepore or encrinitic marble.
The country has not yet been explored sufficiently to inform
us to what extent these abound, nor how great a variety of
minerals it contains. Mineral salt, and saltpetre, are to be
considered among them.
The country has about all the varieties of forest trees
common to the same latitudes on this continent ; including
five or six species of oak, the walnuts, ashes, maples, elms,
hickories, locusts, mulberries, aspens, and poplars, one vari
ety of which is very abundant, known as the cotton wood,
&c. There are very few birches, and the writer has not
seen any beeches or chestnuts. Of wild plums, the varieties
are almost endless ; many of them are good, some nearly
equal to the best cultivated plums, some indifferent. Iron-
wood is abundant on the bottoms.
The prickly ash, hawthorn, grape, and gooseberry, are
among the shrubs and vines. The vegetation is not only

16 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
varied according to the latitudes, but by the respective situa
tions of bottom and upland. But the vegetation of the Mis
sisippi and Missouri rivers, on the same paraUel, does not
appear to vary much. On the east of the Missisippi the coni-
ferae are found in a lower latitude than to the west of it.
Nicollet says, in reporting the characteristics of the country,
in his progress up the Missouri : —
" From the mouth of the Platte River the forests are nar
rower. The principal trees are the American and red elm,
the soft maple, Canadian poplar, white and red ash ; the most
common undergrowth, horse-briar, fox and false grapes, red
root, grey dogwood, currant, and gooseberry, with shrubs and
dense rushes along the banks of the river. The same trees
and shrubs grow on the numerous islands that are generally
bordered with black and long-leaved wiUows. In the higher
situations, and at the head of creeks, we meet with the black
walnut and mulberry, bass-wood, nettle-wood, intermingled
with the common hawthorn, prickly ash, &c. On the high
grassy or rocky banks, the black and bur oaks constitute the
principal growth, but occasionally intermixed with the wild
cherry, red cedar, hornbeam, wild roses, and sumach. The
low prairies bordering the rivers have a deep fertile soU, and
abound with sedge-grasses and leguminous plants. Finally,
taking a pictorial view of the country, the verdure of its
hills and prairies affords a pleasing contrast with the naked
sand-bars in the rivers.
" I have been thus particular in describing the vegetation of
this part of the country, not only as a feature in its physical
geography, but as a point of comparison with the more
northerly regions which I have yet to describe." — Nic, p. 30.
The most important vegetable, native to this region, on
account of its use as well as its abundance, is a grain caUed
wild rice, by some of the Indians, malomini, or menomoni.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 17
It is similar to the rice of the southem States, if not the
same ; is a principal article of food among some of the na
tions residing here, and gave the name to a tribe that, for the
most part, subsisted on it. There are also, it is said, the
wild potato, and wild onion, found here. The former, as the
writer was informed by Le Claire, late interpreter to the Sac
and Fox Indians, gave the name to the Wabesepinicon river :
Wabe-se-pin, potato, or white potato, icon, abode, or resi
dence. There is a piece of prairie also, some miles north of
that river, called, by the French, Pomme de terre (or potato)
prairie. Some of the streams are supposed to have derived
their names from the wild onion. Chicago, or Chicagua,
anything with a strong smell, is the name applied to this
vegetable, and to the skunk. The sun-flower, the artichoke,
and the resin plant, grow abundantly in places.
Mr. Doty, in a letter to Gov. Cass, says the wabessepin
resembles a potato, is mealy when boiled, and grows only in
wet clay ground, about one and a half feet deep. The crane
potato, called sitchauc-wabessepin, is of the same kind, but
inferior in quality. The Indians use these for food, as well as
the menomini, and another long and slender root called wa-
tappinee. Probably it is the first of these that is referred
to by Nicollet, in the following extract, as the prairie
tumip : — " The future inhabitants of this region, among its
most interesting specimens of vegetanon, will find, as trees,
the American and red elm, lime tree, bur oak, white ash,
ash-leaved maple, nettle tree, large American aspen ; as
shrubs, the hazel, red root, peterswort, &c. ; as herbs, alum
root, tufted and American vetch, wood sorrel, sedge and pas
ture grasses.
"The intermediate prairies are characterized by small
depressions, fiUed with rough grasses, and bordered by the
Canadian cinquefoU, the germander, southern lily, and but-

18 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
ton snake-root. Extensive beds of the Virginia strawberry
are frequently met with in low places ; and in the vicinity of
Salinas, a species of clover caUed buffalo clover. On the
arid slopes is the pink milk vetch, inhabited by miUions of
Spanish flies. Sandbrakes are generaUy fuU of mustard and
dwarf amaranths ; whUst the stony-grassy borders are fring
ed with dense bushes of the mimosa tribe and long-leaved
willows. Finally, all the high prairies abound with the
silver-leaved psoralia, which is the prairie turnip of the
Americans, the pomme des prairies of the Canadians, and
furnishes an invaluable food to the Indians."
Of grasses, the growth is very luxuriant and various.
Fitted for the abode of the innumerable herds of buffalo
that formerly roamed over it in divided empire with the In
dian, this country affords perhaps the best pasture, whether
natural or artificial, on the earth. Many of the varieties of
the English cultivated grasses are found here. The fox tail,
the crow foot, and the oat grass are native here. On the
bottoms is a very luxuriant grass, growing on a round stem
or culm, eight to nine feet high, which cattle eat with avidi
ty. There is also a sweet scented grass, having nearly the
smell of savory. On all the upland prairie is a very nour
ishing grass, growing from two to three feet, which furnishes
the winter food for cattle and horses. This grass is exceed
ing good, both for sunlKer and winter food, and both for beef
and butter. The latter article in the prairie country of Iowa
is unusually sweet and delicious.
The buffalo and beaver, formerly abundant, at the discovery
of the country, have withdrawn. The former are now west
of the Missouri River. A few beaver may perhaps occasion
ally be found in the more remote parts of the country, in the
highest latitude. The elk is yet on the border settlements in
Iowa : the deer is very abundant. To the west, toward the

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 19
mountains, is a small horse which the Indians take and use
under their mdely made saddles. The prairie wolf is very
numerous. At about ten mUes from Jackson County seat,
on the traveUed maU road to Dubuque, and fifteen mUes from
this last, the writer once passed seven of these animals in
company, at another time three. The panther is occasionaUy
seen. The lynx more frequently. Of these, the writer once
saw three at a time. There are some badgers. The raccoon
is very numerous ; and, next to the wolf, most destructive to
the domestics of the farm-yard. Bears, and some cats are
found in parts of the country. The rabbit is very abundant.
Foxes do not inhabit, so far as known to the writer, any part
of this country. The skunk is not often met. In grounds
appropriate to their residence, the muskrat are abundant.
The gophar is an animal very singular in his appearance.
He is twice the size of a common rat, mouse-colored, having
a large pouch on either side of the head. His feeble bark or
squeal may sometimes be heard in riding along the prairie,
which is very closely studded with his conical house-top,
standing above the surface, much resembling ant-hills. All
the varieties of squirrels inhabit here, and there is a field
mouse of a larger size than the common animal of that name
in the eastern part of the continent. The weasel is occasion
ally found, and there is a small animal, striped like the little
striped squirrel, living in the prairie, having a long body and
tail and very short legs, which is commonly known there as
the prairie squirrel, though I think he is of the weasel tribe,
having more resemblance to this animal in form than to the
squirrel. This creature and the gophar are very destructive
to the corn-fields, and compel the farmer frequently to plant
his corn twice and three times.
The wild turkey is found in great numbers on the wooded
bottom lands ; the prairie hen is frequently seen by hundreds

20 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
in the prairie. The hawk, buzzard, eagle, owl, and a smaU
paroquet, and several varieties of woodpeckers, are met oc
casionally. The woodcock, snipe, and quail, are abundant.
There is a very pecuUar bird inhabiting the wet prairies and
marshes, about the size of the prairie hen, and having a close
resemblance in color and shape ; the principal difference being
in a longer neck, and a biU of very peculiar constraction. It
is some nine or ten inches in length and bent over at the end
like a sickle, the hooked part being from one to two inches
long. The swan and pelican are seen occasionally on the
Missisippi, in the latitude of the lower rapids. Farther north
and west they are believed to be more abundant. To one of
the lakes in the north-west the Indians have given an appel
lation which signifies "the place where the pelicans nestle."
Geese and ducks are very abundant on some of the water
courses ; and occasionally a gull, similar to the saltwater-gull,
is seen. The small, slender-legged bird, with a shrill, mourn
ful note, which is found running about the shores and marshes
near the sea, in the east, commonly called the peewit, is here.
Robins, sparrows, swallows, and the other small birds com
mon to the east, are also inhabitants of this region.
Of reptiles, the Upper Missisippi cannot be said to be
very prolific ; though in some localities this division of ani
mated nature is sufficiently represented. The varieties are,
the great yellow rattlesnake, the prairie rattlesnake (called by
the Indians massasauga, great adder), the copperhead, the
buU snake, the milk snake, the black snake, the moccasin ;
and in the rivers the water-moccasin, with a number of small
adders. There is one of this tribe called the death-adder,
said to be as fatal as the copperhead or rattlesnake. The
writer saw one specimen of an unknown and very peculiar
kind of snake. It was in the road about one mUe back from
the river, at the foot of the lower rapids. Its length was ap-

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 21
parently not over fifteen inches, its diameter one and a quarter
or one and a half inches, square, not round, its color a dull
yellow or buff, with one or two darker but faint lines drawn
upon it. At the distance of about two or three inches from
the extreme point of the taU the square shape of the body
abruptly terminated, like a stick notched, and cut down so as
to describe a circle on the end of the parallelogram, and from
thence it was a regular cone to the point. Having sat upon
my horse and viewed it for some time, I was satisfied that its
motion and mode of attack must be very different from the
common varieties of the snake ; as, though it -wriggled like
the worm, it made no perceptible advance, and I inferred,
from its lack of longitude, that it could not make much pro
gress in the common way. Upon reference to Shaw, Dr.
Goldsmith, Fleming, and other writers on Zoology, I can find
no description of this very singular animal. Dr. Morse, in
his Geography, does not notice it.
Beside the coluber, and the toad, and frog, and turtle, and
the common worms, reptiles are not numerous.
The people inhabiting this country are the Menominis or
Malominis, the Potawatomies, the Wirmebagoes, Chippewas,
Dahcotahs (called by the French Sioux), and Sacs and Foxes :
this last band is always caUed, by their own people, Musk-
waka. The Sacs call themselves Saki. Beside these there
are several thousand eastern Indians removed from New
York, who inhabit the northeastern part of Wisconsin, near
Lake Michigan.

RIVERS.
The Missisippi and Missouri, the principal rivers of this
country, are well known. The Missouri, rising in a moun
tain region, flows with a rapid current, about four miles an

22 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
hour, is very turbid and muddy, and is subject to a great nse.
Three times, since the country was known to the whites, it
has risen thirty or forty feet above the usual high-water
mark. The last rise was in the summer of 1844, and was
very disastrous, overwhelming the whole bottom country
between the bluffs. The Missisippi, rising from lakes in the
midst of a champaign, and flowing through a similar region,
and over a wide bed, from bluff to bluff, has a slower current,
generally from two to two and a half miles an hour, is a clear,
limpid stream, and is rarely known to rise more than ten feet.
In the spring of 1 844, however, it had a rise of fifteen feet or
more. The Missi-sippi, or, according to other Indian dia
lects, Massi-sepo (so the Musquakas speak it), great river, is in
length, as given by Mr. Nicollet, the latest and most accurate
authority, in his report to Congress (p. 125), 2,896 miles,
reckoning to its " utmost sources at the summit of the hauteurs
de terre, or dividing ridge between the Missisippi and the
Red River of the North." From this point to the mouth of
Leech Lake River is 221 miles ; to Wanomon or VermiUion
River, 248 ; to the head of the Kabikons, or Little FaUs, 269;
to the mouth of Kagi-wigwan (Crow- wing) River, 515; to
the Karishon (Crow) River, 667 ; to the mouth of St. Peter's,
704 ; St. Croix, 746 ; upper end of Lake Pepin, 781 ; Chip-
peway River, 810 ; Black River, 861 ; Upper Iowa, 918 ;
Wisconsin, 970 ; head of the Upper Rapids (Rock River
Rapids), 1159; head of the Lower Rapids (Des Moins),
1287; Illinois River, 1470; Ohio River, 1680; from thence
to the Gulf of Mexico, 1216. Rock River comes into
the Missisippi on the east, about nineteen miles below the
head of the Upper Rapids. The Lower Iowa River enters
on the west, about forty-five miles below Rock River-
and the Moingonan, or Des Moins, about fifteen mUes below
the head of the Lower Rapids. These rapids extend about

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 23
eleven miles upon the river ; the upper rapids are about fifteen
miles in length. Mr. Schoolcraft, who considered, as did
Nicollet, the Lake Itasca to be the source, computed the
whole length of the river at 3,160 miles, or 264 more than
NicoUet. This, probably, was occasioned by the addition
of estimates not very accurate from point to point upon the
river, founded upon the reckoning of the boatmen.
Major Long, who measured the height of the falls of St.
Anthony with a plumb-line, in 1817, states it to be sixteen
and a half feet. In this he agrees with Pike, who visited it
twelve years before him. Carver called it thirty feet. Hen
nepin, the first European who saw and named it, in 1680,
says it is fifty or sixty feet high. For reasons hereafter
mentioned, in the historical part of these notes, full reliance
cannot be placed on Henepin. It may be, however, that the
ponderous body of water is gradually wearing away the stone
which makes the bed of the river before it falls, and that thus
the height is constantly diminishing ; or, by the faUing of the
stone, and the consequent receding of the fall, the same
effect might be produced. It is stated, by Nicollet, I think,
that in a half mile the whole fall is seventy-five feet. •*
In relation to the recession of the falls, and the whole
descent of the water, Mr. Keating says : — " The river (Mis
sisippi) runs upon a bed of sandy alluvion, resulting from the
destruction of the bluffs, but in many places the rock is laid
bare. These observations upon the geology of the bluff upon
which the fort is erected correspond with those made at the
Falls of St. Anthony, with this exception, that,'at the latter
place, our observations are limited to the three superior
strata, viz : the slaty limestone, with organic remains ; the
blue limestone, destitute of these ; and the sandstone, with a
loose texture. The falls are occasioned by the fissures which
occur in the superior limestone, and which aUow the water to

24 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
penetrate through this bed to the. sandstone, which, being of
a loose texture, is soon washed away ; in this manner, thick
plates of limestone are left unsupported, and soon faU by
their own gravity. This process is constantly causing the
fall to recede towards its source. What time has been
required, what lapse of centuries has been consumed, in
bringing the faUs to their present situation, it is not in the
power of man to decide ; but we may well see that it must
have been immense. The difference of level at the head of
the fall and the level of the river at the fort being estimated
at about one hundred feet, and the strata running in a hori
zontal position, we can readily account for the additional
strata observed under the sandstone at the fort, and which
are concealed at the falls." [Long's 2d Exped., v. i., p. 309.]
By the Sioux these falls are called Rara, from Irara, to
laugh (or, perhaps, Irara, which, quickly spoken, would
sound Rara). The Chippewas call them Kakabikah, severed
rock. Major Long tells a romantic story in connection with these
falls. It is thus : — An Indian of the Dacota nation had
united himself in hlfe youth to a female called Ampato Sapa,
the Dark Day, a name which, if given at her birth, and not
afterward bestowed in allusion to her unfortunate end, would
seem to show that these people possess the power of divina
tion. They lived happily together many years. Two chil
dren were the frait of their union. The man, having ac
quired renown as a hunter, aspired to be elected a chief.
To increase his dignity and importance, and to strengthen
his influence, he resolved to add another wife to his house
hold, and fixed his choice on the daughter of a man of influ
ence in the tribe. When he made known his determination
to his wife, she endeavored to dissuade him, by reminding
him of their long-cherished love, and the happiness they had

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 25
enjoyed together. Finding no arguments avaUable, and, in
fact, that he had already executed his purpose of a second
marriage, she observed her opportunity, launched her light
bark canoe, and placing her children in it, pushed off into the
stream above the fall. Her death song was heard, clear and
shrill, by her friends upon the banks of the river. She
recited, with a mournful voice, the pleasure she had enjoyed
when the undivided object of her husband's affection. As
she fell faster and faster down the current, her voice became
lost in the sound of the cataract. Her boat was borne to the
edge of the cascade, was seen for a moment in the spray and
mist that hovered over the water, and disappeared, to be seen
no more. The Indians say that, often, in the morning, a
voice is heard singing a mournful requiem, the burden of
which is the inconstancy of her husband. And some assert
that the spirit of Ampato Sapa has been seen wandering
about the place with her children in her bosom.
For a description of the head-waters and superior course of
the Missisippi, I quote Mr. Nicollet, the most recent, the
most accurate, the most lively, and the most graphic descrip
tion given of this stream.
" The Missisippi holds its own from its very origin ; for it
is not necessary to suppose, as has been done, that Lake
Itasca may be supplied with invisible sources, to justify the
character of a remarkable stream, which it assumes at its
issue from this lake. There are five creeks that fall into it,
formed by innumerable streamlets oozing from the clay beds
at the bases of the hills, that consist of an accumulation of
sand, gravel, and clay, intermixed with erratic fragments,
being a more prominent portion of the great erratic deposit
previously described, and which here is kno-wn by the name
of hauteurs des terres — ^heights of land.
" These elevations are commonly flat at top, varying in

26 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
height from 85 to 100 feet above the level of the surround
ing waters. They are covered with thick forests, in which
the coniferous plants predominate. South of Itasca Lake
they form a semicircular region with a boggy bottom, ex
tending to the southwest a distance of several mUes ; thence
these hauteurs des terres ascend to the northwest and north,
and then stretching to the northeast and east, through the
zone between 47° and 48° of latitude, make the dividing
ridge between the waters that empty into Hudson Bay and
those which discharge themselves into the Gulf of Mexico. .
" The waters supplied by the north flank of these heights
of land, still on the south side of Lake Itasca, give origin to
the five creeks of which I have spoken above. These are
the waters which I consider to be the utmost sources of the
Missisippi. Those that flow from the southern side of the
same heights, and empty themselves into Elbow Lake, are
the utmost sources of the Red River of the North, so that
the most remote feeders of Hudson Bay and the Gulf of
Mexico are closely approximated to each other." — Nic. Rep.,
p. 57, et seq.
The principal creek of the five above-mentioned feeders of
Lake Itasca comes into the east bay of the lake, and is from
fifteen to twenty feet wide, and, at the time of NicoUet's visit,
two or three feet deep. This he considers the infant Missi
sippi. Mr. NicoUet went up this stream three or four miles,
and thus/ describes it : —
" As a further description of these head-waters, I may add
that they unite at a smaU distance from the hills whence they
originate, and form a small lake, from which the Missisippi
flows with a breadth of a foot and a half, and a depth of one
foot. At no great distance, however, this rivulet, unitjng
itself with other streamlets coming from other directions, sup
plies a second minor lake, the waters of which have already

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 27
acquired a temperature of 48°. From this lake issues a
rivulet, necessarily of increased importance — a cradled Her
cules, giving promise of the strength of his maturity ; for its
velocity has increased ; it transports the smaller branches of
trees ; it begins to form sand-bars ; its bends are more
decided, until it subsides again into the basin of a third lake,
somewhat larger than the two preceding. Having thus ac
quired renewed vigor, and tried its consequence upon an
additional length of two or three miles, it finaUy empties into
Itasca lake, which is the principal reservoir of all the sources
to which it owes aU its subsequent majesty." — ^Nic. Rep.,
p. 58.
" For the first twenty-five or thirty miles the bed of the
river contracts or dilates, according to the character of the
shores. Its navigation is greatly impeded by erratic rocks,
trunks of fallen and decayed trees, as well as impending
branches of living ones, and rapids, which, in proportion to the
changes of level in the bed of the river, carried along our frail
canoe with the rapidity of an arrow, or left us, when wanting,
in perfect repose. I may remark here, that, on this river,
like all those of this region of country, where, on the narrow
ing of the valley, there grows nothing but willows and aquatic
plants on the shores, with a fine sand at bottom, its bed is
peopled with innumerable shells, especially unios and ano-
dontce. So far, I saw not a solitary fish." — Nic. Rep., p. 60.
At fifty miles below Lake Itasca the river acquires a
greatly-increased width. I give again the words of Mr.
NicoUet : —
" At this stage of its progress, the Missisippi river is wide,
winding itself in large folds, as if to take masterly possession
of the country ; whilst its waters are enlivened by innumer
able flocks of wild fowl. Then comes another contraction of
the river, which soon opens again, and extends itself to

28 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
Pemidji-gomag, or Pemidji Lake, sometimes caUed Lake Tra
vers. So far, the Missisippi has received the contribution of
ten rivers ; its wide and flattened bed, completely covered
by water, presents a lake (or rather pool) from forty to fifty
mUes square, clogged up with aquatic plants, with intermedi
ary spaces of clear water, looking Uke channels ; but among
which it is difficult to discover the true course of the river,
for, at certain seasons of the year, the whole is nothing more
than a marshy prairie.
"Pemidji Lake has not received from geographers the atten
tion that it merits ; so that I cannot resist the temptation of
describing the impression it made upon me. It is a magnifi
cent sheet of water, from ten to twelve miles long, with a
breadth of from four to five, perfectly clear, and without
islands ; the eye having a free command over gently-swelling
hills, receding, and thickly wooded ; and it is said that no
other river but the Missisippi empties into it, save an obscure
rivulet at its northern extremity. I must confess that, in
crossing it, I felt melancholy that, even with my artificial
optics, I could not descry any evidences of civilisation — ^no
cottage of the agriculturist ; no meadows, no herds, nor any
of those cultivated fields whose mellow shades contrast so
gracefully with the foliage of the forest. The piercing, soli
tary cry of the Northern diver — ^the precursor, according to
the Indian tradition, of high winds and hurricanes — ^was the
only evidence of living nature that presented itself." — Nic,
pp. 60, 61.
From Sandy Lake, in about latitude 46° 45', to Crow-wing
River, a distance of about one hundred and fifty mUes, the
Missisippi may be navigated by small steamboats. In high
stages of water, they may pass over the intervening rapids to
the Kabikons, or Little, FaUs, one hundred miles further.
Mr. Nicollet further says : —

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 29
" Over the whole route which I traversed after leaving
Crow-wing River, the country has a different aspect from that
which the banks of the Missisippi above the FaUs of St.
Anthony present. The forests are denser and more varied ;
the soil, which is alternately sandy, gravelly, clayey, and
loamy, is, generally speaking, lighter, excepting on the shores
of some of the larger lakes. The uplands are covered with
white and yellow pines, spruce and birch ; and the wet, low
lands, by the American larch and the willow. On the slopes
of sandy hills, the American aspen, the canoe-birch, with
a species of birch of dwarfish growth, the alder, and wild rose,
extend to the very margin of the river. On the borders of the
larger lakes, where the soil is generally better, we find the
sugar-maple, the black and bur oaks (also named over-cup
white oak, but differing from the white oak), the elm, ash,
lime-tree, &c. Generally speaking, however, this wood-land
does not extend back farther than a mile from the lakes.
The white cedar, the hemlock, spruce pine, and fir, are occa
sionally found ; but the red cedar is scarce throughout this
region, and none, perhaps, are to be seen but on islands
of those lakes called by the Indians Red Cedar Lakes. The
shrubbery consists principally of the wild rose, ha-wthorn,
and wild plum ; and raspberries, blackberries, strawberries,
and cranberries, are abundant.
" The aspect of the country is generally varied by hills,
dales, copses, small prairies, and a great number of lakes ; the
whole of which I do not pretend to have laid down on my map.
The natural beauties of the country are, however, impressed
with a character of sternness and melancholy ; the silence
and solitude of which are intermpted or revived only by the
flocks of water-fowl that congregate about its waters, to nestle
amidst and fatten upon the wUd rice. The naturaUst, how
ever has still an endless field of observation in the insect

30 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
world, for everywhere life manifests itself in some form or
other. It is, indeed, remarkable, that the more we advance
to the north (to within a certain extent, nevertheless), the
more the mosquito appears to be abundant, as every voyageur
knows by sad experience.
" The lakes to which I have just alluded are distributed in
separate groups, or are arranged in prolonged chains along
the rivers, and not unfrequently attached to each other by
gentle rapids. It has seemed to me that they diminish in
extent on both sides of the Missisippi, as we proceed south
wardly, as far as 43° of north latitude ; and this observation
extends to the Arctic Region, commencing at Bear's Lake, or
Slave Lake, Winnipeg Lake, &c. It may be further remarked,
that the basins of these lakes have a sufficient depth to leave
no doubt that they will remain characteristic features of the
country for a long time to come. Several species of fish
abound in them. The white fish (corregonus alhus) is found
in all the deep lakes west of the Missisippi ; and, indeed,
from Lake Erie to the Polar Sea. That which is taken in
Leech Lake, is said, by amateurs, to be more highly flavored
than even that of Lake Superior, and weighs from three to
ten pounds. There is another species of this white fish,
caUed, by the Indians, tulihy, or ottunihy (the corregonus
artedi), which resembles it, but is much less esteemed.
Both species furnish a wholesome and palatable food.
Among the other species of fish that inhabit these waters, are
the mashkinonge, or mashkilonge ; the pike, or jack-fish ; the
pickerel, or gift carp ; the sucker, or tme carp ; the perch ;
a species of trout, caUed, by the Chippeways, namogus, &c.,
&c. These lakes, which are somewhat deep, swarm with
leeches ; and, among the amphibious reptUes, there are
several species of terrapin and turtle, of which Mr. Say has

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 31
described three of each kind in the appendix to the Second
Expedition of Major Long.
" The portage between these lakes and rivers is effected by
means of intricate paths, the key to which it would be weU
to have, as, without it, an Indian war in this quarter might
present stiU more difficulties than those experienced in
Florida. For this reason, I have been particularly careful in
laying these portages down on the map, which I could not
have done had I adopted a smaller scale. It must be borne
in mind, that, in this region, during six months of the year,
no use can be made of either horses or carriages ; it is abso
lutely necessary to have recourse to bark canoes. Any one
consulting the map to study the portages, will soon perceive
that an enemy, after crossing one of the larger lakes, may
make his escape in almost all directions. In this respect, its
utility becomes, I think, obvious, not only to traveUers, but
to the civil and military department of the national adminis
tration." — Nic, pp. 64, 65.
" St. Peter's is in my opinion the finest site on the Missi
sippi river ; the natural beauty of its environs adding to its
importance and grandeur. Upon reaching this place the
traveller is already premonished of the magnificent scenery
which he will enjoy in ascending the river through its long,
narrow, and deep valley. At the confluence of the St. Peter's
and the Missisippi, there is an extensive and fertile plateau
reaching far to the west, and presenting to the delighted gaze
a level country, interrupted by moderate undulations of the
surface, and beautified by intervening prairies, tracts of wood
land, and lakes. Fort Snelling is located on the rocky point
at this confluence of the two rivers, the sight of which inspires
a sentiment of self-protection in the civilized man thus con
fronted with the wilderness. Looking to the right of the
fort, we behold a continuation of the vaUey of the Missisippi,

32 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
whUst to the left begins that of the St. Peter's. The former
has a character of sternness, produced by the denuded and
abrupt escarpments of its banks, the wear of which forms
rude taluses at their bases. The latter is more graceful,
having gently sloping borders, divided into natural terraces,
covered by a luxuriant, grassy sward. Three miles from ¦
Fort Snelling, and on the right bank of the Missisippi, there
is a very pretty cascade. Four miles further, we reach the
celebrated FaUs of St. Anthony, which, examined in detail,
with the noisy boiling of its waters, rebounding in jets from
the accumulated debris at its foot, its ascending vapors, and
the long and verdant island that separates the two portions of
the falls, with the solitary rocky island that stands in front,
altogether form a grand and imposing spectacle.
" From St. Anthony's Falls maybe visited the Lake of the
Isles, Lake Calhoun, Lake Harriet, and other lakes. Then,
crossing the St. Peter's near its mouth, the traveller ascends
the Pilot Knob, from the summit of which he enjoys a mag
nificent view, embracing the whole surrounding horizon; and
if he will conclude his excursion by going to two natural
. grottoes in the vicinity, should his journey have commenced
under the auspices of a bright rising sun, he may flatter
himself that it has been most actively and pleasurably per
formed. " The name of St. Peter's (the St. Pierre of the French),
it appears, has been immemorially given to the spot or land
ing at the mouth of the river St. Peter's ; but whence the
name is not known. Father Hennepm, who was the first to
visit the Falls of St. Anthony, in 1680, makes no mention of
this river ; but his book is written very confusedly, and, as
he gives no detaUs of his route, perhaps had no occasion to
visit it, and was also molested by the Sioux, the omission is
expUcable. On the other hand, Lesueur, in the journal of

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 33
his third journey, in 1700, names the St. Peter's as familiarly
known and acknowledged by traders. As for my part, I have
no hesitation in assigning its origin to a Canadian by the name
of De St. Pierre, who resided for a long time thereabouts.
Carver, in referring to the supposed fortifications which he
visited below Lake Pepin, mentions a Mr. De St. Pierre ; but
this was sixty-four years after the travels of Lesueur. How
ever, waiving any further inquiry into the origin of this name,
it is desirable that it should not be changed, because it is an
important link in the history of the geographical discoveries
made in this region, as well as a constant point of reference
by travellers over it ; so that any change would throw addi
tional obscurity upon the early history of the country.
" The name which the Sioux give to the St. Peter's River is
Mini-sotah; and to St. Peter's as a station, Mdof.e-mini-
sotah. The adjective sotah is of difficult translation. The
Canadians translate it by a pretty equivalent French word,
brouille — perhaps most properly rendered into English by
blear; as, for instance, mini-sotah, blear water, or the entrance
of the blear water. I have entered upon this explanation
because the word sotah really means neither clear nor turbid,
as some authors have asserted ; its true meaning being found
in the Sioux expression, ishta sotah, blear eyed. After the
same manner they call the FaUs of St. Anthony rara, from
Irara, to laugh, descriptive of the imitative sound they are
supposed to produce. The Chippeways are more accurate ;
by them the Falls are called Kakabikah, or severed rock ; and
the St. Peter's River Ashkibogi sibi, the Green Leaf River."
—Nic, pp. 68, 69.
" From actual measurements made by Mr. H. Sibley and
myself, the width of the St. Peter's at the crossing-place,
above its confluence, is 320 feet ; that of the Missisippi,
below Fort Snelling, and outside of the gorge whence it issues,
3*

34 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
is 576 feet. The intervening space between these two mea
sured spots is the rock point on which the fort stands, and a
grassy bottom, the whole measuring 1263 feet. The mean
height of the plain supporting Fort Snelling and the Indian
Agency is 106 feet above the common low water of the two
rivers, and the height of the PUot Knob above the same level,
262 feet."— iZ)., p. 67, et seq.
Lake Pepin, about 110 miles below St. Peter's, excels aU
other points on the Missisippi, below St. Anthony's, in the
beauty and majesty of its scenery. It is an enlargement of
the Missisippi, in some places three miles wide, and averag
ing about two and a half, filling the whole space from bluff to
bluff, except at two points, where a small meadow appears,
and extending in length twenty-one miles upon the river. Its
greatest width is at the southem extremity. The rapid cur
rent of the river here settles into an almost stagnant pool, and
the lake presents a smooth and nearly motionless expanse of
water without a single island, though the river, in its whole
course, has a great many, dotting and diversifying the water
scenery at short distances. The majestic bluffs of limestone
that wall in the lake, stretch with more regularity, and rise to
a height more nearly uniform than in other parts of the river.
The Lake is at times considered dangerous when ruffled by
storms. " Le lac est petit, mais il est malin," said Major
Long's interpreter. On the eastern bank, about midway on
the Lake, the rocky bluff rises to a height of 450 feet, the
superior 150 feet being perpendicular, and the remaining
portion below very abrupt. It forms a point projecting into
the Lake, with a small estuary on either side. This point
has received the name of the Maiden's Rock, from an incident
which is related by Major Long.
In the band of Wapasha inhabiting the viUage of Keoxa
was a young Indian maid caUed Winona, " the first-bom."

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 35
She had conceived an attachment for a young hunter, which
was reciprocated, and they had frequently met, and agreed
upon an union. Her family favored the advances of a warrior
of distinction, and repelled those of her chosen lover. Her
expostulations were unheeded. Her friends drove away the
hunter, fixed a day for the nuptials with the warrior, and
commanded her to comply. Winona had, in an uncommon
degree, the affection of her brothers, and they besought for
persuasive rather than compulsory means toward her. A
party was formed to Lake Pepin, to obtain the blue pigment
used by the Indians. At this time the warrior, who was
present, encouraged by her friends, again urged his addresses,
and was again repelled. Vexed by her obstinacy, her parents
threatened her, to compel obedience. " WeU," said Winona,
" you will drive me to despair. I have told you that I cannot
love him, and that I wish to live a maiden. You say that you
love me, and yet you have driven away the man of my choice.
Well ! let it be so. But soon you will not have a daughter
and sister to torment with your false professions of affection."
She withdrew from the company, and while they were pre
paring the feast, wended her way slowly to the top of the
bluff. When at the summit, she called to her friends, up
braided them for their cruelty, and began to sing her death-
song. Her friends rushed toward the base of the bluff, en
treating her to desist, while others madly ran up the hill to
prevent her fatal design. But she was resolved, and as she
finished her song, threw herself from the precipice, and foU,
a corpse, at the feet of her distressed friends.
The Upper Rapids of the river (in speaking of that portion
of it below St. Anthony's), commonly called Rock River
Rapids, extend in length about fifteen miles, upward from the
foot of Rock Island, which is four miles above the mouth of
Rock River. The whole fall in this distance is about twenty-

36 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
six feet. It consists of several chains of ledges, to each of
which the navigators of the river have given distinct names.
The depth of water in some places, at the lowest stages,
does not exceed three feet. The current is so rapid at one
point near the head of Rock Island, and at one or two other
points, that a boat, in ascending, cannot be perceived to make
any progress.
The Des Moines Rapids begin at three or four miles above
the mouth of Des Moines River, and extend upward about
eleven miles. The whole fall is about twenty-two feet.
The descent is more regular, and consequently the current
more uniform than on the Upper Rapids. Boats of moderate
burden pass over both of these rapids at all stages ; and at
some times the river may be passed by any boats to St. An
thony's FaUs. The national government have long had it in
contemplation to improve the navigation over these rapids ;
but it can never be done properly, until the system of log
rolling is laid aside, and the sectional jealousy that withholds
the needful appropriation, doling out a scanty modicum at a
time, and riding upon it a hundred other appropriations for
as many different objects.
The Upper Rapids may be improved at a very trifling cost,
by letting in Rock River through the Marais D'Osier, or
Willow Swamp (sometimes called Marais D'Ogee, and
Meredosia), which extends from that river to the Missisippi,
and through which, at high stages, the waters of the two
rivers actually mingle ; or, by bringing the same stream upon
the Missisippi about ten miles above its present embouchure,
over an intervening low and level tract of only three miles in
width. From Gen. Victor CoUot, former Governor of Gaudeloupe,
who traveUed in the United States in 1793, the foUowing
description of this river is taken :

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 37
" The province of the IlUnois is, perhaps, the only spot
respecting which travellers have given no exaggerated ac
count. It is superior to any description which has been
made, for local beauty, fertility, climate, and the means of
every kind which nature has lavished upon it for the facility
of commerce.
" This country is a delightful valley where winds one of
the most majestic rivers on the globe, and which, after re
ceiving the vast Missouri, is still augmented by an infinite
number of smaller rivers and creeks, all navigable and fitted
for the construction of mills and machinery of almost every
kind. " This valley is fuU of smaU lakes and villages, and inter
spersed with woods and natural meadows, strewed with
medicinal and odoriferous plants . Across these meadows flow
numerous rivulets, sometimes murmuring beneath the flow
ers, and sometimes displaying their silver beds and their
transparent waters, pure as the air which is breathed amidst
those romantic spots. On each side of those vast meadows,
which are level as the surface of the calm ocean, rise lofty
and venerable forests, which serve as boundaries, while their
thick and mysterious shades fill the mind with reverential
awe and enthusiastic contemplation."
In the foregoing description. Gen. CoUot has reference to
the river bottom only, on the Missisippi between the bluffs.
" This valley," he says, " is bounded on the right and left
by two small chains of mountains running parallel with the
banks of the river, but never more distant than four or five
miles. " The chain on the east begins to be perceived from the
mouth of the river Kaskaskias, and runs in the same direc
tion, as far as the Prairie Du Chien, situated 240 leagues
higher.

38 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST
" These smaU chains rise commonly 150, and sometimes
200 feet above the level of the lands which separate them
from the waters of the river. These masses of rock are
composed sometimes of grey stone, flint with which the In
dians tip their arrows, or miUstone, but most frequently of
limestone. " The lands which ran along between these chains and
the bed of the river, form, as I have already observed, vast
meadows intersected with small woods ; the whole of these
lands are the product of successive deposits, occasioned by
the overflowings of- the river. Trees half bumt are often
found in digging, together with pieces of earthen and iron
utensils. The whole is a bed of sand, the surface of which
is covered with a vegetable layer four or five feet in thick
ness." — CoUot, p. 232, et seq.
One or two extracts from Nicollet will close that part of
the notes having relation to the physical geography and
scenic aspect of the giant river.
" The whole country embraced by the Lower St. Peter's
and the Undine Region [or Mankato Valley], exceeds any
land of the Missisippi above Wisconsin River, as well in the
quality and quantity of its timber as the fertility of its soil.
The forests of the valley on the right bank are connected by
groves and small wooded streams of the adjoining prairies
with the forest called Bois-francs ; and they extend so far
southwest, as to include the lands of the upper waters of
the Mankato River.
" The forest trees, as reported to me by Mr. Geyer, are
chiefly soft maple, American and red elm, black walnut, the
nettle tree, bass wood, red and white ash ; the undergrowth,
the common hawthorn, prickly ash, high cranberry, red root,
grey dogwood, fox grapes, horse briar, and moonseed.
Among the herbs, are the wild and bristly sarsapariUa, Indian

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 39
turnip, the gay orchis, and others ; rashes and the flowering
fems are abundant along the low banks of the rivers. The
vaUey prairies are rich in pasture grasses and leguminous
and orchideous plants, such as the yellow ladies' slipper,
American and tufted vetch, and others. The lowest parts
near the borders of the woods, and those subject to inunda
tions, are filled with the high weeds common to such places
— as the ragged cup, tall thistle, great bitter-weed, the tuber
ous sunflower, and others.
" Swamps are frequent, and some of them contain extensive
tracts of tamarack pines. Cedars grow intermixed with red
birch on the rocky declivities of the Lower Mankato River.
Red and bur oak, with hazel, red root, peterswort, and the
wild rose, are the trees and shrubs of the uplands. There
are, besides, thickets of poplar-birch, that are frequent in the
elevated prairies near the river. The prairies are very luxu
riant, and generally somewhat level and depressed ; the gum
plant and button snakeroot are their most abundant and con
spicuous herbs.
"Along the Missisippi, a length of 180 mUes, from St.
Peter's to Crow-wing River, the valley is wide, with river
banks of moderate elevation, affording beautiful sites, that
contrast remarkably with the bold escarpments exhibited
below the Falls of St. Anthony. In this ascent of the river,
which is full of rapids, it is necessary to have recourse to the
pole or the tow-line ; and, generally, following the left bank,
under good guidance, and with sufficient hands to stem the
current, portages may be avoided. This left bank presents
almost a continued level of from ten to twenty feet in eleva
tion, forming a retreating succession of terraces that are
delightful to the view. The superincumbent soil is composed
mainly of sand, gravel, and clay, intermixed with erratic
blocks. The sylva consists of white and black oak, white

40 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
and blue ash, red elm, two or three species of maple, the
Ume tree, birch, a few hickories and walnuts. The western
shore is more generally interspersed with swamps and wood
lands, well set with pines, birch, and sometimes with exten
sive camps of the sugar-maple." — {Nic, p. 54.)
" The first steamboat arrived at St. Louis in 1819. Since
that time the Upper Missisippi is covered with these boats ;
and the number of arrivals yearly at Galena and Dubuque is
upwards of 1000. A few boats go above. In the summer of
1844, two boats were used to run regularly from Galena to
St. Peter's. No summer has passed in the last five years
without the passage of some boats up the river to that point
with parties of pleasure, to enjoy the cool prairie breezes and
rich scenery of that upper region.
Beside the steamboats, there are keel boats used for
conveying produce and merchandise ; flat boats, and dug outs
or canoes, rudely made of logs. Occasionally a Mackinac
boat, sloop-rigged, is seen there, brought over from the lake
by the Fox and Wisconsin rivers. The obstructions which
are so annoying to the navigator below the mouth of the
Missouri, known under the name of planters, sawyers, snags
and rafts, are but rarely found above the confluence of the
two streams, in the Missisippi.
The river has an annual rise, from April to June, of some
six to ten feet ; and there is sometimes a second rise about
September. Thg, usual velocity of the current is about two
miles an hour. The water is very clear.
Missouri River. — Of the Missouri River much less is
known than of the Missisippi, and it is also at this time
much less an object of interest. The current of the Mis
souri is said to be about four miles an hour, or double that
of the Missisippi. Its water is turbid, and in these two par-

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 41
ticulars it greatly differs from the other river, with clear
waters and a moderate current. The fall of the Missisippi
from St. Peter's, and that of the Missouri from Pierre Chou
teau, to the confluence of the two rivers, are in the ratio of
45 to 85, according to Nicollet, and therefore the average
rapidity of the Missouri is nearly twice that of the Missi
sippi.* The great rapidity of current in the Missouri render
ing that river difficult of navigation, even by the power of
steam, in the upward voyage, is not the only obstacle, how
ever, to the passage of boats upon it. Its velocity and force
constantly bring along and heap up sand bars, a characteris
tic of nearly all the western rivers, except the Des Moines
and Rock Rivers, which have rocky beds. Beside the ac
cumulating and shifting of sands, the same cause fills the
river with planters, snags, and sawyers, which are all the
same thing, that is, drift wood partly buried in the sand so
as to hold in position, while projecting to the surface it pre
sents a point upon which the boat strikes, and is wrecked.
The different names given to this kind of obstraction have
reference merely to the position in which they become fixed.
The Missouri in the lower part of its course is very tur
bid, bringing down a great quantity of mud with its waters.
This character, it has been said, it loses above the Platte,
600 miles from its mouth. The difference in the descent of
its current above that point, as given by Nicollet, renders the
miles fr. m. alt. alt. at m.
* F. P. Chouteau 1256 1456 — 388 = 1068
St. Peter's 786 744 — 388 = 356
From these measurements it appears the Blissouri falls 1068 feet in 1256
miles, or over 80 feet in 100 miles, and the Missisippi 356 feet in 786
miles, or over 40 feet in 100 miles, or 5J ins. nearly in a mile. The fall
of the Missouri is, however, unequal : in the upper 650 miles, starting from
Fort Pierre, the descent is 4S4 feet, a little over 8 inches to the mile : in
the remaining 600, to the mouth, it is 584 or 12 inches nearly to a mile.

42 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
assertion very probable. Above YeUow Stone it has a faU
of 362 feet in 17 mUes : the upper faU is 90 feet. The
tributaries are almost innumerable. The most considerable
in length and width is the Platte, but it is too shaUow for
navigation. The bottoms of this river are higher than the Missisippi,
and rather narrower.
The distance from the mouth of the Missouri to the
mouth of the Osage is 135 mUes : to Kansas River 382—
Nishnabatona 540 — Platte or Nebraska 618 — CouncU Bluffs
676 — Sioux River about 860 — James River about 950 —
Poncah or Niobrarah River 1018 — ^Fort Pierre Chouteau
1256. Th^se distances, given by NicoUet (except the Sioux
and James), are the results of measurements made by him.
To the YeUow Stone the distance is said by Flint to be 1880
miles, the whole of which distance is navigable ; from the
mouth to the Gulf of Mexico is 1400, making in the whole
a navigation of about 3300 miles from the YeUow Stone to
the Gulf.
" On reaching the Coteau du Missouri, there are no fur
ther apparent traces of the cretaceous formation. It is a
rolling prairie, the soil partly covered by a short, sweet-
scented, and grateful verdure. An inspection of the guUeys
shows that the basis of this soil is the erratic deposit previ
ously described. The sUiceous particles of the soil are
blackened by the smoke of the vernal and autumnal fires
of the prairies ; and, as the growth is too scant to prevent
the dust from being raised by the almost incessant winds
that blow over them, the traveller is very much inconveni
enced. There are no springs to quench the thirst ; and it
is only at wide distances apart that small pools are met
with, bordered by aquatic plants, towards which the experi
ence of his guide is necessary to bring him to his bivouac,

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 43
where he must needs have recourse to the dried dung of the
Buffalo for fuel. It was in the hope of extricating ourselves
from difficulties of this kind, that we made an examination
of the forks of the East Medicine River, which empties into
the Missouri about fifteen miles below Fort Pierre.
" This last-mentioned river derives its name from a beau
tiful hill on its right bank, called by the Sioux Pahali-
wakan — translated by the voyageurs, ' Butte de Medicine,'
and, in EngUsh, Medicine hillock, or knoll. It is to be re
marked, in fact, of the prairies of this region, that they pre
sent such low insulated hillocks, to which the Sioux apply
the somewhat generic name of re or pahah, according as
they are more or less elevated above the surrounding plain.
The affix, wakan, indicates that the locality is to them pecu
liarly remarkable, or even sacred, and a spot which they
select in preference for some of their ceremonies." — Nic,
p. 44.
The secondary rivers of this region are the St. Peters, St.
Croix, Chippewa, Wisconsin, Rock, Moingonan or Des
Moines, and Illinois falling into the Missisippi, and Tchan-
sansan or James, and Tchankasndata or Sioux, falling into
the Missouri. The Fox River or Outagami, falling into
Lake Michigan, is also to be placed in this class. Other
streams that are of some importance are the Crow Wing or
Kagiwigwan, Karishon or Crow, Iskodo Wabo or Rum, or
Spirit (the meaning, I think, is White Fire Water), Sappah
or Black River, Hokah or Root, Upper Iowa, Penaca or
Turkey, Maquoqueta or Bear, Wabesepinecon or White
Potato abode, as the interpreter told me* (or rather, I think,
* Mr. Leclair, former interpreter of the Sacs and Foxes, gave me the
above definition of the name of this river : -Wabe, white ; pin, potato ;
icon or nicon, abode. It may be so : and the third syllable, se, only an
expletive. But -Wabe-sepo, or sipi, is white river. This tribe use the

44 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
White River abode or place of councU), Wabe (white) sippi
(river) necon (abode or councU place), Iowa or Anketoskesha
(horse), Checaqua, and Salt River, aU these faU into the
Missisippi. The Blue Earth, or Mankato, falling into St.
Peter's ; the Chariton, the Grand River, Little Platte, Nish
nabatona, Inyan Yankey, or Little Sioux, flowing into the
Missouri ; Shayan Oju, flowing into Red ; and a number,
almost endless, of smaller rivers.
St. Peter's River, called by the Sioux Mini-sotah (blear
water), and by the Chippeways Ashkibogi (green leaf), rises
in a region of lakes at the head of the Coteau des Prairies,
and running southeast soon expands into the Big Stone Lake,
and farther on, after receiving two considerable streams, the
Izuzah and Tipsinah, again forms a small lake (called Qui
parle, or Echo Lake), below which the volume of water is
again much increased by the addition of other branches, the
Intpah and the Manya Wakan, and farther down by the Pej-
uta Zizi, or Yellow Medicine ; below which are a series of
rapids and falls for thirty or forty miles to the Tchanshayapi
or Red Wood, another branch, which, starting in immediate
contiguity with the sources of Moingonan, and seeking St.
Peter's by a not very winding course, faUs into it on the right
in about 44° 35' N. Below this the river is navigable to its
mouth, about 250 miles. In this part of its course it receives
the Waraju, Little Waraju, and Mankato, or Blue Earth, on
its right bank, and immediately turning, runs in a right angle
to its former course, and receiving a great number of small
streams on both sides, and on its left the Witahantu, of larger
termination nica, nicon or icon, to express something more than abode or
residence. Thus they call the city of -Washington, Washitonica or -Wash-
itonicon. It probably means place of council, or perhaps abode of the
Chief. Mr. Doty gives the name of the root as -Wabesepin

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 45
size, enters the Missisippi in lat. 44° 52' about eight miles
below the FaUs of St. Anthony, which are in 44° 58' 40",
as given by Nicollet. The whole length of this course is
470 mUes.
The St. Croix River has its extreme sources in Lakes
Nidjichwe, Miminis, Upper St. Croix, and other lakes that
lie very contiguous to and nearly surrounding the Kagino
Lake, which is the head water of the River Mashkeg, falling
into Lake Superior, and another small lake that gives rise to
the Wassakude, or Bumt Wood River, also a tributary of the
great lake. From these sources several branches flow, and
unite in one stream. It has a succession of rapids at about
fifty miles below the junction, and at about the same distance
below are falls, near the latitude of 45° 30'. From this point
to the Missisippi it is a handsome and navigable stream, and
expands into a lake called by the same name, by which it
becomes united to the Missisippi, in less than 100 miles from
the faUs, in lat. about 44° 45'.
The Chippeway River is composed of several branches,
the longest of which, called Manidowish, rises in several
small lakes north of 46°. It has falls below 45°, and after
a short course below them of fifty or sixty miles, unites with
the Missisippi, at the lower point of Lake Pepin.
The euphoneous Mini Kette Kittigan, a small lake of
four or five miles in diameter, in lat. 46° 10', is the source
of the Wisconsin River ; which, with a winding course, and
a succession of rapids, rolls down a small stream tUl below
the latitude of 44° 30', where it suddenly expands into a cir
cular pool of a mile and a half or two miles in diameter at
the foot of the lower rapids ; and then, in a bed considerably

46 NOTES ON the NORTHWEST.
wider than its upper course, describing a very regular semi
circle or rather semi-eUipse, which spans about one degree of
latitude, in which it receives no tributary, it approaches the
Fox River of Green Bay within one mile, where, making a
bend at about right angles, it runs south-west, and afterward
nearly west, receiving after its recession from Fox a great
many small streams, it enters the Missisippi after a Course
of more than 150 mUes from the Fox, in lat. 43°. This
latter part of its course can be made navigable for steamboats
by clearing the bed of sand in some places. It is proposed
to do this, and by a canal from this to the Fox, of one or two
miles, to make a clear navigation from Lake Michigan to the
Missisippi. All these rivers named after the St. Peter's
have their whole course in Wisconsin.
Rock River rises in Wisconsin, and after a main southerly
course for a considerable distance, in which it has entered the
State of Illinois, it turns westwardly, and directing its current
toward the Missisippi, finds that stream four miles below
Rock Island and the foot of the Upper Rapids, which is the
most beautiful point on the great river below Lake Pepin. •
Small steamboats have been to Grand Detour, upwards of a
hundred miles from its mouth. This is very difficult, how
ever, to be done in the spring floods, and can only be done
then. At the best water the rapids at the mouth are only
covered but Uttle more than one foot. If the obstructions
higher up this stream could be removed, those at the mouth
might be obviated, by making it debouch into the Missisippi
through the Marais D'Osier, or at a point a little below the
village of Hampton, about midway on the rapids of the latter
river. The country upon Rock River and its tributaries is
one of surpassing beauty. On the Pectanon, or Pectanonica,
a principal branch, commonly caUed Peckatonica, and on the

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 47
Yellow Creek, a tributary of the latter, the scenery is un
commonly fine.
The Moingonan, commonly called Des Moines, is the
most important stream tributary to the Missisippi on its west
ern banli, above the Missouri. This stream, it is said by
Nicollet, is called Inyan Shasha by the Sioux, and Moingo
nan by the Algonquins. A river, which appears to be this,
entering the Missisippi on the west, is called by Hennepin
and Lahontan Otenta. It is called Moingona by Charlevoix,
Des Moines (Monks' River) by Lewis and Clarke. Pike
makes no mention of the river, but calls the rapids immedi
ately above, on the Missisippi, De Moyen ; on the map ac
companying his volume, they are both marked with the name
Des Moines. It is called by CoUot, Moins (Less) River.
The Shetek Lakes, the fountain of the Moingona, are on a
ridge of land from which springs the source of Red Wood
River, a branch of St. Peter's. It is a region of lakes and
wet prairie for more than a degree of latitude south of the
ridge. The Sunkaku, or Brother, is the highest principal
branch on the left. The Lizard enters a short distance be
low, on the right. Some forty miles below, another princi
pal branch enters on the left. The Racoon fork, after a
longer interval from the last, enters on the right. This
branch is about 200 miles from the mouth of the river, and
a large distance above as well as most of that below, to the
mouth, is navigable, being interrupted at several points at
present, but susceptible, by very moderate improvements, of
uninterrupted navigation for about 300 miles. The bed of
this river is for the most part rock, in whiclj it differs from
the streams generally in this region, which, with some excep
tions, are sandy. In the spring floods, this stream may be
navigated for two or three months as high as the Racoon by

48 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
such boats as ascend the Upper Missisippi above the Rapids.
To render it navigable at all times by such boats, it requires
to have a few loose rocks removed, some snags drawn out,
and, in a few points, an artificial embankment, to overcome
the sharp angles. With these operations, the river may be
navigable for 300 miles. Perhaps the making slack water
at certain distances, would further improve it. Capt. Guion,
of the Topographical Engineers, describes it as being the
most beautiful and fertile country on which the eye of man
ever rested. The Tchanshetcha Lake, which is the source
of the Watumwan, a branch of the Mankato, which, in its
turn, is tributary to St. Peter's, is separated from the Des
Moines only one mile and a half, and by a short canal, boats
may pass through into the St. Peter's.
Nicollet, in his report, gives an extended and very excel
lent description of this river, from which we take the foUow
ing extract :
" The Des Moines empties into the Missisippi in 40° 22'
latitude north ; and its sources, heretofore supposed to be in
43°, are extended on my map to 44° 3' north. It is fed from
the beautiful group of lakes, previously described as the
Shetek lakes, towards the middle of the plateau of the Coteau
des Prairies, at an elevation of 1580 feet above the level of
the sea. The waters of these lakes flow from northwest to
southeast, swelling themselves by innumerable tributaries
until they enter the Missisippi at an elevation of about 444
feet above the Gulf of Mexico.
" The course of the Des Moines cannot be less than 400
miles ; whence it would follow that the average of its descent
is nearly three feet to the mile, with a current approaching in
velocity that of the Missouri. The river flows constantly in
a deep valley, from its sources to within a few mUes of its
confluence with the Missisippi, where it spreads over low

physical geography. 49
grounds. In its upper part, its bed is upon sand, roUed peb
bles, and shingle (gallets).
" Like most of the rivers in this region, it has its sources
in lakes and swampy grounds, and has a tortuous and slug
gish course till it reaches a greater declivity about 43° of
latitude, when it becomes much more rapid and direct, and
frequently pitches impetuously over rocky beds of carbo
niferous limestone forming frequent bluffs on alternate sides.
This rock, which might furnish an abundance of excellent
building materials, is overlaid in some places by deposits
of coal. Penned up, as it were, between the valleys of the
Missisippi and the Missouri, and those of their adjacent tribu
tary streams, the Des Moines has no large tributary of its
o-wn. Flowing through a wide and deep valley, the principal
waters which it receives are the drainings through deep and
long ravines, intersecting its shores, and rendering the travel
along them inconvenient and painful."
The head streams of the Illinois span a large tract of coun
try. The Kankake, its southern main constituent, rises in
a swampy ground south of Lake Michigan, and flowing
nearly westerly for more than 100 miles, unites with the Des
Plaines or Maple River, both of which names are transla
tions of its Pottawatami appellation, Sheshikmaoshike, which,
from its size and the direction of its course, may dispute with
Kankake the title of principal constituent of the United
Stream, at a few rods below the point where Otokakenog
(uncovered breast), another primary branch, mingles with it,
coming from the northwest. This last stream has received
the name of Du Page, from a man who was buried on its
banks. When the three streams are united into one, it receives the
name of lUinois : but it has still another primary branch
eoming from the northwest still further west, which enters

50 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
only twenty miles below the confluence of the others, called,
by the Indians, Pishtaco, and by the inhabitants of the country,
in modern times, the Fox River of the Illinois. The cha
racter of the country on the Upper Sheshikmaoshike is simi
lar to that about the sources of the Kankake, very flat, wet
and marshy, and is, for the most part, prairie or untimbered
land, covered with tall grass, wild rice, and other aquatic
plants. The course of the Illinois, as constituted by these
several streams, is nearly south for a considerable distance.
It then takes a course more westerly, and, becoming navi
gable for steamboats below the falls at a point where is built
the town of Peru, it pursues its course through a country
which, if it be surpassed, is only by the Moingona and Sini-
sepo or Rock River, and St. Peter's. It is, in the whole
length of the united stream, three hundred miles or more to
the mouth. For fifty miles of its upper course it is not navi
gable, to the lower rapids ; below this point it is navigable for
250 miles to its mouth. Below these rapids the current is
almost imperceptible. On account of the very sUght descent
of the river the Missisippi when full sets back the waters of
the Illinois for seventy miles. It frequently overflows its
banks. The Vermillion is considerable in size, and adds a
large volume to the waters of the principal river, but it is not
navigable. The Mackina, Sangamon, Spoon and Crooked
Rivers, lower tributaries, are sometimes set down as navi
gable. The Sangamon is so. Before entering the Missi
sippi it receives many minor streams, and the Macoupin,
scarcely less than those last before named.
The other tributaries of the Missisippi on the west, be
tween Des Moines and St. Peter's, are the Iowa and Red
Cedar, both of which may be said to be navigable, the Wa
besepinicon, Makwaketa, Turkey or Penaca, Upper Iowa,
Haka (or Root), and Lahontan. The Tchansansan, or James

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 51
River (a tributary of the Missouri), is a fine navigable stream
passing through a beautiful and luxuriant region, the follow
ing account of which is given by Mr. Nicollet :
" We reached the river Jacques, at a very celebrated spot,
called by the Sioux Otuhuoju — meaning, literally, the place
' where the oaks spring up,' but which I have designated on
my map as the ' Oakwood Settlement.'
" The estimate which I have made of the distance between
this place and Fort Pierre is about 110 miles ; its actual ele
vation above the sea is about 1,340 feet, and the descent from
the Coteau du Missouri to the river Jacques not less than 750
feet. The last fifty miles, by our route, belong to the east
slope of the Coteau du Missouri ; but, as we were obliged to
select our ground, allowing for this, the whole direct distance
is probably forty miles. In a similar way, estimating the
distance to the head of the Coteau des Prairies, which is
thirty miles to the east, the basin of the river Jacques be
tween the two coteaux, and in the latitude of Otohuoju,* may
be laid down as having a breadth of eighty miles, sloping
gradually down from an elevation of 700 to 750 feet. These
dimensions, of course, vary in the different parts of the valley;
but what I have said wiU convey some idea of the immense
prairie watered by the Tchansansan, which has been deemed
by all travellers to those distant regions perhaps the most
beautiful within the territory of the United States.
" I hazard, in conclusion of my remarks on the physical
geography of the valley just described, the suggestion that it
has been scooped out by some powerful denuding cause, and
that its original geological character was such as is now
observed in the Coteau du Missouri and the Coteau des
Prairies, by which it is bounded.
* About 45° 15'.

