YALE UNIVERSITY
ART LIBRARY

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Modelling A GUIDE FOR TEACHERS
AND STUDENTS

VOLUME I

BY
ED. LANTERI
PROFESSOR OF SCULPTURE AT THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF ART,
SOUTH KENSINGTON

WITH PREFACE BY
ONSLOW FORD, R.A.

WITH 42 FULL-PAGE PLATES AND NUMEROUS
ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS
FRONTISPIECE .— PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR, Br PROF. A. LEGROS

second edition
London :
CHAPMAN & HALL, Ltd.
11 Henrietta Street, W.C.2.
1922

Printed in Great Britain
by
Richard Clay & Sons, Limited,
Bungay, Suffolk.

PREFACE
It would be difficult to overrate the value and excellence of
this work.
Had such a book been obtainable when I was in the
twenties, I would not have rested a moment until I possessed a
copy, and when possessed of it, it would have been my constant
companion. Professor Lanteri has put in very comprehensive language
everything that is needful for the young sculptor to know.
The result of the careful thought and observation of years
is here set forth in a manner so clear that it may appear to
some readers that after learning Professor Lanteri's book by
heart, they will then know how to model. A careful study of
this work will show that the author does not hold out any such
vain 'hope.
The object of this work is to teach the student how to
begin. Many things are clearly shown in the illustrations and

vi Preface
described in the text that would take some people many years
to find out for themselves. The young student is plainly told
how to begin, the more advanced student will find many doubts
here cleared up, and the feelings, after reading the book, of all
who make sculpture their life study, will be those of gratitude.
E. ONSLOW FORD.

CONTENTS

PAGE
Introduction  i

PART I
Tools  ... 7
The Features from the Cast  9
(a) The Mouth  9
(b) The Nose  17
(r) The Ear .  19
(d) The Eye  21
The Head from the Cast  25
(1) The Skull  25
(2) The Muscles  31
PART II
The Bust from Life . ,  39
Measurements ...  .47
Diagram of Construciion of Features  62
(a) Mouth  62
(i) Nose  63
(c) Ear ...  66
(<0Eye  .69

Vlll

Contents

PAGE
Treatment of Hair  72
Moustache and Beard  74
Diagram of Face .  76
PART III
Figure from Nature  83
Framework ........ ... 83
Scale of Proportions ...  86
Posing the Model  87
Chief Line  ... 88
Contrasts of Lines and of Projection of Surfaces ... 90
Building up of Figure ......... 93
Measurements and Osteological Construction of Figure . . 100
Influence of Osteology on Superficial Forms . . . . T.12
Radiation of Lines  . . .116
Example of the Ilissus  122
Spaces of Rest betweem Masses  123
Expression in Modelling. . . . . . . . .127
Continuation of Lines . . . . . . . . .131
Comparative Proportions  133
Muscles of the Figure — Photographs from Clay Model and
Diagrams  x,»
The Skeleton in Different Views . . . . . . .146

MODELLING

INTRODUCTION
I have repeatedly been asked to publish the notes of which
I made use for my demonstration-classes at the Royal College
of Art. I fancy that by somewhat developing them they will be
found useful by those who intend to devote themselves to this
art, as well as by those who undertake the task of instructing
beginners in the subject.
I do not pretend to think that my method is the only right
one — there is no such thing as an infallible method. Every
intelligent teacher must be free to form his own, on
condition that he bases it on true principles. Thus, instead of
exclusively setting forth one method, — even if it be the very
best, — it is better to state broadly the great essential principles
of teaching, in which every method ought to be included, and
to allow the teacher a certain latitude. B

2 Introduction
It is important that every one should bring to the adopted
method such modifications as will allow him to consider it his
very own personal method. It is only thus, that he will find
the impulse and devotion necessary for the accomplishment of
his arduous task.
The auxiliary means of teaching have not an absolute value
in themselves, — they may prove useful or dangerous, according
to the moment and measure of their application. In order to
prove efficacious, they must be presented in methodical order.
This order can only be settled after precisely ascertaining the
object in view, and the principles on which the means for
obtaining this object should be based.
Art is essentially individual, in fact " Individuality " makes
the artist.
All teaching, to be true and rational, must aim at preserving,
developing and perfecting the individual sentiment of the artist.
Therefore the end at which every teacher should aim, whose
task it is to teach the Fine Arts, is the development of the artistic
aptitude of each pupil. The best means and exercises are those
which tend most surely to attain this end.
In thoroughly teaching each pupil the craft, not to say
trade, of a sculptor, there is no fear of destroying his individu
ality ; on the contrary, having conscientiously learnt the craft,
he will gain confidence and the necessary power to express
truthfully the personal sentiment with which Nature has

Introduction 3
endowed him. Whilst, if the teacher wants to go further than
this, he risks imposing on the student his own way of looking
at things, and destroying the pupil's individuality.
This short attempt of mine has no other object than to place
before the student some practical h.ints, based entirely on the
anatomical construction of the human body, which construction
is invariable in its principles. When he has mastered this
method, he will come to apply it without thinking of it, — in
stinctively as it were, and without effort. The application of
this method will have caused him to fix the points of construc
tion precisely ; he will have made a complete analysis of the
human figure ; all the causes and reasons of its various forms
will be clear to him, and he will avoid that groping in the dark,
those unreasoning alterations, which are always tried, when this
branch of the instruction has been neglected.
This book contains in short limits the essence of the subject ;
it is, so to speak, the summary of a method, a sort of guide
which gives the primary indications of the way.
I must insist again and again on this point, that the aim of
Art-teaching should be to put within the pupil's grasp all that is
necessary to help him to express his thoughts by the simplest,
surest and quickest means. It should in particular sharpen his
observation, without too much influencing his own judgment ;
and when the student's judgment goes astray, he should be
corrected by model or example, placed before him without his
b 2

4_ Introduction
perceiving the intention, — for fear of making him lose his own
power of judging.
^ And as Drawing is the principal foundation of Sculpture,
and a good sculptural work depends largely on good drawing,
"the student should draw as much as, if not more than, a student
of painting, — (which unfortunately is not always done). No
student ought to be admitted to modelling in a school, unless
he has first done some serious drawing ; and on this under
standing I begin this guide, — always addressing myself to a
student who is capable of seeing a line and executing it properly.
Another important point on which I must insist, is the
thorough study of Artistic Anatomy. You must begin your
work with some knowledge of the form of the bones and
muscles, and go on with the study of it while at work. I shall
point out to you in the following pages what is necessary for
you to study, but I can of course only slightly indicate it to you,
leaving you to complete your knowledge from the actual skeleton,
the anatomical figure, and the excellent books written on the
subject of Artistic Anatomy by the late Professor Marshall,
Professor A. Thompson, Mr. J. Sparkes, and others.
I beg you to observe that the knowledge of the bones is
even more important than that of the muscular system ; and do
not lose sight of the fact, that " Anatomy teaches you the general
laws of the human form, whilst the living model shows you the
same laws applied, and modified by individual characteristics."

PART I

PART I
TOOLS
(i) Provide yourself with two turntables, — one for the work,
the other for the model, the height from the ground about 3 feet
4 inches to 3 feet 6 inches. See Fig. 1.
(2) Provide two wooden boards, about 18 inches square
or larger, according to the size of your work. To avoid
warping through the moist clay, have the boards clamped at
the back with two battens nailed or screwed pn crossways. See
Fig. 2.
(3) A few wooden tools are enough to begin with, the
preference to be given to those of simple form ; avoid tools
which are heavy in your hand, as well as the small and thin
ones, unless your work is to be in very small proportions. One
tool with strong wire curves at the extremities will be found
helpful. For shapes see Fig. 3.
(4) Provide a pair of large iron compasses or callipers, with
their legs slightfy curved, and about 10 to 12 inches long.
These are best ordered from a local blacksmith. Fig. 4.

8

Modelling

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Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Modelling . 9
(5) Have at hand a small sponge to keep your fingers clean
during modelling, and some soft old linen to cover up the work
after leaving off for the day. Occasionally you will also require
a fine syringe or a big brush to splash the clay, when it begins
to harden. As we go on, I shall describe whatever tools
become necessary ; at first no more than the above-mentioned
are required.

FIRST STUDIES.— THE FEATURES
The Mouth
The best models for the details of the face I consider to be
those taken from the mask of Michel- Angelo's " David."
They are executed with such precision, so much knowledge of
form and anatomy, that in copying them the student is seized
with the desire to know the reason for these forms, and he is
thus urged on to the study of Anatomy, so necessary for
sculpture. After having fixed your plaster cast on a board like the one
you are going to work on, and having placed it on the turn
table, fix both boards at the same angle by means of a wooden
support, nailed to the board and turntable, (or by an iron
support, screwed on to both), see Fig. 5, so that your work, as
-well as the plaster model, is in a vertical position. Then drive

IO

Modelling

Fig. 5.

a nail into your board, at about the level of your eyes. To
this nail, by means of some wire (galvanised iron-wire will do,
though copper-wire is preferable) fix a
small wooden cross (" butterfly " in
studio parlance — see Fig. 5), which will
help to bear the weight of the clay.
Then with your sponge wet the board
and immediately rub some clay on the
wetted part, so as to form a thickish
paste to which your clay will adhere..
If you neglect this, your clay will soon get loose from the-
board and drop down, but this paste and the butterfly will
keep it in its place.
Let me just mention by the way, that the more you work the-
clay through with your hands, the more pliable and conse
quently the better it will be.
To begin work, lay a certain quantity of clay on your board,.
pressing it well in with the thumb, so as to give about the
general shape and mass of your model, always taking care to
keep a little below the actual amount, so that there will be no
need to scrape off, but rather to add on, in order to arrive at.
the true form of the model.
Before beginning each study, you must try to understand
what you wish to reproduce, and I shall, therefore, introduce
each feature by a sketch of its characteristics and its anatomy.

Fig. 6.

\.lo face page n.

Fig.

ITo face page n.

Fig. 8.

[To Jace page

Modellin

1 1

The mouth is formed by the Upper and Lower Jaw ; the
upper jaw consists of the two Superior Maxillary Bones ; they
are two large bones, joined in the middle line and placed almost
vertically beneath the Frontal Bone. By means of four processes
¦ — the Malar, Alveolar, Palatine and Nasal Processes, which
extend in different directions, these bones are joined to the other
bones of the face. The Malar processes connect them with the
cheekbones. The Alveolar process forms the Superior Dental
Arch, which contains the sockets for the Upper Teeth. The
Palatine Process passes inwards to form the anterior part of the
hard palate, and the Nasal Process extends upwards to the
orbits and the Internal Angular Process of the Frontal Bone ;
it forms the sides of the nose and is connected with the Nasal
Bone in front, its outer border forming the deep notch which
constitutes the anterior opening of the nose.
The Lower f aw Bone oi Mandible is originally composed
of two halves which very early become a single bone, i.e., the
Inferior Maxillary. It consists of a solid, horseshoe-shaped
body, and upturned, flattened ends, the Rami or Branches.
See Photograph of Skull, Figs. 6, 7 and 8.
The posterior border of each ramus expands into ah oblong
condyle which fits into the Glenoid Cavity of the Temporal bone
and forms the Temporo-maxillary Articulation, a very secure
double-hinged joint, which allows backward and forward, as well
as lateral movement of the lower jaw. The junction of the '

1 2 Modelling
body of the bone and the Rami forms a rounded angle, which
really decides the width and shape of the cheek. Apart from
individual varieties, the angle Ts more acute in the fully
developed individual than in the child, or again in an old man,
where it is obtuse. See Figs. 9, 10 and 1 1.

Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. ii.
In the same way the Alveolar Processes are not so pro
minent in a child as in a full-grown person ; and in old age,
when the teeth fall out, these processes become absorbed and
disappear. There are various processes and ridges on this bone, which
serve as attachment to powerful muscles ; most important for
our purpose is the triangular Mental Eminence, or Chin, which
is subcutaneous, and therefore of great service for taking
measures from, besides its being a very characteristic feature in
the human face. Above it is the Symphysis, a vertical line
which marks the union of the two Maxillary bones.
The transverse line which we specially designate by the
name of Mouth is surrounded by the lips, which in their

Modelling 1 3
turn are surrounded by the Labial group of muscles. These
are : —
(a) The Levator of the Upper Lip, which raises it arid
draws it forwards ;
(b) The Levator of the Angle, which raises the outer part
of the Upper Lip ;
(c) The Zygomaticus Major, which draws the corner back
wards and upwards, and is a laughing muscle ;
(d) The Zygomaticus Minor, which draws the outer part of
the upper lip in an upward, outward, and backward direction ;
(<?) The Depressor of the Angle, which draws the corner of
the mouth downwards and backwards and assists in producing
a sad expression ;
(/) The Depressor of the Lower Lip, which draws the
lower Lip down ;
(g) The Levator of the Lower Lip, used in raising it and
protruding it ; and last — not least
(h) The Orbicularis Oris, which surrounds the mouth and
which forms the Lips. On the upper lip it forms a vertical
Median Furrow, the ridges of which form the inner borders of
two long triangular spaces, the other two sides of these being
formed by the free border of the upper lip and the naso-labial
line descending from the wings of the nose to the corner of
the mouth. Figs. 12 and 13.
The Median Furrow ends in the prominent Median Lobe of

H

Modelling

Figs. 12 and 13. — Muscles of the Face and Neck.

A.

The Levator of the Upper Lip.

R.

B.

The Levator of the Angle.

S.

C.

The Zygomaticus Major.

T.

D.

The Zygomaticus Minor.

U.

E.

The Depressor of the Angle.

V.

F.

The Depressor of the Lower Lip,

W

G.

The Levator of the Lower Lip.

X.

H.

The Orbicularis Oris.

Y.

I

The Pyramidalis Nasi.

Z.

K.

The Compressor of the Wings.

1 .

N.

The Buccinator.

2.

0.

The Common Levator of the Upper Lip

V

and Nose.

4-

P.

The Levator of the Upper Lip.

S

Q.

The Tensor of the Lids.

6.

The Orbicularis Palpebrarum.
The Occipito Frontalis.
The Temporalis.
The Masseter.
The Digastricus.
The Digastricus.
The Sterno-hyoideus.
The Omo-hyoideus.
The Thyro-hyoideus.
The Stylo-hyoideus.
The Sterno-cleido Mastoideus.
The Trapezius.

Modelling 1 5
the upper lip ; at its sides are slight depressions beyond which
the lips are carried on by a convex form to the corners. The lower
lip has no median projection, but there is a median depression
from which two convex forms start towards the angle of the
mouth, where the upper and lower lips join. The skin which
covers this red border of the lips is closely adherent. From
the fact of there being no cartilaginous framework in the lips,
they are very flexible and lend themselves to the most varied
expressions. There is another small surface-muscle, called specially
Risorius or Laughing Muscle, which acts together with the
Zygomaticus Major, to produce a laughing expression. See
Figs. 12 and 13.
After having well mastered the anatomical characteristics,
and having laid on your board a certain quantity of clay, draw
on this mass a horizontal line to represent the division of the
lips ; then with your callipers measure the distance from corner
to corner of the mouth, and set this distance off on your
horizontal line. Turn your board and the plaster model side
ways, and work in profile — with small balls of clay — the outline
of the middle with its projections and depressions ; do the same
from the opposite side-view ; then stand in front of the work,
and with the work executed from the profile as your guide, fill
in the rest, — always keeping slightly below the volume.

t6 Modelling
You may then at once apply your anatomical knowledge,
and lay the superficial muscles on in separate, well-defined
strips, rather exaggerating their form than drawing them with
indecision. See Photograph of mouth in three stages, Figs. 14,
15 and 16.
And now you ought to proceed by section, — that is, by
studying your work from below and above, — taking good care
that you look at your model and your work from the same point
of view, from below and above, so as to compare them and try
to obtain the same contours from these points of view. Thus
you will correct what you have done so far.
Then look at your work and the model from a three-quarter
view, and correct it from that point of view.
Having worked your masses well together from these
different points, you proceed to" work by light and shade
and the numerous half- shades: this Icall Colour, and I shall
use the expression "colour" in this work entirely in the
sense of light and shade. You must be careful to place
your work in the same effect of light as the model, and in a
strongly projected light from the side, which will give you a
greater variety of shades than a light from the front, — in the
latter, numerous small depressions pass unobserved, so that the
result would be a surface without life and movement.
With the help of this working by colour, and by frequently
turning the work and model so as to gain different effects, and

Fig. 14.

[To face page 16.

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I

Fig. 15.

[Ta face page 16.

Fig. i 6.

[To face page 16.

Modelling 1 7
different points of view for your drawing, you will at last arrive
at the simple form of your model. I n short, you must always
correct your work by drawing, and must try to obtain simplicity
by colour, and expression by your knowledge of the form.
Observe that work done in a side-light will always look well
when turned to the front- whilst, on the other hand, work done
in full light will from a side-view look uneven and undecided in
its planes. Take care not to use the tool too much ; it will prevent
you from acquiring suppleness of the hand and from developing
a fine touch. The human finger, more firm and sure than
the wooden tool, will best transmit the intentions of the
artist, and express them in varied degrees ; the finger is an
intelligent, energetic, I might almost say an intellectual, in
strument, and you must always use it wherever you can get it
in, and only use the wooden tool in places where the finger
cannot get in. Second Feature. — The Nose
The nose is formed partly by bone and partly by cartilage.
The two elongated Nasal Bones, joined to the Cranium just
below the Glabella, form the bridge of the nose, and are sup
ported at the sides by the ascending processes of the Superior
Maxillary ; to their anterior border are attached the Lateral
Cartilages of the nose. There are five principal cartilages, an
c

1 8 Modelling
upper and a lower Lateral cartilage on each side, and a median
one between the two halves of the nose. See Figs. 6 and 7,
page 11, and Fig. 12, page 14.
The lower lateral cartilages support the wings of the nose.
There is a vast difference in the shape of the nose in races and
in individuals, owing to variety of form in the arch, as well as
in the cartilage. The muscles but' slightly conceal the shape of
the bone. The principal muscles from the artist's point of
view are :
(?) The Pyramidalis Nasi, which is really only a con
tinuation of the big Frontal muscle ;
(/£) The Compressor of the Wings, which envelops the sides
of the nose below the previous muscle ;
(/ and m) The very diminutive Anterior and Posterior
Dilators of the Nose, at the side of the nose, and hardly visible ;
(n) The Depressors of the Wings of the Nose ; and
(0) The common Levator of the Upper Lip and Nose. Refer
to Figs. 12 and 13, page 14.
When you have well studied the position and characteristics
of these bones and muscles, erect your board in the same way
(vertically) by the side of your model. To give the better
support to your work, make a small butterfly, which ought to be
inside the most projecting part of the nose, taking care to make
it sufficiently small, so as not to allow the ends to show or stick
out of your finished work.

Fig. 17.

[To face page 19.

Fig. i 8.

[To face page 19.

Fig. 19,

[To face page 19.

Modelling 19
Proceed then in the same way as for the beginning of
the previous feature, i.e. moisten your board, make a clay
paste on it, and let me say, once for all, that this has always
to be done on starting modelling on a background. Having
put on a sufficient mass of clay to cover the cross and
give the size of your model, you measure with callipers the
length of the nose, and at once start to work the profile,
first from one side, then from the other, then from below
and above, to get the outlines of wings and nostrils sharply
indicated ; then you take the three-quarter views, and at last the
colour, in a side-light, thus modelling and drawing alternately
from every point of view, to correct your work wherever you see
a mistake, until it is satisfactory. I would particularly warn
you not to round off too much the tip of the nose, but well show
the planes. See Figs. 17, 18, and 19.
Third Feature. — The Ear
For our purpose, the outer ear, or Auricle, is all that is
needful, whilst the Anatomist proper has to study carefully also
the parts of the ear hidden from view.
We have to examine in the Auricle the external and the
internal face, and observe that the depressions of one side are
the protuberances of the other.
The framework of this feature consists not of bone, but of
c 2

20 Modelling
cartilage, much turned and twisted, which descends right into
the Ear-Passage, where it is attached to the bony structure of
the skull ; the cartilage does not descend into the lobe of the
ear, which is made up of areolar and fatty tissue.
The outer curved rim of the ear is called the "Helix" ; it is
generally more or less folded over at the upper part ; within
this curve, and parallel to it, is the shorter curve of the Anti-
helix, a ridge which surrounds the deep Shell or Concha, that
leads into the Ear-Passage or Auditory Meatus. Its upper
part branches off into two ridges between which lies a small
Fossa, which loses itself under the overlapping part of the
Helix. In front of the Concha, protecting, as it were, the opening
into the ear, is the Tragus, presenting a convex form to the
outside. Immediately behind its lower part is a deep notch
( — the point from which we take our measures for the face — ),
behind which rises another protuberance, called the Antitragus,
and below it extends the Lobule or Lobe of the ear. The
muscles which lie on the Tragus and Helixi are very insignificant,
even the three Auricular muscles, which fix the ear to the skull,
are so small and thin, that they hardly influence the surface-
form. The ear is covered with a fine and smooth skin, which
closely follows all the depressions and projections of the
cartilaginous framework. (Fig. 20.)
The process of working will be the same as indicated for the

Fig. 21.

[To face page 21.

Fig. 22.

[To face page 21.

I'lG. 23.

[To face page 21.

Modelling

21

previous studies ; only let me repeat that the principle of
drawing and working by colour-effect is the only principle I
shall insist upon for all our studies,
whether they be from the cast or from
nature. That is why a modelling-
student must above all be a good
draughtsman, for drawing will give him
not only precision in the form, but it
is also the only means of making his
work graceful and telling, — a quality of
work which can never be obtained by
him who cannot draw, and whose work
will always remain heavy and common
place. Therefore when you have under
stood the why and wherefore of each form, and know it by
heart, drawing will remain the most important part of your
work. See Figs. 21, 22, and 23.

Fig. 20.
1. Helix. 4. Lobe.
2. Concha. 5. Antitragus.
3. Tragus.

Fourth Feature. — The Eye

The eye lies in the socket, called Orbit, which is formed by
various bones.
The Frontal Bone forms the roof of the cavity itself, its
upper border, on which the Supra-Orbital Ridge and the
Superciliary Eminence are well defined. Where the Supra-

22 Modelling
Orbital Ridge terminates, in the External Angular Processes,
the Malar Bone continues the outer wall and part of the lower
border of the Orbit, which is completed by the Nasal Process of
the Upper Jaw-bone. See Figs. 6 and 7, page 11.
The shape which the orbit presents in the skull is a some-
wnat irregular rectangle, within which rests the Eye-Ball or
Globe of the Eye, held in its place by the four straight and the
two oblique muscles of the eye -ball, which are entirely hidden
from view ; they surround the Optic Nerve, and only interest
us on account of the influence they exercise on the movements
of the eye-ball. They rotate the eye-ball, moving it respectively
outwards, inwards, upwards, or downwards.
The Globe of the Eye consists of a large sphere, the opaque
white Sclerotic, and the segment of a smaller sphere in front of
it, corresponding with the round, transparent, and prominent
Cornea. Through the Cornea we see the Iris, having in its centre the
round opening of the Pupil, which shows as a black spot and
admits the light into the interior of- the eye. I dare say you
have all observed its faculty of contracting in a strong light and
dilating in a diffused light ; and that occasionally the size varies
on the right and left of the same person.
The eye-ball lies with the greatest ease in the ample socket,
being surrounded by a larger or lesser quantity of fatty tissue,
on which it rests, and which fills the empty spaces and corners

Modelling 2 3
of the hole. The connection with the eye-lids is managed in
front under their surface by a very loose mucous membrane,
which allows the lid to move easily over the eye-ball. The
muscles of the eye, which to some extent affect the surface, and
therefore our work, form —
The Palpebral Group ; these consist of —
The Levator of the Upper Lid,
The Tensor of the Lid, and
The Orbicularis Palpebrarum.
The Eye-lids, Palpebrce, or Tarsi, are supported by thin
fibro-cartilage ; its outer border constitutes the margin of the
lid, and causes the comparatively flattened, thick edge of the
lids. At the outer corner the junction of upper and lower lids
forms an acute angle ; not so at the inner corner, where the
small Lacrymal Fossa interrupts them. This Lacrymal Fossa,
into which the Lacrymal canals, coming from the tear-bag, empty
themselves, and which slants towards' the nose, contains a small
pink elevation, the Caruncle. The skin covering the eye-lids is
very thin and contains no fat.
The Levator of the Upper Lid is rather deep-lying within
the orbit, and is hidden by the Orbicularis muscle.
The Tensor of the Lid draws it inwards, and appears almost
to be a deep-lying part of the Orbicularis. This latter, a thin,
broad, elliptical sheet of muscular fasciculi, by its palpebral
portion covers the lids, and by its orbital portion covers the

24 Modelling
margin of the orbits ; it is slightly attached to the Malar Bone
at one point, and its fibres blend with those of the surrounding
muscles of the forehead, cheek, and occasionally with those of
a nasal muscle.
Its action is to close the eye for sleep as well as in various
emotions, and in closing the lid it moves the outer angle of the
opening towards the inner. The inner angle, being held in place
by the Tendo Oculi, does not move appreciably ; it is therefore a
useful point for us to measure from. See Figs. 12 and 13.
The Orbital part of this muscle has a great effect on the
skin of the surrounding parts of the face, and its contracting
action causes the wrinkles and folds of the skin at the outer
corner of the eye. You will have to study its action very care
fully from your Anatomy-books, and from your own face with
the help of the looking-glass. I can here do no more than give
you a hint what to look for. The late Dr. Bellamy, in his
lectures at South Kensington, used always to impress on his
Anatomy students that they carried their own skeleton about
with them. I beg to repeat this, and to point out to you that
study before the looking-glass will reveal and make clear to you
anatomical details, such as your unaided eye can hardly see in
the model. See Figs. 24, 25, and 26.

Fig. 24.

[To face page 24.

Fig. 25.

[To face page 24.

Fig. 26.

[To face page 24.

THE HEAD
The Skull, or bony part of the Head, consists of two distinct
parts, the Cranium and the Face, each part being again com
posed of several bones. On comparing several skulls with each
other, we notice great variety in their development ; some are
more developed in front and above, others more at the back,
others have their development in breadth. If you take the
oval-shaped " Foramen Magnum " as a point of centre, and
compare the extension of the skull in front and at the back of
it (see Figs. 27, 28, and 29), you may take it as a general rule,
that ( — in races and in individuals), where the back portion
of the cranium is of larger extent, the instincts predominate
over mental capacities ; and, vice versa, where the forehead
and upper part of the skull are more developed, mental
faculties predominate over instincts. In the African, e.g.,
you see the forehead receding and the Occiput largely pro
jecting, as if it must balance the projecting chin ; in the
European, on the contrary, you see the Facial Line almost
vertical, and but little projection at the Occiput. When you
have a chance of observing the skulls of different nations,

26

Modelling

races, and individuals, I would advise you to compare carefully
and to take notes of their diversity, as I have not time to do
more than direct your attention to the great variety in the
subject. The skull consists of several bones articulated by the

Figs. 27, 28, and 29. — Bones of the Face.

A.

Occipital.

¦-&

Frontal. L'. Frontal Eminence.

B.

Foramen Magnum. B'. Basilar pro

Superciliary Eminence.

cess.

M.

Glabella.

C.

Occipital Condyle.

N.
Styloid Process.
D.
Parietal.
O.
Auditory Foramen.
E.
Temporal. E'. Temporal Ridge.
P.
Zygoma.
E"
Squamous Portion. E'" Petrous.
Q.
Sphenoid.
F.
Palatine.
R.
Malar.
G.
Alveolar. Upper Jaw-bone.
S.
Nasal.
H.
Lower Jaw-bone. H'. Ramus
of
T.
Ethmoid.
Jaw-bone.
U.
Mastoid.
J-
Glenoid Cavity.
Sutures which belong to the immovable joints. In some of
these Sutures the edges of the bones are serrated, in others
they are bevelled and overlapping, others are deeply indented ;
in short, there is a great variety in their articulations, and
Modelling 2 7
no movement can occur at these joints ; yet they allow of
continuous growth of the bones, for a thin layer of fibrous
membrane intervenes between bone and bone. The, sutures
become osseous in old age. When they unfortunately become
so in young children, the brain can no longer expand, and the
result is idiotcy.
The bones forming the outer surface of the Cranium are : —
The Occipital,
The two Parietal,
The Frontal,
The two Temporal,
The Sphenoid, and
The Ethmoid bones.
The four first-mentioned are the larger ones.
The Occipital bone, or Occiput, is the lowest and hindmost
bone of the Cranium, by which the head is joined to the neck.
It is convex to the exterior ; its lower part contains the opening,
called Foramen Magnum, through which the Spinal Cord passes
down from the brain ; on the right and left of this opening are
the Occipital Condyles, which fit into the articulation of the Atlas
vertebra, and are so arranged as to allow facility of movement
with great security. The part anterior to the Foramen Magnum,
called the Basilar Process, is joined to the Sphenoid Bone ; the
part posterior to it forms the Occipital Protuberance (see Fig.
of skull) which gives attachment to the Ligamentum Nuchce,

2 8 Modelling
the Trapezius muscle and to the Occipito- Frontalis muscle.
This is the most projecting part of the back, and also the
thickest part of the bone.
As the Occiput forms the back and base of the Cranium,
the Parietal Bones form its sides and summit ; the wall
being continued forward by the Frontal Bone, which con
stitutes the upper part of the face, the Forehead; it forms
the root of the nose and the upper border and inner roof
of the Orbits, and part of the base of the Cranium, which is
completed by the Sphenoid and Ethmoid bones ; but as
these latter hardly come to the surface, with which our
work is concerned, I only mention them.
The Frontal Bone shows various eminences, ridges, and
processes, which you must study on the dried skull as well
as on the living model. On each side of the forehead you
see above the Temples the Temporal Ridges, which - limit
the Temporal Fossae and lose themselves at the back
behind the ear, and in front terminate at the External
Angular Processes (which join the Malar bones below).
From these external angular processes start in an inward
direction the Supra-Orbital Ridges, which form the upper
margin of the orbits, and are continued to the root of the
nose, which produces more or less the indentation that
you observe in the profile. The smooth, broad part of the
frontal bone above this indentation is called the Glabella; on

Modelling 29
each side of it you observe the Nasal Eminence, from which the
Superciliary Eminence starts in a slightly curved ridge. The
space between the Superciliary Eminence and the Supra-Orbital
Ridge contains the Frontal Sinus. This Sinus consists of an
air-space between the outer and inner layers or tables of the
bone, and, by means of a corresponding sinus in the Ethmoid
bone, this air-space communicates with the nose. These
sinuses evidently serve to increase the anterior part of the base
of the Cranium ; they do not exist in childhood, are smaller in
women than in men, and diminish in old age. They do not,
as is often supposed, indicate an extra development of the
cerebrum, but probably give resonance to the voice.
Above the superciliary ridges, and separated from them by
a depression or furrow, we find the Frontal Eminences, and
between them in the Median Line a vertical ridge, indicating
that in early life the Frontal Bone consisted of two halves.
The two Temporal Bones occupy a semicircular space on
the sides of the Cranium, between the Occipital, Parietal, and
Sphenoid bones. They are somewhat complicated in shape,
consisting of four portions, the Petrous, Squamous, Mastoid,
and Zygomatic portions, which meet round the ear-passage.
The wedge-shaped Petrous portion, containing the organ of
hearing, fits into the base of the skull ; from the side of the
Auditory Meatus the Styloid Process projects into the neck,
there to serve as attachment to several muscles and ligaments.

3<o Modelling
The Squamous portion of the Temporal Bone occupies the
space above the ear and mos/t of the Temporal Fossae. The
space behind the ear is taken by the Mastoid portion with its
large Mastoid Process. This latter is filled with air-cells, which
assist the organ of hearing. To the "surface of the process
various muscles are attached. It is small in children and
largest in the male sex. In front of the ear there extends in a
forward direction the fourth portion of the Temporal Bone, the
Zygomatic Arch, which is joined in front to the posterior part of
the Malar Bone ; beneath it. and protected by it, the Temporal
Muscle and the great blood-vessels pass freely ; to its lower
border the Masseter Muscle is attached. The Zygoma at its
base is attached to the Squamous Portion of the bone by three
ridges, two of which pass inwards, and form the Glenoid cavity,
into which the condyle of the lower Maxillary is articulated.
The Sphenoid Bone, a single bone which is wedged in and
touches all the other bones of the Cranium, is hidden from view.
Its body completes the base of the skull, supports the Septum,
completes the Orbital Sockets, and by two extended processes
fills in the space in the Temporal Fossa between the Frontal,
Temporal, and Parietal bones.
The Ethmoid Bone, also a single bone, completes the base
of the Cranium between the Sphenoid and Frontal bones. It
is like the former bone, more interesting to the anatomist than to
the artist, as it nowhere comes to the surface in the living form.

Modelling 3 1
Of the bones ofthe face, only the Malar bones, the superior
Maxillary, the Nasal bones, and the Lower faw-bones show
on the outer surface. The Malar bones are the two thick
quadrangular bones clearly discernible in the face. The body of
the bone sends out three processes, the longest of which, the
superior or Frontal process, joins the External Angular process
of the frontal bone, and completes the outer border of the orbit ;
the Posterior or Zygomatic process completes the Zygomatic
Arch, the Anterior or Maxillary process lies on the upper
jaw-bone and helps to form the lower margin of the orbit ; the
deeper parts of the Malar join the superior Maxillary, Sphenoid,
and Frontal bones.
As for the Jaw-bones and Nasal bones, I beg to refer you
to pages 11 and 12, where I have already given you a sketch of
them, for the features of mouth and nose.
Muscles of the Head
Refer to Figs. 12 and 13, page 14. We may divide these
muscles in groups under two heads : — Muscles with Osseous
attachments, i.e., which are attached to the skeleton both at
their origin and insertion, and Cutaneous Muscles, one end of
which is attached to the Fascia under the skin ; or more
conveniently into seven groups : Masticatory, Epicranial,
Auriailar, Orbital, Palpebral, Nasal, and Labial.