52 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
" It is only necessary to cast a glance over the map, to
form an idea of the importance of Tchansansan river. It
takes its rise on the plateau of the Missouri, beyond the
parallel of 47° N. ; and after pursuing nearly a north-and-south
course, empties into the Missouri River below 43°. It is
deemed navigable with small hunting canoes for between 500
and 600 miles ; but, below Otuhuoju, it will float much
larger boats, and there are no other obstacles in its navigation
than a few rafts. When we turned away from the river in
latitude 46° 27', its breadth was from 80 to 100 feet ; and
we could discover by the water-marks on its banks, that, in
the season of freshets, it widens out here to 100 yards, and
south of Otuhuoju to 200 yards. The shores of the river
are generally tolerably well wooded, though only at intervals ;
the trees consisting principaUy of ehn, ash, burr-oak, poplar
and willows. Along those portions where it widens into lakes,
very eligible situations for farms would be found, and if the
Indian traders have hitherto selected positions south of the
Otuhuoju, it was doubtless in consequence of its more easy
navigation into the Missouri." [From Otohuoju to the mouth
is from 250 to 300 miles. Very little is known to us of
this river beyond the above very scanty description of Mr.
NicoUet.] " I have already stated, I think, that the lower portion of
the Coteau des Prairies forms two spurs ; one of which turns
off the rivers that have been precedingly described into the
Missisippi, the other into the Missouri. The divisional line
of these two spurs is plainly indicated by the course of the
Des Moines from 43° 30' of north latitude ; and the one now
refeiTcd to is a prominent ridge, separating the waters that
empty into the Des Moines from those that flow westwardly
into the Missouri. But, as it faUs off in a gradual slope when
it has reached already 42° of latitude, the head-waters then

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 53
take first an E. and afterwards a SSE. direction, and are
divided from each other only by moderate swells or undula
tions of the country, that cause them to ramify into a rain of
streams, carrying their waters, after long ramblings, easterly
to the Missisippi, and southerly to the Missouri, until they
finally unite.
" To the north and west of Nodaway, or Snake River —
meaning a particular species of snake — several important
streams take their rise on that side of the Coteau des Prairies
I am now considering, to empty themselves, of course, finally
into the Missouri. I shall now give an account of those
which appear to be least generally known.
"Inyanyanke River, or Little Sioux. — The name of this
river impUes that there is a rock somewhere along its course.*
It has been heretofore designated as the Little Sioux River,
and has its origiii from a group of lakes, the most important
of which is called by the Sioux Miniwakan, or Spirit Water ;
hence its name of Spirit Lake. This lake has a triangular
form ; being about seven miles wide at its largest extremity,
and seven miles in length. It is not remarkably well wooded ;
the smaller lakes to the north of it being better supplied in
this respect.
" Tchankasndata River, or Sioux River. — This is the
Big, or simply the Sioux River, and is one of the most im-
* " Inyanyanke River is said to be navigable for canoes. As I saw but
the two extremities of this river, and having obtained no reliable informa
tion concerning its intermediary courses, I do not insist on its accurate
representation on my map. I may most probably have placed it too high
up one of its tributaries — the Otcheyedan — a name derived from a small
hill, the literal meaning of which is ' the spot where they cry,' alluding
to the custom of the Indians to repair to elevated situations to weep over
their dead relations."

54 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
portance to the country through which it flows. Its Indian
name means that it is continuously lined with wood. Its
sources are at the head of the Coteau des Prairies, not more
than a mile from those of the St. Peter's, and separated only
by a low ridge. Its length cannot be less than 350 mUes ; in
which distance there are two principal bends — the more
southerly and smaller being terminated by a fall, said to be the
only obstacle to its entire navigation. From this circumstance,
the upperpart of the riverbears anothername : the Sioux calling
it Watpaipakshan, or Crooked River, and the French, la riviere
Croche. It flows through a beautiful and fertile country ;
amidst which, the Ndakotahs, inhabiting the valley of the
St. Peter's and Missouri, have always kept up summer es
tablishments on the borders of the adjoining lakes, whilst they
hunted the river banks. Buffalo herds are confidently ex
pected to be met with here at all seasons of the year.
" Wassecha, or Vermillion River. — This river is scarce
ly more than sixty miles long. It issues from two lakes,
which the Frenchmen have named Lacs aux Bois leger —
Light- wood Lakes. Near its entrance into the Missouri, it
forks, owing to a remarkable promontory that juts out of the
prairie, and to which are attached many romantic traditions
that I have not time to recount. The river is not well wood
ed ; it is navigable by canoes a portion of its length ; and is
the last that empties into the Missouri among those flowing
from the western side of the Coteau des Prairies. At its
mouth is the upper end of an entensive prairie, about fifty
mUes long, between the Tchankasndata and the Missouri
Rivers ;* having some analogy in its general appearance with
* " This is the bottom designated by Lewis and Clark as the Buffalo
prairie, in consequence of the great number of these animals that they
saw there. Pierre Chouteau & Co., of St. Louis, keep generally a trading-
post upon it."

physical geography. 55
the American bottom of the State of IlUnois, opposite St.
Louis. Belonging to this is a beautiful grove, on a point of
land caUed by the French ' Pointe-au-Cerf ' (Stag Point).
The Sioux name for the prairie is Huppanokutey ; or, by
contraction, Huppankutey ; meaning, where they hit at the
elk. " We reach now a country differing essentially from that
previously described, both in respect to its climate and soil,
and, consequently, in its natural productions. Whatever it
may lose, however, in estimation of the agriculturist, is fully
compensated to the geologist, who discovers within it the
beginning of the great cretaceous formation that underlies the
hydrographical basin of the Upper Missouri."
The lakes of this country could not even be named, for
their multitude. A brief description of each of them would
make a large volume. They exceed in number five or six
hundred. A description of one of the largest, and remarka
ble also for the qualities of its water, called Mini-wakan, is
subjoined from the report of Nicollet, frequently quoted
before. It is nearly in the northwest portion of the valley.
A body of water, called by the French, MUle Lacs (the
Thousand Lakes), is about fifteen miles in diameter, nearly
round, situated east of and near to the Missisippi.
" The appearance of Mini Wakan Lake did not realize the
anticipations we had been led to form of it from popu
lar account. The lake is on the plateau of the Shayen-oju,
and is surrounded by sweUs and hiUs, varying in height from
twenty to 250 feet, that so project into it as not to permit its
whole expanse to be seen but from one spot, which I shaU
presently describe.
"The prominent hill-top, previously alluded to by the
name of Miniwakan-chante, is the only beacon to the travel
ler leading to the lake ; but even from its summits no idea

56 notes on the northwest.
can be formed of this beautiful sheet of water. He must go
to a smaUer eminence, known as the Butte du MUeau by the
French voyageurs, whence alone the eye can take in the
principal contours of the lake.
" The greatest extension of Devil's Lake is at least forty
miles — ^but may be more, as we did not, and could not,
ascertain the end of the northwest bay, which I left undefined
on the map. It is bordered by hills that are pretty weU
wooded on one side, but furrowed by ravines and coulees,
that are taken advantage of by warlike parties, both for
attack and defence, according to circumstances. The lake
itself is so filled up with islands and promontories, that, in
travelling along its shores, it is only occasionally that one gets
a glimpse of its expanse. This description belongs only to
its wooded side ; for, on the opposite side, the shores, though
still bounded by hills, are destitute of trees, so as to exhibit
an embankment to the east from ten to twelve miles long,
upon an average breadth of three-quarters of a mile. The
average breadth of the lake may be laid down at fifteen
miles. Its waters appear to be the drainings of the surround
ing hiUs. We discovered no outlets in the whole extent of
about three-quarters of its contour we could explore. At all
events, if there be any, they do not empty into the Red River
of the North, since the lake is shut up in that direction, and
since we found its tme geographical position to be much
more to the north than it is ordinarily laid down upon maps.
A single depression at its lower end would intimate that, in
times of high water, some discharge might possibly take
place ; but then it would be into the Shayen-oju.
"As to the natural history of the waters of the Mini
wakan, it is shortly told. They are too brackish to be
drank, excepting by horses, who swaUow them with avidity ;
they have a deeper green color than those of the neighboring

PHYSICAL geography. 57
lakes that are not salt. I had no means of ascertaining the
density of the water of this lake ; but having caused several
gallons of it to be evaporated by distillation, I subsequently
made an analysis of the residue, which proved to be a mix
ture of sulphates and hydrochlorates of soda and magnesia."
The true meaning of the name is undoubtedly neither En
chanted, nor Devil (as Mr. Nicollet calls it) ; but medicinal,
or, as we usually call it, Mineral Lake. This is evident
both by Mr. NicoUet's description, who says he analyzed it
and found it to contain soda and magnesia in sulphates, and
by his own translation of the same word when applied to a
river and a hiU. In describing East Medicine River (which
is the English name he applies to it), he says, it derives its
name from a beautiful hill on its right bank, called by the
Sioux Pahah-wakan, translated by the voyageurs, " Butte de
Medicine," and, in EngUsh, " Medicine HiUock." The lat
ter word in the name is the same in each. One in conjunc
tion with mini, water ; the other with pahah, hill. The lake
should therefore be called Mineral Lake ; and the hill which
they name Mini Wakan Chante is Mineral Lake Heart.
The Dacota word Wakan, in the vocabulary given by Major
Long, is interpreted " mysterious medicine."
There is one feature in the scenery of this country, rather
too partial and confined, perhaps, to be worthy of an extended
notice, but yet certainly too remarkable to be entirely passed
over. In some places the limestone stands out high above
the surrounding surface, isolated and naked, in the form and
appearance of great mural escarpments, sometimes looking
like an old castle or tower. About the Tete des Morts, in
Jackson County, and near Dubuque, on the Catfish, and on
the Little Maquoqueta, in the settled portion of Iowa, are
some of these appearances. On La Hontan, or Canoe River,
there is one very remarkable specimen of this work, in a
4*

58 notes on the northwest.
heap of disintegrated sandstone, thirty-six feet high, four
miles north of the river. Another, on the Vermillion, caUed
the castle, twelve mUes north of the latter, on the Iowa side
of the river. In Wisconsin they are more frequent.
The points most particularly interesting on account of
scenery, in this country, are the Rock River Rapids on the
Missisippi, Lake Pepin, St. Peter's Station, the Falls of St.
Anthony, and the point of the peninsula between Lakes Su
perior and Michigan. It is scarcely possible, says Charle
voix, speaking of this last, to see a more beautiful country
than this tongue of land. It is terminated by a handsome
river, Manistic, which is full of fish of all kinds.
This description of the physical geography of the country,
will not present a clear and vivid picture to one who has not
seen a similar, but who has been confined to a forest or a
mountain scenery. The mighty rivers of this region must
be measured by travel, the prairies must be crossed, and the
lakes be mirrored to the eye, before the mind comprehends
the terms of the description.
" To look at a prairie up or down," says Nicollet, " to
ascend one of its undulations ; to reach a small plateau (or,
as the voyageurs call it, a prairie planche), moving from wave
to wave over alternate swells and depressions ; and, finaUy,
to reach the vast interminable low prairie that extends itself
in front, — be it for hours, days, or weeks, one never tires ;
pleasurable and exhilarating sensations are all the time felt ;
ennui is never experienced. Doubtless there are moments
when excessive heat, a want of fresh water, and other priva
tions, remind one that life is toil ; but these drawbacks are
of short duration. There is almost always a breeze over
them. The security one feels in knowing that there are no
concealed dangers ; so vast is the extent which the eye takes
in ; no difficulties of road ; a far spreading verdure, reUeved

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 59
by a profiision of variously colored flowers ; the azure of the
sky above, or the tempest that can be seen from its begin
ning to its end ; the beautiful modifications of the changing
clouds ; the curious looming of objects between earth and
sky, taxing the ingenuity every moment to rectify ; — all,
everything, is calculated to excite the perceptions, and keep
alive the imagination. In the summer season, especially,
everything upon the prairies is cheerfiil, graceful, and
animated. The Indians, with herds of deer, antelope, and
buffalo, give life and motion to them. It is then they should
be visited ; and I pity the man whose soul could remain
unmoved under such a scene of excitement."

PART II.

HISTORY.
The History of this country, though modern, brief, and
scanty in incident, is yet mixed with fable. It was early
visited by the French voyageurs and missionaries from
Canada ; but the object of the voyageurs was trade and
gain ; and while their talent lay not in writing, their interest
probably prompted them to withhold, rather than blazon, the
discoveries which they made. Gabriel Sagard, a Franciscan
missionary, if he is to be believed, was in the country of the
Hurons, about the Lake of that name, as early as 1624, and
went as far as Mackina. French missionaries were settled in
Michigan in 1634. In 1634, we learn from Charlevoix, Bre-
boeuf and Daniel, missionaries were with the Hurons ; and
about eight years after, it is stated by the same good authority
that others went to the Sault St. Marie.
About the same time (1642) some Jesuits received a depu
tation of the Saulteurs, who invited them to go into their
country. These savages then occupied the country about a
rapid which is in a strait by which Lake Superior is discharg
ed into Huron. It has since been named Sault St. Marie.
The missionaries were pleased with the opportunity of know
ing the country, which none of them had ever traversed.
Father Isaac Jogues and Charles Raimbaut were sent to

62 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
attend the deputies of the Saulteurs ; and their voyage had
aU the success that they could reasonably expect. They
were well received by the savages, who seemed to them to
be a very good people.
Father Mesnard, a Jesuit missionary, it is related, was
with the Indians on Lake Superior in 1661, and in 1665
Alouez, a missionary of the same order, traversed the same,
and the other northern lakes ; and in 1668 he, with Dablon
and Marquette, formed a missionary settlement at Sault St.
Marie. I think this event is placed by Mr. Bancroft in 1669.
In the same year other missions were established by the
Jesuits in the country near the Lakes.
These enterprises made known the country, and in 1671 Mr.
Talon, the king's lieutenant of Canada, took measures to
secure the dominion of France over all the northwest. For
this purpose he selected Nicholas Perrot, a man of good ca
pacity and education, and having furnished him with a suffi
cient force, and given him the proper instructions, sent him
forth on his expedition. Perrot went as far west as Chica
go, at the bottom of the Lake Illinois, now called Lake
Michigan, where the Miamies were then residing, and visited
all the northern nations with whom the French at that time
had any tradgj and invited them to meet him in the following
spring at the Sault St. Marie. At this Congress aU the na
tions of the north were present, by their delegates, except
the Mascoutins, Kickapous, and lUinois, to whom, for want
of time, notice of the meeting was not given. The IlUnois
were then on the Missisippi. The Sieur St. Lusson arrived
at Sault St. Marie in May, charged with a special commis
sion to take possession of all the country occupied by these
people, and to receive them under the protection of the king.
The ceremonies on the occasion were an address by Perrot,
the erection of a cedar post and a cross, with a declaration

HISTORY. 63
by St. Lusson of the act of taking possession, and of the
protection of the king. — {Chart. Hist, de Nouv. Fr.)
This was the first political event that transpired in the lake
country, in which Europeans were parties ; the former inter
course with the country having been for the purposes of trade
or of religion. And as it is the first, so it is also one of the
most important political epochs in its history. It differs also
from prior pages in being authenticated, while the events
that are said to have preceded it, as well as some subsequent
relations of discoveries beyond the lakes, to the west, must
be considered as apocryphal, or rejected as wholly spurious.
Mr. Talon, having been very active in setting on foot ex
peditions for discovery in the north and west, and in extend
ing the dominion of France over the nations inhabiting or
rather roaming over those countries, was anxious to discover
the sources, course, direction, character, and outlet of a great
river which had been mentioned to the French by the Indi
ans, and which was supposed to reach the sea on the west, or
to faU into the Gulf of Mexico on the south. This river
was caUed by the Indians Massa-sepo, or Missi-sipi, great
river. For this purpose he sent father Marquette, a Jesuit,
who had been at Sault St. Marie, with Joliet, a citizen of
Quebec, and two or three voyageurs, to ascertain the truth
of their representations. Talon, at his own request, was
recaUed in 1672, and the discovery of the river, which has
been imputed to Marquette, though it may be doubted, and
the more extended discoveries of Hennepin, Tonti, and La
Sale, La Hontan and La Sueur, were accompUshed under
the govemment of his successor. Count de Frontenac
Whether Marquette ever, in fact, performed the service to
which he had been appointed by Talon, and actually 'discov
ered the Missisippi, must be considered rather apocryphal.
It is not to be stated as an authentic event, or as one, even.

64 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST
demanding the credence usually given to the higher class of
probabilities. Marquette himself never returned to Quebec to give a re
lation of his voyage, but remained a year or two, after the
supposed time of its occurrence, among the Indians living
about Lake lUinois (now Michigan), and died there in 1675.
It is generally stated that notes of the voyage were not pre
served by himself or his companion. His patron. Talon, had
gone to France before he went (if he did go at all) to the
Missisippi. The brief narrative that has been published of
their supposed voyage, does not name the point from which
they embarked, on or near the Strait of Machinac It was
not published till after the upper Missisippi had been explored
by Hennepin and La Sale. It gives no particulars which
were not made known by them ; and there is much dis
crepancy as to the time when the voyage is aUeged to have
been performed. In the relation published in the name of
Marquette, it is stated that they embarked on the 13th of
May, 1673, and arrived at the Missisippi on the 17th of
June. The statement published in the name of Joliet dates
the arrival atthe Missisippi the 15th of June, 1674, differing
both in the year and the day. Heriot, again, states it to have
taken place in June, 1672. Book-making was then, as now,
a trade at Paris, Amsterdam, and London ; and it is probable
that the few brief pages annexed to Hennepin, Description
d'une nouvelle pays, &c., purporting to be the statement of
Marquette and Joliet, and the whole of the volume was a
work manufactured by some author to suit the reading mar
ket of the time. Such was the case with the work ascribed
to the Chevalier Tonti, the companion of La Sale, who, when
the work was mentioned to him by Mr. Iberville, denied
having any hand in it, saying, it was apparently written by

HISTORY. 65
some adventurer, who, having some defective notes of the
. country, had published them under his name.
In addition to the other circumstances which make the
authenticity of the relation published as Marquette's doubtful,
Lochman, who published a collection of the travels of the
Jesuits, printed in London, in 1743, makes no mention of the
pretended voyage of Marquette — ^but in his preface he has
this remark : " The Jesuits have been proved to exaggerate
so greatly in their accounts, to give so much into the marvel
lous, and to assert so many falsities, that, like the shepherd's
boy in the fable, many people wont believe them, even when
they do speak the truth. For this reason I judge it neces
sary to examine their relations very carefully, and to com
pare them with those of such travellers as are in the great
est repute for their veracity and talents." The omission by
so judicious a compiler to include in his work a narrative of
so important a discovery as that of the Missisippi River, with
remarks like the foregoing, coupled with the facts, that Mar
quette's journal was said to be lost, and that in the narrative
published as his, no particular descriptions are given, shows
that the relation ascribed to Marquette was, as above sup
posed, considered spurious, or that, if genuine, it was includ
ed in that class of travels that were unworthy of belief.
The supposition appUed to this, that it was the work of a
Uterary speculator, may be also extended to the second
volume of Hennepin, as already hinted. But there is more
probability in favor of his first volume. Indeed, the fact that
he ascended the Upper Missisippi in 1680 is beyond doubt;
and it is quite probable that he was the first discoverer of that
river. Before, however, entering upon the relation of his
very important expedition, the substance of the relation of
Marquette wiU be given, which, whether trae or not, yet,
having been frequently referred to by writers as credible, and

66 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
particularly in a late history of this country, by an author of
much literary fame,* I should not feel warranted to lay aside
as condemned, and wholly to omit.
One other step, also, in the progress of discovery in this
region precedes both the voyage of Hennepin and that of
Marquette. In the year before Marquette's voyage, that is,
in 1672 or 1673, Claude Alouez and Dablon, the two mis
sionaries who had been with him in 1668 at the Sault,
ascended the Fox River. In passing up the river, they per
ceived, on the banks of the rapids, a kind of idol, very badly
formed, and which appeared rather as a freak of nature,
where they had expected to find a work of art. It was a
rock, whose summit, at a distance, appeared to be in the like
ness of a man's head ; and the savages had taken it for the
tutelary deity of their country. They had painted it aU sorts
of colors, and never passed it without offering tobacco,
arrows, or something else. The missionaries, to satisfy the
Indians of the impotence of their pretended divinity, over
turned the stone into the river." — Char., vol. ii., p. 250.
On the 13th of May, 1673, Father Marqiiette, a Jesuit,
embarked, as the relation says, with Mr. Joliet, a citizen of
Quebec, who was the director of the expedition, and five
other Frenchmen, at some point on or near the Strait of
Mackinac, which is not named, and arrived at the Bay of
Puans (Green Bay), at a village inhabited by Kikapoos,
Miamis, and Mascoutins, where they obtained guides, who
accompanied them on their way as far as the Wisconsin
River ; and passing down the Wisconsin (miscalled, in the
relation, the Mesconsin), they arrived on the Missisippi on
the 17th of June. They proceeded down the river, from the
mouth of the Wisconsin, more than one hundred leagues,
• Bancroft.— History of the United States

HISTORY. 57
without exploring the country, or seeing any of its inha
bitants, so far as mentioned, except that, three days after
leaving the Wisconsin, they discovered a much better coun
try; when, on the 25th of June, being the eighth day of their
travel on the Missisippi, they went ashore, and found some
fresh traces of men upon the sand, and a path which led to a
prairie. The men remained in the boat, -and Marquette and
JoUet foUowed the path tiU they discovered a viUage on the
banks of a river, and two other vUlages on a hiU, within half
a league of the first, inhabited by lUinois Indians. It is not
stated on which side of the Missisippi the river was found,
nor is it described by any name, or otherwise designated by
the travellers. Mr. Bancroft supposes ft to have been the
Des Moins. This river, in fact, flows into the Missisippi, at
about the distance mentioned.
The relation makes mention of passing the river Peckita-
noni, as the Missouri was then called, and the Ohio, caUed by
them the Ouabouskigou, the name of the Wabash being pre
served tiU its junction with the Missisippi. The Chuoanous
(Shawnees) inhabit the banks of the Wabash, the relation in
forms us, who are said to be so numerous, that they have thirty-
eight villages on the river. They descended the river as low as
lat. 33°, where they found a viUage of the Arkansas ; and being
satisfied that the river flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, they
turned their course up the stream, and, ascending the river,
they passed through the Illinois to the Lake. Their rela
tion gives the distance from the Pekitanoni (or Missouri)
to the Ouabouskigou (or Ohio) at twenty leagues. The
actual distance is two hundred miles. So great a mis
take could hardly be made by a person who had been
over the ground. Nothing whatever is stated in relation to
the country traversed, which was through nine degrees
and a half of latitude, and, by the windings of the stream.

68 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
one thousand mUes, or more, except finding the three rivers,
Des Moines, Missouri, and Ohio, and Indian viUages at three
points on the river.*
* The foregoing is abstracted from a narrative appended to the work pub
lished in the name of Hennepin, called " Nouvelle Decouverte d'une Pays
vaste," and comprising twenty-six pages. Marquette's relation is said,
by Charlevoix, to be contained in the " Recueil des Voyages of Thevenot,"
printed in Paris in 1687. I have not seen Thevenot, but it is probable that
the relation referred to is the same as that from which the above is abridged.
But all relations put forth under the name of Marquette must be considered
apocryphal. Additional JVote. — The relation as contained in Thevenot has just been
published in Paris. It is the same referred to above. It is impossible
to conceive that a person who has made a discovery so important, should
pass, for the space of one thousand miles, down this nobl^ and majestic
stream, in itself one of the wonders of the world, and then new to all the
world save himself and a few hunting bands of Indians, and possessing
some very remarkable peculiarities ; and should, in a volume expressly
designed to communicate his great discovery to the world, have given such
a meagre account of it ; passing the two chains of rapids without intimat
ing or apparently knowing that such were on the river ; naming none
of the eight considerable rivers coming in from the west, nor those on the
other side, except three of the principal streams which might be known
by accounts given by the Indians. The book states but two items in rela
tion to the country— that there was a chain of very high mountains on its
bank, immediately below the -Wisconsin ; which is an error, there being
no such chain. The only elevation here is Pike's Mountain, and that but
little more than two hundred feet above the common level. The other is
the distance from Missouri River to Ohio, two hundred miles, said to be
twenty leagues. ^While everything is omitted that would naturally be told,
the volume relates that they saw geese and swans without feathers, as these
birds had a fashion of shedding them at this season ; and also monstrous
fish, and other monsters. Beside all this, it is known that Marquette never
went east of Lake Michigan after the pretended voyage, but died on the
lake about two years after. And the relation under his name was not pub
lished till eight years after the voyage, and a year or more after the disco
very by Hennepin, and then came forward to fill up a desideratum in a
collection of voyages published by Thevenot, which could not decently
appear without a notice of this river, the discovery of which had then

HISTORY. 69
Soon after the time when this expedition is stated to have
happened, Mr. Robert Cavalier de la Sale was appointed by
the king of France to conduct an expedition, and make dis
coveries in the north-western parts of North America. Mr.
Tonti was associated with him in the enterprise. On the 7th
of August, 1679, they embarked with Father Louis Henne
pin, a Franciscan missionary, and two other priests and thirty
men, on board a small vessel which La Sale had built, at a
short distance above the Falls of Niagara, and commenced
the voyage. They proceeded up lakes Erie, St. Clair, and
Huron, and passed into the lake called lUinouac by the In
dians, Illinois by the French, and now known as Lake Michi
gan. Lake Erie was at that time known under the name of
Conty ; Huron was called Orleans ; Michigan, Dauphin and
lUinois ; Superior, Conde and Tracy ; and Ontario, Fron
tenac. After pursuing the voyage as far as the Bay of Puans,
now called Green Bay, La Sale sent back his vessel to Nia
gara, while himself and his associates proceeded to the
Southem part of the lake, where by appointment they were
to await the return of the vessel. The ship however
foundered on the lake, and nothing was afterwards heard of
vessel or crew.
La Sale and his remaining associates coasted southward
ilong the western shore of the lake as far as the mouth of a
river designated by Hennepin as the river of the Miamis,
now caUed St. Joseph's, which was the point agreed upon
between them and their companions who had departed in the
ship, as the place of rendezvous, and where they were to be
Decome known. Further : the express object of La Sale's expedition was
to discover the Missisippi — ^which could not have been if it had been
ilready discovered, as pretended, six years before he undertook it, by his
3wn countrymen, under the direction of his own government.

70 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
joined by some of their company whom they had left at
Mackinac. Here they built a fort. They then passed up
the river as far as the point where a narrow portage of about
a league divides it from the Kankake or southern branch of
the lUinois River, where they crossed to the stream last
named. This branch of the lUinois was called by the
Indians Theakeke, wolf, because the tribe of Indians called
by that name, commonly known as the Mahingans, dwelt
there. The mode of speaking it by the French was Kiakiki,
and became corrupted to Kankake. From the point of land
ing on the Miami River the portage extended over a wet
champaign to the neighborhood of the source of the Thea
keke, on which, at a village inhabited by Miamis, Mascotins,
and Ouiatinons, the hardy and intrepid voyagers launched
their bark canoes to descend by the Illinois and Missisippi
Rivers, only heard of, but unknown before, through vast re
gions of unrevealed and doubtful country, whose forest and
prairie might then, so far as known to them, receive for the
first time the foot of man, or might resound with the yell of
the lurking and blood-loving Indian. The Theakeke springs
out of lands which are so miry that a person can scarcely
walk over them. And the country, for a great extent, upon
the river, is of the same description. " That country," says
the relation, " is nothing but marshes, full of alder trees and
rushes, and we could have hardly found, for forty leagues to
gether, any place to plant our cabins, had it not been for the
frost, which made the earth more firm and solid." The com
pany had taken their departure from the Fort at the mouth of
the St. Joseph's, or River of the Miamis, on Lake Michigan,
on the 3d day of Dec, 1679, and it was near the close of the
same month when they arrived at the village of the Illinois,
on the river of that name, a distance of more than one
hundred leagues from the Fort. In this journey, after pass-

HISTORY. 71
ing through the great marshes already mentioned, near the
sources of the Theakeke, they came to a vast plain, on
which nothing grows but grass and weeds, which at that
time were dry and burnt, it being the custom of the Miamis
to set them on fire every year for hunting the buffalo. From
this, it appears that the annual burning of the prairies is an
ancient practice of the Indians. It is supposed to be owing
to this custom that those large tracts in the west are desti
tute of timber.
The travellers embarked again at the Illinois village, and
continued to fall down the river for four days longer, when,
on the first day of January, 1680, they came into and
passed through a lake which is described as seven leagues in
length and one broad, and was called by the Indians " Pimi-
teoui" (pimitewi), that is, a place where there is an abun
dance of fat beasts — a common way of describing a place by
them ; as Missi limachinac, a great plenty of turtle. This
lake is that enlargement of the river now known to the
western settlers and travellers as Lake Peoria. It is said in
the narrative that the river never freezes below the lake.
There was a village of the Illinois Indians at this lake,
who endeavored to dissuade the travellers from their design
of descending the Missisippi and navigating that stream ; —
representing it as inhabited by very ferocious tribes of savages,
filled with formidable animals, full of rocks and rapids to
wards its mouth, which falls into a hideous and bottomless
gulf, and horrid whirlpool, that swallows up everything com
ing within reach of its force. The travellers remained with
these Indians some time, and at the foot of the lake they
built a fort, which La Sale called Crevecoeur, and to which
the Indians gave the name of Chicago. Terror of the
Indians, and the hardships and perUs of the travel, had caused
the desertion of several of his men. He had lost his ves-

72 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
sel, and the Uves of others had been sacrificed with that acci
dent, and he was surrounded with perUs and difficulties.
These circumstances of grief and disappointment may have
suggested the name which he gave to his fort.*
Thus far, however, though having had perils to encounter,
and having experienced some disappointments, they were not
greater than might be anticipated in such an undertaking. It
was now, also, mid winter, and they had to encounter the
rigors of a northern climate. Yet their undertaking was not
frustrated, and they had information of a better state of things
before them. They learned, by conversation with other In
dians, that the dangers of which they had been told by the
Illinois did not exist, but that the Missisippi was in fact navi
gable from its source, and was inhabited by well disposed
Indians who would offer them the pipe of peace.
La Sale therefore resolved on pursuing his enterprise, and
took his measures accordingly. He directed father Henne
pin to proceed to the Missisippi with two of the company,
* Fort Crevecoeur was built upon an elevated site on the bank of the
river, the exact location of which may be determined by the following ex
tract, which probably has relation to the same spot, from Mr. Patrick
Kennedy's Journal of an expedition undertaken by himself and several
coureurs de bois, in the year 1773. The journal is a circumstantial ac
count of a progress up the Illinois River. He says : —
" August 7. This morning being very foggy, and the river overgrown
with weeds along its sides, we could make but little way. About 12 o'clock
we got to the old Pioria Fort and village, on the -Western shore of the river,
and at the southern end of the lake called the Illinois Lake, which is nine
teen miles and a half in length, and three miles in breadth. It has no
rocks, shoals, or perceivable current. -We found the stockades of this
Pioria Fort destroyed by fire, but the houses standing. The summit on
which the fort stood, commands a fine prospect of the country to the east
ward, and up the lake to the point where the river comes in at the north
end." He gives the distance from the mouth at 210 miles, and above Lake
Demi Quian 39 miles.

HISTORY. 73
while himself, with three others, should return to Fort Fron
tenac, where they had first embarked, to procure some further
supplies ; and that the Chevalier Tonti, with the rest of the
men, should remain to garrison the fort at Crevecoeur. Here
he remained with his little band of soldiers for many years.
The companions of La Sale, in the subsequent disastrous
expedition in which he lost his life, found Tonti still at the
fort, in 1686, and La Hontan also, in 1689, says he was then
residing there, when he returned from his expedition up the
St. Peter's.
Father Hennepin, accompanied by only two Frenchmen,
Anthony Auguel, sumamed Picard du Gay, and Mitchel Ako,
left Fort Crevecoeur on the 29th February, 1689, and on the
7th March, reached the Missisippi. Hennepin, with his com
panions, proceeded up the river as far as the faUs, which were
named by him St. Anthony of Padua. He observed the Des
Moines River (called Otenta), and another at the west, which
was probably St. Peter's, but which he does not mention by
any name. This river, some years after the date of its dis
covery, by Hennepin, received the name of St. Pierre, from
a trader of that name, who resided upon it. It has been sug
gested, however, that the true name of this river is " Sans
Pierres," without stones : it being at the mouth entirely clear
of stones. A few years after this time, the Des Moines, or
Otenta, is mentioned in the maps by the name of Moingona.
He found also the Black River, on the east side, above the
Wisconsin, which was called by the Sauteurs (or Chippe
was), Sappah, and by the Naudowessiouns; or Sioux, Cheba
deba. And above the Chebadeba, he entered the beautiful
and romantic lake which he called the Lac des Pleurs, and
which has since received the name of Lake Pepin * The
* Major Long says it was first called Lake Pepin in the manuscript of
Le Sueur ; Charlevoix calls it Bon Secours.
5

74 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
traveUers proceeded up the St. Croix River,' which they
caUed Riviere de la Tombeau, because an Indian grave was
there. On the 1 2th of April they were captured by the Isauti,*
or Chippewa Indians, and were unable to proceed further
than the St. Francis River. They were informed by the
Indians, that there was another faU, about twenty or thirty
leagues above St. Anthony's, near which lived a tribe of In
dians called Tintonha, or prairie Indians. Having remained
two or three months in captivity they passed down the river,
leaving Ako behind, and ascending the Wisconsin, passed
down the Fox River to the Bay of Puans. While they were
passing Lake Pepin with their Indian captors, a council was
held to deliberate on putting to death the prisoners. Those
-\yho were in favor of this design cried all night, as is custom
ary with them when they wish to prevail on their companions
to consent to the death of their captives. On this account it
was named by them Lac des Pleurs, as before mentioned.
Father Hennepin must undoubtedly be considered the dis
coverer of the Missisippi. The supposition that Marquette
was there before him, may or may not be in accordance with
the fact. No relation was given of it ; no information or ad
vantage appears to have been derived from it. When La
Sale started on his expedition from Fort Frontenac, it seemed
to be for the purpose of discovering a river kno-wn only to the
Indians, not of merely visiting a place abeady kno-wn. It is
also stated in the volume which passes as the second work of

* The Indians of the St. Mary's were called by the French, Sautem's
(that is, Indians of the falls) of St. Mary's. Those who dwelt by the Palls
of St. Anthony, were called also Sauteurs, and corruptly Isati (Esaute),
They are the Chippewas. The name of Naudouessies, by which the Sioux
were called, was probably Nordouest, applied to them by the missionaries
and traders of Lakes Superior and Mackinac, who had been acquainted
with thenj some years, and which the Indians converted into Nordouessi.

HISTORY. 75
Hennepin that he saw Joliet at Quebec, and being informed
that he had been upon the Missisippi, he questioned him in
relation to it ; and was answered that he had never been
further than the country of the Hurons and Ottawas. These
Indians inhabited, the first south, and the last north, of the
Straits of Mackinac. This story of the interview with Joliet
may or may not be trae ; but there is nothing, leaving it out
of the case, to induce even a strong belief that Marquette
and Joliet had been to the great river ; and the honor of its
discovery must be given to Hennepin.
La Sale having made his preparations to maintain the posi
tion he had established at Lake Pimitewi, as a point d'appui
for the prosecution of his discoveries, returned to that post,
and in 1 682 he descended to the Missisippi, and fell down
that stream to its mouth. Tlnd this is the first undoubted dis
covery of the Lower Missisippi, though the narratives before
mentioned have related that both Marquette and Hennepin
had gone down the river nearly to its mouth. It was in
March that La Sale came to the Missisippi and prosecuted his
discovery to its mouth.* He took possession of the country
of the Arkansas Indians, and arriving at the mouth of the
river on the 9th of April, took possession of the country there
according to law — [Ch., v. 2, p. 276]. On the llth he reim-
barked and ascended the river. On this voyage he left colo
nies at Kaskaskia and Kakokia.
The country of the lower Missisippi is not within the scope
of this work, and events relating to it will be briefly noticed
only as they have connection with the discoveries or settle
ments in the upper country. La Sale, after his voyage down
the river, returned to France for the purpose of making a
* Charlevoix says he embarked on the Missisippi on the 2d of February,
and going down the river, took possession of the country of the Arkansas
on the 4th of March.

76 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
voyage thence by sea to discover the mouth of the Missi
sippi ; and in 1684 he saUed with a large force destined for
the Gulf of Mexico. He was unsuccessful in his design of
finding the mouth of the river ; but having built and fortified
two forts on the gulf, which he garrisoned with some of his
men, he departed from the Bay of St. Louis, in the northwest
part of the gulf, to make an overland expedition to his fort on
the Illinois, and to obtain a knowledge of the country and its
inhabitants. After travelling 150 leagues to the northeast, he
returned to his fort in the Bay of St. Louis on the 17th of
October, 1786. Having remained here two months, he re
solved to make a second attempt to pass over to the Illinois
River, and taking twenty men with him, he departed a second
time from Fort St. Louis, resolved not to return till he had
found the Illinois. His second departure from the fort took
place on the 7th of January, 1687. Before he had proceeded
as far as on his first attempt, he was murdered with three
others of his company, by some of his own men. His
brother, M. Cavalier, with father Anastasius, M. Joutel, and
others of the party, made their way to the Illinois, and up
the river to Crevecoeur, where they found Mr. Tonti and his
garrison, and were hospitably received, and after remaining
some days, proceeded on to Quebec.
The next voyage in order of time is that of the Baron
Lahontan. He started from Machinac on the 24th Sept.,
1688, and from the Bay of Puans, called by him the Bay of
the Potawatamies, on the 30th of the same month, with a
large detachment of French and five Ottawa hunters, pro
vided with new canoes filled with provisions, munitions of
war, and articles for traffic with the natives. Near the Bay,
on the banks of the Fox River, at the time of Lahontan's
voyage, were villages of Sakis, Potawatamies, and some
Malominis, and the Jesuits had a house there. A great

HISTORY. 77
trade was carried on in peltries and Indian com, which the
savages trafficked with the coureurs du bois.
At this period, and even prior to the first enterprise of La
Sale for the discovery of the Missisippi, there was a con
siderable trade with the Indians of this region. It is said in
1779, that more than two hundred loaded canoes pass
through the Strafts St. Marie and Machinac to Montreal.
Lahontan entered this river on the 29th September, and
the warriors of each of the three nations came in turn to his
cabin to entertain him with the dance of the calumet and of
the captain : the first in token of peace, and the second in
compliment to the traveller, to signify their consideration and
regard for him. He departed from this place on the 30th
September, and passed up the Fox River, which he called
the River of Puans. In his passage up the Fox he stopped
at a village of the Kickapoos, and of the Malominies, to
whom he made presents, receiving in return two or three
bags of the meal of wild rice. He arrived on the 9th at a
fort of the Outagamis, where he was well received, and
left on the llth. On the 13th he landed at a place where
he found the Chief of the nation. He here received an ac
cession to his company of ten Outagami warriors. This
fort was at half a day's journey from the head of Fox River
or Puans, and embarking at noon on the 16th, he arrived on
the evening of the same day at the portage of the Wiscon
sin. They were occupied two days in transporting thek
canoes and baggage over this portage. He describes the
Fox as salt and muddy. The country upon the river seems
to have been anything but agreeable to him. He speaks of
the river as desolate, and says it is bordered with steep hills,
marshes, and frightful rocks. On the 19th of October he
embarked on the Wisconsin, and in four days he was at the
Missisippi. Passing up the Missisippi he came on the 2d

78 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
November to a river which he caUed Long River. On the
3d he entered into the mouth of Long River, which he
describes as forming a sort of lake full of rashes. The
river, he remarks, is the stiUest in the world. He ascended
the stream 200 leagues, which occupied him sixty days.
He lays down the course of the river from west to east. It
is not easy to conclude, by the account given of this jour
ney, upon what river Lahontan travelled this great distance
upon the course he describes. The course of St. Peter's is
at this day very different, being first for a large distance from
its source from northwest to southeast nearly, and in the
latter part of its course about south southwest, and north
northeast. If he ascended St. Peter's to its source, he
might easily have passed to the waters of Red River, which
now at times mingle with those of the former. Mr. Nicollet
supposes that Cannon River answers to the Long River of
this traveller. The station of the traveller, the large num
ber of his company, the incidents which he relates, and the
particularity of his description, forbid the idea that his narra
tive is purely fabulous. But there is not, at this day, any
stream in that region upon which he could have ascended so
far. If he had gone upon the waters of the Red River he
could not have failed to perceive that he was going do-wn
and not ascending the stream. The Cannon River is a short
stream, upon which he could navigate scarcely one sixth
of the distance named. We must suppose that since that
time, a considerable change has taken place in the waters of
that country. It may be, that Cannon River communicated
with St. Peter's, or with other waters, and that beyond, to
the west, some communication existed with the Missouri.
This supposition is not unsupported. The early traveUers
to this part of the country received accounts from the Indians
of a vast lake that existed, as they said, far to the northwest,

HISTORY. 79
which they represented as larger than Superior. Charlevoix
speaks of this lake, as weU as other writers of that time.
" The country of the Assinipoils," he says, " is in the neigh
borhood of a lake which bears their name, with which we
are but little acquainted. A Frenchman, whom I saw at
Montreal, assured me he had been there, but had seen it only
in a transient manner, as one sees the sea in a harbor. It is
the common opinion that this lake is 600 leagues in circum
ference ; that its banks are delightful ; that the climate is
very temperate, though it lies to the northwest of Lake Supe
rior, and it contains so great a number of islands, that it is
called in that country the Lake of Islands. Some Indians
call it Mitchinipi (Great Water) ; and it seems, in effect, to be
the reservoir or source of the greatest rivers and all the great
lakes of North America. All the following rivers are said to
have their rise from it : the Bourbon, which runs into
Hudson's Bay (Red River) ; the St. Lawrence, which car
ries its waters to the ocean ; the Missisippi, which falls into
the Gulf of Mexico ; the Missouri, which mixes with the
last ; and a fifth, which they say runs westward, and conse
quently discharges its waters into the South Sea. I do not,
however, warrant all these facts, which are supported only
by the accounts of travellers ; and, much less, what the
Indians have related, that in the neighborhood of the lake are
men resembling the Europeans, who are settled in a country
where gold and silver are so common that they are employed
in the meanest uses."
The face of the country, and the peculiar physical charac
teristic which it at present has, being diversified with a clus
ter of numerous lakes, which, with the addition of a body of
water not very great, would make a Lake of Islands as
extensive as that named, favor the story. A branch of Red
River, rising in the country of the supposed lake, now bears

80 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
the name of Assinaboin, and a tributary of the last, called
Mouse River, rises within a mile of the Missouri.
Long says, " although many have supposed that the
waters of the Missisippi are separated from those running
northwestwardly into the Pacific, and northeastwardly into
the Atlantic, by a mountainous range of country ; yet, from
the best information that can be had on the subject, the fact
is quite otherwise. The old and almost forgotten statement,
of savage origin, that four of the largest rivers of the conti
nent have their sources in the same plain, is entitled to far
more credit. The rivers aUuded to, are the Missisippi, St.
Lawrence, Suskatckawan, and Oregon.* Agreeably to the
accounts of Col. Dixon, and others, who have traversed the
country situated between the Missouri and Assiniboin, a
branch of the Red River of Hudson's Bay, no elevated
ridge is to be met with ; but, on the contrary, tributaries to
both these streams take their rise in the same champaign.
The water courses are represented as chains of lakes of
various magnitudes, while lakes and stagnant pools are scat
tered in every direction, without ridges or perceptible declivi
ties, to show the direction in which they are drained." — F.
U., p. 380.
The tract included between the Missisippi, Crow Wing,
Red River, and the ridge spreading over the sources of the
Missisippi, forming nearly a parallelogram of 100 by 150
miles, lying northeast and southwest, is mostly, at this day,
a coUection of lakes and water. There is very clear evi
dence, from geological indications, that the whole Upper
Missisippi was, at one time, submerged ; and it is highly pro
bable that, in the gradual subsidence of the waters, which
* Colonel Long is probably mistaken in naming the Oregon as one of
the four aUuded to. Charlevoix is probably more correct in naming the
rivers.