3 2 Modelling

The Masticatory Group of Muscles.
To these belong —
The Temporal,
The Masseter,
The External Pterygoid,
The Internal Pterygoid, and
The Buccinator Muscles. (Refer to Figs. 12 and 13.)
The Temporal is a fan-shaped muscle, originating above the
Temporal Fossa and the surface of the Temporal Fascia ; it
narrows as it passes underneath the Zygomatic Arch into a
broad, strong tendon, and is inserted at the Coronoid process
of the lower Maxillary.
The Temporalis the strongest ofthe Masticatories.
Function : — It draws the lower jaw upwards to close the
teeth, and also backwards when it protrudes. It is superficial
above, but deep-seated lower down. The direction of the
Muscular Fibres is converging to the tendon.
The Masseter is a thick, quadrangular muscle on the lower
part of the face. It is attached at its origin to the lower border
of the Zygomatic Arch, and below to the Ramus and angle of
the lower jaw and the Coronoid process. The direction of the
fibres is oblique downwards and forwards for the lower layer,
and oblique backwards for the upper layer.

Modelling 3 3
Function : — It elevates the lower jaw, draws it forwards and
sideways. The Pterygoids. Both the external and internal Pterygoids
come nowhere to the surface ; they are deep-seated. The
internal Pterygoid passes from the palate and sphenoid bones to
the inner surface of the Ramus of the lower Maxillary ; the
external Pterygoid, overlying the former, passes from the
Sphenoid to the front of the neck of the lower jaw.
Function : — The internal Pterygoid assists the action of the
Masseter; the external Pterygoid protrudes the jaw and chin.
The Buccinator, or trumpeter's muscle, is a flat, quadrilateral
muscle, covered behind by the Masseter, but coming to the
surface, and filling up the hollow between the Masseter and the
Depressor of the angles of the mouth and below the Zygomatic
Major. Function: — It retains the food between the teeth during
mastication ; it serves, when the cheeks are inflated with air, to
expel the air through the lips, and thus justifies its name of
trumpeter's muscle. The Epicranial Group
This consists of the two Scalp Muscles, and the Corrugator of
the Eyebrow. The two Scalp Muscles, the Occipital and Frontal,
are joined into one muscle by the Epicranial Aponeurosis, and
named the Occipito-Frontalis muscle. (Muscles joined like that
D

34 Modelling
— or should I say separated ? — by a transverse Aponeurosis are
called Digastric muscles.)
The Occipital Portion is attached to the outer two-thirds of
the superior curved line of the Occiput and to the Mastoid
Process. The Frontal Portion is attached to the external angular
process of the frontal bone, and to the nasal bone (I have
already pointed out on page 1 8 that the Pyramidalis nasi appears
to be a continuation of the frontal muscle). Between these two
bony points of attachment, the Fasciculi of the Frontalis mingle
with those of the Orbicularis and the Corrugator muscles. Both
portions of the scalp muscle are broad and thin ; of the same
breadth, but longer than either is the connecting Aponeurosis,
which covers the summit of the Cranium.
Function : — The occipital portion draws the scalp back
wards ; the frontal portion elevates the eyebrows and causes
the transverse wrinkles on the forehead.
The Corrugator Supercilis is a small deep muscle covered
by the Orbicularis Palpebrarum. It exercises considerable
control over the frontal muscle by drawing the middle of the
eyebrow downwards and inwards, and thus corrugating the
forehead, as its name implies — that is, causing the vertical folds
in the middle, which express suffering or frowning.
The Eyebrow itself consists of fatty tissue mixed with
muscular fibres, and it contains the roots of the hairs. Observe

Modelling 35
the directions in which these grow and the arch they
form. I need not again indicate the muscles of the Auricular,
Ocular, Palpebral, and Labial Groups, as I have drawn your
attention to them in describing the different features ; and
besides — let me say it again — in mentioning anatomical features,
my aim is not to write an anatomical work proper, but to
prepare you for the anatomical lectures you ought to attend ; or,
failing that, if lectures are not available, the special books on
Artistic Anatomy. You ought to work particularly with the
bones in hand, as, for sculpture, Osteology, or the science of
bones, is of still greater importance than Myology, or the science
of muscles. Thus in giving you later on, an outline of the skeleton, I
shall do so in order to point out to you those places where the
movement takes place, i.e. where you have to look for it when
you are face to face with the model.

D 2

PART II

PART II
THE BUST
Before beginning the study of a head from Nature, it is
necessary that the student should copy at least two busts from
the plaster-cast, such as the head of Lucius Verus (Grseco-
Roman) and The Lawyer (see photograph of bust in three stages,
published by Chapman and Hall) by Donatello, or the Laughing
Faun (bust from the antique). In the same way as the features
taken from Michel-Angelo's David, these three busts possess
all the qualities desirable for the study of form. The anatomy
in them is so. clear, the division of masses so plain, that with a
little reflection the student easily understands what each form is
meant to express. As far as construction goes, they are perfect ;
, in short, they are splendid busts, the study of which can only
elevate the taste of the student. No doubt, in choosing these
models for the first studies from the round, I differ from a great
many teachers, but in my opinion one should not give beginners
examples to copy, the qualities of which consist in the beauty
of style, qualities which a beginner cannot understand, or at

40 Modelling
least cannot appreciate at their full value. Our taste is only
formed in the course of time, and only after a succession of
serious studies do we arrive at the true appreciation of those
master-pieces, and can learn from them. The great apparent
simplicity of antique statues has suggested the idea of giving
them as copies to beginners. But these at first sight simple
contours are in reality refined to such delicacy and so exactly
correct, that the least deviation by the student who copies
them utterly spoils them.
And as to the admirable modelling of these antique statues,
why, there is nothing in the world so difficult as to render these
learned simplifications and this exquisite delicacy. We should
leave to these inimitable works their true and superior task of
instructing by example. Let us have them reproduced by casts
taken from them direct, and place these casts to be studied and
admired before young artists, when they are capable of under
standing the lesson they teach !
If we put before a beginner a head, the beauty of which
consists only in style, where the construction is slightly
neglected, where the anatomy and mechanism are not evident,
he will only see the surface, and try to reproduce a polished
surface, without seeing the beauty which may be in the model,
but which he cannot understand. (It would be just as senseless
to expect a child who does not know his scales to play a sonata
of Beethoven's.) The greatest harm resulting from such a

Modelling 41
proceeding will be that, when the student comes to model from
Nature, he will not understand what is before him, and will
model as he did from his antique copies a round and polished
form, without heed of anatomical construction. He may go on
working all his life without making any real progress. We
ought from the beginning of our studies to understand what is
before us, to find the reason for each depression and each
projection, regardless of the time it takes us to analyze them.
When we have learnt the reason, our studies will proceed fast
enough ; and when we have mastered the principles and laws of
Nature, we can give free scope to our personal sentiment.
Then there will be no more need of a teacher ; for, to impose a
style on a student, without knowing whither his bent, his
temperament, tends, is a crime. For is it not killing in him the
artistic germ by imposing on him one's own way of looking at
Nature? He may only become an imitator of his master's
style, and never a good imitator, unless he happens to be of
absolutely the same temperament.
I have said before : " Individuality makes the artist."
Mind you do not misunderstand the word ! Do not strive
to be original, for the result of such an effort is often
deplorable, as many people have confused eccentricity with
originality ; the word " personality " will perhaps better convey
my meaning. Unfortunately it is not given to every one to have a distinct

42

Modelling

personality or individuality ; few have this supreme gift ; and
for the others, my advice is to seek in the branches of Indus
trial Art employment for which their studies have well qualified
them. It is a well-known fact that sculptors who have begun
by studying from the human figure can easily adapt themselves
to other branches of the art, and, after short apprenticeship,
soon excel in them, which is not generally the case with those
who have begun with another branch, — say, flowers, ornaments,
animals, &c.
After having modelled two or three heads from plaster-
casts, the student may pass on to the study of the living model,
the head from Nature. I need hardly say
that this study of a head must be repeated
and continued for a long time.
Provide yourself with a wooden model
ling-stand — that is, a board (about 18
inches square) in the centre of which an
upright piece of wood, about 9 inches high
and from i| to 2 inches square, is let in
and firmly fixed with wedges. (See Fig.
30.) On to the upright nail a piece of
lead piping, to prolong the framework up to
the summit of the cranium of your bust, as
Fig. 30 indicates. If the lead pipe is not very strong, it will be
advisable to have two butterflies suspended from the top, one

Fig. 30.

Modelling 43
for the front, one for the back of the head. The advantage of
using lead piping consists in its movability, if one wants to
change the action of the head during work, without destroying
what one has already done. A framework, for whatever study,
should always be strong, and at the same time malleable, after
being covered with clay. It is therefore very important that
the student from the beginning should make his frameworks
very carefully, as by that he will save time in the end.
When the framework is finished and placed on the turntable,
you proceed to wet the board and pipe and make a good clay
paste over them. Begin by covering your - framework at the
neck, at the level of the collar-bone ; i.e. put a ball of clay,
about 1 or 2 inches projecting, in front of the lead pipe, and the
same at the sides and back of the pipe, so as to make sure of
having the latter well in the centre of the neck. Taking this
mass of clay as your guide, you raise a column of clay right up
to the top of the head, and then' complete your column in a
downward direction to the board on which your frame rests.
I lay stress on your placing your pipe well in the centre of
the bust ; if you do not, you are sure to have it come out at
an inconvenient place, where you cannot push it in without
destroying some of your modelling. (See Fig. 31.)
After having built up this column of clay, turn your work
so as to face the profile ; calculate or measure (from the place
where you fixed the articulation of sternun* and collar-bone) the

44

Modelling

height of the chin, and mark this place by a horizontally
projecting, small peg, of about the thinness of a match ; place
at once a sufficient amount of clay from the neck to the
projection of the chin, — always pressing each fresh ball of clay
well on to the preceding layer, so as to make it adhere and
avoid air-holes. Pay attention to getting the right projection

£

r

^

Fig. 31.

Fig. 32.

from neck to chin at once (by measuring and using the plumb-
line), else it might happen afterwards that you had to cut into
the neck, which would expose your pipe. This happens nine
times out of ten to pupils, who, in their hurry to get expression
into their work, or even to build up the hair, consider these
instructions as insignificant details. It would be better to
increase the projection than to make it too short. (Fig. 32.)

Modelling

45

Then continue in an upward direction to put in the projec
tion of the face up to the top of the cranium, so that you get a
general line of the profile (see Fig. ^^), and go on continuing
this outline to the back of the head, all the while keeping
slightly tinder the actual dimension.
When you have thus set up the profile, front and back, face
your work, and add — with the projection of the profile as your

Fig. 33.

Fig. 34.

guide — sufficient clay at the sides to make an oval, on which
to work the detailed features of the face (Fig. 34), always
putting on less clay than the actual volume finally required.
Turn again to the profile, and from the previously fixed
point at the top of the sternum — the supra-sternal notch — add
the profile of the sternum, which you will find to consist of

46

Modelling

three planes, mostly in an outward and downward direction.
Then place the collar-bones starting from the manubrium, or
upper part of the sternum, to the shoulders ; fill in the angle
between sternum and collar-bone by placing the great pectoral
muscle ; then at the back find the approximate place of the last
cervical vertebra, i.e. the nape of the neck, and fill in the place
from there to the shoulders with part
of the trapezius muscle. All these pre
liminaries carefully executed will save
you a great deal of difficulty later on.
I have already mentioned that you
should roll the clay in your hands before
putting it on, as this will prevent your
work from being too rough, and will
assist precision in the superstructure.
(Fig- 35-)
It is well at the beginning to make
your model stand by your modelling
table, or sit on the throne, so that his head should be at the
level of your work ; and make him hold his head quite straight
and upright at the beginning, — without regard of the pose
you wish to give him afterwards, — as this will greatly
assist you in getting the proportions and measurements well
established. Having thus prepared the foundation for your work, you

Modelling 47
begin very carefully to take the following measurements with a
steady pair of callipers : —
ist. The distance from ear to ear, taken from the deep notch
between Tragus and Antitragus (see Fig. 36A and b). Set this
measurement off on the two sides of your oval, and mark the points
by two pegs of wood or matches (I advise you to take matches,
and I shall just call them "matches" in future, as these are
firm, without being too thick), pushing the wood in so far that

Fig. 36D.
the extreme projection will just be the exact measure. Of
course, before settling the place for these notches, you must
make a fairly accurate calculation how high above the sternum
and how far back with regard to the chin they will be. The
preliminary use of the plumb-line is therefore much recom
mended, and do not shrink from taking a little extra trouble.
for these two points are the starting-points for all your measure
ments of projection. Note also from the front whether the two
points are horizontally on the same level. When you feel

4$ Modelling
pretty sure of having got your matches at the right points, put
some clay round them to keep them in place.
2nd. Then turn your model and your work to the profile,
and by means of a ruler or any other straight-edge, held at arm's
length, in a horizontal position, ascertain the relative position
which the tip of the nose bears to the notch of the ear, i.e.
whether it is just in line with it, or above or below. Try to
carry the difference, if there is any, well in your eye when you
hold the straight-edge before your own bust, and mark the
point for the tip of the nose by another match. Compare this

Fig. 37. , Fig. 38.
/
well from the other profile, so that you get the nose well in the
centre line ofthe face. (Fig. 37.)
3rd. Measure on your model the distance from the notch of
the ear to the most projecting part of the nose-tip (Fig. 38)
(take this measure on both sides, for you will frequently find
that the distance on right and left side varies), and set off the
measurement on your bust ; and when you have arrived at
the true projection from both sides, push your match in until

Modelling

49

its projection will accurately mark the point. Thus you will
have obtained not only the distance from ear to nose, but also
the central part of the face. Build the nose up, so as to make
your measure firm.
4th. From the tip of the nose measure the distance to the
most projecting part of the chin, i.e. the subcu
taneous mental eminence, and then put one leg
of your callipers gently but firmly on the measure
for the nose, and strike an arc on the chin.
Hold the callipers with one hand, and with
the other place the indispensable match in the
centre of your arc, letting it project sufficiently.
5th. To make sure of the correctness of the previous
measure, you now take the distance from the ear to the mental
eminence (see Fig. 40) in. your callipers, and if this measure,
taken from both ears of course, coincides with the previously
fixed point on the chin, your measure runs a fair
chance of being correct. If it is not, you have to
alter the place of your match — pull it out, or push
it in — and retake both measures, until they agree.
6th. Measure the distance from the chin to
the beginning of the hair, by placing one leg
of your callipers on the match marking the
mental eminence, and striking a small arc above the forehead.
(Fig. 41.) E

Fig. 40.

50

Modelling

7th. Take from the profile the distance from the ear to the
beginning of the hair, and intersect on your bust the last '
described arc. Take the measure from both sides, and when
your intersections agree, insert your match. (Fig. 42.)
I need hardly repeat that these seven measurements must
be taken with the greatest care and precision, and should not
be changed during the progress of your work, unless you have
doubts of their being correct. In that case, you have to take

Fig. 41.

Fig. 42.

Fig. 43.

them all again, for by altering one, you throw the others out
of proportion, and the fault is often not where you believe it
to be. Take care also to keep their extremity uncovered
with clay, and do not push them in before your bust is quite
finished. There remains another measure to betaken, which, although
not as important as the previous seven, may be very useful. It
is the distance from the chin to the eyebrows. You take this
measure by describing an arc on the model, in order to find out
if the eyebrows are of the same height on either side, and

Fig. 44.

[To face page 5*.

Modelling 5 1
set it off in the same fashion on your bust. (Fig. 43, and
photograph, Fig. 44.)
In order not to worry the model by repeated measuring, it
is a good plan to take your measures down in writing at the
beginning. It is best to take a board (or a substantial sheet
of paper) on which you draw a straight line. At the extremity
of the line mark a point, on which- you plant one leg of your
callipers, and with the other leg describe an arc intersecting the
line, and on this arc write distinctly which measure it is ; for
instance, " ear to nose," " chin to brow," &c. Having your
measurements thus safely on paper, you have the advantage of
being always able to verify them after the model is gone, so as
to make sure the points have not been moved accidentally.
Now that you have your framework properly made, a certain
mass of clay to work on, and the exact proportions bf the
face, or at least of the principal points, you must set to work
at the bony construction of the head in its great lines, its
principal projections and depressions. The bones form the
framework of the human body, and support the muscles ; it
is on their proportion and relations to each other that the
principal character of a head depends. If the bony con
struction and projections are not correct, you will never obtain
a striking likeness, however good some of the details of your
work may .be ; but, if the anatomical part is well set up, the
details will fall into their proper place and help on the resem-
E 2

5 2 Modelling
blance. Besides, the taking of these measurements has also
the advantage of accustoming the pupil's eye to see correctly ;
for, having fixed points from which he may not depart, he is
compelled to put the intermediate proportions in their right
size and place. After having done such a study a few times,
his eye will be corrected of its bad tendencies, and he will
naturally acquire a true conception of masses, and feel that he
must make sure of some principal points first, instead of piling
up a confused mass without order and intelligence.
Most sculptors nowadays build up their work in the way
I have sketched, although there are many who do not render
themselves a clear account of it, because they have only arrived
at it after much groping in the dark and loss of time. It is,
therefore, not a question of inculcating new and arbitrary ideas
in the mind of the student, but of initiating him at once into
a method and practice at which he needs must arrive in the
end, but would often only arrive by slow and uncertain
ways. To arrive at it quickly, you must proceed with order,
knowledge of the reason why, — in fact, substitute method for
empiricism. Once the student has grasped that the first study consists
in appreciating the positions of certain fixed points, he will
be able to select others that appear to him noteworthy and
favourable to his work.
The teacher, on the other hand, must carefully watch over

Modelling 53
the pupil whose work he directs ; he must make sure that the
pupil makes a good and careful start for his work, and get him
into the habit of working carefully, so that he may learn to
do it in the end instinctively.
Having then regularly followed the course of study that I
have sketched, and acquired a certain correct judgment of the
eye and a certain skill of hand, he has further in the use of
horizontal and vertical lines a steady and positive auxiliary, and
will be able to work with order and method.
He will now begin with the orbits (taking as his guide the
arc he struck for the eyebrow), by hollowing out two deep spaces
at the side of the nose, and indicating the shape of the brow
above them, and the form of the cheek-bone at the side and
beneath them, so as to have the orbit ready for receiving the
eyeball. Then sketch in the forehead, with regard to the
formation of the bones ; further add the nose, which you join to
the brow ; at the extremity of the nose at once indicate the
bean-shaped nostril ; then the lower jaw-bones. Start them from
the ears, well observing the angle they form below, and by them
join the ear to the previously fixed point of the chin ; indicate
the depression between chin and lower lip ; then model the
upper jaw, marking at once the two corners of the mouth, well
observing their relation to the size of the nostrils. Having in
dicated the large lines and places, — rather sparsely, — you turn
your model as well as your study to the profile, and set the ears

54 Modelling
up, regulating their projection again from the front view ; then
draw the outline of the crown of the head and the back of the
head, going on to the outline of the neck (to below the nape of
the neck) ; come back to the front view, and do the side of the
neck by laying on the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles from the
sternum to the mastoid process behind the ears, and the trapezius
muscle. Then, looking from below and from the front, draw
the shape of the collar-bone, and from the profile re-draw the
oblique line of the sternum, and connect these bones by the
great pectoral muscle. Go once or twice again over the same
ground, by looking at model and study from other points of
view, which will give you the projections of the bones ; and
then from the front give symmetry to the two sides. The bones
should have their true projection as early as possible, for their
proportions serve as guides to find the other points, whilst the
muscular parts should, up to the last, be left rather below their
actual volume.
The more care you spend on this preparatory labour, the
less you will feel that uncertainty which is so apt to discourage
one, and to destroy one's interest in the model. Need I say
that, after this preparatory laying on, you resume your work by
starting from the profile view, and drawing, as correctly as
possible, as if you had a pencil in your hand and the clay were
your paper, not only the profile of the face, but also of the back,
of ears, neck, chest — in fact, of the entire structure, — comparing

Fig. 45.

[7e /ace page 55

Fig. 46.

[Tq Jace page 55.

Modelling 5 5
the proportions as to length and width, applying mentally hori
zontal, vertical, and oblique lines from one point to another,
just as you would do in drawing a head. The same process is
to be repeated from the other side, then- the outlines of the sides
of the head, looked at from the back as well as from the front.
After this, the three-quarter views must be drawn in the same
way, always taking care that you look at your model and your
study from the same point of view. See photographs 45 and
46 of bust in clay.
Having proceeded so far, you may now give a pose or
movement to your bust, if you wish it. If it is a portrait bust,
you should only do so after having attentively observed the
habitual pose of the person you are modelling. Everybody
carries his head on his shoulders in a slightly different way, the
very action of the shoulders has an individual character, so has
the direction of the eye, &c. In short, you must well observe
the characteristic attitude of your model, which in a bust goes a
long way towards the likeness. It would be ridiculous to give
to a timid and simple man the action of a fighting man (a
gladiator) ; a thinker, a philosopher, does not carry himself like
a shop- walker or like a tragedian. In short, no man resembles
another man, either in every feature or in attitude and bearing.
Such observation takes time. You cannot properly execute
the bust of a man who might come to your studio, saying he
wanted his portrait done, and begun then and there, — as he

56 Modelling
would say to a photographer. You ought to know him first ; you
ought to see him in his private life, to know what he is really
like. Having found out what pose is most natural to him and
corresponds most with his character, then you may start work
on your portrait ; for a bust is not merely the photographic
presentment of an instant, — it should be that of a collection of
instants, a sort of biography. That is what makes many busts
of the old masters so admirable, and that is what you find in
many of Holbein's portraits. There are portraits of which you
have never known or seen the original, of which you know
neither name nor origin, and yet — in their features and bearing —
you can retrace their character, their way of living and thinking,
the race from which they have sprung ; and therein consists a
great part of the attraction, of the unconscious admiration, we
feel before them.
For a pupil who only makes a study from the professional
model, the difficulty is not quite so great, although it will be
excellent and desirable that he should also observe in this sense
as soon as possible ; but what he has to learn first is to proceed
carefully and methodically in his work.
He must first give to his model the action which suits his
purpose best. The lead framework inside his work will allow
him to take a firm hold of the head with both hands, and turn
it right or left or slightly inclined, so as to make it like the
action of the model. In taking hold of the head, he should

Modelling

57

place his hands behind the ears, so as not to touch the latter,
and with gentle pressure he will be able to manage the turn in
whichever direction he wishes.
Having accomplished this much, you must turn your observa
tion to the lines of contrast produced by the action of the
model — for, if you turn the head on one side, it follows that
the shoulder, in the direction
in which you turn, comes for
ward, and, generally speak
ing, it will also be higher
than the other shoulder
whence the action starts.
That gives you four con
trasts, two contrasts of line,
and two of projection. (See
Fig. 47.) To obtain these
on the study, you proceed
in the same way as for the
head : you take hold of the
shoulders with both hands,— one hand behind the shoulder
to be thrust forward, the other in front of the shoulder that
is to go back, pulling the former and pushing the latter to
obtain the desired action, and on the same principle raising
the one and lowering the other.
Now, having settled the pose, the proportions, and to some

Fig. 47.

58 Modelling
extent the construction, the drawing is the one thing needful to
occupy your hands and eyes.
You may now indicate the eye, or rather the globe of the
eye, by placing a round ball of clay in the orbit, trying from the
profile view to get the same projection as in Nature with regard
to brow and cheek-bone. Lay over this, first the upper eyelid,
by means of a rather flattened ball of clay, and here I draw
your most careful attention to the two corners of the eyes — the
inner and outer corner ; on them depends the place of eye and
cheek, &c. They are, so to speak, central points, which give
the key to the outlines of the face. If you place them too deep,
the outlines of the cheek will recede too far, and the nose will
stand out too much. If you place them too low with regard to
the mouth and brow, the nose will appear too short, as they
descend too far down upon it, and thus cause the distance
between the root of the nose and the nostrils to appear too
short. If they are too far apart from each other, they will be
too far from the centre-line of the nose ; and not only will they
make the nose look too big at the root, but will bring the outer
corner too far to the side of the face, which will incline you to
enlarge the temporal part, and thus make the whole head too
wide. Thus you will understand how important it is to fix
these points correctly by eye and measurement. A careful
measurement from inner corner to inner corner, rectified by
another measurement from, say, the centre of the mouth or

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^F ^B SSCv «TmI H
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Fig. 48.
ITo/ace page 59.
49-

[To face page 59,

Fig. 50.

I To face page 59.

Modelling 59
the extremity of the nostril, will assist the eye to fix the place.
For the outer corners, measure similarly, and observe that the
outer corner is always higher than the inner corner — a fact to
which I have continually to draw the attention of my students !
A smile will further raise these outer corners, whilst a sad
expression slightly lowers them. It may assist you to measure
their distance from the ear, i.e. the notch between Tragus and
Antitragus, from which we have taken our other face measure
ments, and from any other point that strikes you as being an
assistance, for the outer corners are as important for the true
outlines of the cheek as the inner ones. See photographs 48,
49, and 50 of head in clay.
Arrived at this stage, the student ought to turn the model
and his own study as often as possible, both to afford him
always the same point of view. When I say " turn," I do not
mean that the throne should be turned far round, but rather a
small distance, say two inches at a time, so as to give you not
only direct profiles, but three-quarter profiles and profiles seen
from the back, &c. If you carefully work round the model in
this fashion, by the time you come back to the front view, you
will be able to correct by means of your anatomical knowledge,
and to give expression and intelligence to the mechanism of
your work.
You should put the hair on with regard to its principal
masses, which ought to be laid on in varied planes, for

60 Modelling
the suppleness of hair is never obtained by detail, but by
numerous planes or surfaces, which give variety of light and
shade. Once these surfaces are put in, a few intelligently made
touches with the tool (or the jagged end of a broken piece of
wood), and a few small balls of clay put in very decidedly, will
give much more life and suppleness to the hair than a number
of detailed scratches, which will only impart a hard, metallic
air to it.
Here I would also advise you to study how the hair
grows round the face, and that it is paler in colour at its roots.
As a painter mixes a little flesh-colour with the local colour of
the hair round the face and on the neck, so you must blend its
origin in these places with the fleshy parts, so that it does not
look stuck on, but growing on.
After having thus indicated the hair, and drawn and re-drawn
the bust from every point of view, and modelled the whole
together by an intelligent understanding of the anatomical form,
and having corrected every possible mistake from different points
of view, you ought to put yourself in a lower position than before,
and look up to study the section of every feature on the model
and correct your work from the same point. This has, of course,
to be done all round the head, and afterwards you have to
mount on a stool and look down on the model and your
work, to study the sections of the head and features, from above,
and correct wherever you find the slightest deviation from the

Modelling 6 1
right outline. Remember that you must particularly study and
work up those parts which are not seen from the front view ; it
is those same points which make the face by showing you the
projections, which you could not possibly see if you looked at
the model from the front only — (a daily occurrence at the art
schools, however much the teacher may try to prevent the
students from doing it), the face becomes flat, and is naturally
without colour and construction. Therefore, I say again : turn
and turn, draw and re-draw, from below and above, as well as
all round. Neglect not a single point ; — under these conditions
only will your bust be well set up and constructed as a work
deserving the name of sculpture.
To finish, put your model in a side-light : a strong effect of
light and shade is the best to show up the direction of form. It
is well understood that you try to put your work in the same
light, not only as regards outline, but also with regard to the
value of light and shade.
In working from this point of view, be guided not only by
drawing, but also by anatomical form for expression, and by
colour for simplifying. If you find a shadow too dark, you may
be sure that the space is too hollow ; if, on the other hand, it is
too light, you may be sure it is too flat, and so on for the half-
tints as well. Do not forget that now you must modify your
effects as often as possible, and always have model and work in
the same effect of light — side-light, of course — for the light from

62 Modelling
the front must serve you only to see the result of your work
and re-view it, so to speak ; to work in, it is the most dangerous
light, as it shows you very little of form, and leads the pupil to
polish and fill up without rhyme or reason, so that the result is
a heavy, expressionless piece of work. See photographs 51,
52, and 53 of head in clay.
When you are at the finishing stage, it is well to model a
little across the form, to obtain a richer substance ; and with
very soft clay cover the whole surface with a continuous layer
of skin, which will blend the depressions and convexities
together. Such details as wrinkles on the forehead, or crow's
feet below the eyes, should not be obtained by cutting into the
clay, but rather — for the sake of suppleness— by superposing
clay which the finger ought to shape into the right form on' the
work, and which should be very much effaced again, so as not
to show too much.

DIAGRAM OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE
FEATURES
In the elementary part I have already described the
divisions in the form of the mouth ; now I wish to draw your
attention to the movement of the planes at the corner of the
mouth. These movements are produced by the Orbicularis
Oris.

Example of Study from Life.

[ To face page 62.

Example of Study from Life.

[ To face page 62.

Example of Study from Life.

[To face page 62,

Fig. 51.

t To face page 62.

Fig. 52.

[To face page 62.

Fig. 53-

I To face page 6a.

Modelling

63

You notice on the top of the upper lip a large, slightly
curved plane, which, diminishing in size, and twisting as it
were, round itself, extends to the corner of the mouth.
(Fig- 54-)
This effect is produced on both sides of the upper lip, and
in the same way on the lower lip. (Fig. 55.)
These movements form a radiation, the centres of which are
the two corners of the mouth. It is almost like a hinge-joint,

Fig. 55. Fig. 56.
which suggests the impression that the mouth can open and
shut when and as it likes.
The upper lip presents three masses, the lower lip two
masses, and two other large masses stand well out underneath
the lower lip — all of these accounted for by the Orbicularis
Oris. (Fig. 56.) Nose
The shape of the nose is decided by bone and cartilages.
When the drawing of the nose, both from the profile and

64

Modelling

front, is pretty well correct, you must first study the shape of the
nostrils, looked at well from below, and particularly note the
ridge which separates them from each other.
(Fig. 57-)
If this central ridge (Columna Nasi) is
made too thick, the nostrils will be too far
from the centre and the lower part of the
nose will appear too thick. Try to indicate it correctly, and
then draw the nostrils ; by these inner contours you will get
the outer contours correct.
The nose is often modelled too thin, and will consequently
appear too long. I have often noticed that this mistake is

Fig. 57.

Fig. 58B, Right,
owing to a misplacement of the Lacrymal Fossa at the inner
corner of the eye. If this is placed too low, and if the line
which starts from it forms a too acute angle, the nose is not
allowed its proper thickness. Great attention ought therefore
to be paid to the correctness of these lines. (Figs. 5 8a and B
and 59.)

Modellin

g

65

The division of forms in the nose is shown in Fig. 60.
These forms are always existing there — even in the roundest
of noses, where they are only less
accentuated than in others. A
strong side-light on the model will
always show them up.
Another plane which is very
important in order to obtain sup
pleness round the nostrils, starts at
the outer, lower part of the nostril, follows its upper outline
entirely up to the tip of the nose, where it forms a slightly-
curved plane. (Fig. 61.)
I often see students make the outline of the nose in profile
meet the upper lip at a sharp angle, as shown in Fig. 62. This
never happens in Nature. There is always a small plane which

If

Fig. 59.

Fig. 60.

Fig. 61.

Fig. 62.

Fig. 63.
separates the two, as seen in Fig. 63 ; and this gives both
distinction and mobility to the outline. Of course it is more
pronounced in some persons than in others. F

66

Modelling

Ear
More than any other feature, the ear varies infinitely, its
outer framework being entirely cartilaginous. Its drawing is
generally vigorous in character. Its position with regard to all
the other features is of the greatest importance. In the profile
it is the central point from which you ascertain the distance to
forehead, nose, mouth, and chin. (Fig. 64.)

Fig. 64. Fig. 65.
If the ear is placed at too great a distance from the nose,
the head will appear too thin from the front-view. (Fig. 65.)
And from the side-view the back of the head will appear too
small. If the ear is placed too far forward, the opposite will happen,
and the head will appear flat from the front-view. (Fig. 66.)

Modelling

67

If the ear is placed too high, the lower part of the face will
appear too long, and the upper part of the head will seem
insufficiently developed. (Fig. 67.)
If its place is too low, the opposite effect will appear.
As a general rule, the direction of the ear is parallel to the
direction of the nose (see Fig. 68), but there are numerous

Fig. 66.

Fig. 67.

exceptions, which the student will observe all the more for
knowing the general rule.
Another general rule is that the top line of the ear falls
horizontally in line with the highest point of the eyebrows, and
that its lower border is generally level with a horizontal line
drawn from the nostrils. Refer to Fig. 68.
The length of the ear varies enormously, but a well-propor-
f 2

68

Modelling

tioned ear fills about the space between the two horizontal lines
indicated on Fig. 68.
The outline of the ear, looked at from the front of the head,
is a matter which demands all our attention. If the ear were
too flat, i.e. not standing out from the head like that of the
model, the face will appear too thin. This is a mistake which

Fig. 68.

Fig. 69.