HISTORY. 81
may not have taken place in 1690 or 1700 to the extent it
has now attained, a great lake may have covered aU that
area, — or, at least, that the physical geography of the country
at that time may have presented some difference in the quan
tity and disposition of its hydrographical outUne. In the pre
sent century, the Missouri has so changed its course that
NicoUet was unable to find some of the bends described by
Lewis and Clarke, thirty years before.
The supposition of Nicollet, that he passed through Can
non River, is not improbable. The sources of Cannon
River are within four or five miles of an eastern branch of
Blue Earth River, and the intervening ground is a perfect
level. The communication may, at the time of the voyage,
have been complete, or been made so by a freshet, and he
would thus have passed through the Blue Earth into St.
Peter's. It is not improbable that the St. Peter's itself once
pursued this course, more in unison with the course of the
river higher up, and disembogued where the mouth of Can
non River now is. At this day the St. Peter's, at the mouth
of the Blue Earth, makes a bend at right angles with its
former course, as stated above. It is well known that at
high stages of water, boats may now pass into Rock River
through the Marais D'Osiers, thirty miles above the mouth
of Rock River.
Lahontan's descriptions are too particular, and his narra
tive too circumstantial and too probable, to one acquainted
with the northwest, to be discredited, merely on account of a
supposed impossibUity of performing the voyage, because of
the physical unfitness of the country at this day. His work
was, it is true, decried in its time by the Jesuits, but this
was for the reason that he had spoken lightly of them ; and,
because, from ignorance of the country and the people, state
ments which are now known to be correct, would then have
5*

82 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
been deemed improbable, and received with distrast. After
navigating the St. Peter's, Lahontan went down the Missi
sippi, taking notice of the Des Moines River, which he
caUed Otenta ; the same name by which Hennepin had
designated a river faUing into the Missisippi from the west ;
visited a village of Otenta people, probably IlUnois, and
passed down to the Missouri, up which he saUed some dis
tance, meeting some Arkansas and a band of unknown In
dians, and proceeded down as far as the mouth of the Ohio,
called by him, Ouabach (Wabash) ; and then, ascending the
Missisippi, passed up through the Illinois, on which, at Fort
Crevecoeur, he met with Sieur Tonti, who, it appears, was
yet remaining where he had been left nine years before by
La Sale.
Lahontan was probably the first European who had as
cended the Missouri, as well as the St. Peter's, and must be
considered the discoverer of both these noble rivers.
The river now called Des Moines, was laid dovvn in the
map accompanying Lahontan, and mentioned by him, and
also by Hennepin, under the name of Otenta. In Charle
voix, and in the Histoire Generale des Voyages, pubUshed in
1757, it is called Moingona.
A person who has seen this country, knows that it has
undergone great changes at more than one epoch. It bears
evidence that at one time the whole surface of the Missisippi
valley has been submerged ; and we make a short digression
in this place, to state more fully our opinion on this matter.
There is no doubt that, at some remote period, by the con
vulsion of an earthquake, the land of this valley has been
upheaved, and has thrown off the water that covered it,
which may have extended from the Gulf of Mexico to
Hudson's Bay, separating our hemisphere into two conti
nents. Such was my own decided opinion, frequently

HISTORY. 83
expressed, at the first sight of this region ; and I have found
since that others have had the same opinion. There has
been a second change subsequently, in which the streams
that drained off the waters of this country have been confined
within narrowed beds. Upon aU the streams of this coun
try, the banks at present confining their waters are low
bottom lands, the alluvion of the streams, generally from six
to twelve or fifteen feet in the principal rivers above the
common stage of water. Behind these are bluffs forming a
wider bed, in which it is probable the stream once flowed.
My conjecture is, that at some upheaving of the earth by an
earthquake, since the epoch of the denudation, another part
of the lakes and waters, that had been left after the first, has
been thrown off, and thus the streams, which convey off
these waters, have been diminished and their beds narrowed.
In 1663 Canada was visited by a very violent earthquake,
which probably extended to this country. It is known to
have extended west to the region of Lake Michigan. To
Europeans the Missisippi country was then unknown. My
conjecture is, that this earthquake not only was felt at that
period on the Missisippi, but that it may have been repeated
also, or rather continued, and that, by a gradual upheaving,
the consequence of these earthquakes, a change may have
been effected in the hydrographic condition of this country
since it was seen by Lahontan, and that rivers may have
extended then farther than their channels now ran, and some
of the ground then forming their beds has become dry.
Though there is no authority for stating that this earth
quake actually rent the earth of the Missisippi vaUey, yet,
as it is kno-wn to have been felt in a neighboring region, and
probably was here also, the relation is here given as con
nected in its effects, though not in time, with this portion
of our story. The story is, in the main, true, though the

84 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
lights in the air and the lowing of the sea-cows may have
been painted by the alarmed im.agination of the witnesses.
In 1663 Canada was visited with a great earthquake, which
extended nine hundred mUes east and west, and perhaps fur
ther. The following account is given by Charlevoix : —
" Trees were thrown into the air with as much force as if
a mine had been exploded under their roots, and some were
found fixed in the earth by their tops. A person could not
feel more secure upon the water than upon the land. The
ice which covered the River St. Lawrence and the streams,
was broken and thrown together ; large blocks of ice were
thrown into the air, and the places which they had left threw
up a large quantity of sand and mud. Many fountains and
small streams were dried up ; in others, the waters were
impregnated with sulphur ; and there were some whose beds
even, in which they had flowed, could not be distinguished.
" Here the waters became red, there they turned yellow ;
those of the river were all white, from Quebec to Tadoussac,
a space of thirty leagues. The air had, also, its phenomena.
A constant thundering was heard in it ; they saw, or ima
gined they saw, in it spectres of fire, bearing torches in their
hands. Flames appeared in it which took all sorts of figures
— some of pikes, some of lances ; and burning brands feU on
the roofs without setting them on fire. From time to time
meanings increased the terror. Sea-cows were heard lowing
on the Three Rivers, where never before these fish had
appeared ; and their lowings had nothing like that of any
creature known. In a word, in the whole extent of three him
dred leagues from east to west, and more than one hundred
and fifty from south to north, the land, the rivers, and the
shores of the sea, were, for a long time, by intervals, in such
an agitation as the Prophet King represents when he relates
the wonders which accompanied the departure from Egypt
of the people of God. The effects of this earthquake were

HISTORY. 85
infinitely varied ; and never, perhaps, was there more cause
to think that nature was to be destroyed, and the world
coming to an end.
" The first shock lasted half an hour, without cessation ;
but, at the end of a quarter of an hour, it began to be less
violent. The same day, at eight o'clock in the evening,
there was a second shock, as violent as the first ; and, in the
space of a half-hour, there were two others. Some persons
counted thirty-two in the following night, some of which were
very strong. « * * *
" Half way from Tadoussac to Quebec two mountains were
levelled, and of the earth which was thrown down by them, a
point was formed, which was advanced a half-quarter of a
league into the river."
These several voyages of Hennepin, La Sale, and La
hontan, had made the world acquainted with the noble Missi
sippi from St. Anthony's to the Gulf, and with the St. Peter's,
and Missouri, and Wisconsin, and Illinois, and with a vast
extent of territory, containing the richest soil upon the earth,
and some of the richest deposits of metals within it.
The dominion of the French in America had been extend
ed by the discovery and acquisition of all that territory lying
west of the Lake Michigan to the River Missisippi, and of
the much greater and more magnificent region comprehended
under the name of Louisiana : embracing aU that country
-vyhich it is within the scope of this work to describe. La
hontan, it should be named, took formal possession of the
country of St. Peter's, by setting up landmarks of his travel ;
and Louisiana included the Missouri River, of which it does
not appear that the French gained any jurisdiction by his
visit beyond what might be claimed by the right of discovery
merely. The earliest visitors to Lake Superior had become ac»

86 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
quainted with its rich deposits of copper ore. More than one
of the published descriptions mention it, and it is stated by
Charlevoix that such was the purity of the ore that one of the
monks who was there, and who had been bred to the business
of a goldsmith, made from it some sacramental articles
" The savages," says Charlevoix, " on account of the quan
tity of fish furnished by Lake Superior, and of the respect
inspired by its -vast extent, have made it a sort of divinity,
and offer to it sacrifices in their manner." He thinks, never
theless, it is rather to the genius of the lake than to the lake
itself that they address their prayers. " If one may believe
them," says he, " the origin of the lake has something divine
in it. It was formed, they imagine, by Michabou, the god
of waters, in order to supply them with beaver. In the strait
by which it is discharged into Huron, there is a rapid, caus
ed," he says, "by great rocks, called Sault St. Marie. These
rocks, according to the Indians, are the remains of a cause
way which God had built to hold the waters of the river and
those of Lake Alimepegon, which filled this great lake."
" In places on its borders, and about some of its islands,"
says the writer above-named, "we found large pieces of
copper, which are yet the object of the superstitious adoration
of the savages. They regard them with veneration as a
present from the gods who inhabit the waters. They collect
the smallest fragments of it, and preserve them with care, but
make no use of them. They say that formerly they have
seen a large rock, all of the same mineral, raised much above
the water ; and, as it is not now to be seen, they say that the
gods have removed it somewhere else. But there is reason
to suppose that in the lapse of time the waves of the lake
have covered it with sand and ooze : and it is certain that we
discovered in many places a large quantity of this metal
without even being obliged to dig much. On my first voyage

HISTORY. 87
to this country I knew a brother of our order who was a gold
smith by trade, who, whUe on his mission at SauU Ste. Marie,
had gone in search of it, and had made chandeliers, crosses,
and censors of it ; for the copper is often almost wholly
pure." The savages supposed that when Michebou formed Lake
Superior, he dwelt at Missi-Mackinac,* where he was born.
This name is properly that of a small island, nearly round and
very high, situated at the extremity of Lake Huron, and it
has become extended by custom to all the country about.
The island may be three or four miles in circuit, and may be
seen at twelve miles distance. There are two other islands
at the south, the most distant of which is five or six leagues
long, the other is very small, and perfectly round. Both are
well wooded, and the soil is very good, while that of Missi-
mackinac is but a sterile rock, and scantily covered with a
little moss and grass. It is, however, one of the most cele
brated spots in Canada ; and it was a long time, according to
some old Indian traditions, the head-quarters of a nation
which bears the same name, and which counted, they say,
thirty bands, scattered over the neighboring country. It is
said that the Iroquois destroyed them, but it is not said at
what time, or on what occasion. It is certain that no vestige
of them remains : but I have read somewhere that our early
missionaries have seen some remnants of them.
This is the account given by Charlevoix, and he adds that
the name signifies much turtle.
* This name means much turtle, and the first part is the same as the
first part of Missi-sippi, i.e., much water, or great river. The French
travellers called it Michasippi, and Michilimackinac. Perhaps also the
word Michebou is corrupted in the same way. Miche is probably Missi,
great, and the whole word, Great Spirit. The name of the Great Lake
also before spoken of is given Michinippi. It should be Missi— the same
word again

88 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
Mr. D. IberviUe, who had the commission of the French
king for that purpose, found the mouth of the Missisippi in
March, 1700, and ascended the stream some distance. He
deputed his father, Mr. Le Sueur, with twenty men, to make
an establishment in the country of the Sioux, and to take
possession of a mine of copper on the Green River (now
caUed Blue Earth), which puts into St. Peter's on the left,
at 40 leagues above the mouth. Le Sueur could not ascend
the Green River on account of the ice, though it was in
September, and was obliged to build a fort, and winter there.
As soon as the season would permit, in April, he visited the
mine, and in twenty-two days drew from it more than thirty
thousand pounds weight of the mineral. He selected four
thousand of that which appeared best, and carried it with
him to France. — {Chart., v. 4, p. 165, et seq.)
Mr. NicoUet, who explored that country in 1838, could not
find the place referred to, though its situation is very exactly
pointed out by Charlevoix.
In 1710, the king granted to Mr. Crozat the exclusive
privilege of trading in Louisiana for sixteen years; and the
property in himself and his heirs for ever, of the mines, ores
and minerals, that might be discovered and worked. In
1717, Crozat surrendered the grant to the king, and he trans
ferred it to the western company, which at this time was
formed by Mr. Law. Under the auspices of this company,
a German colony was settled a few miles above New Or
leans. The company held it until 1731, when it was retro-
ceded to the king. The grant included the country of the
IlUnois, which was rather indefinite, but probably was intend
ed to include all the country in the Missisippi Valley that
had been visited by the French, which would extend north
to the territory of the English settlements in Hudson's Bay,
and west as far as the country was then known.

HISTORY. 89
This country, whose discovery and occupation has been
chronicled in the foregoing very concise epitome, comprises
about three-fourths of a milUon of square miles in extent,
mostly of a soil that has not its equal on the earth, and
covers nearly in latitude the whole of the northern temperate
zone. Its features are peculiar. Most conveniently and
beautifuUy distributed in grove and prairie, the settler finds
the labor of subduing it but the sport of a season ; fertile as
the chemistry of nature can produce, the husbandman almost
forgets he is subject to the law laid upon his first parent, and
is scarcely conscious that in the sweat of his brow he earns
his bread. It is not .more beautiful to the sense, than grate
ful to the toil, of man.
In the enterprises, humble in means and in the "mode of
prosecuting them, silent, unapplauded, hazardous and toil
some, great in their results, a few brave and polite French
men, accompanied by two or three pious, peaceful and
zealous disciples of the cross, surmounted with comparative
ease and impunity, obstacles which, to explorers of different
material, would have presented pictures of blood and death.
The acquisition of this invaluable country was made by
them almost without disaster, which, if attempted by others,
would probably have made our peaceful story a series of
most moving tragedies. The Frenchman forgets not that
the uncivilized, as well as civilized man, is his brother, and
he deports himself as man to man. The sturdy Saxon treats
the Indian like a dog. The Frenchman adapts himself to all
situations, and to all people. The American thinks every
thing is to be accommodated to him. But the churchmen
were also greatly useful in inspiring the savages with peace
ful emotions, by their religious emblems, services, devotions
and instructions. By these means, and by such deportment,
aided by a few presents judiciously bestowed, and with such

90 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
influence superadded, as the possession of their formidable
fire arms, mostly unknown to the natives, gave them, they
were enabled to conciliate the untamed children of the forest
and prairie, and to avoid many encounters which a more rude
and inconsiderate treatment of the savages would doubtless
have provoked.
In 1720, a colony of Germans made a settlement on the
banks of the river, a few miles above New Orleans. They
-were quite numerous, amounting to 1500. In 1723, some
Capuchin, and, in two years after, some Jesuit missionaries,
settled in the country. For nearly a century following this
time, the country was peopled with very few inhabitants,
and the events that occurred were few ; and saving the trea
ties by which the political relations of the country were
changed, and the dominion successively transferred from
France to Spain and England, and afterwards to the United
States, are of little interest. In this period, however, that
is, in fifty years succeeding the building of Fort Crevecoeur,
and the first establishment of the French in that quarter,
several settlements were made on the American bottom, a
few miles below the mouth of the Illinois. These were at
Kaskaskia, Kahokia, and Prairie du Rocher, a few miles
north of the others. A settlement was also made at Vincen-
nes, on the Wabash, originally called St. Vincent's ; and
several points on the Missisippi were visited by them, as the
river Des Moines, Prairie du Chien, Prairie Pomme de
Terre, Marais d'Osier (Willow Swamp), now corrupted into
Meredosia Swamp, and other places.
In 1729 there was a conspiracy of the Natches Indians
against the French residing at Fort Natches, which, by the
incredulity, blindness and obstinacy of the commander, Che-
par, who had full notice of the conspiracy, which his rapacity
and misrule had caused, resulted in the massacre of 2000

HISTORY. 91
settlers, with circumstances of the most revolting barbarity,
and the captivity of a great number more. In 1752 one of
those hostile irruptions, so common among the savages of
this continent, took place between the Outagamis and Mitchi-
gamis, which is thus related by Bossu, a French traveller,
who was in the country at the time : —
" In 1752, the Kahokias met six Outagamis hunting.
They took them prisoners, and burned them. One of the
Outagamis escaped, however, from the stake, and having
returned to his nation, related to them what had been done
to his companions. The chief of the nation called an assem
bly, in which it was resolved to send bundles of rods to mark
the number of warriors and the day of departure to their
allies, the Sioux, Sakis and Kikapoos, who went with the
Outagamis to the number of 1000, to revenge the death of
their brothers who had been burned by the Kahokias. They
embarked in 180 canoes on the river Wisconsin, and de
scending that sfream and the Missisippi, landed near a vil
lage of the Michigamis or Missigamis, below the Fort of
Kahokia, with which tribe it appears the Kahokias, who had
burned their countrymen, were domesticated. The com
mander of the aUied invaders ordered ten or twelve of the
best runners to throw themselves into the village, which was
immediately done. They fell upon the enemy's viUage, and
kiUed all they met, sounding the death dry, and having dis
charged their arms fled with great speed. The Missigamis
pursued. The Outagamis and their allies lying concealed in
the taU grass, discharged their arrows at the approaching foe,
by which twenty-eight were killed, and immediately fell upon
the viUage, and kiUed men, women, and children, set fire to
the village, and led away captives those who were not slaugh
tered. This battle took place on the 6th of June, 1752.
The Outagamis lost four men : the Missigamis, in kiUed and

92 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
prisoners, about eighty. The allies, content with their re
venge, re-embarked with their prisoners, and returned to their
own country. — Bossu, i., p. 129, et seq.
In 1762, France, by a secret treaty, ceded Louisiana to
Spain, to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Eng
lish, with Canada, which it now became manifest must
become the property of the latter nation by conquest, and
which was actually given up to the English in the following
year (1763), by the treaty of Paris. Twenty years after
ward, by the treaty of peace between England and the United
States, that part of Canada lying south and west of the great
lakes, and comprehending a large territory which is the sub
ject of these sketches, was acknowledged to be a portion
of the United States ; and twenty years still later (in 1803),
Louisiana was ceded by Spain back to France, and by France
sold to the United States.
In 1763, Mr. Laclede, who, in the preceding year, had
received a charter to trade with the Indians, from the French
governor at New Orleans, ascended the river, leaving New
Orleans in August, and, on the third of November, arrived at
St. Genevieve ; and, in the following spring, with thirty
others, on account of insufficient accommodation at St. Gene
vieve, passed over the river to Fort Chartres, a post esta
blished by the French in 1732.
In the half century from the building of the fort of Creve-
cceUr, 1680, up to the period of that of Fort Chartres, many
French settlements had been made in that quarter. The
principal were St. Vincent's, on the Wabash, and Kaskaskia,
Kahokia, and Prairie du Rocher, on the American Bottom, a
large tract of river aUuvion in lUinois, on the Missisippi,
opposite to St. Louis. But here, being informed that all the
Illinois had been given up to Great Britain, they crossed the
river, and established themselves at St. Louis, on the right

HISTORY. 93
bank. Many of the French in the settlement just named
followed them, others went to New Orleans, and those places
became nearly abandoned. — Nic, pp. 75, 77.
Some of these people, however, especially those from
Fort Chartres and Prairie du Rocher, who went to New
Orleans, finding Louisiana transferred to Spain, returned to
Illinois.— 16., 79.
One of the most remarkable occurrences belonging to the
history of the Upper Missisippi happened at this period,
in consequence of the change of dominion over the Illinois
country. The Indians, having become attached to the
French, refused to acknowledge the sway of the power to
whom the latter had surrendered the country. This event
is thus related by Nicollet : —
" In the meanwhile, the second year after the treaty of
peace had elapsed, and the British had not yet been able to
take possession of Illinois. This was owing to the opposi
tion made by several Indian tribes, who, as alluded to above,
had refused to abide by the treaty, and were waging a most
cruel war against the British. These tribes had formed a
confederacy, under the command of Pontiac, a bold warrior,
who had already become celebrated for his prowess, and his
devoted attachment to France during the whole of the war
which the latter had carried on against Great Britain in
America. The confederated Indian army was composed of
Hurons, Miamis, Chippeways, Ottawas, Pottawatomies,
Missourias, &c. The name of Pontiac was the terror of the
whole region of the lakes ; and, by his bands, he effectually
interrupted the British intercourse with the rest of the nations
that had remained friendly to that govemment. The taking
of Fort MichUimackinac, the attempt at Detroit, and the
attack upon ther schooner Gladwin, on Lake Michigan, are

94 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
memorable events, evincing a spirit of cunning and daring
highly characteristic of the genius of the red man.
" In the winter of 1764-65, Pontiac, whUst engaged in his
acts of depredation, learned that an armed British force was
about to start from New Orleans, to take possession ot the
left bank of the Missisippi. He immediately proceeded to
the neighborhood of Fort Chartres, accompanied by four
hundred warriors, to oppose this occupation of the country ;
and, finding there some Illinois Indians who had placed
themselves under the protection of the French garrison, he
proposed to them to join him. But these people, disheartened
by recent calamities, and, as it were, foredoomed to a final
extinction, were unwilling to assume a hostile attitude
towards their new rulers, from whom interest, if not gene
rosity, would lead them to expect the same protection which
they were then receiving. To this refusal, Pontiac replied
with characteristic energy : ' Hesitate not, or I will destroy
you with the same rapidity that fire destroys the grass of the
prairie. Listen, and recollect that these are Pontiac's words.'
Having then despatched scouts upon the Missisippi and the
Ohio, he hastened with some of his warriors to Fort Char
tres." — Nic, p. 80.
He here had an interview with the French commander,
professed his friendship for the French, and offered his ser
vices in resisting the EngUsh in attempting to take possession
of the country. His offers were rejected, of course ; and,
after a short time, he returned to the north, made peace with
the British, and received a pension from them. — lb., p. 81.
Pontiac afterward resided at St. Louis ; and, on a visit
to the Kaskaskia Indians, was make drunk, and, whUe ir. that
state, was murdered by a Kaskaskia Indian, hired, it is said,
by an EngUshman, named WUliamson. This murder roused
the vengeance of his friends, and brought on wars which

HISTORY. 95
resulted in the almost total extinction of the lUinois nations,
—Nic, 81, 82.
Pontiac was a remarkably good-looking man ; nice in
his person, and distinguished by taste in his dress. His
complexion was very light, approaching that of the whites.
His origin is uncertain. Some suppose him to have been an
Ottawa, others a Miami ; but, on the best authority, he is
stated to have been a Nipissing. — lb., p. 82.
The rapid extermination of the Illinois nations of Indians
affords a vivid illustration of the warlike tastes, the litigious
disposition, and of the habits of the northern Indians, as well
as a sad moral lesson on the decay and extinction of races and
nations. At the time when La Sale undertook his great project of
the discovery of the Missisippi, in 1679, the Illinois were a
populous and powerful nation. They had, at that time, suf
fered greatly in the recent and long-continued warfare with
their eastern neighbors, the Iroquois, which had not yet
terminated. The accounts given at that time represented
that one village on the Illinois river contained, conjecturally,
ten thousand. Charlevoix mentions only four bands : the
Tamaroas, at the mouth of the Missouri ; the Moingonas,
at the Des Moins River, as now called ; the Kaskaskias and
Kaokias, upon and south of the Illinois river. The Michi
gamis and Peorias were, no doubt (certainly the first), of this
nation ; but whether distinct tribes, or divisions of one or more
of the other tribes, may be doubtful. The desolating war of
the Iroquois gave a severe shock to the Illinois, from which they
never recovered. About seventy years after this period, the
combined forces of the Sauks, Foxes, Sioux, and Kickapoos,
in 1752, made a descent by the river, as aheady related, upon
a viUage of the Missigamis, and killed a large number ; and,
a few years afterward, the murder of Pontiac, a renowned

96 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
chief of one of the northern tribes, who appear generally to
have acted in concert, by a Kaskaskia, aroused a vengeance
of those aUies, which was unappeased till scarcely the vestige
of this great nation remained. Thus, about a century of
savage war exterminated one of the most numerous nations
on that part of the continent. At this day, the Kaskaskias
and Peorias number, conjointly, about one hundred and fifty
persons, which is all that is now to be found of the Illinois
nation. It is true that the tribes are not always extinct when
the name is lost, and it is quite probable that many hundreds
might have escaped the general destruction, who became
adopted by their vanquishers, or united with other tribes.
These associations are customary among all the Indians ;
and instances are very common both of a union with other
friendly bands, and of adoption of prisoners of war.
On the right bank of the river, at the period of the found
ing of St. Louis, there were no Indians at that place nor in
the whole extent of country south of what is now the south
ern line of the State. Thus, at the conclusion of the wars
following the death of Pontiac, except a portion of the Peoria
tribe, who had survived those wars, and who were finally ex
tirpated by the Sacs and Foxes in the beginning of the present
century, the southern portions of the country now forming
Illinois and Missouri, or that below the Illinois and Missouri
Rivers, was uninhabited, except by the few French and those
who held the military posts for the English Government.
Carondelet, sometimes called familiarly Vide poches, was
settled in 1767. In 1769, Blanchette, the hunter, built his
cabin on the bank of the Missouri, the first building of the
vUlage now called St. Charles. At the same period Floris
sant and Portage des Sioux were first inhabited.
In 1780,* a party of British and Indians made an attack
• NicoUet, p. 84.

HISTORY. 97
upon St. Louis, and attempted to take possession of it, in
consequence of the friendly disposition of Spain to the re
volted colonies. There were but 150 males in the place,
whUe their invaders numbered, according to the various state
ments, from 900 to 1,500. The inhabitants of both sexes,
the women taking a part in the battle, made such a vigorous
resistance that the assailants were compelled to retire, after
revenging themselves by the death of sixty and the captivity
of thirteen of the inhabitants, who were outside of the pali
sades. In 1785, called the year of the great flood, the Missisippi
rose fifteen or twenty feet higher at St. Louis than ever before
known, and at some narrow points on the river, thirty feet.
The villages of St. Genevieve, Fort Chartres, Kaskaskia, St.
Philippe, and Kahoka were totally submerged. St. Gene
vieve was at that time situated on a bottom prairie, that has
since been entirely washed away.
The winter of 1799 was distinguished for its extreme
cold : as had been also the year 1768.
In 1778 a body of Virginia militia, under command of Gen.
George Rogers Clarke, made an incursion into the Illinois
country, then in possession of the British, and captured Fort
Chartres, Kaskaskia, and other neighboring posts on the Missi
sippi ; and St. Vincent's on the Wabash, now known as Vin-
cennes. In the same year the country was organized as a
county, by the Legislature of Virginia, called Illinois County.
It was subsequently ceded by Virginia to the United States,
and in 1787 made a part of the Terrftory Northwest of the
Ohio River. In 1800, on the establishment of a separate
terrftorial government in Indiana, it was included in that gov
emment, having, at that period, about 3,000 inhabitants.
In 1803 the United States, by treaty dated AprU 30th, ac
quired of France the whole of the vast and beautiful country
6

98 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
knovra as Louisiana, with the same extent that it formerly
had in the hands of France, and that, at the date of the treaty,
it had in the hands of Spain.
By act of Congress, of 31st October in the same year, the
President of the United States was empowered to take pos
session of the countr;^ ceded, and provision was made for
the temporary government thereof.
By act of March 26th, 1804, the country was divided into
two territories. The southem was called Orleans, and em
braced the country east of the Missisippi River and south of
the Territory of Missisippi, and west to the westem limit of
the purchase. The northem portion, being all the remainder
of the country that was purchased by the treaty, was annexed
to Indiana as a district by the name of Louisiana. Indiana
had been erected into a Territorial Government by act of May
7th, 1800, to take effect on the 4th July following: with all
the rights and privileges which, by the ordinance of 1787,
for the govemment of the Territory Northwest of the Ohio,
had been secured to the settlers of the northwest. The act
of 1804, which annexed Louisiana to Indiana, extended these
rights and privileges to that district. The executive power,
which was vested in the Governor of Indiana, was extended
to the district. The Governor and judges of Indiana were
empowered " to establish in the said District of Louisiana
inferior courts, and prescribe their jurisdiction and duties ;
and to make all laws which they may deem conducive to the
good government of the inhabitants thereof :" provided, that
no law shall be valid which is inconsistent with the consti
tution and laws of the United States, or which shall lay any
person under restraint or disability on account of his religious
opinions, profession, or worship, in all of which he shaU be
free to maintain his own, and not be burdened for those of
ay.other," (Sec, 12.) And it was provided, by sec. 13, that

HISTORY. 99
" the laws in force in the said District of Louisiana at the
commencement of this act, and not inconsistent with any of
the provisions thereof, shall continue in force until altered,
modified, or repealed by the Governor and judges of the In
diana territory as aforesaid." The laws in force at the date
of the act were those in force at the time of the cession, and
prior thereto, under the governments of France and Spain.
This was the body of law known as the civil law, — and the
District of Louisiana thus presented the anomaly in law of
the common law engrafted upon the civil. These laws, it is
believed, have not been repealed ; but, by the oversight, pro
bably of the judges and advocates in the courts, no notice
has been taken of them, and they have fallen into oblivion,
and at this day would perhaps be considered as obsolete.
The whole of Upper Louisiana now stands in this singular
condition of a country, in which those laws that were not
only her birthright, but were expressly saved to her by statute
when the common law was added to her code, have become
obsolete and lost by the prevalence of the common law, under
the administration of judges and practice of courts that were
unacquainted with the civil law, and through inadvertence
did not consider the force of the statute by which the older
was retained.
In 1809 a separate government was established over the
Territory, now State, of Illinois, consisting of a governor and
judges, who jointly exercised the legislative functions. At
that time it contained about 12,000 inhabitants. In 1812, it
was aUowed a legislature and a delegate in Congress. In
1818 the State Constitution was adopted, and lUinois was
admitted into the Union.
At the period of the hostilities between this country and
Great Britain, which began in the year 1812, our government
had estabUshed a mUitary post, and erected a fort, at Chica-

100 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
go. This was feebly garrisoned for a short time in the sum
mer of that year. On the 15th of August, 1812, Capt,
Heald, in command of this post, having received orders to
that effect, prepared to evacuate the fort and to proceed to
Detroit by land. Having destroyed that portion of the arms
and ammunition that would not be necessary to his march,
and could not be conveniently transported, he commenced
his march with fifty-four regulars and twelve mUitia, and
accompanied by an escort from Fort Wayne, and a few
friendly Miamis. The women and children accompanied the
expedition. The party had proceeded only a little over a
mile, when they were attacked by a body of hostile Indians.
The friendly Indians stood aloof, and Capt. Heald, after a
short skirmish, in which all the militia and twenty-six regu
lars were killed, surrendered on a promise of protection by
one of the chiefs. The Indian force amounted to 500, their
loss in the battle was fifteen.
At the outbreak of hostilities, the Sac and Fox Indians
resided at the country about the mouth of Rock River.
They were induced to join the English, and operate with
them and their other red allies against the United States.
They were present at one or two skirmishes in the neighbor
hood of the lake, and it is believed that they composed the
force, or a part of it, of the attacking party at Chicago. I
think this is asserted in a narration of the wars of that tribe,
pubUshed some years since. But being disgusted, it is said,
with the barbarous atrocities of the allied English and red
men, they, in a very short time, abandoned the cause, and
returned to their country, where they remained quiet during
the war.
In 1815, the several tribes of Indians inhabiting the north
west, who had been drawn into hostUities with the United
States, by the wiles and gratuities of Great Britain, made

HISTORY. 101
treaties of peace and friendship. The Potawatamis of the
river lUinois, the Kickapoos, the lowas, the Tetons, the
Sioux of the lakes, the Sioux of the river St. Peter's, the
Piankeshaws, the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatamis, with
bands of the Wyandot, Delaware, Seneca, Shawnee and
Miami tribes, all of which eight tribes and bands united in
one treaty ; the Yanktons, the Sacs of the Missouri, the
Foxes, the Osages, the Kanzas, the Mahas, each came into
treaties of amity. The Sacs, of Rock River, were invited
by the Commissioners on the part of the United States to
enter into treaty at the same time : they declined it at this
time, but in the succeeding year, in 1816, they signed arti
cles of a treaty of peace and friendship ; and in the same
year three other tribes of the Sioux, who are designated as
the Sioux of the Leaf, the Sioux of the Broad Leaf, and the
Sioux who shoot in the pine tops, also the Winnebagoes of
Wisconsin River, and in 1817, the Menominis, Ottos, and
Poncaras or Puncas. In 1819, similar treaties were made
with the Pani Mahas, the Pitavirate or Noisy Panis, the
Pani Republic, and the Grand Panis.
In 1816, the united tribes of Ottawas, Chippewas and
Potawatamis, residing on the Illinois and Milwaki Rivers,
and the southwestern parts of Lake Michigan, relinquished
their right to the lands ceded by the Sacs and Foxes in 1804,
lying south of a due west line from the southern extremity
of Lake Michigan to the Missisippi, and also ceded a trad
beginning on the left bank of the Fox River of lUinois, ten
miles above the mouth of said Fox River, and extending to
Lake Michigan, lying on both sides of the Des Plaines
about equally, and in its whole width twenty mUes.
In 1818 Illinois was admitted into the Uiuon as a State,
and Missouri in 1821.
After the organization of the state government in Illinois,

102 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
the population increased rapidly, and pressed upon the
Indian terrftories and settlements. Jealousies arose, aggres
sions took place, irritations were created, on both sides. In
1827, the Indians attacked two keel-boats which were traps-
porting military stores to Fort Snelling, and killed two of their
men, and wounded others. General Atkinson, thereupon,
marched into the Winnebago country, and brought in Red
Bird, a chief, and six others, who were held in confinement
for trial. Red Bird died in prison. The others were tried,
and a part of them convicted, and executed in December,
1828. Black Hawk, a Sac chief, whose Indian name was
Muckatai-mishakiahkiah, was one of those imprisoned, but
he was acquitted for want of proof. It is said that he after
ward confessed his participation. His long imprisonment
increased his former irritation. It had inflicted a rankling
wound, which the blood of the Americans alone could cure.
In 1830, a treaty was made by the Sacs and Foxes, and other
tribes, with the American government, in which they ceded
all their lands east of the Missisippi. Black Hawk dissented,
refused to leave the ceded country, and was supported by a
party of the Sacs. Having received personal abuse and
kisult, it is said, from the whites, instigated by his opposition
to the treaty, and a desire to retain his old home ; irritated by
personal indignities, and being promised the aid of the Chip
pewas, Ottawas, Potawatamis, and Winnebagoes, and in
formed, also, that the British were ready to help him, he
commenced hostUities. Previously, however, it is said, he
proposed a compromise with Keokuk, the head of the treaty
party, and offered to give up the mineral region on the pro
mise of Keokuk that he would endeavor to have the Rock
River peninsula, where they had long resided and cultivated,
and where they had buried their fathers, restored to them.
In expectation that this arrangement would be made, they

HISTORY. 103
-went on their winter hunt in 1830 ; and on their return, in
the spring of 1831, found their village and country in posses
sion of the whites. On the appearance of the Umted States
troops. Black Hawk and party, who had previously refused
to leave their lands, fled across the river. In 1832, they
re-crossed, when a brigade of one thousand mounted volun
teers was organized, armed, and equipped, and immediately
marched to Rock Island, where they found General Atkinson,
with four hundred regulars and a small body of miUtia.
General Whitesides, the commander of the volunteer corps,
marched up Rock River, and burned the prophet's town, a
village of the Indians ; and this must be considered the com
mencement of formal hostilities. Upon Rock River they
found another small band of volunteers, under Major Still-
man. This last band, having undertaken a scouting expedi
tion to the distance of thirty miles north of Dixon's Ferry,
unexpectedly met a party of Black Hawk's men in ambush,
and immediately took to a precipitate and disorderly flight.
Their commander ordered them to retreat to the high ground
and make a stand ; but so terror-stricken were they, that they
forgot the latter part of their order till they had reached their
head-quarters at the river. This rout still furnishes the sub
ject of many a quip and piece of merriment at the expense
of those who were engaged. It is supposed the Indian force
was about seventy. This was on the 14th of May. On
the 24th of June, a party of the militia, said to be about one
hundred and fifty, on their march to Galena, were met by a
superior number of Indians, about two hundred, and, after
a severe contest, retired into their blockhouse. On the 21st
of July, a general engagement took place, near the Wiscon
sin, between General Henry's brigade of militia and' the
whole Sac force. Black Hawk was driven from the field,
leaving sixty-two of his men dead. General Henry's brigade

104 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
went in pursuft, and, on the next day, reached the Blue
Mounds ; and being rejoined by General Atkinson and the
regular troops, and the other brigades, the whole force arrived
at Helena, on the Wisconsin, on the 26th. On the 2d of
August they overtook Black Hawk near the Bad Axe, and again
defeated him in a decisive action. The American force con
sisted of four hundred regulars and parts of Henry's, Posey's
and Alexander's brigades of militia, in the whole 1300 men.
General Atkinson, in his account of these engagements,
states that the Indian loss, in both, was three hundred. He
returns only eighteen killed, and four wounded, of his own
men, at Bad Axe ; and states the Indian loss at one hundred
and fifty killed, and thirty-five captured. Black Hawk him
self escaped ; but, about three weeks afterward, was brought
into the camp a prisoner by some Winnebagoes. Thus
ended the three months' movement, commonly called the
Black Hawk war. It was succeeded immediately by a ces
sion of a strip of country on the west of the Missisippi, fifty
miles wide, extending north from Missouri to the neutral
ground, in a treaty concluded by General Scott in September
of the same year ; and, in the summer of 1833, the settlement
of Iowa by the white man was commenced. Two small
strips were successively purchased in 1836 and 1837 ; and,
in 1842, a vast tract, estimated to contain about 23,000 square
miles, or 15,000,000 acres, centrally situated between the
two great rivers, was added to the former purchases.
On the 1st of August, 1829, by a treaty with the Winne
bagoes, the United States acquired a large tract, beginning at
the mouth of the Pee-keetanon, or Pectanon, and following
up that river and the Sugar Creek branch, and across north
wardly to Fox River, and down the Wisconsin to the mouth,
and southerly from thence to Rock River, at a point forty
miles from its mouth, and up that river to Pectanon. A large

HISTORY. 105
and valuable tract of about one hundred miles, north and
south ; and, on its greatest extent, east and west, about the
same, being 6000 or 7000 square mUes.
And, on the 29th of July, same year, another large tract,
between Rock River and Lake Michigan, and a strip on the
Missisippi, from Rock River to the reservation on the Wis
consin, was ceded by the Chippewas, Ottawas, and Pota
watamis, which cessions included nearly all the land between
Lake Michigan and the Missisippi, and between Rock River
and Wisconsin.
By a treaty, made the 15th of July, 1830, a tract of twenty
miles in width, extending from the Missisippi to the Des
Moines, was ceded by the Sacs and Foxes ; and another
similar tract adjoining it on the north, by the Sioux. Its
southem line, on the Missisippi, is near the Wisconsin.
On the 8th of February, 1831, the Menominis ceded a tract
lying between Winnebago Lake, Fox River, and Green Bay,
on the north, and Milwake River, south, and Lake Michigan,
east. And in October, 1832, the Potawatamis ceded their
land lying between Chicago River and Kanakee, and the
Fox of Illinois.
In September, 1832, the Winnebagoes ceded the land lying
on the west of the Rock River, above the Pectanon branch,
to Lake Puckaway, and bounded west by their cession of
August, 1829.
In 1836, Michigan was made a sovereign state, and
admitted into the Union. A new territorial govemment was,
at the same time, organized over Wisconsin, which included
aU the Black Hawk purchase, and extended west to the Mis
souri River. In 1838, a new territorial government was
established over that portion of Wisconsin which lay west of
the Missisippi, called Iowa. In the five years intermediate
between the departure of the Sacs and Foxes, in the summer
6-*

106 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
of 1833, and the establishment of the territorial government
in 1838, the Black Hawk Purchase had gathered a white
population of 22,000. In 1840, at the taking of the census,
in June, ft contained 43,000. It is supposed that the usual
annual increase by emigration since that time has been about
the same, or something near ten thousand yearly ; and, with
a sufficient allowance for an augmented natural increase, in
proportion to the greatly augmented basis, the whole yearly
addition to the population cannot be less than 12,000, or, for
the six years, to June, 1846, 72,000 ; which, added to the
43,000, makes the whole 115,000. This is beUeved to be
under the true amount, as, in 1843, and the spring of 1846,
an unusual impulse was given to emigration by the acquisi
tion of new territory, and the allowance for natural increase
is made very small. It is more probable that the whole
a:ctual population at this time (July 4, 1846) is 150,000.
Wisconsin, as constituted by the division into two terri
tories, had, at that time, July, 1838, 21,000 inhabitants. By
the census of 1840, it had 34,000. Its increase in the two
intermediate years had been much less than that of Iowa, but
in some subsequent periods it has been very great; and it
contains, by a recent census, about 160,000. The least total
amount that can be assigned to the two territories is little
more than 300,000, at this time.
Acts have passed Congress, in June and August, 1846, for
admitting both territories into the Union with the attributes
of sovereignty. They will probably be adopted by the peo
ple ; and, in the present year, two new and bright stars will
be added to the Union.
At the moment that Congress was acting upon the admis
sion of Iowa and Wisconsin into the Union, a treaty was in
progress, and is now completed, by which the Potawatamis
have ceded their lands lying east of the Missisippi, Missouri,

HISTORY. 107
and between the Sioux and the Missouri State north line. The
tract contains 6000 or 7000 square miles. The Indians
have stipulated to remove in two years. By this cession, the
Indian title has become extinct in the whole tract between the
Missisippi and Missouri Rivers. The Sioux hold a strip on
the northem frontier of the new state, which is the only
Indian country, except the neutral ground, now within the
limits fixed by Congress for the State boundary.
The authorities relied upon for the foregoing statements are, Gabriel
Sagard, Hennepin, Lahontan, Charlevoix, Histoire Gen. des Voyages,
Paris, 1757 ; Bossu, Lockman, Churchill, Heriot's Hist. Canada, Pike,
Schoolcraft, Nicollet, Long, Laws of Congress, Public Documents, &c.

Population — Political System — Civil Divisions —
Municipalities — Topography.
The population of this region, at the present time, exceeds
by computation, 750,000;* viz. — in lUinois, north of the
IlUnois River, about 240,000; in Missouri, north of the
Missouri River, about 240,000 ; in Wisconsin, about 160,-
000; in Iowa, probably exceeding 120,000. This multi
tude has nearly all been planted on the territory within
twenty years, mostly indeed within fifteen, excepting a few
scattered settlers on the Illinois and Missisippi and Missouri
Rivers. Galena was settled in 1828. They are from all
States of the Union, from Germany, Ireland, England, Scot
land and Canada. There are a considerable number of
Franco-American families from Canada and from the early
French colonies in the Missisippi valley ; and it is as com
mon to hear a certain uncouth French dialect, kno-wn in that
country under the name of Gumbo French (a term applied
both to the people and the dialect), jabbered in the streets of
* By the census of 1840, Northern Missouri contained 160,821 ; Northern
Illinois, including counties that lay across the Illinois River, 160,755;
Iowa, 43,000 ; "Wisconsin, 30,000 ; total 393,000. I have added 50 per
cent, to Missouri and Illinois. Iowa has increased at the rate of about
12,000 per year, which would be 115,000. -Wisconsin, by a census just
taken, is found to have 155,000, and three counties not returned.

110 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
Dubuque, as it is to hear EngUsh spoken there. The greater
part of this population between Illinois and Rock Rivers,
and between the Missouri and Iowa Rivers, comprising a
district of some two hundred miles in width from north to
south, in the centre, but narrowing toward the extremities, is
from the Ohio Valley and the South. Peimsylvania and
Virginia, west of the AUeghany, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana,
Tennessee and North Carolina, have sent their colonists to
these latitudes. North of these lines the larger portion is
from the Northem States, east of the mountains, and from
Europe. They are, many of them, men who have not
derived much knowledge from education, but have been
schooled only in the world, and learned in the knowledge of
men. They have shaken hands with privations and hard
ships, and with luxury have but little acquaintance. There
are, however, many well informed, of the softer as weU as
of the rougher sex, living in the homeliest style of rustic life.
Iowa is divided into 39 Counties, 25 of which are orga
nized, — and into townships of greater or less extent accord
ing to population, but generally comprehending more than
one geographical to-wnship, into which the whole country is
first divided by the govemment surveys. Other portions,
where the population is concentrated at particular points, are
incorporated into towns or cities. Between these two last,
there is very little difference in substance, if any. The mu
nicipal authorities have in each very similar powers. In the
towns, affairs are managed by a single board called trustees,
and in the other, in the more usual form of Mayor and Alder
men. In either case the municipal government has the
power to assess and levy the taxes, to ordain the by-laws, and
to appoint the officers. In the townships, as politically
established, the government is in the hands of inspectors.
But even in these smaUer depositories of power the differ-

political system. Ill
ence consists more in the actual exercise than in legal grada
tion. The power to be exerted is little else than appointment
of minor officers. Those little democracies, erected in some
of the States under the name of towns, where all the powers
of the local govemment are exercised by a vote of the peo
ple, are wholly unknown here.
Lee county is situated in the point between the Rivers
Missisippi and Des Moines. It is very thickly populated,
notwithstanding a large portion of its lands were reserved to
the Half Breeds of the Sac and Fox Indians, and there was
consequently a difficulty in obtaining title. This difficulty
has been overcome by purchase and partition, and the settlers
now are owners of the soil. The Des Moines Rapids ex
tend over a greater part of the Missisippi boundary, upon
which are situated several towns which promise to be among
the flourishing places of the State. Keokuck is below the
rapids. It is seated on the bluff, which here comes quite
to the river, and by its steep and high ascent, makes a very
inconvenient site for a town. But the advantage of its situa
tion overcomes this unkindness of its topographical charac
ter, and being at the mouth of the Des Moines, and at the
foot of the lower rapids, at the point where both the obstruc
tions of rock and ice begin, and having a good landing, it
must of necessity have both a rapid and a solid progress.
Nashville, on the rapids, has a better situation, though this
also is built on rather a steep ascent. Montrose, at the head
of the rapids, the site of old Fort Des Moines, is situated on
a low ground, in a wide part of the river opposite the Mor
mon towm, Nauvoo. Here there is a broad and handsome
plat sufficient for a large city. The town has a very slow
progress, and will not keep pace with some others on the
river. Fort Madison is the most populous town in the coun
ty, situated about twelve miles above the head of the rapids.

112 notes on the northwest.
on the Missisippi, on one of the finest town sftes in that part
of the river. It is an elevated bank, twenty feet or more above
the water mark, forming nearly a level of sufficient extent for
a city of the largest class. Its soU is sandy, and from its
relations with the river must be very healthy. It has at pre
sent, by estimation, from twelve to fifteen hundred inhabitants.
There are some interior flourishing villages in this county.
Des Moines is next on the river, extending from the Che-
kakwe or Checaqua River, nearly to the Iowa. Its river
boundary is not so good as that of Lee county, the bank
being, for the greater part, a low bottom, and presenting only
one favorable site for a town, which is at the mouth of
Shokokon or Flint Creek, at a bluff called by the Indians,
Shokokon, from the abundance of chert found on the surface,
and by the Whites, Flint Hills. The Indian appellation or
mineral feature to which it was owing, should haye furnished
a name to the modern town : and Chertburg, or Shokokon,
would have as good sound, and more sense, than the thread
bare Burlington. The place is partly on the irregular edge
of a bluff, and partly on a low bottom, being an inconvenient
place for a town ; but having had a great impulsion at first
from the location of the land sales there, and the temporary-
seat of government also, it made a progress, which, backed
by a . very populous interior behind it, and having a good
landing, has been more rapid than any other place, and it is
now beyond all other towns in the Territory in population, in
trade, in prosperity and wealth. The number of its inhabit
ants is exceeding two thousand. The county of Des Moines
is the third in population, Van Buren and Lee being first and
second. The three counties have probably not much less
than 40,000 inhabitants, which is very nearly equally divided.
The land of Des Moines county is good ; there being little
difference in quality throughout this Territory. Being, how-

TOPOGRAPHY. 113
ever, of rather a large proportion of clay, and of rather a
level surface, it is not ready for the plough so early as some
lands further north. Augusta is a small village on Skunk
River, about eight or ten miles from Burlington. New Lon
don, Franklin, and other small villages, are scattered upon
the prairie, in this county.
Louisa is a very small county on the river, next above
Des Moines. Wapello, on the Iowa River, is the capi
tal. It has two or three other small villages, but is prin
cipally remarkable for having formerly had an Indian town,
the residence of Black Hawk, within it, and the river
Iowa running through it. A part of the large island, caUed
by the Indians Mascotin (Prairie Island), is in this coun
ty. The word, by a natural metamorphosis, has been
called by the French Muscodin and Muscatine, and under
that change has given name to the slough or branch of the
river that divides it from the main, and to the county at its
upper end, adjoining Louisa. This island presents a singu
lar feature in the topography of this part of the river. It is
nearly twenty miles from north to south, and about half of
that extent in the other direction, and is a bottom prairie, but
little elevated above the river, and nearly a mechanical level.
It is made by a small portion of the river which passes
around it, joining the main stream again, after a course of
twenty-five or thirty miles, a short distance above the Iowa
River mouth. The upper end of the island is about twenty-
five miles below the mouth of Rock River, and nearly the
same above the mouth of Iowa.
Muscatine county, beginning on the island, and extending
some sixteen or eighteen miles above it, is well watered, hav
ing the Red Cedar traversing it from north to south, at ten or
twelve miles from the Missisippi, in nearly a parallel direc
tion, and the Wapsinonoc Creek farther west, a tributary of

114 notes on the NORTHWEST.
Cedar. This is a- well settled county. North of the Iowa
River the soil loses some of its alumine, with which it was
rather surcharged in Des Moines, and becomes more mellow
by an admixture of sand, which is probably silico-cretaceous.
The surface also becomes more undulating, and the union of
these two conditions overcomes a degree, more or less, of
latitude, and the season for beginning cultivation is, there
fore, about the same in this distance. Apart from this con
sideration, I think the change is for the better in regard to
fertility, and that the tract of country between the Iowa and
the Maquoketa, or Makwaketa, is perhaps rather the best on
the river in this point. It is, however, inferior in another,
hardly of less importance to the farmer, that is, in the quantity
of timber. With this article the region now under our obser
vation is rather scantily supplied. Bloomington is the county
seat of Muscatine county. There are a few small villages
beside, Moscow on the Cedar, and Salem and Wyoming on the
Missisippi. The City of EUenborough, a mere embryo with a
sounding name and a most ample charter, has been projected,
and having a good site, may at some day exchange its em
bryo for an actual existence. Bloomington is a place of
much business. It has one of the best positions, geographi
caUy, in the territory, and is one of the most important
towns. Its population probably is nearly 1500. It has the
disadvantage of a bad site, both local and relative, it being
on a steep bluff, and in the immediate vicinity of Mascotin
Island and Slough above mentioned, which last is apt to be
a cause of disease.
The region above Muscatine county, as far as Maquoketa
River, including Scott and Clinton counties, and part of
Jackson, is very scantily supplied with timber. It is highly
fertile, however, and a handsome country. The banlcs of the
river, on both sides, from Bloomington to the Wabesepinecofl,

TOPOGRAPHY. 115
are the most beautiful on the River from the mouth to this
point; and on the west side, the whole line, for a distance of
nearly forty miles, from Bloomington to Spencer's Creek,
would make one continuous city site. Davenport, in Scott
county, about thirty mUes above Bloomington, is on a most
beautiful inclined plane, almost of a mathematical exactness,
of a very slight inclination, only sufficient to be perceived by
the eye, and to shed the waters. It is sufficiently sandy to
become dry immediately after a rain. This plane extends back
about half a mile, from the river to the bluff. The banks
on both sides are high and dry ; and immediately fronting
Davenport is the town of Rock Island on the Illinois side.
The river is little more than half a mile wide. Immediately
above the two towns is the island of Rock Island, having a
rock foundation : a very unusual character, the islands gene
raUy, in this river, being aUuvial. The scenery at this point
is very beautiful — said to excel, in this particular, any spot
below Lake Pepin.
Some individuals have taken advantage of the division of
the river into two streams, at this point, to appropriate the
narrow portion passing between the Island and the lUinois shore
to milUng purposes. By ranning a dam across at the head
of the island — ^which, by reason of the very little depth of
the water, and a rock bottom, they were able to do at a very
trifUng expense — ^they have avaUed of this immense body of
water, being about one-third of the whole volume of the river,
and with a head of five feet. Beside this, there are several
other points upon these rapids, where equal advantage may
be made of the river in this way. And at a time not remote,
this wiU become a principal grain market for the country
around, and a place of great industrial activity. Rockingham
is a smaU viUage four miles below Davenport, opposite the
mouth of the Rock River. At the purchase of the terrftory

116 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
by our government, the Indians reserved a tract of one mile
square at the head of the rapids, and a similar tract at the
foot, for Mr. Antoine Leclaire their interpreter. On the lower
reservation is the town of Davenport, and it is intended to
have another town on the upper tract. Adjoining the upper
reservation, above it, is the little village of Berlin. Fifteen
miles further up the stream is another, Camanche. This last
is in Clinton county. Fifteen miles to the west of this last
a town has been laid out for the county seat of the county.
It is called De Witt. The site is in a handsome prairie,
having groves upon three sides, at a distance of from one to
three miles, and to the northward open to a much greater
distance. There are many eligible spots for settlement in
this as well as in Scott and all the northern river counties.
The settlements have been made lower on the stream, and
have progressed westward a hundred miles from the river,
while these fine lands have been passed over from a dislike
to go so far north, — a very insufficient consideration to place
in the balance against contiguity to the river ; which, furnish
ing a great channel for transportation, must always make a
difference in the price of produce in the river counties by no
means to be overlooked : while the difference in temperature
is so slight that neither man nor beast is sensible of it, and
the feeding season would not be more than a week or two,
at most, longer in these counties than in the lower counties of
the territory. Lyons is a busy little village, well situated on
the river, in this county, about ten miles above Camanche.
At this point begins a change in the topography of the land
adjacent to the river. The road from Lyons to Charleston,
about twenty miles above, in Jackson county, is over a very
rough, broken country, very little of which, in a distance of
three or four mUes from the river, is favorable to cultivation.
It is generally covered with timber. The land, however, at

TOPOGRAPHY. 117
a few mUes back is very good ; and a man who wishes to see
the handsomest timber in the territory, must go to the forks
of the Maquoketa or Makwaketa ; and upon its south fork
are some of the finest prairie and prairie farms. The north
ern part of Jackson county, between this river and Dubuque,
is generally well-timbered and well-watered, and is a very
inviting tract for settlement. This is also one of the best
watered tracts in the territory. Makwaketa River, Tetes des
Morts, Deep, Brash, and Bear Creek, and smaller streams,
drain the country — some of them having fine water power.
Twenty-two miles above Charleston is Bellevue, also in this
county, situated on a fine plateau, well elevated above the
river. Andrew, in the centre of the county, is laid out for
the county seat. Between the Wabesepinicon and Makwa
keta Rivers, is a region furnished very abundantly with iron.
At Bellevue, a striking change takes place in the geological
formation ; the line of the lead mineral commencing here, and
passing up to the northwest through the counties of Dubuque
and part of Cla)rton, and thence east into Wisconsin, defines
perhaps the richest lead deposit in the world. It is of the
kind called Galena, or sulphuret of lead. The river marks
a remarkable division in the character of the " diggings,"
those on the east side being clay " diggings," in which the
mineral is found in the clay, within a few feet of the surface,
while on the west side the miner is obliged to sink his shaft
through the rock more than one hundred feet. It is thought,
however, that the greater abundance of the mineral in the
rock deposit is- more than a counterbalance to the case of
obtaining it in the clay.
Dubuque, situated in a bay of the river, upon a sandy
aUuvion, in the centre of these " diggings," is the second
town in the territory in population and business. The rough
character of the country upon the river bank, which, as

118 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
abeady said, commences near Lyons, continues through this
county, and as far north as the settled parts of the territory.
At the neighborhood of Dubuque, it extends six or seven
miles. Much of the land near the river is unsuited to culti
vation, in consequence of this unevenness of surface. There
is, however, much excellent farming land in this and in Clay
ton county. Some of the Turkey River country is very
handsome. Van Buren county, situated on the Des Moines River,
back of Lee, is the best interior county, and by many is con
sidered the best county in the Territory. It is the most
populous. The lands generally upon this river have been
already mentioned as exceedingly fertile and beautiful.
There is an abundance of good coal here. Keosaqua is the
capital town, situated in the bend, which the Indians call
Keosaqua (or Kebesaqua, as Gen. Pike and Major Marston
have it) peninsula.* There are several other towns in this
county, populous and thriving. The other interior counties
of the old purchase, Henry, Jefferson, Washington, Johnson,
Cedar, Linn, Jones and Delaware, are of as good land as the
front tier. Linn county has been said to excel all the others,
in the more just proportion of timber and prairie land, and in
the greater depth of its soil. These counties contain no to-wns
of consequence, with the exception of Iowa city, the seat of
government for the Territory, which is situated in Johnson
county. This young city is situated on a very beautiful
plateau on the left bank of Iowa River, about eighty miles
from its mouth, by the windings of the stream, though not
much more than half that distance in a direct line, and at the
head of navigation on that river. Small steamboats go up to
* The writer considers the true name to be Kebe-saki, or Kebe-osaki,
the last part of the word meaning island, and the same which is used to
designate the tribe, commonly called Sac.