Fig. 70.

nine out of ten beginners will commit ; as a rule, they will
make the ear almost stick to the skull. It is therefore most
essential to study the outline of the ear, not only from the front,
but also from the back, and carefully to note the distance which
separates the border of the Helix from the skull, as well as the
depth and drawing of the Concha, or shell. (Fig. 69.)
There is another point to which I must draw special

Modelling

69

attention. It is the way in which the Tragus follows the
perfectly round opening of 'the Auditory Meatus. Conse
quently it should not be made flat. (Fig. 70.)
Eye
I repeat myself, and remind you that the globe of the eye
lies in the socket, called Orbit. (Fig. 71.)
The eyebrow forms an elongated mass, starting from the
inner and upper border of the orbit, and following it as far as its

Fig. 71.

Fig. 72.

Fig. 73.

Fig. 74.

external border. Its form is larger at the outer end than near
the nose. (Fig. 72.)
The upper eyelid starts from the corner of the Lacrymal
Fossa, and overlies the eyeball. It is larger in the centre than
at its extremities. (Fig. 73.)
The lower eyelid starts in the same way from the Lacrymal
Fossa, and, closely overlying part of the eyeball, it joins the
upper eyelid from below at its outer corner. (Fig. 74.)
In beginning the eye, the bony construction must be the
first consideration ; having obtained that as correctly as possible,
you proceed as the diagrams show — first, by putting in the

jo Modelling
globe, and trying to make its projection correct by studying the
eye of the model from the profile as well as from below. Pro
ceed in the same way and at the same time with the other eye.
You should never finish one side of the face without having
established the construction of the other side, or you will not
obtain the effect of unity in the face.
The eyeball having been placed in the right projection, the
eyebrow must be laid on and studied from the profile for pro
jection from the front for drawing, from below for its section.
Settle the distance between the Lacrymal Fossae, from the
full-face view, and their depth with regard to
the nose, well bearing in mind the difficulties I
have already indicated in the earlier portion of
this guide. (Fig. 75.)
Starting from the Lacrymal Fossa, you put
Fig. 75. jn ^g Upper eyelid, noting in the same way as
for the eyebrow the projection from the profile view, and the
section from looking up to it.
For the lower eyelid you proceed in the same way.
If, instead of beginning the eye with its anatomical con
struction, you were to put a lump of clay of any shape and
anyhow, and tried to dig in it and scrape it about in order to
obtain the drawing of eyeball, brow, and lid, the result would
probably be an inert and weak feature that could never suggest
the movability of the eye.

Modelling

71

Another point to be attended to is, that the black spot of
the pupil is in the most projecting part of the eyeball. Thence
it follows, that directly above it is the highest point of pro
jection of the upper eyelid as seen from below.
If the model looks towards the side, the outline ofthe upper
eyelid from the Lacrymal Fossa forms more or less a straight
line up to the central point of the pupil, and from there makes a
rapid curve to the outer corner, i.e., where the upper and lower
lids meet (Fig. 76) ; whilst in the other eye you observe the

Fig. 76.

Fig. 77.

contrary — the long straight line starting from the outer corner,
and the rapid curve of the lid being from the highest point
towards the Lacrymal Fossa.
It follows from this, that the two Caruncles, that lie in the
Lacrymal Fossae, will present different shapes, when the look is
directed to the side : the Caruncle of the eye which looks out
ward will be stretched and look longer than the Caruncle of
the other eye, which is following the direction of this one and
approaching the nose. (Fig. yj.)

72 Modelling
I have already mentioned on page 59 that the outer corner
must never be placed lower than the inner corner, and a hori
zontal line through the corners will assist the student to find its
correct place. (See Fig. 78.)
If, in impressing these details of observation on you, I have
repeated myself, you will readily excuse it when you realise how
much they contribute to render the
expression and direction of the eye
strong and vigorous, and how feeble
and even faulty the result is, when
Fig. 78. they are neglected. What can be
more objectionable in a bust, than the two eyes looking at
different points ? Therefore, instead of experimenting and
pushing the pupil a little to the right, or a little to the left, use
every effort to verify the points I have indicated.

Hair
I have often been struck, when looking at busts, by the
fact that the hair has the appearance of a wig put on the head.
This unfortunate effect is the result of ignoring the points
from which the hair starts or is attached round the face.
Looked at from the front and profile, the attachment of the
hair takes place in three masses : one goes round the frontal
bone (coming generally to a point above the centre of the face),

Modelling

73

the second mass is attached to the temporal bone, and the third,
smaller, mass below the temples. (See Fig. 79.)
On the top of the head the hair is attached or grows round
a central point, the Crown of the Cranium, from which the hair
grows in all directions, like rays emanating from a centre.
(Fig. 80.)
In black hair you accentuate the details, i.e. make deeper
cuts to obtain the effect of a dark mass ; in white hair details

Fig. 79.

Fig. 80.

must almost disappear, and they must be massed instead of
being broken up. The details should not be treated as orna
ment. To avoid ornamental treatment, it is necessary to take
first the outer contours, and draw them in straight lines, well
observing the angles which they make, for it is these angles and
their distance from each other which decide the character of

74 Modelling
the hair in individuals. After that, each mass must be divided
by drawing it in firm, almost straight lines. Here it is very
necessary to observe the variety of
proportions in one mass, as com
pared to the other. And finally
indicate the variety of planes which
receive light and shade in various
1 '" directions, and add a few touches
here and there — some details, in other words — to indicate
the fineness of hair. By these means you will avoid its
looking heavy, monotonous, and ornamental.
Moustache and Beard
The moustache grows on each side of the face in three
absolutely distinct masses.
The first is attached below the nostrils. ^
The second is attached on the upper lip. >(See Fig. 81.)
The third is attached on the cheek. )
The beard is also divided into three large masses, which
have their points of origin or attachment in different places.
The first mass grows underneath the lower lip. \
The second mass is attached to the chin. > ^ 0 \
The third grows on the cheek. J
The treatment of the beard in modelling is pretty much the
same as that of the hair, but its execution is extremely difficult,

Modelling

75

and it is necessary to make special and frequent studies of it or
for it, for the treatment varies according to the effect of colour
one wishes to give.
Badly executed hair and beard will spoil an otherwise good
bust. It needs great taste
— I might almost say tact
— to know how much de
tail to introduce in order
to preserve its colour with
out detracting from the
value of the face.
Hair and beard must,
so to speak, disappear —
that is, they must not
be the first thing which
strikes an observer of the
bust, yet they must be
interesting. Modelled tastefully, harmonious in colour and shape, they
will complete a head and give character to it.

Fig. 82.

76

Modelling

DIAGRAM OF FACE
This diagram represents the division of the forms of the
face. (Fig. 83.)

Fig. 83.
The masses which are indicated by outline are produced not
only by the bones and the groups of muscles of the face, but

,•

Modelling 77
also by the skin, which covers them in following their undu
lations. They exist, with a certain variety of drawing, and in a more.
or less accentuated manner, in the female as well as in the male.
In the child they seem to disappear altogether, but know
ing that they are there, we find them indicated by extremely
delicate planes.
In the face of an old person we see them quite clearly.
When in a face of very simple appearance the existence of
these masses does not strike us, we must work continually with
a strong side-light in order to obtain on the face of the model
a variety of half-tints which will be produced by the planes or
depressions that divide these forms, and which will show them
more clearly to us.
If you ignore this rule, you will, without any doubt, produce
a polished surface with no variety of modelling, and the result
will be a face without suppleness or expression.
One of the most characteristic points in the works of
Michel-Angelo, particularly in the statues of David and The
Slave, is the neatness and purity with which each of these
forms is drawn without anything being lost of the simplicity of
the whole.
When these divisions of form have been obtained in their
proper drawing by studying each separately, the work may
appear a little hard. Then it becomes necessary to work by

78 Modelling
colour — that is to say, by the comparative values of the half-
tints, in simplifying or accentuating the surfaces or planes which
divide these forms.
The simplicity of the model may be obtained thus, by
leaving under this almost flat surface a mechanism, which not
only gives expression to it, but enables the work to be exposed
to every light without losing its value.
Take, for instance, a cast of the head of Michel- Angelo's
David ; let it be placed in any light whatever, — this head'
always retains its resemblance, and nothing seems to have been
left to chance, the whole remains neat and clear ; the planes
retain the required direction, and, modelled well together, they
give movement to the whole surface.
On the other hand, if a sculptor has merely sought to render
the impression of the model by effect of shadows, more or less
mysterious, by tricks of texture or of tooling — in fact, simply by
means of "seasoning," — these works, to preserve their quality,
must be allowed to remain exactly in the same light in which
they were done, under penalty of no longer being recognised,
or of finding that which was expressive become insignificant, —
in fact, all resemblance will be gone, simply because the light has
been changed, and the work is thus reduced to a mere piece of
plaster, having none of those ideal qualities of which that artist
had so fondly dreamt.
Beyond the artistic expression of the work, which is the

Modelling

79

direct result of our sentiment and individual taste, Sculpture
exacts positive knowledge of the laws of Nature.
Michel-Angelo has proved this to us better than any other
Master, by the numerous studies which he has made of every
part of the human body, with a love that is only equalled by his
scrupulous conscientiousness.

Fig. 84.

Fig. 85.

Fig. 86.

Figs. 84, 85, and 86 show you three proportions which are
generally the same.
Namely : the measurement from ear to ear is equal to the
one from under the chin to the eyebrow,
and you will find the distance the same
from the ear to the point of the nose.
Fig. 87. This diagram shows you that
the centre of the face lies on a line drawn
though the inner corner of the eye, mid
way between a line drawn under the chin and another across
the top of the cranium.

Fig. 87.

PART III

PART III
FIGURE FROM NATURE
Framework
We take for our study a figure half life-size — that is, about
32 to 34 inches in height. The framework I am going to
describe will serve not only for a figure of this proportion,
but also for a larger one, say of 6 to 9 feet high.
In figures of these proportions the framework may be
erected quite straight — that is; without action ; but for one of
larger proportions, the frame must at once represent the action,
and must be made from a previous sketch, carefully planned
with the help of measurements and plumb-line, else it would
not possess the necessary strength to support a large mass
of clay ; therefore, in a larger figure the lead pipes for the
lower limbs are replaced by irons fastened in such a way
that they can be moved at the artist's will without sacrificing
strength and bearing power.
In a second volume I shall supply a series of drawings
G 2

84 Modelling
of frameworks for various works, from which you will see
that the principle remains the same, and that it is only the
proportions of the iron and lead pipes which are different ;
they must be strong in proportion to the size of the work,
and there must be the possibility of putting in more wooden
supports and butterflies.
You require a wooden turn-table for your work as well
as for your model , further, a wooden i-inch board about
18 inches square with two strong battens underneath to prevent
the warping of the board.
On this square you fix with screws an iron support, bayonet-
shaped, so to say, which is to support the frame and conse
quently all the weight of clay.
This iron, for the half-life-size figure, should be about
20 x 10x5 inches (Fig. 88) ; so that allowing 3 inches thickness
of clay for a plinth, it should enter the figure slightly above the
middle of its height and below the posterior processes of the
Ilium. If inserted lower, it would have too much weight
resting on it, besides there being the danger of the frame being
too movable, and thus unable to retain the given pose or
action. The horizontal branch had better be too long than too
short ; for the vertical portion of your support is liable to get
in the way of the legs," for instance, in a walking action. I
should advise any length between 9 and 1 2 inches.

Modelling

85

The third portion of the iron should not go up too high in
the torso, as one has sometimes occasion to change the action

F:g. 88a.

Fig. 88b. Fig. 89.
of one's work, and if the iron went too high, the torso would
lose its suppleness. 5 to 6 inches therefore suffice.

86

Modelling

iiZi OF He on.

There are poses which necessitate the iron to be fixed at
the side of the figure and not at the back.
The iron being screwed on,
you make your framework on it
by means of lead pipes, which
you secure firmly on to the iron
by means of copper wire. I
give the preference to copper
wire over galvanized iron wire,
as it is more pliable, less liable
to break, and can be twisted
tighter than iron wire round
the lead and iron pipes. Fig.
89 will give you a clear idea
how to make your frame.
The next step is to make a
Scale of Proportions.
For modelling purposes,

Fig. 90.

you will find the following plan the surest and quickest, I
fancy. (See Fig. 90.)
1. Draw a horizontal line on a board.
2. Take half the total height of the model (you will rarely
have callipers big enough to take the total height), and measure
it off on the horizontal line as A B, and with the distance A B
as radius in your compasses, describe an arc from A through B.

Modelling 87
3. Measure half the height of your framework ; place one
leg of the compasses on B, and with the other intersect the arc
to get point C.
4. Join by a straight line points A and C, and your scale is
ready. You have only to apply it to your work, by striking an arc
for eyery measurement, with A for a centre on lines A B and
A C, and the distance from one point of intersection to the
other will give you the proportional measure.
It will be well to strike the arc a little beyond the lines, so
that you write on the outside whatever measurement it is. You
will find this a very correct and rapid scale.
The same method is used for enlarging, but not for more
than twice the size of the original.
Framework and Scale being ready, place the former on
your stand, taking care to see that the stand is quite horizontal,
and place the board with the scale on an easel close to you.
Now the model should be placed and posed on a turning
throne, at such a distance from your work, that you get a good
view of the entire figure.
As it always happens that by slow degrees the model loses
the pose, owing to fatigue, it is advisable, that before the sitting
you should well impress the pose on your mind and eyes, by
trying it yourself. That will make you well acquainted with
the points and force of the action, so that you concentrate your

88

Modelling

i

\

efforts not to deviate from your lines when the model should
do so. It will be better to give the model a frequent rest for a few
minutes, than to work from a tired model, as an experienced
model will often, almost imperceptibly, transfer the weight of
the body from one leg to the other ; and to a beginner the pose
may appear to be the same, although the spirit
of it is completely altered. This difficulty can
be overcome by paying careful attention to the
pose at the beginning, and by studying it, first
on yourself, and then on the model, and think
ing of it all along as your work proceeds, so
that you have no need to change your work,
except by emphasizing it more.
Let us now begin our work, and take the
action indicated in the diagram.
The first thing is to establish the chief line,
which is the key to the pose. (Fig. 91.) We
therefore stand right in front of the model,
and, plumb-line in hand, take a vertical line from the centre
of the supra-sternal notch, and watch where it passes the
leg which carries the weight of the figure, which, in a pose
like ours, will almost always touch the projection of the lower
extremity of the tibia — that is, the internal malleolus, or inner
ankle-bone. (Fig. 92.) Then press a piece of clay on the

k

d

Fig. 91. Fig. 92.

Modelling

89

framework, midway between the shoulders, where you fix a
point representing the top of the sternum* stand straight in
front with your plumb-line* and adjust on the framework the
pipe which represents the leg, so that it touches your line,
leaving just enough space for a covering of
clay, and allowing the pipe to be in the
centre of the limb.
From the back view the chief line is in
dicated by the spinal column as far as it
extends, and lower down by the general
direction of the carrying leg. This line
coincides in all its bearings or curves with
the chief line of the figure, as seen from the
front view. (Fig. 93.)
In sculpture the posterior chief line is more
important than the anterior chief line, for we
must consider the vertebral column as the
central and fundamental part of the skeleton.
The different parts of the bony system
are attached to it, either directly or indirectly, and from it
depends the movement and the place of the pelvis. As for
modellers, after the chief line of the back and of the front
are settled, and for draughtsmen, the chief line according to
the view they have to copy, they must both occupy themselves
with the lines of contrast, presented by the action.

Fig. 93.

9°

Modelling

In this pose the side lines of the figure are parallel in their
general direction to the chief or central line. If this central
line is not exact, the exterior outlines cannot be so either ;
therefore you understand my assertion that the chief line is the
key to the pose. (Fig. 94.)
Now proceed to place the other leg of the
framework into its pose, and observe your
model well with regard to the contrasting
lines caused by the action, and the contrasts
of projection. In a pose like ours you will find the fol
lowing general rule : —
When the figure bears heavily on one leg,
the Ilium on the same side is pushed up, foi
the tibia and femur preserve their entire length
in the vertical direction and thus push the hip
bone up ; whilst on the other side the Ilium is
pulled down as both tibia and femur are bent forwards. The
upper part of the body, in order to keep the equilibrium,
tends to bend over on the side of the leg which carries, and
thus the shoulder will on this side be lo.wered as compared to
the other. Thus you get two contrasts of line in hips and
shoulders, the line from one Ilium to the other going down
wards, and the line from one shoulder to the other going
upwards. (Fig. 95.)

Fig. 94.

Modelling

91

Having observed this, you bend the pipes of the frame
accordingly. Now you turn your model, and note how these same
contrasts obtain for the back. (Fig. 96.)
There is not only contrast between the shoulder line and
the line of the posterior superior iliac processes, but also with

Fig. 95.

the line of the gluteus maximus ; and further, in the leg you
will find a contrast between the oblique direction of the bulk of
the two gastrocnemius muscles and the lower extremities of the
Tibia and Fibula — in other words, between the calf-muscles and

92

Modelling

the ankle-bones (Fig. 97). Of course the same contrast
exists in the front view.
Another thing : the head being turned towards the side of
the free leg, it results that the face lies more or less in the same
direction as the iliac processes, and con
sequently contrasts with the plane of the
shoulders. Refer to Figs. 95 and 96.
There is another opposition or con
trast between the shoulder and the hip :
the contrast of projection.
Bearing on one leg, this leg not only
pushes the ilium up, but also forward,
whilst the ilium on the free leg goes back
ward, and the shoulder, which is already
lower in line, moves back with regard to
the shoulder above the free leg.
Thus you have two contrasts of pro
jection, which must be marked on the
framework by bending the pipes ac
cordingly. As the head turns in the direction
of the non-carrying, or free leg, you get another contrast of
line and projection with regard to the shoulders, indicated by
the line of eyebrows and ears, and having indicated all these
important lines and planes of contrast, you must think of the

Fig. 97.

Modelling

93

action of arms and hands, in order to obtain
the spirit of the pose from the beginning.
As concerns the leg, I might mention
that you can fix a chief line as indicated
in diagram, Fig. 98, by following the sar-
torius muscle from its origin at the anterior
superior process of the Ilium along its whole
length to the Tibia, and continue the line
along the Tibia to the internal Malleolus.
When you have marked this chief line,
you will note a marked parallelism between
this and the general direction of the ex
ternal outline of the leg ; it is therefore
an excellent guide to obtain the general
shape. I often, or almost always, see advanced
studies (I am speaking of modellers) where
the hands have been neglected, and some
times they are not even indicated. This is
a great mistake. It is impossible to enter
into the spirit of the pose, or action of a
figure, without putting in the position and
action of the hands. It is by the place and
relation to each other of the extremities, i.e. Fig. -98. — Showing
,,.,,, 111 , r THE Chief Line of
the head, the hands, and the legs and feet, THE Leg.

I1

94 Modelling
that all action is determined, and in the hands particularly
you find the intention you want to express.
Every study ought from the beginning to be considered as
a composition. If we set ourselves the task in our figure
studies to express, according to the character and pose of
the model, some intention or feeling, this study will to the
end command our attention, our enthusiasm and intelligence ;
and artistic feeling will grow in the place of mere patience.
You must, therefore, at once block in the extremities, whose
position will determine the action of the rest of the body.
You cannot possibly model an arm properly, without having
•carefully modelled the hands in which you find the insertions or
terminal points of most of the muscles of the fore-arm. It is
therefore the natural continuation of the shape of the arm.
The same rule applies to the legs and feet.
I insist on this point, because I see it so often neglected.
This neglect is just as ridiculous as it would be to cover a
drawing with a sheet of paper with a small hole in it, to enable
the draughtsman to see nothing but the head, and to stipple
away at it with tiny pencil strokes, without having the whole
figure before his eyes — in fact, with the figure only outlined.
I have seen such things done !
From the profile the chief line is given by the direction of
the sternum, the outline of the pelvis, and the general direction
of the anterior contour of the carrying leg. (Fig. 99.)

Modelling 95
There afe persons, whose vertebral column has a more
graceful curve than those of other people ; in such cases the
chief line of the profile has more movement than that of a
straighter-built person.
To find the direction of the pose from the profile view,
you must again use your plumb-line, and hold it so that
it will cut through the centre of the neck, as seen
sideways ; then observe where it will pass with
regard to the outer malleolus of the standing leg.
(See Fig. 99.)
Another matter you must pay attention to is,
that the pipes are not crooked, but very straight
in the big lines and very neatly bent at the
joints, — you might even give them the exact curves
of the femur, tibia, humerus, and ulna — that is, if
you can ! This would give a certain expression
and resemblance to the skeleton already in the
framework, and would render the work spirited
from the very beginning, and at the same time
more tempting and encouraging.
When, on the other hand, the framework is FlG- "¦
made carelessly, the pipes loosely joined and crooked, the
clay stuck on anyhow, &c, the material difficulties are
enormous from the beginning, and the discouragement
complete.

96

Modelling

Fig. ioo. — Armatuke in Action.

Modelling 97
Let me caution you, therefore, to bestow the greatest care
and attention on all the preliminaries.
When the armature or framework has been put into the
pose or movement (Fig. 100), cover it all over with a slight
layer of clay, just sufficient to mark the chief lines of contrast
and projection, as shown in Figs. 101 and 102.

The plinth of clay should now be made, and be at least
three inches thick, so that, if it is necessary to lengthen the
limbs, one may do it in the downward direction by lowering
the plinth, without having to destroy the rest of one's previous
work. On this plinth of clay it is well to fix a small piece of wood,
well towards the centre, so that it will give a firm point for
measuring. Starting now from the supra-sternal notch, we draw on the
clay the central line of the figure.
This will pass along the centre of the sternum, then con
tinue along the linea alba, following the curve which the action
of the figure causes, through the umbilicus or navel, and down
the internal contour of the leg which bears the weight, to the
Malleolus internus.
It is best to exaggerate the curves of this line, as one is
liable to creep back towards the vertical. 11

98

Modelling

Fig. ioi. — Figure showing Chief Line and Lines of Contrast.
The line HL is a horizontal line drawn through the anterior superior iliac process of the
standing leg.

99

Fig. 102. — Figure showing Chief Line and Lines of Contrast. H 2

ioo Modelling
FIGURE MEASUREMENTS
You must not take the following measurements before being
quite sure of having the pose correct, for the measurements do
not assist you to find the pose, but only help you to find the
construction. (Fig. 103.)
1. The first measurement to be taken for the figure is the
distance from the plinth, i.e. from under the arch of the sole of
the standing leg, to the upper border of the Patella.
2. The second from the top of the Patella to the anterior
superior process of the ilium of the same standing leg.
(Fig. 103.)
In order to fix the deviation from the vertical of the anterior
superior iliac process, place yourself opposite the model, and
take with one hand the plumb-line through the centre of the
Patella, whilst with the other you measure the distance from
this vertical line to the iliac process.
Only when you have found this distance take the measure
ment, and fix the point, after observing also very carefully from
the profile view the projection of the iliac process in relation to
the Patella.
3. The third measurement is the distance across the pelvis
from one iliac process to the other. (Fig. 103.)
Before you fix this, you take a horizontal line, starting from
the anterior superior process of the ilium in the standing leg, to

Modelling

IOI

Fig. 103. — Figure showing the Order of Measurement.

I. From Plinth to top of Patella.
2. From top of Patella to Anterior Superior
Iliac process.
3. Space between the Anterior Iliac pro
cesses.
4. From Anterior Superior Iliac process to

top of Patella in free leg.
5. From top of Patella to Heel.
6. From Iliac of standing leg to top of
Sternum.
7. From Sternum to Ear,

102

Modelling

ascertain how much lower than it the ilium of the free leg is,
and having noticed this difference, fix your point. (Fig. ioi.)
4. The fourth measurement is from the iliac process of the
free leg to the top of the Patella of the same leg. (Fig. 103.)
5. The fifth measurement is taken
from the top of the Patella of the free
leg to its heel. (Fig. 103.)
6. The sixth measurement is from the
iliac process of the standing leg to the
top of the sternum, i.e. the supra-sternal
notch. (Fig. 103.)
7. For the seventh measurement take
the distance from the supra-sternal notch
to the ear, i.e. the notch between Tragus
and Antitragus. (Fig. 103.)
8. For the eighth measurement take
the distance from the profile of the stand
ing leg between the Anterior Superior
and the Posterior Superior Iliac Processes.
(Fig. 104.)
To obtain this correctly, you must
again use a horizontal line, starting from the Anterior process,
in order to see how much higher the Posterior Process is in
relation to the former.
This measurement must also be taken on the free leg.

Fig. 104.
8. From Anterior Iliac pro
cess to Posterior Iliac pro
cess. 9. From top of Sternum to
Seventh Cervical Vertebra.

Modelling

103

Fig. 105.

10. Space between Posterior Iliac processes.
11. From Posterior Iliac process of standing
leg to Seventh Cervical Vertebra.

1 2. From Acromion process to head of Ulna.
13. From head of Ulna to first articulation of
Finger (index finger).

104 Modelling
9. For the ninth measurement take the distance from the
Supra-Sternal Notch to the seventh Cervical Vertebra.
(Fig. 104.)
Before fixing this measurement, you must, in the same way
as for the iliac processes, obtain a horizontal line from the top
of the Sternum, to ascertain how much higher the seventh
Cervical Vertebra lies than the Supra-Sternal Notch.
10. The tenth measurement concerns the distance between
the two Posterior Superior Iliac Processes. (Fig. 105.)
To obtain it correctly, you again apply a horizontal line, and
note how much lower the process on the free leg may be, than
on the standing one. (Fig. 102.)
The four points obtained by measuring the Iliac Processes
must be fixed and verified with the utmost care, because upon
them depends to a great extent the entire construction, not
only of the torso, but of the whole figure. They are, architec
turally speaking, xh^. plan of it.
11. The eleventh measurement is from the Superior
Posterior Iliac Process of the standing leg to the seventh
Cervical Vertebra. (Fig. 105.)
12. Take the twelfth measurement from the Acromion Pro
cess to the head of the Ulna on both arms. (Fig. 105.)
13. Take the thirteenth measurement from the head of the
Ulna to the first articulation of the index on both hands.
(Fig. 105.)

Modelling 105
It seems almost needless to add that during the course of
the work you must constantly verify these measurements, for
it happens only too often that in modelling you gradually cover
them with clay, until the construction has almost disappeared,
and your distances begin to change without reason. As a
result, your work becomes disappointing, and the worker tires
himself out without obtaining a satisfactory result.
I have aimed at sparing the student such a painful dis
appointment by introducing into the study of the figure a
positive system, based on anatomical construction.
I lay stress on the fact that the measurements I have given
you, and shown in diagrams, are of the greatest importance.
You may, as your work proceeds, take many others which you
consider a help to your work, but let me warn you against
taking mere flesh-measurements. They are misguiding, and
you can only rely on the measures taken section of pelvis
from bone points.
But I must dwell particularly on the /
measurements of the four Iliac processes, \(
which give a section of the Pelvic Girdle, anterior~fa.ce
and on the correctness of which I cannot FlG- IO<5-
insist too strongly. Fig. 106 shows you this section, which is
also the plan of the torso.
If these four points on the Ilium, which in their relation to
each other never vary, are not correct, neither can the con-

io6

Modelling

struction of the torso be right, nor will the legs come in their
proper places.
The measurement from the top of the sternum to the seventh
Cervical Vertebra gives us the depth from front to back of neck,
two points which are placed above the section of the pelvis.
(See Fig. 107.)

3 •a

s2
c 3

PELVIS
Fig. 107.

Fig. 108.

These four points in their oblique direction, viewed from
the front, extend or contract the muscles of the back and of the
front of the torso ; the muscles on the side of the standing leg
will be contracted, while those on the side of the free leg will
be extended. (Fig. 108.) The place of the seventh cervical being fixed, it
must be joined through the curve of the vertebral column

Modelling 107
(which varies in different persons, as already pointed out) to the
pelvic girdle. (Fig. 108.)
In observing the movement in the Lumbar region, you will
find that the pelvis is at right angles with the Lumbar Vertebrae.
As I have already said, the vertebral column must be con
sidered as the central and fundamental part of the skeleton.
It is composed of twenty-four vertebrae : —
7 Cervical, "i
12 Dorsal, > Vertebrae.
and 5 Lumbar J
The movement of the column is always found in the Cervical
and Lumbar regions. (See Fig. 109.)
The Dorsal Vertebrae have little movement, for they have
to support the bony cage formed by the ribs — i.e. the Thorax —
in an almost rigid state to protect the organs of breathing and
circulation lodged within it.
The bones of the upper part ofthe column, i.e. the Cervical
Vertebrae, support the Cranium.
To the lower part of the vertebral column the Pelvic Girdle
is attached ; it almost forms part of it, owing to the fusion of the
hip-bpne with the Sacrum or Coccyx.
It is to the Pelvic Girdle that the bones of the lower ex
tremities, the legs, are attached.
It follows that the most important points in constructing a
figure are, to find the relation between the two Anterior and the

io8

Modelling

CERVICAL

two Posterior Iliac processes, between the Supra-Sternal notch
and the seventh Cervical Vertebra.
Imagine the sections of these two lying above each other
and joined by the vertebral column. The movement of the
latter takes place immedi
ately above the sacrum in the
lumbar region, and again
above the seventh Cervical
Vertebra; the latter deter-
\ mine or guide the direction
j of the head.
i When you have fixed
/ these points, you must find
from the profile the projec
tion of the sternum — that is
to say, its oblique direction
forwards and downwards —

DORSAL

LUMBAR

Fig. 109.

in order to ascertain the depth from the front to the back of
the thorax. You then complete the body of the thorax in
joining the vertebral column to the sternum by means of the
ribs. Refer to Fig. 108.
Whatever the pose of your figure may be, remember that
the thorax is always equally balanced on both sides of the
sternum, and its shape is almost invariably symmetrical. How
ever oblique the sternum and the dorsal vertebrae may be, we

Modelling

109

must build up the thorax equally on either side to bring it up
to the volume of the model. (Fig. 109.)
If you draw a line below the costal margin (which is at
right angles to the sternum), you will find this symmetry very
striking, and you obtain at
the same time another con
trast with the crest of the
ilium. The line of the shoulders
is generally parallel to the
lower border of the thorax
(refer to Fig. 101) ; even in
the pose which I have chosen
for demonstration, you will
find that a line joining the
two acromion processes is
almost parallel with the border
of the ribs (it is the muscles
of the shoulder which follow
the raised arm, the shoulder itself is hardly raised).
The symmetry of the thorax on both sides of the vertebral
column and the sternum exists in all the movements of which
the human figure is capable, and as the flat muscles attached to
the thorax follow its shape (refer to Fig. 1 10), it results naturally
that, unless the bony cage is correctly established, there will be

Fig. no.

no Modelling
a want of order and harmony in the position of the muscular
forms. There is another section which will assist us greatly in our
modelling of the figure : it is the section through the two
Clavicles, the Scapulae and the Vertebral column. (Fig. in.)
This section, like the one through the Pelvis, will help us to
find the volume of the upper part of the torso, the roundness of

Fig. nr.
its outline, and the right place for the neck, which must be well
placed in the centre.
In students' work the clavicles are often blocked in like two
straight bones, instead of their giving them the shape of the
letter S. If they are made too straight, the pectorals appear
flat and the shoulder comes too far forward, which gives the
appearance of low relief on a round shape. By carefully
studying the section of the collar-bone you will avoid this
effect. Observe, therefore, intelligently the form and drawing
of the Clavicles, as well as their symmetry, and study at the back
the position of the Scapulae which follow the action of the arms.

Modelling in
This will give you the upper plan of the trunk, just as the
section of the pelvis gives you the lower plan, and if you have
these two plans well in their right place, the limbs will of course
find their right place.

I have stated before that in beginning a piece of sculpture
you must avoid putting on too much clay, and rather keep your
study thin so that you can add to it ; but as soon as the pose is
settled, you must determine the exact proportions of the bones,
their extension in length, and — as far as thorax and pelvis are
concerned — also their extension in depth and breadth. For
they are not only invariable points, but also determine the
action and the division of the forms and masses. They are the
landmarks of the torso, they are architecturally-speaking the
framework of the house.
By fixing all the prominent points of the bones in their
proper proportions of length and width, and in their right place
as regards the movement, one obtains the foundation of the
figure, the points of origin and insertion of the muscles. Our
knowledge of Myology and exact drawing will then join the
separate parts together into a harmonious ensemble.
In laying the clay on in the direction of the planes which
the muscular fibres present, and by drawing, we evolve out of

112

Modelling

the general form the particular character of the form of the
model before us.
The influence of the curved form of the bones makes itself
felt in all the limbs of the human figure. The muscles, more
or less fleshy, always follow the curve, and you might truthfully
say that the curves of these
bones give the cue to the shape
of the leg as well as to the shape
of the arm.
Fig. 1 1 2 shows you how the
form of the Humerus and Ulna
influences the form ofthe arm.
Fig. 113 proves how the
Femur and the Tibia influence
the shape of the leg from the
profile, as well as from the
front view.
Figure to yourself a student
ignoring the curves of these
bones. What will happen to
his work ? He will place form upon form without any principle,
and his work will be heavy, without charm and clearness : I can
only compare it to a piece of ornament which lacks a chief line,
where every detail, be it flower or leaf, is placed by chance, re
gardless of a definite law of direction, and the result is confusion.

Fig. 112. — Showing the Influence
of the Humerus and Ulna on
the Arm.

Modelling

H3

A thorough knowledge of Osteology from my point of view
is more important than that of Myology,
for the skeleton determines the movement,
the proportion and construction of the
figure, and its careful study is indispens
able to the study of external forms.
I repeat what I said in Chapter I. :
Anatomy teaches us the general law of the
human form, whilst the living model shows
us the same laws applied and modified by
individual characteristics, which we have to
express by drawing.
But remember that all models, whatever
their age and sex, will always have the
same bones and muscles, with the same
attachments. In the study and knowledge of Ana
tomy the student will therefore find a posi
tive guide to the general facts, although
the anatomy of every model will present
some different aspects and individual char
acteristics. It is these individual char
acteristics in their infinite variety, which
the artist must endeavour to express.
It should, however, not be imagined that the knowledge

Fig. 113. — Showing
the influence of
the Femur, Tibia,
and Patella on the
Leg.