TOPOGRAPHY. 119
the city two or three times a year. There is here a fine
capitol, erected at a cost of over $100,000, and paid for by
the sales of lots on the section given by Congress for that
purpose. In Jefferson county is the town of Fairfield, in which the
Land Office for the Des Moines Land District is situated.
In Henry county is Mount Pleasant, a handsome town upon
the prairie. This county has also several villages, among
which is Salem, a settlement of Quakers.
The other counties, formed out of the late Indian purchase,
Davis, Appenoose, Wapello, Monroe, Keokuk, Mahaska,
Powesheck, Tama, Marion, Lucas, Polk, Dallas, Jasper,
Wayne, Clark, Story, are of a character similar to those of
the older settlements. The soil throughout has but little
variation ; and with the exception of a few swamps, and a
very small number of sand spots of little extent, the whole
country is susceptible, by the mere upturning of the plough,
with the most careless after-tillage, of being made one garden.
Wapello, Mahaska, Marion and Polk, are situated upon
the Des Moines River, which is already described as contain
ing some of the most fertile and beautiful land in Iowa.
Wisconsin is divided into twenty-four counties. Upon
the lake are Racine, Milwakie, Washington, Sheboyegan,
Manitowoc, and Brown. Grant, Crawford and St. Croix, are
on the Missisippi. The other counties are Iowa, Green,
Walworth, Rock, Jefferson, Dane, Dodge, Portage, Fond du
Lac, Marquette, Calumet, Winnebago, Sauk, Richland and
La Pointe.
Grant county is in the southwest comer of the Territory,
situated in a bend of the Missisippi, which washes it west
and south, and having the Wisconsin on the north, it is
bounded by a water line throughout, except upon the eastem
side. Lying within the mineral tract, it has a very valuable

120 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST. *¦•
deposit of lead ore. The soil is excellent ; but by reason
of the broken and uneven surface, some portions of it are not
well adapted to the plough. It has a fair proportion of tim
ber, and is a well-watered tract. Beside the two principal
boundary rivers, it has the Grant, the Platte, consisting of
two principal branches, one of which is called Little Platte,
uniting about twenty-five miles from the mouth, and other
smaller streams passing through it. Cassville is a small
vUlage on the Missisippi. It has the advantage of a hand
some site, and will probably increase in importance as the
country to the north and east shall become settled. Lead
ore has been found in the vicinity, and the lands behind it
present external indications of containing mineral.
PlatteviUe is a more populous town, and there is a good
business done at it. It has a pleasant interior situation near
the Little Platte River, and is surrounded by a rich mineral
and agricultural region. The Platte and Grant Rivers afford
good water power, but are navigable for a short distance
only. In mere business, PlatteviUe has a rival in Potosi.
In other particulars, especially in what is pleasing to the eye,
PlatteviUe has the advantage. Potosi has a larger popula
tion, is near the Missisippi, and the centre of very profitable
" diggings." There is, in all the mining towns, a mixed
population, the miners, as well as others who follow them for
supplying their wants, and for making a subsistence from
them in various ways, being from all parts of the world, and
some of the last class especially, of rather a " miscellaneous
character." Among the miners there is a good portion of
shrewd men, trae men and enterprising. Potosi is strongl)'-
marked with the characteristics of a mining town. Lancas
ter, a small interior village, on an elevated ridge, is the county
seat. It has around it an inviting agricultural country.
The broken lands of Grant county are, for the most part,

TOPOGRAPHY. 121
on the borders of the Platte and Grant Rivers, and in the
vicinity of the Missisippi. Almost every small stream also
has its romantic bluffs and dales, but the county notwith
standing has advantages, as an agricultural and grazing coun
try, in soil, timber and water, and in its salubrity and its river
borders ; apart from its exhaustless stores of lead ore, which
are from time to time laid bare by the enterprise and industry
of the miners.
The country generally west of the Pectanon (so called by
Long), or, as commonly called by the inhabitants, the Peka-
tonica, and south of the Wisconsin, is rather broken, but
contains many spots highly suited to agriculture. The coun
try, how ever,as a whole, as well as that west of the Missi
sippi, is admirably adapted to grazing. Grant county, just
described, is included in this tract. A portion of Iowa
county is also within it. This is an extensive county,
bounded by the Illinois State line and by the Wisconsin
River, for its south and north boundaries, and is one of great
capabilities. It has an abundance of lead mineral, and cop
per ore also has been found and worked. The eastem part
of the county is a fine agricultural tract ; and the whole
country east of Pekatonica, to the lake, may be said to be a
most delightful and fertile farming region. Mineral Point is
the county seat of Iowa county. It has also the Land Office
for the District, and is a point of much business, rendered so
by the large number of miners engaged in the vicinity, by
the smelting of the mineral, &c.
Iowa county contains a large proportion of prairie, extend
ing, in its southern part, from Green county on the east,
westwardly to Grant county, and in its northern part from
Dane county on the east, along a beautiful dividing ridge,
which extends westwardly into Grant. On this ridge rans
the Umted States road leading from Fort Winnebago to
7

122 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
Prairie Du Chien. The timber in Iowa county is upon the
borders of the Wisconsin and Pekatonica Rivers, and in
beautiful groves scattered here and there upon the surface
of the prairie. In all the prairie country it is expected that
the growth of timber will be increased as settlement pro
gresses, by the exclusion of fires, and the breaking up of
the prairie sod. The lead ore region of this county extends
from the Illinois line north to the Blue Mounds, 36 miles,
underlying the whole county, longitudinally. But a small
part of its mineral lands has yet been opened by the spade
of the miner, and it will be a long time probably before the
richest lodes will be reached. Most of the lead taken in this
county is carried to Galena for shipment to market.
The lead region extends easterly to the waters of Sugar
River, a branch of Pekatonica, about seventy-six miles, geo
metrically, east of the Missisippi at Cassville. With the
change in the geological character of the country, there is
also a modification of its topographical features and scenery.
The surface becomes more even, and gradually assumes the
appearance more decidedly of a plain country.
In the southeastern part of Wisconsin, the proportion of
prairie country is increased, though about the upper banks of
Rock River, Fox of Illinois, and Maple, all of which head
within it, as well as upon the small streams, there is a suffi
ciency of good timber. Racine, the southeastern county,
bounded by the Illinois State line and the lake, contains a
large portion of beautiful and rich prairie with a gently un
dulating surface, which is now dotted with numerous thriv
ing farms. It has two prosperous and growing villages,
Racine and Southport, the former containing more than 2000
inhabitants, the latter nearly that number. The population
is stated upon conjecture, without precise information, as
the gro-yvth of these lake towns has been so rapid, that the

TOPOGRAPHY. 123
ascertained population of one year may be scarcely more than
a moiety of the succeeding. They are the points of landing
for the great mass of emigration by the northem route, and
the quarters, consequently, of a temporary and fluctuating
population, which drifts thence over the whole surface of the
territory, and into Illinois and Iowa. The business of these
towns depends upon the prosperity and increase of the agri
cultural population in the interior.
Milwaukie county is washed on its entire eastem boundary
by Lake Michigan, on which, at the mouth of Milwaukie
River, is situated the city of Milwaukie, which has become
in about ten years from its foundation one of the first class
of towns in the west. The population of the city exceeds
8000, or as some suppose, is not much less than 10,000.
The growth and prosperity of the country may be inferred
from the fact that in 1834 there were but two or three build
ings on the tract which is now covered by the dweUings of
its numerous residents. The country contains a wide tract
of timber land, which lies immediately back of the city, and
is now well peopled with hardy and industrious farmers from
the northern States. The surface of the country is undulat
ing and its soil very good. The eastern portion of this ter
ritory has a great advantage in its connection, by the Lakes,
with the eastern markets, and being in all the essential attri
butes of soil, timber, and water, not inferior to the country
west of the Missisippi, it is a most desirable country for
emigrants. Proceeding north to Green Bay, the country is more tim
bered, and undergoes a radical change of soU. In the neigh
borhood of the Bay the soU is sandy, and following the river
to Fort Winnebago, at the Portage, the country is hilly and
well timbered. Between Green Bay and the Lake is a
northem vegetation of white pine, spruce, birch, &c. Near

124 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
Green Bay are large marshes of wild rice and cranberries,
and near the Wisconsin River, in the western part of the
Territory, are extensive swamps, having an abundant growth
of the latter plant.
The town of Navarino is situated at the head of the Bay,
and Green Bay is the name of a town on the lower shore
near its mouth.
On the north bank of the Wisconsin River, from the
Great Bend near the Fox portage, ranning westwardly nearly
to the Kickapoo, is a range of high, abrupt, thickly-wooded
mountains, a rare feature in the topography of this country.
The interior countries, south of the Fox and Wisconsin,
cover a fine body of farming lands.
Rock county has a very advantageous situation on the
upper waters of the Rock River, and has the requisites de
sired by the farmer of being well watered and timbered.
Among the interesting and inviting features of the interior
counties of Wisconsin are the small lakes found in Dane,
Jefferson, Fond du Lac, and other counties. The shores of
these beautiful reservoirs of limpid waters furnish many
most delightful sites for farms. They are mostly found in
the interior counties immediately south of the Wisconsin
River and east of Sugar River, a branch of the Pekatonica.
In all of them are found excellent fish, the pike of a large
size, catfish, black bass, yellow perch, mullet, &c. A group
of these lakes, four in number, stretch from northwest to
southeast in Dane county, having an outlet in a branch of
Rock River. This group is called The Four Lakes. Madi
son, the present capital of Wisconsin, and seat of justice of
Dane county, is seated on a narrow isthmus, between the
third and fourth lakes north. Proceeding northward from the
southem tier of interior counties, the timber becomes more
abundant.

TOPOGRAPHY. 125
The Blue Mounds, in the northeastern part of Iowa County,
are remarkable elevations, the greatest height being 1,001
feet above the level of the Wisconsin at Arena, in the same
longitude, as measured by Dr. Locke. They are about twelve
mUes from the river, south ; and thirty from Madison, nearly
west. St. Croix is a new county, west of Crawford, on the St.
Croix and Missisippi Rivers. Though far to the north it is
finely situated upon the Missisippi, and has very superior ad
vantages for the lumber trade. It has great forest wealth,
containing probably the best pine region in the United States
next to the lumber tracts of Maine. With this valuable ar
ticle of trade, and with very superior facilities for getting it
to a most extensive and rapidly increasing market — there
must of necessity be a very large business done in this di
rection. It is the opinion of the writer that this portion of
the district also contains large deposits of copper ore. The
eastern boundary of this county is the Chippeway River, and
a line thence running northeasterly to the Michigan state line,
and with that line to the Lake : its western is coterminous
with the Territory ; its northern with the United States, ex
tending from about 44j° to 49°. Such was its boundary tiU
1845, when it was divided, and La Pointe, a new county,
made in 1845, has been taken from that portion of St. Croix
which was north of the mouth of Muddy River and Yellow
Lake. Cra-wford county is also of great extent ; including nearly
the whole space northerly from the Wisconsin to the Michigan
state line. This county has the Wisconsin on the south, the
Missisippi southwest, the Chippeway on the west. It is
watered also by the Bad Axe, Black River, Prairie La Crosse,
and several other streams. Its breadth from east to west is
by no means proportioned to its great north and south stretch.

126 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
It has a variety of soft and a diversified scenery. There is
an extensive bottom between the two main rivers, on which
is situated the old French town of Prairie Du Chien, three
or four miles from the Wisconsin, a scattered settlement,
rather than a town. It had been long occupied by the French,
having been settled about the period of the revolution, and
was a considerable trading post, and a rendezvous for the
Indians and British. In 1814 the United States established
a garrison there, and still maintain it. Within a year or two
a deposit of copper ore has been found in this vicinity. On
the Wisconsin is an abundance and variety of valuable timber,
especially white pine. This is perhaps to be considered as
the southern limit of the pine region, though scattered groves
of it are found further south.
Since the purchase made of the Chippewas in 1842, of a
tract of land which covered the northwestern peninsula of
Michigan, six counties have been laid off therein, by that
state. They are Michilimackinac, Schoolcraft, Chippeway,
Marquette, Ontonagon, and Houghton. There are few settlers
on the tract. The eastern point of the peninsula is a spot of
peculiar beauty. Owing to its latitude, and to its vicinity to
the lakes, the united influence of temperature and exposure
to the winds, it is not to be desired for agriculture. A great
portion of the tract is, no doubt, rich in copper ore, and other
mineral wealth.
There are thirty-seven counties of Illinois whoUy or par
tially within the district treated of in these notes. Joe Davies,
Carroll, Whiteside, Rock Island, Henderson, Mercer, Han
cock, Adams, Pike, Calhoun, are on the Missisippi River.
The two last are on the lUinois also, being bounded by both
rivers. Whiteside and Rock Island are on Rock River also,
as well as on the Missisippi. Lake and Cook are on the
Lake Michigan. Brown, Fulton, La Salle, Marshall, Peoria,

TOPOGRAPHY. 127
Putnam and Schuyler are also on the Illinois river beside
Calhoun and Pike above-named; Rock Island, Whiteside,
Ogle, and Winnebago, on Rock River.
Joe Davies is a mineral district. The lands about Galena,
Fairplay, and Elizabeth, and in some other "diggings" in this
county, are very rich in mineral. The county has a good
soil, but is not of great value as an agricultural country, by
reason of the broken nature of its surface. It is drained by
Sinsinewa, Fever, Small Pox, and Apple Rivers. The country
at the head of Apple River is a very beautiful and fertile
district, and contains some handsome farms. The population
of the county has greatly increased since the census of 1840.
It was then 6, 1 80. It now probably exceeds 1 0,000, of which
nearly half is at Galena.
The first settlements were made in Galena, in 1828. This
place is situated about three miles from the Missisippi, upon
a little stream commonly called Fever River, or otherwise
Bean River, being by the winding of the stream, six miles
from its mouth. The river was first named by the French,
and it is now disputed whether the appellation bestowed by
them was F6ve, or Fievre. The circumstance that a small
stream next below, and but a small distance from it, is called
Small-Pox, and that the first place has had its share of the
fevers of the country, may seem to favor the idea of the
Fever. The pulse may be consulted to decide the important
question. By a law of Congress of February 5th, 1829, the Surveyor
of the PubUc Lands was directed to lay out a town on Bean
River, in Illinois, at and including Galena.
The town increased with a great rapidity. Miners pressed
in from all quarters, and it became at once the metropolis of
the lead diggings. Such it is, and will, no doubt, continue.
It is most singularly situated, on the side of a steep bluff,

128 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
and consists of two narrow streets ranning parallel with the
river ; and, though they are placed as near as possible, the
foundations of the houses upon the second are upon a level
with the roofs of the furst. Such is the business in this little
nook, that the lower street always presents the appearance of
a large and thronged city. Scarcely any street, in any city,
has more of a crowd and bustle. Lately, some houses have
been built on the opposite, or left, bank of the river, which
is a better site than the original ground.
The lower part of Joe Davis, and the adjoining part of
Carroll, is a very sterile tract, quite unusual in this country,
except in a few points where the sand has been heaped up by
the streams or the winds, or by the joint action of both.
One of these causes, probably the river, was the agent in piling
up sand here for several miles in extent, where, perhaps,
there was formerly a deflexion of the river, or an expansion
into a lake. Carroll county may not be ranked among the
good agricultural counties, and is without minerals. Pro
ceeding down the river, the land improves in quality.
Whiteside has more good land. In this county Fulton has a
good situation on the river, and a pleasant site. The exor
bitant ferry charges have some influence in deciding against
the prosperity of so small a village. Albany, also on the
river, is a small village, with a site rather inferior to the
former place.
Rock Island is at the mouth of Rock River, extending a
long distance on the Missisippi, in a narrow strip, having the
little viUages of Cordova, Port Byron, Hampton and Moline,
and the town of Rock Island on the river. The latter is a
place of some business, has 1000 or 1,200 inhabitants, and oc
cupies nearly the site of the old Sauk village, called Senisepo
Kebesaukie, Rock River Peninsula. It is at the foot of the
Upper, or Rock River, Rapids, opposite Davenport, known

TOPOGRAPHY. 129
to all who pass the river as the most attractive in natural
scenery of any place within the usual route of the boats.
Mercer, Henderson, and Hancock, have some good land,
but a large amount of waste upon the river, and an undue
proportion of prairie. The towns of New Boston, Oquawka,
Navoo (the city of the Mormons), and Warsaw, are upon the
river in these counties, the two last in Hancock, as also
Carthage, the county seat, back from the River. Hancock is
a populous and important county. Warsaw, situated at the
mouth of the Des Moines, has a commanding position. It is
partly on the bluff and partly below. It will be the depot
for a considerable back country in Illinois, and for the pro
ducts descending the Des Moines, which last will be of great
amount when the State of Iowa shall become more popu
lous, and the navigation of the river shall be improved. It is
also the point where, in low water, the steamboats discharge
their cargoes, which they are unable to transport over the
rapids, the town being a short distance below. From here,
the keel-boats, laden with goods, are towed up by a class of
light draught steamers.
Adams, the next county on the river, is, in territory and
population, one of the most important in the State. Quincy
is the largest and best built town on the left bank of the river,
between Alton and Galena, with the exception of the city of
the " saints," so called as " lucus a non lucendo." Quincy
is one hundred and fifty miles above St. Louis, and over one
hundred and twenty above the mouth of the Illinois River.
It is the depot for the trade of a large country north of the
ri-ver, and a populous, handsome, and flourishing town, with
the Land Office for the district.
Below Adams, a large tract, extending from river to river,
forty mUes or more in average breadth, and from north to
south about the same, is formed into the county of Pike. It

130 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
is the fourth county, in population, of Northem Illinois, or,
rather, it is one of the four highest ; for, without a late census,
the numbers are only matter of estimate, and there is not, pro
bably, a great difference in amount between the four.
Adams, Cook, and Fulton, may be supposed to contain from
eighteen to twenty thousand each, and Pike sixteen or seven
teen thousand.
Cook, Adams, Fulton, Pike and La Salle, are among the
most populous and valuable counties in the State. Cook is
on the lake. By the census of 1840, there were 10,201
inhabitants. Since that time, about 4000 have been added
to the town of Chicago, and it is probable that the county
now contains 18 or 20 thousand. Chicago has now about
10,000. It is the foremost town in the State in population
and business. It is the principal port on the lake for north
ern Illinois and Iowa. Here great quantities of wheat and
other produce are shipped, partly brought across the country
from Iowa, for the New York market ; and most of the pas
sengers by way of the lakes, are landed at this place and at
Milwakie. The Land Office for the District is here.
La Salle is an extensive county lying on both sides of
the Illinois River. It is above the navigable waters of the
river. The Illinois and Michigan canal passes through it,
and it is thereby rendered accessible both from the lake and
the Missisippi. It has probably exceeding 15,000 inhabit
ants. Ottawa is the county seat, situated at the junction of Fox
River, on both sides of the river, a few miles above the
lower rapids.
Bureau, Kendall, and Peoria, foUow, in descending the
Illinois. Peoria is important for its population and ex
tent ; its fertility, and resources, and business ; and in the
beauty of its situation is not exceeded by any portion of

TOPOGRAPHY. 131
country on the banks of this river, which drew so much the
admiration of travellers to the country in former times.
The town of Peoria is situated on the river, at or near the
site of old Fort Crevecoeur, at the foot of the Lake Peoria,
a Uttle more than 200 miles from the mouth of the river.
This fort was built by La Sale, as a point d'appui for prose
cuting the discovery of the Missisippi. It is the county
seat, and a place of much business.
Fulton, Schuyler, Brown and Pike, the last extending
to the Missisippi, and already described, cover the most
valuable, fertile, and beautiful tract, in the State, except
some part of the land upon Rock River : in two important
conditions having advantage over the last, being some two to
three degrees farther south, which gives them a more propi
tious climate for agriculture, and a more genial ; and also
having an open navigation generally through the year, while
Rock River is locked up through the winter, and has but a
difficult navigation at any time. Fulton is in the first class
of counties for population. Spoon River waters this county,
and enters the Illinois about forty mUes below Peoria.
Schuyler is below Fulton : not varying much from it in
soil, in which particular both are highly favored. Schuyler
is less populous than Fulton. It has Crooked Creek passing
nearly centrally through it. Rushville is the county seat, a
place of some business. Brown county is less populous than
Schuyler. The latter contains about 10,000 inhabitants, the
other, two-thirds of that number.
For some miles above the point of junction, the two rivers
approach very near together, and pursue an almost paraUel
course. The narrow peninsula is formed into the county of
Calhoun. Knox, Kane, Warren, are populous interior counties.

132 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
KnoxviUe, Monmouth, Macomb, and other villages, are upon
this tract.
Illinois presents in general an agreeable and beautiful suc
cession of grove and prairie, simUar to the country west of
the Missisippi, varying slightly in two particulars, rather to
the disadvantage of the former ; — the proportion of timber is
rather scanty in Illinois, and of consequence the prairies
more extensive ; — and the soil is not of so great depth as on
the west side of the river. The prairie on both sides, how
ever, is extremely fertile, and very agreeable to the sight.
This region, or any portions of it, must be seen to be
appreciated. Much better is a man's own eye to convey a
faithful description to him, than the tongue of another. The
quiet beauty of the prairies, the graceful outline of their sur
face, or the rich, mellow, genial, quality of their soil, is not
understood without inspection ; nor does the mind of one
only accustomed to the recesses of forest or mountain
scenery, or to the still narrower barricades of vision formed
by the high and compact lines of masonry in a city, take in
the idea of a broad expanse of plain, stretching to the hori
zon on every side, without tree or shrub ; unfenced ; and
still, after miles of travel, presenting a similar scene, limited
only by a similar horizon ; adorned only with a variegated
carpet of luxuriant flowers ; relieved only by the graceful
undulations of its surface.
The country about Yellow Creek, a small tributary of
Pectanon, presents a very beautiful specimen of prairie
scenery. As you approach it from Galena, it rather sud
denly appears to view in coming over a ridge, and the eye
is astonished with the unexpected and agreeable presentation.
Near the head of Little Rock River is another beautiful but
different view. Yellow Creek is in the state of nature.
Little Rock River is a handsome prairie covered with a

TOPOGRAPHY.
cluster of the neatest looking farms, with handsome le:
and handsomer buildings, altogether presenting the most
agreeable picture of agricultural life, ever seen by the writer.
Such are some of the topographical characteristics of the
branches of Rock River. This country has been highly
commended, but the reaUty will not be found to be exagge
rated by the description ; — the original cannot be heightened
in the picture.
Ogle, Winnebago and Whiteside, and Rock Island, are
counties upon Rock River. They contain some of the best
specimens of westem lands and westem farms. Great quan
tities of wheat are raised here and in the whole Rock River
country. Northern Missouri has forty-three counties. In its other
political organization it is similar to Iowa.
The counties are : St. Charles, Lincoln, Pike, Ralls, Ma
rion, Lewis, and Clarke, on the Missisippi ; Warren, Mont
gomery, Calloway, Boone, Howard, Chariton, Carroll, Ray,
Clay, Platte, Buchanan, Andrew, Holt, Allen, on the Mis
souri ; and Audrain, Caldwell, Davies, Clinton, Livingston,
Macon, Randolph, Monroe, Shelby, Knox, Scotland, Schuyler,
Adair, Linn, Highland, Putnam, Mercer, Grundy, Harrison,
Gentry, De Kalb, Nodoway, between the rivers and the north
line of the state.
Northern Missouri presents no very striking change in its
geology or in the essential features of its physical geography
from the characteristic formation and internal structure, or from
the superficial aspect, of the country, that has been described.
It is a limestome country, and a plain. The principal points of
difference are that in the eastem portion the proportion of prairie
is rather less, and the soil much thinner. The subsoil is similar.
Springs are not so abundant. ¦ The larger proportion of timber
is an improvement in point of scenery. Proceeding west and

134 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST
south these differences diminish ; and on foUowing the Mis
souri the land is perhaps equal to the best on the Missisippi.
The land first described is that portion east of the ridge which
divides the waters of the Missisippi from the tributaries of
the Missouri. It is about one degree in width between the
ridge and the Missisippi, and extending from the Missouri
River to the north line of the state, a little less than two de
grees. The four main branches of the Chariton, and the
eight or ten of the Grand River, pouring down their streams
in nearly paraUel courses, from north to south, and in very
close contiguity, the whole dozen or fourteen streams being
within the range of a degree and a half, or about a hundred
miles, forms a peculiar feature in the topography no less than
in the hydrographic character and agricultural capacities of
this region. It is needless to say that such a country pos
sesses fine farming lands : and beyond the Grand River
westerly to the Missouri, particularly the Platte valley, is
equal to any other, and presents strong allurements to emi
grants. A great difference in the social condition of this portion of
the tract exists, in the institution of slavery : and a conse
quent difference is produced in the industrial pursuits, which
everywhere distinguishes free from slave labor. This is
the only portion touched by our notes where slavery is
allowed. St. Charles' county lies between the Missisippi and the
Missouri, extending back fifty miles, and being, in greatest
breadth, about twenty. At the pouit of confluence of the
two rivers, is a large tract of low bottom land, extremely
fertile, but subject to overflow at the occasional high waters
of the river. The upland above is rolling, being in nearly
equal parts prairie and timber, watered by Cuivre, Big Creek,
McKoy's, Femme Osage, and Dardenne : the land pretty

TOPOGRAPHY. 135
good, for this portion of the country. The county contauis
iron, coal, and it was formerly supposed that there was copper
on the creek, which the French, from that belief, named
Cuivre. Some marble also exists, and potter's clay and
Spanish brown, of good quality. The county is divided,
politicaUy, into five townships, and has several towns laid
out, the principal of which is St. Charles, a very pretty to-wn
on the left bank of the Missouri. The settlement of St.
Charles was commenced in 1780, while that country belonged
to Spain : — and soon after emigrants began to go there from
the United States. Emigration was encouraged by the
Spanish policy of granting lands to settlers. It is about
twenty miles from St. Louis, has increased very greatly in
twelve or fifteen years past, and now contains probably about
7,000 inhabitants. Portage des Sioux, an old French village
on the Missisippi, contains about 400 inhabitants.
Lincoln county is on the Missisippi, next to St. Charles on
the north. A considerable portion of the lands of this county
are covered with old Spanish grants. The quality of the
land generally is not good, along the river counties from the
Missouri to the north line of the state. There is a wide strip
of bottom land, part of which is low and subject to overflow.
Along the travelled road through this county, and for some
distance north of it, water is very scarce. Troy is the county
seat, and a well-built town, twelve miles from the Missi
sippi. Pike county, the next on the north, was originaUy mostly
a timbered tract of land, and has many streams passing
through it. The largest of these is Salt River, which rans
through the northem part of the county. It is said to be of
good soil, compared to some of the neighboring country.
There are several miUs in the county. Bowling Green is

136 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
the capital town. Elk Lick is medicinal. Clarksville and
Louisiana are villages on the Missisippi within this county.
Ralls county, on the river, next north of Pike, has some
branches of Salt River passing through it, and Spencer's
Creek. It is said also to have good springs. Iron, sulphur.
and coal are found within it. New London is the county
seat. Marion county has a portion of its lands drained by Salt
River, North and South Creeks, and North and South Fabius.
It has coal of a good quality, and it is said to possess nitre
in great abundance. There are several salt springs. As
nitre is an element of fertility, the county should be pro
ductive, and it is considered to be so. There are many
mills on the streams within the county. Palmyra is the
capital, a very handsome flourishing town. Here is the land
office for the northern district of this state. A town is laid
out on the river, called Marion City. Hannibal, also on the
river, is a flourishing town, and a place of some trade. Salt
River, which has been mentioned as passing through
portions of this county and Pike, is the largest stream be
tween the Missouri and Des Moines, flowing into the Missi
sippi. Lewis county is north of Marion. It is advantageously
situated on the Missisippi, being favored with two or more
good landings. The site of La Grange is high and dry.
The county is watered by Wyaconda, North, and South
Fabius, and Fox creeks. Monticello, in the centre, is the
county seat.
North of Lewis, and the, most northerly river county in
the State, is Clarke. The land of this, as of the last
county, is good, the soil becoming better toward the northern
part of the State, than in the counties lower down, near the

TOPOGRAPHY. 137
Missouri. St. Francisville is the principal town, situated on
the Des Moines River.
Warren, Montgomery, Callaway, Boone, Howard, Chari
ton, Carroll, Ray,  Clay, Platte, Buchanan, Andrew,
Holt, Allen.
This range of counties on the Missouri contain generally
a richer soil than those on the Missisippi. Howard county
is populous, well timbered, abounding in coal, not of the
best quality so far as worked, and watered by several smaU
creeks. The large streams called Chariton and Grand River
flow into the Missouri in Chariton and Carroll counties.
Boone is the second county in the State in population, next
to St. Louis ; Howard is the third. Boone contains about,
or exceeding, 25,000. Howard over 20,000, estimating from
former rate of increase. Accurate information on this point,
at this time, however, is wanting. Callaway, Clay and Ray
are also populous counties. The tract comprising Howard,
Boone and Callaway must be considered the best in the
State, as it is the most populous. It is inhabited by farmers,
whose industrious and skilful cultivation of the excellent
land upon which they have settled, has made them easy in
circumstances, and developed the resources of a rich coun
try. Columbia is the county seat of Boone, centrally
located. Fayette is the capital of Howard. Glasgow, on
the river, in the same county, is a flourishing town. The
southern portion of the country, which is the subject of these
notes, is passed with less observation than that comprised
within the territories, as being both better known, and also
the less interesting to many, because more populated, and
therefore offering less inducements to settlers. The soil also
below the Des Moines is inferior to that north of that river,
and the country by no means so inviting. Portland, Frank-

138 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
lin, Chariton on the river, and Carrol and HuntsviUe back
from it, are towns of some importance.
It has already been said, in treating of the physical geo
graphy of this country, that it was remarkable for the great
number of lakes.
The lake region extends from 49° to 43°, or over six de
grees of latitude, and lies chiefly to the east of the Tchan
sansan (or James), in 98° of long. From the head waters
of the Des Moines to the country about the heads of the
Missisippi, they are so numerous on the westem part of the
valley, that a small addition to the water surface would
make it doubtful whether it should be called land and lake,
or sea and island. South of 43° the remaining four degrees
of lat. to 39°, is traversed by a vast number of running
streams ; and these two portions may be very properly dis
tinguished, with reference to these grand characteristics, as
the river country and the lake country.
It will be at once perceived, on stating this difference in
the hydrographical features of the country, that there is a
corresponding difference in the topography ; that the inclined
plane of the southem portion, reaching its summit, is changed
for the more level plane ; and that the northem part is less
cut and scooped by the numberless deep ravines that mark the
lower country, serving it as channels for draining it into the
principal streams.
The upper country is described by Nicollet as very beau
tiful, and affording many fine farm sites.

PART IV.

Society. — Laws. — Pursuits. — Life. — Habits. — Health.
— Public Lands.
The population of the Upper Missisippi is of various origin
and mixed character. The germ is French. Colonies from
France, and from the French stock in Canada, were first
established at several points in this valley ; and, from time
to time, the voyageurs, or French boatmen, and the coureurs
des bois, or traders, have visited nearly every part of this
extensive region, some of whom fixed a, temporary residence,
and others a permanent dwelling, among the native tribes,
with whom they became mingled, and frequently connected
by marriage. The descendants of these French, both of the
unmixed and the mixed blood, are numerous in the country,
and to them many accessions from the same race have been
made in modern time by emigration from Canada. A great
part of this population is iUiterate : though among them are
many persons of good education, fine intellect, and a refine
ment, peculiar to their nation, beyond that of the best of the
other population. Such may be found in the humble and
laborious occupation of digging in the mines. I lodged in
the house of a farmer, one of these people, on the banks of
the Missouri, opposite to St. Charles, having the refinement
of the French gentleman, and a mind capable of discharging

140 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST
the functions of the highest offices in the nation. He had
been acquainted with the country twenty-five or thirty years,
and had been to the mountains, as many of these men do.
It is not uncommon for young men of wealthy famUies in St.
Louis to leave the refinements and luxuries of the city for a
trading trip to the mountains, or to Santa Fe. To this initial
population have been added, Germans, English, Scotch,
Irish, and a mixture from each of the States. They are,
of course, of every shade of character ; and the traveller
from the denser and older portions of the world would fre
quently have his astonishment excited, on entering a very
rough log-cabin, consisting of one room, with a puncheon
floor and mud chimney, to find a farmer of a cultivated mind
and manners,* or a lady who has graced the gay and fashion
able parties of the city, or, frequently, her superior, whom
education has endowed with the solid and shining accom
plishments of woman, and fitted for the highest spheres of
life. Among these may be found, in most free intercourse
and fellowship, the differing and various shades of character :
the rough in extreme, but honest and worthy; the -vulgar and
clown of all shapes and dimensions, whether rich or poor,
laboring or professional ; the counterfeiter and horse-thief,
sitting side by side with the judge and senator. There is a
general and equal association of all persons, without regard
to character, condition, or circumstances, making society one
smooth and perfect level. This is not a very agreeable con-
* The remarks of Mr. Birkbeck, an intelligent and observing English
man, who came to Illinois about the period when it became a state, made
in relation to the western people generally of that time, will, I think, well
apply to the population now inhabiting this portion of it: — " Refinement,"
he says, " is unquestionably far more rare than in our mature and highly-
cultivated state of society ; but so is extreme vulgarity. In every depart
ment of common life, we here see employed persons superior in habits and
education to the same class in England."

society. 141
dition ; but it is the result of circumstances in a new country,
where aU are poor, where all are incommoded, all seeking
the one thing needful (worldly speaking), and seeking it in
the same way, and surrounded by nearly similar accidents.
The ladies in the to-wns are not very easy under it, and try
to remedy it; but they go again to the other extreme, and the
result of the separation and selection which is adopted in the
little towns is infinitely amusing, and a sufficient burlesque
upon the more pretending, but generally equally oddly-
assorted, select circles of the rich and vulgar in the larger
cities. This condition of things is rather unfriendly to the
courtesies and premeditated civilities of social intercourse,
which are still more hindered by that want of acquaintance
which is a necessary incident to the sudden filling up of a
new country with people from all parts of the world. There
is a general prejudice against the New Englander throughout
the south and west, which, among the ignorant here, amounts
to detestation ; but, with this exception, the population agree
very well.
The condition of the territories in regard to schools is not
good, and the standard of education is low in the whole
country, including that portion within the States. The
standards of the bar, the pulpit, and in medical science, are
aU at a low point. A young man who has had a schooling
of one year, and the same amount of reading in law, fre
quently without instruction or direction, sometimes by an
apprenticeship, is made a lawyer ; such, at least, he is
designated by legislative enactment, and the Ucense of the
court, but he is often, in a double sense, an infant in law. I
believe a less qualification suffices for the pulpit, or the prac
tice of medicine. There are also instances of a simUar
want of preparation in other pursuits. Persons are found
engaged in trade, and employed in some of the mechanic

142 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
arts, without having passed the usual apprenticeship.
This condition of things pervades the whole fabric of
society. Judges have been appointed here of less than
twenty-five years of age, and of only two or three years'
practice at the bar ; and a judge of that green age sits alone
on a trial involving life or death ! In this way, the laws -are
administered, under the sanction of Congress and the gov
ernment of the United States !
There has been a singular and radical change of the sys
tem of law by which this country is governed. The whole
of this territory was first discovered and settled by French
men, and charters and ordinances for its govemment were
granted and established by the king of France. By this
means, the civil law was extended over the country, and be
came the birthright of its inhabitants, in the same way and
by the same means that the common law became the birth
right of the original thirteen States. The country west of
the Missisippi was afterwards possessed and governed by
Spain, which, as well as France, has the civil law for its code.
Thus, in the portion of country west of the Missisippi, the
civil law prevailed by a double title ; — both by birth and
baptism it became the law of the land. It has never been
formally abrogated, yet it is utterly extinct. By the ordi
nance of 1787, for the government of the Northwestern Ter
ritory, the common law was extended over that country ;
and, by subsequent enactments, it has been established west
of the river. Perhaps it was supposed that the system of the
common law was so entirely repugnant to that of the civil, as
to operate a repeal of the latter. It is, however, more pro
bable that the lawyers and judges, who had been practitioners
of the common law, did not inquire if that might be engrafted
on the civil, but wholly overlooked the fact that the latter had
ever had force there. However that may be, whether by

LAWS. 143
some real or supposed efficacy of the ordinance, or by some
other means, the principles of the forum have been sup
planted by those of Westminster ; — and the common law,
with some statute modifications, is the only law.
The character of the legislation is not so good as it might
be. The members of the legislature are mostly very young,
and uninstructed in the principles of legislation or the ope
ration of law. The enactments are of course neither con
ceived in wisdom nor drawn up with skill. In this particular,
however, some of the old states are not at all in advance.
The most objectionable enactments of the territories will
stand comparison with the laws of Maryland.
Society here is yet in that stage when a man's only thought
is to gain a subsistence ; and he cannot give attention to the
improvement or refinement of his own mind, or of the public
mind or morals.
By the constitution of Iowa, however, a most extensive
and solid foundation for a system of Public Schools in that
State has been laid, by the following provisions :
" 2. The General Assembly shall encourage, by all suit
able means, the promotion of intellectual, scientific, moral
and agricultural improvement. The proceeds of all lands
that have been or hereafter may be granted by the United
States to this State for the support of schools, which shall
hereafter be sold or disposed of, and the five hundred thou
sand acres of land granted to the new states under an act of
Congress distributing the proceeds of the public lands among
the several states of the Union, approved A.D. 1841, and all
estates of deceased persons, who may have died without
leaving a will or heir ; and also such per cent, as may be
granted by Congress on the sale of lands in this State, shall
be and remain a perpetual fund, the interest of which, together
with all the rents of the unsold la-nds, and such other means

144 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
as the General Assembly may provide, shall be inviolably
appropriated to the support of common schools throughout
the State.
" 3. The General Assembly shall provide for a system
of common schools, by which a school shall be kept up and
supported in each school district at least three months in
every year ; and any school district neglecting to keep up
and support such a school, may be deprived of its proportion
of the interest of the public fund during such neglect.
" 4. The money which shall be paid by persons as an
equivalent for exemption from military duty, and the clear
proceeds of all fines collected in the several counties for any
breach of the penal laws, shall be exclusively applied in the
several counties in which such money is paid or fine collect
ed, among the several school districts of said counties, in the
proportion of the number of inhabitants in such districts, to
the support of common schools, or the establishment of
libraries, as the General Assembly may from time to time
provide by law."
The principal employments here must always be those
connected with agriculture. The soil, greatly superior as it
is to all other within the United States, cannot fail to invite a
crowd of laborers to the harvest. But it is better even for
grazing than for tillage. The grasses, in several varieties,
grow with astonishing luxuriance. Some of the bottoms bear
a grass from eight to nine feet high.
The prairies have been mentioned and partially described
already. The geological structure of these lands was ex
hibited, and the general appearance of their surface indicated
in speaking of the physical geography of the Upper Missisip
pi. The prairie lands are similar on both sides of the Mis
sisippi. Conjecture is at fault in endeavors to account for
their origin. Two circumstances unite to retain them in

PURSUITS. 145
their condition, and prevent the gro-wth of grove and forest
over the spaces covered only with the long grass and flowers.
The roots of the grass are exceeding tough, and form a
sward which keeps down the slower vegetation of the em
bryo forest, which is here, as elsewhere, conceived within the
mould of the teeming earth. This sward is so compact and
strong, that five or six yoke of oxen are necessary for a
breaking team, with a very large plough running on wheels,
called a prairie plough. The other circumstance adverse to
forest growth, beside the sward, is the annual burning of the
prairies by the Indians and hunters, which has been prac
tised since the country was first visited by the French in the
seventeenth century, and is said, by the discoverer of the
Missisippi, to be an old custom of the natives. The bodies
of timber are almost exclusively on the streams, and the
spaces between are prairie ; presenting, at their junction, the
similitude of shore and sea ; which likeness, no doubt, in
duced an old sailor (whom I know) to fix his residence and
build his house on one of these points, as the projections of
the groves into the prairie are called, where, in prospect lay
before him a wide expanse of prairie
" Stretching
In graceful undulations, far away
As if the ocean in his gentlest swell
Stood still, with all his rounded billows fixed
And motionless — "
The prairie has, for the most part, this undulating surface.
Some of it is broken by ridges and deep ravines, some only
slightly undulating, sufficient to shed the waters, some a dead
level as true as could be drawn with a line. Of course
some of these tracts of prairie are wet, others dry. On
these prairies, so long as the country is only partially settled.

146 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
and the lands unappropriated and unfenced, the cattle of the
neighboring settler make their summer range, finding the
most abundant and the sweetest pastures. At the end of
their summer feeding these cattle are all good beef without
any stall feeding ; and the butter is the most delicious in the
world. During a residence of six years in Iowa, the writer
scarcely ever ate butter that was not superior to the choicest
butter to be purchased in any of the eastern cities. The
prairie grass is also cut by the farmer for his winter feeding,
and supplies a coarse but sweet and excellent hay. In most
places in the new settlements it is the only hay used. In a
few years' mowing, however, the weeds succeed to the grass,
and it becomes necessary to go further for the hay, or to
introduce the English hay upon the farmer's o-wn grounds.
The cost of breaking the prairie is from $1,50 to $2 per
acre, at this time, in the older parts of Iowa, and other places
where settlements have been made ten or fifteen years. In
the newer settlements, it is always higher ; and all expenses
of living, and the price of labor, are greater. In the first
settlement of Iowa, as high as $5 an acre was paid for
breaking. The wages of a farming hand was then from $25
to $30 a month; now, it is about $8 to $10. Provisions
then bore about the same proportion to the present prices.
The cost of making a prairie farm at this time in the river
counties, or in the parts of Iowa known as Scott's purchase,
comprising all the country to which the Indian title was
extinguished prior to the treaty of 1842, is subjoined :

PURSUITS. 147
Price of a quarter section, 160 acres, at $1,25 per
acre  $200
Breaking forty acres, at $2 .... 80
Fencing with post and rails, 5 rails high, 40 acres, or
5280 feet, 6 rails for every ten feet, including 1 to
each pannel for post, wiU take 3168 raUs, at about $1
per hundred, say $32 - - - 32
Cost of setting uncertain. 

The price paid for getting out rails is usually 62^ cents a
hundred. If brought from a distance, the transportation will
of course increase the price. They are brought down the
Missisippi, and sold at the landing at the foot of the Upper
Rapids, at $2 a hundred.
The cost of a cabin may be set down at $50 to $150 ;
and with stable and sheds, may make the whole amount to

Eighty acres of land is quite sufficient, — will yield as
much as 200 acres in the east, and, especially while the pas
ture and hay may be taken from the public lands, should be
the limit of a farmer's purchase. This would reduce the
cost $100, or save him that sum to add to the improvements.
The product of an acre ranges from 50 to 80 bushels of
Indian corn, from 30 to 40 bushels of wheat, from 70 to 80
of oats. All the roots grow with great luxuriance, onions
attaining to five or six inches in diameter ; radishes, and the
long roots, to double the common size in the east. Potatoes,
and other garden vegetables, are of superior quality and
abundant yield.
The farmers of this country are generally men of good
habits, and of good information and sense. They are also
hospitable and kind. With the small expense which I have

148 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
set do-wn, and with the addition of a little farm stock,* a far
mer makes himself comfortable, nay, independent, for life.
He has, it is trae, a rough dwelling, but warm, and his table
is abundantly supplied with all that is produced on the soil,
and generally with the necessaries from the stores. He can
have his bread, and potatoes, and beef, and pork, almost
without a thought. He knows nothing of the toil, cost and
skiU requisite to manage a farm east of the mountains. His
cattle range the richest pasture in the world, and his hogs
find their food in the abundant mast of the groves. His
plough merely turns the sod, and no artificial garden mould
can be made to rival the fertility and easy tillage of his
fields. The only thing that can be suggested unfavorable to
the soil of this country is, that its very great productiveness
may not be propitious to habits of industry in the cultivator.
Standing upon the bluff of the great river, and casting
around the eyes of the mind over the transvisual and into the
future, I behold, at no distant point of time, but in clear and
close prospect, a vast plain, and beautiful more than vast,
surpassing in fertility and easy culture the most favored
regions of the earth, stretching westward from the Missisippi
to the Upper Missouri, and eastward to Michigan ; and from
the mouths of Illinois and Missouri northward to 45°, to St.
Peter's, and the Coteau des Prairies, covered with a hardy
and industrious population, — one great magnificent garden —
clothed in green and gold ; smiling with a harvest, the boun
tiful supply to the inhabitants of the whole world. This
tract covers six degrees of latitude, comprising about 150,-
000 square miles, or 100,000,000 acres. So very trifling is
the unproductive land, that, with a reservation of the neces
sary wood-land and the portion devoted to the support of the
* Horses are worth from $iO to $60, cows $10 to $12. These are the
best prices when they are put in market.

PURSUITS. 149
farm animals, one half of this amount may be put under
plough if necessary ; and yielding thirty bushels to an acre,
which, saving casualties, is below the average of the wheat
crop ; its product would be 1,500,000,000 bushels for a
year, or of Indian com, double that quantity : — and this
without the use of foreign fertilizers, almost without toil.
The chemistry of nature can do no more to make the earth
yield her increase, than has been done here. God has never
offered a richer vineyard to the hand of man to dress and to
keep than this which is now spread out in prospect fair and
wide, and offered to the multitudes harassed and anxiously
striving for subsistence against the excessive competition of
the thronged avenues of life and living east of the mountains,
and to the famishing millions of the superannuated hemi
sphere beyond the sea.
The Upper Missisippi, surpassing all other districts in
agricultural capabilities, is even more superior as a grazing
country. I think it not too much to say that a given number
of acres here, in the best parts of the tract, would support
more than double the number of cattle which the same quan
tity of land will feed east of the mountains. Very superior
beef is made upon the summer range, not surpassed by the
best staUed meat. It makes butter not equaUed by any other
feeding. And it is said that sheep increase their size and
their fleece upon the prairies. The advantages over other
countries for wool growing may be perceived at once by a
short statement. The sheep have the summer range upon
the prairie without cost, and the expense of their winter
feeding is trifling. The prafrie hay is put up by the farmers
at a cost of $1.50 to $2 per ton. Suppose a thousand sheep
will be wintered on one hundred tons of hay, which is near
enough to the truth, beside their other food. The cost of
one hundred tons of hay will be from $150 to $200. In

150 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
most parts of the country hay is worth at the lowest
$10 per ton, and the expense of their feeding would be
$1000. Here is a difference, at the least, of $800. Their
other feeding would farther diminish the sum total of the
expense. In this business of wool growing a farmer may
make himself independent for life with $1000 or $2000.
The cost of getting it to market at Boston or New York
does not exceed one cent per pound, a mere trifle on the
value. The exports of wheat, hides, wool, beef, and pork from
this region may be made to supply the world. There is
even now a large excess over the consumption of the coun
try. Great quantities of wheat are converted into flour by
the mills of the country, which make the best quality of
superfine flour. The advantages for miUing are not sur
passed, and the making of flour will, in a very short time,
become one of the great branches of industry of the coun
try. Butter and lead will also be hea-vy items of export.
Mining is one of the principal pursuits of the inhabitants
of this region. There are probably from three to four thou
sand, or more, persons digging for lead in the mineral dis
trict. This tract, as has been already stated, extends over a
portion of Iowa, Wisconsin, and lUinois. There are about
fifty furnaces employed in smelting the mineral.
The veins vary from one inch to one foot in thickness ;
and also differ greatly in the depth, or descending extent. A
vein of half an inch thick will usually give a profit for
working it, in rock digging, where blasting is necessary.
The crevices which contain the veins of ore, usually run
from east to west, nearly, with a small variation. This
direction is very uniform ; though some have been found
quartering, and a few, chiefly from Mineral Point to Wiscon
sin River, having a north and south direction. Those which

PURSUITS. 151
have been found ranning to this point on the west of the river,
are very small veins.
There are two modes of digging for the mineral ; by sink
ing a shaft or vertical aperture, which is the more usual ; or
by opening a drift, which is the name given to a horizontal
cavity. In many cases, in working a shaft in the rock dig
gings, on the west side of the river, the digger goes down
more than a hundred feet before finding a crevice.
The horizontal angle of the crevices varies from zero to a
right angle, the same crevice taking alternately all directions.
Some skill is necessary in selecting the spot for operations.
The proper ground is known to the experienced miner, by
several indications. The form of the surface is one of the
signs. The ground has usually a depression transverse to
the general slope. There is sometimes a change in the
vegetation. A rank growth, in a direct line, of the long-
rooted plants, is one of the indications. Pieces of crystal
lized lime are found on the surface, which are familiarly
called the lead blossom, and, on digging, detached fragments
of rock containing some mineral are usually taken out very
near the surface, and sometimes found without digging,
called gravel mineral. Black flowers imprinted on the rock,
as if by the action of gunpowder, resembling ferns, are also
indications of ore. When these signs are sufficient, the
miner commences " prospecting," as he calls it.
The ore, or "mineral," as it is always called by the
miners, is found in crystalline form, from the smallest size
visible, to masses of half a ton in weight. It is usually
found in black or ferruginous clay. It sometimes fiUs the
whole crevice, and is then caUed " sheet mineral ;" some
times in detached pieces, and is caUed " chunk ore." In
the rock diggings there is usuaUy a thick stratum of lime
stone overlying the rock which contains the mineral, which

152 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
superior stratum is called the " cap rock." The fissures
containing the ore frequently expand into large caverns.
They are generaUy, in this case, found studded with stalac
tites of calcareous spar on the roof.
In the clay diggings the ore occurs in detached fragments,
and is called "float mineral."
The surface of the ground, in certain parts of the mining
district, is completely honeycombed with the shafts of the
diggers, to the danger of cattle and travellers. The work
men descend into the shafts, and raise their mineral by
means of large tubs fixed to a rope and windlass. The
mineral is very pure, generally yielding about 80 per cent.
of lead. An analysis of two average specimens of galena
is given in Mr. Owen's report as follows : —
1st spec. 2d spec.
Sulphur - - 16.00 14.63
Lead - - - 84.00 85.37

100.00 100.00
Mr. Owen, in his report to the government, gives the fol
lowing statement of the process of mining : —
" When a miner sets out in search of lead ore, he usuaUy
begins by what is called ' prospecting ;' that is, on those
spots where surface or other indications lead him to expect a
discovery of ore, he commences digging holes or sinking
shafts, usually on the summit or the declivity of a hill.
Should he fail in the first attempt to reach gravel mineral, or
to come upon any signs of neighborhood to a fissure, he soon
abandons the spot, and begins to dig elsewhere. The ground
in many portions of the lead districts is found riddled with
such pits, called, in the language of the Wisconsin miner,
' prospect holes.' Should he reach encouraging symptoms,

PURSUITS. 153
or actually strike upon a vein, or upon detached pieces of ore
ranging downwards, he continues his labor, often with very
great profit.
" When, after preliminary examinations, he decides to sink
a shaft, with the view of striking a crevice, he is compelled,
until he reaches the rock, to wall up the shaft with logs.
" These shafts, of irregular form, usually approaching a
cylinder, are generally from four to five feet across. Some
times the rock is soft enough to be quarried with hammer,
gad, and pickaxe ; at others, it is found necessary to blast it
with gunpowder.
" The mode of descending is by means of a rope of raw
hide, and a common windlass worked by one or two men.
By the same simple contrivance, the ore is raised to the sur
face. Sometimes, but rarely, ladders are used to ascend and
descend. " When a miner is fortunate enough to discover a produc
tive vein accessible from a hill-side, he forms a drift, and
very conveniently conveys the ore out in wheelbarrows — of
course, at a very trifling expense.
" The shafts are sunk in this lead region to the depth of
fifty, one hundred, or one hundred and fifty feet. They are
usually abandoned as soon as the mine is inundated with
water, unless the miner, by drifting (that is, working horizon
tally) uijtU the external surface of the hill is reached, can
readily drain the mine. There is but a single instance in the
district where a mine has been prosecuted after being flooded
with water, which could not thus be got rid of — ^namely, at
Hamilton's diggings, near the Peccatonnica, where the mine
is readily drained by a small steam-engine. The water in
this mine was struck at the depth of thirty feet, and the mine
has been worked with profit thirty-five feet below that point.
" In the deeper diggings, the damp (carbonic acid gas)
8*

154 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
sometimes accumulates in such quantities towards the bottom
as to render it dangerous to work. This happens chiefly in
the hot months of summer ; and at such seasons the miners
are frequently compelled to discontinue their labors.
" The means of ventilation yet employed are very simple.
A cloth funnel, its upper portion so placed as to receive the
breeze and to deflect it into the shaft, is the only contriv
ance. " The lead ore, which, with a few local exceptions, is
alone found or worked in this district, is the galena, or sul
phuret of lead ; the same species of ore from which nearly
all the lead of commerce is derived.
" One of these local exceptions, however, is to be found
at Mr. Brigham's mines, near the Blue Mounds, where car
bonate of lead is raised in considerable quantities along with
the galena. This carbonate is also found in other portions
of the district. It is very easily reduced — more so than the
sulphuret, inasmuch as the carbonic acid is more readily
expelled than the sulphur."
The value of the lead sent down the Missisippi annually
for several years has been something over one million dollars.
A considerable quantity also goes by the lakes to New York :
and probably, taking into the computation what goes out in
both directions, and what is used in the country, the whole
produce of the mines is one and a half milUon dollars.
It is evident, upon an examination of this statement, that
the business of mining is not a very profitable one to those
engaged. Taking the whole value to be one and a half
million dollars, of which one-third goes to the smelter, we
have one million dollars to be divided among, say 3,000 la
borers, or three hundred and thirty-three dollars to each, as
the result of the year's labor. But this is very unequally

PURSUITS. 155
distributed ; and perhaps ninety in each hundred actually
realize much less than this, while a few make fortunes.
In the northeastern part of this district, on lands south of
Lake Superior, lately purchased from the Chippewas, is a
body of copper ore, supposed to be the richest in the world.
It is almost pure in some specimens : so that, as taken from
the earth, it was wrought into church vessels by some of the
French who first visited the place ; and a portion of- the
large rock deposited in the ground of the War Department at
Washington has been polished so as to present the appear
ance of sheet copper. Many companies and individuals have
taken leases of the government, and commenced operations
there. Some of them have had good success, and have found
silver as well as copper. This will no doubt soon be an
important business, and give regular employment to many
persons. The iron and coal will also at no distant time be
worked ; and in Clinton and Jackson counties, in Iowa, in
the great coal district in Illinois, and perhaps on the Des
Moines, in Iowa, will be a great number of laborers engaged
in quarrying coal, and in digging and working iron.
In the tenitories of Iowa and Wisconsin, which comprise
the principal part of the district subject to these notes, the
channels of industry are not yet shaped by the small and ir
regular streams that have only partially occupied them. The
business of the country has hardly yet taken a direction; and
all the secondary pursuits, trade, the mechanic arts, the pro
fessions, have not acquired the consistency or development
of matured form. The professions are doubly stocked ; the
other pursuits are many of them not sufficiently filled; there
is that languor in industry and enterprise, necessarily conse
quent upon a rapid growth. The circulation is sluggish —
the arteries are not well filled with a healthy fluid. Money
is wanting, wealth, means, men, enterprise, are needed, to

156 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
bring up the business of the country to a paraUel with its
population. The first has moved on with a slow and laggard
step, while the last has pressed on with a series of continued
strides outstripping the imagination. Men and capital, men
with capital, and men skilled in the arts, and enterprising, are
they who are wanting there. Mill-wrights, and millers, tan
ners, and leather-dressers, saddlers, shoe-makers, wool-card
ers, brick-makers, brick-layers, stone-masons, and carriage-
makers — ^traders with capital, knowledge, and liberal views
of trade, will all find a broad field and a fair chance.
The emigrant comes to this country frequently in his large,
covered freight wagon, drawn by four horses, containing his
household utensils, called, in the language of the country,
plunder : his wife, and girls, and small children, put in to
make stowage, and himself, and one or two of the bigger
boys on foot, driving the cows and hogs. In this way he
travels day after day, and week after week, sometimes month
after month, stopping by the side of a brook at night, cooking
his food with the wood lying near, making his supper with
spice superior to that of the Indies — a good appetite — ^and
sleeping at night on the bank of the stream, where he had
before spread his table : his board and couch supplied by
nature. If the weather is inclement, all bundle into the wagon
or on the ground, beneath its cover, and slumber there. When
he finds a place that suits him for settlement, if it is unoccu
pied, he is of course at no loss for accommodation. He has
the same lodging that he had upon his journey, and, being his
own entertainer, any defects in the entertainment will not
make a difference between such good friends. He lodges in
the wagon or by its side, cooking his repast from the faggots
lying in the grove, till he has laid up a log cabin for his resi
dence. This is generally constructed of logs as taken from
the grove, unshaped, and with the bark on : with a puncheon

LIFE. 157
floor, as he caUs it, that is, made of split logs not sawed or
dressed, with a chimney of sticks and mud, and with one
door and one half- window. The chinks of the cabin are
stopped with chunks of wood and fiUed in with mud. In
this residence, consisting of one apartment, with a fumiture
corresponding with the style of the architecture, his family
of half a dozen find accommodation, and traveUers are lodged
when they ask it.
Here he lives in content ; breaks up forty acres of prairie
and fences it, drops his seed, and, without the expense or
labor of spreading foreign fertilizers over his field, has an
abundant crop. His bread and potatoes come almost at his
bidding. He lives an easy and a happy life, certainly. He
treads upon flowers. His path is literally strewn with them.
The prairie around his cabin is a flower-garden. The dew,
which is only poetry to the man of imagination, and sparkling
romance to the novel-reading miss of the city, is to him an
every-day reality, bathing his feet when the lark sings to his
going out in the morning ; spreading his fields with a silvery
mantle, and filling his stacks with a golden harvest.
But life in a new country has its privations and hardships.
Notwithstanding the ease with which he gets bread, there
are many of the comforts of living that he cannot obtain. To
the man who has been used to them, their loss is severely
felt ; but to the roving emigrant, to the real pioneer, they are
unknown. He has always hung on to the skirts of civilisa
tion, but without knowing its advantages or comforts ; and,
whenever a new purchase has been made, his wagon-wheel
has pointed the way to the settlers coming after him. Thus
he passes his life : sojourning in the purchase a few years
till another is made, and then hastening away to a new abode
to occupy that in turn till a settler upon a neighboring town-

158 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
ship, or a new acquisition from the Indian, fumishes an
incentive to move again further west.
This first class of moving emigrants, or pioneers, com
monly select for their residence a position in a grove, or
dense body of timber, where, by the exclusion of sunbeams,
and almost of the atmosphere, a perpetual dampness reigns.
This is frequently upon a low bottom, or on the banks of a
stream. Though he has no intention of passing his life there,
yet the fancied wealth of the timber region, its superior
value, as he thinks, over the prairie, decides his choice in
favor of that position ; and, neglecting the high, open,
healthy prairie, that spreads before him, a sea in extent, a
virgin soil unequalled and inexhaustible, where, in two years,
he might be the possessor of a rich farm, he seeks the immer
sion of a dense and damp forest, where, with his poor cabin
and his habits of life, his exposure and hardship, combined
with the atmosphere and the decaying vegetation, the fever
and ague is soon added to the Ust of his comforts, and sets
its mark of pallid emaciation on the countenances of the
family. This injudicious selection has led to the supposition
that the country was more unhealthy than, in fact, it is.
The following, from Birkbeck's Notes, is a lively picture
of Western life in some positions ; exhibiting the effect of a
situation like that above-mentioned : —
" Our journey across the Little Wabash was a complete
departure from all mark of civilisation. We saw no bears,
as they are now buried in the thickets, and seldom appear by
day ; but, at every few yards, we saw recent marks of their
doings — ' wallowing' in the long grass, or turning over the
decayed logs in quest of beetles or worms, in which work the
strength of this animal is equal to that of four men. Wan
dering without track, where even the sagacity of our hunter-

HABITS. 159
guide had nearly failed us, we at length arrived at the cabin
of another hunter, where we lodged.
" This man and his family are remarkable instances of the
effect on the complexion produced by the perpetual incar
ceration of a thorough woodland life. Incarceration may be
a term less applicable to the condition of a roving backwoods
man than to any other, and especially unsuitable to the habits
of this man and his family : for the cabin in which he enter
tained us is the third dweUing he has built within the last
twelve months ; and a very slender motive would place him
in a fourth before the ensuing winter. In his general habits,
the hunter ranges as freely as the beast he pursues. Labor
ing under no restraint, his activity is only bounded by his
own physical powers. Still he is incarcerated — ' shut from
the common air — ^buried in the depth of a boundless forest —
the breeze of health never reaches these poor wanderers.
They are tall and pale, like vegetables that grow in a vault,
pining for light.'
" The man, his pregnant wife, his eldest son, a tall, half-
naked youth, just initiated in the hunter's art, and three
daughters, growing up into great rade girls, and a squalling
tribe of dirty brats of both sexes, are of one pale yellow,
without the slightest tint of healthful bloom.
" In passing through a vast expanse of the backwoods, I
have been so much struck with this effect, that I fancy I
could determine the color of the inhabitants if I was apprised
of the depth of their immersion ; and, vice versa, 1 could
judge of the extent of the clearings if I saw the people. The
blood, I fancy, is not suppUed with fts proper dose of oxygen
from their gloomy atmosphere, crowded with vegetables
growing almost in the dark, or decomposing, and, in either
case, abstracting from the air this vital principle."— iVofes,
138, et seq.