114 Modelling
of Anatomy would suffice to make a work of art : far from it.
It is only the handmaiden of art ; it is the means by which we
understand the cause of form and shape, and it helps us to put
clearness, strength, and expression into our studies.
A figure, therefore, in which one had only applied anatomical
knowledge, without observing the particular characteristics of
the model, might be a scientific piece of work, but it would
never possess any artistic merit.
In order to well represent objects such as they appear, it is
important that you should know them such as they are. You
can only see correctly with your mind's eye, and a form which
you may have drawn, without understanding it yourself, you
cannot hope to make clear to others. I have seen this very
well expressed, although I do not recollect where :
"The ignorant look, the intelligent see."
To copy Nature, you must observe and understand her.
At the beginning of our studies, in drawing as well as in
sculpture, we must understand the Geometry of the figure, which
is real and permanent, without regard to the visual alteration
when seen foreshortened.
Take as an example the capital of a column. You see it
foreshortened, and yet you know it keeps its positive propor
tions, its height, width, and volume — in other words, its geometric
construction. If you ignore this geometric construction, you

Modelling

JI5

will hesitate and be doubtful from the beginning about the
choice of the points to be fixed.

I now draw your attention to the movement of the muscles
of the Abdomen, Le. their contraction on the side of the standing

Fig. 114.

Fig. 115.

leg, their elongation or extension on the side of the free leg.
{See Fig. 114.)
A similar contraction is evident in the Gluteus muscle of
the standing leg, and a similar elongation of the same muscle in
the free leg. (Fig. 115.) 1 2

116 Modelling
I have tried thus far to impress you with the importance of
the chief lines of the figure, as well as with the contrasts of line
and projection in the movement of the figure, and how necessary
it is, not only in this pose, but in any and every action that we
want to represent, to discover these lines and apply ourselves
to their study.
The next task we have to set ourselves is to study the con
trast in the character of form, in the direction of the planes
presented by the muscles and their fibres, which cover the
skeleton, and which play such an important factor in the
exterior form by giving it mechanism and expression.
A certain law exists in every object of nature, which, for
want of a more expressive term, I might call the law of radiation
— that is, the tendency of all lines to converge to one central point,
or, if you like it better, the divergence of lines from one central
point. Such central points are not only found in the human
form, but also in drapery, in leaves, flowers, trees, &c.
Let us observe the Deltoid and great Pectoral muscles.
We find that these two large muscles are inserted almost at the
same place on the upper arm, and that thence the ^muscular
fibres separate like rays to their respective attachments or
origins, — the Deltoid to the Clavicle, Acromion, Scapula, and
spine, the Pectoral to the Clavicle, Sternum, and fifth rib.
These two muscles alone, radiating from one point, go a
long way towards covering the trunk, and the movement of

Modelling

117

their planes and their radiation make a striking contrast with
the vertical direction of the parallel fibres of the Biceps muscles.
(Fig. 116.)
If you observe the general direction of the muscular fibres
in the Torso, you will find those of the pectorals attaching them
selves to the upper" part of the
Torso, to the Clavicle, and that
gradually they descend to the
Sternum and to the fifth rib.
Also that those of the Serratus
Magnus and of the External Ob
lique follow this downward direc
tion, and attach themselves to the
lower part of the Torso, on the
Ilium. Here there is also radiation, and
in direct contrast to it are the
muscles of the Abdomen, the fibres
of which are vertical in their direction, like those of the Biceps.
(Fig. 117.)
These contrasts of direction exist in a more or less accen
tuated degree in the whole figure, and it is by observing them
that one adds to the expression of form. For this very reason,
it would be foolish, if, in our studies — whether they be of
sculpture, painting, or drawing — we aimed at a smooth texture

Fig. 116. — Showing contrast
of the Fibres of Biceps
with radiation of Pectoral
and Deltoid.

n8

Modelling

more or less agreeable to the eye ; we should, on the contrary,
analyze the forms we see, and search for their cause before we
represent them. Our study ceases, when by some trick we

Fig. 117.— Showing the contrast of the Abdominal Muscle with the
radiation of Pectoral, Serratus Magnus, and Oblique.
polish the clay, or try to give colour, or in a drawing produce
velvety shading. It is lost time, utter waste of time! You

Modelling

119

may spend your life in working like this, and you will never
make any progress. You must on the contrary, so to speak,

Fig. ii8a.

Fig. ii8b.

Fig. it 8a. — Showing the appearance of the Arm when the Lower
Border of the Fibres of the Biceps is at Right Angles to its Axis.
Fig. ii8b. — Showing the oblique direction of the Attachment of the
Fibres of the Biceps.

dissect the form, and penetrate it in order to understand it. A
pleasing surface will come in a later stage.
• I should like also to mention two matters of minor import-

120 Modelling
ance, but still of importance, which I have very frequently seen
neglected. I refer Xo the arm and particularly to the Biceps
and Triceps. The fibres of the Biceps do not merge into the
tendons of insertion all at once in a horizontal line, but join it
in an oblique direction from the outer to the inner side, thus
making an agreeable contrast with the vertical direction of this
muscle. The oblique, flattened plane, caused by the tendon of
the Biceps, is still enforced on the inner side of the arm, by the
tendon of the Brachialis Anticus, and should be well indicated.
If this obliquity is neglected, the effect is very heavy and
architectural. (Fig. 118 a and e.)
The tendon of insertion of the Triceps does not exactly
follow the line of the Humerus, as I frequently see it repre
sented, but goes obliquely from inwards to outwards, and thus
we have another contrast between its direction and the general
direction ofthe arm. (Fig. 119 a and b.)
In Drawing as well as in Modelling you must endeavour to
give expression to the great variety of character which exists in
the different parts of the human body. It is evident that the
diversity in hardness and rigidity, which exists between the
bones, cartilages, tendons, muscles, and fatty parts, will produce
different effects on the surface form covering them.
By observing this diversity you will avoid the particularly
objectionable effect of a drawing looking as if it had been made
after a figure composed of cotton-wool.

Modelling

121

In the upper arm you will find that the forms are rounder
and fuller than those of the fore-arm, for in the former the

Fig. 119.1. Fig. 119B.
Fig. 119A. — Showing the appearance of the Arm when the Tendon is
in the same direction as the Humerus.
Fig. 119B. — Showing the oblique direction of the Tendon of the
Triceps.
tendons are short in comparison to the fibrous or fleshy part of
the muscles, whilst in the latter the tendons are long and extend
over a large surface.

122 Modelling
The same remark applies to the lower extremities. The
thigh shows rounder and fuller forms, whilst in the leg the
bones and tendons are visible.
In the trunk you observe that the Thorax has greater com
plexities in the movement of different forms, and a greater
solidity of appearance than the abdominal part, which is not
closed in by bony structure, but by vertical muscles. This
difference of character gives great force to the Thorax, and
makes at the same time a welcome change and rest between the
thoracic part and the pelvic girdle. The bony structure re
appears on the surface in the crest of the Ilium (in the Iliac
furrow) and the lower part of the trunk takes again the aspect
of solid construction.
These contrasts, i.e. the strong structures of Thorax and
Pelvis, separated by the soft and flat muscular mass of the
Abdomen, impress on us the fact, that all the movement of the
Torso must take place in this soft and flexible middle part, which
coincides with the Lumbar Vertebrae, the movable parts of the
Vertebral Column.
An antique figure which shows to perfection this contrasting
character of Thorax and Abdomen is the Ilissus. The move
ment is of an incomparable suppleness and accuracy, and the
abdomen is rendered in the marble with a knowledge that
cannot be too much admired. Its volume is moderated and
held back by fibres, which appear neither too loose nor too

Modelling 1 2

soft, and yet have a marvellous elasticity. The abdomen forms
one great mass, over the flatness of which the vigorous con
struction of the thorax predominates.
The whole of this admirable fragment has evidently^ been
conceived and drawn with one impulse, with one inspiration, so
that everything is in harmony with the rest, and although the
head is missing, the body is still a marvel of expression.
I can affirm, without hesitation, that it is the finest piece of
sculpture in existence, and that one cannot find a more perfect
model to study from.
I shall not further insist on the differences or contrasts in
character or style of drawing, feeling certain that, having drawn
your attention to a few, you will readily find other parts and
points where such contrasts of form and character of drawing
exist. I will now draw your attention to a principle which the Old
»
Masters have sometimes exaggerated, and done so with full
intention, for the artistic advantage of their works. I refer to
what I might call Spaces of rest between the masses. These
neutral spaces give to the whole figure, as well as to the
separate parts, suppleness and distinction.
Nothing is so hard — and consequently rare in Nature — as
two big masses, which, at the point of meeting, form a more or
less acute angle.
Let us take for an example an arm in profile view. If the

124

Modelling

outline of the Deltoid makes an angle where it meets the Biceps,
and if the Biceps, lower down, where it meets the mass of the
Supinators, makes an angle, it will look heavy and lack spring.
(Fig. 1 20.)
When, on the other hand, you exaggerate the principle which
I mentioned, and separate these large masses by a narrow plane

Fig. 120. FiG.»i2i.
Fig. 120. — Showing the Arm in the same position without the "Points
of Rest."
Fig. 121. — Diagram showing the "Points of Rest" in the Arm.
of rest, you obtain much more spring and elegance in the form
and especially more refinement. (Fig. 121.)
You will find this principle, not only in the outline of the
arm, but just as much between the muscles of the face, and in
all the other parts ofthe body. (Fig. 122.)
A large mass is always, in a more or less accentuated way,

Modelling

125

separated from another by a line or slightly curved plane which
I call a rest. Not only "in the outer contour, but also in the
sections, do we find this principle applied.
For instance, if we take the section of the chest, we find the
flat plane of the sternum separating the large masses of the
Pectorals, just as the vertebral
column separates the masses
of the lumbar muscles. (Fig.
123-) If, instead, the two Pec
torals were attached to the
centre of the sternum, and the
lumbar muscles to the centre
of the spinal column, the sec
tion would lack elegance and
strength. (Fig._ 124.)
Wherever the bones appear
on the surface, or rather are
subcutaneous, there is a certain Fig
firm rigidity of drawing which
impresses on us the fact, that underneath the muscles there is
the solid framework of the bones which support them, and on
which they depend completely.
These points of rest, on the outline as well as in the
sections, are generally caused by the bones or the tendinous

122. — The Torso with the
" Points of Rest."

126

Modelling

parts, which are more rigid in drawing than the muscles.
Therefore, these firm, slightly-curved flatnesses, which the
subcutaneous bones cause, form, by their tranquil simplicity of
aspect, a contrast to the variable alternative roundness of the
muscular fibres, and give an impression of resistance, which at
the same time detracts from the monotony which would exist,
if an even roundness of form prevailed all over the figure.
In the beautiful antiques, especially in the Torso Belvedere
of the Vatican, you observe the application of this principle.

Fig. 123. — Section of the Thorax
with " Points of Rest."

Fig. 124. — The same without the
"Points of Rest."

It is not only in the outlines that this is evident, but these
intervals of rest show in a more or less emphasized manner
between all the large muscles, so that, notwithstanding the
enormous muscular development of this torso, it remains
elegant, elastic, and supple.
I therefore repeat and impress on you that these intervals
of rest, or planes of separation, between the masses occur in
every part of the figure ; and I am convinced that, having drawn

Modelling 127
your attention to this principle, you will see it and apply
it yourselves in all the other parts which I have not
mentioned. To model does not merely mean making a model of a statue ;
this term applies as well to the product of Painting as to that
of Sculpture. We talk of good and vigorous modelling and
weak, poor modelling of heads, hands, &c.
In Painting, the beautiful modelling depends on drawing
and colour : it signifies rendering by means of light and shadow
the round or fiat projections of a solid body.
In Sculpture, it depends on understanding and drawing with
intelligence the often slightly-curved half-planes, an intelligence
which can only be acquired by a thorough knowledge of the
anatomical mechanism which lies underneath the skin ; for it is
the movement of the muscles and their fibres, which in their
contrasting directions form the large variety of planes which
the skin covers, enveloping and following them in all their
undulations. The ignorance of Anatomy in this, as in the construction of
the figure, can only produce in the execution a result which is
weak and unintelligent, and consequently uninteresting.
Besides, he who is ignorant of it, cannot so clearly see
these movements of planes on the surface, as he who knows it.
Even if he sees them, he will never give them such animation,

128 Modelling
strength, and feeling of delicacy, for he does not know the
origin of these planes, nor their cause.
In order to model a form, it must be drawn first by the
shadows or half-tints which surround it. These are formed
by the, more or less rapid, action of planes, whose place or
point of origin is narrow, but which spread by radiation over
the large surface of the form.
Let us take the Pectoral for an example.
Its modelling cannot be obtained by a mere slightly curved
plane which surrounds it and draws its outline. If you stopped
at that, the result would look like a lifeless board, or, if you
simply rounded it off, it would look like a cushion stuffed with
cotton-wool, without the " morbidezza " of nature.
On the other hand, with regard to these shadows, if you
boldly and wisely indicate in them the starting of the number
less planes which surround them, by spreading them and again
modelling them together on the larger surface, you will obtain
an expressive form and a great variety of movement.
When all these movements of planes are blocked in, they
must be blended together by the skin which delicately covers
them, by simplifying them, by almost making them disappear,
and by these means you will obtain an animated simplicity.
The opposite proceeding can only result in a dead simplicity.
In working out these planes, you should never forget to
separately observe from below, or from the side, the section of

Modelling 129
each separate form, in order to give them their richness of
form. If you worked only from the front, the result would certainly
be a poor and flat form. By working across the form you will
be obliged to look at it from underneath, and thus give it fulness
and richness.
In this stage, more than ever, you should compare the
relative values of half-tints and shadows, for it frequently
happens that, in indicating the planes before-mentioned and
their radiations, the half-tints which draw the form are almost
of equal value.
At this point, when a shadow appears too black, it does not
always mean that the depression is too deep, but the cause is
rather found in the fact that the angle formed by the light and
shade is too acute.
Or, if it is not dark enough, that the angle is too
obtuse. The study of these angles is very important. You can only
arrive at them by the section of the form — that is, by looking
at it from underneath.
To obtain a strong shadow it is not necessary to make a
hole, but to make the angles more or less sharp.
The Palette of the sculptor is made up of black and white,
and all the different tones are formed by the variety of the
angles which give light and shade. K

i3°

Modelling

You should never make the half-tints which surround a form
too narrow — that will rob them of breadth ; for the richness

v\ v

Fig 125.

Fig. 126.

and breadth of form depends absolutely on the half-tint which
surrounds it.

Modelling

I31

If you must exaggerate, it is preferable to make these half
tones rather too large, for that will give not only richness to the
form, but will produce separation between the various forms,
which will give more life and spring to the whole.
In drawing an outline you should mentally continue it to
the point which it may meet on the other side of the figure.

t I

Fig. i2£

Take, for instance, the general direction of the outline on the
profile, caused by the Shoulder-blade and the Quadratus Lum-
borum, and continue across the figure to observe its relation to
the general outline of the leg. (Fig. 125.)
k 2

1 3 2 Modelling
Do the same for the outline of the Trapezius muscle, to
find its relation with regard to the dorsal (Latissimus dorsi).
(Fig. 126.)
Continue the outline of the thorax from the front view with
regard to the internal and external oblique muscles. (Fig. 126.)
Continue the anterior outline of the carrying leg along its
posterior outline. (Fig. 125.)
Observe in the arm the relation of the Deltoid to the pos
terior outline of the fore-arm. (Fig. 127.)
These lines may be traced or drawn on all the views of the
figure — as, for example, on Fig. 128 ; by means of this, the
general relation of form to form will be ascertained, and you
will get harmony of lines at the same time as their movement ,
you will avoid a piling-up of forms without any relation between
them. It is, so to say, in oblique lines the equivalent of the
horizontal and vertical lines, which you employ to find the
position of different points on the figure.
And you might trace such lines ad infinitum. I only
mention a few, feeling certain that, if a student has once
grasped this principle, he will find many others by himself.

Modelling 133

COMPARATIVE PROPORTIONS
I am much averse (in our studies from the living model) to
the application of rules of proportion which some books give
us, which teach that so many noses, or so many fingers, compose
the length of an arm or a leg.
If we applied this information to our studies from Nature, it
would destroy in our work the character and individuality which
every being possesses, and the result would be very common
place work ; for it is just the proportions which lend individual
character to the head, as well as to every other part of the
figure. Nevertheless, I believe that it is useful to know certain
comparative proportions, which will enable us, in making a
sketch or composition, to avoid gross mistakes.
I have indicated a few such in a diagram of comparative
proportions. (Fig. 129.)
In the following measurements we observe a minimum of
variation or difference : —
In the Leg — The distance from beneath the arch of the
foot to the upper border of the Patella is equal to that from
the centre of the Patella to the Crest of the Ilium on
the standing leg.
But I have also found, in rather long legs, that the

134

Modelling

Fig. 129. — General Comparative Proportions.
5-

I. ( From Plinth to top of Patella.
2. <. From centre of Patella to Iliac process.
3. I From Pubic line to top of Sternum. -—,
These three proportions are generally equal.
The Arm.
4. Three heads in length from Acromion to
first articulation of index finger.

From Acromion to head of Ulna one head
and a half.
6. From head of Ulna to first articulation of
finger one head and a half.
From Plinth to top of Patella two heads.
From centre of Patella to Iliac process two
heads.

Modelling 135
proportion from the ground to the top of the Patella was equal
to the distance from the top of the Patella (instead of its centre)
to the Anterior Superior process of the Ilium.
You will also find that this measurement from under the
foot to the top of the Patella equals the distance from the
supra-sternal notch to the line of the Pubes.
Generally speaking, these three measurements are the same.
Further : The length of the leg to the top of the Patella
contains two heads, and the distance from the centre of the
Patella to the Ilium the same.
Arm : —
In the outstretched arm, the measurement from the
Acromion process to the first articulation of the Index contains
three heads.
In a long arm the third head comes only to the middle
of the first Phalanx.
There is, as a rule, one head and a half in the distance from
the Acromion process, or Shoulder, to the head of the Ulna
(the -Elbow), and one head and a half from the Elbow to the
end of the first ot the Phalanges.
I think the knowledge of these few comparative propor
tions will be sufficient to prevent you from mistakes, when
you have no model to guide you.
But to use, in your studies from life, other proportions than
those presented by the model, would be quite contrary to all

136 Modelling
idea of study ; for all your attention must be engrossed by
searching for the personal characteristics of your model. That
is what artistic study means, and it is only by this kind of
study that you will develop your powers of observation and
lay in a store of knowledge to draw on for composition and
design.

Fig. 130.

[To face page 136.

Fig. 131.

{To face page 130.

Fig. 132.

[To face page 136.

Fie. 133.

[To face page 136.

Fig, 134.

[To /ace page 136.

Fig. 135.

\To face page 136-

Fig. 136.

[To face page 136.

Fig. 137.

[To face page 136.

Fic. i 3S.

I7V fmce page 136.

Fig. 139.

[To face page 136.

S^^H

^^^ gA

W£M ^m

B: j i/M
m im
A ¦ Is* 1 \\
L«i Ik
L.>' "¦ *i Ik J
II
^r^^^ ff
V
bhsE-^H
Fig. 140.
[To face page 137.
Modelling

137

Fig. 141. "*
The numbers and letters refer to the same muscle in all four diagrams.
A. Masseter. G. Triceps.
B. Sterno-cleido-mastoid. H. Pectoralis Major.
Trapezius. J. Latissimus Dorsi.
K. Serratus Magnus.
L. Rectus Abdominis.
M. Tensor-Vaginse-Femoris.

Deltoid.

C,
D, E.
F. Brachialis Anticus.

i38

Modelling

N. 'Gluteus Medius.
O. Gluteus Maximus.
P. Rectus Femoris.
Q. Vastus Externus.
R. Vastus Internus.
S. Sartorius.

FlG. 142.

T. U.V.
w.X.
Y.

Iliacus and Psoas.
Pectineus. Adductor Longus.
External Oblique.
TibialisAnticus.
Peroneus Longus.

Fig. 143.

[ To face Page 1 38.

Fig. 144.

[ To face page 1 39.

Modelling

139

I. Gastrocnemius.
2. Soleus.
3. Long Flexor ofthe Toes.
4. Supinator Longus.
5. Extensor-carpi-radialis-longior.
6. Flexor-carpi-radialis.
7. Palmaris Longus.

Fig. 145. 8. Flexor-carpi-ulnaris.
9. Extensor-communis Digitorum.
10. Extensor-carpi-ulnaris.
II. Semi-tendinosus.
iz. Biceps Cruris.
13. Semi-membranosus.
14. Long Flexor of Great Toe.

140

Modelling

Fig. 146.

1 5 Peroneus Brevis.
16. Gracilis.
17. Rhqmboideus Major.
18. Infra-spinatus.
19. Teres Minor.
20. Teres Major.

21. Extensor-ossis-metacarpi-pollicis.
22. Extensor-carpi-radialis-brevior.
23. Coraco-brachialis.
24. Long Extensor of the toes.
25. Anterior Annular Ligament.
26. Anconeus.

Fig. 147.

[To face page 140,

Modelling

141

v

A. Deltoid.
B. Pectoralis Major.
C. Biceps.
I. Subclavius.
2. Pectoralis Minor.
3 Biceps.

Fic. 148. — The Muscles of the Torso,
D. Latissimus Dorsi.
E. Serratus Magnus.
F. Aponeurosis of External Oblique.
Deep Portion.
4. Coraco-brachialis.
5. Subscapularis.
6. Rectus Abdominis.

G. External Oblique.
H. Linea Alba.

7. Obliquus Interims Abdominis.
8. Lineae Transversa.
9. Pyramidalis.

142

Modelling

Fig. 149. — Muscles of the Back of the Trunk.

T-

Trapezius.

N.

Teres Minor.

R.

Gluteus Medius.

K.

Deltoid.

O.

Rhomboideus Major.

S.

Gluteus Maximus

L.

Infra-spinatus.

P.

Latissimus Dorsi.

T.

M.

Teres Major.

Q-

External Oblique.
Deep Portion.

10.

Spleriius.

14.

Serratus Magnus.

18.

Tn fra-spinatus

II.

Levator-anguli-scapulse.

*5-

Serratus Posticus Inferior.

IQ.

Teres Major.

12.

Rhomboideus Minor.

16.

Obliquus Internus.

20

Teres Minor.

'3-

Rhomboideus Major.

17-

Supra-spinatus.

Modelling

H3

///

Fig. 150. Fig.
Muscles of the Leg.

A A'.

Gluteus Medius and

T-

Soleus.

Maximus.

K.

Extensor-longus Digi

B B'.

Iliacus and Psoas.

torum.

C.

Pectineus.

L.

Peroneus Longus.

DD'.

Adductor Longus and

M

Extensor-propius-poUicis.

Adductor Brevis.

M.

Peroneus Tertius or

E.

Adductor Magnus.

Anticus.
F.
Vastus Externus.
O.
Peroneus Brevis.
G.
Vastus Internus.
P.
Flexor-longus Digitorum.
H.
Tibialis Anticus.
Q.
Gluteus Minimus.
151-
R. Obturator Internus.
S. ' Quadratus Femoris.
T. Adductor Magnus.
U. Vastus Externus.
V. Vastus Internus.
W. Plantaris.
X. Popliteus.
Y. Soleus.
Z. Tendo Achilles.
144

Modelling

Fig. 152.

Muscles of the Arm.

Fig. 153.

J. Extensor-ossis-metacarpi-pollicis.
L. Extensor-secundi-internodii-pollicis.
M. Extensor-carpi-radialis-longior.
N. Spinator-radii-longus.
0. Extensor-carpi-radialis-brevior.
P. Coraco-brachialis.

Q. Biceps Cubiti.
R. Brachialis Anticus.

S.
T. U.
V.

Pronator-radir-teres.
Flexor-carpi-radialis. Palmaris Longus.

W. Flexor-carpi-ulnaris.

Modelling

H5

Fig.

A.

Triceps.

G.

B.

Triceps.

H

C.

Triceps.

J-

D.

Anconeus.

K.

E.

Supinator-radii-brevis.

L.

K.

Extensor-communis Digitorum.

154. — Muscles of the Arm.
Exterisor-minimi-digiti. Extensor-indicis.
Extensor-ossis-metacarpi-pollicis. Extensor-primi-internodii-pollicis. Extensor-secundi-internodii-pollicis.

146

Modelling

Fig. 155. — The Bones.
The letters refer to the same bones in all these diagrams.
A. Skull. C Sternum.
B. Hyoid Bone. D. Ribs. D1, first Rib ; D™ twelfth Rib.
C. Clavicle. E. Scapula.

Modelling

147

F. Humerus.
G. Ulna.
H. Radius.
J. Carpus.
K. Metacarpus.

Fig. 156.
L. Phalanges.
M. Innominata. M', Ilium ; M", Pubis ; M'", Ischium.
N. Femur. 1
O. Tibia.
P. Patella.
L 2

148

Modelling

Q. Fibula.
R. Tarsus.
S. Metatarsus.

Fig. 157.
T. Phalanges.
U. 7th Cervical.
V. 12th Dorsal.

W. 5th Lumbar.
X. Sacrum.
Y. Coccyx.

ATTACHMENTS OF THE MUSCLES

muscle
A. Masseter.
B. Sterno-cleido-mastoid-

C. Trapezius.

D. Deltoid.

E. Biceps.

F. Brachialis Anticus.

attachments
ist. Inferior margin of zygomatic arch.
2nd. External surface of the ramus and the angle
of the lower jaw-bone.
ist. Mastoid process of temporal bone, and back
wards some distance along the superior
curved line of the occipital bone.
2nd. By the inner head to the front of top of
sternum, and by the clavicular head to inner
third of upper border of clavicle.
ist. Spines of all dorsal vertebrae and last cervical ;
ligamentum nucha?, from last cervical ver
tebra to occipital protuberance, and one-third
of superior curved line of the occiput.
2nd. Outer third hinder border of the clavicle, inner
border of the acromion, upper border of
spinous process of the scapula.
ist. Spinous process of scapula and outer third of
clavicle.
2nd. Deltoid impression on the humerus.
ist. By the long head above glenoid cavity, by short
head to coracoid process of scapula.
2nd. By a long tendon to back of bicipital tuberosity
of radius.
ist. Lower half of anterior surface of humerus.
2nd. Below coronoid process of ulna.

'5°

Modelling

MUSCLE
G. Triceps.

i st.

H. Pectoralis Major.

I. Latissimus Dorsi.

2nd.

I St.

2nd.
ist.

2nd.

K. Serratus Magnus.

1 St.

2nd.

L. Rectus Abdominis.

1 St.

2nd.

M. Tensor Vagina

1 St.

Femoris.

2nd.
N. Gluteus Medius.
1 St.
2nd.
0. Gluteus Maximus.
1 St.
2nd.
P. Rectus Femoris.
1 St.
2nd.
attachments
By the middle head, beneath glenoid cavity on
neck of scapula ; by the outer head, to outer
side of upper half of humerus ; by the inner
head, to inner side and lower half of the
humerus.
Upper border and sides of the olecranon pro
cess of the ulna.
Aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle of
the abdomen, front of body, to hilt of ster
num, and adjacent costal cartilages, to inner
half of clavicle.
Bicipital groove of humerus.
By an aponeurosis to the lower six dorsal spines,
to all the lumbar, upper two or three sacral
spines ; also to the posterior third of the iliac
crest, and lowest three or four ribs.
Bicipital groove of the humerus.
Upper eight ribs.
Base of the scapula.
Pubic crest and symphysis.
Fifth rib, fifth, sixth, and seventh costal carti
lages, and xiphoid cartilage.
Anterior superior iliac spine, and a small surface
on the outer lip of the crest of the ilium.
Fascia-lata.
Upper part of outer surface of ilium.
Outer surface of trochanter major.
Lower border of sacrum and coccyx and adja
cent portion of ilium.
Over trochanter to fascia and back of femur
below trochanter.
Anterior inferior iliac spine and above aceta
bulum.
By common tendon to the patella.
Attachments of the Muscles

151

MUSCLE

Q.

Vastus Externus.

ist.
2nd.

R.

Vastus Internus.

ist.
2nd.

S.

Sartorius.

ist.
2nd.

T.

Iliacus and Psoas.

ist.
2nd.

U.

Pectineus.

ist.
2nd,

V.

Adductor Longus.

ist.
2nd.

w.

External Oblique.

ist.

X. Tibialis Anticus.

2nd,

ist.

2nd.

Y. Peroneus Longus.

ist.

2nd,

i. Gastrocnemius.

ist.

2nd,
2. Soleus.
ist.
2nd.
3. Long Flexor of the f ist.
Toes. 1 2nd,
4. Supinator Longus. ist.
2nd.
attachments
Outer side of back of femur.
Common tendon to the patella.
Inner side of back of femur.
Common tendon to the patella.
Anterior superior iliac spine.
Inner side of front of tibia.
Iliac fossa and crest, base ofthe sacrum, capsule
of hip joint, also twelfth dorsal and the five
lumbar vertebra?.
Trochanter minor.
Spine and crest of Os Pubis.
Behind trochanter minor on the shaft of the
femur.
Os Pubis (by a narrow flat tendon).
Middle third of back of femur.
By digitations with the Latissimus Dorsi and
Serratus Magnus, to lowest eight ribs.
To the anterior half of the iliac crest and
abdominal aponeurosis.
Upper half of outer surface and outer tuberosity
of tibia.
Inner and under side of cuneiform and first
metatarsal bone.
Upper half and head of fibula.
Under side of metatarsal bone of great toe.
By two heads to back of condyles of femur.
Back of Os Calcis by the tendo Achilles.
Back of head of fibula and part of upper
fourth of tibia and fibula.
Back of Os Calcis.
Back of tibia below soleus.
Third phalanx of four outer toes.
Upper part of epicondyloid ridge of humerus.
Base of styloid process of radius
J5*

Modelling

MUSCLES

5. Extensor carpi radi- f ist.
alls longior. \ 2nd,
6. Flexor carpi radialis. ist.2nd

7. Palmaris Longus.

ist.

2nd.

8. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 1 st.

2nd

9. Extensor communis 1 ist.
digitorum. \ 2nd.

10. Extensor carpi ul- t ist.

1 1 . Semi- Tendinosus

\ 2nd. ist. 2nd.
12. Biceps Cruris. 1st.

2nd.
13. Semi-Membranosus. ist.
2nd.
14. Long Flexor op Great ( ist.
7b<r. 1 2nd.

15. Peroneus Brevis.

ist.

2nd.

16. Gracilis.

ist.

2nd,

attachments
Lower part of epicondyloid ridge of humerus.
Base of metacarpal bone of first finger.
Inner condyle of humerus, fascia of fore-arm.
Front of the base of metacarpal bone of fore
finger.
Inner condyle of the humerus fascia of fore
arm.
Palmar fascia opposite the middle of the wrist.
Inner condyle of the humerus, inner side of
olecranon, and upper two-thirds of posterior
border of ulna.
Pisiform bone, annular ligament, and palmar
fascia.
External condyle of the humerus.
By four tendons to the back of the bases of last
two bones of the fingers
External condyle of humerus.
Back of base of fifth metacarpal bone.
Back of tuberosity of ischium.
Inner side of front of tibia.
By long head, back of tuberosity of ischium; by
short head, lower two-thirds of back of femur
down to the external condyle.
Head of fibula.
Back of tuberosity of ischium.
Back of internal tuberosity of tibia.
Back of fibula" below soleus.
Under side of base of last phalanx of great
toe.
Outer side of fibula below Peroneus longus.
Tuberosity of fifth metatarsal bone.
Os Pubis (descending ramus).
Inner side of tibia beneath internal tuber
osity.

Attachments of the Muscles

J53

MUSCLES
1 7. Rhomboideus Major.
18. Infra-Spinatus.
19. Teres Minor.
20. Teres Major.

21. Extensor ossis meta- (
carpi pollicis. \
22. Extensor carpi radi- r
alls brevior. \
23. Coraco-brachialis.

24. Z^«^" Extensor of the
Toes.
25. Anterior Annular
Ligament.

26. Anconeus.

attachments
ist. Upper five dorsal spines.
2nd. Base of scapula from root of spine to lower
angle.
ist. Inner two-thirds of infra-spinous fossa.
2nd. Greater tuberosity of humerus.
ist. Upper two-thirds anterior border of scapula.
2nd. Greater tuberosity of humerus.
ist. Inferior angle of scapula, axillary margin of the
bone.
2nd. Bicipital groove of the humerus.
ist. Back of ulna, back of radius.
2nd. Back of metacarpal bone of thumb.
1st. External condyle of the humerus.
2nd. Base of metacarpal bone of second finger.
ist. Coracoid process of scapula.
2nd. Ridge in middle of inner side of humerus.
ist. External tuberosity of tibia, upper part of inner
surface of fibula.
2nd. Last phalanges of four outer toes.
Consists of two bands : the upper placed vertically in
the leg above the ankle joint ; the lower is placed
obliquely across the highest part of the tarsus ;
together they contain the tendons of the tibialis
anticus, long extensor of the toes, peroneus tertius,
and extensor of the great toe, in a sheath.
ist. Back of external condyle of humerus.
2nd. Outer side of ulna below the olecranon process.

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