160 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
This description of Mr. Birkbeck may not be exaggerated
in reference to some portions of the population. Indeed, it
strikingly reminds the writer of some specimens he has met
with ; but it would lead to great error if taken as a picture
of the country. In other situations, remote from the streams,
and on high ground, particularly in the prairies, the country
cannot be said to be unhealthy. In all parts of the country,
it is true, the fever and ague and bilious fever are rather fre
quent ; but there is also an exemption from some of the dis
orders prevalent in other parts. The usual forms of colds,
hoarseness, coughing, sore throat, and pulmonary affections,
are almost unknown. Bilious disorders and affections of
the liver are the diseases of the country ; but, it is believed,
there has been less fatal sickness, and less of prevailing epi
demics, than in most other portions of the country in the first
settlement and turning up of the soil. The case described ,
by Mr. Birkbeck was partly owing to situation, but more,
probably, to habits of life, and privations and exposure.
Apart from the partial causes of disease existing in parti
cular situations, arising from the exhalations of the rivers,
the decaying vegetation of the bottoms overflowed and left
dry, or the marshy or wet grounds which are not strangers to
any country, there is no general unhealthiness in the climate
itself. The atmosphere of the country is in an unusual
degree adapted to the preservation of health ; as is proved by
its effects upon the throat and lungs. The prairies seiid not
forth pestilence ; and what is purer than the breeze from the
lakes ? The temperature is variable, it is true ; but the air
is arid and the circulation free and brisk, and these qualities
forbid that the great and sudden vicissitudes should create
disease. These changes are sometimes so great in a brief
space as to be incredible. The writer is conscious that it
requires an easy faith to believe the assertion that he once

HEALTH. 161
knew Fahrenheit to faU from 52 plus to 4 minus in twenty-four
hours. The greatest degree of cold in a winter is greater here than
on the Atlantic in the same latitude, as the philosopher would
judge from his science, without the testimony of a witness.
The great reservoir of latent caloric, in the deep bed of the
Atlantic, must of necessity mitigate the extreme rigor of the
atmosphere from the earth. In a residence of sixteen years
on the Missisippi, the -writer thinks that no winter passed
when the thermometer did not go as low as 24 below zero,
by Fahrenheit, in lat. 41° to 42°. There is not, however, a
great deal of snow in the winter, nor is there generally much
rain in the summer. In most of the seasons within the
-writer's observation, the crops would have suffered by drought,
if it had not been for the abundant dews.
The spring is a shorter season here than east of the moun
tains. Wild flowers make their appearance from the 10th to
the 15th of April. The fall is a most delightful season. The
heats of summer correspond exactly, measuring by the ther
mometer, with other places in the same paraUel. But the
atmosphere is not so dense, and of course the heat has a
greater effect upon the human system, and the rays of the
sun, coming with less refraction, produce a stronger glare
upon the eye, as weU as a more scorching heat in the veins.
Next to the air in preserving health, perhaps superior to it,
is pure water. This is a limestone country, and of course all
the water is impregnated with this stone. The -writer is no
physician ; — but he considers a limestone water as particu
larly favorable to health. The water is of an agreeable taste,
pleasant, and very clear. But the inhabitants have a very
disgusting practice of drinking from the rivers and running
streams, into which every unclean thing enters. The bucket
is thro-wn from the steamboat within one or two rods of the

162 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST
crypt that serves one or two hundred persons. AU the
dwellers on the banks carry their water from the same pol
luted stream. And if a more fortunate resident on the banks
of a creek drinks from a less vitiated source, yet this is not
without its share of decaying vegetation and other matters
injurious to health. This is a surprising inattention to com
fort and decency, as well as to health, when it is known that
a pure spring may generally be strack at twenty or thirty feet
from the surface.
If with this impure and unhealthy habit, joined to the ex
posure from the dwelling, from its insufficiency as a shelter,
from unaccustomed labors and hardships, and from the exha
lations of undrained and of newly cultivated country, the
amount of sickness and of mortality is not more than double
the amount in a like population in other parts, the climate of
the country ought to be considered salubrious.
A few remarks extracted from " Peck's Guide to the West,"
inserted in that work as a quotation, have the concurrence of
the writer : —
" Much disease, especially in the more recently settled
parts of this country, is consequent to neglecting simple and
comfortable precautionary means ; sometimes this neglect is
owing to misdirected industry, and at others to laziness or evil
habits. " To have a dry house, if it be a log one, with the open
ings between the logs well filled up, so that it may be kept
warm in winter ; to fill up all the holes in its vicinity which
may contain stagnant water ; to have a good clean spring or
well, sufficient clothing, and a reasonable supply of provisions,
should be the first object of a settler's attention. But fre
quently a little wet smoky cabin or hovel is erected, with the
floor scarcely separated from the ground, and admitting the
damp and unwholesome air. All hands that can work are

HEALTH. 163
impeUed, by the father's example, to labor beyond their
strength, and more land is cleared and planted with com than
is weU tended ; for over-exertion, change in the manner of
living, and the influence of other debilitating causes, bring
sickness on at least a part of the family before the summer
is half over.
*******
" Many persons, on moving into the back woods, who have
been accustomed to the decencies of life, think it is little
matter how they live, because no one sees them. Thus we
have known a family of some opulence to reside for years in
a cabin unfit for the abode of any human being, because they
could not find time to build a house ; and whenever it rained
hard the females were necessarily engaged in rolling the beds
from one comer of the room to another, in order to save them
from the water that poured in through the roof. This cabin
was intended at first as only a very temporary residence, and
was erected on the edge of a swamp, for the convenience of
being near to a spring. How unreasonable must such people
be if they expect health !"
THE PUBLIC LANDS.
The immense body of unappropriated and unsettled lands
in this country, comprising more than 270,000,000 acres,* is
commonly denominated government lands, and in all action
upon them, both by individuals and by public bodies, legis-
* By the returns in the Land Office, dated June, 1845, which is the
latest return, the whole amount purchased of the Indians, and yet in the
hands of the Government, not granted to individuals, surveyed and un-
surveyed, amounts to 272,825,055 acres. At the time of writing this note,
a treaty, just concluded with the Potawatamis, and also another, are before
the Senate. These will probably make the amount about 300,000,000
acres.

164 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
lative or judicial, they are treated as the property of the
govemment ; — as if the govemment held them in fee simple.
Such an idea of an estate in fee in the govemment cannot,
however, be sustained upon any recognized principles of politi
cal law in this country. In England, it is trae, the doctrine for
merly obtained that the property of all the lands in the realm was
vested in the crown, and that the king might dispose of them
as pleased him, without restriction. Under our govemment
an original tenure in fee of the lands within the national do
main, has never been acknowledged as an incident of sove
reignty, or as in any way an attribute or prerogative of the
government. The government with us is considered to have
neither power, domain, prerogative, property, nor revenue, but
as trustees for the States, and expressly given by the con
stitution. Such dominion as the government have over the public
lands is not original, but acquired — it gives them not an estate
in fee, but an interest in nature of a right of possession with
a lien or mortgage, for the payment of the expenses of ex
tinguishing the Indian title, of surveying and of bringing into
market ; and that interest not in the nature of a usufruct, but
fiduciary. The Indian nations who formerly inhabited or roamed over
these lands knew nothing of separate property, nothing of
estates in fee, or less — they recognized no tenure, or investi
ture of title. Their claim was to a right of hunting. By
their treaties they give up that to the government of the United
States. And it is all they have to give. They cannot convey
more. They cannot convey what they do not possess. They
do not convey any absolute title, but relinquish their claim,
which is a right of possession merely. No person, or body
politic, or community, can convey to emother what such
person or body has not in itself : nor can any grantee acquire

PUBLIC LANDS. 165
any title by grant from another which the grantor did not
possess. What is the Indian title ? It is mere occupancy for the
purpose of hunting. It is not like our tenures. They have
no idea of a title to the soil itself. It is overran by them,
rather than inhabited. It is not a tme and legal possession.
[Vattel, b. 1, ^ 81, p. 37, and ^ 209, b. 2, p. 96. Montes., b.
18, ch. 12. Smith, Wealth of Nat., b. 5, ch. 1 .] It is a right
not to be transferred, but extinguished: regulated by treaties,
not by deeds of conveyance. It depends upon the law of
nations, not upon municipal right. [J. Q. Adams, Fletcher
vs. Peck, Cranch, vol. 6, p. 121.]
But beside that the Indians have no idea of individual
property in the land, and pretend to no right but as a com
munity, and that founded on a residence or occupancy, that
residence itself is not of a permanent nature. They occupy
only till they find a more convenient spot, or till they are
driven from the one which they select by some neighboring
hostile tribe, and then seek another hunting-ground in the vast
expanse of unoccupied country before them. In this way
the Sauks have passed from the lower waters of the St.
Lawrence to the Missisippi. Their last occupation of the
mouth of Rock River and the westem bank of the Missi
sippi, was made at the period nearly of the American Revo
lution, when they were driven south by the Chippewas. It
is only about ten years ago, as stated by Nicollet, that the
northern Chippewas drove the Sioux to the south of their
old limits, and compelled them to pitch their tents some hun
dreds of miles farther, stretching to the west and south of
the Missouri.
If, however, it were otherwise, society could not allow that
a small community of 5,000 or 6,000, if civilized men,
claiming property in severalty, and' by a permanent tenure,

166 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
should occupy exclusively a territory sufficient to sustain ten
millions of people.
These lands are then in the state in which all lands are
originally, and the title to them is to be acquired in the same
way in which all titles are at first acquired, by occupancy ;
which is as good as title by deed, and better, as an original is
better than a derivative title, which all titles by deed are, and
which must be resolved ultimately to an original title by oc
cupancy. The settler, then, has a good title to these lands,
against all the world, but the government, absolute — and
against the govemment upon the condition of paying the lien
for expenses, which has been fixed at $1.25 per acre. The
government neither has, nor can it acquire, by any principle
known to the law, a fee simple in the lands. The only way
in which it can be acquired is by the settler, by occupancy.
Title by occupancy is not only a legal and valid title, but
it is the only title by which lands are or can be originally
held, except where the English doctrine holds, which gives
them to the king. In this country they are held by the law
of nature until relinquished by the bands of red men, who
have resided on them, and then, not belonging to the govem
ment as by the English law they belong to the cro-wn, are
open to the first occupier
Occupancy is the true ground and foundation of property,
or of holding those things in severalty, which, by the law of
nature, unqualified by that of society, were common to all
mankind. — Black. Com., v. 2, p. 158 ; ib., p. 8.
This is not depending on the authority of Blackstone
alone, but it is also the doctrine of Grotius, Puffendorf,
Locke, Rutherforth, Vattel, Montesquieu, Burlemaqui,
Smith, and others, who have treated of natural and political
laws. The writers upon natural law say that originally all things

PUBLIC LANDS. 167
were in common. That primarily and originally all the peo
ple who were upon the earth had an equal undivided right in
the earth and the things that were upon it. Some of these
things were by nature incapable of a property in them, that
is, of a dominion and ownership by one man, to the exclu
sion of the rest ; — such as the ocean, the air, &c., these
must remain in common. Other things are capable of ex
clusive property in an individual, as the earth. The original
community of goods in these things that were capable of
ownership would become, they say, inconvenient as mankind
increased and society progressed. Under this condition of
things, " the most effectual way," says Rutherford, "of secur
ing the peace of mankind is by introducing an exclusive pro
perty. * * * The common claim which all men origin
ally had to all things is taken away by the introduction of
property as far as this exclusive right extends. * * * *
When mankind were few in number, and lived together in
the same place, they could easily meet to divide their com
mon stock, and to assign to each other his proper share by
express consent, agreement, or compact. But after their
numbers were increased, and they were settled in different
parts of the world, very distant from one another, it became
impossible for aU of them to meet together. This method
therefore of introducing property by express consent was
rendered impracticable. Some consent, however, has been
sho-wn to be necessary to make the introduction of property
consistent with justice ; and a tacit one would be sufficient
for that purpose. Such a tacit consent is caUed occupancy.
Indeed occupancy is but one part of the act." The other
part of the act, as stated by Rutherford, is the consent of
the rest of mankind, and this consent is presumed if they do
not assert their common right and interfere with his occu
pancy.

168 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
" Upon the whole then," says Rutherford, " property can
not be introduced consistently with justice, unless by the
common consent of mankind. The consent which is neces
sary for this purpose might either be given expressly when
all mankind could meet together, and such agreement is
called division ; — or else it may be presumed, in consequence
of the future proprietor having, without molestation, taken
and kept possession of the thing which he intends to make
his own, and such a tacit agreement is called occupancy."
" But though either division or occupancy might give pro
perty in the first ages of the world, when all the joint com
moners could meet together, the way of introducing property
by division is now at an end. The great numbers of man
kind, and their remoteness from one another, have rendered
it impossible for them all to meet, and to divide the common
stock of goods, or such parts of the common stock as have
not yet been appropriated. There is therefore at present no
other method left for beginning property but occupancy only ;
all things which were not appropriated formerly, must now
be appropriated by occupancy or not at all." — Ruth. Ins.,
V. 1, p. 42 to 50.
Mr. Locke goes much farther. He does not consider any
consent, express or tacit, as necessary on the part of the rest
of mankind. But he places the right to property by occu
pancy, absolutely in the act of taking possession and improv
ing, on the ground that a man has a property in the labor of
his hands ; and this labor being bestowed on an unappro
priated thing, makes it his own.
The Indian lands in this country are in the condition as
serted by Rutherforth of all lands originally. They are
held in common. The common claim is not taken away in
them by the introduction of property. This stage of things
has not yet arrived among the Indians. Under this condition

PUBLIC LANDS. 1C9
the lands are transferred to our govemment. Before their
transfer, thousands of years before, the principle of occu
pancy as giving a title to such common unappropriated lands
has been established as a fundamental principle in the
original acquisition of property. These lands, therefore, are
a subject for the application of the principle ; and they be
come the absolute property of the individual who occupies
and improves them.
Rutherforth says that before this right of property by oc
cupancy can attach, it is necessary the " thing seized upon
should be certain and determinate." In the case of the pub
lic lands, it is always understood to be a quarter section of
the public survey. This renders' it determniate. But I
would add one other condition, and that is, that it is neces
sary also for the occupant to pay to government the expenses
of the Indian treaty and the survey. These two conditions
complied with, and I believe it impossible to establish any
other principle known to the doctors upon natural or politic
law, whereby a title to these lands can be acquired, and
wholly impossible to show any fair and solid argument
against the equity and legality of the title by occupancy, —
or the propriety of its application to the lands in question.
If Congress, unmindful of this law, and treating the pub
lic lands as if govemment had the fee in them, shall continue
obstinately to persist in the illiberal policy which they have
maintained, and which is founded no less upon ignorance of
facts, than upon error in law, the time will come when the
settlers will disregard the lien of govemment, and take pos
session of the lands without refunding the expenses of the
treaties and surveys.
A permanent pre-emption law was passed in September,
1841, by which the occupants of the public lands are secured
in their possessions — and every person being the head of a

170 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
family, widow, or single man, over the age of twenty-one
years, a citizen of the United States, or who has fUed a
declaration under the naturalization laws, to become a citi
zen, who shall make a settlement on the public lands in per
son, and inhabit and improve the same and erect a dwelling-
house thereon, shall be authorized to enter a quarter section
of 160 acres, or a less legal subdivision, at the Land Office
of the District.
The title by occupancy is thus limited by the enactment
of the legislature, which defines the extent which the occu
pancy may cover ; — and, at the same time, to that extent,
fortifies and confirms the title.
The system of public surveys is a very complete admea
surement and marking of the whole body of public lands.
As soon as the claim of the Indian occupants is extinguished,
the land is first run off and marked in township lines, which
are divisions of six miles square. Afterward the township
is divided into sections of one mile square, each section and
quarter section being marked, by blazing a tree, as the tech
nical phrase is for marking it with an axe ; or, if the comer
to be marked is in the prairie, by driving a stake and throw
ing up a sod, marking at the same time on the tree or the
stake the number of the township and section. The town
ships are numbered from south to north on a base line, and
the north and south ranges are numbered on both sides of an
arbitrary meridian, east and west. The sections are num
bered, beginning at the northeast section of the township for
number one, running west, and alternately east, terminating
with number thirty-six in the southeast corner. Section
numbered sixteen in each township is appropriated to schools,
and transferred to the States for that purpose.
Those lands not entered under the pre-emption law, are
offered at public sale, previous to which no other person, not

PUBLIC LANDS. 171
having a pre-emptive right, can purchase. After they have
been offered at public sale, they are open to every purchaser
at private sale.
The price of all the lands is fixed at a uniform minimum
of one doUar and a quarter per acre. A biU is now before
Congress, providing for the graduation of the prices of those
that have been a long time in the market. The graduation
of the price of public lands, and a liberal permanent pre
emption law, are objects of the greatest importance to all the
west. In the year ending December 1, 1844, 6,693,368 acres of
new land were offered in the market, beside a great amount
that was then on hand that had been previously offered : of
this amount 1,747,158 acres were sold, mostly in small sub
divisions of 80 and 160 acres — an excess over both the
preceding years. In 1843, the number of acres sold was
1,605,264. There has been a great misunderstanding on the part of
the executive branch of the government, in relation to the
value of the mineral lands. Mr. Spencer, when Secretary
of War, in his annual report (1843 ?) stated the value of the
mineral reservation in the lead district at $50 per acre ! ! !
and recommended their sale at an extravagant sum ($20) as
the minimum. Now, the statement already made of the
annual proceeds of these lands, shows them to be of no
greater value than farming lands ; and if they were put up
for sale to-day, at the minimum of $1,25 per acre, a great
portion of them would remain unsold. A law has passed
Congress at the present session to offer these lands for sale
at a minimum of $2,50 per acre. Under this law but a
small portion of the mineral reserve will be sold to actual
miners, who know its value, though perhaps a good deal may
be disposed of to unwise speculators.

172 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
The proposition has sometimes been suggested of ceding
the public domain to the States respectively, in which it is
included, at a certain price per acre (say 50 cents, or what
ever the net proceeds may be under the control of the United
States govemment), to be paid on the receipt of the proceeds
of sale. The advantages of this plan would be, reducing
the patronage of the national executive very considerably ;
and giving to the State governments in some degree the con
trol of the lands ; who would have power to modify the
policy of the land system so as to favor or retard the settle
ment of their own State. The obje(;tions to it, among others,
would be that it might lead to collisions between the State
and National governments, and that the stipulated price (of
50 cents per acre) would never be paid to the United States.
This last objection could be obviated by making the land
officers bound to the United States, as well as to the State,
and requiring them to pay its portion immediately to the
United States, without first going into the State Treasury,
and giving an action against them to the United States for its
recovery. Perhaps such provisions would exclude also the
danger of collision between the general and the local govern
ments. One other benefit would arise from it. It might be
managed with better understanding, and more economy, by
the State governments, and some revenue saved by them for
improvements. Under such a plan, moreover, the difficulties attending the
settlement of conflicting or doubtful claims, would easily be
overcome. There are now between one and two thousand
cases of suspended patents, or undecided claims, in the land
office, many of which have remained so for years, and which
never can be settled without additional legislation of Con
gress. The number of land officers in the United States is
134, subject to reappointment every four years, in the eight

PUBLIC LANDS. 173
surveying districts, and sixty-three land offices ; beside sixty
or seventy officers and clerks in the City of Washington.
AU this executive patronage may be dispensed with by the
proposed system, except about a corporal's guard at Wash
ington. The knowledge that would be brought into the
administration of the land laws by the change, would be a
great consideration. By the intimate knowledge which the
State Governments have of this interest, a standard for the
graduation of prices might be attained, much more accurate
than that of mere time. If the surveys were made under
the authority of the States, a farther economy may be made
in that part of the business, probably. But if the surveys
should be made by the United States, the eight Surveyors
General, and a large number of officers at Washington, could
not be dispensed with.

PART V.

INDIANS.— MONUMENTS.
The Indian tribes now inhabiting the country under our con
sideration are the
Chippewas, inhabiting the country toward the sources of
the Missisippi, above St. Peter's, and toward Lake Supe
rior. With a small band of less than 200 inhabiting about
Black River, they amount to - - 7,780
The Menominies in Wisconsin, - 2,508
The New York Indians, " - - 3,293
Oneidas of Green Bay, - - 720
Potawatamies of Huron, - - - - 100
Stockbridge of Green Bay,  207
Stockbridge and Munsee, - - - - 388
Dahcotahs (Sioux), - - 25,000
Winnebagoes, - ...- -2,183
Potawatamies, .... . 2,200

44,379
Perhaps the Oneidas, Stockbridge, and
Stockbridge and Munsee are included in the
New York, and if so, they are repeated, and
there should be deducted from the above - - 1,315

43,064

The whole number is therefore, in that case, about 43,000.
Of these the greater part, the Sioux, Potawatamies, and the

176 NOTES ON the NORTHWEST.
Chippewas of the Missisippi, amounting to about 35,000, are
at a distance from the white settlements, and have but little
intercourse with them ; and about 8,000 or 9,000 are near
the whites, and either reside among them or frequently visit
them. The Sauks and Foxes, about 2,000, left this district
last fall, for the land allotted them by the government south
west of the Missouri. There are several small tribes on the
west bank of the Missouri ; and high up that stream the
Mandans, Arikarees, and Blackfeet, occasionally pass east of
the river, and roam over parts of the district comprehended
within our pages. The Blackfeet reside partly within it.
The early French travellers to this region mention many
tribes who have now disappeared ; some of whom have been
known in later times, and others who perhaps have not been
heard of except through them. — Charlevoix names the Octo-
tatas,* otherwise called Mactotatas, near the mouth of the
Missouri, and the Moingonas, on the river of that name ; also,
the Peorias, Tamaroas, Caokias, Kaskaskias, and Mitchiga-
meas, who were tribes of the Illinois ; Mascotins and the
Saulteurs of St. Marie, whose name he gives in their o-wn
language as Pauoirigwiwhac, the Nokets on Green Bay, the
Ochagras, and the KickapoOs, are frequently named, and the
Outagamis, who are the Foxes, and are now called by them
selves Muskwakas. The Isati were mentioned as inhabiting
about the Falls of St. Anthony, and perhaps have that name
by corruption from Saulteurs, which seems also to have been
applied to them. They are probably the Chippeway. It is
said by some that the name of the river Theakike was taken
from a tribe of that name. All the travellers have spoken of
the Naudoessies, so they spell it, who seem to have been the
Dacotas, the name applied to them being no other than their
* They are called by others Ottoetatas, and may be the people now called
Ottoes.

INDIANS. 177
own way of speaking Nord-ouest, the name of description
used by the French, though singularly enough, they did not
recognize it in the Indian change, but received it as an ori
ginal Indian name. It may easily be conceived how the
name became fixed on them. When they visited the French
settlements, as all the tribes in this quarter did, and described
the place of their residence, the French themselves applied
the word Nord-ouest, in reference to the situation of their
country. In their subsequent visits, to make themselves
known from the other numerous tribes who visited them, they
used the word which the French had appUed to them, as a
much more intelligible description to them than their proper
name ; and their pronunciation of it was Nordouessy. The
term thus became an appellative, which the French mistook
for an original name.
There was a tribe also called Massisagua, or Massisakwa
(for it is not easy to distinguish accurately the Indian sounds),
which is the name by which they call the prairie-rattlesnake.
The first half of the word is the same as the name of the
river, and means, great. The whole word may, therefore,
mean, great adder. The last portion of it is, perhaps, the trae
name of the tribe which we now call Sak, and Saki.*
The French make strange work in writing an Indian
name. Ottawas, they make Ouctawaks ; Wabash, Ouabache
and Ouabaskigou.
Hennepin puts down the Tintonhas on the St. Peter's, and
Hancton (Yanckton) further north on the Missisippi.
Lahontan enumerates, on Lake Huron, the Hurons,
Outawas, Nockes, Missisaugues, Attikamek, Outchipoues
(Chippewas), or Sauteurs (of St. Anthony). On Illinois
Lake (Lake Michigan), lUmois, Oumamis, Maskoutins,

See Note on p. 118.
9*

178 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
Kickapous, Outagamis, Malominis (Menominis), Pouteouta-
mis, Ojatinons,* Sakis ; and, north of Missisippi, Naudoessis,
Assimpouls (Assiniboins), Sonkaskitons, Atintons, Clistinos,
Eskimos. To the west, on the river caUed Long River,
which is St. Peter's vaUey, he mentions the Panimoha (Paw
nee Maha), now on the Missouri ; Okoros, or Eokoros, near
the mouth of Long River ; Essanapes, sixty leagues further
up the river ; and the Gnacsitares, still further up. He says :
the Eokoros had twelve viUages and twenty thousand war
riors ; and that they were much greater before their recent
wars. He describes the Mozemlek Indians to the west, on
a river which, at one hundred and fifty leagues from his place
on Long River, discharges itself into a great salt lake, three
hundred leagues in circumference, having at its mouth six
large walled towns, and many others around the lake. The
people around this lake call themselves Tahuglauk. All
this was reported to him by the Gnacsitares, and was, no
doubt, not correctly understood. The River Chayen-oju
comes from a salt water region, to the north, and empties into
the Red River, The Mozemlek may have lived on that, or
, on the Red River, which discharges itself into Hudson's
Bay. The final syllable of their name may have been
mistaken for lac, the whole name being derived from some
lake in that vicinity. There is a band called Esconabe, to
the north and east, in Canada, who may be the same as the
Essanape. Both the Mozemlek and Tahuglauk are described
as wearing beards and clothing. Charlevoix also relates that
he received information of some Indians inhabiting about the
Great Lake in the Northwest, which has been before men
tioned, who wore buttons on their clothes, and looked like
Frenchmen. I must repeat my belief in the probable occur-
* This is spelt, by Charlevoix, I think, Ouiatinons (Weatinons), and may
be the tribe of the Miamis now called Weas.

INDIANS. 179
rence of some great con-vulsion of nature, which has
destroyed both lakes and men, since that country was first
seen by the whites.
The Wahpacootas, a band of the Sioux, or Dacotas, now
dwell where Lahontan found the Eokoros ; and, higher up,
where he found the Essanape and Gnacsitares, are the Wa-
petons, another band of the same nation. Farther west are
the Yanctons, and beyond, the Teton, or Titonwan, and
Yanctoni, all bands of the Sioux. Farther in the north and
west are the Chippewas, Assiniboins, Blackfeet, Mandans,
Arrikarees, Gros Ventres, and Arripahas.
There are eleven bands of the Dacotas. Five of them are
named in the last preceding paragraph. The others are the
Medawekantons, Sisseton, Santis, Sioune, Ogallala, and
Hunkpapa. From the name of one of these bands, probably
Sioune, the French called the whole Dacota nation Sioux.
Formerly, the Assiniboins were a tribe of the same nation,
from whom they separated.
A tribe was mentioned, by all the travellers, under the
various names of Klistinos, Knistinos, and Kristinos.
The Illinois, a powerful nation, occupied the northeastern
portion of the tract comprised within our Umits, residing on
both sides of the Illinois River for nearly the whole extent
of the State, north and south, and from the Lake to beyond
the Missisippi. They were divided into several bands, under
the names of Tamaroas, Michigamis, Kaskaskias, Kahokias,
Peorias, and Moingonas. Of this numerous and powerful
nation, the only remnant is a band of Kaskaskias and Peorias,
numbering about one hundred and fifty. By long and bloody
wars with the Iroquois, before they were kno-wn to the whites,
the Illinois nation had become much reduced and enfeebled.
The cession of Louisiana by France to Spain and England,
by partition, in 1763, caused much dissatisfaction among the

180 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
numerous Indian tribes, and eventually led to wars among
themselves, which resulted, mediately, in the almost total
extinction of the IlUnois. Pontiac, a celebrated chief of some
of the lake tribes, perhaps Huron, had endeavored to stir up
all the nations of Northern Louisiana and the lakes to resist
the transfer of dominion. He was afterward murdered by a
Kaskaskia ; and, in revenge of his death, his friends made
war upon the Illinois, which nearly destroyed the latter
nation. Of the small remnant, a part were cut off by the
Sauks, in the beginning of this century. To the north of the
Illinois were the Saukis, on the Wisconsin River ; the Pota
watamis, at Green Bay, together with the small band of
Nokes ; and, further up the Fox River, the Musquakis,
called, by the Chippewas, Outagamis, now the Foxes ; and,
to the north of that river, the Menominis, who remain there
to this day ; and, between there and Lake Superior, some of
the Chippewa bands. The Winnebagos are not mentioned
by that name. Nor do we hear of the Dacotas, or of any of
that nation, by the names they now bear ; but, from the place
of residence, it is probable that those visited by Lahontan
were different bands of this nation.
The Menomini country, at present possessed by them, is
bounded by the Wisconsin River to the west, the Fox River
south, the Wolf River to the east, and on the north by lands
lately ceded by the Chippewas to the United States, by treaty
of 1842. The Nokes, at the earliest mention we have of
them, consisted only of a few families, scattered here and
there, but mostly frequenting the bay of that name in the
northwest part of Green Bay. The Malominis, says Charle
voix, have a single village only, on the river of that name.
They are a very handsome race, and the best-made of all the
nations inhabiting Canada. They are larger than the Pota
watamis. I am assured that they have a common origin with

INDIANS. 181
the Noquets and Saulters, and also a language similar to
theirs. But they say that they have also a peculiar language
of their own, which they keep to themselves. [Char., vol. 5,
p. 430.] Long says they are of a very light color, and that
even before their admixture with the French, they were
lighter than their neighbors, — and they are often called the
White Indians.
The Saukies, though small in number, are divided into two
factions, of which one is attached to the Outagamis, the other
to the Potawatamis. [Char., vol. 5, p. 432.] When the
whites first came to the St. Lawrence, the Saukis were living
in the country about its mouth. They afterward migrated to
the west, and were found by Hennepin about the bend of the
Wisconsin River. They probably extended northward to the
Chippeway grounds : as they subsequently had a difficulty
with that nation, which resulted in the removal of the Sauks
to the south, and their establishment on Rock River. It
appears, however, that in retiring south they did not yield
their possessions on the Wisconsin, which they subsequently
sold to the United States. The contest by which they were
driven from the Wisconsin to the Rock River may have been
about the time of our revolution, as Long and Maj. Marston
agree that they came to the latter place at about that period.
Here a portion of them resided at the breaking out of the
war of 1812, and still remained tiU the Black Hawk war in
1832. A part of the tribe left the Rock River settlement
about the beginning of the present century, and took up their
residence on the Missouri, where they have since remained.
Some of them have been mixed with the Potawatamis. And
the Shawnees are descendants of a seceding band of Sacs.
The main body, formerly numbering about five or six thou
sand, gave up their Rock River lands to the whites, and
removed west of the Missisippi, which cession was the cause

182 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
of the Black Hawk war. They resided between the two
rivers tUl the last fall (1845), when, according to their treaty
of 1842, they removed west of the Missouri.
Mr. Schoolcraft gives the following sketch of the contest
with the Chippewas, by which they were compelled to retire
south :
" The St. Croix River, at the faUs (says Mr. Schoolcraft),
is the battle-ground of Wahbojeeg, a celebrated Chippeway
war chief of the last century, and testifies to an event in In
dian tradition. Like most of the incidents in Indian warfare
in this region, it is connected with the restless spirit, erratic
adventure and ambitious daring of the tribes who are this
season (1832) arrayed in hostility to the settlements on the
Wisconsin. It is one of the links of the curious train of
history of the Sauk and Fox tribes who have fought their
way from the St. Lawrence thus far across the continent,
and been successively embroiled with each of the white
powers^ and perhaps with some exceptions with each of the
Indian tribes of the north. They appear by their language
and traditions to be Algonquins, and may be traced, as a
starting point, to the north shores of Lake Ontario. They
appear to have been driven thence for pei-fidy. They lived
long at, and gave the name to Saganaw. They went to the
Fox River of Green Bay, which is named after them, and
here embroiled themselves with the Menomones, the Chippe
was and the French.* They were finally driven thence by
force of arms. They fled to the Wisconsin, where Carver
* It does not appear on what authority Mr. Schoolcraft gives the above
relation. The character of the Sauks or Musquakas is not perfidious. It
is true that the Sauks, if not the Foxes, came from the lower St. Law
rence, below the lake But when the first French visited Green Bay,
prior to 1700, they found there the Outagamis or Foxes, and at the portage
the Sauks. The union of the two bands more probably occurred there,
after a contest between them for possession of the country.

INDIANS. 183
speaks of their villages in 1766 ; thence to their recent resi
dence on Rock River, and by the last tragic act in their his
tory, are confined to a limit commencing west of the Missi
sippi. We speak of the Sauks and Foxes as connected in
the gauntlet-like warfare they have maintained ; for they
appear to have been intimate allies from the earliest times.
The Indian name of the one tribe signifies those who went
out of the land* (osaukee), and the other Redearths (Mus-
kwakee), known by the nom de guerre of Foxes.
" While resident at Green Bay they occupied also Lac du
Flambeau, and extended themselves to Lake Superior, and
southwest of its shores, to the Sauk and Little Sauk Rivers
above the Falls of St. Anthony. While thus located they
seem to have fallen out with the Chippewas, and leagued
with the Sioux, whom they have of late so strenuously
fought. With the aid of the latter, at first covertly given,
they maintained the possession of the rice lakes and mid
land hunting grounds. But they were finally overthrown in
a general defeat at these falls by the combined Chippewa
bands of Lake Superior. The latter came down the St.
Croix by its Namakagon branch. They were led by Wah
bojeeg. Their spies reached the falls without having en
countered an enemy, but they unexpectedly found the Foxes
(whom they called Ootaighamees), with their allies, encamped
* Mr. Schoolcraft is probably nearly right in the etymology of the names
Sauki and Musquakie. In a note to the relation furnished by Maj. Mars
ton, at the end of Dr. Morse's Report to the Secretary of War, it is said,
that Saukie means red bank, and Musquakie yellow bank, — undoubtedly
an error. Kebesaukie is the name for peninsula. The last half of the
word therefore prqbably corresponds with the last half of peninsula, and
means island, which is " out of the land," or a place in the water, given
to them probably because of an insular residence at some time in their
history. This was my own idea of the etymology of the name before I
saw Mr. Schoolcraft's version. Mus mean red, — and he may be right in
the derivation of Musquakie.

184 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
at the other end of the portage. A partial action ensued.
It was rendered general by the arrival of the whole Chip
pewa force. It was a fierce and bloody action. The Foxes
made a resolute stand. But they were overpowered and
fled ; and they have not since reappeared in that region.
Among the slain several Sioux were found ; and this is said
to be the first actual testimony of the Sioux being leagued
with them in the war against the Chippewas. But this as
sertion is hardly reconcileable .with the date of the war in
other places. Wahbojeeg or the White Fisher, who is
noticed as the leader on this occasion, is said to have led out
seven other expeditions against the Foxes and Sioux. He
died at Chegoimegon, in Lake Superior, in 1793."
The Sauks and Foxes took no part in the war of 1812.
A body of them left their place on Rock River, and went to
the Lake and offered their services to the British. But tak
ing disgust at the atrocities of some of the allies practised
upon the Americans, they soon returned to their village, and
remained inactive during the war.
They are generally a tall, well-made people, with faces
expressive of more intellect than would be found in an equal
number of whites taken by chance, even with the advan
tages which the latter possess in education. In character
and manners they are very respectable and dignified. Brave,
pacific, hospitable, honest and generous ; the condition of
civilisation, the habit of industry and the discipline of educa
tion, would make them equal to the best men in any country.
Their ideas of the social duties are very good ; and it is the
custom for one of their principal men to go through the vil
lage daily, at sunrise, exhorting all to do good. Wennebea,
who accompanied Maj. Long, was a Sauk of a reflecting and
judicious mind, and of a moral disposition.
Major Long says, with a view to ascertain what were

INDIANS. 185
their (the Sauk) ideas of moral exceUence, we asked Wen
nebea what, in their opinion, constituted a good man. He
immediately replied, that, "in order tobe entitled to this
appeUation an Indian ought to be mild in his manners, affable
to aU, and particularly so to his squaw. His hospitality
ought to be boundless. His cabin, as weU as aU that he can
procure, should be at the disposal of any one who visits him.
Should he receive presents, he ought to divide them among
the young men of his tribe, reserving no share for himself.
But what he chiefly considered as characteristic of a good
man, was to be mild and not quarrelsome when intoxicated.
*****
" It is the duty of a good Indian to offer sacrifices to the
Master of Life. The business of men consists in hunting,
fighting, building their lodges, digging their canoes, taking
care of their horses, making wooden spoons, &c. ; while it
is the duty of the women to hew wood, to carry water, to
plant and raise corn, to take care of their families, and, in the
absence of the men, they must attend to their horses, build
their lodges, &c. Man's chief and best occupation is hunt
ing. He will never fight unless aggrieved by his enemies,
in which case it becomes his duty to resent the injury. A
good hunter is held in high esteem, and will obtain as many
wives as he chooses, because they know that he can support
them, but the good warrior is esteemed the first man in the
nation. " A woman, in order to deserve the appellation of good,
ought to be endued with most of the qualities which consti
tute virtue among civilized females. To be obedient' and
affectionate to her husband is her first duty. Kind to all her
children, partial to none : affable and courteous to all men,
avoiding however the appearance of familiarity with any.
Her chastity should be inviolate, even at the risk of death.

186 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
She ought to be industrious, in order that her husband may
be wealthy, and able to extend his hospitality widely.
*****
" Wennebea thought that when the Master of Life made the
white man, he gave him the power to improve in knowledge
and the arts : he taught him how to manufacture all the arti
cles that he wanted, such as cloth, guns, &c. To the red
man he gave nothing but his bow and his dog, intending him
therefore for no other occupation than that of hunting.
" This appeared to be a favorite idea with Wennebea, and
from it he drew the inference that the red man was predes
tined to remain stationary, and to live by hunting.
" There is probably a similar system of ethics to that above
explained by Wennebea, adopted by most of the red nations
in the valley , though there is a diversity of national traits ;
and the habits and conduct of all may not conform equally
well with the standard fixed by their principles. There is
also, of course, every shade of individual character, as among
the whites. It is very common for white men who go among
the Indians, or meet with them, to judge of the character of
the tribe or nation from the character or act of an individual ;
and the traveller who loses any of his chattels among a com
pany of red men, reports the nation to which they belong as
a nation of thieves. That is as sensible and just as if a
party of Indians on a visit to Washington, or New York,
should be robbed of some article, and upon that circumstance
should say that the Americans were a nation of thieves.
" The red man has usually a great deal of sagacity, shrewd
ness, cunning, and practical wisdom, in part resulting from
his want of education. The same thing is observable from
the same cause in the white man. Those who study men
instead of books, acquire a greater sagacity than those who
read much, for the reason that they who devote their time to

INDIANS. 187
books, have the less for observation of men ; — and those who
meddle not with books, have no object upon which to direct
their observation but men, apart from their attention to their
particular art or pursuit.
" Early in the 18th century a French trader, who went out
to the country of the Missouris, made them acquainted with
fire-arms, and sold them gunpowder and muskets. With
these new weapons their success in hunting was greatly
increased, and they obtained plenty of game and much fur.
Another trader went to them afterward with gunpowder, but
the Indians being supplied did not wish- to purchase. The
trader invented a plan to sell his stock to them. The Indians
inquired how powder was made in France. He made them
believe that it was sown in grounds similar to their prairies,
and that they had crops of it, as of some grain which was
known to the Indians. The Missouris were pleased with
the discovery, and sowed their gunpowder, and were obliged
to buy of the Frenchman all he had, to make up their supply
for hunting. The trader did not remain tiU harvest : but the
Indians soon found out the trick. Fearing to return himself,
the Frenchman sent his partner out with goods to trade with
the same people, as the profits of this traffic were too great
to be abandoned. The Indians found out that he was asso
ciated with the one who had duped them. They gave him
the pubhc hut in the middle of the village to deposit his
goods in, and when they were all opened and unpacked the
Missouris came, and those who had bought gunpowder of his
partner took some of his goods ; and the Frenchman found
himself soon relieved of his stock in trade, but without re
ceiving an equivalent. He complained to the chief, who told
him with great gravity and dignity that he should have jus
tice done to him, but for that purpose he must wait for the
gunpowder harvest ; that his subjects had no means at pre-

188 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
sent of paying, but that after that harvest was over, he might
rely upon the word of a chief, he would order a general hunt,
and that the skins that should be taken, should be used to
pay him for his goods, and for the important secret his part
ner had communicated to them." [Bossu, i., 146, et seq.]
The Dahcotahs are the most numerous, powerful, and
warlike people east of the mountains, within the limits of the
United States, except a nation called Pagans, who exceed
them in numbers, but do not equal them in spirit and military
power. They seem to have been at all times ready to lend
their arm and draw a bow for other tribes, not as Swiss, nor
requiring aid in return, but from a love of war. We find
them going in aid of the Foxes to the attack on the Missiga
mis, about 600 or 700 miles ; and again, a few years subse
quent, taking part with the Sakis in that war with the Chip
pewas, when Wahbojeeg compelled them to leave their
residence on the Fox and fix their wekeab on Rock River.
They are the dread of all their weaker neighbors. They
have, at several times within a few years, been embroiled
with the Chippewas, the Poles of the north, whose wont is
to stand, without regard to odds, and to fall every man on his
track, rather than to fly. Besides the Chippewas they have,
within a few years, had a difficulty with the Saukies, and
they are now in hostility with the Potawatamis, Ottoes,
Omahas and Pawnees.
The Chippewas, small in person, and of a quiet and meek
aspect, have an indomitable spirit, and a prowess that shrinks
from no encounter. They are greatly inferior in numbers to
their neighbors, the Dahcotahs, and are moreover disunited
and scattered, a part of them being joined to the Ottawas,
and living east of Lake Michigan : that part within our
limits being less than 8000.
The Winnebagoes, called by themselves Oshungulas, ac-

INDIANS. 189
cording to Maj. Marston, are poor, indolent, and filthy in their
persons. They have the hatred of their white neighbors,
who suspect them of taking their hogs, and, whether with
or without cause, have fixed upon them the imputation of
pilfering. They are on very good terms with the Dahcotahs,
and of course fear not to be drawn into a quarrel with any of
their neighbors.
The Potawatamis, though living at a distance from the
whites, have less of the Indian characteristic than most of the
other tribes. They are peaceably disposed, domestic in their
habits, and some of them clothe themselves in the manner
of the whites, especially the half-breeds.
The lowas formerly inhabited a part of the country between
the two rivers. They have now gone over the Missouri.
They call themselves, as stated by Mr. Marston and others,
I-ho-wa. They have a bad character. To questions put by
Maj. Marston to the Sauks and Foxes, they answered that
they were in alliance with the lowas ; stating, as a reason for
it, that they were a bad people, and it was better to have their
friendship than their enmity. The answer shows that the
Sauks are, in their politics at least, very much like some
other politicians that we know of.
In the Indian character generally there is the like diversity
as among the whites. There are, however, some traits that
are prevalent not only in tribes and nations, but which appear
to belong to the red man wherever he is found, from the
mouth of the St. Lawrence to the Rocky Mountains, and from
the Gulf to lat. 49°. I believe it is common to them all to
make the performance of their promise depend upon con
venience and interest. This may be regarded as an Indian
trait : though there are many of them who are faithful to their
promises, under all circumstances, even to death.
The stories of Winona and of Ampato Sapa show that the

190 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
female is capable of the heroism of love, of constancy, to
death, and of a nature sensitive in extreme.
The history of former days, and occurrences of recent date,
show that the warrior is possessed not only of animal courage,
but of the truest heroism, and fortitude almost superhuman.
The deeds that are related of Pontiac, the descent of the
allied Sioux, Sakis, and others, upon the Illinois in 1752, and
the contest of the Chippewas with the Saukis, and other
events of past time in the Indian annals, show that they have
not been surpassed in bravery by warriors of more enlighten
ed nations. And the instances of recent occurrence show
that the spirit of former days still lives with them.
Three years since a small party of sixteen Delawares and
one Potawatami were hunting on the neutral ground between
the Missisippi and Missouri. When they were about leaving
their camp one morning, they were fired upon by a large party
of Sioux, and some of their number wounded. They told the
Potawatami to make his escape if he chose, but that they
intended to fight by their wounded men, as long as one re
mained alive. They did so, and only the Potawatami es
caped to tell the story.
More recently, a party of fifteen, of the same tribe, who
were trapping otter on the head waters of the Kansas, were
attacked by a large party of Sioux and Chiens. The Dela
wares stood their ground until the last man was killed. They
are, says the Superintendent, the bravest of the brave. With
this excess of courage, they are extremely forbearing, slow
to resentment, and acting generally on the defensive.
Mr. Schoolcraft, speaking of the Indians of Cass Lake,
says the Indians approached in their canoes in a body, with
a welcome, which could hardly have been more cordial had
we been old friends. They represented their residence to be
on a large island bearing southwest from the entrance (Col-

INDIANS. 191
caspi, or Grand Island). On approaching it a number of
Indians were observed running across an elevation and point
ing to a bay beyond. It was the best place of landing. They
were assiduous in directing the men to the spot. They
ranged themselves along the shore, fired a salute, and then
came eagerly to the water's edge, giving each one a hand as
he alighted from the canoe. He who has formed his estimate
of an Indian from the reading of books, in which he is de
picted as, cruel and morose, without any insight into his
social character, need only to be ushered into a scene like
this to be convinced that he has contemplated an overshadow
ed picture. We found these Indians to be frank, cheerful,
and confiding.
The present condition of the Indians in this region is very
favorable. They have generally lands of most exuberant
fertility, have farmers and blacksmiths residing among them
by appointment of government, receive large annuities of
money and goods, and have schools and religious instruction
also provided at the expense of the government. Some of
them cultivate the land, and are beginning to evince a taste for
the arts and condition of civilized life. The Stockbridges
and Brothertowns, living near Lake Michigan, have been na
turalized, and become citizens of the United States. The
Oneidas are improving their condition. Many of them are
good farmers, and possess the comforts of civilized life.
They attend church. The Chippeways, Dahcotahs, and
Winnebagoes have schools. The Pottawatamies and Meno
minies are without any. The Sauks also had a provision for
schools in their treaty of 1832. The govemment have also,
in some of the treaties, stipulated for the establishment of
mills, and these are maintained in some of the tribes, in ad
dition to the farms and blacksmiths. Annual reports are
made to the government by the agents, of the numbers and

192 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
condition of the Indians, accompanied by statements of the
teachers, which show great numbers of the children are in
attendance on school, and derive much advantage from it.
The condition of the Indians would no doubt be much im
proved if the operation of the laws were well understood, and
their influence upon the circumstances and upon the disposi
tion and character of the Indian were appreciated by those
having the power' to change them. But unfortunately, those
who see them, if they are disinterested, are without the power
to remedy them. If one not bearing official relations to the
govemment or the Indians, should offer his counsel and com
municate his knowledge to the proper department, it would
not be well received ; and even if the Superintendents sug
gest any change, the evils that are described are not perfectly
understood by persons whose lives have been always passed
at a distance. It is as difficult to make such comprehend the
condition of matters among the Indians, as it is to make a
foreigner fully understand in a few words the working of our
political system. A few men who understand them, it is
true, do get into Congress, but all attempts to set matters
right, if made, are overpowered by the great majority who do
not understand them, and who cannot be made to understand
them by the discussion had upon them on the floors of the
capitol. The same difficulty is in the way of a proper dis
position of the public lands. A Secretary of War, some three
or four years since, recommended that the mineral reserves
should be sold at a minimum of $20 per acre ; while
those acquainted with them well knew that if offered at $1 .25,
the great body of them would remain in the hands of the
government. This defect of a practical knowledge in those
who are called to shape the laws, has been the cause of a
ten years' war in Congress, against a permanent pre-emp
tion system, and a graduation of prices. The discussion

INDIANS. 193
upon those matters alone has cost the people hundreds of
thousands of dollars, beside a large probable loss of moneys
that would have been received into the treasury if they had
been adopted ; and at the same time injustice and wrong has
been suffered by the settler, and the business of the Land
Office uselessly increased by the examination of conflicting
claims. So long as a few traders control the intercourse and mono
polize the trade with the Indians, and the laws are shaped so
as to favor their designs and interests, the red man must, of
course, suffer wrong and injustice, in every shape which
avarice can suggest, and cunning devise, for enriching the
trader at the expense of his less adroit customer.
We are not of those who clamor against our own govem
ment, and slander our own worthy fathers, for an imagined
ill-treatment and oppression of the red man, which a morbid
sensibility only, not a discerning judgment, may perceive.
There is neither fraud nor oppression in purchasing the
Indian lands for a full value and more than any neighboring
tribe would give him. Neither is he injured by removing
him from the society of the white man to those scenes that
are congenial to his nature, and where he may freely enjoy
those pursuits which he fondly imagines will make the hea
ven of the good Indian. But, under the laws regulating
trade and intercourse with him, the red man suffers injury,
not from the govemment, but from the traders.
It is a matter of some importance, in a state of war
between the United States and any foreign nation,
that care should be taken to cultivate a good disposition
among the Indians on our borders, that our relations with
them should be pacific. To ensure this, two things are
especially to be regarded, viz.: That our laws controlling our
Indian relations be calculated to benefit and give satisfaction
10

194 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
to them ; and that the force of agents be increased. The laws
at present existing, governing the trade with the Indians, are
void of that wisdom and justice which is necessary to con
vince the Indian of the kind dispositions of our govemment.
I will refer here to one prominent feature of them. It is that
which destroys competition. Monopoly is always odious —
odious to the buying class, because, destroying competition,
it enables the seller to have his own price for his goods ; and
odious and unjust to all other persons, because it violates that
first principle in a free govemment, that the citizen is not to
be restricted of his natural rights and liberties farther than is
necessary for the good of the whole community. There is
nothing in which the violation of this principle is more prac
tically oppressive than in the restraint of trade. Trade is a
natural right, in which no man should be restricted but for a
great and palpable public good. But in no other direction or
department of trade is the principle so thoroughly odious, so
oppressive, and so likely to lead to results burdensome to the
government, and dangerous to the citizen, as in the Indian
trade. The Indian shows not his inferiority to the white
man so much in anything as in the arts of trade. Even
under the circumstances most favorable to the Indian, he will
be generally overreached by the white man. Monopoly
places him completely in his power ; free and open competi
tion compels the trader to be more moderate in his exactions,
and to relax somewhat of the horse-leech appetite which he
is at Uberty to indulge when his avarice has full play, and
which constantly grows with what it feeds on. There are
two plans of obviating the ill effects of this system of mono
poly. The first has been suggested : a free and healthy
competition. The other is, the establishment of factories by
govemment, and the sale of goods on government account, at
regulated prices and moderate profits. This last mode, as a

INDIANS. 195
matter of revenue, is not to be overlooked ; as, with the most
moderate profits, it might be made to pay the expenses of our
Indian agencies. The impositions of trade are, perhaps, the
most felt of all the oppressions to which the Indian is sub
ject. It is one of which advantage can be taken both by the
alien enemies of our government, and by citizens who feel
aggrieved in being cut off from a lucrative pursuit to which
they feel they have a right ; and by means of which the
Indian may be stirred up to acts of hostility against our people.
Another evil of the present system is drunkenness. Mr.
D. Jones, Indian Agent at Green Bay, says, in his last report
to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs : — " I respectfully call
your attention to a subject I submitted in my last annual
report, and of which I still entertain a favorable opinion. I
mean a system of suttling for the Indians similar to that of the
army. If such a system were established, it would not only
prevent, in a great measure, the introduction of whiskey
among them, besides furnishing all their wants at reasonable
prices, but would also do away with the annual collection of
large sums of money, taken from the Indians at every pay
ment, by the traders for whiskey. I am satisfied that at
least one quarter of the annuity paid to the Menominis is col
lected by traders, at the annuity payment, for whiskey."
Governor Chambers, in his last report, says : — " I have
heretofore taken the liberty, in my annual reports, to express
the opinion that our system of trade and intercourse with the
Indian tribes is, in this region of country, rapidly destroying
them ; and I repeat that they are the victims of fraud and
intemperance, superinduced by the large sums of money paid
them annually by the government, without proper guards to
protect against the superior cunning and avarice of unprinci
pled white men. The dictates of humanity, apart from con
siderations of sound policy, demand from the national legisla-

196 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
ture an investigation of the abuses practised under the present
system, and, as I believe, a radical change of ft."
Pontiac has already been mentioned, and the part he took
in opposition to the transfer of the dominion of the Illinois
country from the French to the English. He was bom about
the beginning of the eighteenth century, and died a few years
after that exchange of masters, about the year 1767, killed,
it is said, by a blow from a Kaskaskia. He seems to have
been possessed of a great degree of bravery and cruelty, if
the deeds of his savage forces and allies were countenanced
by him. He is said to have been an Ottawa, though this is
not certain. By some he is called a Huron, others say
a Sauk. He belonged to some of the tribes about Lake
Michigan, but further I have not seen an authentic statement.
He appears to have had great influence with all the tribes in
the neighborhood of the Lake, Ottawa, Huron, Miami, and
others, though his power failed to induce them to take up the
tomahawk to resist the English domination. His hatred to
the English seems to have been instinctive and invincible.
His designs were great, and his energy and boldness sufficient
for all occasions. He was not without that very frequent
accompaniment of Indian character, treachery. A hundred
men possess the qualities, where one acquires the character,
of a hero. It is necessary that accident and circumstance
concur to bring the qualities to the observation of the world.
Pontiac was favored in this respect. The nations of red
men in that quarter had not lived in harmony the most per
fect. From the Dahcotahs on the west to the Iroquois, east,
and from the Hurons on the Lake, to the Ohio, for a long
course of years, bloody wars had carried almost extermina
tion to some tribes and nations. A single generation had
witnessed the numerous and powerful lUinois nearly s-wept
from the land. This was a school to make a warrior, and

INDIANS. 197
opportunity to bring out the hero. Besides the part they had
in this savage warfare, they had joined the French in their
successive wars of this period, and had seen the military art
in its scientific and formidable shapes, with the aid of tactics
and strategy, and its attendants of cannon and all the weapons
of civilized war. Pontiac was made of the metal to improve
under this teaching, and he accordingly came out of it as good
a specimen of the Indian hero, as any other, perhaps, of
whom we have knowledge.
Muckatah Mishakiahkiah (the Black Sparrow Hawk), the
Sauk chief known in our day, usually called Black Hawk,
was in person below the middle size, of that nervous tempe-
rarfient which unites strength with activity, and cro-wns the
union of these faculties wjth courage and a spirit that seems
never exhausted, and cannot be subdued. At the age of fif
teen, on an occasion of some outrage committed upon a por
tion of the Sauks by some Indians of a neighboring tribe, he
foUowed the band of avengers, who pursued and chastised
the%e, and entitled himself to the rank of a brave. He was
frequently engaged in hostile encounters, and had become the
first warrior of the nation. Not liking the treaty of 1830, by
which the chiefs of the Sauks had ceded their lands east of
the Missisippi, and having other causes of irritation, as already
mentioned, he commenced that system of hostility known as
the Black Hawk War, the result of which is given in the
historical part of this volume. He seems not to have been
cruel or treacherous, but to have tempered his courage with
generosity and humanity. He had less opportunity than Pon
tiac to display before the whites his heroism, as he had also
not so great a school in which to leam the art of war. He
was probably the more amiable man of the two. A strong
attachment to their friends was common to both. A high
order of intellect belongs to the Sauk tribe, and a man could

198 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
not gain much distinction or influence among them without
this quality. These two warriors have obtained as much
fame as any others whose deeds were done or life passed
within the limits of these notes.
I have mentioned the error of the- laws regulating trade
and intercourse with the Indians. There is a great and radi
cal error in the plan of civilisation. The attempt is made to
reduce the roving and free spirit of the child of the forest at
once to the drudgery of a systematic, continued industry, to
the toil to which man is reconciled in the civilized condition
only by his urgent wants, and his restless desires and ambi
tion. But the red man is without the incitements, he feels
not the wants, and of course will not assume the burden end
labor, of civilized life. Why should he change his whole
habit and system of life, and giving up ease and liberty, take
to himself toil and slavery ? His condition does not requfre
it, and his nature, spirit and habits, all revolt at it. But at
the same time that he is invited to this disagreeable change,
he is impelled to an acquaintance with artificial want#, by
sending clothing, comforts, luxuries and gewgaws to him ;
and his ambition is raised by these displays, and cherished
by reading. It is all precocious and impractical. It is
like attempting to make a child walk erect at once, before it
has made the primary locomotive process by crawling.
Civilisation wiU not come per saltum. It is a creature that
neither will fly nor leap. It is the creature of artificial wants
and extra-natural appetites ; those again are the creatures of
habit, and habit in its turn is generated by circumstances.
Through aU these conditions man must pass in his progress
to civilisation. Instead, therefore, of attempting to bring
the red man at once into the unnatural state of civilisation, it
should be done by degrees. He should be placed in an
intermediate state, where the wants are fewer and the labor

MONUMENTS. 199
less intense. He should be invited to a pastoral life, rather
than to the more toilsome and more intricate and skilful
labors of agriculture. Let govemment, instead of the farm
ing implements and the articles furnished through the traders ;
and preceding the schools, give them sheep. It will not be
so opposite to their habits ; so above their skill ; or so revolt
ing to their spirit, to tend the flocks. The occupation wUl
give them an article, wool, which wiU suggest new wants,
clothing. They wUl appropriate it to those wants. Those
wants gratified, and a surplus of a valuable commodity left
to them, they wiU create new wants, and wiU exchange that
commodity for something to supply the new want, gratify the
new desire. In this way by steps they will acquire both the
wants, and the ways and means, of artificial society. But
they will neither fall nor jump into them. Some of the tribes
have indeed passed very rapidly from the wild state to civili
sation ; but a transition state is more natural, more whole
some, and wiU in the end produce greater results, both nume
rically and morally.
There is a very singular monument, or collection of monu
ments, of an unknown race, an unrecorded time, and an
unexpressed purpose, existing in this country. These are
conical elevations of earthwork standing in the prairies, or
sometimes crowned with a grove, of very regular shape,
from five to ten feet usually, in height, or sometimes more,
and from thirty to fifty or more in diameter, having a circular
base. They are usuaUy found in groups or collective
ranges, some half dozen or more being placed in line, in con
tact or close contiguity at the bases, extending usually from
east to west. By what people constructed, at what time, or
with what design, have been involved in doubt. It seems,
however, that their design must have been for receptacles for
the dead. These monuments are very frequent, and the

200 NOTES ON THE NORTHWEST.
-writer has met with them in many places, in a small compass
within forty or fifty miles of the Missisippi. Their perfect
regularity of shape, size and direction, forbid the idea of a
natural formation. It is said the present inhabitants know
nothing of them, and have no traditions, and therefore the
inference is drawn that they were the works of another race,
who had become extinct before the tribes now there possessed
the country. To my mind, however, the inference is not a
legitimate one. The Indian traditions are of the creation,
the deluge, the first appearance of rhan and woman upon the
earth, great eras connected with the formation and peopling
of the earth, and kindred to them. But of the extinction of
tribes or nations by war and pestilence, and the inhumation
of heaps slain by disease or battle, they pass down, I believe,
no story. If these were constructed but a few centuries
ago, the living descendants of the people who reared them
might be now uninformed of their date or object.
Mr. Locke has given an account of some very singular
works of this kind in the likeness of quadrupeds, which has
been printed in the Appendix to the Report on the geology
of the mineral district, by David Dale Owen. Mr. Locke's
account is subjoined, as a part of the Appendix to these notes.

GEOLOGY.
The country under consideration is of the secondary forma
tion, consisting of the mountain limestone group, and princi
pally, in some parts almost exclusively, of the cliff limestone.
It bears marks too distinct to be overlooked, of having been
once submerged. The shape and peculiar smoothness of the
surface at once gives this idea, which is confirmed on inspec
tion, by finding among the superior strata near the surface,
stone composed wholly of fossil marine shells. The uniform
slope of the land, also, is another evidence of the same fact.
This feature has been mentioned in describing the physical
geography. It is about as regular from the Gulf to St. Pe
ter's, as the bed of the sea upon one of our sand beaches,
and in the whole distance of more than 1000 miles, does not
much exceed a rise of 1000 feet, or one foot to a mile. At
the sources of the Missisippi and St. Peter's, we reach the
height of land between the Gulf and Hudson's Bay, the
waters of Red River, which run into the last, starting almost
in contact with the two others. Indeed the passage can be
made in boats at seasons of high water, from St. Peter's to
Red River. It may be therefore regarded as a certain fact,
10*

202 APPENDIX.
that formerly the sea covered this whole valley, from the
Gulf to Hudson's Bay, dividing North America into two con
tinents, of one of which the Alleghany, of the other the
Rocky mountain range formed the nuclei. This would seem
to be at a very remote period, as there are indications that it
has been inhabited at an antediluvian period. Pieces of
pottery have been found in different places, more than fifty
feet below the surface, in digging wells : and this position
can hardly be accounted for, without supposing a great dis
turbance of the upper strata of the earth, and also a con
siderable lapse of time. There is a very abundant deposit
of coal in several portions of the valley : beside the large
Illinois coal field : generally regarded as evidence of an ante
diluvian vegetation. According to Mr. Guion, there are
large beds of coal on the Des Moines. The erratic deposits
are found upon the surface upon very distant points in this
region. They are mentioned by Nicollet upon the Tchan
sansan and Tchankasndata, as well as high upon the St.
Peter's , and the author has observed them upon the Wabe-
sipinicon. Mr. Schoolcraft says the rock on the southern
shore of Lake Superior consists of granite, slate, and sand
stone. The country bordering on the Missisippi, within the inha
bited portions of Iowa, and below, is chiefly a mountain
limestone. In some localities, as already mentioned, are
strata of fossil cretaceous formation, composed mostly or
whoUy of sheU. At the top of the bluff at Burlington, at
about 150 or 200 feet above the mark of high water at the
usual stage of the river, covered only with a thin layer of
chert and vegetable mould of a few inches,^ is an encrinitic
limestone which may, from appearance, be altogether of this
shell. And, at Iowa City, the same shell composes a very
soft, fine-grained marble of a dingy-white color, which re-

GEOLOGY. 203
ceives a fine poUsh, and is a highly ornamental and valuable
stone. There is also a soft, black, variegated marble, like
the Egyptian, and some other marbles in the southem por
tion of Iowa, between the Des Moines and Iowa. In some
parts of this district bituminous coal has been found, and on
the east side of the Missisippi is an extensive bed. Further
north, about the Wabesipinicon, is a region of iron, then the
great bed of galena or sulphate of lead, and in the farther
north the copper district. This is probably the richest
mineral region in the world ; and to the geologist and mine
ralogist, an extensive and profitable field of research. The
banks of the Missisippi contain great quantities of the pre
cious stones, which are washed out by rains and carried
do-wn by the stream. In some places, within four or five
years, the writer has found some very beautiful agates and
comeUans in the streets of the to-wns ; and, in a stroU of an
hour on the shore, has loaded his pockets with them.
There are several very accurate and complete descriptions
of the geology of this country. And, instead of attempting
to give my own account of it, I shaU embody in this part of
my work the published account of Long, Owen, and Nicol
let, &c., which, together, include the greater part of the
country which is the subject of this volune. My own obser
vation of the country, geologically, being very cursory and
partial, and the survey of these gentlemen, aU scientific men,
furnishing a very satisfactory description of the country in
this respect : I transcribe their observations in extenso, Mr.
NicoUet's observations extended over a large portion of this
region, and his remarks below give us the result in several
different localities. He says : "'
" The region comprised within my map is covered by a
species of deposite of the kind for a long time kno-wn by the
name of diluvium ; but, as this word implies a theoretic idea

204 APPENDIX.
as regards the accumulation of such deposits, the cause of
which is still open to controversy, it is now very generaUy
abandoned, and the designation of erratic deposits, among
others, adopted in its stead. I have, therefore, used the
latter expression, as comprehending a vast deposit of sand,
gravel, pebbles, clay (arranged in zones, and occupying
almost always the bottoms), and masses of rocks transported
to a distance from their original position, usually called erra
tic blocks. This deposit always occurs between the vegeta
ble soil and the rocky strata of all ages that constitute the
geological basis of each section of country. To the north
and to the south of the westem portion of Lake Superior, as
far as the upper half of St. Peter's River, it overlies prima
ry rocks ; south of the St. Peter's, to the west and east of
the Missisippi, it covers silurian rocks ; whilst, on the Upper
Missouri, it rests upon a cretaceous formation, everywhere
mixing itself with the detritus of the rocks in place. The
thickness of this deposit is very variable ; sometimes only
quite superficial, and, when of a more important character,
from 150 to 160 feet in depth. It is met with, indifferently,
with its erratic fragments, on the summits of hills, on the
upland plateaux, over the plains, and in the valleys. It has
contributed towards levelling the original irregularities of the
soil, by filling up hollows ; or varied them, by transporting
over the country new materials ; whilst the subsequent action
of water and weather has further brought about its charac
teristic features.
" The erratic blocks of this deposit are not generaUy
rounded, but they are still boulders. Those which have the
rounded appearance, most usual to boulders, among a great
many that I had an opportunity of examining, owe it to their
exposure to the atmospheric agents which have worn them
down. This is made evident by examining those portions of

GEOLOGY. 205
them which are buried in the soil, and, in this way, protected ;
thefr angles and corners show but little erosion. On the
other hand, wherever there is a deposit of pebbles, its origin
may be easily traced to local causes that have acted long
after the arrival of the erratic deposit now under considera
tion. " It is difficult to determine the direction whence the ma
terials of the erratic deposit came. The presumption is,
judging from the nature of the erratic blocks — the analogues
of which are found in higher latitudes — that they were
brought from the north to the south.
" On the borders of the great lakes, on the flanks of vaUeys,
and where traces of recent floods are apparent, the erratic
blocks are in great abundance. Their size varies from a few
inches to a few cubic feet ; yet this seems to bear no relation
to the distance whence they are supposed to have come. On
the contrary, it appears that the largest are often found in the
highest spots, and at a greater distance from their origin. I
did not find them more abundant on the northem slopes of
hills than on the southern. Their oryctognostic distinctions
are — granitic sienite, resembling the Egyptian red granite ;
a true sienite, with white feldspar ; a granite, with a large
proportion of feldspar ; gneiss, amphibolite, red jasper, quartz
pebbles, and a great variety of agates and cornelians. These
last are carried off by the streams, and scattered in great
numbers over the shores of the Missisippi and Missouri ; but
they have no value, and are collected by travellers merely as
reminiscences. The sand and gravel are composed of the
small fragments of all these rocks ; the sand, though varying
according to places, being principally siliceous. It is this
sand which constitutes the predominant ingredient in the soils
of the whole region embraced in the map, modified according

206 APPENDIX.
to localities by the presence of carbonate of lime, magnesia,
oxide of iron, &c.
" The uplands that border on the rapids are based upon
the mountain or carboniferous limestone, as the contained
fossils indicate. The limestone, of a dirty color, and much
broken up, is the matrix of numerous siliceous and calcareous
geodes. These fine geodes, picked up by all travellers, are
found on the banks of the rapids, having fallen from the
adjoining bluffs. Within a few years, there has been a road
opened leading to Warsaw, and, being cut off from the bluff,
has exposed to view the stratum in which the geodes occur,
and their position therein. They are observed to be slightly
compressed, thefr greater axes being parallel to the stratifica
tion of the limestone, which is horizontal. As I have col
lected a number of them, I- shall describe, mineralogically, a
few of those that have appeared to me the most interesting in
their mineral association, viz.: —
1 . SUiceous geodes, the cavity of which is filled with pris
matic crystals of limpid quartz (quarz hyalin).
2. Siliceous geodes, filled with crystalline quarz, the pyra-
midical terminations of which are of a red color.
3. Siliceous geodes, filled with crystallized calcareous spar
(variety, en tete de clou of Haiiy).
4. Silico-calcareous geodes, with rhombic calcareous spar.
5. Silico-calcareous geodes, with confusedly crystallized
calcareous spar.
6. SUiceous geodes, enclosing calcareous spar and crystaUine
sulphuret of zinc.
7. Siliceous geodes, containing mamelonated chalcedony, of a
red color.
" These geodes vary in size from four or five inches in
diameter to twelve or fifteen.
" The following section exhibits the several subdivi-

GEOLOGY. 207
sions according to mineralogical and oryctognostical distinc
tions of character at Burlington, and in the descending
order : —
1. Superficial soil . . .
2. Chert - ....
3. Yellow limestone, with spatic encrinites and
productae - ....
4. Calcareous argillaceous marl, with few fossils
5. Siliceous limestone .....
6. Oolitic limestone, with productse ...
7. Bluish clay - ....
8. Yellow compact limestone . - - -
9. Compact siliceous limestone, with veins of cal
careous spar - - - -
10. Oolitic limestone .....
1 1 . Saccharoidal blue limestone, with veins of cal
careous spar, and impressions of small orthis
and strophomena . . . - .
" The valley of the ' Red Pipestone' extends from N.NW.
to S.SE., in the form of an ellipsis ; being about three miles
in length, with a breadth, at its smaUer axis, of half a mile.
It is cradle-shaped, and its slope to the east is a smooth
sward, without trees and without rocks. Its slope to the
west is rugged, presenting a surface of rocks throughout its
whole length, that form a very picturesque appearance, and
would deserve a special description if this were the place to
do so. But I am now more particularly interested in defining
its geological features.
" The principal rock that strikes the attention of the
observer in this remarkable inland bluff is an indurated
[metamorphic) sand-rock, or quarzite, the red color of which
diminishes in intensity from the base to the summit. It is

25 feet.

2

a

10

(C

3

li

2

ii

2

(f

3

ii

3

ii

8

a

I

ii

1
2

a

208 APPENDIX.
distinctly stratified ; the upper beds being very much wea
ther-worn and disintegrated into large and small cubic frag
ments. " The whole thickness of this quarzite, which immediately
overlies the bed of the red pipestone, is twenty-six and a half
feet. Its strata appear to have a small dip to the NE. The
floor of the valley, which is higher than the red pipestone, is
formed by the inferior strata of the quarzite, and, in the
spring of the year, is most generally under water ; the action
of which upon the rock is apparent in the great quantity of
fragments strewn over the valley, so as to render it uncom
fortable to walk over them. The creek, by which the valley
is drained, feeds, in its course, three distinct small basins, at
different elevations, that penetrate down as far as the red
pipestone. " This red pipestone, not more interesting to the Indian
than it is to the man of science, by its unique character,
deserves a particular description. In the quarry of it which
I had opened, the thickness of the bed is one foot and a half,
the upper portion of which separates in thin slabs, whilst the
lower ones are more compact. As a mineralogical species,
it may be described as follows : compact ; structure, slaty ;
receiving a dull polish ; having a red streak ; color, blood
red, with dots of a fainter shade of the same color ; fracture,
rough ; sectile . feel somewhat greasy ; hardness not yield
ing to the nail ; not scratched by selenite, but easily by cal
careous spar ; specific gravity, 2.90. The acids have no
action upon it ; before the blow-pipe it is infusible per se,
but, with borax, gives a green glass.
" According to Professor Jackson, of Boston, who has
analysed it, and applied to it the name of catlinite, after Mr.
Catlin, it is composed of

GEOLOGY.

" Water

_.

8.4

Silica - - .

.

- 48.2

Alumina - . . -

.

- 28.2

Magnesia ...

.

- 6.0

Peroxide of iron

.

- 5.0

Oxide of manganese

.

- 0.6

Carbonate of lime

.

- 2.6

Loss (probably magnesia) -

-

- 1.0

209

100
" But Professor Jackson assimilates it to the agalmatolite,
from which it differs, however, very materially by its general
aspect, its conduct before the blow-pipe, and its total insolu-
bUity in sulphuric acid.
" Another feature of the Red Pipestone Valley, is the oc
currence of granitic boulders of larger size than any I had
previously met. One of them measured about 60 feet in
circumference, and was from 10 to 12 feet thick. They are
strewed over the valley, in which it is remarkable that there
are no pebbles.
" On the left bank of the Mankato, six miles from its
mouth, in a rocky bluff composed of sandstone and lime
stone, are found cavities in which the famed blue or green
earth, used by the Sioux as their principal pigment, is
obtained. "As I did in the case of the red pipestone described
above, I will state the mineralogical characters of the Indian
blue earth, or clay. It is massive, somewhat plastic, emits
an argiUaceous odor when breathed upon ; — color, bluish
green; easily scratched with the nail when formed into
hardened baUs. The acids have no action upon it ; it is
infusible before the blow-pipe, but loses its color and becomes
bro-wn. This color is due to the peroxide of iron, which it

210 APPENDIX.
contains in the proportion of ten per cent, at least. It con
tains no potash, and but a smaU proportion of lime. It is a
very different mineral from that described by Dr. Thompson,
under the name of pipe-clay.
" The predominant rock in this region of country to which
I am now referring — namely, from the Platte River to Coun
cil Bluffs — is the carboniferous or mountain limestone, well
characterized by the fossils, consisting principally of the pro-
ducta lobata, producta punctata, orthis, delthyris, turbinolia
fungites, crinoidal remains, &c. ; most of these genera afford
ing several new species as yet undescribed.
" This formation is a continuation of that which underlies
so vast an extent of the Missisippi Valley ; but having a
much larger development over the States that are to the east
of this river, and extending even to the AUeghanies. It is
the support of important coal-basins, and rests upon a group
of silurian rocks, beginning at the Falls of St. Anthony,
extending itself from north to south, constituting the mine
ral regions of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Missouri, and losing
itself somewhere in the State of Arkansas. This last-men
tioned group is bounded at the north by amphibolic rocks,
steaschists, and clay slates, that extend to beyond 47° of N.
latitude ; and at the south also by steaschists and clay slates,
that compose the principal rocks at Little Rock in the State
of Arkansas, and also those of the Washita mountains.
These rocks are referrible to certain members of the group
to which Mr. D'Homaluis d'Halloy has given the name of
terrain ardoisier, and have their equivalent in the series of the
grauwacke of German geologists. Thus, by this distribu
tion of the geological formations, it would seem that, more
particularly to the west of the Missisippi, the silurian group
is imbedded within the ' terrain ardoisier,' or grauwacke,

GEOLOGY. 211
just as the carboniferous series, with its coal measures, over
lies the silurian.
" From what I have so far said of the geology of the West,
it wiU be perceived that I have adopted the classification of
the older fossiliferous rocks, as laid down by its illustrious
author, Mr. Murchison. But I must confess that I hesitated
about it a long time ; notwithstanding the opinions of my
friends MM. Vanuxem and Conrad, both distinguished geolo
gists and conchologists, who had recognized among my fossils
irrecusable evidences of the occurrence of ^ silurian group
in the West. Having attached too much importance to the
term ' old red sandstone ;' seeking, in vain, over the country
that I was exploring, an equivalent for it, either mineralogical
or palaeontological, which would enable me to separate the
carboniferous from the silurian system, unless I chose to find
it in the sandstone on the St. Louis of Lake Superior, or
that of the envfrons of Little Rock, in the Arkansas ; and
riot feeling authorized to do so, from the absence of fossils —
fearing, moreover, that these rocks were actually beyond the
limits of the system under consideration, as I said before, I
could not but hesitate. However, having recently become
acquainted with the learned papers read in 1840 before the
Geological Society of France, by MM. Murchison and De
Vemeuil — one ' on the Devonian rocks of the Boulonnais ;'
the other ' on the importance of determining the limits be
tween the mountain limestone and the inferior formations' —
a new light was afforded me ; all my doubts were dissipated ;
and I then saw the necessity, in identifying the relative ages
of rocks, and especiaUy those separated from each other by
long intervals of country, to attend exclusively to their fossil
contents. " Starting, then, from this principle, I think I can confi-

212 APPENDIX.
dently offer indubitable proofs of the occurrence of the Devo
nian rocks on the Missouri River.
" In latitude 40° 50', and longitude 95° 42' from Green
wich, eighteen miles below Platte River, there is a locality
known by the name of ' Five Barrels Island.' Opposite to
that group, and on the right side of the river, a bluff, at the
termination of a series of rocky banks, is separated by a
small creek from another series called C6tes de la Platte.
At the base of the bluff there is — '" " .- ,
" 1st. A compact argillaceous limestone of a bluish color,
from one to two feet thick ; soft under water, but hardening
when exposed to the air ; it weathers into thin plates, pre
senting an uneven surface ; on which there are impressions
of euomphali, but too indistinct to be specified.
" 2d. A compact argillaceous limestone of a yellowish-
grey color, from six to seven feet thick, containing an abun
dance of crinoidal remains, associated with beautiful and large
specimens of the cyathophyllum vermiculare of Gold. This
limestone also contains a producta and an unknown bivalve,
together with crystallized bi-sulphuret of iron agglomerated
into bullets.
" The uppermost portion of the bluffs, attaining a height of
180 feet above the river, I remarked to be shadowed by trees
over a beautiful green sward ; but I had no opportunity of
examining it particularly.
" It may be well to state here, that all such rocky banks
as the one just alluded to, noticed by Lewis and Clark, and
subsequently by Major Long, are constantly wearing away ;
so that they offer landmarks to the traveller only for a limited
period of time. But we are not to judge of their orycto
gnostical character from the detritus found below them ; be
cause this is composed not only of the materials derived
from the bluffs, but of others carried down the Missouri

GEOLOGY. 213
during its season of high waters. Among these materials is
the oft-mentioned pumice stone, which is brought down from
the upper parts of the river. I have ascertained, by a more
careful examination than had probably been given to it pre
viously, that it is not a trae pumice, but a semivitreous sub
stance, produced by pseudo-volcanoes, that I shall hereafter
describe ; the region of which is laid down upon my map.
" On the elevated prafries above the bluffs, the ' erratic
deposite ' again appears ; amongst which I found, for the
ffrst time, fragments of quartzite in every respect similar to
that of the Red Pipestone Quarrj'.
" Mr. Murchison, in his lately published Memofr, refers to
a paper by Mr. Lonsdale on the Devonian system, in which
that celebrated paloeontologist indicates the principal fossils
belonging to it ; referring, also, to the species found in Bel
gium and in France, as well as in Devonshire. In this list
of six species enumerated as belonging characteristically to
the Devonian system, I find stromboles vermicularis, or
cyathophyllum vermiculare ; and euomphalus radiatus (Gold).
The cyathophyllum vermiculare, it appears, is the only
species that is found both in the Devonshire rocks and those
of the Boulonnais. Well, now, if we take into account the
enormous distance that separates the small group that I have
just described, with its equivalent in France and in England,
will it be thought hazarding too much to detach it from the
place I had ffrst assigned to it in the lower mountain lime
stone, and bring it down to the Devonian system ?
" The group to which I am now referring, and which is at
the base of the rocky banks previously described, is very
fossiUferous, and has a great extent ; though I had no occa
sion to give it but a rapid examination. I may be permitted
to hope that naturalists more fortunately cfrcumstanced will
discover among it other characteristics by which to complete

214 APPENDIX.
an identification with its European equivalents ; thereby
stamping upon the new classification of the older fossUiferous
rocks an additional proof of contemporaneity as regards the
'Far West' of America, which will most probably be veri
fied in time over our whole globe.
" This series of rocks, then (which I feel necessitated to
refer to the Devonian system, for reasons 'stated above),
underlying those of the carboniferous system, have, conse
quently, their appropriate place above the .silurian rocks,
members of which are found beyond Wolf river, and, again,
now and then, in proceeding from bluff to bluff along the
Missouri. " The carboniferous rocks, which form a large and im
portant feature in the geology of this region, are full of
fossils, and may be said to offer a new field of exploration to
the fossil conchologist in the great number of new species
belonging to the genera producta — delthyris, orthis, stropho
mena, atrypa, favorites, &c. To indicate the numerous
localities where these fossils are variously associated with
each other, would only be multiplying a list of them — which
I cannot afford to do in a report, the scale of which hardly
leaves room to lay down the greatest geological divisions of
the country. I jvould only add, that the producta lobata, and
producta punctata, and the turbinolia fungites of Phillips,
appear to me to be the characteristic fossils of the carboni
ferous rocks in this region. They occur at localities very
distant from each other — between Five Barrels Island and
Council Bluffs ; on the Des Moines ; from Racoon Fork to
the lower rapids of the Missisippi ; in the vicinity of St.
Louis, St. Genevieve, &c., &c. At the last-mentioned
locality, on the limestone over which the creek caUed Ga-
bouri flows, the turbinolia fungites and a new species of
producta are found associated with the bellerophon hiulcus,

GEOLOGY. 215
as well as other species ; and they are all mineralized into
red chalcedony.
" The upper strata of this Gabouri limestone present a
beautiful rock with an oolitic structure, which is now quarried
for architectural purposes. It is doubtless an equivalent of
that which occurs in the Burlington group, Iowa. It extends
itself to the right and to the left of the Missisippi, to near the
Ohio river, and even through Kentucky and Tennessee. The
fossils contained in the oolitic limestone of the Gabouri are
obscure and undeterminable ; but, in other localities, this
rock has yielded pentremites pjrriformis, pentremites globo-
sus, pentremites florealis, that have been described by Say,
and a fourth species, which is new.
" I have deemed the foregoing digression necessary in
order to connect the geology of the country just described,
with a more recent formation, previously alluded to, with
which I am to meet in ascending the Missouri.
" I landed a mile or so before reaching the mouth of the
Sioux River, on the left bank of the Missouri, to examine a
rocky bank, seemingly a continuation of those apparent at
Wood's HiU. I found it to consist of —
" 1st. A carboniferous limestone ;
" 2d. An argillaceous schistose limestone.
" The rocks in this locality reach only to an elevation of
seven or eight feet above the level of the river ; and I take
notice of them here, because I am disposed to think that they
are the last representatives of the carboniferous series in the
ascent of the Missouri, and that the mouth of the Sioux
River is the tme limit in this dfrection of the old fossiliferous
rocks. "The rocks of which it (Dixon's Bluff) is composed, are
the same that constantly make their appearance on ascending
the river, at the base of the hUls which bound the valley. I

216 APPENDIX.
shaU content myself with describing them once for aU.
Moreover, to facUftate the reference which it may be neces
sary to make to the different geological divisions of a group
of rocks which I propose to consider under the name of
Dixon's Group, or Dixon's Bluff, I shall note the divisions
of this group, in their ascending order, by the letters of the
alphabet, viz. : —
" A. .'Vrgillaceous limestone, containing inoceramus bara-
bini, in great number and very much compressed, and so
arranged as to give the rock a slaty structure. This stratum
sinks below the bed of the river, and, consequently, its thick
ness is indeterminable ; that part of it above the water on the
day of my examination was three feet. Starting from this
place, and ascending the river, this rock must necessarily
disappear below the level of the water. It is, probably, more
conspicuous in the two preceding cliffs I have referred to
before, but which I had not an opportunity of examining.
The upper portions of the rock, that I did examine, contain
nodules of iron pyrites, being an assemblage of small cubic,
cubo-octaedral, and octaedral crystals.
" B. A calcareous marl, generally from thirty to forty feet
thick, but, at this spot, reduced, by a slide, to fifteen or twenty
feet. Its colors are grey, greyish-blue, and sometimes yel
low. It contains but very few fossils. I found, myself, but
one orbicula, and what appears to be a fish-scale.
" C. This is a sUghtly ferruginous clay-bank, of a yellow
ish color, with seams of selenite, and affording, occasionally,
rounded masses, somewhat resembling septaris. The sele
nite is in acicular crystals, or in its more usual form of rhombic
prisms, variously truncated.
Such are the three divisions that I have thought necessary
to make in this group of rocks, and which are always thus
associated as the river is ascended. This group is the basis

GEOLOGY. 217
of the cretaceous formation of the Missouri. The upper
sub-divisions, which I shall have occasion to establish further
up, and that are not sufficiently distinct here, will complete
an account of this interesting formation.
" On quitting Huppan-kutey Prairie, the entrance to the
Wassisha, or Vermilion River, and that of the Riviere
Jacques of the French, the Tchan-sansan of the Sioux, are
passed by in succession. In this interval, the valley hills are
at a distance, and the cretaceous formation is not easily fol
lowed up ; but, a little further on, it re-appears on the left
side, with the plateau dividing the waters that empty into the
Tchan-sansan from those that flow into the Missouri. This
upland is known as the ' Coteau des Prairies du Missouri,'
or, more shortly, ' Coteau du Missouri.'
" The elevated prairies that crown the right bank of the Mis
souri River, rise gradually in the direction of the Rocky Moun
tains, forming the northern extremity of those steppes, more ap
propriately designated the American Desert. Hence, it will be
perceived that the river has its bed deeply incased in a valley,
flanked on the left side by the Coteau du Missouri, and on
the right by the American Desert. Over a length of 235
miles, comprised within this valley, between the Ni-obrarah,
or ' Eau-qui-court' river, and Fort Pierre Chouteau, the cre
taceous formation exhibits its fullest development. It may
be satisfactorily examined at many places within this range ;
but a perfect representation of the whole of them may be
obtained, if, taking as a basis the description previously given
of Dixon's Bluff, there be added to it the modification pre
sented by some of its new members.
" I may be permitted to think that this cretaceous forma
tion is destined to occupy a conspicuous place in the history
of American geology ; and, as I am not aware that any details
concerning it are recorded, I shall now, to the exclusion of
11

218 APPENDIX.
Other matters, possibly of equal interest, say aU that I know
about it.
" It is necessary, then, in the ffrst place, to take both a
geographical and geological horizon. Thus, referring to the
map : starting, for instance, from the Wicha-pahah, or Scalp
Mountain Creek, in lat. 43° 8', and visiting, successively, as
foUows — the hiUs at the mouth of Whetstone Creek ; those
in the vicinity of Red Cedar, Snags, and Sailor's Islands ; the
Mankizitah, or White-earth River ; the American River, the
Great Bend (which is the Karmichigah of the Sioux), it wiU
be easy to understand all the circumstances about which I
shall now give an account.
" 1st. The stratum of argillaceous limestone, observed at
Dixon's Bluff, has disappeared, in consequence of the eleva
tion of the level of the valley.
" 2d. The calcareous marl, in horizontal stratification,
continues to make its appearance in escarpments, of from
thirty to forty feet, containing the same fossils — ^namely, orbi
cula and fish-scales.
" Over this bed, or rather between it and the preceding
one, there seems to be occasionally found a thin layer of
fibrous carbonate of lime, the true position of which I was a
long time in determining, as I had discovered fragments of it
only among the rubbish at the foot of the bluff. I have since
observed it in place above the calcareous marl ; and it is
interesting that it is covered with coats of a fossil, very much
resembling the gryphoea Vomer, but which Mr. Conrad has
described under the name of ostrea congesta.
" 3d. The bed C, composed of a foliated and selenitous
clay, acquires interest, as it developes itself in other localities.
Its thickness is variable. I have found it twenty feet thick ;
and its strata are divided by thin layers of a more indurated
-white clay. In these several stages, the seleniferous clay,

GEOLOGY 219
of a yellowish color at the bottom, becomes black and more
foliated in its superior beds. The selenite is more abun
dant, replacing, as it were, the white indurated clay.
" The specimens of selenite obtained from this division of
the Dixon group are worthy of notice, in consequence of the
peculiar forms that they assume — some of them presenting
the appearance of leaves of trees, beautifully and gracefully
scolloped ; which has encouraged me to venture upon a
descriptive name, as a mineralogical variety, by which to
designate them. I call them phylloidal selenite. Others are
in the usual shape of six-sided regular prisms, ' en fer de
lance," lanciform, radiating, &c.
"4th. The rock designated as D is the last member of the
trans-Missisipian cretaceous formation, as it presents itself on
the Missouri River. It is a vast deposit of plastic clay, about
two hundred feet thick, which may be considered, however,
divided into two equal parts by a stratum of argillaceous car
bonate of lime in nodules, of which I had no occasion to
ascertain the thickness. Many of these nodules, having
fallen from their original position, are met with in consider
able quantities in the beds of the ravines, and in other
places. Associated with it is a ferruginous sandstone,
which presents itself in flat polygons, on the surface of which
there are seen numerous concentric lines of great regularity,
so as to imitate the transverse sections of a tree. The same
deposit contains, disseminated through it, lumps of the yel
lowish clay of the inferior stratum, C, and enclosing leaves
of selenite, and cavities lined with concretionary gypsum.
But these lumps are more frequent in the lower half of the
deposfte than in the upper, and ffiially cease altogether to
appear. " There are also found, throughout the clay deposft, loose

220 APPENDIX.
pieces of limestone, the origin of which I will not attempt to
assign precisely, though they may have belonged to subordi
nate beds of this rock, that exist somewhere in this forma
tion. I have collected some myself ; others were brought
to me by my men ; and, as a notification to future geologists
who may travel over this region, I signalize them by their
mineralogical characters.
" 1. A cylindrical limestone, resembling arragonite.
" 2. Limestone of loose texture, yellow, crossed by small
and numerous veins of calcareous spar.
" 3. Limestone of a greyish color, with veins of calcareous
spar, and invested occasionally by dog-tooth spar. [C. carb.
metastastique of Haiiy.]
" 4. Greyish limestone, with veins of calcareous spar.
" The inferior members of the group that I have just
described contain, it is true, but rare and indistinct organic
remains. But no richer field could be offered to the fossil
conchologist than that presented by the upper portions of the
plastic clay — ^by the variety, the abundance, and the beauty
of the specimens, being nearly all new species of ammonites,
baculites, belemnites, hipponyx, cytherea, tellina, inoceramus,
&c. The species, however, which, from its abundance, and
the different signs under which it is found, would seem to me
to characterize the whole formation, is the inoceramus bara-
bini of Morton.
" This cretaceous formation may be considered, I beUeve,
as fairly exhibiting the characteristic features in the geology
of the Missouri, over an extent of country more than 400
miles in length by water, starting from the mouth of the
Sioux River, which latter river is 795 miles from the conflu
ence of the former with the Missisippi, to the approach of the
Shayen, which I have laid down on my map as the Washtey,
or Good River of the Sioux. It will be readily conceived

GEOLOGY. 221
that, as the level of the valley of the Missouri gradually rises,
there is a corresponding depression in that of the formation.
But what remains of it at the spot where I left it, conjoined to
information gathered, leads me to suppose that other traces
of it wiU be found, perhaps, not far from the Yellow Stone
River ; so that its whole extent along the Missouri, in a
generally NW. course, would be no less than 1,000 miles.
As to its western limits, without pretending to define these
positively, I may state that I have in my possession interest
ing fragments of ammonite placenta and baculite ovatus,
brought to me from the clay-banks of the upper part of
Shayen and White Rivers. It is, therefore, probable that
the extent of the formation, due W., is not less than 250 miles
by water, along which it is, probably, open to examination.
"The plateau of the Coteau des Prairies is composed, in
a great measure, of the materials belonging to what I have
named the erratic deposit, as is evidenced by the nature of
its soil, the physiognomy of the ridges and hillocks that
diversify its surface, the deep ravines by which it is flanked,
and the innumerable erratic blocks strevved over the borders
of its lakes.
" We have no data by which to determine the inferior
limits of this deposit ; still, there is reason to think it rests
upon such primary rocks as show themselves along the line
of rapids of the Upper St. Peter's, consisting of granite,
sienitic, and other metamorphic rocks. Nevertheless, over
the vast extent of this plateau, there is, apparently, but one
spot where the subjacent rock makes its appearance — and
this is at the Indian Red Pipestone Quarry, so called.
" The Falls of St. Anthony form the limits of the calca
reous deposit that characterizes the shores of the Missi
sippi from the mouth of the Wisconsin. The rocky forma
tions then assume another type, being the several varieties

222 APPENDIX.
of green stone, and finally passing into talcose slate, which is
visible at the falls of the Wabezi, or Swan,River, and the
Omoshkos, or Elk River, near their entrances.
" The most prominent geological feature of the country, on
the eastern side of the river, a little below the Pikwabik, is
a large mass in situ of a sienitic rock, with flesh-colored
felspar, extending a mile in length, with a breadth of half a
mile, and an elevation of eighty feet, known as the Little
Rock. Higher up, and still on the same side of the river,
at the foot of the Knife Rapids, there are sources that trans
port a very fine, briUiant, and bluish sand, accompanied by
a soft and unctuous matter. This appears to be the result
of a decomposition of a steaschist, probably interposed
between the sienitic rocks previously mentioned. The same
thing is observed at the mouths of Wabezi and Omoshkos
Rivers. " The geological features of the country, in the ascent of
the Missisippi, from the St. Peter's to the Falls of St. An
thony, are as follows :
" 1. Fine grained, unstratified sandstone, constituting the
base of the bluff, and ranging in thickness between sixty and
eighty feet, of a very friable character ; each grain being a
crystalline fragment of quartz. In some parts of the mass
the grains are stained with oxide of iron ; while in others
they are perfectly white. It is probable that the sand fur
nished by the latter would serve in the manufacture of glass.
" 2. A compact sublamellar limestone of variable colors,
as favra, yellowish-buff, or greyish. It contains many fos
sils, but very irregularly distributed in the mass ; some being
covered with brilliant crystals of carbonate of lime, and
others entirely mineralized. This bed is from eight to twelve
feet thick, weathering into layers of from two inches to a
foot thick; The limestone under consideration resembles

GEOLOGY. 223
much, in mineralogical characters, that which has been
named cliff limestone by Dr. Locke in his Report on the
Geology of the State of Ohio, and which has been more
recently again described by Dr. Owen in his Report on the
Mineral Region of IlUnois and of Iowa. Should the two
rocks be identical. No. 2 of the preceding section would then
be the equivalent of the Westem blue limestone of these
geologists ; with the difference, that the two rocks are here
less developed than in the other localities observed by them.
"3. Soil, consisting of sand, gravel, and clay, mixed with
the disintegration of the Umestone in place, and amidst
which there are erratic blocks scattered over the plains and
on the slopes on the hills, and which are traced to the sum
mits of the Pilot Knob.
" As it is important, in geology, to determine the precise
limits of formations, I shall add a few words on this subject.
The geological formation of St. Peter's continues to show
itself in the river of the same name, and goes on thinning
out as far as Waraju Rivei (the riviere aux Liards of the
French), and there it disappears. Hence it passes to the
head-waters of Mankato River, crosses the southem part of
the Coteau des Prairies, and finally loses itself in the Mis
souri, Sioux, and Iowa Rivers, as previously explained when
describing the extent of the cretaceous formation."
Mr. Keating, the geologist of Long's second expedition,
gives the following description of a portion of country east
of the river : —
" On the banks of this stream" (the Wassemon, one of the
upper branches of the Pectanon, as called by Long, or Peck-
tonica, as caUed by the Indians) " we observed the lime
stone in place, forming cliffs of about fifty feet in height.
The rock is in very distinct horizontal stratification ; its
structure is in many parts crystalline, or perhaps it may

224 APPENDIX.
more properly be called gravelly and sandy. It contains
many cells or cavities, some of which are filled with crys
tallizations of carbonate of lime : much white hornstone
appears disseminated throughout the mass. The hornstone
is sometimes seen to constitute small beds or layers from one
to three or four inches in thickness, which are continued for
several feet in length ; frequently also appearing under the
form of flattened irregular nodules lying in an almost con
tinuous line for a considerable distance, and with their long
or flattened side parallel to the stratification ; resembling in
this respect the disposition of the clay-iron stone in the slaty
strata that accompany the bituminous coal. Organic remains
are by no means uncommon, though they are not found as
abundantly as in some other spots of our route. They con
sist of terebratulites, encrinites, and a madreporite (Linn6) ;
the true nature of the last of these could not be ascertained
without a comparison of characters, which we were unable
to make on the spot, and which the loss of all the specimens
collected between Fort Wayne and Fort St. Anthony, has
prevented Mr. Say from making since ; the rock is of a
greyish yellow color, with a loose structure. We are aware
that some of the characters which we have given of this rock
might lead to the opinion that it resembles the mountain or
carboniferous limestone of Messrs. Conybeare and Phillips ;
and consequently that it is the same as the metalliferous
limestone of other geologists ; but we would consider this
opinion as a very hasty, not to say, an incorrect one. Although
its cavernous nature, its indication of crystallization, and its
organic remains, present an apparent correspondence with
those of that limestone as described by the Rev. W. D.
Conybeare in the excellent ' Outlines of the Geology of Eng
land and Wales' (part i., p. 353), we incline to the opinion
that this rock is of a much later formation ; we believe it to

GEOLOGY. 225
be connected with a limestone which was subsequently
observed in the Missisippi, between Prafrie Du Chien and
St. Anthony, and in which we observed an oolite and a pul
verulent Umestone similar to the calcareous ashes described
by Mr. Freisleben in his elaborate account of the formations
of Thuringen. If we compare the characters of this rock
with those of the limestone observed by Mr. Freisleben, and
described by him under the name of zechstein and rauch-
wacke, we will be surprised at the great similarity in their
appearance. The zechstein is a compact, hard and tough
limestone of an ash-grey color, passing into blackish-grey,
distinctly stratified, without however presenting any slaty
appearance, or, at least, much less so than the inferior beds.
It contains specks and some veins of calcareous spar and
gypsum ; also crystals of quartz, &c. : it likewise offers
sometimes specks of galena. It generally presents but few
petrifactions. Corallites and millepores, as well as several
species of terebratulites, ammonites, &c., have been found
in it.
" Above this compact limestone another stratum of calca
reous rock is found, which is known in the country under the
name of rauchwacke (smoky wack6). It is a limestone pro
bably intermixed with silex, of a dark grey, sometimes
blackish color, with a somewhat scaly fracture, occasionally
fine-grained, sometimes, though seldom, oolitic, hard, tough,
and filled with pores or cavities : this last feature is charac
teristic It may be observed even in those parts of the
stratum which appear most compact. The cavities are
angular, long and narrow (as in a cracked clay). The inte
rior of the cavities is lined with smaU crystals of calc-spar.
These cavities are sometimes large, being several yards in
length and breadth. He afterwards proceeds to describe the
ashes or pulveralent substance found near it. This, from its
11*

226 APPENDIX.
great simUarity to the residue of the combustion of wood, is
designated in Germany by the name of asche (ashes).
These characters, when taken into connection, appear to us
to correspond so well with those observed on the Wassemon,
on the Missisippi, and throughout the country between Rock
River and Prairie Du Chien, that we feel strongly induced
to consider the limestone of this country as analogous to that
observed by Mr. Freisleben. This Umestone is, by some
European continental geologists, referred to the Lias of
English geologists ; but we would rather refer it, with
Messrs. Conybeare and Phillips, to the newer magnesian or
conglomerate limestone of England. To this we think it
has the strongest analogy. It is probably connected, as we
have afready intimated, with the limestone situated above the
coal fields of Wheeling and Zanesville. It extends over
those parts of Ohio and Indiana where salt has been found.
It is observed cellular, cavernous, &c., on the banks of the
Wassemon. It is connected with real calcareous ashes on
the Missisippi. The presence of the oolite which was ob
served here in a single spot, does not militate against the
position which we have taken, as we find it stated by Cony
beare and Phillips (page 302) on the authority of Mr. Wynch,
that the magnesian limestone is occasionally oolitic. It pre
sents, in many of its points, the characters of the rauch
wacke, and especially the ceUular or cavernous structure.
It is seldom found very abundantly strewed with organic
remains. Its color is the pale buff, passing to the ash-grey.
In fine, the more attentively we examine it, the more closely
do we find it to connect itself with the formations of Thurin
gen, and with those which cover so extensive a part of Eng
land, and more particularly with that observed in Yorkshire
by Professor Buckland ; offering thus, as it appears to us,
a beautiful confirmation of the analogy established between

GEOLOGY. 227
the various kinds of this limestone observed in divers parts
of Europe. There is an experiment which would, as we
conceive, place the matter beyond a doubt : this would be
an analysis of the limestone, with a -view to ascertain the
quantity of magnesia which it contains, and we regret much
that the loss of our specimens has deprived us of the oppor
tunity of this analysis. But we think the case sufficiently
strong to justify us in considering this as the formation cor
responding to the magnesian limestone of England, and to
the rauchwacke and zechstein of Thuringen.
******
" The features which we observed from the Wassemon to
the Wisconsin are extremely interesting. At a distance of a
few miles northwest of the former stream, the vegetation
presented a sudden and striking change, announcing a cor
responding one in the geological character of the country.
We ascended a rough, steep, and hilly ground, which was
covered with hea-vy timber, and with a very thick underwood,
consisting principally of young oak and aspen. This thick
brushwood continued for about two miles, when we stmck
the bank of a small stream remarkable for the beauty of its
scenery, which differed from any that we had hitherto met
with. The brook runs in a deep and -narrow glen, the sides
of which are very steep, and, in some places, vertical.
They are covered, at their summit, with a dense vegetation,
which extends over the edge of the rock, and imparts a
character of austerity and of gloom to this secluded valley,
which finds not its paraUel in any that we recollect ever to
have seen.* The dark color which the water receives from
* This stream is an upper branch of the Pectanon, on its right bank,
about 8' south of lat. 43°. It may not be easily comprehended by some of
our readers, how a valley exceeding all others in austerity and gloom could
be remarkable for the beauty of its scenery. We are quoting only the

228 APPENDIX.
the deep shadows cast by the high, steep bank and *s over
hanging vegetation, forms a pleasing relief to the glare, so
uniformly fatiguing, of the unsheltered prairie. This spot
conveyed so much relief to the eye and to the mind, that the
party could not repress their delight on beholding it. The
geologist who connects a change in the nature of the subja
cent rock, with a diversity in the character of the country, or
its vegetation, would naturally find an explanation for the
new features which the country assumes, by observing that
the high banks of this glen are formed of sandstone rocks,
the nature of which we had an opportunity of studying with
attention during a great part of our journey of the 18th of
June. We observed that the sandstone is distinctly super
posed to the limestone ; that it constitutes, upon it, hills
which vary from 30 to 100 feet and upwards ; these hills
are divided by valleys, in the bottom of which the limestone
reappears in place. The sides of the hills are steep, and but
few indications of stratification are observable, except where
the valley is partly excavated in the limestone itself ; in
which case the lower part of the hill is less steep, but pre
sents a distinct stratification. The line of superposition of
the sandstone over the limestone may also be traced with
considerable accuracy,- by the examination of the vegetation.
Whenever the latter rock prevails, the surface is even and
smooth, or modified by gentle swells covered with a thick
and long grass, and forming an uniform fine green, meadow
like country, while the sandstone invariably imparts to the
surface an asperity which is as distinct as the vigorous growth
of trees with which it is covered, and as its abundant under
growth which denotes a strong and productive soil, having a
tendency to bear heavy forests.
geological facts of the author, and our readers are at liberty to differ in
matters of taste.

GEOLOGY. 229
" The rock is a white sandstone formed of fragments of
fine transparent and colorless quartz, united by a cement,
which, in some parts, appears to be ferruginous, while, in
others, it is colorless, and probably of a calcareous nature.
In some parts the cement is quite invisible, and would almost
lead to the belief that the union of the grains was a crystal
line one. This sandstone appears in fragments or tatters,
and constitutes the remains of a formation which probably
covered the whole of the limestone, at least in this part of
the country. That it is above the limestone no doubt can
exist in our minds, as we saw the immediate superposition. It
sometimes appears, it is true, to sink below the level of that
rock, and this led us, at first, to apprehend that there might
be an alternation of strata, but a careful examination of all
these spots has left no doubt in our minds, that in these
cases the sandstone is deposited in coves or valleys formed in
the limestone previous to the deposition of the sandstone.
The cases are, however, not common, and we may safely
state, as a general rule, that not only the sandstone' is rela
tively above the limestone, but that it is even, in almost all
cases, at a greater absolute elevation, and the spot at which
we ffrst met with it, west of the Wassemon, was considera
bly elevated above the usual level of the limestone ; for
wherever the sandstone has retained its position, it has pro
tected the limestone against decomposition, and hence, in
such places, the latter rock still continues to rise to a higher
level than where it is laid bare, and exposed to the destruc
tive influence of atmospherical agents. We also observed
very distinctly, that while the vaUeys formed in the limestone
at a time anterior to the deposition of the sandstone were
few, tliose produced subsequently were numerous, as was
indicated by the great roughness and unevenness of the sand

230 APPENDIX.
stone country, and by the many undulations in the uncovered
limestone which we have afready had occasion to mention.
From the observations made on the 18th, it was thought very
probable that all the hills observed at a distance on the 17th,
were formed of this sandstone ; and from some characters
which had appeared at the time to present an anomaly it was
inferred that the Enneshoteno or Twin Mountains, near
which we had passed that day without stopping, were proba
bly also remains of the general sandstone formation which
extended over the whole country. No organic remains were
observed in the sandstone, or in the limestone which under
lays it, but no doubt can exist that they may contain some,
and that the limestone probably contains many.
" Proceeding towards the Wisconsin, the country presents
an alternation of rolling and undulated prairie, interspersed
with hills composed of either one or the other of these rocks.
The sandstone is found in most places to be covered with
thin, flattened fragments of a stone differing in its nature
and texture from 1;he character of the other rocks, whether
of limestone or sandstone. These fragments are generally
observed to vary from three to twelve inches in length, from
two to eight in breadth, and from one quarter to one inch in
thickness. They present appearances of having been wea
thered, but not of having been rolled. They are very abun
dant, and we could account for them in no other way than by
admitting that they were the remains, probably the harder
parts of a stratum that had at one time covered the sand
stone, but that had disappeared almost entirely, leaving only
these fragments to attest its former existence and situation.
On examining these fragments with care, we found them to
be very uniform in their characters. Their composition is,
in great measure, calcareous, but from their greater hardness

GEOLOGY. 231
we consider it as partly siliceous.* They are replete with
organic remains. They are principally referrible to the pro
ductae, terebratulse, &c. We saw none but what belonged
to bivalves. The existence of these fragments was observed
upon many elevations, over a considerable extent of coun
try, while in the valleys no trace of them could be seen.
Generalizing the observations made during the three last days
of our journey previous to our arrival on the Missisippi, we
are led to admit that there are, or rather that there were for
merly, two distinct formations of limestone in this country,
and that they were separated by a thick stratum of sand
stone. Of these two limestone formations, the older one,
which we have already described with minuteness, we have
been, induced to consider as coeval with, or analogous to, the
magnesian limestone of England. The superior formation
is distinguished by the cfrcumstance of its containing harder
fragments or nodules of limestone, which alone remain to
establish the fact of its former existence : that it contained
no hornstone or flinty quartz, as observed in the former, we
are led to believe, because had they existed, they must
necessarily have resisted decomposition, as well or better
than the calcareous nodules which are now found alone.
The much greater abundance of shells in these nodules, and
the total absence of the madreporites, appear to us to be Very
characteristic distinctions between these and the underlaying
limestone, though perhaps too much weight ought not to be
assigned to the absence of the madreporites, as these, from
their loose and more porous texture, may have been unable
to resist the decomposing causes which appear to have
affected this formation. In some places a Umestone bed was
* There are localities occasionally on both sides of the river, where the
surface of the ground for a small distance is covered with these chert
fragments.

232 APPENDIX.
observed upon the sandstone, but these depositions were so
partial, and in all cases the ground was so much overgrown
with bushes, that we were unable to examine their charac
ters with any degree of minuteness. This striking differ
ence, however, we observed, and we are led to consider it as
constant, that the inferior limestone, wherever it appears
exposed, is covered with small scales or fragments of the
hornstone nodules whose existence has already been alluded
to, while none of the flat calcareous fragments, abounding in
shells, are found upon it ; whereas these were uniformly
observed to the exclusion of the scales of hornstone upon
the surface of the calcareous stratum that overlays the sand
stone." Mr. Keating gives the following further account of his
examination of the St. Peter's : —
" The bluff upon which the fort is built offers a good oppor
tunity for observing the geological structure of the country.
It consists of several strata, all disposed in parallel and hori
zontal superposition. On the surface of the ground blocks
of limestone are found, which appear to be the remains of a
stratum that has, in great measure, disappeared. These are,
in most cases, of a compact and earthy texture, destitute of
any organic remains, exhibiting occasional specks of a crys
talline nature, which are observed to be calcareous, as, not
withstanding their small volume, they present a distinct
rhombohedral cleavage. The first stratum which is observed
is about eight feet thick. It is formed of limestone, present
ing a very distinct slaty stracture. The texture of the rock
is compact, its fracture splintery and uneven. Organic
remains abound in it. These are, as far as we saw, exclu
sively producti. They lie in the rock as thick as possible.
A small vacant space is generally observed between the inner
and the outer casts of the sheU. This is, however, generaUy

GEOLOGY. 233
filled up with a crystaUization of calcareous spar. The form
of the crystals caimot be made out, on account of their
extreme tenuity. The color of this limestone, as weU as of
the loose blocks found upon it, is a light greyish-yellow.
This stratum rests upon another calcareous bed, which differs
from the preceding, in the total absence of organic remains,
and in its color, which is of a light blue. Its structure is
more compact ; so is its fracture. Its horizontal stratifica
tion is distinct, but, the stratum being thicker, it is more sus
ceptible of being used in building. It produces, in fact, an
exceUent stone, which admits of being hewn, and which is
the chief material used in the construction of the fort. This
bed is from fifteen to twenty feet thick. When examined
with the microscope, the rock presents very general signs of
crystallization, its texture becomes sub-saccharoidal, and
veins of calcspar, of an inconsiderable thickness, traverse it
in every direction. There are, also, cavities in which crys
tals of carbonate of lime are distinctly seen. Independent
of the building-stone which it yields, this bed is Ukewise
valuable as producing the best lime of any found in the
vicinity. Immediately under this bed of limestone, in paral
lel stratification, we observed the sandstone, which consti
tutes the principal mass of the bluff, being about sixty feet in
thickness. It is a very friable stone, and, in some cases, the
grains of which it is formed are so loosely united, that it
appears almost like sand. Every fragment, if examined with
care, seems to be a regular crystal, and we incline much to
the opinion that this sandstone must have been formed by a
chemical precipitation, and not by a mere mechanical deposi
tion. The process of its formation may have been a very
rapid one, such as is obtained in the manufacture of fine salt;
and to this may be attributed the cfrcumstance of its
loose texture. The grain is very fine. Its color is white.

234 APPENDIX.
sometimes a little yellowish, in which case it resembles in
texture, color, &c., the finer varieties of Muscovado sugar.
The loose texture of the rock is, probably, the cause of its
presenting but few indications of stratification. The rock
which we have just described rests upon a slaty limestone,
which has a striped aspect ; the stripes or zones are curved.
This limestone appears to be very argillaceous, and is a little
softer than the preceding ; its structure is quite earthy ; it
effervesces strongly in nitric acid ; its color is a light yellow.
The thickness of this bed is about ten feet. Below this,
another stratum of limestone is found, which imbeds small
black pebbles of quartz, and assumes, therefore, in a slight
degree, the character of a pudding-stone, or conglomerate.
Its grain is more crystalline than that of the preceding
stratum. It is filled with small cavities, probably the result
of a contraction during the consolidation of the mass. Its
color varies from a bluish to a yellowish-grey. This stratum
is about seven feet thick. It rises but four feet above the
level of the water, and the only rock visible under it is another
variety of limestone, which differs from the preceding, inas
much as its grain is much finer and its texture more ear.thy.
It is only visible for four feet. The bed of the river appears
to be excavated near the fort in this stratum of limestone.
Neither of these limestone formations, under the sandstone,
contains any teaces of organic remains. If we consider the
three inferior beds of limestone as being modifications of the
same formation, as we, doubtless, ought to do, then we shall
find this bluff to be composed of three different formations —
a superior one of lime, with abundant impressions of shells in
one of its beds ; an intermediate one of sandstone ; and an
inferior, calcareous formation, without any organic remains.
The latter certainly bears some resemblance to the limestone

GEOLOGY. 235
found on the Wassemon, though we are unwiUing to pro
nounce upon thefr identity.
*******
" It would remain for us, in order to complete this view
of the geology of the Falls, to inqufre whether the limestone
observed at the falls corresponds with that superior to the
sandstone south of the Wisconsin ; and if that found near the
level of the river at the fort be analogous to that observed
under the sandstone between the Wisconsin and Wassemon.
We shall not affect a degree of certainty which we do not
possess, but we may be permitted to advance an opinion that
the sandstone is probably of analogous formation, and that,
therefore, the strata of limestone which we found at the FaUs
correspond with that stratum, of whose existence, at a former
period, between the Wassemon and Wisconsin, we think we
have evident proofs. We have in our possession specimens
taken in both places, filled with, apparently, the same organic
remains, and exhibiting characters in the rock which corre
spond as weU as could be expected from pieces collected at
three hundred miles' distance from each other." — Long's 2d
Exped., vol. i., p. 306, et seq.

Extracts from the Report of a Geological Exploration in
part, of Iowa,Wisconsin and Illinois. By D. D. Owen.
" Throughout the Westem States, generally, the secondary
formation prevails, covered up in various locations, some
times to a considerable depth, by recent aUuvial and diluvial
deposits. " This secondary series of rocks comprehends various sub
divisions of distinct character and invariable succession,
which, in thefr turn, have been again subdivided.

236 APPENDIX.
"Of these groups, the mountain limestone ' particularly
claims our attention, as almost all the rocks of Iowa and
Wisconsin are referrible to that subdivision.
" In the western States, above-mentioned, these subdivi
sions generally vary in thickness from one hundred to one
thousand feet, with the exception of the cliff limestone,
which, in some districts, is hardly distinguishable, and, in
general, does not exceed one hundred feet in thickness.
" Now, this cliff limestone, so sparingly developed else
where, swells, in the Wisconsin lead region, into the most
remarkable, most important, and most bulky member of the
group. It becomes, as it were, the Aaron's rod, swallowing
up all the rest. It attains to a thickness of upward of five
hundred and fifty feet, while the underlying blue limestone,
which, in Ohio, has usually from eight hundred to one thou
sand feet of thickness, shrinks, in many places, to less than
one hundred feet, and, in others, seems wholly wanting ;
while, at the same time, the black slate, commonly found
above the cliff limestone, seems also deficient ; and it is
doubtful whether the fine-grained limestone, or the oolitic
limestone, or the conglomerate, can be detected at all through
out the entire tract of country which has been subjected to
exploration. " In a word, in the region now under consideration, the
cliff limestone, with a variable and usuaUy thin substratum
of blue limestone, seems to engross the entire mountain lime
stone group ; and the coal-measures, where found (namely,
in the extreme S9uthern boundary of the tract), occur in
immediate contact with it, instead of being separated, as usual
in Ohio and the neighboring States, by three distinct mem
bers, occupying about one thousand feet in thickness.
" This enormous development of one of the members of the
mountain limestone group, and the almost complete oblitera

GEOLOGY. 237
tion of the rest (with the single exceptiqji of the blue lime
stone, upon which, also, it much encroaches) is peculiar, so
far as my observations in the Western States extend, to the
district of country which is the object of the present report.
In the north of this district, the cliff limestone appears to run
out, the blue limestone and underlying sandstones coming to
. the surface. South, it disappears beneath the coal-measures.
East, it seems to be chiefly covered up by recent deposits,
extending, probably, in an east or southeasterly direction
beneath these, across the States of Illinois and Indiana, into
the State of Ohio. And west, so far as our examinations
went, it is also chiefly covered up by recent deposits, occur
ring, however, occasionaUy, in the beds of the streams, and
projecting, at ffrst in cliffs, and at last only in low ledges,
from their banks.
" The general geological character of the country explored
may, then, be thus briefly summed up. It belongs to that
class of rocks called, by recent geologists, secondary, and, by
others, occasionally included in the transition series. It
belongs, further, to a division of this class of rocks, described,
in Europe, as the mountain limestone, or, sometimes, as the
carboniferous, or metalliferous, or encrinital limestone. And
it belongs, yet more especially, to a subdivision of this group,
known popularly, where it occurs in the west, as the cliff
limestone, and described under that name by the geologists
of Ohio.
" This last is the rock formation in which the lead, copper,
iron, and zinc, of the region under consideration, are almost
exclusively found ; and its unusual development, doubtless,
much conduces to the extraordinary mineral riches of this
favored region. It, therefore, demands, and shall hereafter
receive, particular analysis and attention.
" In the northem portion of the district surveyed, an

238 APPENDIX.
interesting and somewhat uncommon feature in the geology
of Westem America presents itself. I refer to the strata (of
considerable depth) which crop out along a narrow strip of
the northern boundary-line of this district, and which are
chiefly observable in the bluffs on both sides of the Wisconsin
River, whence (if we may rely on the representations of
Schoolcraft and others) they extend north even to the Falls
of St. Anthony.
" These strata are interesting ; first, as being the only
instance known to me, in the Valley of the Missisippi, in
which the rocks underlying the blue limestone can be seen
emerging from beneath it to the surface ; and, secondly, as
apparently supplying an example of those alternations of
neighboring strata, to which I have already aUuded as being
partial exceptions to the invariable order of geological super
position. " Immediately below the substratum of blue limestone
which constitutes the lowest member of the mountain lime
stone group, where it has been observed east of the Missi
sippi, there occurs, and shows itself in the Wisconsin bluffs,
a stratum of sandstone, in some places of a deep red, and in
others of a white color, resembling loaf-sugar ; and thence
called, in Dr. Locke's diagrams exhibiting the sections on
the Wisconsin River, saccharoid (or sugar-like) sandstone.
" Immediately beneath this succeeds a magnesian lime
stone, so similar to the cliff limestone, both in external appear
ance and chemical composition, as not to be distinguishable
from it in hand-specimens, alternating with other layers of
sandstone, similar to that above-described.
" The actual average dip of the rocks throughout the dis
trict, according to the observations made by Dr. Locke, is
from nine to ten feet per mile, but it is occasionally much
greater. For example, from the mouth of Turkey river to

GEOLOGY. 239
Prairie du Chien, the blue limestone rises at an average rate
of seventeen and a half feet per mUe. The dip, however, is
subject to undulations ; for instance, at Dubuque, the blue
limestone does not show itself above low-water mark ; at
Eagle point, a mile and a half up the Missisippi, it rises ten
feet above low water ; at the mouth of the Little Makoqueta,
four miles farther up, its height above low-water mark is forty
feet ; at the mouth of Turkey river, twenty miles farther up,
it disappears again beneath the waters of the Missisippi ; a
few miles beyond this point, it emerges again to the surface ;
and, finaUy, at Prafrie du Chien, twenty miles above Turkey
river, its upper surface has afready attained an elevation of
more than four hundred feet above the level of the Missisippi.
The line of the greatest general dip is about south, ten to
twenty degrees west.
" The importance of these observations on the dip of the
rocks, forming as they do the materials to calculate the thick
ness of each stratum at any given spot, is very great, [ndeed,
such observations are indispensable, before an accurate esti
mate can be formed of the value and extent of a mineral
tract. They indicate, with much fidelity, the depth to which,
at different points, a productive vein of ore is likely to extend."
" I have preferred and adopted the name of cliff limestone
to designate this rock (though a popular rather than a scien
tific term), because it aptly expresses its most striking external
characteristic, which imparts to the scenery of any country
in which the rock abounds a bold and romantic character. I
allude to its disposition to cleave vertically, and form per
pendicular cliffs.
" These mural escarpments, exhibiting every variety of
form, give to the otherwise monotonous character of the land
scape in Iowa a varied and picturesque appearance. Some
times they may be seen in the distance, rising from out the

240 APPENDIX.
roUing hiUs of the prairie, like rained castles, moss-grown
under the hand of time.
" Sometimes they present, even when more closely in
spected, a curious resemblance to turrets, and bastions, and
battlements, and even to the loopholes and embrasures of a
regular fortification. Sometimes single blocks are seen jutting
forth, not unlike dormant windows rising through the turf clad
roof of an old cottage ; and again, at times, especially along
the descending spurs of the hills, isolated masses emerge in
a thousand fanciful shapes, in which the imagination readily
recognizes the appearance of giants, sphinxes, lions, and
innumerable fantastic resemblances.
" The appearance of this rock is further modified by the
peculiar manner in which it weathers. Numerous masses of
chert (a variety of flint), and also many siliceous fossils, are
interspersed through its mass ; and these, becoming gradually
loosened by the action of air and water, drop out, and leave
cavities of various shapes and sizes. Thus the rock is fre
quently found riddled with irregular holes, from a few inches
to a foot in diameter, giving its surface a ragged and almost
bone-like appearance. Frequently this variety in the compo
sition of the rock gives occasion to an undermining process
on the lower surface of a cliff, which gradually proceeds,
until, perhaps, a towering and tottering column remains, sup
ported on a contracted base, which threatens every moment
to give way and precipitate the poised mass into the valley
beneath. " The cliff limestone of Iowa is, strictly speaking, a mag
nesian limestone, containing (by careful analysis of four
separate specimens from different localities) from thirty-five
to forty per cent, of carbonate of magnesia.
" It contains, on the average, from eighteen to twenty per
cent of pure magnesia ; and by mere solution in sulphuric

GEOLOGY. 241
acid, is capable of yielding no less than one hundred and ten
to one hundred and twenty parts of crystallized Epsom salts
(sulphate of magnesia), and sixty parts of gypsum (anhydrous
sulphate of lime), from every hundred parts of the rock. So
that if sulphuric acid can be obtained or produced at a suffi
ciently cheap rate in Wisconsin, Epsom salts may there be
manufactured profitably, and to an unlimited extent. I have
at present, in my laboratory, two hundred and thirty grains
of Epsom salts prepared from two hundred grains of the rock.
" It is from magnesian limestone that the Epsom salts of
commerce are now commonly procured.
" But though the cliff rock is a magnesian limestone, and
though the proportions of carbonate of lime and magnesia,
which chiefly compose it, indicate that it is even a chemical
compound rather than a mechanical mixture, yet it cannot
with propriety, nor without risk of misconception, be caUed
the magnesian limestone, as a late writer on the geology of
Upper Illinois has termed the corresponding formation be
tween Chicago and Ottawa ; since it is only a subdivision of
the mountain limestone group, always occurring beneath the
true coal-measures ; whereas, the magnesian limestone of
geologists (the zechstein of the Germans) is one of the lower
members of the new red sandstone group, and overlies the
bituminous coal formation.
" Phillips, speaking, as it would seem, of the great scar
limestone of the north of England, which he there calls ' the
great limestone,' says : ' It is considered to have produced as
much lead as aU the other siUs put together,' This is pre
eminently trae of the cliff limestone of Iowa and Wisconsin.
" The lead region Ues, as wiU be remarked, chiefly in Wis
consm, including, however, a strip pf about eight townships
of land in Iowa, along the westem bank of the Missisippi,
the greatest width of which strip is on the Little Maquoketa,
12

242 APPENDIX.
about twelve miles from east to west, and including also about
ten townships in the northwestern comer of lUinois. The
portion of this lead region in Wisconsin includes about sixty-
two townships. The entire lead region, then, comprehends
about eighty townships, or two thousand eight hundred and
eighty square mUes ; being about one-third larger than the
State of Delaware. The extreme length of this lead region,
from east to west, is eighty-seven miles ; and its greatest
width, from north to south, is fifty-four mUes.
" The boundary of this region commences on the Missi
sippi River, where the south line of township eighty-seven
north, range four east of the fifth principal meridian, crosses
that stream immediately below the mouth of the Little Tete
des Morts ; and runs thence six miles due west, thence six
miles north, thence six mUes west, thence northwest diago
nally through township eighty-eight, range two east, and town
ship eighty-nine, range one east, both of the fourth [fifth] prin
cipal meridian, until the line strikes the fifth principal meridian,
where the line dividing townships eighty-nine and ninety
crosses said meridian line ; thence six miles north, thence six
miles west, thence three mUes north, thence three miles west,
thence three miles north, thence three miles west, thence three
miles north, thence three miles west, thence three miles north,
thence three miles east, thence north to the Missisippi, which
it strikes about seven miles below the mouth of the Wiscon
sin River, thence, crossing the Missisippi, it rans diagonally
through township five, range six west, of the fourth principal
meridian, to the northeast corner of said township ; thence six
miles east, thence three miles north, thence eighteen miles
east, thence three miles north, thence three miles east, thence
three miles north, thence nine miles east, thence six miles
south, thence twelve miles east, thence eighteen miles east,
passing along the northern base of the Blue Mounds ; thence

GEOLOGY. 243
twelve miles south, thence twelve miles east, thence twelve
miles south, thence six mUes west, thence six miles south,
thence twelve miles west, thence six miles south, striking the
northem boundary-line of the State of lUinois at the point
where the Une between ranges five and six east of the fourth
principal meridian crosses said boundary-line ; thence, with
said boundary-line, six miles west, thence twelve miles or
thereby south, to the southeast comer of section thirteen,
township twenty-seven north, range four east of the fifth
principal meridian; thence six miles west, thence three miles
south, thence sixteen miles or thereby east, to the east bank
of the Missisippi River, about five miles below the mouth of
Fever River, and about a mile and a half below the place of
beginning, afready designated, on the westem bank of the
Missisippi.* " This lead region is, in general, well watered ; namely,
by Peccatonnica River, Apple River, Fever River, Platte
River, Grand River, the head-waters of Blue River, and
Sugar Creek ; and on the Iowa side by the Little Makoqueta
and the lower portion of Turkey River : aU of these streams
being tributaries of the Missisippi.
" The highest points within this region are the summits of
the Blue Mounds, two hills of a conical shape, composed of
chert and other varieties of flint rock, in the northeast portion
of the tract, and rising to the height of one thousand feet
above the Wisconsin River. The Platte Mounds, also of
conical form, and about six hundred feet high, occupy nearly
the centre of the lead region.
" These isolated and towering mounds, so conspicuous a
* " A few fractional townships, originally included in my special reports,
within the lead region, have been, on re-examination, thrown out, as not
strictly belonging to the district which is likely to afford productive veins
of lead ore."

244 APPENDIX.
feature in the landscape of Wisconsin, are evidence of the
denuding action to which, under the crumbling hand of time,
the surface of our globe is continually subjected, and which
the more durable sUiceous masses of these hills of flint have
been enabled partially to resist.
" The northem boundary of the Wisconsin lead region is
nearly coincident with the southern boundary-line of the blue
limestone where it fairly emerges to the surface. No disco
veries of any importance have been made after reaching that
formation ; and when a mine is sunk through the cliff lime
stone to the blue limestone beneath, the lodes of lead shrink
to insignificance, and no longer return to the miner a profitable
reward for his labor. Indeed, the small quantities of lead
ore which have occasionally been found in the blue Umestone,
occur in veins not much thicker than writing-paper, which
have insinuated themselves into the slender streams of the
stratification. This coincidence between the northem bound
ary of the productive lead region, and that of the cliff limestone,
is an example of the practical utility and application of the
geological divisions of the different formations. Even if not
a single shaft had ever been sunk in Wisconsin, it might have
been predicted, with probability, that this change in the
formation would be strictly accompanied with a corresponding
change in the productiveness of the lead veins.
" Mr. Came has observed, regarding the metaUiferous veins
of Cornwall, that it is a rare circumstance when a vein, which
has been productive in one species of rock, continues rich
long after it has entered into another ; and this change, he
adds, is even remarked when the same rock becomes harder
or softer, more slaty or more compact. Hence it was very
unlikely that the Wisconsin lead ore, so rich in the cliff lime
stone, should retain the same rich character in the blue lime
stone, even had the structure of this last been equally adapted

GEOLOGY. 245
to the bearing of lead. But, in trath, rocks of a schistose
character, composed of extensible layers, and devoid of
vertical fissures, like this blue limestone, seldom contain lead
ore in quantity. Phillips, in his recent geological treatise,
from which we have afready made several quotations, justly
remarks : ' It is not because of any peculiar chemical quali
ty that limestone yields most lead ore on Aldstone Moor, but
because of its being a rock which has retained openness of
fissure. Gritstones, in many mining fields near Aldstone
Moor, are equally productive ; but shales, as being soft ex
tensible layers, have closed up the fissures, and their crumbling
faces appear to have rejected the crystaUizations which attach
ed to the harder limestone, gritstone, and chert.'
" These remarks apply, with force, to the fissured cliff rock
of Wisconsin, compared to the softer and more slaty-structured
blue Umestone beneath it.
" It will also be remarked, that the designated lead region
is almost exclusively confined to the northem half of the cliff
limestone formation of Iowa and Wisconsin ; which northern
half is occupied by its middle and lower beds. The upper
beds (lying in the southern portion of the district) do not, as
already intimated, furnish productive veins of lead ore. The
crevices in these upper beds seem to be less numerous, and
either empty or fUled with iron ore (hydrated brown oxide), or
calcareous spar (crystallized carbonate of lime), to the almost
entire exclusion of veins of lead.
" It follows, from the above observations, that the mines in
the northern portion of the district are less likely to be pro
ductive to a great depth, than those along its southern and
westem boundaries.
" It follows, also, that, in the southem portion of the dis
trict not included by me in the productive lead region, mines
of value may yet be discovered, by sinking shafts through

246 APPENDIX.
the upper beds of the cUff limestone to the lead-bearing beds
beneath — ^unless, indeed, these lower beds should prove to be
beyond the sphere of action where the lead has been pro
duced. This latter contingency is possible ; yet the richness
of the mines in the southern and western portion of the lead
district (at Apple river and Dubuque, for example), as com
pared with some of the northem mines, seems to indicate that
the ore may still continue rich in the descending beds. Since,
however, this is, as yet, an unsolved problem ; and even if it
were solved, as it would require much capital to sink shafts
to the necessary depth, and since mines of this depth would
doubtless be inundated with water, and require steam-engines
to drain them, I have not considered it my duty to include
this southern portion of the district within the bounds of the
productive lead region ; although, hereafter, should the easily
accessible lodes be exhausted, and the demand for lead rapid
ly increase, it may become so.
" With regard to the magnesian limestone which underlies
the blue limestone and sandstone strata, and comes to the
surface of the extreme northeastern portion of the district, its
similarity in structure and composition to the cliff limestone,
including its disposition to form vertical fissures, and its pro
bable identity with the rock formation in the Missouri lead
region, might induce the expectation that it, also, would be
rich in lead ore. It may be so ; but the frequent occurrence
of iron ore (bro-wn oxide) in those townships where this for
mation prevaUs* (as in the upper beds of the southern portion
of the district), together with the little success which has
hitherto attended the search after lead ore within its confines,
* It is not improbable, from its similarity to the lead-bearing rock in
Missouri, that this lower magnesian limestone, if it be extensive north of
the Wisconsin river beyond the limits of our survey, may there yield pro
ductive veins of lead ore.

GEOLOGY. 247
render it doubtful. As this formation occupies but a small
corner of the district, the examinations were necessarily too
limited to enable me to pronounce, with confidence, upon its
lead-bearing character.
" All the valuable deposits of lead ore which have as yet
been discovered, occur either in fissures or rents in the cliff
rock, or else are found imbedded in the recent deposits which
overlie these rocks. These fissures vary from the thickness
of a wafer to thirty or even fifty feet in thickness ; and many
of them extend to a very great, and at present unknown
depth. " The most common diameter of fissures filled with solid
ore is from one to four inches.
" In the Apple river diggings, one vein filled up with ore
was reported to me as being, where then worked, four feet
across ; but an experienced miner, living close to the Illinois
line, in one of the richest spots in the district, informed me
that he had never seen a sohd vein continue, for any conside
rable distance, of greater thickness than one foot.
" In the spring of 1828 there was a mass of lead ore found
in an east-and-west crevice, at the Vinegar-hUl diggings, about
thirty-five feet in length, expanding in the centre to the width
of six or eight feet, and terminating in. a point at each end.
It was a hoUow, and its waUs averaged about a foot in thick
ness, forming, as ft were, a huge sheU of mineral. This ex
traordinary natural chamber was cleared out ; a table spread
within ft on the 4th of July ; and a considerable company
celebrated the national anniversary within fts leaden waUs,
about sixty feet below the surface of the earth.
" The formation of caverns, by the occasional expansion
of the lead-bearing crevice to a considerable width and height,
is not uncommon. The ceiling of such a subterranean cham
ber is commonly adorned with large, pendant, icicle-like sta-

248 APP_ENDIX
lactites, which conceal from the eye of the spectator the rich
lead ore which they encrast.
" Upon the whole, a review of the resources and capabiU-
ties of this lead region, taken in connection with its statis
tics (in so far as it was possible to collect these), induces me
to say, with confidence, that ten thousand miners could find
profitable employment within its confines.
" If we suppose each of these to raise daily one hundred
and fifty pounds of ore, during six months only of each year,
they would produce annually upwards of one hundred and
fifty million pounds of lead — more than is now furnished by
the entire mines of Europe, those of Great Britain included.
" This estimate, founded (as those who have perused the
foregoing pages will hardly deny) upon reasonable data,
presents, in a striking point of view, the intrinsic value and
commercial importance of the country upon which- 1 am
reporting ; emphatically, the lead region of Northern Ame
rica. " It is, so far as my reading and experience extend, decid
edly the richest in the known world.
COPPER ORE.
" The copper ore of Wisconsin Territory forms an item
in its mineral wealth, which would be considered of great
importance, and would attract much attention, but for the
superior richness and value of the lead, the great staple of
the Territory.
" This ore occupies, in the district under examination, the
same geological position as the lead ore. It originates in
the fissures of the cliff limestone. It has been spoken of,
very incorrectly, as ' float mineral ;' as if, like the fragments
of native copper sometimes found in the diluvium of Western

GEOLOGY. 249
America, it had been conveyed to its present situation from a
distance. This our examinations have disproved. Disco
veries of copper ore have indeed been made on a sloping
hill-side near Mineral Point, within three or four feet of the
surface ; and there the ore was found disseminated and im
bedded in an ochreous earth.* But on following this depo
sit to the opposite side of the ravine (on section twenty-two,
township five, range three east of the fourth principal meri
dian), the copper ore was traced into a crevice, and a regular
vein has there been worked to the depth of thirty or forty
feet. The pieces of copper ore raised on this spot com
monly' weighed from a few ounces to ten or twelve pounds ;
and one mass thence procured was estimated at five hundred
pounds. " The course of this copper vein is from southeast to
northwest ; and if this line be produced either way, from the
discoveries at Mineral Point, it will strike, almost exactly,
the discoveries of copper ore northwest on Blue River, and
southeast on the Peccatonnica — a proof that the copper ore
is not a superficial and vagrant deposit, but exists in veins
of uniform bearing ; and that these veins are continuous,
and in all probability extensive.
" It is found in several localities in sufficient abundance
to repay well the labor of the miner. If there were a steady
demand for copper ore in the Territory, the miners could
afford, as I was informed by themselves, to raise copper ore
at the same price as lead ore — namely, from one and a half
to two cents per pound. It would be in good demand, and
be extensively raised, but for the capital and skiU necessary
* "This earth frequently contains particles, more or less numerous, of
copper ore, and is then popularly termed ' gozzin,' and employed as a flux
in the copper furnaces. The gozzin of Wisconsin yields, by analysis, from
six to nine per cent, of pure copper— a large per centage for such ore.
12*

250 APPENDIX.
to reduce it ; which are both far greater than the lead-smelter
requfres ; and, also, but for the scarcity of fuel. The cop
per ore of this region compares very favorably with the
Cornwall copper ores. An analysis of a selected specunen
of the best working Cornwall ore, and of three average
specimens of Wisconsin ore, showed that the latter contains
from a fifteenth to a third more of copper than the former.
" The Wisconsin ore is of a very uniform quaUty. There
was shipped from Ansley's ground, within a mile of Mineral
Point, in the year 1838, to England, 50,000 pounds of
ore ; which yielded (according to the statement of one of
the gentlemen who shipped it) over twenty per cent, of pure
copper. The average produce in the copper mines of Corn
wall may be stated at eight per cent.
" There have been raised, at the Mineral Point mines,
upward of a million and a half pounds of copper. At Ans
ley's copper furnace, 135,000 pounds of this were smelted ;
which yielded, ' in a very imperfect smelting furnace,' 12,000
pounds pure copper, or about nine per cent. Mr. Ansley
stated that he had not been able to procure a smelter ac
quainted with the mode of reducing copper ore ; and it is
impossible to say what the per centage might have been, had
the reduction been conducted with skill, and in a well-con
structed furnace.
" The Wisconsin copper veins may rank among the most
important that have yet been discovered in the limestone
formation. European copper mines in that geological group
(as in Staffordshire, England), usually yield very sparingly.
Cornwall, which is the greatest copper country in the world,
is composed entirely of crystalline, and the lower stratified
rocks, chiefly slate, associated with granite and porphyry.
The celebrated Pary's copper mine, in the island of Angle-
sea, occurs in a mountain composed of primary slate.

GEOLOGY. 251
" This may seem an argument against the probable pro
ductiveness of the Wisconsin copper mines. Yet the forma
tions in this western hemisphere are on a scale so extensive,
compared with those in most parts of Europe (witness a
single coal field equalling Great Britain in area), that such
an argument must be received with many qualifications. In
addition to this, the indications in Wisconsin, as far as they
have been observed, and the analysis of the ore, afford strong
presumptive evidence that capital and skill alone are required
to render copper-mining in this district, at least for some
time to come, an advantageous and profitable adventure.
" One of the difficulties which here occurs in reducing the
ore — namely, the lack of fuel — is common to the richest
copper countries in Europe. The Cornwall copper ore is
conveyed partly to Swansea and other portions of Wales,
and partly to Liverpool, to be smelted in a coal region ; and
the same vessels which thus convey the less bulky material
to the more bulky (the ore to the fuel), return laden with
coal to supply the numerous and powerful steam engines
required for draining and other purposes at the CornwaU
mines. And thus, in Wisconsin, if copper ore be raised in
quantities, it may be necessary to convey it south to the
margin of the great Illinois coal field — say to the mouth of
Rock River. This would require a land carriage of from
ten to thirty miles, and a water carriage of about 100. The
Cornwall ore is transported to a greater distance than this.
" It may be added, as an additional fact whereby to esti
mate the value of the Wisconsin copper ore, that, in some
of the European copper mines, ' this ore does not contain
above three per cent, of pure copper, and yet it pays for
working.' Also, that in some of the CornwaU mines, the
ore is worked profitably at a depth of more than 2000 feet
* from the grass,' as the phrase there is.

252 APPENDIX.

Finally, the Wisconsin copper ore derives additional value
in consequence of being found in the vicinity of, and often in
the same mine as, productive veins of

ZINC ORE.

" This ore, found both in Iowa and Wisconsin, usuaUy
occurs in the fissures, along with the lead. It is chiefly the
electric calamine — the carbonate of zinc of the mineralogist.
Though a solid ore, it has an ochreous, earthy aspect, often
resembling the cellular substance of the bone : hence it is
famUiarly known among- the miners by the name of ' dry
bones.' " Notwithstanding its intrinsic value, which will before
very long be duly appreciated, it is at present an object of
especial aversion to the miner of Iowa and Wisconsin. It
frequently happens, in both Territories, that the lead ore in a
fissure gradually diminishes, and eventually is entirely re
placed by this zinc ore ; or, as the disappointed workman,
sometimes with a hearty curse, not very scientifically ex
presses it, ' the dry bone eats out the mineral.'
" At some of the diggings, large quantities of this carbo
nate of zinc can be procured. Thousands of tons are now
lying in various locations on the surface, rejected as a worth
less drug — indeed, as a nuisance. It is known to but a few
of the miners as a zinc ore at all. An analysis of this ore
proves it to be a true carbonate of zinc, containing forty-five
per cent, of the pure metal.
" Sulphuret of zinc (sometimes called blende, and, by the
EngUsh miner, ' black-jack') is also abundant in the Wiscon
sin mines. It contains from fifty-five to sixty-five per cent.
of zinc, but is more difficult of reduction than the calamine.
" Sheet zinc is becoming an article of considerable de-

GEOLOGY. 253
mand m the market, for culinary purposes, and as a covering
for valuable buildings, instead of lead. But the chief con
sumption of this metal is in making brass, well known to be
a compound of copper and zinc. In this process, the carbo
nate of zinc, previously calcined, is mixed with charcoal and
granulated copper, and then exposed to a suitable heat. The
common brass imported from England contains upwards of
thirteen per cent, of zinc ; that of Paris, a little less ; and
the fine brass of Geneva, used in the nicer parts of watch
making, contains as much as twenty-five per cent, of zinc.
" Large quantities both of copper and zinc are now imported
from Europe into the United States, to supply the continually
increasing demand for brass. It is not improbable that the
district now under consideration might furnish of both metals
a sufficient amount, at least for many years to come, to sup
ply the entfre United States with brass of home produce and
manufacture. " Of zinc, at least, there is assuredly a sufficient supply,
not only for that purpose, but also for exportation. AU the
zinc now produced in Great Britain is triffing iri*quantity,
and quite insufficient for the demand ; so that a large quan
tity is imported annually into that island, chiefly from Ger
many and Belgium. The importation of zinc into England,
in the year 1833, exceeded six millions and a half of pounds —
a fact which may give us an idea of the importance of this
metal as an article of commerce.
Among the productive mineral resources of Iowa and
Wisconsin, the at present despised zinc ore may claim no
contemptible rank. IRON ORE.
" The iron ore of this district is of exceUent quaUty, and
in unlimited abundance. I explored, a few years since, in

254 APPENDIX.
company with Professor Troost, geologist of Tennessee, the
iron mines of that State, which already furnish fron to a con
siderable portion of the Western States. And though I have
seen no proof that iron exists in Iowa and Wisconsin, in
deposits as extensive as in Tennessee, yet the locations of
iron ore are numerous, and the quality of the ore, in general,
is as good.
" In some of the townships, especially in the ' Missouri
limestone,' on the Wisconsin river, iron ore was found scat
tered in innumerable fragments over the entire surface, and
of a quality so rich as to be crystallized in much perfection.
Near the Makoqueta, my sub-agents reported the discovery
of large masses of iron ore, occurring over a very consider
able district of country. The reports and specimens from
that portion of the district induce me to believe that there
iron ore can be found, on the surface alone, sufficient to sup
ply several iron-furnaces for years to come.
" Some of the specimens from these localities are the
richest and most beautiful variety of pipe-ore I have ever
seen, exhibiting a miniature resemblance to the basaltic
columns of Staffa, or the Giant's Causeway.
" Much of it is the hematite, the purest and most produc
tive form of the hydrated brown oxide.*
" In many of these locations, where iron ore is found in
abundance, fuel, water-power, and the limestone for flux, are
at hand. In the northern portion of the district, however,
the scarcity of fuel presents a serious obstacle to the estab
lishment of productive iron-works.
" In Dr. Locke's report, under the head ' magnetical node,'
will be found an interesting account of a remarkable magne
tical phenomenon, which seems to indicate the presence of
* These ores of iron yield from 40 to 60 per cent, of the metal.

GEOLOGY. 255
some enormous mass of iron, or (if the expression be aUow
ed) some ' subterraneous fr on-mountain,' which may resem
ble, except in position, that of Missouri. The locality indi
cated is on the Wapsipinecon ; and the axis of this node, as
Dr Locke's chart shows, is near the line dividing townships
eighty-two and eighty-three, and about six miles west of the
fifth principal meridian.
" The utility of magnetical observations on the dip and
intensity of the needle, as an indication of the presence of
fron, and perhaps, also, of great masses of the brown oxide,
is indisputable ; and I consider myself fortunate in having
been able to add to the other materials whereby to decide
the value of the various locations of mineral lands in this
district, the delicate and varied experiments of Dr. Locke.
" The variation-chart appended to that gentleman's report
shows a striking difference in the variation of the needle
within a very short distance ; and the greatest variation cor
responds, in a remarkable manner, with the best locations of
fron ore of which actual discoveries were made. If from
this we may conclude that the variation is increased by the
presence of large masses of ore, the above chart would use-
fuUy guide a further examination after the localities of fron
ore in the district. It must, however, be remembered, that
it is the protoxide which chiefly acts upon the needle, and
that the same phenomenon may possibly be caused by com
paratively smaU veins of that variety, as by a large mass of
the brown oxide.
" The richness of the fron-veins in this district cannot be
correctly known until mines shaU actually be opened ; which
has not yet been done in any part of it. But more encourag
ing or more numerous surface-indications of an abundant
supply of this useful metal can hardly offer themselves to
the notice of the geologist. In a country more thickly set-

256 APPENDIX.
tied, and with skiU and capital to spare, these would speedily
cause and justify the employment of whole vUlages of
workmen. " To incidental causes alone, and not to any natural defici
ency of material, must be attributed the custom of import
ing annually from England, into this country, milUons of
dollars worth of iron for railroads and other purposes. Enor
mous as is the produce of Great Britain's iron-furnaces
(amounting, in 1833, to fifteen hundred miUions of pounds),
we might rival it in America. How little here in the west,
at least, we have hitherto improved our natural resources in
this branch of commerce, is proved by the thousands of tons
of rich iron ore which lie, unappropriated and useless, scat
tered over the territories of Iowa and Wisconsin.

" The great coal-field of Illinois extends its northwestern
margin over ten or twelve townships of the district, chiefly
on the western side of the Missisippi.
" One seam of coal only was discovered cropping out
west of the Missisippi ; and that was of indifferent quality,
lying in the north half of section twenty-seven, township
seventy-eight, range four east of the fifth principal meridian,
on Duck creek. Several were found in the tongue of land
which lies in the fork between Rock River and the Missi
sippi : one of them from five to six feet in thickness. The
quality of this last is fair : and, in proportion as the coal-
diggings extended, the quality improved.
" Several good seams of coal show themselves south of
the district, within a short distance of its southern boundary ;
and there is no doubt that any required quantity of this fuel
may be procured at no great distance from the mouth of

GEOLOGY. • 557
Rock River, which stream enters the coal-field about 23
miles above its mouth, and has several good seams exposed
in the banks.
" The coal in this vicinity is sure to become valuable, and
to be in great demand, for the reduction of such ores (espe
cially copper ores) as are raised in those portions of the dis
trict which are deficient in timber. Some town in this neigh
borhood, or a little south, is destined to become the Swansea
of Wisconsin, and to receive, in its numerous furnaces, the
rich produce of the prairie mines, from the north and north
west.

" Throughout the Western States, generally, no produc
tive salines are found below the true coal-measures. They
commonly occur in some of the lower members of the coal
formation, especially in the white sandstones lying within
that formation, and at no great distance from its margin.
Such are the well-known saliferous rocks on the Kenhawa
and Muskingum.
" As soon, therefore, as the character and extent of the
geological formations in the district were ascertained, I
ceased to expect the discovery of any productive salines,
except, perhaps, in the extreme southern corner of the tract,
where the great coal-field of Illinois stretches its lowest mem
bers over a few townships.
" Every surface-indication confirmed my expectations.
No salt-springs, not a single salt-lick, no variegated shales,
not one of the usual indications of salt, were discovered.
Even in the southem townships, within the coal-formation,
the thickness of the strata is so inconsiderable that the chance
is very slender of reaching profitable brine. Salt, therefore,
cannot be reckoned among the productive minerals of Iowa

258 APPENDIX.
and Wisconsin. It may, probably, be obtained along the
head-waters of the western and northeastem tributaries of the
Illinois River. " BUILDING-STONE.
" I was, for a time, in doubt in regard to the value of the
Wisconsin limestone as a building material. Where it has
numerous nodules of chert distributed through its mass, it
weathers unequally, the nodules become detached, and its
beauty and value as a building-rock are much lessened.
This occurs chiefly in the superior portion of the upper beds ;
that is, over the southern portion of the surveyed district.
" Much of the limestone that is taken from the diggings
crumbles, also, on being exposed to the weather ; yet a por
tion of the formation will yield some of the best quarries in
the world, and several excellent ones are already opened.
For example, on the Sinsinnewa Mound, at Mineral Point,
at the Four Lakes, and (but not so good) on the Peccaton
nica. This excellent building-stone chiefly occurs in the
lower portion of the upper beds of the cliff limestone, and
also in the lower beds of the ' Missouri limestone.' It is of
a beautiful uniform light-yellow color, compact, fine-grained,
sharp-angled, capable of receiving a handsome finish, and, if
well selected, calculated to endure, uninjured, for ages. It
is very readily quarried in square blocks from six inches to
a foot in thickness ; can be obtained, however, double or
treble that thickness, and of any required horizontal extent.
The labor of quarrying is light, in consequence of the rock
being exposed in cliffs, so as to preclude the necessity of
excavation. " In a recent geological notice from England, it is stated
that Mr. De la Beche, in conjunction with Mr. Barry and the

GEOLOGY. 259
veteran father of EngUsh geology (WUliam Smith), has been
intrusted by the British govemment with the care of selecting
the material of which the new houses of Parliament were to be
constrffcted ; and, after a tour made in the course of last year
for this express purpose, to the points where the best building
stones were supposed to be quarried, they made choice of the
magnesian limestone of Yorkshire, remarkable for the dura
bility of its color, texture, and sharpest forms, as exemplified
in the noble old churches of that country. But this magne
sian limestone of Yorkshfre, thus selected by some of the
most experienced geologists in the world as the best building
stone in England, is, as we have afready sho-wn, if not the
equivalent of the cliff limestone of Wisconsin, a rock very
closely resembling it. The inference is, that some of the
strata of the cliff limestone of Wisconsin may be expected to
furnish building materials of a quality the most superior.
" The canal engineers on Rock River complained much
that they could find no durable building stone, having quar
ried in the white limestone which' occurs in the margin of the
great coal-field. This rock (at that point, at least) is little
suitable for building purposes. Had these gentlemen
ascended the Missisippi to the high land above the Mako
queta for material, they would have found quarries of the
building stone above-described, and thefr locks might have
bid defiance to the ravages of time.
" Near Iowa city, and in several other localities along the
junction of the cliff limestone and the coal-measures, occirrs
a white limestone, which must not be confounded with the
above. It is capable of recei-fing a good polish ; and, being
studded with a beautiful fossU coralUne (the styUna of
Lesueur), forms a pretty variegated marble. One of my
sub-agents found a settler building his milk-house of this
showy material, in which the cyathophyllum of Goldfuss was

260 APPENDIX.
intermixed with the stylina. Its value as a marble may be
considerable, should it be obtained in blocks of sufficient size.
In polishing, however, the organic stracture of the coralline
causes cellular imperfection on its surface.
" MILLSTONES.
" In section twenty-two, township eighty-nine, range three
west of the fifth principal meridian, the United States sur
veyors had reported a ' millstone quarry.' There seems,
however, to have been no better foundation for this report
than the presence of some granite boulders, very numerous
on the northern portion of the eastern boundary of the dis
trict, and also throughout the westem ranges of Iowa.
These erratic boulders constitute a peculiar feature in the
prairie scenery, and are often of great size. One was
reported to me by a sub-agent, somewhat indefinitely, as
being ' as large as a steamboat.' A smaller one, afterwards
measured, was eight feet high, and ninety feet in circumfer
ence. They are composed of granite, green stone, porphyry,
and other primitive rocks.
" Similar boulders, in the State of Illinois, are, in default
of more suitable materials, sometimes employed to make
millstones ; but the labor of the manufacture from these
primitive rocks is very great, and a ' millstojie quarry' of
such a character cannot be considered of value.
" In the course of a geological reconnoissance of the State
of Indiana (which, as geologist of that State, I had, two
years since, occasion to make), I found good millstone quar
ries in a rock formation which is the equivalent of that of
Wisconsin, and I hoped to make similar discoveries in the
course of this survey ; but I have seen no rock, either in
Iowa or Wisconsin, which combines hardness and porosity
enough to render it suitable for this useful purpose.

GEOLOGY. 261
OTHER MINERALS.
" No minerals of much value, except those described in
the preceding sections, were detected in the district.
" Chalcedony, agate, jasper, and cornelian, were found, but
not in great perfection.
" On the southwest quarter of section seventeen, township
eighty-four, range five east of the fifth principal meridian, in
the Mineral Point and Blue River lead-mines, besides several
other localities, was found a white rock, which, by disinte
gration, forms a white plastic material used in the manufac
ture of porcelain : it is a hydrate of silica, containing a small
per centage of alumina, and is similar to that substance which
forms what are misnamed the ' chalk banks,' below Cape
Girardeau, Missouri. If obtained in sufficient quantities, it
would be of value in the manufacture of porcelain ; but I
failed to discover any extensive or continuous stratum of this
mineral. It has too large a per centage of silex, and too
little alumina, to rank as a true kaolin.
" No appreciable quantity of silver was discovered in any
of the ores of lead subjected to analysis ; neither was any
sulphuret of silver (as it occurs in the lead mines of the
Hartz) found in this district.*
" In one or two specimens of galena, vestiges of arsenic
were detected.
" Little or no antimony is found in combination with the
lead ore of this district ; a cfrcumstance which increases the
value of the ore, for lead ore contaminated with antimony is
of difficult reduction.
" At McKnight's diggings, at Mineral Point, there occurs
along with the galena the ' black lead ore ' of the mineralo-
* Ores of silver are rarely, if ever, found in this geological formation.

262 APPENDIX.
gist, which is the carbonate of lead with a smaU admixture
of sulphuret of lead.
" Crystals of the sulphato-tri-carbonate of lead have been
obtained from some of the diggings in Wisconsin.
" Manganese, a metallic oxide, usefiil in various manufac
tures, was found (but not in a pure form, nor in very large
quantities) among the earthy materials in the fissures of the
cliff limestone.
" In some of the richest lead mines, very fine specimens
of crystallized iron pyrites are associated with the sulphuret
of lead — some of it (capillary pyrites) brilliant and delicate
beyond any I had ever before seen. It is composed of fasces
or clusters of silk-like threads, of a pale golden-yellow color,
which may be readily separated with the point of a knife.
SOILS.
" An item in my instructions required me to report ' such
facts as will serve to convey some idea of the value and pro
ductiveness ' of the district under consideration.
" In obedience to this instruction, I have analyzed, with
care, the soils of Iowa and Wisconsin ; and the result of this
analysis, extended to fifteen different specimens selected from
the various parts of the district, is truly remarkable.
"It is a common, and usually a correct remark, that
mineral regions are barren and unproductive. ' If a stranger,'
as Buckland has well expressed it in the opening to his
Bridgewater Treatise, ' if a stranger, landing at the extremity
of England, were to traverse the whole of Cornwall and the
north of Devonshfre, and, crossing to St. David's, should
make the tour of all North Wales, and passing thence
through Cumberland, by the Isle of Man, to the southwestern
shore of Scotland, should proceed, either by the hilly region

GEOLOGY. 263
of the border counties, or along the Grampians, to the Ger
man ocean, he would conclude, from such a journey of many
hundred miles, that Britain was a thinly-peopled, steril
region, whose principal inhabitants were miners and moun
taineers.' " Not so the traveller through the mining districts of
Western America. These afford promise of liberal reward,
no less to the husbandman than to the miner ; and a chemical
examination of the soils gives assurance that the promise
wiU be amply fulfilled.
" The mode of analysis adopted was, in its general fea
tures, the same which has been recommended by Dr. Dana,
of Lowell, and adopted by the geologist of Massachusetts.
I have carried it out, however, in regard to the salts found in
the most interesting specimens, into more minute detail than
that simple and practical, rather than rigidly accurate, mode
of analysis presupposes.
" The following table, with the appended notes, exhibits,
with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, the propor
tions of organic and of earthy matter, the per centage of
saline ingredients, and the specific gravity of each specimen
of soil. The specimens were selected from the different
formations — chiefly, of course, from the cliff limestone ; they
were taken from about six inches below the surface, and,
with a single exception (No. 13), from wild lands. They
may be considered a fafr average of the virgin soUs of the
district.

Iowa and Wisconsin soils.

h

i

S
i
§
IS
No.
LOCATION.
bbB
1.Jll Ef
O
1
Salts soluble in water.
Salts soluble in diluted
1
&¦
-S3 &
o
muriatic acid.
1
i
s
1
Wisconsin soils.
1
Prairie valley soil from east half of township 5
north, range 6 east of the 4th principal meridian.
0.5
6.0
6.0
3.0 prot and per-oxide of
iron, lime, and mag
1.0 chiefly oxide of iron.
0.0
75.0
1.30
S
Section 34, township 4 north, range 4 east of the 4th
principal meridian.
0.0
3.0
0.3
nesia.
0.9 lime, and a trace of
magnesia.
0.8
1.0
93.0
2.32
3
Northwest quarter of section 15, township ,'5 north,
range 1 west of the 4th principal meridian.
4.5
5.5
6.0
2.0 -
2. 1.5 muriate of liaei-
1.0
0.0
80.0
1.44
4
Northeast quarter of section 7, township 2 north.
2.5
5.0
5.0
0.7
0.0
84.0
1.80
range 1 east of the 4th principal meridian.
a trace of magnesia.
5
Township 22 north, range G east of the 4th principal
meridian.
3.0
6.5
5.0
3. 1.5 oxide of iron, a
little lime and mag
nesia.
0.5
0.0
82.0
1.68
6
Rich valley soil on Platte River, from section 33,
townsliip 4 north, range 2 west of the 4th princi
pal meridian.
7.5
11.0
15.0
4.5—0.5 oxide of iron, 2.0
lime, 0.3 magnesia.
1.5 - —
0.0
60.0
1.24
7
Soil from one of the townships richest in lead ore,
viz ; township 1 north, range 1 east of the 4th
principal meridian.
3.5
5.5
5.0
2. oxide of iron, lime,
and magnesia.
1.0
0.0
83.0
1.64
8
Section 22, township 7 north, range 4 west of the
4th principal meridian.
3.5
7.5
6.0
2. 1.5 muriate of lime.
1.0
0.0
79.0
1.66
9
Northeast quarter of section 8, township 6 north,
range 3 west of the 4th principal meridian.
4.0
2.0
7.2
1.8
1.5 chiefly oxide of iron ;
no phosphoric acid
could be detected.
0.0
83.0
1.92
JO
Section 8, township 6 north, range 8 east of the 4th
principal meridian.
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5 oxide of iron, a trace
of lime and magne
sia.
0.5
0.0
95.0
2.82
Iowa and Wisconsin soils — continued.

bb

1 [3
1

— "5

p
2
No.
LOCATION.
&
sl
sl
Salts soluble in water.
Salts soluble in diluted
i
s
&
S
^ 0
a B
mui-iatic acid
1
i
S
'
1
y —
•a ca
1
¦a 2
CI)
0
.s e
e
<
in
1
s
Iowa Soils.
11
Soil from the west side of Dubuque, from a flat
valley.
3.5
4.5
6.5
3.5—1.3 limo, 0.3 mag
nesia, 0.8 oxide of
0.5 chiefly oxide of iron.
0.0
31 .0
1.62
12
Southeast quarter of section 25, township 89 north,
range 3 east of the Sth prhicipal meridian, from
tho ridge.
3.5
6.0
5.0
2.5—1.8 lime, 0.2 nmg-'
ncsia, 0.5 oxide of
iron.
1. 0.5 alumina, 0.5 oxide
of iron.
0.5
81.0
1.52
13
From near Dubuque River bottom, ftom a corn-field.
3.0
3.0
4.0
2.5 lime, mafrnesin, and a
little oxide cf iron.
1. - -
5.0
86.0
1.92
14
Average soil fVom townships 84, 85, 86, 87, range 3
west of the Sth principal meridian.
Township 81 north, range 2 east of the Sth princi
4.3
3.0
4.0
1.5 chiefly alumina.
0.5 oxide of iron
2.0
85.0
2.08
15
1.5
3.0
1.5
1.0 chiefly lime.
0.5 oxide of iron
1.0
91.0
2.60
pal meridian.
Average of 15 specimens
3.6
4.8
4.8
-
-
82.5
1.84
oISoo
Jfote. — ^The saline matter insoluble in water, but soluble in muriatic acid, of soils Nos. 9 and 14, was tested for pliosphoric acid, by fusliifi with
carbonate of soda, dissolving with acetic acid, and adding nitrate of silver. No sulphur-yellnw precipitate appeared indicative of pluisphoric arid.
Indeed, muriatic, a trace of sulphuric and carbonic acids, were the only inorganic^,»01fiCB!lS»kj;mild be detected in combination with thosalino
^ the salin(Vl«CCij^Tj*^c^^i^!
-  Oxide of iron appeared, iu most cases the chief constituent of i
contain little or no phosphates.
ynter. These virgin soils seem, therefore, to
^SOt
266 APPENDIX.
" To a correct appreciation of the resuUs obtained from the
above table, it may be remarked, that the organic matter of
the soU (sometimes called geine) — the food of plants — the
substance, which, by the action of air and water, has been
prepared, or is in course of preparation, to enter into the
circulation of the plant, — is that portion of the soil which
chiefly communicates to it its prolific qualities ; and that, all
other things being equal, a soil may be expected to be pro
ductive, in proportion to the amount of organic matter it
contains.* " This organic matter is in part soluble, and in part inso
luble, in alkali. The soluble portion of it is supposed, with
much plausibility, to be that which is already prepared to
become nutriment for plants ; the insoluble portion is
regarded as that which, by the action of air and moisture,
and other influences, will hereafter become so.
" If this theory be an accurate one, it follows that those
soils which contain a large proportion of soluble organic
matter will be fertile for the time ; but that they must also
contain a good supply of insoluble geine to preserve their
fertility. And thus the column of soluble organic matter in
the table is that which measures the present productiveness,
and that of insoluble organic matter that which indicates the
durability of the soil.
" The salts which enter into the composition of a soil are
considered by agricultural chemists as its stimulating ingre
dient. Chaptal, in his ' Chemistry applied to Agriculture,'
says (a little fancifully, perhaps), ' The salts are to plants,
what spices and marine salts are to man.'t It is certain that
" * An exception to this rule, which should not be overlooked, exists in
the case of bog or peat soils ; which, however, possess in general but little
soluble organic matter."
" t Dr. Dana improves on this idea. He says : ' The earths are the
plates, the salts the seasoning, and the geine the food of plants.' "

GEOLOGY. 267
the salts in any soil exert upon the organic matter a chemical
action, and contribute to regulate and facilitate the process
of nutrition. Without an adequate supply of saline material,
then, a soil lacks one of the essential ingredients of
fecundity. " To form an estimate, from the above table, of the quality
of the Wisconsin soils, it is necessary to compare its results
with similar results obtained in countries in which, by actual
culture, the value of the soil has, to some extent, been
proved. The difiiculty here is, that such analyses of soils
have very rarely been made or recorded. Professor Hitch
cock, in his Report, of the year 1838, on the Economical
Geology of Massachusetts, furnishes a valuable table of this
kind, exhibiting the analyses of one hundred and twenty -five
specimens, which, as he informs us, may be considered as
about the average quality of the soils of that State. He
adds : ' As this is probably the first attempt that has been
made to obtain the amount of geine in any considerable
number of soils, we cannot compare the results with those
obtained in other places. They will be convenient, however,
for comparison with future analyses.'
" And they do accordingly furnish data for a comparison,
both interesting and important, between the soil of Massa
chusetts and that of Wisconsin.
"The following are the results obtained from Professor
Hitchcock's table :
Average quantity of soluble geine (organic
matter) - ... 3.90 per cent.
Average quantity of insoluble geine (organic
matter) - . . - 3.70 per cent.
Average specific gravity of soil - - - 2.44

268 APPENDIX.
" My own table, as will have been remarked, shows the
results for the soils of Iowa and Wisconsin to be —
Average quantity of soluble organic matter - 4.80 per cent.
Average quantity of insoluble organic matter 5.13 "
Average specific gravity of soil - - - 1.84
" The first result which strikes the eye is the large amount
of organic matter in the Iowa and Wisconsin soils, compared
with those of Massachusetts — nearly one-thfrd greater.
" The second is the great specific gravity of the Massa
chusetts soil, compared with those of Iowa and Wisconsin —
nearly one-third greater.
"A more careful inspection shows that the amount of
organic matter is, almost to mathematical accuracy, in the
inverse ratio of the specific gravity of the soils.
" It would be a hasty inference thence to deduce the con
clusion that soils are rich in geine, in proportion to their
specific lightness ; yet the coincidence, in this respect, is
marked and worthy of attention.
" If further analysis of soils in various portions of this and
other countries should exhibit similar results, it would appear
that a simple trial of the specific gravity of a soil may, in a
general way, furnish an approximating test of its fertility.
" Be this as it may, the dark mould which prevails over a
large proportion of Iowa and Wisconsin, so rich in geine,
and of so small specific gravity, has proved itself, wherever
the farmer has trusted to its certain returns, instead of attempt
ing the more hazardous venture of the mine, an excellent and
productive soil ; especially adapted to the culture of every
species of culinary vegetables and small grain, and produc
ing, probably, as good Indian corn as the State of New York,
or any other State of the same latitude.
" It wiU be observed, from the table, that the power of

GEOLOGY. 269
absorption is generally in proportion to the amount of geine
and the lightness of the soil.*
" This is an important item to the cultivator. Lands pos
sessing this power in a considerable degree readily absorb
the dew in dry weather ; and, in wet weather, do not sufier
the superfluous rain to accumulate on the surface. .
" A striking feature in the character of the Iowa and Wis
consin Soils, as the table shows, is the entire absence, in
most of the specimens, of clay, and the large proportion of
sUex. This silex, however, does not commonly show itself
here in its usual form — that of a quartzose sand. It appears
as a fine, almost impalpable, siliceous powder, frequently
occurring in concreted lumps that resemble clay ; and,
indeed, it was often reported to me incorrectly as clay — an
error ultimately detected by analysis.
" This almost impalpable powder, the chief constituent and
almost sole residuum of the Iowa and Wisconsin soils, is so
highly comminuted, that, when examined under the micro
scope, for the most part, its atoms present no crystalline or
even granular appearance.
" This fine siUceous residuum, after being boiled with
strong aqua regia, lost but 10 per cent. ; of which but 5 per
cent, was alumina.
" This absence of any material per-centage of clay in the
soils under consideration prevents the rolling lands from
washing away ; and it imparts to the streams a crystal clear
ness, which even after heavy rains is hardly disturbed. The
appearance of these transparent rivulets flowing over a soil.

" * ' In general, the more finely the parts of a soil are divided, the better
they absorb water.' — Chaptal.
" This applies particularly, as the sequel will show, to the soils in
question."

270 APPENDIX.
which when moistened by rain is often of an inky blackness,
arrests, by its singularity, the eye of a stranger.
" Whether the lack of clay in the Iowa and Wisconsin
soUs wiU render them less durable, may be doubted. A
coarse sandy soil, the open pores of which suflFer the rain to
percolate,.carrying with it the nutritive geine from the surface,
requires an admixture of clay before it can become rich and
durable ; but the minute grained siliceous powder of this dis
trict forms a species of soil entirely difl'erent from the above
— one which, without any such admixture, retains moisture
and geine in much perfection.
" I believe it to be peculiarly adapted to the growth of the
sugar beet, which flourishes best in a loose fertile mould, and
which has of late become, in some European countries, an
important article of commerce. It is estimated that the
amount of beet sugar manufactured in France during the last
year was 100,000,000 pounds, and in Prussia and Germany
30,000,000 pounds. In the western part of Michigan, in as
northem a latitude, and in a climate similar to that of Wiscon
sin, 240,000 pounds are reported by the papers of that state
(how accurately I know not) to have been manufactured du
ring last season.
" In concluding this brief notice of the soils of this district,
which I regret that time does not permit me to extend, I may
add, that I know of no country in the world, with similar
mineral resources, which can lay claim to a soil as fertile and
as well adapted to the essential purposes of agriculture."

(B.)

Extract from Mr. Owen's Report to Congress.
"eAKTHWORK antiquities in WISCONSIN TERRITORY.
" I present this subject, not as a discovery, but merely to
add such evidence to the discoveries and publications of others
as seem, from the doubts I have heard so'repeatedly expressed,
to be necessary to convince the majority of readers of their
correctness. In the 34th volume of ' SiUiman's Journal,' is
a communication from Richard C. Taylor, Esq., on the sub
ject of these idenical works, in which he describes them as
being ' in the form of animal efiigies.' The figures given by
Mr. Taylor are so unlike any ancient tumuli in other parts of
the country, that I had, ever since noticing them, felt a strong
desire to examine the originals. On entering Wisconsin, I
was so engaged in other pursuits, that I had forgotten the
' eifigies,' until, upon examfriing the ' sandstone bluffs,' eight
miles east of the Blue Mounds, I UteraUy stumbled over one
of them, overgrown with the rarik prairie grass. I was at
once convinced of the correctness of Mr. Taylor's representa
tions, and not a little astonished that some well-informed per-

272 APPENDIX.
sons there, in the midst of these strange groups, should still
pretend to dispute their artificial origin. The same ambition
to exercise an independent judgment might lead the same
individuals to dispute that the ruins of Herculaneum are arti
ficial ; the same argument might be used — ' that they just
come so in the earth.' Without going into any discussion in
regard to the origin, history, or design of these figures, I
shall merely represent their form and dimensions with as much
accuracy as a very particular survey of a few of them ena
bled me to attain. I shall not even pretend to say that they
are like animals ; for this the reader can determine for him
self. I have not attempted, in any degree, to represent them
as they might once have been, but exactly as I found them on
the day that I surveyed them.
" The method pursued in making the surveys is represent
ed in plate No. 1, Antiquities. Here, for convenience, I make
use of the names of the parts of an animal. The figure deli
neated is the foremost one of the two, between which the road
passes, and which are on the verge of a small prairie, about
ten miles east of Madison, the capital of Wisconsin. SmaU
stakes were set in the following points, viz : the eye, the fore
foot, the shoulder, the hip, the hind foot, and the end of the
tail. The angular positions of these and other points were
determined by measuring, with a tape measure, the sides of
the several 'triangles which those points form, in such a man
ner that the determined side of one triangle shaU be the base
of a new one. After the determination of aU the triangles,
their several diameters and distances were measured and
noted ; and, finally, to determine the bearing of the whole
figure, the magnetical bearing of the line from the hip to the
shoulder was registered on the field-book.
The following is a copy from the field-notes, in reference
to the above figures :

MONUMENTS.

2'

Triangles.

Feet.
Inches
Eye to shoulder, ...
- 23
0
Shoulder to foot, ...
- 29
4
Fore foot to eye, -
- 37
8
Eye to nose.
20
4
Nose to shoulder, - - - -
- 35
10
Eye to point half way between the ears.
11
0
Shoulder to same point
24
10
Shoulder to hip
38
4
Fore foot to hip
57
0
Shoulder to hind foot
- 47
8
Hind foot to hip
- 28
10
Hip to the tip of the tail
38
0
Hind foot to the tip of the tail
- 41
6
" Diameters.
Feet.
Inches
Of the neck
13
0
Of the fore leg
11
0
Of the body
- 14
7
Of the hind leg
9
9
Of the taU
- 8
0
" Distances.
Feet.
Inches.
From the eye to the front
- 7
6
From one ear to the other
- 14
0
From shoulier to armpit
- 9
9
From shoulder to back
8
4
From hip to rump
- 7
0
From hip to flank
9
7
From hip to insertion of the tail
- 7
6
Length of the throat - - -
- 12
0
13*
274 APPENDIX.
" Observations. — Ears distinctly separated. Two trees,
sixteen inches in diameter, growing in the nose. Ground
sloping gently towards the feet. Both the fore and hind
legs curved a Uttle backwards. The tail a little hoUowed on
the upper side. Height, or relief of the figure above the
natural surface, about three feet ; and the back somewhat
steeper than the belly. Bearing of hip to shoulder N. 38°
W. " It wUl be seen, by examining the above notes, that they
determine twenty-five points in the circumference of the
figure ; and that the connecting of these points by lines, and
thus completing the outline, permits no exercise of imagina
tion. The figure from the earth is simply transferred to the
paper, on a scale of the one hundred and twentieth part, in
linear dimensions. Seven other figures were surveyed with
the same degree of particularity, and the distances between
them and the relative positions of the same group accurately
noted. " The ' military road' from Prairie du Chien to the Four
Lakes, after crossing the Wisconsin River, and ascending a
small tributary, occupies the height or dividing ridge between
the waters of the Wisconsin on one side, afid those of Rock
River and some smaller streams on the other, for the distance
of eighty or one hundred miles, occasionally descending into
a moderate valley, and crossing a small rivulet, a head branch
of some of the incipient streams. Most of the route is on a
high open prairie. From the Blue Mounds eastward to the
Four Lakes, the country abounds with the earthwork antiqui
ties, of the origin of which the present aborigines are as
ignorant as ourselves. About seven or eight miles eastward
from the Blue Mounds, the road descends into the valley of
a head branch of Sugar River, a tributary of Rock River ;

MONUMENTS. 275
and here, near a bluff of sandstone, of a very picturesque
and fantastic outline, commence our particular descriptions.
" There is a group of works about eight miles east of the
Blue Mounds. It is on the great road from Prairie du
Chien, through Madison, to Lake Michigan— a road so
decidedly marked by nature, that I presume it has been the
thoroughfare, the ' trail,' the great ' war-path,' ever since the
region in the vicinity has been inhabited by migrating man,
and will continue to be his pathway untU the hills and the
rivers exchange their places. The sand-blufi" surmounted
with pines is here a picturesque object ; and the streamlet
and springs not very distant, with a few scattering trees for
fire, have long made it a camping ground. Mr. Taylor has
represented only one of the two ' efiigies ' which occur at
this point ; the other was probably so overgrown with grass
and small hazel-bushes as to escape his observation. Our
encampment was near this place ; and in the midst of some
discussion with regard to the tumuli, they were opened to
see whether they were stratified, and whether the black
mould continued underneath them, even with the surrounding
surface. No. 2 was composed of sand, without any change
to mark an original surface below, although it is now over
grown with grass, and is covered with a thin black mould.
The whole of this descent, near the bottom of which the
figure lies, has evidently been formed by the disintegration
of the soft incoherent sandstone blufi" contiguous ; and at the
time of forming this tumulus, it was very probably destitute
of loam at this point, as it now is at a point stiU nearer the
blufi". A section of the embankment near the gap exhibited
a thin line of this loam, even with what might be supposed
to have been the original surface of the ground. AUuvial
stratification is positive proof that a formation is not artifi
cial ; but the absence of a base of mould is not positive

276 APPENDIX.
proof of the same thing; for the constructors may have
removed the surface on commencing their work. Many of
our tumuli have not oiUy a base of mould marking an origi
nal surface, but ashes, coals, bones, and artificial implements
deposited at the bases of tumuli, of various forms and
heights, from two to seventy feet.
" In examining the tumuli of Wisconsin, I did not at any
place discover a ditch or cavity from which the earth to con
struct them had been taken. They abound along the natural
road, occupying the fertUe and commanding hill-tops, and
the gentle slopes into the valleys ; being uniformly raised
from a smooth and well-formed surface, always above inun
dation, and well guarded from the little temporary currents
produced by showers.
'¦' The backs of the ' efiigies ' were uniformly placed up
hill, and the feet downward, as at the sand-bluff. There are
some points on the surface of soft ground where we naturally
expect chasms, rugae, mammillary points, and undulations.
These occur from the uprooting of trees, from avalanches,
from the settling of banks, from the action of temporary
streams and currents of water. Mammillary points are
often left along the sharp crest of a hUl, and insular mounds
are not unfrequently left in low alluvial bottoms — certain
points of upland having withstood that action of the currents
which has carried away and degraded the surface to a lower
level. But there are other situations where we expect to
find, and do actually find, the surface evenly graded into
smooth undulations, as on the dividing tables between the
heads of streams, and in the tops of moderate hiUs, where
no current has room to accumulate ; and especially if the
same region be prairie, with the surface protected by the
strong roots of wild grasses.
" Just such a situation is this part of Wisconsin where the

MONUMENTS. 277
geologist suddenly and unexpectedly meets with these groups
of gigantic basso-relievos, which appear to him as decidedly
artificial as the head of Julius Caesar on an ancient coin, not
withstanding anything which may be imagined or said to the
contrary. [Another] " figure is about one mile and a half from the
blufi" above described. It appears to be soUtary ; lies on a
low, level, smooth ground, and seems to have been muti
lated ; the parts which I have called the legs seem to have
been partially washed away. If intended to represent an
animal, the head is evidently too large, and the attitude very
stiff" and rectangular. But I have drawn it as I found it,
without any inclination to make it more like an animal than
it was made in the original design, with all the defacements
which several hundred years have imprinted. The distance
from this third figure to the next group is diminished on the
plate. It is really one-fourth to one-third of a mile, where,
on our progress towards Madison, we approach the termina
tion of the valley in which our figures, so far, have been
sketched. Here, upon the side of a hill sloping gently to
ward the road, are three figures, and an embankment ; the
sizes, distances, and relative positions of which have all
been drawn to a uniform scale of forty feet to the inch.
" Leaving the group last described, and proceeding still
eastwardly towards the Four lakes, we ascend a ridge, and
pass out of the valley containing the six figures [above des
cribed]. The road for about two miles Ues over broken,
thinly-timbered ridges ; beyond which it crosses a small
prairie, and again enters woodland. Just at the entrance of
this woodland aie two [other] figures. The pathway passes,
with scanty space, between the nose of the one and the tail
of the other. These are the most perfect, if we consider
them as ' effigies' of animals, of any of the figures here re-

278 APPENDIX.
presented, and are singularly alike in their form and dimen
sions. A short distance (500 or 600 feet) to the west of
them is a natural swell of ground, with an artificial tumu
lus on the top of it, overlooking the two figures.
" If these figures were originally intended to represent
animals, they might have been much more distinct and speci
fic than they now are. It is obvious that any minute deline
ations must soon be obliterated by the agency of the weather.
Most of them have the upper part of the head, the ears, or
antlers, apparently too large — at least it appears so in the
drawings. But this part, in the originals, is not raised from
the ground so high as the other parts, and appears like
several small parts trodden down and blended together. In
the eighth figure, especially, there is a decided notch or
separation still remaining between the two horns or ears.
They are the favorite resort of badgers, which, finding them
raised and dry, have selected them for burrowing ; and it is
wonderful that they retain their outlines so perfectly. But,
above all other creatures civilized man will obliterate them
the most speedily ; and it is much to be regretted that the
multitude of extraordinar)'- figures raised like embossed
ornaments over the whole of this part of the country, could
not be accurately measured and delineated before they shall
be obliterated for ever. The reader will please to observe
that these observations were made, as it were, by stealth. I
had other duties to perform, and was enabled to take these
measurements by an enthusiasm which awoke me in my tent
at midnight, assisted me to prepare my breakfast before day,
and sent me into the cold bleak fields on a November morn
ing, to finish the admeasurements of a whole group of figures
before the usual time of commencing the labors of the day.
I had no time to turn aside to examine still other groups,
evidently more extensive and interesting than those which

MONUMENTS. 279
we have endeavored to represent. Mr. Taylor has repre
sented the effigies of birds, and one of the human figure, as
occurring here ; and I am happy, with a full conviction of
the general accuracy of his representations, to call the
reader's attention to his interesting paper.
" On one of the hills I saw an embankment exactly in the
form of the cross, as it is usuaUy represented as the emblem
of Christianity. Some of the surveyors brought in sketches
of works in the form of birds with wings expanded ; and I
heard of others in the form of lizards and tortoises. From
what I have seen, I should think it very probable that these
forms are to be found. But, in order that thefr existence
should excite in the public that interest which, as relics of
ancient history, they reaUy possess, they should be so ex
actly surveyed and depicted that their representations can be
relied upon with confidence. I object to the very careless
and imperfect manner in which most of our antiquities have
been examined, by which they have been rather guessed at
than surveyed. Although I have given a pledge not to
undertake to make animals of these figures, yet, to the eyes
of all, except very sagacious people, they will look very like
animals ; and the question will arise, what kinds of animals
were intended to be represented ? In the originals, the size
is so great, and the outline more or less obscured by herbage
and undershrubs, that the impression of an effigy is much
less decided than when the same is diminished and brought
into one pointy of view, in which all the parts are under the
eye at once. A comparison of the difi"erence of expression,
form, and attitude, does not strike one at all in the originals,
while it is very decided in the diminished copies. Mr. Tay
lor suggests that those were intended to represent the buff'alo,
though he acknowledges the representation to be imperfect,
especially in wanting the ' hump.' It appears to me that the

280

APPENDIX.

figures 1, 2, 3, and 6, might ha-ve been intended as effigies
of the bear ; the clumsy proportions, and want of the caudal
appendage, appear like that animal. Figures 5, 7, and 8,
have decidedly an expression of agility and fleetness. They
may have been intended for the conger, or American tiger —
an animal still existing in that region. The only general
disproportion to that animal is the length of the head."

CATALOGUE OF SOME OF THE PLANTS OF THE UPPER MISSISIPPI

[Mr. Geyer' s List, with Additions.]

Platanus, Catalpa.
Several species of Anemone.
Aquuligia,Delphinium,
Thalictrum,Menispermum,
Nymphaea, Sanguinaria,
Nasturtiums, several species.
Arabis, Cardamine,
Dentaria,Erysimum,
Draba,Lepidium, Cleome.
Polygala,Violet, several varieties.
Grass of Parnassus.

Sycamore.

Columbine.
Larkspur. Meadow Rue.
Moonseed.
Water Lily.
Bloodwort.
Wall-cress. Ladies' Smock.
Toothwort.
Winter cress, hedge mustard.
Whitlow grass.
Cress.Milkwort, 3 species.

282

APPENDIX.

Hypericum,
Arenaria, Stellaria,
Spergula,
Linum, Geranium maculatum,
Oxalis, Celastrus,
Euonymus,Rhamnus,

Ceanothus,
Vicia, Lathyrus,
Phaseolus, Glycyrrhiza,
Psoralia,

St. Johnswort.
Sandwort.
Stitchwort.Spurry.
Flax. Cranes' bill.
Wood sorrel
Grape.Staff" tree.
Spindletree. Buckthorn . A variety of this
genus is used for tea among
the Chinese poor.
Red root. New Jersey tea.
Vetch. Vetchling, everlasting pea.
Kidney bean.
Liquorice root.
There are several species,
viz., esculenta, argophylla,
cuspidata, lanceolata, —
called by the Canadians
pomme de prairie, pomme
blanche, and pomme de
terre.

Amorpha.

Pelalostemon

Dalea.

Astragalus,

MUk vetcl

Bastard Vetch.

Lupinus,
Lupin.
Cercis,
Redbud.
Potenlilla,
CinquefoU,
PLANTS.

283

Strawberry,
Rosa, Crataegus,
EpUobium, (Enothera,

Cfrcaea,
Myriophyllum,Hippuris,
Ribes, Ribesia and Grossularia,
Hydrangea. Slum,
Aralia, Cornus,
Galium,
Aster, Erigeron, Solidago,
Ambrosia, Xanthium,
Helianthus, Helenium,
Achillea, Senecio,
Artemisia, Sonchus,
Lactuca,

PheUandrium Aquaticum,

Fragaria.Rose, blanda and lucida.
Hawthorn.Willow herb.
Tree primrose, many var., — ¦
serrulata, caespitosa, albi-
caulis, pinnatifida, biennis.
Enchanter's nightshade.
Water millfoil.
Mare's tail.
Currant and gooseberry.
Water parsnip.
Spikenard.
Dogwood. Bedstraw — allied to madder.
Star wort, 10 var.
Fleabane, 6 var.
Golden rod, 8 var.
Bitterweed. Clot burr.
Sunflower.Sneezewort.
MiUfoU.Ragwort, 4 var.
Wormwood, 7 var.
Sow thistle.
Lettuce, a new species not in
Herbarium ; arid banks of
a lake formed by James'
River.
Fine leaved water hemlock,
an active medicine, delete-

284

APPENDIX.

Leontodon,Mentha Viri dis,
" Pulegium,
" Piperita,
Wahu, Cornus sericea.

Eupatorium perfoliatum.
Ranunculus bulbosus, Aquatilis. Cymbalaria.
Sceleratus.
Repens.
Abortivus.
Vitis riparia,
Hieracium,Bear grape.
Vaccinium tenellum.
Lobelia, Campanula,
Ash,Apocynum, Asclepias, Gentiana,

Phlox. Heilotropium, Lithospermum,

rious ; horses, on eating,
become paralytic.
Dent de lion.
Spearmint.
Pennyroyal.
Peppermint.
Indian arrow.
Red wUlow, swamp dog
wood ; the liber is used by
the Sauks for smoking,
called Kinicanik.
Thoroughwort, boneset.
Buttercup.

River bank grape vine.
Hawkweed. The sugar whortleberry.
Several var.
Bellflower. Fraxinus. Indian hemp.
Wild cotton, swallowwort.
Gentian, 8 var. : the lutea,
most esteemed in medi
cine, not one.

Tumsol. Several species.

The roots

PLANTS.

285

Myosotis,
HydrophyUum,Lycopus,Monarda,
Hedeoma, Solanum nigrum triflorum,
Physalis,Pentstemon,

Mimulus,Gratiola,
Veronica,
Pedicularis,Verbena,
Lysimachia, Glaux maritima,
Utricularia,
Plantago,
Amaranthus, Chenopodium,
Salsola,
Salicomia,
Rumex,
Polygonum,Laurus benzoin,
Eleagnus argentea,

of some afford a lac for
dyeing and painting.
Scorpion grass.
Water leaf.
Water horehound.
Mountain bahn.
Wild pennjrroyal.
Nightshade. Ground cherry.
Several species. The grandi-
florum, a beautiful species
about 3 feet high, is found
at Prairie Du Chien and
other points.
Monkey flower.
Hedge hyssop.
Speedwell.Lousewort.
Vervain.
Loosestrife. Saltwort.
Bladderwort.
Plantain, 5 var.
Amaranth, prince's feather.
Goosefoot, wormseed.
Saltwort.Glasswort.
Dock, 4 var.
40 var. (Persic, buckwheat).
Spicebush.
Oleaster. A shrub from 8
to 12 feet high, producing

286

APPENDIX.

a dry, farinaceous, edible

drupe, about the size of a

smaU cherry.

Shepherdia arg..

SimUar to above, caUed by

the natives rabbit berry.
Berries smaU, red, cluster
ed, succulent, acid.
Euphorbia,
Resembling cactus, 5 var.
Callilriche,
Water star.
Urtica,
Nettle.
Parietaria,
PeUitory.
Moms rubra.
Red mulberry.
Ulmus Americana,
American elm.
" Fulva,
Slippery elm.
Also one or two other species.
Ostrya,
Hop-horn-beam.
Salix,
Willow, many species.
Quercus,
Oak, many var. ; white, red.
black, mountain, overcup
white oak, burr, chinqua
pin, &c.
Juniperus,
Juniper.
Sisyrinchium,
Blue-eyed grass.
Cypripedium.
Convallaria,
Lily of the valley.
Uvularia,
Lily, yellow lily.
Allium stel..
Garlic.
" angulosum.
Erythronium,
Dog's tooth violet.
TriUium,
American herb Paris.
Smilax,
Green briar.
Triglochin,
Arrow grass.
Potamogeton,
Pond weed.
PLANTS.

287

Arum, Sparganium,
Juncus, Tradescantia,Alisma, Cyperas,
Dulichium. Scirpus,Carex,
Alopecums,Panicum, Stipa,
Agrostis, Poa,
Festuca, Bromus,Triticum wheat,
Elymus,

Atheropogon. Sesleria,Lepturus. Crypsis,
Beckmannia,
Andropogon, Stmthiopteris,
Equisetum,
Baptisia tinctoria.
Podophyllum,

Wake robin.
Burr reed.
Rush, 4 var.
Spiderwort.
Water plantain.
Cypress grass.
Club rush.
Sedge, 10 var.
Foxtail grass.
Panic grass.
Silk grass, feather grass, long
"* awned grass.
Bent grass.
Meadow grass, 4 var.
Fescue grass.
Brome grass.
Dog wheat.
Wild rye. Also, a new spe
cies of Ely. Or a new ge
nus between rye and bar
ley.
Moor grass.
Thorn grass.
Arrow grass.
Beard grass.
Fern. Horsetail.
Wild indigo.
May apple, otherwise called

288

APPENDIX.

Silene,
Ladies' slipper.
Cassia marilandica.
Datura stramonium.
Black root.
Rattlesnake's master
Jerusalem artichoke
Humulus lupulus.
Hazel. Oxycoccus macrocarpus,
" hispidulus,

mandrake,
duck's foot.
Wild pink.

wild lemon,

American senna.
Devil's apple, Jamestown
weed, thorn apple.

Hop.
The red cranberry.
White do., similar to
gaultheria, or partridge
berry, called mountain tea,
used as substitute.

Acer, Maple.
" Sugar Maple.
Juglans, " Scaly Bark Hickory, J. Cortice squamosa.
" Pignut Hickory.
" Bitternut Hickory.
" Swamp Hickory.
Black Walnut.
White Walnut ; or. Butternut, Juglans cinerea.
Locust, black.
" white.
" honey.
Cedar, red.
Pinus, Pine.
" white.
" yellow.

PLANTS.

289

Pinus, black.
" spruce.
Prickly Ash, Xanthoxyllum
Wild Plum.
Wild Cherry.
Crab Apple.
Raspberry.Blackberry.Dewberry. Sumach, Rhus
Hemp. Isopyrum.Actaea rubra.
Uvaria triloba.
Leontice. Corydulis.
Dielytra. Sisymbrium.
Stanleya.Capsella.
Polanisia. Hudsonia. Claytonia, Chickweed.
Xanthoxyllum, Amer.
Rhus triloba.
Sida, coc.
Hosachia.Oxytropis.
Phffia. Homalobus.
Desmodium. Schranbia.
Darlingtonia. 14

Fraxineum.

Pencedanum. Polytcenia.
Osmorhiza.
Syraphoricarpus .
Vernonia Liatris.
Kuhnia.Boltonia. Gutierrizzia.
Aplopappus.Grindelia. Chrysopsis.Silphium.
Iva axil.
Echinacea.
Rudbechia. Lepachis.Copeopsis tinct.
Dysodia. Gaillardia.
Hymenophyllus. Antennaria, everlasting.

290

APPENDIX.

Chamaerodos.
Geum.
Amelanchier. Gaura, coc.
Menzelia, orn.
Zizia, aur.
Thaspium.Navaretia.
Convolvulus stans.
Evolvulus Arg.
Echinosperamm. Onosmodium.
Ellisia. Lophantus.
Physostegia.Androcera.Chelone. Monniera.Gerardia.Othocarpus,
Castilleja. Orobanche.
Oxybaphus, UmbreUa Wort.
Kochia. Obione. Atriplex.

Cirsium, 4 var
Nabalus, 3 var.
Lygodesmia.
Troximon.
Forestiera.
Acerates, vir. flo.
CoUomia.Comandra.
Peristylus. Spiranthes.
Ammianthium. Zigadenus, Helonias.
Elocharis. Muhlenbergia.
Vilfa.
Calamagrostis.
Arundo. Spartina.
Aristida.Catabrosa.
Kceleria. Glyceria.
Uniola.
Polypodium.Asplenmm.Marsilea.

TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.
Missisippi River at low water.

Estimated dis

0)

tances
Dy water.
I°".
West of
Places of observation.
OJ
"^.S
P^O''^^ leiti.
ijir
CCllWl!..!!,
Authorities, &c.
From lace tc jlace.
om
th ulfof exico.
Ititudi he Gu Mex
tude.
Longitudes in arc.
a.
fi^S
<;-"
Miles.
Miles.
Feet.
O
/
//
o
/ //
New Orleans Cathedral, and level of its
-
front pavement ....
104
104
10.5
29
57
23
89
59 4
Red River, north end of the island, op
posite the mouth ...
236
340
76
31
2
25
91
41 15
Nicollet
Natchez, light-house
00
406
86
31
33
37
91
28 22.5
do.
Yazoo River, the mouth
128
531
_
32
28
0
90
59 30
Ferrer.
¦White River, Montgomery's Landing,
Nicollet,
one mile above the mouth
220
754
202
33
57
20
90
26 45
New Madrid, Missouri
361
1,115
_
30
3-1
30
S9
97 15
Ferrer.
Ohio River, north side of the mouth
lUl
J,216
324
37
0
25
89
2 30
Ferrer's longitude.
Long's first expedition.
Cape Girardeau 
41
1,257
-
37
18
39
89
17 0
St. Genevieve, Catholic church, and
level of its pavement
73
1,330
372
37
59
47
90
11 10
Nicollet.
St. Louis, garden of the cathedral
CO
1,390
3S2
38
37
28
90
15 39
do.
t=f 3
* The numbers in this column refer to the surface of the water in the Missisippi at the point mentioned except
when otherwise especially expressed. '
o
oSI
1>S!
OIri
H •
to
Table of Geographical Positions— Missisippi River at low wa^er— ConUiiued,

Estimated dis

>

 '  .-.-
tances by water
-S-o
-West of
rt c _.
Hi
Places of observation.
From ace
to ilace.
North lati.
, Lrleeiiwicxi.
Authorities, &,c.
-
O p dj
tude.
Longitudes in arc.
a
£os
<*^
Miles.
Miles.
Feet.
o
/
//
o
/ //
Illinois River, the mouth
Moingonan River (Des Moines River), a
36
1,425
38
58
12
Long's first expedition.
small island at the mouth
Montrose, or old Fort Des Moines, the
108
1,594
444
40
21
43
91
32 30
Nicollet.
mouth of the creek
15
1,609
470
40
30
34
91
31 0
do. do.
Flint River, the mouth above Burlington
30
1,639
486
40
52
56
Maskudeng, the middle mouth of the
slough .....
39
1,678
505
41
14
47
91
21 30
do.
Rock Island, a quarter of a mile above
Davenport's residence ...
44
1,722
528
41
31
50
do.
Head of the Upper Rapids, below Port
Biron and Parkhurst
15
1,737
554
41
36
8
90
29 0
do.
Prairie du Chien (Kipi.saging), Ameri.
can Fur Company's house
195
1,932
642
43
3
6
91
9 19,5
do
Summit of bluff on the eastern
side of Prairie du Chien
_
_
1,010
do.
do.
Upper Iowa River, island at the mouth .
46
1,978
43
29
26
91
10 0
Sappah River, or Black River, opposite
the old mouth ...
57
2,035
683
43
57
14
91
24 0
do.
a
o o
M
CO
> 13O
Top of mountain on rlslit bank,
opposite the old mouth -
Dividing-ridgc between Siippah
River and Prairie a la Crosse
River, 6 miles east of Missi-
sippi 
Mountain island, or Montagne qui
trempe a TEau of the French -
Miniskali River, or White-water River -
Reminicha (Montagne la Grange of the
French) upper end of Lalce
Pepin . . . .
Top of Reminicha
Lahontan River, the mouth— (Cannon
River of the Americans, Canoe River
of the French) ....
St. Croix River, the mouth . - .
St. Peter's, the mouth ....
General level of the plateau on
which Fort Snelling and the
Indian agency stand
Pilot Knob, the top -
Falls of St. Anthony, U. States cottage -
Ishkode-wabo River, or Rum River, the
mouth ......
Karishon River (Sioux), or Undeg River
(Chippeways), Crow River of the
Americans - . - - -
Wabezi, or Swan River, a half mile
above the mouth ....
Kagi.wigwan River, the mouth (Aile de
Corbeau River of the French — Crow-
wing River of the Americans) -

-

-

1,214

-

-

1,103

7
27

2,042 2,009

-

40

2,115

714
1,036

3
32
42

2,1182,1502,192

729 711

8

2,200

830
1,006 856

19

2,219

-

10

2,229

-

112

2,341

1,098

' 40

2,381

1,130

44 1 7
44 12 30

44 33 30

44 34 0
14 45 30
44 52 46

44 58 40
45 15 0
45 16 0
45 54 30
46 16 50

91 30 30
91 51 15

92 31

92 32 0
92 45 0
93 4 54

93 10 30

94 22 0
94 22 45

do.

do.
do.do.

do.
do.

do.do.do.

do.do.
do. do.

do.do. do.

Oor

1-3>¦
oIB

13t^
tsHo

dIS

«o
CO

Table of Geographical Positions — continued.

to

Estimated dis-

¦ 1
QJ

tances
)y water.
l=s
"West of
•So
»i=i s
North lati.'
Greenwich.
o
QJ
Authorities, &c.
Places of observation.
6 ¦" oj
O 03 O
^t O rt
¦S'o g
tude.
Longitudes in arc.
=^1-
O -3 O
Miles.
Miles.
Feet.
O
/
//
c / //
Kabikons, or Little Falls, the head of
the falls - - - , -
240
2,627
1,340
47
14
50
93 26 45
Nicollet.
-Wanomon River, or -Vermilion River, the
mouth - 
21
2,048
-
47
11
4
Eagle Nest savannah (Marais aux Nids
d' Aigle of the French) -
16
2,664
-
47
18
10
93 32 30
do.
Leech Lake River, the mouth
11
2,075
1,356
47
14
0
93 39 0
do.
Lake Cass, the old trading-house on a
93 43 0
do
tongue of land near the entrance of
the Missisippi - - - ¦ -
SO
2,755
1,402
47
25
23
94 34 0
do.
Pemidji Lake or Lake Travers, the en
trance of the Missisippi -
45
2,800
1,456
47
28
46
94 50 30
do.
Itasca Lake, Schoolcraft's island -
90
2,890
1,575
47
13
35
95 2 0
do
Utmost sources of the Missisippi, at the
summit of the Hauteurs de Terre, or
Dividing-ridge, between the Missisip
pi and Red River of the north -
6
2,890
1,680
oo
CD
> •T3 SI
TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.
Region of the sources of ihe Missisippi.

Places of observation.

Gayashk River, or Little Gull River, the mouth .
Gayashk Lake, or Little Gull Lake, end of Long Point
Kadicomeg Lake, or White Fish Lake, the entrance of Pine
River ..--...---
Lake Chanche, southwest end ......
Lake Eccleston, northwest end -.-..-
Leech Lake, Otter Tail Point 
Leech Lake, the bay opposite Otter Tail Point . - -
Kabekonang River, the junction of the upper fork, near the
next-mentioned portage 
Portage from Kabelconang River to La Place River, near the
west end 
Assawa Lake, below the south end 
Highest ridge on the portage between Assawa Lalce and
Itasca Lake .--- 
Cleared Pine Camp, on Leech Lake River - . - .

Altitudesabove the
Gulf of
Mexico.

Feet.
1,131
l.,1521,192 1,380

1,406
1,540
1,332 1,695

North lati
tudes.

40° 18' 50"
40 24 28

40 40
46 40
40 57

4747

25 35 0
4022

47 10 0
47 15 0
47 12 10

47 IS 0

"West of
Greenwich.

Longitudes in arc.

94° 26' 0"
94 22 30
94 2 30

94 20
94 22

94 55
94 0

Authorities, &c.

Do
Do.Do. Do.
Do.

>'Z
o

NicoUet. Do.

1
Qo

>

ti

o

Do.
Do.
1=
>
Do.
01
•z
Do.
•
Do.
CD
TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.
Northwest region of Lake Superior.

to

W of Greenwich
Places of observation.
North i!it;t,i,qoc
Authorities, &c
Longi. in
arc.
Fort William ......
48°
23'
23"
89°
19'
49"
Sir J. Franklin and J. Ferguson.
Grand Portage, east end ....
47
57
38
89
49
35
James Ferguson.
Grand Portage, west end (Fort Charlotte) .
47
58
34
89
59
31
Do.
Grouse Portage, or Portage aux Outardes, east end .
47
59
2
-
Do.
Portage to Arrow River, east end . . .
48
5
7
-
Do.
Portage of Height of Land, west end .
48
5
48
-
Do.
Island of Height of Land ....
48
6
21
90
42
43
Do.
Island ill the Strait .....
48
12
58
—
Do.
Island at the entrance of Saganaga ...
48
13
23
_
Do.
Marked Rock, near the southeast end of the Strait -
48
11
32
-
Do.
Island in Lac La Croix ....
48
16
U
92
4
4
Do.
Island in Lac La Croix ....
48
20
43
92
19
0
Do.
Rainy Lake River, Hudson Bay Company's fort
48
36
18
98
28
33
Sir J. Franklin.
Mouth of Rainy Lake River, or Rivilre Lac a la Pluie
of the French .....
48
53
16
94
45
40
James Ferguson.
Point in Namekom Lake ....
48
26
44
-
Do.
Portage du Rat, outlet of Lake of the -Woods .
49
47
49
94
26
49
Do.
ooe-t- I'm
> •z
TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.
Southwest region of Lake Superior.

Ul <U

o;.c v^ o
•o ¦" o g
W ofG
reenwicli
Places of observation.
3 «S=:-R
¦" > D S
Nortl
latitude.
Author
ueSi oce.
^|"S
Long
i. in
arc.
Madeleine Island, the trading-house and level of tho lake
(depth of Lake Superior, according to the Britisli Ad
Ft-ef.
miralty survey, 792 feet) ... -
020
40°
47'
10"
90°
53'
30"
NieoUet
St. Louis River, the trading-house called Fond du Lac, but
about 21 miles up stream from the true I'^ond du Lac -
-
40
39
50
92
15
20
Dn.
Culmination of the Grand Portage, on St. Louis River -
1 ,000
-
-
1)11.
Upper end of the Grand Portage, on St. Louis Kiver
9S4
-
-
Do.
Ileiid of the Long Rapids, on St. Louis River
-
40
49
42
92
23
0
Do.
East Savannah River, the mouth - - - .
1,204
-
-
Dii.
Dividing-ridge between East and West Savannah Rivers -
1,331
-
-
Do.
Portage between Wissakude, or Burnt Wood River, and the
Ho.
head of St. Croix River, emptying into the Missisipjii -
950
-
-
Du.
Porcupine Hills (Wisconsin Mountain), 330 yards aljove
the hdie - - . - . " .
1,610
-
-
British
.^dIniralty
Head of the Kettle Rapids, or Akkik Rapids, on St. Croix
surve}
River .----..
-
45
51
40
-
FaUs of St, Croix River .....
-
43
30
10
92
JO
0
NieoUel
Kittle-kittigan Lake, or Lac -Vieux Desert, south island -
-
40
7
31
89
21)
13
dipt. T.
J. Cram.
Kawasidjiwong River (Montreal River), the mouth .
-
'10
33
0.5
90
41
30
Do,
the head
~
40
IS
38
UO
24
3S
Do.
oo35'eap.
Z
o
IS It"
13>
zolr<l>ttPI
63«o
TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.
St. Peter's, or Mini-sotah River.

Estimated distances

.. ..

. 1
by water.
ades the 'of ico.*
North lati-
West of
Greenwich.
Authori
Places of observation.
From
From the
¦SS-Bg
tude
1
ties, &c.
place to
mouth of St
^.g^S
Longitudes
place.
Peter's R'r
^ rt
in arc.
Miles.
Miles.
Feet.
Mouth of St. Peter's, Indian Agen., near Ft. Snelling
-
-
744
44°
52'
40"
93° 4'
54"
NicoUet.
¦Witakantu River, or High Island River, the mouth -
78
78
-
44
36
0
93 51
45
Do.
Oeynwajah (Traverse des Sioux), the trading-house -
38
116
793
44
21
15
93 58
0
Do.
Mankato River, or Blue Earth River, the mouth
32
148
-
44
9
6
-
Do.
-Waraju River, or Riviere aux Liards of the French,
the mouth ------
42
190
811
44
16
20
94 24
30
Do.
Mouth of Lost Channel, bet. Chapah & Red -Wood R's.
68
258
-
44
34
40
95 1
30
Do.
Patterson Rapids .....
-
-
-
44
39
50
-
Do.
Petitazizi River, or -yellow Medicine River, and Che.
tambey Riv. (Eau de -Vie River), bet. the two mouths
34
292
-
44
40
4
95 27
0
Do.
Falls of St. Peter, amidst the rapids .
-
-
-
44
50
0
. -
Do.
Man-yah-Wakan River (Chippeway River), the mouth
32
324
-
44
57
40
95 45
6
Do.
lyedan Lake, or Lac-que-parle of the French, Ren
ville's trading-house ....
26
350
946
45
1
34
95 54
33
Do.
Tipsinah River, or Riviere Pommes de Terre of the
French ....--
18
368
-
45
10
21
96 4
0
Do.
Inijan.tanka, or Big Stone Lake, the south creek be
low the bend of the lake . . . -
45
413
966
45
23
0
-
Do.
Sources of St. Peter's, Aug. 16, 1839, level of lake -
57
470
1,896
45
47
58
97 19
30
Do.
o o aI'
OD
> ITJZ o
* The numbers in this column refer to the surface of the water in the St. Peter's, at or near the point indicated, except when otherwise specially
TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.
St. Peter's, or Mini-sotah River, and adjacent region.

Places of observation.

en OJ
3 .,'«¦;:

Ridge dividing the head-watevs of St. Peter's and
Tchan-kasndata, or Sioux River, at the head of the
Coteau des Prairies ....
Station at the fork of Chetambey River
Lac aux Jones,— Little Rock River -
Mini-sotali Lake (Lac a I'Eau Claire of the French) -
Mouth of Riviere Le Sueur, on Mankato, or Blue
Earth River . . - . -
Blue-earth Locality, on the left bank of Mankato River
Station on the left bank of Mankato River, between
the -Watonwan River and Blue-earth Locality
Mouth of Watonwan River, on the left bank of Man
kato River ------
Man-yah Kichaksey, or Cut CUff; or I'Ecore Couple
of the French . . - . .
Station on the left bank of Mankato River, between
Man.yah and Repah Kichaksey . . .
Hauska Lalce, or Long Lake, eastern end

Feet.

2,040

North latitude.

44^ 51' 5"
44 27 40
44 20 43

44 44

0 30
6 20

44 3 52
44 1 0
43 57 50
43 54 49
44 4 45

-West of Greenwich.

Longitudes in
time.

0 10 36
6 16 44
0 16 44
6 16 40
6 18 12

Longitudes in
arc.
¦*

94° 9' 0"
94 11 0
94 11 0
94 10 0
95 33 0

Authori.ties, &c.

NicoUet. c
Do.Do. J
Do. c

Do.Do.Do. Do.
Do.Do.Do.

>¦Zo13

13t-i13 >1^OZ>zu
IT">Iji^
dO13

JOCO to

TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.
Missouri River at low loater.

CO o
o

Places of observation.

Estimated dis
tances by water.

0)

Altitudes a the
Gulf Mexic

From place
to place.

From the Gulf of Mexico.

Miles.

Miles.

Feet.

-

1,408

388

105

1,513

:

10

1,523

_

20

1,513

-

30

1,579

-

25

1,004

530

66

1,070

-

78

1,748

-

22

1,770

_

20

1,790

-

30

1,8-20

746

North lati.
tudes.

-West of
Greenwich.

Longitudes in arc

Authorities, &c.

1^

>

>tJ

o

•t)M

oa

z

p
X
p:
n
p.
Mouth of Missouri River, the soutli bank,
18 miles above St. Louis . . .
GoebePs residence, near Newport, Frank
lin county, Missouri . - . .
Gasconade River, the mouth . . .
Portland, Callaway countf, Missouri,
left bank of Missouri River
Osage River, the mouth . . .
Nashville, Boone county, left bank
Boonville, Cooper county, right bank
Grand River, southwest of the mouth .
Old Fort Osage, right bank . . .
Lower Liberty landing ....
Kansas River, the mouth ...
Fort Leavenworth, the landing-place
38° 50' 50"
38 33 58
38 41 40
38 42 57
38 35 0
38 47 7
38 57 18
39 19 0
39 9 33
39 11 43
39 5 25
39 22 40
90° 13' 43"
91
91 40 13
92 49 30
92 41 30
94 20 15
94 44 0
Nicollet. D. -W. Goebel.
Lewis and Clai-ke.
Nicollet. Lewis and Clarke.
Nicollet. do. do.
Major Long's first ex
pedition.
Nicollet.Lewis and Clarke.
Nicollet.
Cow Island 
Sand-bar, 18 miles above Fort Leaven
worth — above the Old Cut-off -
Black Snake hill, the landing
Antelope Island . . • . .
Nishnabatona River, opposite the mouth
Bald Island, lower end, and western side
Five-Barrel Islands ....
Hill on the right bank at li'ive.Bar-
rel Islands ....
Platte River, north side of the mouth -
Engineer Cantonment . . . -
Island three miles below Council Bluffs
by water 
Inyan-yanke River (Little Sioux River),
three miles below the mouth
¦Wood's HiUs, old trading-house
Floyd's Grave, top of the river banlc
Huppan-lcutey Prairie, left bank, one
mile above American Fur Compa
ny's trading-house ...
Hills on the right bank, two miles
below the preceding station
Ponkah River, one mile below the mouth,
left banlc of Missouri River
Nawizi River, near the mouth
¦Wicha-pahah, or Scalp Mountain Creek,
two miles above the mouth
Rantesha-wita, or Red Cedar Island,
lower end, opposite Bad Creek

9

1,829

-

9
38
48 2429 31

1,838 1,876
1,924 1,9481,977
2,008

797972

18

2,026

1,152

55

2,081

1,023

783366

2,159
2,197 2,263

1,253

65

2,328

1,217

-

-

1,540

98 5

2,426 2,431

-

45

2,476

-

¦ 14

2,490

1,296

39

25

5

-

Lajor Long's
pedition.

first ex-

39
29
42
95
1
0
Nicollet.
39
44
23
94
47
30
do.
40
4
23
95
19
30
do.
40
16
50
95
25
0
do.
40
34
0
95
34
30
do.
0
40
49
44
95
42
0
do.
do.
41
3
24
~
Major Long's
pedition.
flrst ex-
13
41
25
4
95
43
52.5
Maj. J. D. Graham.
o
ts
e
41
28
20
95
45
30
Nicollet.
¦l
41
47
0
95
54
0
do.
1
oo
§
42
0
49
96
7
0
do.
§
o
do. •
0'
P-
Z>¦z
o
42
44
25
96
41
51
do.do.
Iri
42
50
0
-
do.
b4
42
51
40
-
do.
43
8
33
98
37
0
do.
43
14
24
98
47
45
do.
w o
TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.
¦ Missouri River at low water.

o10

Estimated dis.

te '-i

tances
by water.
¦West of
Nnrf-Ti lr.f.'+"-lnn
Greenwich.
Places of observation.
A nf nm'i _
o .
- ° 8
n3 O
3 t4H
Vi UI ll
uuco.
Longitudes in
ties, &c.
o <a a
fci y .2
§"3'^
i§
arc.
in .5 a.
¦3
•
Miles.
Miles.
Feet.
Hills on the right bank of Red Cedar Island —
First range ...
-
-
1,522
_
* _
NicoUet.
Second range ...
-
-
1,876
-
-
do.
Third range . . -
-
-
2,033
-
-
do.
Sailor Island, one mile below
36
2,526
1,314
43
38
4
99 8 0
do.
Hills on the left bank, between Sailor Is
land and ¦White River, viz :
Top of the Black Zone (pseudo volcano)
-
-
1,532
-
-
do.
Top of the upland, or Biyou's Hills
-
-
1,738
-
-
do
Mankizita, or ¦Wliite River, the mouth .¦
11
2,537
_
43
41
0
99 12 0
do.
Lower Island, or beginning of the Great Bend -
45
2,582
_
44
9
0
99 20 0
do.
Dry Wood River, one mile below the entrance -
34
2,616
_
44
7
31
99 31 30
do.
Fort Pierre Chouteau, on the right bank
48
2,664
1.456
44
23
28
100 12 30
do.
Highest point, northeast, two miles from
Fort Pierre, on the opposite bank
—
~
1,960
~
"~
do.
o oB' CO
felZ b
J~M, '^J^.^'

,- ' '• . ¦: ¦ 'J .

*'. . >

I'
,1 « I

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. .i .

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-..,!.' '!¦
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't , ; , ^in I <-. i>t J-Jr ^'' <-l" Kf f !¦ ' ' *-